/■ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 C> 
 
 
 V N 
 
 
 -i J , 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .$' 
 
 "*> 
 
 
 ■i 
 
 ^ ^ - 
 
 
 7 %fi 
 
 ^ ♦ < ' 
 
 ' ^ * ^ 
 
++ v^ 
 
 ^- ,.\ 
 
I* i* O ! i 1 iso : e'£ c 
 
 / 
 
t< D COOPER'S 
 
 HISTORIES 
 
 OF 
 
 GREECE AND ROME, i 
 
 AND OF 
 
 SOUTH AND NORTH AMERICA 
 
 PLYMOUTH SECOND EDITION, 
 
 Rerised and Corrected. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY JOSEPH AVERT, 
 
 And for sale at his Bookstore in Plymouth, (Mass.) 
 
 1818. 
 
1 
 
PREFACE 
 
 PLYMOUTH SECOND EDITION. 
 
 Two thousand copies of the Plymouth first edition of this work 
 have been sold, in the space of a few years. This is ample evi- 
 dence of the estimation in which it is held by the public. 
 
 As the best return the publisher can make for the patronage, 
 which he has received, he has spared no expense to render the pie- 
 sent edition more accurate and worthy of encouragement, than 
 any which has preceded it. 
 
 The reviser, to whom was submitted the examination of the copy, 
 before it was put to the press, has corrected many errors, which 
 had crept into the work in previous impressions, especially in the 
 ancient histories, by carefully comparing it with standard authori- 
 ties. The histories of South and North America, which are extract- 
 ed almost entirely from Dr. Robertson and Dr. Gordon, and of 
 which they are good abridgments, he has collated throughout with 
 the originals, rectified occasional mistakes, and supplied some omis- 
 sions. He did not think it his duty to new-model Mr. Cooper's com- 
 position, excepting in a few instances, where perspicuity manifestly 
 required it, though he felt a strong desire to restore the elegant pe- 
 riods of the historian of South America. It was his intention to 
 make the orthography of the volume uniform, corresponding with 
 that of Johnson and Walker. 
 
 The publisher flatters himself, that his second edition of the work, 
 now offered the community, will meet their continued approbation. 
 He trusts, that it will answer the candid expectation of those schools 
 and literary institutions, by whom it is used as an elementary trea- 
 tise. In fine, he hopes, that these histories of Mr. Cooper's, whose 
 lucid order, judicous and interesting selection of materials, com- 
 pressed into a small compass — excellences allowed them by com- 
 mon suffrage — wherever they may circulate, will prove of essential 
 benefit in forming the minds of the rising generation, for whom they 
 were designed, and to whose capacity they appear very well 
 adapted. 
 
 THE PUBLISHER. 
 Plymouth, July, 1818. 
 
Some Errata in this Edition. 
 
 Page 23, line 35, for Cynregirus read Cynsegirus. 
 . — — 110, line 9, for Antony read Anthony. 
 
 111, line 19, for Prienests, read Prxneste. 
 
 136, line 18, for Pomponius Lena read Ponilius Lsenas, 
 
 137, line 28, for Lucecome, read Leucocome 
 
 179, line 22, Campeachy discovered, should stand in the precede 
 
 ing line, as an event of the year 1517. 
 — 252, line 2 from bottom, for Virgina read Virginia. 
 
 264, line 7, from bottom for M'Kenly read McKenley. 
 
 These are all the errors yet noticed in this impression. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 OF THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 CHAPTER. I. 
 A view of the earliest State of Greece — The Laws of Lycurgus— 
 The death of that great Legislator - - - Page 1 3 
 
 The Athenians appoint Draco their Law-maker — He is succeeded 
 by Solon— Salamis taken— The Seven Wise Men— The Areopa- 
 gus and Council of Four Hundred — Pisistratus usurps the Govern- 
 ment of Athens — the death of Solon. ... Page la 
 III. 
 Character of Aristides and Themistocles— Battle of Marathon— Sir. - 
 gular Bravery of Cyncegirus — The Persians make an ineffectual 
 Attempt to surprise Athens— Honours Paid to Miltiades—Besnh 
 of that brave General — Piety of his Son Cimon. - Pae-e 21 
 IV. 
 Xerxes sets out for the Conquest of Greece — His vanity and Pre 
 sumption — His immense Army — Builds a Bridge across the 
 Hellespont — Lands in Europe and marches into Greece— The 
 Lacedemonians wait for him at the Straits of Jhermopylce-Nobl^ 
 Death of Leonidas and his followers — The Greeks gain an advan- 
 tage over the Persian Fleet — Athens taken and demolished — 
 Battle of Salamis— Xerxes retreats disgracefully from Greece — 
 Page 25 V. 
 
 Mardonius, the Persian General defeated and killed — The Persians 
 finally quit Greece — Character of Aristides— A terrible Plague 
 breaks out at Athens — Character of Pericles— He changes the Go- 
 vernment of Athens into a kind of Monarchy — Death of Pericles 
 
 — Character of Alcibiades — His Death — Character of Socrates 
 
 His speech against the Accusations of ikfe/V^s— Death of Socrates 
 —Veneration paid to his Memory - Pa^e 31 
 
 VL 
 Agesilaus chosen King of Sparta— Defeats the Persians — Sparta 
 takes the lead of Athens — The Thebans take the lead of the Spar- 
 tans — Character of Epaminondas — Battle of Leuctra — Celebrated 
 Battle of Mantinea — Death of Epaminondas - Page 41 
 
 VII 
 First rise of Macedonia from Obscurity— Philip institutes the Mace- 
 donian Phalanx — The Birth and Educa ton <>f Alexander — Philip 
 loses one of his Eyes — Demosthenes warns the Athenians of their 
 Danger — Singular instance of Ingratitude — Alexander saves the 
 Life of his Father Philip — Battle of Chceronea — Demosthenes flies 
 from the Field of Battle— Death of Philip - - Page 47 
 VIII. 
 Alexander succeeds his Father Philip— Takes the city of Thebes, and 
 
 1* 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 plunders it — AppointedGeneralissimo against the Persians— -lands 
 in Asia without opposition — Battle on the banks of the Granicus 
 — Takes several Places — Cuts the Gordian Knot — Magificence 
 and Pomp of the Army of Darius - - Page 55 
 
 JX. 
 Darius defeated at the Battle of Issus — His Mother, Wife, and 
 Children, taken prisoners — Alexander treats them with great Hon- 
 our and Generosity — Abdalonimus made King of the Sidonians — 
 The City of Tyre taken by storm - - Page 60 
 
 X. 
 Alexander refuses Overtures of Peace made by Darius — Alexander's 
 cruelty at Gaza — Death of Statira, Darius's Queen — Battle of 
 Arbela — Alexander enters Babylon, and then Persefiolis — Death of 
 
 Darius - Page 64 
 
 XL 
 Alexander pursues his Conquests— Abandons himself to Sensuality 
 puts some of his old Friends to Death — Kills Clitus — Is expos- 
 ed to great Danger of his Life in India — Sets out on his return to 
 
 Babylon— His Death Page 67 
 
 XII. 
 From the Death of Alexander, to the Extinction of the Grecian States 
 
 by the Ottomans • Page 71 
 
 Chronological Table of the principal Occurrences and events during 
 the Existence of the Grecian States - - - Page 77 
 
 CONTENTS OF THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 From the Foundation of Rome, to the end of the regal Govern- 
 ment Page 81 
 
 II. 
 From the Commencement of the Consular State to the Year of 
 
 Rome 331 Page 84 
 
 III. 
 From the Year of Rome 331 to the first Punic or Carthaginian War. 
 
 IV. Page 86 
 
 From the Commencement of the first Punic War to the end of the 
 
 «econd Page 90 
 
 V. 
 From the second Punic War to the Destruction of Carthage 
 
 VI. Page 96 
 
 From the Destruction of Cartharge to the Year of Rome 650 
 
 VII. Page 101 
 From the Year of Rome 650 to the. perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla 
 
 VIII. Page 306 
 From the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla to the birth of Augustus 
 
 Ceesar Page 112 
 
 IX. 
 From the Birth of Augustus Caesar to the beginning of the first 
 Triumvirate - - - - - - - Page 117 
 
CONTENTS. Vll 
 
 X. 
 
 From the Commencement of the Triumvirate to the Year of Rome 
 
 706 Page 121 
 
 XI. 
 
 From the year of Rome 706 to the Death of Julius Caesar. Page 126 
 
 XII. 
 From the Death of Julius Caesar to the end of the Commonwealth 
 
 Page 134 
 
 CONTENTS OF THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Origin of navigation — Introduction of commerce — Rude state of 
 navigation among the ancients — State of navigation and com- 
 merce among the Egyptians, Pitenicians, Jews, Carthaginians, 
 Greeks, and Romans — Discoveries of the ancients by land — ■ 
 Commerce preserved in the Eastern empire — Revival of com- 
 merce and navigation in Europe — The invention of the mariner's 
 compass — First regular plan of discovery — The Portuguese 
 double Cape Non — Discovery of Porto Santo — Of Madeira— 
 The Portuguese double Cape Bojador, and advance within the 
 tropics — The Cape de Verd Islands and the Azores discovered 
 — The Portuguese cross the line — They discover the Cape of 
 Good Hope - Page 149 
 
 II. 
 
 Birth and education af Columbus — He enters into the service of 
 the Portuguese — He forms the idea of a new course to India — 
 Proposes his plan to Henry Vll. of England. His treaty with 
 Spain — He sets sail— Occurrences during the Voyage — Land 
 discovered — First inverview with the natives — Columbus as- 
 sumes the title of admiral and viceroy — Discovers Cuba and 
 Hispaniola — Loses one of his ships — His distresses — Resolves 
 to return to Europe— Arrives in Spain, and receives the highest 
 marks of honour — He sails on his second voyage — Builds the 
 town of Isabella — Discovers the island of Jamaica — The Indians 
 take arms against the Spaniards — Columbus defeats them — 
 Returns to Spain — He sails a third time — He discovers Trini- 
 dad — Troubles at St. Domingo— The Portuguese sail to the 
 East Indies by the way of the Cape of Good Hope — The name 
 of America given to the New World — The Portuguese dis- 
 cover Brazil, Columbus sent in chains to Spain. Is there set 
 at liberty Sails a fourth time on discoveries. Is wrecked on 
 the coast of Jamaica. Death of Columbus - Page 158 
 
 III. 
 
 State of the colony in Hispaniola. New discoveries and settle- 
 ments. Diego Columbus appointed governor of Hispaniola. 
 New discoveries made. Attempts made to settle on the con- 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 tinent. Discovery of Florida. Discoveries of Balboa. He en- 
 ters ihe South Sea, and returns. Pedrarias Daviia appointed go- 
 vernor of Darieri. His bad conduct. Balboa pubtickly execut- 
 ed, through the treat :hery awd ;nt;igues of Pedrarias. Further 
 attempts at discover) f he state of Hispaniola under Don Diego 
 Columbus. Death f Ferdinand, and accession of Charles the 
 Fifth. New d.scove* f s Made towards the West. Discovery of 
 Yucatan. Are attacked by the Indians, and defeat them. The 
 Spaniards quit that place. Arrive at Campeachy. Meet with a 
 defeat, and are forced to return to Cuba. Voyage of Juan de 
 Gi'ijatva. He discovers New Spain. Touches at Tabasco, and 
 then at Guaxaca. Lands on the isle of Sacrifices, and then 
 touches at St. Juan de Ulua - - - Page 169 
 
 IV. 
 Vast extent of the New World. Its prodigious mountains, rivers, 
 and lakes. Temperature of the climate. Its original rude state. 
 Its animals, insects and reptiles. Birds. Soil. How was 
 America first peopled ? Character and condition of the original 
 Americans. The bodily constitution of the South Americans. 
 Their complexion. Appetites. None of them deformed. State 
 of their health and diseases. Power and qualities of their 
 minds. Domestic union. The condition of the American wo- 
 men. Parental affection and filial duty. Mode of subsistence. 
 Fishing, hunting, and agriculture. The Americans divided into 
 small communities. Had no notion of property. Their method 
 of carrying on war. Their dress and ornaments. Habita- 
 tions. Their arms. Domestic utensils and cookery. Their ca- 
 noes. Ideas of religion. Their physicians Their favourite 
 amusements. Destroy the aged and incurable. Their general 
 character - - . Page 179 
 
 V. 
 Velasquez makes preparation for the invasion of New Spain. — 
 Ferdinando Cortes undertakes the command of that expedition. 
 His forces. Cortes sets sail with his little armament. Arrives 
 in Mexico. Rich presents sent from Montezuma to Cortes. 
 Character of Montezuma. Cortes resigns his commission, and 
 is chosen by his officers and followers chief justice and captain 
 general of the new colony. He proceeds to Zempoalla. From 
 thence to Qtiiabislan. Builds a town there, and forms alliances. 
 Cortes destroys his own fleet. Advances into the country. Con- 
 cludes a peace with the Tlascalans Sets out for Mexico. The 
 Spaniards astonished at the distant view of that city. First inter- 
 view between Cortes and Montezuma Dangerous situation of 
 • the Spaniards in Mexico. Montezuma. seized and carried to the 
 Spanish quarters. Montezuma's son, and five of his officers burnt 
 alive by order of Cortes. The Mexican monarch acknowledges 
 himself to be a vassal of the king of Castile. A new Spanish 
 armament arrives at Mexico, fitted out by Velasquez to destroy 
 Cortes. Cortes attacks Narvaez in the night, defeats his forces, 
 and takes him prisoner. The greater part of the Spanish prison- 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 ers enter into the service of Cortes. The Mexicans take up arms 
 against the Spaniards. Montezuma slain by his own people. 
 Cortes abandons the city of Mexico. The Mexicans defeat him. 
 Is reduced almost to famine. The battle of Otumba Cortes re- 
 teives considerable reinforcements. Builds and launches seve- 
 ral Brigantines. The brigantines defeat the Mexican canoes on 
 the lake. Attacks the city of Mexico. Cortes defeated and 
 wounded ; forty of his men taken and sacrificed. Cortes again 
 attacks the city, and takes the emperor prisoner. The Spaniards 
 much disappointed in their expectations of riches. Cruel treat- 
 ment of the emperor. Province of Mexico subdued by the 
 Spaniards. The straits of Magellan discovered. Death of Ma- 
 gellan. Cortes appointed captain-general and governor of New 
 Spain. Sets out for the court of Castile, His reception. Re- 
 turns to New Spain, and discovers California. Death of Cortes 
 
 Page 190 
 VI. 
 First attempts to discover Peru unsuccessful. Pizarro, Almagro, 
 and Luque undertake that business. Pizarro sets sail for Pa- 
 nama on his first expedition. Experiences great hardships. — 
 Discovers Peru. The Spaniards ate surprised at the riches and 
 fertility of that country. Return to Panama. Pizarro is sent to 
 Spain. Appointed captain-general, &c. of the new discoveries. 
 Pizarro sails on another expedition, and lands in Peru. Com- 
 mences hostilities. Limits of the Peruvian empire. A civil war 
 in Peru. Pizarro turns that circumstance to his advantage. 
 State of his forces. Arrives at Caxamalca. Treacherously 
 seizes the Inca. Massacre of the Peruvians. Almagro arrives 
 with reinforcements. The immense ransom of the Peruvian 
 Inca. The Inca put to death. Pizarro leaves Caxamalca, and 
 marches to Cuzco. He takes possession of that capital, and 
 seizes on immense treasures. Pizarro sets out for Spain. His 
 reception there. Returns to Peru. Settles differences there 
 with Almagro. Pizarro builds Lima. Almagro marches to- 
 wards Chili. An insurrection in Peru. The Peruvians besiege 
 Cuzco. Engage Almagro, and are defeated. Civil war among 
 the Spaniards. Almagro defeated, tried, condemned, and exe- 
 cuted. Progress of the Spanish arms. Chili conquered. Trea- 
 chery and ingratitude of Orellana. Miserable condition of the 
 followers of Pizarro. Francisco Pizarro murdered in Kis Pa- 
 lace. Almagro proclaimed governor of the city. Vaca de Cas- 
 tro arrives at Quito, and assumes the name of governor. Dis- 
 putes between him and Almagro. The emperor reforms the 
 government of his American dominions. Sends over a viceroy, 
 who is killed in battle. Pedro de la Gasca sent out as President 
 of Pern. Gonzalo Pizarro assumes the government, opposes 
 Gasca, is defeated, tried, and put to death. Gasca sets out for 
 Spain. His reception there - - - Page 202 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 Political institutions and national manners of the Mexicans and Pe- 
 ruvians. Origin of the Mexican monarchy. The city of Mexico, 
 when founded. Splendour and power of their monarchs. Their 
 wars. Funeral rites. Agriculture. Temples, and other public 
 buildings. Religion of the Mexicans. Peruvian antiquity doubt- 
 ful. Absolute power of their Incas. The silver mines of Potosi. 
 The Peruvian wars conducted with humanity. Their improved 
 State of agriculture. Taste in their buildings. The Peruvians 
 of an unwarlike spirit - Page 213 
 
 CONTENTS OF THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Description of the persons, manners, and customs of the original 
 inhabitants of North America. Their dress, education, and em- 
 ployments. Their hospitality and resentments. Liberty the 
 darling passion of the original natives. Feasts. Method of aton- 
 ing for murder. Mourning for their dead. Method of preparing 
 for war. Of their prisoners ... Page 221 
 
 II. 
 
 Account of the first settlers of North America. Settlement at 
 New Plymouth. The Puritans purchase and settle the Massa- 
 chusetts Bay. Connecticut and New Haven colonies settled. 
 Providence and Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Maine, New 
 York, New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland, Carolina, Pennsylvania, 
 Delaware and Georgia .... Page 228 
 III. 
 
 Expedition against Louisburgh. General Braddock defeated. Mas- 
 sachusetts assembly declare against parliamentary taxes. The 
 stamp-act. Riots at Boston on account of that act. The stamp- 
 act repealed. Mr. Charles Townshend's bill for taxing the colo- 
 nies afresh. Troops ordered to Boston. Soldiers at Boston fire 
 on the inhabitants. East India company empowered to export 
 their own teas. Tea thrown into the sea at Boston. Measures 
 pursued relative to the Boston port Bill. Massachusetts' people 
 prepare to defend their rights by arms. Gage fortifies the en- 
 trance into Boston Proceedings in the British parliament. Gene- 
 ral Gage sends troops to Salem He sends troops to Concord 
 and Lexington who are defeated. The restraining bills. Howe, 
 Clinton, and Burgoyne sail for Boston - . Page 235 
 
 IV. 
 
 The expedition against Ticonderoga. George Washington, Esq. 
 elected commander in chief of the continental forces. The battle 
 at Breed's-hill, commonly called Bnnker's-hill. Georgia accedes 
 to the Union. The Thirteen U oted Colonies. The Asia man 
 of war fires upon N^-w Y >rk Colonel Arnold's expedition into 
 Canada. Falmouth destroyed, and on what account. Colonel AU 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 len, an American officer, taken prisoner, and put in irons. Ge 
 neral Montgomery appears before Quebec, and is killed there 
 
 V. Page 243 
 
 General Howe evacuates Boston. Norfolk in Virginia burnt. Sir 
 Peter Parker and earl Cornwallis sail for America. The block- 
 ade of Quebec continued. The Americans retreat from before it. 
 A number of Highlanders and colonel Campbell taken at Boston. 
 Declaration of American Independence. General Howe lands the 
 royal army on Long Island - Page 251 
 
 VI. 
 
 Wretched state of the American armies under Washington and 
 Gates. New York taken by the English. The battle of the 
 White-Plains. AJbody of Hessians defeated at Trenton. Gene- 
 ral Howe removes his army from Staten Island. General Bur- 
 goyne proceeds to Crown Point. Ticonderoga and Fort Inde- 
 pendence evacuated by the Americans. Description of the flag 
 of the United States. Battle at the Brandywine. Philadelphia 
 taken by the royal forces. Account of Miss M'Rea's cruel death 
 by the Indians. Americans engage the British under general 
 Burgoyne. Distress and calamity of the royal army. General 
 Burgoyne baffled in all his designs, and reduced to the last ex- 
 tremity. He signs the convention - Page 260 
 VII. 
 
 Count Donop repulsed in the attack upon Red Bank. Mud-Island 
 reduced by the British. Congress receive the treaties concluded 
 between France and the United States. The Randolph, an 
 American frigate, blown up. sir Henry Clinton succeeds gene- 
 ral Howe in America. The Marquis de la Fayette, with 2500 
 men, narrowly escapes being cut off by the British forces. The 
 treaties between France and the United States signed. Lord 
 North's conciliatory propositions. Messrs. Franklin, Deane, and 
 Lee, have a public audience at the French court. The British 
 army evacuates Philadelphia. Skirmishes between the British 
 and Americans. The British arrive at Sandy Hook Count d'Es- 
 taing's fleet anchors within the Hook. Governor Johnstone at- 
 tempts to eorrupt certain members of the congress. Dr. Frank- 
 lin sent as minister to the court of France Page 268 
 VIII 
 
 The British operations against Georgia, The affairs of the United 
 States in a deplorable condition. General Lincoln sent to South 
 Carolina General Ashe surprised and defeated. Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton takes Stony Point. Count d'£s«aing sails from the West In- 
 dies for the American coast. The F: ench and Americans repuls- 
 ed at Savannah. Distress of Washington's army for want of 
 bread. Charleston taken by the British forces. Tarleton defeats 
 colonel Buford. A French fleet with troops arrive at Newport. 
 Treaty signed between Holland and America. Earl Cornwallis 
 defeats general Gates. Major Andre taken and executed as a 
 spy. General Arnold takes refuge on board the Vulture sioop of 
 war. Page 275 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 IX. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton sends 3000 troops to the Bay of Chesapeak. The 
 French and Spanish fleet form a junction in the West Indies. 
 Mr. Laurens taken in his passage to Holland. Sir Joseph York 
 leaves the Hague. Lieutenant colonel Tarleton detached after 
 general Morgan, by whom Tarleton is defeated. Cornwallis at- 
 tacks Greene, and defeats him. Sir George Rodney and general 
 Vaughan take St. Eustatia, St. Martin, and Saba. The French 
 troops join the Americans under Washington. Sir Samuel Hood 
 and Count de Grasse engage. Lord Cornwallis repairs to York 
 Town and Gloucester. A capitulation settled, and Cornwallis 
 surrenders the forts of Yorktown and Gloucester. The British 
 fleet and army, destined for the relief of lord Cornwallis, arrive 
 off Chesapeak after his surrender, and consequently return to 
 New York. De Grasse sails for the West Indies Page 284 
 X. 
 
 Mr. Laurens discharged from his confinement in the Tower of Lon- 
 don. Sir George Rodney comes up with count de Grasse in the 
 West Indies. They engage. De Grasse is defeated and taken. 
 The necessity of Peace for the United States of America. Sa- 
 vannah evacuated by the British forces. Charleston also evacu- 
 ated. Provisional articles of Peace signed between the British 
 and American commissioners. The definitive treaty of peace 
 signed between the English, French, Spanish and Americans 
 
 Page 289 
 
PREFACE, 
 
 The very nattering reception my History of the 
 Roman Commonwealth has received, has encouraged 
 me to attempt, on the same plan, and with the same 
 views, A History of the Grecian States: those States 
 which, though inconsiderable in their extent, gave 
 law to the surrounding nations, and brought savage 
 man, who till then wandered in the wilds of ignorance 
 and barbarity, into the pale of civil society, and forc- 
 ed the rude customs of savages to yield to the refine- 
 ments of the polite arts and sciences. Though her 
 lofty domes are now no more visible, though her 
 stately and magnificent cities have been long since 
 levelled with the earth, and the martial spirit has ceas- 
 ed to exist on Grecian soil ; yet the deeds of her 
 heroes, legislators, and philosophers, will die only 
 with time itself. * 
 
 After what has been advanced in the Preface to 
 my Roman History, (which see) little need further be 
 said in apology for this publication. 
 
 Homer was the most celebrated and illustrious of 
 all the Poets of antiquity ; and yet we are not cer- 
 tain of what part of Greece he was a native ; nor do 
 we know exactly the time of his birth, though he is 
 generally supposed to have lived about eight hundred 
 and forty years before Christ. No nation in the 
 world has produced poems comparable to his. 
 
 Xenophon was so celebrated a Greek Historjan, 
 that they called him the Attic Bee. He was a scholar 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 of Socrates, and no less the warrior than the .scholar. 
 He wrote several books, of which some are still in 
 being, and their style is considered as a master-piece. 
 His Cyropsedia, which he dedicated to Cyrus, has not 
 its equal. 
 
 The character of Demosthenes, the most cele- 
 brated Athenian orator, will be found in different 
 parts of this work. We have here only to add, that, 
 when Antipater succeeded Alexander, he fled to save 
 his life ; and, in order to avoid falling into his enemy's 
 hands, he swallowed poison, which he had prepared 
 and kept for that purpose in his pen, and so ended his 
 days. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Greece, in its earliest infancy, was a combination of little states, 
 each governed by its respective sovereign, yet all uniting for their 
 mutual safely and general advantage. Their intestine contentions, 
 however,were carried on with great animosity; and,as it happens 
 in ai! petty states under the dominion of a single commander, the 
 jealousies of the princes were a continual cause of discord. From 
 tins distressful situation, those states, by degrees, began to emerge ; 
 a different spirit began to seize the people, and, sick of the con- 
 tentions of their princes, they desired to be free. A spirit of lib- 
 erty prevailed all over Greece,and a general change of government 
 was effected in every part of the country, except in Macedonia. 
 Thus monarchy gave way to a republican government, which, how- 
 ever, was diversified into as many various forms as there were dif- 
 ferent cities, according to the peculiar character of each people. 
 
 Though these cities seemed to differ from each other in their 
 laws and interests, yet they were united by one common language, 
 one religion, and a national pride, that taught them even to consid- 
 er all other nations as barbarous and feeble. Even Egypt itself, 
 from whence they had derived many of their arts and institutions, 
 was considered in a very subordinate light. To make this union 
 among the states of Greece still stronger, there were games insti- 
 tuted in different parts of the country, with rewards for excellence 
 in every pursuit. These sports were instituted fop very serious 
 and useful purposes : they afforded an opportunity for the several 
 states meeting together ; they gave them a greater zeal for their 
 common religion ; they exercised the youths for the purposes of 
 war, and increased that vigour and activity, which were then of 
 the utmost importance in deciding the fate of a battle. 
 
 Their chief bond of union, however, arose from the council of 
 the Amphictyons, which was instituted by Amphictyon, king of 
 Athens, about the year 2500, and was appointed to be held twice 
 a year at Thermopylae, to deliberate for the general good of those 
 states, of whose deputies it was composed. The states who sent 
 deputies to this council, were twelve, namely, the Thessalians, the 
 
14 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 Thebans, the Dorians, the Ionians, the Perrhsebians, the Mag- 
 netes, the Locrians, the (Etans, the Phthiotes, the Malians, the 
 Pliocians, and the Dolopians. Each of these cities, which had a 
 right to assist at the Amphictyonic council, was obliged to send 
 two deputies to every meeting. The one was entitled the Hier- 
 omnemon, who took care of the interests of religion ; the other 
 was called the Pylagoras, and had in charge the civil interests of 
 his community. 
 
 This confederacy united the Greeks for a time into a body of 
 great power and greater emulation. By this association, a coun- 
 try, not half so large as England, was able to dispute the empire 
 of the earth with the most powerful monarchs of* the world ; by 
 this association, they not only made head against the numerous ar- 
 mies of Persia, butdispersed,routed, and destroyed them, reducing 
 their pride so low, as to make them submit to conditions of peace, 
 as shameful to the conquered, as glorious to the conquerors. But, 
 among all the cities of Greece there were two, which by their 
 merit, their valour, and their wisdom, particularly distinguishad 
 themselves from the rest : these were Athens and Lacedsemon. 
 As these cities served for examples of bravery or learning to the 
 rest, and as the chief burden of every foreign war devolved upon 
 them, we shall proceed to give the reader a general idea of the 
 genius, character, manners, and government, of their respective 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Though thekingdom of Lacedsemon was not so considerable as 
 that of Athens, yet, as it was of much earlier institution, it de- 
 serves our fust attention. Lacedaemon was, for a long time, gov- 
 erned with turbulence and oppression, and required the curb of 
 severe laws and rigorous discipline. These severities and rigo'- 
 rous discipline wcie at last imposed upon it by Lycurgus, one of 
 the first and most extraordinary legislators that ever appeared 
 among mankind. There is perhaps nothing more remarkable in 
 profane history, yet nothing so well attested, as what relates to the 
 the laws and government of Lycurgus. What indeed can be more 
 amazing, than to behold a mutinous and savage race of mankind 
 yielding submission to laws, that controlled every sensual pleasure, 
 and every private affection ! To behold them give up for the good 
 of the state, all the comforts and conveniences of private life, and ■ 
 making a state of domestic privacy more severe and terrible, than 
 the most painful campaigns and the most warlike duties ! Yet all 
 this was effected by the perseverance and authority of a single 
 legislator, who gave the first lessons of hard resignation in his own 
 generous examples. 
 
 Lycurgus was the son of Eunomus, one of the two kings who 
 reigned together in Sparta : During the minority of Charilaus, 
 Lycurgus acted as regent; but resolving to make himself ac- 
 quainted with all the improvements of other nations, he travelled 
 into Crete, passed over into Asia, and from thence went into Egypt. 
 But while he was thus employed abroad, his presence was greatly 
 wanted at home, where every thing was hastening to anarchy and 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 15 
 
 ruin. On his return, he found the people wearied out with their 
 own importunities, and ready to receive any new impressions he 
 might attempt. He first communicated his design of altering the 
 whole code of laws to his particular friends, and then by degrees 
 gained over the leading men to his party, until things being ripe 
 for a change, he ordered thirty of the principal men to appear 
 armed in the marked place. Charilaus, who was at this time king, 
 at first opposed the revolution, but was soon persuaded to join in 
 the measure. 
 
 To continue the kings still with a shadow of power,he confirmed 
 them in their rights of succession as before : but diminished their 
 authority by instituting a senate, which was to serve as a counter- 
 poise between the prerogative and the people. The kings, how- 
 ever, had still all their former marks of outward dignity and re- 
 spect. The government hitherto had been unsteady, tending at 
 one time towards despotism, at another to democracy ; but the 
 senate instituted by Lycurgus served as a check upon both, and 
 kept the state balanced in tranquillity. 
 
 To keep the people in plenty and dependence, seems to have 
 been one of the most refined strokes in this philosopher's legisla- 
 tion. The generality of people were at that time so poor, that 
 they were destitute of every kind of possession, while a small 
 number of individuals were possessed of all the lands and the 
 wealth of the country. In order, therefore, to banish the inso-~ 
 lence, the fraud, and the luxury of the one, as well as the misery, 
 the repining, and the factious despair of the other, he persuaded 
 the majority, and forced the rest, to give up all their lands to the 
 commonwealth, and to make a new division of them, that they 
 might all live together in perfect equality. Thus all the sensual 
 goods of life were distributed among the governors and the gov- 
 erned, and superior merit alone conferred superior distinction. 
 
 It would, however, have answered no permanent purpose to di- 
 vide the lands, if the money had been still suffered to accumulate. 
 To prevent, therefore, all other distinctions but that of merit, he 
 resolved to level down all fortune to one standard. He did not, 
 indeed, strip those possessed of gold or silver of their property ; 
 but, what was equivalent, he cried down its value, and suffered 
 nothing but iron money to pass in exchange for every commodity, 
 This coin also he made so heavy, and fixed at so low a rate, that 
 a cart and two oxen were required to carry home a sum equivalent 
 to twenty pounds English, and a whole house was necessary to 
 keep it in. By these means, money was soon brought into disuse, 
 and few troubled themselves with more than was sufficient to sup- 
 ply their necessaries. Thus not only riches, but their attendant 
 train of avarice, fraud, rapine, and luxury, were banished from 
 this simple state. 
 
 Even these institutions were not thought sufficient to prevent that 
 tendency, which mankind have to private excess. A third regu- 
 lation was therefore made, commandingthat all meals should be in 
 public. He ordained, that all the men should eat in one common 
 2 * 
 
16 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 ball without distinction ; and lest strangers should attempt to cor- 
 rupt his citizens by their example, a law was expressly made 
 against their entrance into the city. By these means, frugality was 
 not only made necessary, but the use of riches was at once abol- 
 ished. Every man sent monthly his provisions to the common 
 stock, with a little money for other contingent expenses. 
 
 So rigorous an injunction, which thus cut off all the delicacies 
 and refinements of luxury, was by no means pleasing to the rich, 
 who look every occasion to insult the lawgiver on his new regula- 
 tions.. The tumults it excited were frequent ; and in one of these, 
 a young fellow, whose name was Alexander, struck out one of Ly- 
 Curgus's eyes ; but he had the majority of the people on his side, 
 ■who, provoked at the outrage, delivered the young man into his 
 hands to treat him with all proper severity. Lycurgus, instead of 
 testifying any brutal resentment, won over his aggressor by all the 
 arts of affability and tenderness, till at last, from being one of the 
 proudest and most turbulent men of Sparta, he became an exam- 
 ple of wisdom and moderation, and an useful assistant to Lycur- 
 gus in promoting his new institutions. 
 
 Thus undaunted by opposition, and steady in his designs, he 
 went on to make reformation in the manners of his countrymen. 
 As the education of youth was one of the most important objects 
 of a legislator's care, he first instituted, that such children as, upon 
 a public view were deemed deformed or weakly, and unfitted for 
 a future life of vigour and fatigue, should be exposed to perish in 
 a cavern near mount Taygetus. Those infants that were born with- 
 out any capital defects, were adopted as children of the state, and 
 delivered to their parents to be nursed with severity and hardship. 
 From their tenderest age, they were accustomed to make no 
 choice in their eating, nor to be afraid in the dark, or when left, 
 alone; not to be peevish or fretful, to walk barefoot, to lie hard at 
 nights, to wear the same clothes winter and summer, and to fear 
 nothing from their equals. At the age of seven they were taken 
 from their parents, and delivered over to the classes for their edu. 
 cation. Their discipline there was little else than an apprentice- 
 ship to hardship, self-denial, and obedience. 
 
 All ostentatious learning was banished from this simple com- 
 monwealth : their only study was to obey, their only pride was to 
 suffer hardships. There was yearly a custom of whipping them 
 at the alar of Diana, and the boy that bore this punishment with 
 the greatest fortitude came off victorious. Every institution seem- 
 ed calculated to harden the body," and sharpen the mind for war. 
 In order to prepare them for stratagems and sudden incursions, 
 the boys were permitted to steal from each other ; but if they were 
 caught in the fact, they were punished for their want of dexterity. 
 
 At twelve years old, the boys were removed into another class 
 of a more advanced kind. There, in order to crush the seeds of 
 vice which, at that time began to appear, their labour and disci- 
 pline were increased with their age. They had now their skir- 
 mishes between parties, and their mock fights between larger bod- 
 
GRECIAN STATES, 17 
 
 ies. In these they often fought with hands, feet, teeth, and nails 
 with such obstinacy, that it was common to see them lose their 
 eyes, and often their lives, before the fray was determined. Such 
 was the constant discipline of their minority, which lasted till the 
 age of thirty, before which they were not permitted to marry, to 
 go into the troops, or to bear any office in the state. 
 
 With regard to the virgins, their discipline was equally strict 
 with the former. They were inured to a constant course of labour 
 and industry, until they were twenty years old, before which, time 
 they were not allowed to be marriageable. 
 
 Valour and generosity seemed the ruling motives of this new 
 institution ; arms were their only exercise and employment, and 
 their life was much less austere in the camp than in the city. The 
 Spartans were the only people in the world, to whom the time of 
 war was a time of ease and refreshment ; because then the sever- 
 ity of their manners was relaxed, and the men were indulged in 
 greater liberties. With them the first principle of war was never 
 to turn their backs on their enemies, however disproportioned in 
 forces, nor to deliver up their arms until they resigned them with 
 life. 
 
 Such was the general purport of the institutions of Lycurgus, 
 which from their tendency gained the esteem and admirasion of all 
 the surrounding nations. The Greeks were ever apt to be daz- 
 zled rather with splendid than useful virtues, and praised tie laws 
 of Lycurgus, which at best were calculated rather to make men 
 warlike than happy, and to substitute insensibility instead of en- 
 joyment. 
 
 When Lycurgus had thus completed his military institution, and 
 when the form of government he had established seemed strong 
 and vigorous enough to support itself, his next care was to give it 
 all the permanence in his power. He therefore signified to the 
 people, that something still remained for the completion of his 
 plan, and that he was under the necessity of going to consult the 
 oracle of Delphi for its advice. In the mean time he persuaded 
 them to take an oath, for the strict observance of all his laws until 
 his return, and then departed with a full resolution of never seeing 
 Sparta more. When he was arrived at Delphi, he consulted the 
 oracle, to know whether the laws he had made were sufficient to 
 render the Lacedemonians happy, and being answered, that noth- 
 ing was wanting to their perfection, he sent this answer to Sparta, 
 and then voluntarily starved himself to death. Others say he died 
 in Crete, ordering his body to be burnt, and his ashes to be thrown 
 into the sea. The death of this great lawgiver gave a sanction 
 and authority to his laws, which his life was ut able to confer. The 
 Spartans regarded his end as the most glorious of all his actions, 
 and a noble finishing of all his former services. They built a tem- 
 ple, and paid divine honours to him after his death ; they consid- 
 ered themselves as bound by every tie of gratitude and religion to 
 a strict observance of all his institutions ; and the long continuance 
 of the Spartan government is a proof of their persevering resolu- 
 tion. 
 
18 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Athenians having, for more than a century, seen the good 
 effects of laws in the regulation of the Spartan commonwealth, 
 about the year 3380, became desirous of being- governed by written 
 laws. They pitched upon Draco, a man of acknowledged wisdom 
 and unshaken integrity, but rigid even beyond human sufferance. 
 Draco not succeeding in this business, Solon was applied to for 
 his advice and assistance, as he was the wisest and justest man 
 in all Athens. His great learning had acquired him the reputa- 
 tion of being the first of the seven wise men of Greece, and his 
 known humanity procured him the love and veneration of every 
 rank among his fellow citizens. Solon was a native of Salamis, an 
 island dependent on Athens, but which had revolted to put itself 
 under the power of the Megareans. In attempting to recover this 
 island, the Athenians had spent much bl"od and treasure, until at 
 last wearied out with such ill success, a law was made, rendering 
 it capital ever to advise the recovery of their lost possession. So- 
 lon, however, undertook to persuade them to another trial ; and, 
 feigning himself mad, he ran about the streets, using the most vi- 
 olent gestures and language ; but the purport of all was, to upbraid 
 the Athenians tor their remissness and effeminacy, in giving up 
 their conquests in despair. In short, he acted his part so well, by 
 the oddity of his manners, and the strength of his reasoning, that 
 the people resolved upon another expedition against Salamis; 
 and, by a stratagem of his contrivance, in which he introduced 
 several young men upon the island in women's clothes, the place 
 was surprised, and added to the dominion of Athens. 
 
 But this was not the only occasion, on which he exhibited supe- 
 rior address and wisdom. At a time when Greece had carried 
 the arts of eloquence, poetry, and government, higher than they 
 had yet been seen among mankind, Solon was considered as one of 
 the foremost in each profession. The sages of Greece, whose 
 fame is still undiminished, acknowledged his merit, and adopted 
 him as their associate. The correspondence between these wise 
 men was at once instructive, friendly, and sincere. They were 
 seven in number, namely, Thales the Milesian, Solon of Athens, 
 Chilo of Lacedxmon, Pittacus of Mitylene, Periander o.f Corinth, 
 Bias and Cleobulus, whose birth-places are not ascertained. 
 
 These sages often visited each other, and their conversations 
 generally turned upon the methods of instituting the best form of 
 government, or the arts of private happiness. One day, when So- 
 lon went to Miletus to see Thales, the first thing he said, was to 
 express his surprise that Thales had never desired to marry, or 
 have children. Thales made no answer then, but a few days after 
 contrived that a stranger, supposed to arrive from Athens, should 
 join their company, Solon, hearing from whence the stranger 
 came, was inquisitive after the news of his own city, but was only 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 19 
 
 informed, that a young- man died there, for whom the whole place 
 was in the greatest affliction, as he was reputed the most promis- 
 ing youth in all Athens. " Alas ! (cried Solon) how much is the 
 poor father of the youth to be pitied ! Pray, what was his name ?" 
 " I heard the name, (replied the stranger, who was instructed for 
 the occasion) but 1 have forgotten it : I only remember ; that all 
 people talked much of his wisdom and justice " Every answer 
 afforded new matter of trouble and terror to the inquisitive father, 
 and he had just strength enough to ask, if the youth was the son 
 of Solon. " The very same," replied the stranger ; at which 
 words Solon showed all the marks of the most inconsolable dis- 
 tress. This was the opportunity which Thales wanted, who took 
 him by the hand, and said to him with a smile, <4 Comfort yourself, 
 my friend, all that has been told you is a mere fiction, but may 
 serve as a very proper answer to your question, why I never 
 thought proper to marry.'* 
 
 One day, at the court of Periander of Corinth, a question was 
 proposed, " Which was the most perfect popular government ?" 
 «* That (said Bias) where the laws have no superior." "That 
 (said Thales) where the inhabitants are neither too rich nor too 
 poor" "That (said Anacliarsis the Scythian) where virtue is 
 honoured and vice detested." "That (said Pittacus) where dig- 
 nities are always conferred upon the virtuous, and nei'.-r upon the 
 base." •« That (said Cleobulus) where the citizens fear blame 
 more than punishment." «* That (said Chilo) where the laws are 
 more regarded than the orators." But Solon's opinion seems to 
 have the greatest weight, who said, "Where an injury done to 
 t'he meanest subject is an insult upon the whole constitution," 
 
 Upon a certain occasion, when Scion was conversing with Ana- 
 cnarsis, the Scythian philosopher, about his intended reformation 
 in the state, " Alas, (cried the Scythian) all your laws will be 
 found to resemble spiders' webs : the weak and small flies will be 
 caught and entangled, but the great and powerful will always 
 have strength enough to break through." 
 
 A matter still more celebrated is Solon's interview with Croesus, 
 king of Lydia. This monarch, who was reputed the richest of all 
 Asia Minor, was willing to make an ostentatious display of his 
 wealth before the Greek philosopher, and after showing him im- 
 mense heaps of treasures, and the greatest variety of other orna- 
 ments, he demanded, whether he did not think the possessor of 
 them the most happy of all mankind. " No, (replied Solon) I 
 know one more happy, a poor peasant of Greece, who, neither in 
 affluence nor in poverty, has but (ew wants, and has learned to 
 supply them by his labour." This answer was by no means agree- 
 able to the vain monarch, who by th;s question hoped only for a 
 reply that would tend to flatter his pride. Willing, therefore, to 
 extort one still more favourable, he asked, whether, at least, he 
 did not think him happy. '« Abs ! (cried Solon) what man can be 
 pronounced happy before he dies !" The integrity and the wisdom 
 of Solon's replies appeared in the event. The kingdom of Lydia 
 
20 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 was invaded by Cyrus, the empire destroyed, and Croesus bimself 
 was taken prisoner. When he was led out to execution, according 
 to the barbarous manner of the times, he then too late recollected 
 the maxims of Solon, and could not help crying out when on the 
 scaffold upon Solon's name. Cyrus, hearing him repeat the name 
 with great earnestness, was desirous of knowing the reason ; and 
 being informed by Croesus of that philosopher's reinarkable obser- 
 vation, he began to fear for himself, pardoned Croesus, and took 
 him for the future into confidence and friendship. Thus Solon had 
 the merit of saving one king's life, and of reforming another. 
 
 Such was the man, to whom Athens applied for assistance in 
 reforming the severity of their government, and instituting a just 
 body of law. His first attempt was, therefore, in favour of the 
 poor, whose debts he abolished at once, by an express law of insol- 
 vency. His next step was to repeal all the laws enacted by Draco, 
 except those against murder. He then proceeded to the regula- 
 tion of officers, employments, and magistrates, all which he left 
 in the hands of the rich ; and he distributed the rich into three 
 classes, ranging them according to their incomes. The Areopa- 
 gus, so called from the place where the court was held, had be'en 
 established some centuries before, but Solon restored and aug- 
 mented its authority. Nothing was so august as this court, and 
 its reputation for judgment and integrity became so very great, 
 that the Romans sometimes referred causes, which were too intri- 
 cate for their own decision, to the determination of this tribunal. 
 Nothing was regarded here but truth : that no external objects 
 might pervert justice, the tribunal was held in darkness, and the 
 advocates were denied all attempts to work upon the passions of 
 theju^C". ? , »nerior to this, Solon instituted the great council 
 of four hundred, who were to judge upon appeals fTZTZ *\\Z *.!*"? 
 opagus, and maturely to examine every question before it came to 
 be debated in a general assembly of the people. 
 
 He abolished the custom of giving portions in marriage with 
 young women, unless they were only daughters. The bride was 
 to carry no other fortune to her husband than three suits of 
 clothes, and some household goods of little value. It was his aim 
 to prevent making matrimony a traffic : he considered it as an hon- 
 ourable connexion, calculated for the mutual happiness of both 
 parties, and the general advantage of the state. 
 
 These were the principal institutions of this celebrated lawgiver, 
 and though neither so striking, nor yet so well authorized as those 
 of Lycurgus, they did not fail to operate for several succeeding 
 ages, and seemed to gather strength by observance. In order to 
 perpetuate his statutes, he engaged the people by a public oath to 
 observe them religiously, at least for a term of an hundred years : 
 and thus, having completed the task assigned him, he withdrew 
 from the city, to avoid the importunity of some, and the captious 
 petulance of others; for, as he well knew, it was hard if not im- 
 possible to please every individual. Solon being now employed on 
 his travels in visiting Egypt, Lydia and several other countries,. 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 21 
 
 left Athens to become habituated to his new institutions, and to 
 try by experience the wisdom of their formation. 
 
 'While Solon was thus on his travels, civil contentions disturbed 
 Athens, and the spirit of party was hastening every thing to ruin. 
 After ten yea's' absence, Solon returned to Athens, and found the 
 city involved in slavery. Pisistratus had procured himself a guard 
 formed of his own creatures, who at length seized on the citadel, 
 while none were left, who had sufficient courage or conduct to op- 
 pose him. 
 
 In this general consternation, which was the result of folly on 
 the one hand, and treachery on the other, the whole city was one 
 scene of tumult and disorder, some flying, others inwardly com- 
 plaining, others preparing for slavery with patient submission. 
 Solon was the only man, who, without fear or shrinking, deplored 
 the folly of the times, and reproached the Athenians with their 
 cowardice and treachery. " You might with ease (said he) have 
 crushed the tyrant in his bud ; but nothing now remains but to 
 pluck him up by the roots. As for myself, I have at least the sat- 
 isfaction of having discharged my duty to my country and the lavvs : 
 as for the rest, I have nothing to fear; and now, upon the des- 
 truction of my country, my only confidence is in my great age, 
 which gives me the hopes of not being a long survivor." In fact, 
 he did not survive the liberty of his country above two years ; he 
 died at Cyprus, in the eightieth year of his age, lamented and ad- 
 mired by every state of Greece. Besides his skill in legislation, 
 Solon was remarkable for several other shining qualities : he was 
 master of eloquence in so high a degree, that from him Cicero 
 dates the origin of oratory in Athens. He was also successful in 
 poetry ; and Plato asserts, that it was only for want of due appli- 
 cation, that he did not come to dispute the prize with Homer 
 himself. ~ ^ 
 
 g£^.;*^~ CHAPTER "*• 
 
 From the death of Solon, to about the year of the world 3500, 
 Athens continued to be the scene of party cabals, and usurped ty- 
 ranny ; but, about this period, two young citizens began to dis- 
 tinguish themselves at Athens, namely Aristides and Themisto- 
 cles. These youths were of very different dispositions; but from 
 this difference resulted the grea:est advantages to their country. 
 Themistocles was naturally inclined to a popular government, and 
 omitted nothing that could render him agreeable to the public, or 
 gain him friends. H& complaisance was boundless, and his desire 
 to oblige sometimes outstepped the bounds* of doty. His partial- 
 ity was often conspicuous. Aristides was remarkable for his jus- 
 tice and integrity. Being a favourer of aristocracy* in imitation 
 of Lycurgus, he was friendly, but never at the expense of justice. 
 
:22 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 In seeking honours, he ever declined the interests of his friends, 
 lest they should, in turn, demand his interest when his duty was to 
 be impartial. The love of the public good was the great spring of 
 all his actions, and with that in view no difficulties could daunt, no 
 success or elevation exalt him. On all occasions he preserved his 
 usual calmness of temper, being persuaded, that he was entirely 
 his country's, and very little his own. 
 
 At this time, Darius, king of Persia, was turning his arms 
 against Greece, while these illustrious Athenians were inspiring 
 their fellow citizens with a noble confidence in their bravery, and 
 made every preparation for the expected invasion, which prudence 
 and deliberate valour could suggest. 
 
 In the mean time, Darius's generals made themselves masters of 
 the islands in the JEgean sea, and laid siege to Eretria, which they 
 at last took by storm, owing to the treachery of some of the princi- 
 pal inhabitants. The town was plundered and burnt, and the in- 
 habitants put in chains, and sent as the first fruits of war to the 
 Persian monarch; but he, contrary to their expectations, treated 
 them with great lenity, and gave them a village in the country of 
 Cissia to live in. 
 
 This was soon followed by the battle of Marathon, the first great 
 battle the Greeks had ever engaged in. It-was not like any of their 
 former contests arising from jealousy, and terminating it in an easy 
 accommodation : it was a battle that was to be decided with the 
 greatest monarch of the earth. This was an engagement that was 
 to decide the liberty of Greece, and, what was of infinitely greater 
 moment, the future progress of refinement among mankind. Upon 
 the event of the battle depended the complexion, which the man- 
 ners of the West were hereafter to assume, whether they were to 
 adopt Asiatic customs with their conquerers, or to go on in mo- 
 delling themselves upon Grecian refinements. This therefore may 
 be considered as one of the most important battles that ever was 
 fought, and the event was as little to be expected as the success * 
 was glorious. 
 
 Miltiades, who was now invested with the supreme command'of 
 the Greek army, like an experienced general, endeavoured, by the 
 advantage of his ground, to make up the deficiency in strength and 
 number, his whole army consisting of but ten thousand. He was 
 sensible, that by extending his front to oppose the enemy, he must 
 weaken it too much, and give their dense body the advantage. He 
 therefore drew up his army at the foot of a mountain, so that the 
 enemy should not surround him. or charge him in the rear. On 
 the flanks, on either side, he caused large trees to be thrown, • 
 which were cut down for that purpose, and these served to guard 
 him from the Persian cavalry, that generally wheeled on the flank 
 in the heat of the engagement. Datis, the Persian general, was 
 sensible of his advantageous disposition ; but relying on his supe- 
 riority of numbers, and unwilling to wait till Miltiades should re- 
 ceive reinforcements, he determined to engage. 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 23 
 
 The signal was no sooner given than the Athenians, without wait- 
 ing the Persian onset, rushed in upon their ranks with desperate 
 rapidity, as if wholly regardless of safety. The Persians considered 
 this first step of the Athenians as the result of madness, and were 
 more inclined to despise them as maniacs, than oppose them as 
 soldiers. However, they were quickly undeceived. It had never 
 been the custom of the Greeks to run on with this headlong valour ; 
 but comparing the number of their own forces with that of the ene- 
 my and expecting safety only from rashness, they determined to 
 break through the enemy's ranks, or fall in the attempt. The 
 greatness of their danger added to their courage, and despair did 
 the rest. The Persians, however, stood their ground with great 
 intrepidity, and the battle was long, fierce, and obstinate. Milti- 
 ades had made the wings of his army exceedingly strong, but had 
 left the main body weaker, and not so deep ; for having but ten 
 thousand men to oppose such a numerous army, he supposed the 
 victory could be obtained by no other means than by strengthening 
 his flanks. He doubted not but that, when his wings were once 
 victorious, they would be able to wheel upon the enemy's main 
 body on either side, and then easily rout them. The Persians, 
 therefore, finding the main body weakest, attacked it with their 
 utmost vigour. It was in vain that Aristides and Themistocles, 
 who were stationed in this post of danger, endeavoured to keep 
 their troops to the charge : courage and intrepidity were unable 
 to resist the torrent of increasing numbers, so that they were at 
 last obliged to give ground. In the mean lime the wings were 
 victorious; and now, just as the main body was fainting- under the 
 unequal encounter, these came up, and gave them time to recover 
 their strength and order. Thus the scale of victory quickly turned 
 in their favour, the Persians began to give ground in turn, and, be- 
 ing unsupported by fresh forces, they fled to their ships with the 
 utmost precipitation. The confusion and disorder was now univer- 
 sal, the Athenians followed them to the beach, and set many of 
 their ships on fire. 
 
 On this occasion it was that Cynoegirus, the brother of the poet 
 JLschylus, seized with his hand one of the ships that the enemy 
 was pushing oft" from the shore. The Persians within, seeing 
 themselves thus stopped, cut off his right hand that held the prow; 
 he then laid hold of it with his left, which they also cut off; at last 
 he seized it with his teeth, and in that manner expired. 
 
 Seven of the enemy's ships were taken, above six thousand Per- 
 sians were slain, without reckoning those who were drowned in the 
 sea as they endeavoured to escape, or those who were consumed 
 when the ships were set on fire. Of the Greeks, not above two 
 hundred men were killed, among whom was Cal'timachus, who 
 gave his vote for bri- ging on the engagement. The Persian forces 
 before the battle, consisted of six hundred ships, and an army of 
 an hundred and twenty thousand men. Their instructions were 
 to give up Athens to be plundered, to burn al! the houses and tern- 
 pies and to lead away ali the inhabitants into slavery. The country 
 
 3 
 
24 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 was to belaid desolate, and the army was provided with chains and 
 fetters for binding the conquered nations. 
 
 Thus ended the famous battle of Marathon, which the Persians 
 were so sure of gaining 1 , that they brought marble into the field, 
 in order to erect a trophy there. This battle was fought in the 
 year of the world 3514. 
 
 A part of the army, immediately after the battle marched for- 
 ward to Athens, to protect it from any attempts the enemy might 
 make, which proved a very prudent measure; for the Persian 
 fleet, instead of sailing directly back to Asia, made an attempt to 
 surprise Athens, before they supposed the Greek troops could 
 arrive from Marathon. The Athenian troops, however, took the 
 precaution to move directly thither, and performed their march 
 with so much expedition, that, though it was forty miles from 
 Marathon, they arrived there in one day. In this manner the 
 Greeks not only expelled their enemies, but confirmed their se- 
 curity. By this victory, the Grecians were taught to know their 
 own strength, and not to tremble before an enemy only terrible in 
 name. 
 
 The gratitude of the Athenians to Miltiades spoke a nobleness 
 of mind, that far surpassed expensive triumphs, or base adulation. 
 Sensible that his merits were too great for money to repay, they 
 caused a picture to be painted by ""Polygnotus, one of their most 
 celebrated artists, in which Miltiades was represented, at the 
 head of the ten commanders, exhorting the soldiers, and setting 
 them an example of their duty. This picture was preserved for 
 many ages, with other paintings of the best masters, in the portico 
 where Zeno afterwards instituted his school of philosophy. Every 
 officer, as well as private soldier, who fell in this battle, had a monu- 
 ment erected to his memory on the plains of Marathon. 
 
 Though the gratitude of the Athenians to Miltiades was very 
 sincere, yet it was of no long continuance. This fickle and jeal- 
 ous people, naturally capricious, and now more than ever careful 
 of preserving their freedom, were willing to take every oppor- 
 tunity of mortifying a general, from whose merit they had much to 
 fear. Being appointed, with seventy ships, to punish those islands 
 that had favoured the Persian invasion, he sailed to Paros, ancrin- 
 vested that place. Here, having broken his thigh by an accident, 
 he was obliged to raise the siege, and return home. On his arrival 
 at Athens, the whole city began to murmur, and he was accused 
 of having taken a bribe from Persia. As he was not in a con- 
 dition to answer this charge, being confined to his bed by the 
 wound he received at Paros, the accusation took place against 
 him, and he was condemned to lose his life. However, in consid- 
 eration of his former services, his sentence was commuted into a 
 penalty of fifty talents, the sum which it had cost the state in fit- 
 ting out the late unsuccessful expedition. Not being rich enough 
 to pay this sum, he was thrown into prison, where his wound 
 growing worse, from bad air and confinement, it turned at last to 
 a gangrene, and put an end to his life and misfortunes. Thus per- 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 25 
 
 ished a man, who had been very justly praised for his condescen- 
 sion, moderation and justice. To him Athens svas indebted for all 
 lis glory, he being the man who first taught her to despise the 
 empty menaces of the boastful Persians, Cimon, his son, who was 
 a$ this time very young, signalized his piety on this occasion. As 
 this ungjratefulcity would not permit the body of Mdtindes to be 
 buried until all his debts were paid, this young man employed all 
 his interest among his friends, strained his utmost credit to pay 
 the fine, and procured his father an honourable interment. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Darius, king of Persia, died amidst the preparations he was 
 making for a second expedition into Greece; but he was succeed- 
 ed by a son, who inherited all his ambition, without any share of 
 his abilities. He was a young man, surrounded by flatterers, 
 and naturally vain and superficial. Having drained all the East to 
 compose his own army, and the West to supply those of the Car- 
 thaginians, who uere come to his aid, he set out from Susa, in or- 
 der to enter on this war, ten years after the battle of Marathon, 
 and in the year of the world 3523. 
 
 Sardis was the place, where the various nations that were com- 
 pelled to his banner were to assemble. His fleet was to advance 
 along the coast of Asia Minor towards the Hellespont ; but as, 
 in doubling the cape of Mount Athos, many ships were detained, 
 he was resolved to cut a passage through that neck of land, which 
 joined the mount to the continent, and thus gave his shipping a 
 shorter and safer passage. This canal was a mile and a half long, 
 and hollowed out from a high mountain. It required immense la-, 
 hour to perform so great a work ; but his numbers and his ambition 
 were sufficient to surmount all difficulties. To urge on the under- 
 taking the faster, -he treated his labourers with the greatest severi- 
 ty, while, with all the ostentation of an eastern prince, he gave his 
 commands to the mountains to sink before him : " Athos, (said he) 
 thou proud aspiring mountain, that liftest up thy head unto the hea- 
 vens, be not so audacious as to put obstacles in my way. If thou 
 givest them that opposition, I will cut thee level to the plain, and 
 throw thee headlong into the sea!" 
 
 Early in the spring, he directed his march down towards the 
 Hellespont, where his fleet lay in all their pomp, expecting his ar- 
 rival. Here he was desirous of taking- a survey of all his forces, 
 which composed an army that was never equalled either before or 
 since. It was composed of the most powerful nations of the East, 
 and of people scarce known to posterity, except by name. The 
 remotest India contributed its supplies, while the coldest tracts of 
 Scythia sent their assistance. Medes, Persians, Bactrians, Ly- 
 dians, Assyrians, Hyrcanians, and an hundred other countries of 
 
26 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 various complexions, languages, dresses and arms. The land army 
 which he brought out of Asia, consisted of seventeen hundred thou- 
 sand foot, and four score thousand horse. Three hundred thou- 
 sand more thai were added upon crossing the Hellespont, made all 
 his land forces together amount to above two millions of men. His 
 fleet, when it set out from Asia, consisted of twelve hundred and 
 seven vessels, each carrying two hundred men. The Europeans 
 augmented his fleet with an hundred and twenty vessels, each of 
 which carried two hundred men. Besides these, there were a 
 thousand smaller vessels, fitted for carrying provisions and stores. 
 The men contained in these, with the former, amour/ted to six 
 hundred thousand: so that the whole army might be said to amount 
 to two millions and a half, which, with the women, slaves, and sut- 
 lers, always accompanying a Persian army, might make the whole 
 above five millions of souls. Such was the stale of this proud mon- 
 arch's forces. 
 
 Lord of so many and such various subjects, Xerxes found a plea- 
 sure in reviewing his forces; beholding all the earth covered with 
 his troops, and all the sea crowded with his vessels, he felt a se- 
 cret joy diffuse itself through his frame, from the consciousness of 
 his own superior power. But all the workings of this monarch's 
 mind were in extreme: a sudden sadness soon took place of his 
 pleasure, and dissolving into a shower of tears, he gave himself up 
 to the reflection, that not one of so many thousands would be alive 
 an hundred years after. 
 
 In the mean time Xerxes had given orders for building a bridge 
 of boats across the Hellespont, for the transporting of his army into 
 Europe. This narrow strait, which now goes by the name of the 
 Dardanelles, is near an English mile over. However, soon after 
 the completion of this work, a violent storm arising, the whole was 
 broken and destroyed, and the labour was to be undertaken anew. 
 The fury of Xerxes, upon this disappointment, was attended with 
 equal extravagance and cruelty. His vengeance knew no bounds, ' 
 the workmen who had undertaken the task, had their heads struck 
 off by his order; and that the sea also might know its duty, he or- 
 dered it to be lashed as a delinquent, and a pair of fetters thrown 
 into it, to curb its future irregularities. Having thus given vent to 
 his absurd resentment, two bridges were ordered to be built in the 
 place of the former, one for the army to pass over, and the other 
 for the baggage and beasts of burden. The workmen, now warn- 
 ed by the fate of their predecessors, undertook to give their labours 
 greater stability : they placed three hundred and sixty vessels 
 across the strait, some of them having three banks of oars, and 
 others fifty oars a-piece. They then cast large anchors on both 
 sides into the water, in order to fix those vessels against the vio- 
 lence of the winds and current. They then drove Targe piles into 
 the earth, with huge rings fastened to them, to which were tied 
 six vast cables, which went over each of the two bridges. — Over all 
 these they laid trunks of trees, cut purposely for that use, and flat 
 boats over them, fastened and joined together, so as to serve for 
 
£ EEC IAN ST. 
 I. When the whole work Was thus com- 
 pleted, a day was appointed for their passing over; and as soon as 
 the first rays of the sun began to appear, sweet odours of all kinds 
 were abundantly scattered over the new work, and the way was 
 strewed with myrtle. At the same time, Xerxes, turning his face 
 towards the east, worshipped the sun, which is the god of the Per- 
 sians. Then, throwing his libations into the sea, together with a 
 gulden cup and Persian scimitar, he went forwards and gave orders 
 for the army to follow. This immense train were no less than sev- 
 en days and seven nights passing over, while those who were ap- 
 pointed to conduct the march, quickened the troops by lashing 
 them along ; for the soldiers of the East, at that time, and to this 
 day, are treated like slaves. Thus this immense army having 
 landed in Europe, and bejgj* joined by the several European na- 
 tions that acknowledged me Persian power, Xerxes prepared for 
 marching directly forward into Greece. 
 
 He continued his march through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thes- 
 saly every knee bending before him till he came to the straits of 
 Thermopylae, where he first found an enemy prepared to dispute his 
 passage. This army was a body of Spartans, led on by Leonidas 
 their king, who had been sent thither to oppose him. None of the 
 Grecian states were found bold enough to face this formidable ar-' 
 my but Athens and Lacedaemon. One cannot, without astonish- 
 ment, reflect on the intrepidity of these two states, who determined 
 to face the innumerable army of Xerxes with such disproportioned 
 forces. Their whole army amounted to only eleven thousand two 
 hundred men. Aristides was called from banishment, and placed 
 at the head of their forces. 
 
 It was soon resolved to send a body of men to guard (lie pass at 
 Thermopylae, where a few would be capable of acting against num- 
 bers. Thermopylae was a narrow pass of twenty-five feet broad, 
 between Thessaly and Phocis, defended by the remains of a wall, 
 with gates to it. This place was pitched upon, as well for the nar- 
 rowness of the way, as for its vicinity to the sea, fron- whence the 
 land forces could occasionally receive assistarr* from the fleet. 
 The command of this important pass was given lo Leonidas, one of 
 the kings of Sparta, who led thither a body of six thousand men. 
 They were all along taught to look upou"thems( Ives as a forlorn 
 hope, only placed there to check the progress of 'he enemy, and 
 give them a foretaste of the desperate valour of Greece. Even 
 oracles were not wanting to check their ardour ; for it had been de- 
 clared, that to procure the safety of Greece it was necessary that 
 a king, one of the descendants of Hercules should die. This task 
 was cheerfully undertaken by Leonidas; and as he marched out 
 from Lacedaemon he considered himself as a willing victim offered 
 up for the good of his country. However, he joyfully put himself 
 at the head of his little band, took possession of his post, and with 
 deliberate desperation waited at Thermopylce for the coming up of 
 the Persian army. 
 
 3 * 
 
28 HISTORY OF TH33 
 
 In the mean time, Xerxes approached with his numerous army 
 flushed with success, and confident of victory. His camp exhibited 
 all the marks of Eastern magnificence and Asiatic luxury. As he 
 expected to meet no obstructions on his way to Greece, he was sur- 
 prised to find, that a handful of men would dare to dispute his pas- 
 sage. He waited four clays to give the Greeks time to retire ; but 
 they continued their post, amusing themselves in their usual way. 
 He sent to them to deliver up their arms ; but Leonidas, with a tru- 
 ly Spartan spirit, desired him to come and take them. Xerxes offer- 
 ed if they would lay down their arms, to receive them as friends, 
 and to give them a country much larger and better than what they 
 i ought for. " No country (they replied) was worth acceptance, 
 unless won by virtue ; and as for their arms, they should want 
 them, whether as his friends or enemies^ 
 
 Xerxes, thus treated with contempt, at length ordered a body of 
 Medes to advance, who began the onset, but were repulsed with 
 great loss, The number of the assailants only served to increase 
 their confusion ; and it now began to appear, that Xerxes had many 
 followers, but few soldiers. These forces being routed by the Gre- 
 cian troops, the Persian immortal band was brought up ; but these 
 were as unsuccessful as the former. Thus did the Greeks keep 
 -their ground for two days, and no power on earth seemed capable of 
 removing them from their advantageous situation. The Persians 
 however, by the treachery of a Grecian deserter, got possession of 
 an advantageous post, which commanded the rear of the Spartans. 
 
 Leonidas, apprized of his misfortune, and seeing that his post 
 was no longer tenable, advised the troops of his allies to retire, and 
 reserve themselves for better times, and the future safety of Greece. 
 As for himself, and his fellow Spartans, they were obliged by their 
 laws not to fiy ; that he owed a life to his country, and that it was 
 now his duty to fall in its defence. Having thus dismissed all but 
 his three hundred Spartans, with some Thesbians and Thebans, in 
 all not a thousand men, he exhorted his followers, in the most 
 cheerful manner, to prepare for death. " Come, my fellow. soldiers, 
 said he, let us dine cheerfully here, for to-night we shall sup with 
 Pluto." His men upon hearing his determined purpose, set up a 
 loud shout, as if they had been invited to a banquet . and resolved 
 every man to sell his life as dear as he could. The night now be- 
 gan to advance, and this was thought the most glorious opportunity 
 of meeting death in the enemy's camp. Thus resolved, they made 
 directly to the Persian tents, and, in the darkness of the night, had 
 almost reached the royal pavilion, with hopes of surprising the king. 
 The obscurity added much to the horror of the scene; and the 
 Persians, falling upon each other without distinction, rather assisted 
 the Grecians than defended themselves. Thus success seemed to 
 crown the rashness of their enterprise, until the morning begin- 
 ning to dawn, the light discovered the smallness of their numbi. rs. 
 They were then soon surrounded by the Persian forces, who fearing 
 to fall in upon them, flung their javelins from every quarter, till the 
 Greeks, not so much conquered as tired with conquering, fell 
 
GRECIAN" STATES. 29 
 
 amidst heaps of the slaughtered enemy, leaving behind them an 
 example of intrepidity never known before. Leonidas was one of 
 the first that fell, and the endeavours of the Lacedemonians to 
 defend his dead body were incredible. Of all the train, two only 
 escaped, who were treated with contempt and infamy. 
 
 The loss of Xerxes in this battle was said to amount to twenty 
 thousand men, among whom were two of his brothers. Xerxes, 
 therefore, dismayed at an obstinacy that cost him so dear, was for 
 some time more inclined to try his fortune at sea, than to proceed 
 immediately into the country, where he was informed, eight thou- 
 sand Spartans, such as he had but lately fought with, were ready to 
 receive him. Accordingly, the very day of the battle of Ther- 
 mopylae, there was an engagement at sea between the two fleets. 
 The Grecian fleet consisted of two hundred and seventy one ves- 
 sels : that of the enemy had lately lost four hundred vessels in a 
 shipwreck, but were still greatly superior to the Grecian fleet. 
 
 Xerxes, to repair his loss by a victory, ordered two hundred 
 Persian vessels to take a compass, and surprise the Grecians lying 
 in the straits of Eubosa ; but the Grecians, being apprized of their 
 designs, set sail by night, and so, by a counter surprise, fell in 
 with them while they were thus separated from the main budy, 
 took and sunk thirty, forced the rest to sea, and there, by stress 
 of weather, they were all soon after sunk or stranded. Enraged* 
 at these disappointments, the Persians bore down the next day 
 with the whole fleet, and drawing up in form of an half-moon, made 
 an offer of battle, which, the Greeks as readily accepted. The Athe- 
 nians having been reinforced with three and fifty sail, the battle was 
 very obstinate and bloody, and the success pretty near equal on 
 both sides, so that both parties seemed content to retire in good 
 order. 
 
 After this, Xerxes, having entered the country of Phocis with his 
 numerous army, plundered and burned every town through which 
 he passed. Having sent off a considerable detachment to plunder 
 the temple at Delphi, with the rest he marched down into Attica, 
 where he found Athens deserted by all but a few in the citadel. — 
 These men desparii g of succour, and unwilling to survive the loss 
 of their country, would listen to no terms of accommodation : they 
 boldly withstood the first assault, and, warmed by the enthusiasm 
 of religion began to hope for success. However a second assault 
 carried their feeble outwoiks, they were all put to the sword, and 
 the citadel reduced to ashes. 
 
 In the mean time, the confederate Greeks determined in coun- 
 cil, thai they should prepare to receive the Persians on the isth- 
 mus by land, and in the straits of Salamis by sea. Xerxes, after 
 having demolished and burned Athens, marched down towards the 
 sea, to act in conjunction with his fleet, which he had determined 
 should once more come to an engagement with the enemy. The 
 Grecian fleet consisted of three hundred and eighty ships, the Per- 
 sian fleet was much more numerous ; but. whatever advantage they 
 had in numbers, and the size of their ships, they fell infinitely short 
 
30 JUSTORV OF THE 
 
 of the Greeks in their naval skill, and their acquaintance with 
 the seas where they fought. 
 
 Themistocles, watching a favourable opportunity, gave the sig- 
 nal for battle, when the Grecian fleet sailed forward, in exact 
 order. Xerxes, imputing his former ill success at sea to his own 
 absence, was resolved to be a witness of the present engagement 
 from the top of a promontory, where he caused a throne to be 
 erected for that purpose. The Persians, therefore, advanced with 
 such courage and impetuosity, as struck the enemy with terror ; 
 but their ardor abated when the engagement became closer. — 
 The numerous disadvantages of their circumstances then began to 
 appear: the wind blew directly in their faces; the height and hea- 
 viness of their vessels made them unwieldy and useless ; even the 
 number of their ships, in the narrow seas where they fought, only- 
 served to embarrass and increase their confusion. The lonians 
 first gave way, then the Phoenicians, and Cyprians, when the rest 
 retired in great disorder, and fell foul of each other in their retreat. 
 The Greeks pursued the Persian fleet on every side; some were 
 intercepted at the straits of Attica, many were sunk, and more 
 taken. Above two hundred were burnt, all the rest were dis- 
 persed ; and the allies, dreading the resentment of the Greeks, as 
 well as of the Persian king, made the best of their way to their 
 own country. Such was the success of the battle of Salamis, in 
 which the Persians received a severer blow than they had ever be- 
 fore experienced from Greece. 
 
 Xerxes being heartily tired of this disgraceful business, left his 
 generals to take care of his army, and hastened with a small retinue 
 to the sea-side, which he readied in forty-five days after the battle 
 of Salamis. When he arrived at that place, he found the bridge 
 broken down by the violence of the waves, in a tempest that had 
 lately happened. He was, therefore, obliged to pass the strait in 
 a small boat; which manner of returning, being compared with 
 the ostentatious method in which he had set cut, rendered his dis- 
 grace still more poignant and afflicting. The army, which he had 
 ordered to follow him, having been unprovided with provisions, 
 suffered great hardships by the way. Alter having consumed all 
 the corn they could find, they were obliged to live upon herbs, and 
 even upon the bark and leaves of trees. Thus harassed and fa- 
 tigued, a pestilence began to complete their misery ; and, after 
 a fatiguing journey of forty-five days, in which they were pursued 
 rather by vultures and beasts of p>ey, than by men, they came to 
 the Hellespont, where they crossed over, and marched from thence 
 to Sardis. Such was the end of Xerxes's expedition into Greece : 
 a measure begun in pride, and terminated in infumy and disgrace. 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 31 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The joy of the Greeks, on the victory of Sal amis, was general 
 and loud, and Themistocles was loaded with glory. Mardonius, 
 whom Xerxes had left in Greece with a numerous army, was 
 soon afier killed in battle, and all his forces completely routed. 
 Thus ended the invasion of Greece, nor ever after was the Per- 
 sian army seen to cross the Hellespont. During- these events, 
 Xerxes lay at Sardis, expecting- a reversion of his fortune ; but 
 messengers coming every hour, loaded with the news of some 
 fata! disaster, and finding himself unable to retrieve his affairs, he 
 retired further into the country, and endeavoured to drown in 
 luxury and riot the uneasy reflections of his successless ambition. 
 To the want of success abroad was added the contempt of his 
 subjects at home ; and this brought on a train of treasons, insur- 
 rections, sacrilege, murder, incest and cruelty; so that the latter 
 part of his reign was as scandalous as the first part of it had been 
 unfortunate. 
 
 The state of Athens, being thus in a great measure freed from 
 its fears of a foreign enemy, began to cherish intestine animosities, 
 and its citizens laboured with every art to supplant each other in 
 aiming at places of trust and authority. But the conduct of Aris- 
 tides, in the discharge of his duty on all occasions, confirmed the 
 great opinion mankind had formed of his integrity. 
 
 Aristides presided over the treasury with the care of a father 
 over his family, and the caution of a miser over what he holds dear- 
 er than his life. Mo man complained of his administration, and 
 no part of the public money was exhausted in vain. He, who thus 
 contributed to make government rich, was himself poor ; and so 
 far was he from being ashamed of poverty, that he considered it as 
 glorious to him as all the victories he had won. Aristides asserted 
 that he only might be said to want, who permitted his appetites to 
 transgress the bounds of his income ; and that he, who could dis- 
 pense with a few things, thus rendered himself more like the gftds 
 who want nothing. 
 
 Thus he lived, just in his public and independent in his private 
 character. His house was a public school for virtue, and was open 
 to all young Athenians who sought wisdom, or were ambitious of 
 power. He gave them the ki'idest reception, heard them with 
 patience, instructed them with familiarity, and endeavoured, above 
 ail thing's, to give them a just value for themselves. History does 
 not mention the exact time or place of his death; but it pays the 
 most glorious testimony to his disinterested character, in telling 
 us, that he who had the absolute disposal of all the public trea- 
 sures died poor. It ** even asserted, that he did not leave money 
 enough behind him to pay the expenses of his funeral, but that 
 the government was obliged to bear the charge of it, and to main- 
 tain his family. His daughters were married, and his son subsisted 
 
32 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 at the expense of the public ; and some of his, grandchildren were 
 supported by a pension, tqu.il to thai which such received, who 
 had been victorious at the G'y ipic games. But the greatest hon- 
 our that his countrymen paid t j Ins menfojy, was in giving him the 
 title of Just, a character far superior to all (he empty titles of wis- 
 dom or conquest ; since fortune or accident may confer wisdom or 
 valour, but the virtues of morality are solely of pur own making. 
 
 About the year of the world ?5* 2, a rupture happened between 
 the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians ; and thus the Grecian 
 states, having now no foreign enemy to disturb them, began to 
 harass and depopulate each other. Buta more terrible punishment 
 now began to threaten them from nature ; a plague broke out in the 
 city of Athens, a more terrible one than which is scarcely recorded 
 in the annals of history, it is related, that it began in Ethiopia," 
 from thence descended into Egypt, then travelled into Lybia and 
 Persia, and at last broke out like a flood upon Athens. This pes- 
 tilence baffled the utmost efforts of art ; the most robust constitu- 
 tions were unable to withstand its attacks ; no skill could obviate, 
 and no remedy dispel the terrible infection. The instant a person 
 was seized, he was struck with despair, which quite disabled him 
 from a'tempting a cure. The humanity of friends was as fatal to 
 themselves, as it was ineffectual to the unhappy sufferers. Most 
 of the inhabitants, for want of lodging, lived in little cottages, in 
 which they could scarce breathe, while the burning heat of the 
 summer increased the pestilential malignity. They were seen 
 confusedly huddled together, the dead as well as the dying ; some 
 crawling through the streets, some lying along by the sides of 
 fountains, whither they had endeavoured to repair, to quench the 
 t raging thirst that consumed them. Their very temples were filled 
 with dead bodies, and every part of the city exhibited a dreadful 
 scene of mortality, without the least remedy for the present, or the 
 least hopes with regard to futurity. It seized the people with such 
 I violence, that they fell one upon another as they passed along the 
 ^streets. It was also attended with such uncommon pestilential 
 ' vapours, that the very beasts and birds of prey, though famishing 
 S round the walls of the city, would not touch the bodies of those 
 who died of it. Even in those who recovered, it left such a tinc- 
 ture of its malignity, that it struck upon their senses. It effaced 
 the memory of all the passages of their former lives, and they 
 knew neither themselves nor their nearest relations. Such were 
 the effects of this dreadful pestilence ; but of the manner in which 
 it ended, and of the numbers destroyed by it, we have no certain 
 account. 
 
 We shall now pass over the particulars of the Pelopnnnesian 
 war, as they afford only a wretched scene of the citizens of one 
 Grecian state staining their hands with the blood of others ; but 
 we shall be more particular in mentioning the actions and charac- 
 ter of those heroes and philosophers, who flourished during that 
 period. Among these, Pericles formed no inconsiderable charac- 
 ter. He was descended from the greatest and most illustrious 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 33 
 
 families of Athens ; his father, Xanthippus, defeated the Persians 
 at Mycale, and his mother, Agafista, was niece to Clisthenes, who 
 expelled the tyrants, and established a popular government in 
 Athens. He had early thoughts of rising in the state, and took les- 
 sons from Anaxagoras, in the philosophy of nature. He studied 
 politics with great assiduity, but particularly devoted himself to 
 eloquence, which, in a popular state, he considered as the fountain 
 of all promotion. His studies were crowned with success ; and 
 the poets, his contemporaries, affirm, that his eloquence was so 
 powerful, that, like thunder, he shook and astonished all Greece. 
 He had the art of uniting force and beauty; there was no resist- 
 ing the strength of his arguments, or the sweetness of his delivery. 
 Thucydides, his great opponent, was often heard to say, that 
 though he had often overthrown him, the power of his persuasion 
 was such, that the audience could never perceive him fallen. 
 
 To this eloquence he added also a thorough insight into human 
 nature, as well as a perfect acquaintance with the disposition of his 
 auditors. It was a constant saying with him to himself " Remem- 
 ber, Pericles, thou art going to speak to men born in the arms of 
 Liberty, and do thou care to flatter them in their ruling passion." ^j 
 He resembled the tyrant Pisistratus, not only in the sweetness of 
 his voice, but the features of his face, and his whole air and man- 
 ner. To these natural and acquired graces, he added those of 
 fortune; he w* very rich, and had an extensive alliance with all 
 the most powerful families of the state. 
 
 The death of At istides and some other favourable circumstances, 
 gave opportunities to his growing ambition : yet he at first con- 
 cealed his designs with the most cautious reserve, till finding the 
 people increase in his interest, he set himself at their head, and 
 opposed the principal men of the state with great appearance of 
 disinterested virtue. The chief obstacle of his rise was Cimon, 
 whose candour and liberality had gained him a numerous party of 
 all ranks and denominations. In opposition to him, Pericles called 
 in popular assistance, and by expending the public money in bribes, 
 largesses, and other distributions, he easily gained the multitude 
 to espouse his interests. 
 
 Having thus laid a secure foundation in popularity, he next 
 struck at the council of the Areopagus, which was composed of the 
 most respectable persons of all Athens ; and, by the assistance of 
 one Ephialtes, another popular champion, he drew away most 
 causes from the cognizance of that court, and brought the whole 
 order into contempt. In this manner, while Cimon was permitted 
 to conduct the war abroad, he managed all the supplies at home ; 
 and, as it was his interest to keep Cimon at a distance, he took 
 care to provide him with a sufficiency of foreign employment. 
 
 Pericles every day gained new ground, till he at last found him- 
 self possessed of the authority of the whole state It was then 
 that he began to change his behaviour, and from acting the hum- 
 ble and fawning suppliant, he assumed the haughty airs of royalty. 
 'He now no longer submitted himself to the caprice of the people, 
 
 
34 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 but changed the democratic state of Athens into a kind of mon- 
 archy, without departing-, however, from the public pood. He 
 would sometimes, indeed, win his fellow-citizens over to his will ; 
 but at other times, when he found them obstinate, he would in a 
 manner compel them to consult their own interests. Thus be- 
 tween power and persuasion, public profusion, and private econo- 
 my, political falsehoods, and private integrity, Pericles became the 
 principal ruler at Athens, and all such as were his enemies became 
 the enemies of the state. 
 
 Fickleness and inconstancy, however, were the prevailing cha- 
 racters of the Athenians ; and, as these carried them on to their 
 greatest excesses, they soon brought them back within the bounds 
 of moderation and prudence. Pericles had long been a favourite, 
 but the state having suffered great calamities, he at last came to be 
 obnoxious : they had deposed him from the command of the army ; 
 but soon repented of their rashness, and reinstated him, a short 
 time after, with more than former authority.— However, he did not 
 live long to enjoy his honours. He was seized with the plague, 
 which, like a malignant enemy, struck its severest blow at parting. 
 Being extremely ill, and ready to breathe his last, the principal 
 citizens, and such of his friends that had not forsaken him, dis- 
 coursing concerning the loss they were about to sustain, ran over 
 his exploits, and computed the number of his victories. They did 
 not imagine that Pericles attended to what they said^ as he seemed 
 insensible ; but it was far otherwise, as not a single word of their 
 discourse had escaped him. At hist, cried he, •« Why will you ex- 
 tol a series of actions, in which Fortune had the greatest part I 
 There is one circumstance which I would not have forgotten, yet 
 which you have passed over : 1 could wish to have it remembered, 
 as the most glorious circumstance of my life, that I never yet caused 
 a single citizen to put on mourning " Thus died Pericles, in whom 
 were united a number of excellent qualities without impairing each 
 other. He was as well skilled in naval affairs as in the conduct of 
 armies ; as well skilled in the arts of raising money as of employing 
 it ; eloquent in public, and pleasing in private ; he was a patron 
 of artists, at once informing them by his taste and example. 
 
 Not long after the death of Pericles, the Athenians and Lace- 
 daemonians made peace, and every thing now'promised a restora- 
 tion of firmer tranquillity ; but a new promoter of troubles was 
 now beginning to make his appearance, and from him those who 
 wished for peace had every thing to feur : this was the celebrated 
 Alcibiades, the disciple of Socrates, a youth equally remarkable 
 for the beauty of his person, and the graces of his mental accom- 
 plishments. 
 
 The strict intimacy between Alcibiades and Socrates is oneo/the 
 most remarkable circumstances of his life. This philosopher ob- 
 serving excellent natural qualities in him, which were greatly 
 heightened by the beau<v of his person, bestowed mciedibie pains 
 in cultivating so valuable a plant, lest, being neglec'ed, it should 
 wither as it grew, and in the end degenerate. Alcibiades, indeed, 
 
f&sllfls* 
 
 GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 was exposed to numberless dangers : the greatness of his extrac- 
 tion, his vast riches, the authority of his family, the credit of hi* 
 guardians, his personal talents, and, still more than these, the flat- 
 terv and complaisance of all who approached him. 
 
 Notwithstanding the strong endeavours that were used to divert 
 this young Athenian from a correspondence, which alone was ca- 
 pable of securing him from so many snares, he devoted himself 
 entirely to it. He had the most unbounded wit ; he was fully sen- 
 sible of Socrates's extraordinary merit, and could not resist the 
 charms of his sweetly insinuating eloquence, which at that time, 
 had a greater ascendant over him than the allurements of pleasure. 
 He was so zealous a disciple of that great master, that he followed 
 him wherever he went, took the utmost delight in his conversation, 
 received his instructions, and even his reprimands, with wonderiut 
 docility, and was so moved with his discourses, as even to shed 
 tears, and abhor himself : so weighty was the force of truth in the 
 mouth of Socrates, and in so odious a light did he show the vices., 
 to which Alcibiades began to abandon himself. 
 
 Alcibiades, in those moments when he listened to Socrates, dif- 
 fered so much from himself, that he appeared quite another mart. 
 However, his head-strong fiery temper, and his natural fondness 
 for pleasure, which was heightened and enflamed by the discourses 
 and advice of young people, soon plunged him into his former ir- 
 regularities, and tore him as it were from his master, who was 
 obliged to pursue faim as a slave who had escaped correction. This 
 vicissitude of flights and returns of virtuous resolutions, and re* 
 lapses into vice, continued a long time ; but still Socrates was not 
 disgusted with his levity, and always flattered himself with the 
 hopes of bringing him back to his duty. Hence certainly arose the 
 strong mixture of good and evil that always appeared in his con- 
 duct, the instructions his master had given him sometimes prevail- 
 in^ and, at other times, the fire of his passion hurrying him, in a 
 manner, against his own will, into things of a quite opposite nature. 
 Among the various passions that were discovered in him, the 
 strongest and most prevailing was a haughty turn of mind, which 
 would force all things to submit to it, and could not bear a superior, 
 or even an equal. 
 
 Alcibiades, with such a cast of mind as we have described, was 
 not born for repose, and had set every engine at work to reverse 
 the treaty lately concluded between the Athenians and Lacedaemo- 
 nians. He was disgusted with the latter, because they directed 
 themselves only to Nicias, of whom they had a very high opinion ; 
 and on the contrary, seemed to take no manner of notice of him, 
 though his ancestors had enjoyed the rights of hospitality among 
 them. 
 
 Having found means to carry his point against the Lacedemo- 
 nians, he was declared general, and appointed to command the 
 fleet ; but was soon afterwards disgraced. After haying experi- 
 enced strange vicissitudes of fortune, being sometimes banished or 
 condemned to death by the Athenians, at other times at the head 
 4 
 
36 HISTORY OF THE "***•'* <^ %% *.,.\« 
 
 of their fleets and armies, he at last took shelter at the court of 
 Persia, where the Lacedaemonians found means to persuade that 
 monarch to despatch him. Alcibiades was llien in a small town in 
 Phrygia; where he lived with his concubine Timandra. Those who 
 were sent to kill him, not daring to enter his house, contented 
 themselves with surrounding- and setting it on fire. Alcibiades 
 having quitted it through the flames, sword in hand, the barbarians 
 were afraid to stay to come to blows with him, but flying and re- 
 treating as lie advanced, they poured their darts and arrows upon 
 him from a distance, and he fell dead upon the spot. Timandra 
 took up his body, and having adorned and covered it with the 
 finest robes she had, she made as magnificent a funeral for it as her 
 condition would admit. 
 
 Such was the end of Alcibiades, whose great virtues were stifled 
 and suppressed by still greater vices. It is not easy to say, whether 
 his good or bad qualities were most pernicious to his country ; for 
 with the one he deceived, and with the other he oppressed it. In 
 him distinguished valour was united with nobility of blood. He 
 was eloquent, of great ability in affairs, insinuating, and formed for 
 charming all mankind. He loved glory, but indulged at the same 
 time his inclination for pleasure: nor was he so fond of pleasure, 
 as to neglect his glory for it. He knew how to give into, or ab- 
 stract himself from, the allurements of luxury, according to the sit- 
 uation of his affairs. Never was there ductility of genius equal to 
 his : he metamorphosed himself with incredible facility, into the 
 most contrary forms, and supported them all with as much ease 
 and grace as if each had been natural to him. 
 
 The death of Alcibiades naturally leads us to give the character 
 of his master, one of the greatest, philosophers that the world per- 
 haps ever produced, the immortal Socrates. He was the son of an 
 obscure citizen of Athens, and, emerging from the meanness of his 
 birth, he gave astonishing examples of courage, moderation and 
 wisdom. lie opposed the power of the thirty tyrants, who had 
 usurped the government of Athens, and spoke loudly against the 
 bigotry and persecution of the times. He possessed unexampled 
 good-nature, and an universal love to mankind. As it was very 
 difficult to correct the aged, and to make people' change principles, 
 who revere the errors in which they are grown gray, he devoted 
 his labours principally to the instruction of youth, in order to sow 
 the seeds of virtue in a soil more fit to produce the fruits of it. He 
 had no open school like the rest^of the. philosophers, nor set times 
 for his lessons. He had no benches prepared, nor even mounted a 
 professor's chair ; he was the philosopher of all times and seasons ; 
 he taught in all places, and upon all occasions ; in walking, conver- 
 sation at meals, in the army, and in the midst of tht camp.Jn the 
 public assembly of the senate or people. Such was the man, whom a 
 faction in the city had long devoted to destruction : he had been 1 , for 
 ma*ny years before his death, the object of their satire and ridicule. 
 
 Aristophanes, the comic p'»et, was engaged to expose "fllm on 
 the stage : he composed a piece called 1 he Clouds, wherein he 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 37 
 
 introduced the philosopher in a basket, uttering" the most ridicu- 
 lous absurdities. This was the first blow struck at him ; but it 
 was not till twenty years afterwards that Meliius appeared in a 
 more formal manner as his accuser, and entered a regular pro- 
 cess against him. His accusation consisted of two heads : the first 
 was, that he did not admit the gods acknowledged by the Republic, 
 and introduced new divinities ; the second, that he corrupted the 
 youth of Athens ; and concluded with inferring, that sentence of 
 death ought to be passed against him. How far the whole charge 
 affected hjm is not easy to determine s It is certain, that amid so 
 much zeal and superstition as then reigned in Athens, he never 
 dared openly to oppose the received religion, and was therefore 
 forced to preserve an outward show of it ; but it is very probable, 
 from the discourses he frequently held* with his friends, that in his 
 heart he despised and laughed at their mo^rous- opinions and ridi- 
 culous mysteries, as having no other foifnd»onkj>an the fables of 
 the poets ; and that lie hail attained to the uofatiry of the one only 
 true God, insomuch that, upon the account both pf his belief of the 
 Deity, and the exemplariness of his life, some have thought fit to 
 rank him among the Christian philosophers. 
 
 Upon the day assigned, the proceedings commenced in the usual 
 forms, the parties appeared before the judges, and Melitus spoke. 
 The worse his cause, and the less it was provided with proofs, the 
 more occasion he had for address and art to cover its weakness. 
 He omitted nothing that might render Socrates odious; and in- 
 stead of reasons, which could not but fail him, he substituted the 
 delusive glitter of a lively and pompous eloquence. Socrates's de- 
 fence is considered as so great a masterpiece of ancient oratory, 
 that even the narrow limits this work is confined to, will not permit 
 of our passing it over in silence. 
 
 "lam accused (said Socrates) of corrupting the youth, and of 
 instilling dangerous maxims into them, as well in regard to the 
 worship of the gods, as the rules of government. You know, 
 Athenians, that. I never made it my profession to teach, nor can 
 envy, however violent against me, reproach me with having sold my 
 instructions. I have an undeniable evidence for me in this respect, 
 which is my poverty. I was always equally ready to communicate 
 my thoughts either to the rich or poor, and to give .them entire 
 leisure to question or answer me.' My whole employment is to per- 
 suade the young and old against too much love for the body, for 
 riches, all other precarious things, of whatsoever nature they be ; 
 and against too little regard for the soul, which ought to be the ob- 
 ject of their affection ; for I incessantly urge upon them, that virtue 
 does not proceed from riches, but, on the contrary, riches from vir- 
 tue ; aiul that all the other goods of human life, as well public as 
 private, nave their source in the same principle. 
 
 " If to speak in this manner be to corrupt youth, I confess, Athe- 
 nians, that I am guilty, and deserve to-be punished. If what I say 
 be not tree, it is most easy to convict me of falsehood-. I see here 
 a great number of my disciples : they have only to appear. But 
 
38 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 perhaps, the reserve and consideration for a master who has in- 
 structed them, will prevent them from declaring against me ; at 
 least their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relatione 
 and good citizens, dispense with their not standing forth to demand 
 vengeance against the corrupter of their sons, brothers, and ne- 
 phews. But these are the persons who take upon them my defence, 
 and interest themselves in the success of my cause. 
 
 * c Pass on me what sentence you please, Athenians : but 1 can 
 neither repent nor change my conduct : I must not abandon or sus- 
 pend a function, which God himself has imposed on me. If, after 
 having faithfully kept all the posts wherein I was placed by our 
 generals at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Dclium, the fear of death 
 should at this time make me abandon that, in which the divine 
 Providence has placed me, by commanding me to pass my life in 
 the study of philosophy, for the instruction of myself and others ; 
 this would be a most criminal desertion indeed, and make me highly 
 worthy of being cited before this tribunal as an impious man, who 
 does not believe in the gods. Should you resolve to acquit me, for 
 the future, 1 should not hesitate to make answer, Athenians, I 
 honour and love you, but 1 shall choose rather to obey God than 
 you, and to my latest breath shall never renounce my philoso- 
 phy, nor cease to exhort and reprove you, according to my custom, 
 by telling each of you, when you come in my way ; My good friend 
 and citizen of the most famous city in the world for wisdom and 
 valour, are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than those 
 of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities, 
 whilst you neglect the treasures of prudence, truth, and wisdom, 
 and take no pains in rendering your soul as good and perfect as it is 
 capable of being. 
 
 • 4 I am reproached with abject fear and meanness of spirit, for 
 being so busy in imparting my advice to every one in private and 
 for having avoided to be present in your assemblies to give my coun- 
 sels to my country. I think I have sufficiently proved my courage 
 and fortitude, both in the field, where I have borne arms with you, 
 and in the senate when I opposed the violent and cruel orders of the 
 thirty tyrants. 
 
 "Tor the rest, Athenians, if, in the extreme danger I now am, 
 I do not imitate the behaviour of those, who, upon less emergen- 
 cies, have implored and supplicated their judges with tears, and 
 have brought forth their children, relations, and friends, it is not 
 through pride and obstinacy, or any contempt for you, but solely 
 for your honour, and for that of the whole city. You should know, 
 that there are among our citizens those, who do not regard death 
 as an evil, and who give that name only to injustice and infamy. At 
 my age, and with the reputation, true or false, which I have, would 
 it be consistent for me, after all the lessons I have given upon the 
 contempt of death, to be afraid of it myself, and to belie in my last 
 actions all the principles and sentiments of my past life ? 
 
 "But without speaking of my fame, which 1 should extremely 
 injure by such conduct, I do not think it allowable to entreat a 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 39 
 
 judge, nor to be absolved by supplications. He ought to be per- 
 suaded and convinced. The judge does not sit upon the bench to 
 show favour, by violating the laws ; but to dojustice in conforming 
 to them. He does not swear to discharge with impunity whom he 
 pleases, but to dojustice where it is due. We ought not, there- 
 fore, to accustom you to perjury, nor you to suffer yourselves to be 
 accustomed to it ; for, in so doing, both the one and the other of us 
 equally injure justice and religion, and both are criminals. 
 
 "Do not, therefore, expect from me, Athenians, that I should 
 have recourse among you to means, which I believe neither honest 
 nor lawful ; especially upon this occasion, wherein I am accused of 
 impiety by Melitus ; for, if I should influence you by my prayers, 
 and thereby induce you to violate your oaths, it would be unde- 
 niably evident, that I teach you not to believe in the gods ; and 
 even in defending and justifying myself, 1 should furnish my ad- 
 versaries with arms against me, and prove that I believe no divini- 
 ty. But I am very far from such bad thoughts : I am more convinc- 
 ed of the existence of God than my accusers ; and so convinced, 
 that I abandon myself to God and you, that you may judge of me 
 as you shall deem best for yourselves and I 
 
 Socrates pronounced this discourse with a firm and intrepid 
 tone : his air, his action, his visage, expressed nothing of the ac- 
 cused ; he seemed the master of his judges, from the assurance 
 and greatness of his soul with which he spoke, without however 
 losing any tiling of the modesty natural to him. But how slight 
 soever the proofs were against him, the faction was powerful 
 enough to find him guilty, and his death was certainly a concerted 
 thing. 
 
 By his first sentence, the judges only declared Socrates guilty ; * 
 but when, by his answer, he appeared to appeal from their tribunal 
 to that of justice and posterity ; when, instead of confessing him- 
 self guilty, he demanded rewards and honour from the state, the 
 judges were so very much offended, that they condemned him to 
 drink hemlock, a method of execution in use among them. 
 
 Socrates received this sentence with the utmost composure.— 
 Apollodorus, one of his disciples, launching out into bitter invec- 
 tives, and lamenting that his master should die innocent; "What, 
 (replied Socrates, with a smile,) would you have me die guilty ? 
 Melitus and Anytus may kill, but they cannot hurt me." 
 
 After his sentence, he still continued with the same serene and 
 , with which he had long enforced virtue, and held 
 tyrants in awe. When he entered his prison, which now became 
 sidence of virtue and probity, his friends followed him thither, 
 and continued to visit him during the interval between his con- 
 demnation and death, which lasted for thirty days. 
 
 The day before the death of Socrates, Cri'o, his intimate friend, 
 went to him early in the morning to. let him know, that it depended 
 only on himself to quit the prison ; that the jailor was gained ; that 
 he would find the doors open, and offered him a safe retreat in 
 Thessalv, Socrates laughed at his proposal, and answered, that 
 4 * 
 
40 historV of the 
 
 jtie reverenced the laws of his country, and resolved to obey them 
 in all things, even in his death. 
 
 Socrates employed the last day of his life in entertaining his 
 friends on the great and important subject of death ; he explained 
 to them all the arguments for believing the soul to be immortal, 
 and refuted all the objections against it. After he came out of the 
 bath, his children were brought to him, for he had three, two very 
 little, and the other grown up. He spoke to them for some time, 
 gave orders to the women who took care of them, and then dis- 
 missed them. Being returned into his chamber, he laid himself 
 down upon his bed. 
 
 The keeper of the prison entered at the same instant, and hav- 
 ing informed him, that the time for drinking the hemlock was 
 come, which was at sun set, the keeper was so much affected with 
 sorrow, that he turned his back and fell a weeping. The fatal cup, 
 however, was at last brought, and Socrates asked what it was ne- 
 cessary for him to do. "Nothing more (replied the officer) than 
 as soon as you have drunk off the draught, to walk about till you 
 find your legs grow weary, and afterwards to lie down upon your 
 bed." He took the cup without any emotion, or change in his 
 colour or countenance, and regarding the man with a steady and 
 assured look, "Well (said he) what say you of this drink: may 
 one make a libation out of it ?" upon being told, there was only 
 enough for one dose, '* At least, (continued he) we may say our 
 prayers to the gods, as it is our duty, and implore them to make 
 our exit from this world, and our last stage happy, which is what I 
 most earnestly beg of them." After having spoken these words, 
 ve kept silence for some time, and then drank oft'the whole draught 
 with an amazing tranquillity and serenity of aspect, not to beex- 
 pressed or conceived. 
 
 Till then his friends, with great violence to themselves, had re- 
 frained from tears ; but after he had drunk the potion, they were 
 no longer their own masters, and wept abundantly. Apollodorus, 
 who had been in tears during almost the whole conversation, began 
 then to raise great cries, and to lament with such excessive grief, 
 as pierced the hearts of all that were present. Socrates alone re- 
 mained unmoved, and even reproved his friends, though with his 
 usual mildness and good nature. " What are you doing ? (said he 
 to them) Oil ! what is become of your virtue ! Was it not for this 
 I sent away the women, that they might not fall into these weak- 
 nesses ? I have always heard you say, that we ought to die peacea- 
 bly, and blessing- the gods. Be at ease, I beg you, and show more 
 constancy and resolution." He then obliged them to restrain their 
 tears. 
 
 In the mean time he kept walking to and fro ; and when he found 
 his legs grow r weary, he laid down upon his bed, as he had been 
 directed. The poison then operated more and more. When So- 
 crates found it began to gain upon the heart, uncovering his ftice t 
 which had been covered, without doubt, to prevent any thing t'r<m 
 disiutbing him in his last moments, " Crito, (said he) we^owe a 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 41 
 
 cock to jEsculapius : discharge that vow for me, and pray do not 
 forget it." Soon after this he breathed his last. Crito went to his 
 body, and closed his mouth and" eyes. Such was the end of Socra- 
 tes, in the first year of the ninety -fifth Olympiad, and in the seven- 
 tieth of his age. 
 
 It was not till some time after the death of this great man, that 
 the people of Athens perceived their mistake, and began to repent 
 of it. Their hatred being satisfied, their prejudices expired, and 
 time having given them an opportunity for reflection, the notorious 
 injustice of the sentence appeared in all its horrors. Nothing 
 was heard throughout the city but discourses in favour of Socrates. 
 The Academy, the L.ycscum, private houses, public walks, and 
 market-places, seemed still to re-echo the sound of his loved voice. 
 " Here (said they) he formed our youth, and taught our children to 
 love their country, and to honour their parents. In this place he 
 gave us his admirable lessons, and sometimes made us seasonable 
 reproaches, to engage us more warmly in the pursuit of virtue. 
 Alas! how have we rewarded him for such important services'.'* 
 Athens was in universal mourning and consternation. The schools 
 were shut up, and all exercises suspended. His accusers were 
 called to account for the innocent blood they had caused to be 
 shed : Meiitus was condemned to die, and the rest banished. Plu- 
 tarch observes, that all those, who had any share in this black ca- 
 lumny were held in such abomination among the citizens, that no 
 one would give them fire, answer them any question, nor go into 
 the same bath with them ; and they had the place cleaned where 
 they had bathed, lest they should be polluted by touching it, which 
 drove them into such despair, that many of them killed themselves. 
 The Athenians, not contented with having punished his accusers, 
 caused a statue of brass to be erected to him, of the workmanship 
 of the celebrated Lysippus, who placed it in one of the most con- 
 spicuous parts of the city. Their respect and gratitude rose even 
 to a religious veneration : they dedicated a chapel to him, as to a 
 hero and demi-god, which they called the chapel of Socrates. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Athenians had hitherto taken the lead in the Grecian states ; 
 but tiie Spartans, who had completely conquered them, became 
 their masters, and sunk them into obscurity. 
 
 At this period, Agesilaus, who was chosen king of Sparta, was 
 sen* into Asia with an army, under pretence of freeing the Grecian 
 cities. He gained a signal victory over the Persian general Tis- 
 saphernes, near the river Pactolus, where he forced the enemy's 
 camp, and found considerable plunder. Tins success induced the 
 Persian monarch, instead of meeting Agesilaus openly in the field, 
 to subvert his interest among the Grecian states by the power of 
 
42 HISTORY OP THE 
 
 bribery; and indeed this confederacy was now so weakened, its 
 ooncord and unanimity so totally destroyed, that they were open to 
 every offer. The love of money was now rooted in their affections, 
 and the Spartans were the only people thai, for a while, seemed to 
 disdain it; but the contagion still spreading, even they at last yield- 
 ed to its allurements, and every man sought private emolument 
 without attending to the good of his country. 
 
 The Spartans, however, being freed from the terror of foreign 
 enemies, proceeded to spread terror among the petty states of 
 Greece, whom they compelled to pay obedience to their will. — 
 These proceedings of the Spartans, however, gave birth to a pow- 
 erful confederacy against them ; and, through a succession of en- 
 gagements, both by sea and land, the Spartans grew every day 
 weaker, and their enemies more daring. 
 
 It soon began to appear, that the Thebans, one of the states of 
 Greece, lately oppressed by the Spartans, were growing into pow- 
 er ; and, while Sparta and Athens were weakening each other by 
 mutual contests, this state, which had enjoyed all the emoluments, 
 without any of the expenses of the war, was every day growing 
 more vigorous and independent. The Thebans, who now began 
 to take the lead in the affairs of Greece, were naturally a hardy 
 and robust people, of slow intellects, and strong constitutions. It 
 was a constant maxim with them, to side either with Athens 
 or Sparta in their mutual contests, and which soever they in- 
 clined to, they were generally of weight enough to turn the bal- 
 ance. However, they had hitherto made no other use of that 
 weight than to secure themselves ; but the spirit which now ap- 
 peared among them was first implanted by Pelopidas, their deliv- 
 erer fiom the" Spartan yoke ; but still further carried to its utmost 
 height by Epaminondas, who now began to figure in the affairs of 
 Greece. 
 
 Epaminondas was one of those few exalted characters, who have 
 scarce any vice, and almost every virtue to distinguish them from 
 the rest of mankind. Though in the beginning, possessed of eve- 
 ry quality necessary for the service of the state, he chose to lead 
 a private life, employed in the study of philosophy, and showing 
 an example of the most rigid observance of all its doctrines. Truly 
 a philosopher, and poor out of taste, he despised riches, without 
 affecting any reputation from that contempt; and, if Justin may 
 be credited, he coveted glory as little as he did money. It was 
 always against his will that commands were conferred upon him; 
 and he behaved himself, when invested with them, in such a man- 
 ner as did more honour to dignities, then dignities did to him. 
 Fond of leisure, which he devoted to the study of philosophy, Ire 
 shunned public employments, and made no interest but to be ex- 
 cluded from them. His moderation concealed him so well that 
 he lived obscure and almost unknown. His merit, however, dis- 
 covered him at last. He was taken from his solitude by force, to 
 be placed at the head of armies ; and he demonstrated, that phi- 
 losophy, though generally held in contempt with those who aspire 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 43 
 
 at the glory of arms, is wonderfully useful in forming heroes ; for 
 it was, in his opinion, a great advance towards conquering an ene- 
 my, to know how to conquer ourselves. 
 
 Such was ihe general appointed to command the Thehan army, 
 and act in conjunction with Pelopidas. The Thebans, being left 
 out in the general treaty of peace, and thus having the Spartans 
 and Athenians against them, they appeared under the utmost con- 
 sternation, and all Greece looked upon them as lost and undone. 
 Nothing now remained on both sides but to prepare for action. 
 Epaminondas immediately raised all the troops he could, and be- 
 gan his march : but his army did not amount to six thousand men, 
 while the enemy had above four times that number. 
 
 The two armies met at Leuctra, and drew- up on a plain. Cle- 
 ombrotus was upon the right, at the head of a body consisting 
 of Lacedxmonians, in whom he confided most, and whose files 
 were twelve deep, to take the advantage, which his superiority of 
 horse gave him in an open country. Archidamus, the son of Age- 
 silaus, was at the head of the allies, who formed the left wing. 
 • Epaminondas, who resolved to charge with his left, which he 
 commanded in person, strengthened it with the choice of his heavy 
 armed troops, whom he drew up fifty deep ; the sacred battalion 
 was upon his left, and closed the wing ; the rest of his infantry 
 were posted upon his right, in an oblique line, which, the farther 
 it extended, was the more distant from the enemy. By this un- 
 common disposition, his design was to cover his flank on the right ; 
 to keep off his right wing, as a kind of reserved body, that he 
 might not hazard the event of the battle upon the weakest part of 
 his army. He was assured that, if he could penetrate the Lace- 
 demonian phalanx, the rest of the army would soon be put to the 
 rout. 
 
 The action began with the cavalry. As the Thebans were bet- 
 ter mounted, and braver troops than the Lacedaemonian horse, the 
 latter were not long before they were broken, and driven upon the 
 infantry, which they put into some confusion. Epaminondas follow- 
 ing his horse close, marched swiftly up to Cleombrotus, and fell 
 upon his phalanx with all the weight of his heavy battalion. The 
 latter, to make a diversion, detached a b' dy of troops, with orders 
 to take Epaminondas in Hank, and to surround him. Pelopidas, 
 upon sight of that movement, advanced with incredible speed and 
 boldness, at the head of the sacred battalion, to prevent the ene- 
 my's design, and flanked Cleombrotus himself, who, by that sud- 
 den and anexpected attack, was put into disorder. The battle 
 was very fierce and obstinate ; and, whilst Cleombrotus could act, 
 the victory continued in suspense, and declared for neither party. 
 But when he fell dead with his wounds, the Thebans, to complete 
 the victory, and the Lacedxmonians, to avoid the shame of aban- 
 doning the body ot their king, redoubled their efforts, and a great 
 slaughter ensued on both sides. The Spartans fought with so 
 much fury about the body, that at length they gained their point, 
 and carried it off". Animated by so glorious an advantage, they 
 
44 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 proposed to return to the charge, which would; perhaps, have 
 proved successful, had the allies seconded their ardour; but the 
 left wing, seeing the Lacedaemonian phalanx broken, and believ- 
 ing all lost, especially when they heard that the king was dead, 
 took to flight, and drew off' the rest of the army. Epaminondas 
 followed them vigorously, and killed a great number in the pur- 
 suit. The Thebans remained masters of the field of battle, erected 
 a trophy, and permitted the enemy to bury their dead. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians had never received such a blow : the most 
 bloody defeat, till then, had scarce ever cost them more than four or 
 five hundred of their citizens ; here they lost four thousand iron, of 
 whom one thousand were Lacedaemonians, and four hundred Spar- 
 tans, out of flpven hundred who were in the battle. The Thebans 
 had only three hundred men killed, among whom were fonr of 
 their citizens. 
 
 So great a victory was followed with instantaneous effects : num- 
 bers of the Grecian states, who had hitherto remained neuter, now 
 declared in favour of the conquerors, and encrcnsed their army to 
 the amount of 70,000 men. Epaminondas entered Laconia with an 
 army, the twelfth part of which were not Thebans ; and finding a 
 country hitherto untouched by an enemy, he ran through it with 
 fire and sword, destroying and plundering, as far as the river Eu- 
 rotas. 
 
 In the mean time, the SpartanB, struck with consternation at 
 their late defeat, applied to the Athenians for succour, who, after 
 some hesitation, determined to assist them with all their forces; 
 and a slight advantage the Spartans had gained over the Thebans, 
 in which they did not lose a man, gave a promising dawn of suc- 
 cess. The war was then carried on with unabating vigour on both 
 sides. The Theban troops were headed by their favourite general 
 Epaminondas ; those of Sparta by Agesilaus, the only man in 
 Greece that was then able to oppose him. 
 
 Epaminondas, having failed in an attack upon Sparta, was re- 
 solved, before he laid down his command, which was now nearly 
 expiring, to endeavour to effect something that might compensate 
 for his failure. In order to protect Sparta, Agesilaus had with- 
 drawn all the troops from Mantinea ; thither, therefore, Epami- 
 nondas resolved to bend his course. Being determined to attack 
 the town, he dispatched a troop of horse to view its situation, and 
 to clear the fields of stragglers ; but just before they had reached 
 Mantinea, an army of six thousand Athenian auxiliaries arrived 
 by sea, who, without taking any refreshment to their men or horses 
 rushed out without the city, and attacked and defeated the Theban 
 horse. In the m«an time, Epaminondas was advancing with his 
 whole army, with the enemy close upon his rear. Finding it im- 
 possible to accomplish his purpose, before he would be overtaken, 
 he determined to halt and give them battle. He had now got within 
 a short way of the town, which has had the honour of giving its 
 name to the conflict of that day — a conflict, the most splendid and 
 best contested, that ever figured in the history of any country. 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 45 
 
 The Greeks had never fought among themselves with more nu- 
 merous armies: the Lacedaemonians consisted of more than twenty 
 thousand foot, and two thousand horse ; the Thebans, of thirty thou- 
 sand foot, and three thousand horse. The Theban general marched 
 in the same order of battle, in which he intended to fight, that he 
 might not be obliged, when he came up with the enemy, to lose in 
 disposing of his army, a precious time that cannot be recovered. 
 
 He did not march directly, and with his front to the enemy, but 
 in a column upon the bills, with his left wing foremost, as if he did 
 not intend to fight that day. When he was opposite to them, at 
 a quarter of a league's distance, he made the troops halt, and lay 
 down their arms, as if he designed to encamp there. The enemy 
 in effect, were deceived by his stand; and, reckoning no longer 
 upon a battle, they quitted their arms, dispersed themselves about 
 the camp, and suffered that ardour to be extinguished, which a near 
 approach of a battle is- accustomed to kindle in the hearts of sol- 
 diers. 
 
 Epaminondas, however, by suddenly wheeling his troops to the 
 right, having changed his columninto a line, and having drawn out 
 the choice troops, whom he had in his march posted in front, made 
 them double their files upon the front of his left wing, to add to its 
 strength, and to put it into a condition to attack in point the Lace- 
 daemonian phalanx, which, by the movement he had made, faced it 
 directly. He ordered the centre and rigUt wing of his army to 
 move very slowly, and to halt before they came up with lite enemy, 
 that he might not hazard the event of the battle upon troops, ci* 
 whom he had no great opinion. 
 
 He expected to decide the victory by that body of chosen troops, 
 which he commanded in person, and which he had formed into a 
 column to attack the enemy in a wedge-like point. He had per- 
 suaded himself, that if he could penetrate the Lacedaemonian 
 phalanx, in which the enemy's principal force consisted, he should 
 not find it difficult to rout the rest of the army, by charging upon 
 the right and left with his victorious troops. After having dis- 
 posed his whole army in this manner, he moved on to charge the 
 enemy with the whole weight of his column. Thev wevc- strangely 
 surprised when they saw Epaminondas advance to them in this 
 order, and resumed their arms, bridled their horses, and made all 
 the haste they could to their ranks. 
 
 Whi'st Epaminondas marched against the enemy, the cavalry that 
 covered his flank, on the left, the best at that time in Greece, en- 
 tirely composed of Thebans and Thessalians, had orders to attack 
 the enemy's horse. The Theban general, whom italhiog escaped, 
 had artfully bestowed bowmen in the intervals of his horse, in or- 
 der to begin the disorders of the enemy's cavalry , !>y a previous dis- 
 charge of a shower of arrows, stones, and javelins ufron them The 
 other army had neglected to take the same precaution: and had 
 been guilty of another fault, not less considerable, in giving as much 
 dentil to the squadrons as if they had been a phalanx. By these 
 means, their horse were incapable of supporting long the charge of 
 
46 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the Thebans ; and, after having made several ineffectual attacks 
 with great loss, they were obliged to retire behind their infantry. 
 
 Epaminondas, in the mean time, with his body of foot, had 
 charged the Lacedaemonian phalanx. The troops fought on b.<th 
 sides with incredible ardour, both the Thebans and Lacedaemonians 
 being resolved to perish, rather than yield the glory of aims to 
 their rivals. They began with fighting- their spears; bin these 
 being soon broken in the fury of the combat, they charged each 
 other with sword in hand The resistance was equally obstinate, 
 and the slaughter was very great on both sides. The troops des- 
 pising danger, and desiring only to distinguish themselves by the 
 greatness of their actions, chose rather to die in their ranks, than 
 to lose a step of their ground. 
 
 The furious slaughter on both sides having continued a great 
 while, without the victory inclining to either, Epaminondas, to 
 force it to declare for him, thought it his duty to make an extraor- 
 dinary effort in person, without regard to the danger of his own 
 life. He formed, therefore, a troop of the bravest and most de- 
 terminate about him; and, putting himself at the head of them, 
 made a vigorous charge upon the enemy, where the battle was 
 most warm, and wounded the Lacedaemonian general with the 
 first javelin he threw. The troops, by his example, having wound- 
 ed or killed all that stood in their way, broke and penetrated the 
 phalanx. The Lacedaemonians dismayed by the presence of Epa- 
 minondas, and overpowered by the weight of that intrepid party, 
 were reduced to give ground. The gross of the Theban troops, 
 animated by their general's example and success, drove back the 
 enemy upon his right and left and made great slaughter of them. 
 But some of the Spartan troops, perceiving that Epaminondas aban- 
 doned himself too much to his ardour, suddenly tallied and return- 
 ing to the fight, charged him with a shower of javelins. Whilst he 
 kept off part of those darts, shunned some of them, fenced off oth- 
 ers, and was lighting with the most heroic valour, to assure the 
 victory to his army, a Spartan, named Callicrates, gave him a mor- 
 tal wound with a javelin in his breast, across his cuiras. The wood 
 of the javelin being broken off, and the iron head continuing in the 
 wound, the torment was unsupportable, and he fell immediately. 
 The battle begun around him with new fury, the one side using 
 their utmost endeavours to take him alive, and the other to save 
 him. The Thebans gained their point at last, and carried him off, 
 after having put the enemy to flight. 
 
 After several different movements, and alternate losses and dis- 
 advantages, the troops on both sides stood still, and rested upon 
 their arms ; when the trumpets of the two armies, as if by consent, 
 sounded the retreat at the same time. E:;ch party pretended to the 
 victory, and erected a trophy ; the Thebans, because they had de- 
 feated the right wing, and remained masters of the field of battle ; 
 and the A'henians, because they had rut the general's detachment 
 in pieces. — From this point of honour, both sides at first refused to 
 ask leave to bury their dead, which, with the ancients, was confess- 
 
GRECIAN STATE.?. 47 
 
 ing their defeat. The Lacedaemonians, however, sent to demand 
 that permission ; after which, the rest, had no thoughts, but of pay- 
 ing the last duties to the slain. 
 
 In the mean time, Epaminondas had been carried into the camp. 
 The surgeons, after having examined ihe wound, declared, that he 
 would expire as soon as the head of the dart was drawn out of it. 
 These words gave all that were present the utmost sorrow and af- 
 fliction, who were incogs- lable on seeing s<> great a man on the 
 point of death. For him, the only concern he expressed was about 
 his arms, and the fate of the battle. When they showed him his 
 shield, and assured him, that the Thebans had gained the victory, 
 turning towards his friends wi'h a serene and calm air, " All then 
 is well," said he ; and soon after, upon drawing the head of the 
 javelin out of his body, he expired in the arms of victory, 
 
 As the glory of Thebes rose with Epaminondas, so it fell with 
 him ; and he is perhaps, the only instance of one man being able 
 to inspire his country with military glory, and lead it to conquest, 
 without having had a predecessor, or leaving an imitator of his 
 example 
 
 The battle of Mantinea was the greatest that was ever fought by 
 Grecians against Grecians, the whole strength of the country be- 
 ing drawn out, and ranged according to their different interests; 
 and it was fought with an obstinacy equal to the importance of it, 
 which was the fixing the empire of Greece, which must of course 
 have been transferred to the Thebans, upon their victory, if they 
 had not lost the fruits of it by the death of their genera!, who was 
 the soul of all their counsels and designs. This blasted all their 
 hopes, and put out their sudden blaze of power almost as soon as 
 it was kindled. However, they did not presently give up their 
 pretensions; they were still ranked among the leading states, and 
 made several further struggles ; but they were faint and ineffee- 
 tual, and such as were rather for lite and being, than for superiori- 
 ty and dominion. A peace, therefore, was proposed, which was 
 ratified by all the states of Greece except Sparta: the conditions 
 of which were, that every state should maintain what they possess- 
 ed, and hold it independent of any other power. A state of repose 
 followed this peace, in which the Grecian powers seemed to slacken 
 from their former animosities, and there was little done for several 
 years following. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 During these transactions, a power was growing up in Greece, 
 hitherto unobserved, but now too conspicuous and formidable to 
 be overlooked in the general picture : this was that of fhe Mace- 
 donians ; a people hitherto obscure, and in a manner barbar.iis; 
 and who, though warlike and courageous, had never yet presumed 
 
48 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 to intermeddle in the affairs of Greece. Now several circum- 
 stances concurred to raise them from that obscurity, and to involve 
 them in measures, which, by degrees, wrought a thorough change 
 in the state of Greece. 
 
 This state began to make a figure about the beginning of the 
 ninety-sixth Olympiad. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 
 who 'had been the pupil of Epaminondas, was no sooner become 
 king of Macedon, than he began to distinguish himself. He suc- 
 ceeded in every thing he undertook, by the artfulness of his ad- 
 dress, and the force of his eloquence, of which hewas a great 
 master, — He first gained the affections of his subjects, then train- 
 ed and exercised them, and reformed their discipline. It was at 
 this time he instituted the famous Macedonian phalanx, which did 
 so much execution. It was an improvement upon the ancient man- 
 ner of fighting among the Grecians, who generally drew up their 
 foot so close, as to stand the shock of the enemy without being 
 broken. The complete phalanx was thought to contain above six- 
 teen thousand men"; but this of Philip's invention is described by 
 Polybius to be an oblong figure, consisting of eight thousand pike- 
 men, sixteen deep, and five hundred in front, the men standing so 
 close together, that the pikes of the fifth rank were extended three 
 feet beyond the line of the front. The rest, whose distance from 
 the front rendered their pikes useless, rested them upon the shoul- 
 ders of those who stood before them, and so locking them together 
 in file, pressed forward to support and push on the former ranks, 
 whereby the assault was rendered more violent and irresistible. 
 
 Philip having, by some means or other, set the Greeks to quar- 
 relling among themselves, thought it his interest to remain neuter 
 in the commotions he had partly occasioned. It was consistent 
 with the ambitious policy of this prince to be intent only upon his 
 own interest, and not to engage in a war, by which he could reap 
 not the least benefit ; and to take advantage of a juncture, in which 
 all Greece, employed and divided by a great war, gave him an op- 
 portunity to extend his frontiers, and push his conquests without 
 any apprehensions of opposition. He was also well pleased to see 
 both pa- ties weaken and consume each other, as he should thereby 
 be enabled to fall upon them afterwards to greater advantage. 
 
 Phihp, as soon as his son Alexander was born, lost no time in 
 acquainting Aristotle of what had happened He wrote to that 
 distinguished philosopher, in terms the most polite and flattering ; 
 begging of him to come and undertake his education, and to be- 
 stow on him those useful lessons of magnanimity and virtue, which 
 every great man ought to possess, and which his numerous avoca- 
 tions rendered impossible to be attempted by h*m He added, •« I 
 return thanks to the Gods, not so much for having given me a son, 
 as for having given him to me in the age in which Aristotle lives." 
 
 Though brevity will not permit us to follow every me»h<>d Philip 
 took to enslave all Greece, yet we must not omit to mention a cir- 
 cumstance that happened at the siege of Metbone, where Philip 
 lost one of his eyes in a very singular manner. Aster of Amphi- 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 49 
 
 polis had offered his services to Philip, telling him, that he was so 
 excellent a marksman, that he could bring" down birds in their 
 most rapid flight. The monarch made this answer : «• Well, I will 
 take you inio my service, when 1 make war upon starlings ;" which 
 answer stung the archer to the quick. A repartee proves often 
 of fatal consequence to him who makes it. Aster, having thrown 
 himself into toe city, let fly an arrow, on which was written, " To 
 Philip's left eye." This earned a most cruel proof that he was a 
 good marksman, for he hit him in the right eye; and Philip sent 
 him back the same arrow, with this inscription, «' H Philip takes 
 the city, he will hang up Aster ;" a»d accordingly he was as good 
 as his word. A skilful surgeon drew the arrow out of Philip's eye 
 with so much art and dexterity, that not the least scar remained ; 
 and though he could not save his eye, yet he took away the blemish. 
 
 The hasty strides Philip was now making towards enslaving all 
 Greece, particularly attracted the attention of Demosthenes,' who 
 roused the Athenians from their lethargy of pleasure. This cele- 
 brated orator saw, from the beginning, the ambition of Philip, and 
 the power, of which he was possessed to carry him through his 
 designs. This illustrious orator and statesman was born in the 
 last year of the ninety-ninth Olympiad. He was the son of an emi- 
 nent Athenian citizen, who raised a considerable fortune by the 
 manufacture of arms. At the age of seven years, he lost his fa- 
 ther; and, to add to this misfortune, the guardians, to whom he 
 was intrusted, wasted and embezzled a considerable part of Ids 
 inheritance. Thus oppressed by fraud, and discouraged by a weak 
 and effeminate habit of body, he yet discovered an early ambition 
 to distinguish himself as a popular speaker. His first essay was 
 made against his guardian, by whom he had been so injuriously 
 treated; but the goodness of his cause was here of more service 
 than the abilites of the young orator: for his early attempts were 
 unpromising. He twice afterwards attempted to harangue the 
 people; but he succeeded so badly, that they even hissed him, 
 when he went away ashamed, confounded, and quite in despair. 
 
 After a length of time, however, after proper instructions, and 
 unwearied application, he appeared again in public, and succeeded 
 so well, that people flocked from all parts of Greece to hear him. 
 From thence he was looked upon as the standard of true eloquence, 
 insomuch that none of his countrymen have been put in comparison 
 with him, nor even among the Romans, any but Cicero. His elo- 
 quence was grave and austere, like his temper; masculine and sub- 
 lime, bold, forcible, and impetuous ; abounding with metaphors, 
 apostrophes, and interrogations, which, with his solemn way of in- 
 voking and appealing to the gods, the planets, the elements, and 
 the manes of those who fell at Salamis and Marathon, had such a 
 ■wonderful effect upon his hearers, that they thought him inspired. 
 But Demosthenes could not have made such impressions on them, 
 if his talent of speaking had not been supported by their opinion of 
 his integrity. It was that which added weight and emphasis to 
 everything he said, and animated the whole; it was that which 
 
50 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 chiefly engaged their attention, and determined their counsels, 
 when they were convinced lie spoke from his heart, and had no in- 
 terest to manage but that of the community. Of this he gave the 
 strongest proof in his zeal against Philip, who said he was of more 
 weight against him than all the fleets and armies of the Athenians, 
 and that he had no enemy but Demosthenes. He was not wanting 
 in his endeavours to corrupt him, as he had done most of the lead- 
 ing men in Greece ; but this great orator withstood all his efforts ; 
 and as it was observed, all the gold in Macedon could not bribe 
 him. 
 
 Though Philip's public character was by no means a credit to 
 him, yet the following act of private justice does him honour. A 
 oertain soldier in the Macedonian army had, in many instances, 
 distinguished himself by extraordinary acts of valour, and had re- 
 ceived many marks of Philip's favour and approbation. On some 
 occasion, he embarked on board a vessel, which was wrecked in a 
 violent storm, he himself cast on the shore helpless and naked, and 
 scarcely with the appearance of life. A Macedonian, whose lands 
 were contiguous to the sea, came opportunely to be witness of his 
 distress, and, with all humane and charitable tenderness, flew to the 
 relief of the unhappy stranger. He bore him to his house, laid 
 him on his own bed, revived, cherished, comforted, and for forty 
 days supplied him freely with all the necessaries and conveniences, 
 which his languishing condition could require. Tfc* soldier, thus 
 happily rescued from death, was incessant in the warmest expres- 
 sions of gratitude to his benefactor, assured him of his interest 
 with the king, and of his power and resolution of obtaining for hirn&j 
 from the royal bounty, the noble return which such extraordin 
 benevolence had merited. He was now completely recovered, and 
 his kind host supplied him with money to pursue his journey. 
 
 Some time after, the soldier presented himself before the king ; 
 lie recounted his misfortunes, magnified his services, and having 
 looked with an eye of envy on the possessions of the man who had 
 preserved his life, was now so abandoned to every sense of grati- 
 tude, as to request the king to bestow upon him the house and 
 lands where he had been so kindly and tenderly entertained. Unhap- 
 pily, Philip, without examination, inconsiderately and precipitately 
 granted his infamous request. The soldier now returned to his 
 preserver, repaid his goodness by driving him from his settlement, 
 and taking immediate possession of all the fruits of his honest in- 
 dustry. The poor man, stung with this instance of unpatelleled 
 ingratitude and insensibility, boldly determined, instead of sub- 
 mitting to his wrongs, to seek relief; and, in a letter addressed to 
 Philip, represented his own and the soldier's conduct, in a lively 
 and affecting manner. The king was instantly fired with indigna- 
 tion, and ordered that justice should be dune without delay, that 
 the possessions should be immediately restored to the man, whose 
 charitable offices had been thus horribly repaid ; and, having seized 
 the soldier, caused these words to he branded on his forehead, 
 *■* The Ungrateful Guest :" a character infamous in "every age, and 
 
GRECIAN STATE-. 51 
 
 among 1 all nations ; but particularly among- the Greeks, who, from 
 the earliest times, were most scrupulously observant of the laws 
 of hospitality. 
 
 Philip, having proved unsuccessful in his attacks on the Grecian 
 States, marched against Atheas k'uxr ofScythia, from whom he 
 had received some personal cause of discontent, and took his son 
 Alexander with him in this expedition. Though the Scythians had 
 a very numerous army, he defeated them without any difficulty. 
 He got a very great booty, which consisted not in gold or silver, 
 the use of which the Scythians were not as yet- so unhappy as to 
 know, but in cattle, in horses, and in a great number of women 
 and children. 
 
 At his return from Scythia, the Triballi, a people of Mcesia, 
 disputed the pass with him, laying claim to part of die plunder he 
 was carrying off. Philip was forced to come to a battle ; and a 
 very bloody one was fought, in which great numbers on each side 
 were killed upon the spot. The king himself was wounded in the 
 thigh, and, with the same thrust, hud his horse killed under him. 
 Alexander flew to his father's aid, and, covering him with his 
 shield, killed or put to flight all who attacked him. 
 
 The ambition of Philip would not lo>ig suffer him to remain in- 
 active. Not daring openly to attack the Athenians, he endeavour- 
 ed, underhand, to create new disturbances in Greece, that he might 
 take such a part in them as would best answer his views; and 
 when the flame should be kindled, his point was to appear rather 
 to be called in as an assistant, than to act as a principal. 
 
 However, the mask was soon thrown off: the Thebans and 
 Athenians soon joined their forces, and waited the approach of 
 Philip, who was leading his army to the plain of Chrcronea : a name 
 rendered famous by the event of this important contest. Philip's 
 army was formed of thirty-two thousand men, warlike, disciplined, 
 and long inured to the toils and dangers of the field ; but this body 
 was composed of different nations and countries, who had each, 
 their distinct and separate views and interests. The army of the 
 confederates did not amount to thirty thousand complete, of which 
 the Athenians and Thebans furnished the greater part; the rest 
 was formed of the Corinthians and 1'eloponnesians ; but the same 
 motives, and the same zeal, influenced and animated them. All 
 were equally afiected by the event, and all equally resolved to con- 
 quer, or die in defence of their liberty. 
 
 The fatal morning now arrived, which was for ever to decide the 
 cause of liberty, and the empire of Greece. Before the rising of 
 the sun, both armies were ranged in order of battle. The Thebans, 
 commanded by Theogenes, a man of but moderate abilities in war, 
 and suspected of corruption, obtained the post of honour on the 
 right wing of the confederate Greeks, with that famous body in 
 the front, called the Sacred Band, formed of generous and warlike 
 youths, connected and endeared to each other by all the nnble en- 
 thusiasm of love and friendship. The centre was formed of the 
 Corinthians and Peloponnesians, and the Athenians composed the 
 
 5 * 
 
52 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 left wing", led by (heir generals Lysicles and Chares. On the left 
 of the Macedonian army stood Alexander, at the head of a chosen 
 body of noble Macedonians, supported by the famous cavalry of 
 Thessaly. As this prince was then but nineteen years old, his fa- 
 ther was careful to curb his youthful impetuosity, and to direct his 
 valour, and for this purpose surrounded him with a number of ex- 
 perienced officers. In the centre were placed those Greeks wiio 
 had united with Philip, and on whose courage he had the least de- 
 pendence ; while the king himself commanded on the right wing, 
 where his renowned phalanx stood, to oppose the impetuosity, with 
 which the Athenians were well known to begin their onset. 
 
 The charge begun on each side with all the courage and vio- 
 lence, which ambition, revenge, the lore of glory, and the love of 
 liberty, could excite in the several combatants. Alexander, at the 
 head of the Macedonian nobles, with all the fury of youthful cour- 
 age, first fell on the Sacred Band of Thebes, which sustained his 
 attack with a bravery and vigour worthy of its former fame. The 
 gallant youths who composed this body, not being timely, or not 
 duly supported by their countrymen, bore tip for a while against 
 the torrent of the enemy; till at length oppressed and overpower- 
 ed by superior numbers, without yielding or turning their backs on 
 their assailants, they sunk down on that ground where they had 
 been originally stationed, each by the side of his darling friend, 
 raising up a bulwark by their bodies against the progress of the 
 enemy. The young Alexander and his forces, in all the enthusi- 
 astic ardour of valour, animated by success, pushed on through all 
 the carntge, over all the heaps of slain, and fell furiously on the 
 main body of the Thebans, where they were opposed with obstinate 
 and deliberate courage; and the contest was, for some time, sup- 
 ported with mutual violence. 
 
 At the same time, the Athenians, on the right wing, fought with 
 a spirit and intrepidity worthy of the character wliichihey boasted, 
 and of the cause by which they were animated."$*JB»ny brave ef- 
 forts were exerted on each side, and success w^ppr some time 
 doubtful ; till at length, part of the cenire, and the left wing of the 
 Macedonians, except the phalanx, yielded to the impetuous atta||k 
 of the Athenians, and fled with some precipitation. Happy had it 
 been on that day for Greece, if the conduct and abilities of the 
 Grecian generals had been equal to the valour of their soldiers ; 
 but these brave champions of liberty were led on by the despica- 
 ble creatures of intrigue and cabal. Transported by the advantage 
 now obtained, the presumptuous Lysicles cried out, " Come on, 
 my gallant countrymen, the victory is ours : let us pursue these 
 cowards, and drive them to Macedon." Thus, instead of improv- 
 ing the happy opportunity, by charging the phalanx in flank, and 
 so breaking that formidable body, the Athenians wildly and pre- 
 cipitately pressed forward, in pursuit of the flying enemy, them- 
 selves in all the disorder and tumult of a rout. 
 
 Philip saw 'his fatal error with all the contempt of a skilful gen- 
 eral, and the secret exultation arising from the assurance of ap- 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 53 
 
 proachir.g victory. He coolly observed to the officers that stood 
 round him, that the Athenians knew not how to conquer. He or- 
 dered the phalanx to change its position, and, by a sudden evolu- 
 tion, to gain possession of an adjacent eminence. From thence 
 they marched deliberately down, firm and collected, and fell, with 
 their united force, on the Athenians, now confident of success, and 
 blind to their danger. The shock was irresistible, they were at 
 once overwhelmed, many of them lay crushed by the weight of the 
 enemy, and expiring by their wounds ; while the rest escaped from 
 the dreadful slaughter by a shameful and precipitate flight, bear- 
 ing down, and hurrying away with them, those troops that had 
 been stationed for their support. Now Demosthenes, that renown- 
 ed orator and statesman, whose noble sentiments and spirited har- 
 rangues had raised the courage on this day so eminently excited, 
 betrayed that weakness which has sullied his great character. He 
 alone, of all his countrymen, advanced to the charge cold and dis- 
 mayed ; and, on the very first appearance of a reverse of fortune, in 
 an agony of terror, turned his back, cast away that shield, which he 
 had adorned with this inscription in golden characters, "To Good 
 Fortune," and appeared the foremost in the general rout. The ridi- 
 cule a:ul malice of his enemies related, or perhaps invented, another 
 shameful circumstance ; being impeded in his flight by some bram- 
 bles, his imagination was so possessed by the presence of an enemy, 
 I e loudly cried out for quarter. 
 
 While Philip was thus triumphant on his side, Alexander con- 
 tinued the- conflict on the other wing, and at length broke the 
 rhebans, in spite of all their acts of valour, who now fled from the 
 field, and were pursued with great carnage. The centre of the 
 confederates was thus totally abandoned to the fury of a victorious 
 enemy. But slaughter enough had been already made ; more than 
 one thousand of the Athenians lay dead on the field of battle, two 
 thousand were made prisoners, and the loss of the Thebans was 
 not inferior. Philip, therefore, determined to conclude his im- 
 portant. victory by an act of apparent clemency, which his ambition 
 and policy really dictated He gave orders that the Greeks should 
 be spared, conscious of his own designs, and still expecting to ap- 
 pear in the field the head and leader of that body, which he had 
 now completely conquered. 
 
 This defeat was attributed chiefly to the ill conduct of the gen- 
 erals Lysicles and Chares; the former whereof the Athenians put 
 to death at the instance of a judge, named Lycurgus, who had 
 great credit and influence with the people, but was a severe judge, 
 and a most bitter accuser. «• You, Lysicles, (said he) were gen- 
 eral of the army ; a thousand citizens were slain, and two thousand 
 taken prisoners ; a trophy has been erected to the dishonour of this 
 city, and all Greece is enslaved. Y<ui had 'lu> command when all 
 these things happened ; and yet you dare to live, to view the light 
 of the sun, and blush not to appear publicly in the forum : you, Ly- 
 sicles, who are born the monument of your country's shame !" It 
 does not appear that Chares underwent any kind of persecution 
 
54 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 for his share of this action ; though, according to his general char- 
 acter, he deserved it more than his colleague ; he had no talent 
 for command, and was very little different from a common soldier, 
 Timotheus said of him, that, "instead of being a general, he was 
 fitter to carry the general's baggage." 
 
 After the battle of Chxronea, such orators as opposed Demos- 
 thenes, having all risen up in concert against him, and having cited 
 him to take his trial according to law, the people not only declared 
 him innocent of the several accusations laid to his charge, but con- 
 ferred on him additional honours. 
 
 Philip, however, did not long enjoy the fruits of his conquests 
 in Greece. Pausanias, a young Macedonian nobleman, having re- 
 ceived a most shameful insult from Attilus, a relation of Philip's, 
 he applied to the monarch for redress ; but not being able to oh- 
 tain it, he resolved on the destruction of Philip. Pausanias chose 
 the morning in which was to be a grand prt or the execu- 
 
 tion of his' revenge on the prince, who had denied reparation to 
 his injured honour. His design had been for some time premedi- 
 tated, and now was the dreadful moment of effecting it. As Phi- 
 lip marched on in all his pride and pomp, this young Macedonian 
 slipped through the crowd, and, with a desperate and revwigeful 
 resolution, waited his approach in a narrow passage, just at the en- 
 trance into the theatre. ' The king advanced towards him, Pau- 
 sanias drew his poniard, plunged it into his heart, and the con- 
 queror of Greece, and the terror of Asia, fell prostrate to the 
 ground, and instantly expired. 
 
 The murderer flew towards the gates of the city, where there 
 stood horses to favour his escape, which Olympias, Philip's wife, 
 is said to have prepared. Here it should be observed, that Philip 
 had disgraced Olympias, for her bad and disagreeable temper, and 
 had taken Cleopatra to his bed. The tumult and confusion was 
 such as might be expected from so fatal an event: some of the 
 Macedonians crowded round the fallen king with officious and in- 
 effectual care, while others pursued Pausanias. Among these 
 were Perdiccas, Attalus, and Leonatus, who coming up with him 
 just as he was preparing to remount his horse, from which he had 
 been thrown by his foot' tangling in a vine, fell upon him and des- 
 patched him. His body was immediately hung on a gibbet ; 
 but, in the morning, it appeared crowned with a golden dii 
 the only means by which Olympias could express her implacable 
 resentment. In a few days, indeed, she took a further occasion of 
 publishing her triumph and exultation in her husband's fall, by 
 paying the same funeral honours to Pausanias, which were prepared 
 for Philip : both bodies were burnt on the same pile, and the ashes 
 of both deposited in the same tomb. She is even said to- have pre- 
 vailed on the Macedonians to pay annual honours to Pausanias ; as 
 if she feared, that the share she had taken in the death of Philip 
 should not be sufficiently known to the world. She consecrated 
 to Apollo the dagger, which had been the instrument of the fatal 
 deed, inscribed with the name Myrtalis, the name which she had 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 borne when their loves first began. Tims died Philip, whose vir- 
 tues and vices were directed and proportioned to his ambition. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 In the year of the world 3648, and 356 before the birth of Christ, 
 Alexander the son of Philip, ascended the throne of Macedon, and 
 look possession of a kingdom rendered flourishing and powerful 
 by the policy of the preceding reign. Alexander, upon his acces- 
 sion to the throne, saw himself surrounded with extreme dangers : 
 the barbarous nations, with whom Philip contended during his 
 whole reign, thought this change for their advantage ; and, des- 
 pising the youth and inexperience of the young monarch, resolved 
 to seize this opportunity of regaining their freedom. Nor had he 
 less to fear from the Greeks themselves, who now thought this a 
 convenient opportunity to restore their ancient form of government, 
 revenge their former injuries, and reclaim those rights they had 
 enjoyed for ages. Alexander, however, resolved to prevent their 
 machinations, and to give them no time to complete their con- 
 federacies against him. He made all possible haste to check the 
 arms of the barbarians, by marching his troops to the banks of the 
 Danube, which he crossed in one night. He defeated the king of 
 the Triballi in a great battle, made the Getx fly at his approach, 
 and subdued several other barbarous nations, some by the terror of 
 his name, and others by the force of his arms. 
 
 The first object of Alexander's ambition was the conquest of Per- 
 sia: and he now expected, that he should have leisure and oppor- 
 tunity to prepare for so great an enterprise. He was, however, soon 
 called to a new undertaking ; for the Athenians, Thebans, and La- 
 cedaemonians, united against him, hoping by the assistance of Per- 
 sia, to recover their freedom. Expedition and activity were the 
 characteristics of Alexander. Having heard of the union formed 
 against him by the Grecian States, he crossed over the craggy 
 top of Mount Ossa, to elude the Thessalonians, who had possessed 
 themselves of the defiles lying between Thessaly and Macedon ; 
 and moved on with such rapidity, that his appearance in Greece 
 gave the first news of his preparation for war. A great battle was 
 soon fought, in which the Thebans exerted themselves with a 
 bravery and ardour much above their strength ; but they were at 
 last surrounded on all sides, the greatest part of them were cut to 
 pieces, •and the city taken, plundered and destroyed. However, he 
 set at liberty the priests ; all such as had a rii» ht of hospitality with 
 the Macedonians-, the descendants of 1'indar, the famous poet, 
 who had done so much to Greece ; and such as had opposed the 
 revolt : but all the rest, in number about thirty thousand, he sold ; 
 and upwards of six thousand had been killed in battle. 
 
56 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 This dreadful example of severity towards so powerful a city as 
 Thebes, spread the terror of" his arms through all Greece, and 
 made all things give way befote him. He summoned at Corinlli 
 the assemblies of the several states and free cities of Greece, to 
 obtain from them the same supreme command against the Per- 
 sians, which had been granted to his father a little before his 
 death. No assembly ever debated 0:1 a more important subject : 
 it was the western world deliberating upon the ruin of the east, 
 and the method for executing a revenge which had been suspended 
 for more than an age. The assembly held at this time gave rise 
 to events, the relation of which will appear astonishing, and almost 
 incredible; and to revolutions, which contributed to change the 
 disposition of most things in the political world. The deliberations 
 of the assembly were short : the Spartans -were the only people 
 who ventured to remonstrate; though several others were inimi- 
 cal to the interests of the Macedonians ; but they were forced to 
 submit, and Alexander was appointed generalissimo against the 
 Persians. 
 
 Having thus far accomplished his wishes, and after having com- 
 pletely settle*' his affairs in Macedonia, he set out for Asia in the 
 beginning of the spring. His army consisted of little more than 
 thirty thousand foot, and four or Cive thousand horse ; but they were 
 ail brave men, well disciplined, and inured to fatigue. They had 
 made several campaigns under Philip, and were each of them, in 
 case of necessity, capable of commanding. Most of the officers 
 were near three-score years of age, and the common men fifty j and 
 when they were either assembled, or drawn up at the head of a 
 camp, they had the air of a venerable senate. Such was die army 
 that was to decide the fortune, not only of Greece, but of all the 
 eastern world. 
 
 When the news of Alexander's landing in Asia, without opposi- 
 tion, was brought to Darius, he testified the utmost contempt for 
 the Macedonian army, and indignation at the presumption of their 
 eral. In a letter which he wrote, he reprehended his auda- 
 cious insolence, and give orders to his various governors, in the 
 different parts of his dominions, that, if they look Alexander alive, 
 to whip him wit!) rods, make prisoners of his whole army, and 
 send them as slaves to one of the most deserted parts of his domi- 
 nions. Thus confiding in the glittering but barbarous multifude he 
 commanded, he disposed of the enemy as already vanquished ; but 
 confidence goes but a short part of the road to success. The 
 great numbers he had gathered only brought unwieldy splendour 
 into the field, and, instead of procuring him security, increased 
 his embarrassments. 
 
 Alexander, in the mean time, marched on at the head of his 
 heavy-armed infantry, drawn up in two lines, with the cavalry in 
 the wings, and the baggage following in the rear. Being arrived 
 on the banks of the Granicus, he there found the Persian horse, 
 which were very numerous, on the opposite shore, forming a large 
 front, in order to oppose Alexander, whenever he should attempt 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 57 
 
 to pass. The two armies continued a longtime in sight of each 
 other, on the banks of the river, as if dreading the event. The 
 Persians waited till the Macedonians should enter the river, in 
 order to charge them to advantage upon their landing; and the 
 latter seemed to be making choice of a place proper for landing. 
 
 At last Alexander ordered his horse to be brought, commanded 
 the noblemen oi' the court to follow him and behave gallantly. He 
 himself commanded the right wing, and Parmenio the left. The 
 king first caused a strong detachment to march into the river, 
 himself following it with the rest of the forces. He made Parme- 
 nio advance afterwards with the left wing,- the trumpet sounding, 
 and the whole army raising cries of joy. The Persians, seeing 
 this detachment advance forward, began to let fly their arrows, 
 and march to a place where the declivity was not so great, in or- 
 der to keep the Macedonians from landing. But now tlie horse 
 engaged with great fury, one part endeavouring to land, and 
 the other striving to prevent them. The Macedonians, whose 
 cavalry were inferior in number, besides the disadvantage of the 
 ground, were wounded with the darts that were shot from the emi- 
 nence; not to mention, that the flower of the Persian horse were 
 drawn together in this place. The Macedonians, therefore, -at 
 first gave ground, after having lost the first ranks, which made a 
 vigorous defence. Alexander, who closely followed them, rein- 
 forced them with his best troops, headed them himself, animated 
 them by his presence, pushed the Persians, and routed them ; up- 
 on which the whole army followed after, crossed the river, and at- 
 tacked the enemy on all sides. 
 
 Spithobates, lieutenant-governor of Ionia, and son-in-law to 
 Darius, distinguished himself above the rest of the Persian gene- 
 rals by his superior bravery. Being surrounded by forty Persian 
 lords, all of them his relations, of experienced valour, and who 
 never moved from his side, he carried terror wherever he went. 
 Alexander observing in how gallant a manner he signalized him- 
 self, clapt spurs to his horse, and advanced towards him. They 
 immediately engaged, and. each having thrown a javelin, wounded 
 the other slightly. Spithobates fell furiously sword in hand upon 
 Alexander, who, being prepared for him, thrust his pike into his 
 face, and laid him dead at his feet. At that very moment Rhosa- 
 ces, brother to that nobleman, charging him on the side, gave him 
 so furious a blow on the head with a battle-axe that he beat off his 
 plume, but went no deeper than the hair. As he was going to 
 repeat his blow on the head, which now appeared through his 
 fractured helmet, Cli'us cut off Rhosaces's hand with one stroke of 
 his scimitar, and thereby saved his sovereign's life. The danger 
 to which Alexander had been exposed, greatly animated the cour- 
 age of his soldiers, who now performed wonders. The Persians 
 in the centre of 'he horse, upon wh«>m the light-armed troops, who 
 had been posted in the intervals of ilie horse, poured a per etual 
 discharge of darts, being un;<ble any lonper to sustain the attack 
 oi the Macedonians, who struck them all in the tace, the two 
 
58 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 ■wings were immediately broken, and put to flight. Alexander 
 did not iong pursue them, but. immediately turned about to charge 
 the foot. These at first stood their ground; but when they saw 
 themselves attacked at the same time by the cavalry and the Mace- 
 donian phalanx winch had crossed the river, and that the battal- 
 ions were now engaged, those of the Persians did not make either 
 a long or a vigorous defence, and were soon put to fhghi ; but the 
 Grecian infantry in Darius'a service stood the shock This body 
 of foot retiring to a lull, demanded a promise from Alexander to 
 let them march away unmolested ; but following the dictates of 
 Ins wrath, rather than those of bis reason he rushed into the midst 
 of this body of loot, and presently lost his horse, which was killed 
 by the thrust of a sword. The battle was so hoi round him, that 
 most of the Macedonians, who lost their lives on this occasion, fell 
 here ; for they fought against a body of nun, who were well dis- 
 ciplined, had been inured to war, and fought in despair. They 
 were ail cut to pieces, except two thousand, who were taken pris- 
 oners. 
 
 In this b ittle twenty thousand foot, and two thousand five hun- 
 dred horse, were killed on the side of the barbarians: and of the 
 Macedonians, twenty five of the royal horse were killed on the 
 first attack Alexander ordered Lysippus to make their statues 
 in brass, all of which were set up in a city rf Macedon, called Dia, 
 from whence they were many years afterwards carried to R..me 
 by Mclellus. About three-score of the other horse were killed, 
 and near thirty foot, who, the next day, were all laid with their 
 arms and equipage m one grave ; and the king granted an exemp- 
 tion to their fathers and children from every kind of tribute and 
 service. This victory not only impressed the Persians with con- 
 sternation, but served to excite the ardour of the invading army. 
 
 Soon af'er the battle of Granicus, he recovered Sardis from the 
 enemy, which was in a manner the bulwark of the barbarian em- 
 pire. Four days after, he arrived at Ephesus, carrying with him 
 those who had been banished from thence for being his adherents, 
 and restored its popular form of government. 
 
 Alexander afterwards took Miletus, and demolished Halicar- 
 nassus to the very foundation. He next restored Ada, queen of Ca- 
 ria, to her kingdom, of which she had been dispossessed some 
 time before ; and as a testimony of the deep sense she had of 
 the' favours received from Alexander, she sent him every flay meats 
 dressed in the most exquisite manner, and the most excellent cooks 
 of every kind. Alexander answered the queen upon this occasion, 
 that all this train was of no service to him; for that he was pos- 
 sessed of much better cooks, whom Leonidas his governor had 
 given him ; oi^e of whom prepared him a good dinner, and the 
 other an excellent supper : these were Temperance and Exer- 
 cise. 
 
 He soon afterwards marched into Phrygia, the ancient dominion 
 of the celebrated king Midas. Having taken the capital city, he 
 was desirous of seeing the famous ch?"iot, to which the Gordian 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 63 
 
 knot was lied. This knot, which fastened (lie )oke to the beam, 
 was tied with so much intricacy, that it was impossible to discover 
 where the ends begun, or how they were concealed. According to 
 an ancient tradition of the country, an oracle had foretold, that the 
 man who could untie it should possess the empire of Asia. Alex- 
 ander being firmly persuaded that the oracle was meant for him, 
 after many fruitless trials, instead of attempting to untie it in the 
 usual manner, drew his sword, and cut it into pieces, crying out, 
 such was the only way to untie it. The priest hailed the omen, 
 and declared that Alexander fulfilled the oracle. 
 
 Darius having been employed, for a long time, in collecting a 
 numerous army to oppose Alexander, advanced towards the river 
 Euphrates. Over his tent was exhibited, to the view of the whole 
 army, the image of the sun in je\vels,while wealth and magnificence 
 shone in every quarter of the army. First they carried silver altars 
 on which lay fire, called by them Sacked and Eternal ; and these 
 were followed by the Magi, singing hymns, after the manner of their 
 country. They were accompanied by three hundred and sixty-five 
 youths, equalling the number of days in a year, clothed in purple 
 robes. Afterwards came a chariot consecrated to Jupiter, drawn 
 by white horses, and followed by a courser of prodigious size, to 
 whom they gave the name of the Sun's Morse ; and the equerries 
 were dressed in white, each having a golden rod in his hand. 
 
 Ten chariots, adorned with sculptures of gold and silver, follow- 
 ed afterwards. Then marched a body of horse,. composed of twelve 
 nations, whose manners and customs were various, and all armed 
 in a different manner. Next advanced those, whom the Persians 
 called The Immortals* amounting to ten thousand, who surpassed 
 the rest of the barbarians in the sumptuousness of their apparel. 
 They all wore golden collars, were clothed in robes of gold tissue, 
 with vestments having sleeves to them, quite covered with pre- 
 cious stones. Thirty paces from them followed those called the 
 king's relations, to the number of fifteen thousand, in habits very 
 much resembling those of women, and more remarkable for the 
 vain pomp of their dress, than the glitter of their arms. Those 
 called the Doryphori came afterwards : they carried the king's 
 cloak, and walked before the chariot, in which he seemed to sit as on 
 a high throne. This chariot was enriched on both sides with iroa-. 
 ges of the gods,, in gold and silver; and from the middle of the 
 yoke, which was covered with jewels, rose two slatues/a cuh*Tm 
 height, the one representing war, the other peace, having a p 
 eagle between them, with wings extended, as ready to take fngbji. 
 But nothing could equal the magnificence ttf the king; he was 
 clothed in a vest of purple, striped with silver, and over it hung a 
 long robe, glittering all over with gold and precious stones, that 
 represented two falcons, rushing from the clouds, and pecking at 
 one another. Around his waist he wore a golden girdle, after the 
 manner of women, whence his scimitar hung, the scabbard of 
 which flamed all over with gems. On his head he wore a tiara or 
 mitre, round which was a fillet of blue mixed with white. On each 
 
 G 
 
60 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 side of him walked two hundred of his nearest relations, whose 
 pikes were adorned with silver, and tipped with gold; and lastly, 
 thirty thousand infantry, who composed the rear guard. These 
 were followed by the king's horses, four hundred in number, all 
 which were led. 
 
 About one hundred paces from thence, came Sysigambis, the 
 mother of Darius, seated on a chariot, and his consort on another, 
 with the several female attendants of both queens riding on horse- 
 back. Afterwards came fifteen large chariots, in which were the 
 king's children, and those who had the care of their education, with 
 a band of eunuchs. Then marched the concubines, to the number 
 of three hundred and sixty, in the equipage of queens, followed by 
 six hundred mules, and three hundred camels, which carried the 
 king's treasure, and guarded by a great body of archers. After 
 these came the wives of the crown-officers, and of the greatest 
 lords of the court ; then the sutlers and servants of the army seat- 
 ed also in chariots. In the rear were a body of light-armed troops, 
 with their commanders, who closed the whole march. 
 
 Such was the splendour of this pageant monarch : he took the 
 field encumbered with an unnecessary train of concubines, attend- 
 ed with troops of various nations, speaking different languages; 
 from their numbers impossible to be marshalled, and so rich and 
 effeminate in gold and in garments, as seemed rather to invite than 
 deter an enemy. 
 
 CHAPTER LY. 
 
 Alexander, as frequently happens to the greatest captains, 
 felt some emotions, when he saw that he was going to hazard all 
 at once. The more fortune had favoured him hitherto, the more he 
 now dreaded her frowns: the moment was approaching, which 
 was to determine his fate. On the other side, his courage revived 
 from the reflection, that the reward of his toils exceeded the dan- 
 gers of them ; and, though he was uncertain with regard to the 
 victory, he at least hoped to die gloriously, and like Alexander. — 
 However, he did not divulge these thoughts to any one, well know- 
 ing, that, upon the approach of a battle, a general ought not to 
 discover the least marks of sadness or perplexity, and that the 
 troops should read nothing but resolution and intrepidity in the 
 countenance of their commander. 
 
 Having made his soldiers refresh themselves, and ordered them 
 to be ready by three o'clock in the morning, he went to the top of 
 a mountain, and there, by torch light, sacrificed, after the manner 
 of his country, to the gods of the place. As soon as the signal was 
 given, his army, which was ready to march and fight, arrived by 
 day break at the several posts assigned them. But the spies now 
 bringing word that Daritt9 was not above thirty furlongs from them, 
 
GRECIAN STATES. Gl 
 
 the king caused his army to bait, and then drew it up in battle ar- 
 ray. The peasants, in the greatest (error, came also, and ac- 
 quainted Darius with the arrival of the enemy, which he would not 
 at first believe, imagining that Alexander fled before him, and was 
 endeavouring to escape. This news threw his troops into the ut- 
 most confusion, who, in their surprise, ran to their arms with great 
 precipitation and disorder. 
 
 The spot where the battle was fought, lay near the city of Issus, 
 which the mountains bounded on one side, and the sea on the other. 
 The plain that was situated between them both must haVe been 
 considerably broad, as the two armies encamped in it. The river 
 Pinarus ran through the middle of this plain, from the mountain 
 to the sea, and divided it very nearly into two equal parts. The 
 mountains formed a hollow kind of gulf, the extremity of which, in 
 a curved line, bounded part of the plain. 
 
 Alexander ha;l at first advanced very slowly, to prevent the ranks 
 on the front of the phalanx from breaking, and halted by intervals ; 
 but when he was within bow-shot, he commanded all his right 
 wing to plunge impetuously into the river, purposely that he might 
 surprise the barbarians, come sooner to a close engagement, and be 
 less exposed to the enemy's arrows ; in all which he was very suc- 
 cessful. Both sides fought with the utmost bravery and resolu- 
 tion ; and, being now forced to fight close, they charged both sides 
 sword in hand, when a dreadful slaughter ensued, each engaging 
 man to man. Alexander wished nothing so ardently as to kill 
 with his own hand Darius, who, being seated on a high chariot, 
 was conspicuous to the whole army. Oxalhres, brother to Darius, 
 observing that Alexander was going to charge that monarch with 
 the utmost vigour, rushed before his chariot with the horse under 
 his command, and distinguished himself above the rest. The 
 horses that drew Darius's chariot lost all command, and shook the 
 yoke so violently, that they were upon the point of overturning the 
 king, who, seeing himself going to fall alive into the hands of his 
 enemies, leaped down and mounted another chariot. The rest, 
 observing this, fled as fast as possible, and throwing down their 
 arms, made the best of their way. Darius, the instant he saw his 
 left wing broken, was one of the first who fled in his chariot ; but 
 getting afterwards into craggy rugged places, he mounted on 
 horseback, throwing down his bow, shield, and rojal mantle. Alex- 
 ander, however, did not attempt to pursue him, till he saw his 
 phalanx had conquered the Greeks who obstinately opposed them, 
 and that the Persian horse were put to flight ; which proved of 
 great advantage to the prince that fled. In this battle, sixty thou- 
 sand of the Persian infantry, and ten thousand horsemen, were 
 slain ; while of Alexander's army, there fell but two hundred and 
 eighty in all. 
 
 Sysigambis, Darius's mother, and that monarch's queen, were 
 found remaining in the camp, with two of the king's daughters, his 
 son, yet a child, and some Persian ladies; for the rest had been 
 carried to Damascus, with pat^ of Darius's treasure, and all such 
 
6- HISTORY OF THE 
 
 things as contributed only to the luxury and magnificence of his 
 court. No more than three thousand talents were found in his 
 camp ; but the rest of the treasure fell afterwards into the hands 
 of Parmenio, at the taking of the city of Damascus. 
 
 The next day, Alexander visited the royal prisoners; and his 
 noble and generous behaviour on this occasion, has caused Plutarch 
 to say, that " the princesses of Persia lived in an enemy's camp, 
 as if they had been in some sacred temple, unseen, unapproached 
 and unmolested." Sysigambis was distinguished by extraordinary 
 marks of Alexander's favour: Darius himself could not ha^e 
 treated her with more respect than did that generous prince. He 
 allowed her to regulate the funerals of all the Persians of the royal 
 family, who had fallen in battle ; and, through her intercession, he 
 pardoned several of Darius's nobles, who had justly incurred his 
 displeasure. This magnanimous conduct has done more honour 
 to Alexander's character, than all his splendid conquests. The 
 gentleness of his manners to his suppliant captives, his chastity and 
 continence, when he had the power to enforce obedience, were 
 setting an example to heroes, which it has been the pride of many 
 since to imitate. 
 
 After this conquest, all Phoenicia, the capital city Tyre, only ex- 
 cepted, was yielded to the conqueror. Good fortune followed 
 him so fast, that it rewarded him beyond his expectations, Anti- 
 gonus, his general in Asia, overthrew the Capadocians, Paphla- 
 gonians, and others lately revolted. Aristomenes, the Persian 
 admiral, was overcome at sea, and a great part of his fleet taken. 
 The city of Damascus, also, in which the treasures of Darius were 
 deposited, was given up to Alexander. 
 
 Alexander next went to Sidon, whose king, Strato, he de- 
 throned for his attachment to Darius, and permitted Hephxslicn 
 to elect in his stead, whomsoever of the Sidonians he should judge 
 worthy of so exalted a character. This favourite was quartered 
 at the house of two brothers, who were young, and of the most 
 considerable family in the city. To these he offered the crown ; 
 but they refused it, telling him, that, according to the laws of 
 their country, no person could ascend the throne unless lie were 
 of the royal blood. Hephxstion, admiring this greatness of soul, 
 which could contemn what others strive to obtain by fire and 
 sword, " Continue (said he to them) in this way of thinking, you 
 who seem sensible, that it is much more glorious to refuse than to 
 accept a diadem. However, name me some person of the royal 
 family, who may remember, when he is king, that it was you who 
 set the crown on his head." The brothers observing, that several 
 through excessive ambition, aspired to this high station, and to ob- 
 tain it paid a servile court to Alexander's favourites, declared, that 
 they did not know any person more worthy of the diadem than one 
 Abdalonimus, descended, though at a great distance, from the 
 royal family; but who, at the same time, was so poor, that he was 
 obliged to get his bread by day labour in a garden without the city. 
 His honesty and integrity had reduced him, as well as many more. 
 
GRECIAN STATES. Oo 
 
 to such extreme poverty. Solely intent upon his labour, he did not 
 hear the clashing of the arms which hail shaken all Asia. The two 
 brothers went immediately in search of Abdalonimus, with the 
 royal garment, and found him weeding in his garden. When they 
 saluted him king, Abdalonimus looked upon the whole as a dream ; 
 and, unable to guess the meaning of it, asked if they were not 
 ashamed to ridicule him in that manner. But as he made a greater 
 resistance than suited their inclinations, they themselves washed 
 him, and threw over his shoulders a purple robe richly embroid- 
 ered with gold ; then, after repeated oaths of their being in earn- 
 est, they conducted him to the palace. 
 
 Alexander commanded the new-elected prince to be sent for, 
 and after surveying him attentively a long time, he spoke thus: 
 " Thy air and mien do not contradict what is related of thy ex- 
 traction ; but I should be glad to know with what frame of mind 
 thou didst bear thy poverty." " Would to the gods (replied he) 
 that I may bear this crown with equal patience ! These hands have 
 procured me all I desired ; and whilst I possessed nothing, I want- 
 ed nothing." This answer gave Alexander a high idea of Abda- 
 lonimus's virtue ; so that he presented him, not only with the rich 
 furniture that belonged to Strato, and part of the Persian plunder, 
 but likewise annexed one of the neighbouring provinces to his do- 
 minions. 
 
 The Macedonians had already subdued Syria and Phoenicia, the 
 city of Tyre excepted. This city was justly entitled the queen of 
 the sea, that element bringing to it the tribute of all nations. She 
 boasted of having first invented navigation, and taught mankind the 
 art of braving the winds and waves by the assistance of a frail bark. 
 The happy situation of Tyre, the conveniency and extent of its 
 ports, the character of its inhabitants, who were industrious, labo- 
 rious, naticnt, and extremely courteous to strangers, invited thither 
 merchants from all parts of the globe : so that it might be consid- 
 ered, not so much a city belonging to any particular nation, as the 
 common city of all nations, and the centre of their commerce. 
 
 Alexander thought it necessary, both for his pride and his in- 
 terest, to take the city, though it was generally supposed to be im- 
 pregnable from its fortifications, and inaccessible from its situation. 
 Alexander, however, prepared for the siege, which is one of the 
 most celebrated recorded in history. After a long and obstinate 
 defence on the side of the Tyrians, and a tedious and almost 
 hopeless attack of the besiegers, Alexander took it by storm; and 
 thus fell Tyre, that had been for many ages the most flourishing 
 city in the world, and had spread the arts of commerce into the re- 
 motest regions. 
 
 6* 
 
64 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Whilst Alexander was carrying 1 on the siege of Tyre, he re- 
 ceived a second letter from Darius, in which that monarch seemed 
 more sensible of his power than before : he now gave him the title 
 of king-, and offered him ten thousand talents, as a ransom for his 
 captive mother, and wife : he offered him his daughter Statira in 
 marriage, with all the country he had conquered, as far as the river 
 Euphrates : he hinted to him the inconstancy of fortune, and des- 
 cribed at large the powers he was still possessed of to oppose. 
 
 These terms were so considerable, that, when the king debated 
 upon them in council, Parmenio, one of his generals, could not help 
 observing, that, if he were Alexander, he would agree to such a 
 proposal. To which Alexander nobly replied, " And so would I, 
 were I Parmenio." He therefore treated the proposal of Darius 
 with haughty contempt, and refused to accept of treasures which 
 he already conceived as his own. 
 
 From Tyre, Alexander marched to Jerusalem, where the Jews 
 opened their gates to receive him. From this city, he went on to 
 Gaza, where he found a more obstinate resistance than he had ex- 
 pected; but at length, taking the town by storm, and having cut 
 I lie garrison, consisting of ten thousand men, to pieces, with brutal 
 ferocity, he ordered Betis, the governor, to be brought before 
 him ; and having in vain endeavoured to intimidate him, command- 
 ed at last, that he should be bored through his heels, and be tied by 
 cords to the back of his chariot, and in this manner be dragged 
 round the walls of the city. This he did in imitation of Achilles, 
 whom Homer describes as having dragged Hector round the walls 
 of Troy in the same manner: but it was reading that poet to very 
 little advantage, to imitate this hero in the most unworthy part of 
 his character. 
 
 He then marched into Egypt, and possessed himself of the whole 
 -of it, without meeting with the least opposition. He afterwards 
 visited ihe temple of Jupiter, and caused himself to be acknow- 
 ledged by the priests as the son of* that god. Having settled his 
 affairs in Egypt, he set out to march against Darius, who was now 
 preparing to oppose him. 
 
 On his march, Statira, the wife of Darius, died in child-bed, and 
 was honoured with a funeral ceremony due to her exalted charac- 
 ter and station. The news of that melancholy event was carried 
 to Darius by Tricus, one of Statira's eunuchs, who had effected his 
 escape from the Macedonian camp. The news of Statira's death 
 overwhelmed the mind of Darius with the deepest sorrow.- but 
 when he was told of the generous manner, in which the royal cap- 
 tives had been treated, he broke out into this exclamation: "Ye 
 gods, the guardians of our birth, and who decree the fate of na- 
 tions, grant that I may be enabled to leave the Persian state rich 
 and flourishing as I found it; that I may have it in my power to make 
 
GRECIAN STATES. Q5 
 
 Alexander a proper return for his generosity to the dearest pledges 
 of my affection ! But, if the duration of this empire is near at an 
 end, and the greatness of Persia about to be forgotten, may none 
 but Alexander be permitted to sit on the throne of Cyrus !" Such 
 sentiments in a despotic prince must give a very favourable idea of 
 the liberality of his mind. 
 
 The armies of Alexander and Darius were now hastily approach- 
 ing each other, and at length met on a plain near the city of Arbela. 
 The army of Darius, consisted, at least, of six hundred thousand 
 foot, and forty thousand horse; and the other of no more than for- 
 ty thousand foot, and about eight thousand horse. The two armies 
 engaged, and the battle was obstinate and bloody ; but the Per- 
 sians were at length routed, and Darius and his army put to flight. 
 Alexander than marched for Babylon, and entered thai city in 
 triumph, being received by its inhabitants in the most magnificent 
 manner. He next took possession of Persepolis, at the head of 
 his victorious soldiers ; who, though the inhabitants made no resist- 
 ance, began to cut in pieces all those who still remained in the city. 
 However, the king soon put an end to the massacre, and forbad 
 his soldiers to commit any further violence. 
 
 Whilst Alexander was thus triumphing in all the exultation of 
 success, the wretched Darius was by this time arrived at Ecbatana, 
 the capital of Media. There remained still with this fugitive 
 prince thirty thousand foot ; among whom were four thousand 
 Greeks, who were faithful to him to the last Besides these he 
 had four thousand slingers, and upwards of three thousand Bac- 
 trian horse, whom Bessus, their governor, commanded. Darius, 
 even with so small a force, still conceived hopes of opposing his 
 rival, or at least of protracting the war ; but he was surrounded 
 with traitors, his want of'success having turned all mankind against 
 him. Nabarzanes, one of the greatest lords of Persia, and general 
 of the horse, had conspired with Bessus, general of the Bartrians, 
 to commit the blackest of all crimes ■. to seize upon the person of 
 the king, and lay him in chains, which they might easily do, as 
 each of them had a great number of soldiers under his command. 
 Their design was, if Alexander should pursue them, to secure 
 themselves by giving up Darius alive into his hands; arid, in case 
 they escaped, to murder that prince, and afterwards usurp his 
 crown, and begin a new war. These traitors soon won over the 
 troops, by representing to them, that they were going to their de- 
 struction; that they would soon be crushed under the ruin of 
 an empire, which was just ready to fall; at the same time that 
 Bactriana was open to them, and offered them immense riches. 
 These promises soon prevailed upon the perfidious army, the 
 Greek mercenaries excepted, who rejected all their proposals with 
 disdain. Darius, thus betrayed by his generals, and pursued by 
 his enemies, the Greeks solicited the honour of protecting his per- 
 son, assuring him they would so do, at the expense of the last 
 drop of their blood. But his noble spirit would not suffer htm to 
 accept the offer : •' if my own subjects (said he) will not give me 
 
66 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 protection, how can I submit to receive it from the hands of 
 strangers ? His faithful Grecian soldiers, finding- it beyond their 
 power to grant him any relief, threw themselves upon the mercy 
 of Alexander ; who, in consideration of their noble spirit, forgave 
 them, and employed them in his own service. 
 
 The traitors seized and bound their monarch in chains of gold, 
 under the appearance of honour, as he was a king ; then enclosing 
 him in a covered chariot, they set out towards Bactriana. In this 
 manner they carried him with the utmost despatch ; until being 
 informed, that the Grecian army was still closely pursuing them, 
 they found it impossible either to conciliate the friendship of Alex- 
 ander, or to secure a throne for themselves. They, therefore 
 once more gave Darius his liberty, and desired him to make the 
 best of his escape with them from the conqueror ; but he replied, 
 that the gods were ready to revenge the evils he had already suf- 
 fered ; and, appealing to Alexander for justice, refused to follow a 
 band of traitors. At these words they fell into the utmost fury, 
 wounding him with their darts and their spears, and left him to 
 linger in this manner, unattended, the remainder of his wretched 
 life. The traitors then made their escape different ways ; while 
 the victorious Macedonians at length coming up, found Darius in 
 solitude, lying in his chariot, and drawing near Ins end. How ever, 
 he had strength enough, before he died, to call for drink, which a 
 Macedonian, Polystratus by name, brought him. On this melan- 
 choly occasion, the generosity of the unfortunate monarch shone 
 forth, in the address he made to this stranger : " Now, indeed, (said 
 he) I suffer the extremity of misery, since it is not in my power to 
 reward thee for this act of humanity." He had a Persian prisoner, 
 whom he employed as his interpreter. Darius, after drinking the 
 liquor that had been given him, turned to the Macedonian, and told 
 him, that in the deplorable state to which he was reduced, he how- 
 ever should have the comfort to speak to one who could understand 
 him, and that his last words would not be lost. He therefore 
 charged him to tell Alexander, that he had died in his debt, that 
 he gave him many thanks, for the great humanity he had exercised 
 towards his mother, his wife, and his children, whose lives he had 
 not only spared, but restored to their former splendour ; that he 
 besought the gods to give victory to his arms, and make him mon- 
 arch of the universe ; that he thought he need not entreat him to 
 revenge the execrable murder committed on his person, as that 
 was the common cause of kings. After this, taking Polystratus 
 by the hand, " Give him (said he) thy hand, as 1 give thee mine ; 
 and carry him, in my name, the only pledge I am able to give of 
 my gratitude and affection." Having said these words, he breath- 
 ed his last. 
 
 Alexander coming up a moment after, and seeing Darius's body, 
 he wept bitterly ; and, by the strongest testimonies of affection 
 that could be given, proved how intimately he was affected with 
 the unhappiness of a prince who deserved better. He imme- 
 diately pulled off his military cloak, and threw it on Darius's body ; 
 
GRECIAN STATES. G7 
 
 then causing it to be embalmed, and his coffin to be adurned with 
 royal magnificence, he sent it to Sysigambis, to be interred with 
 the honours usually paid to the deceased Persian monarchs, and 
 entombed with his ancestors. Thus died Darius, in the fiftieth 
 year of his age, six of which he reigned with felicity. In him the 
 Persian empire ended, after having existed from the time of Cyrus 
 the Great, a period of 228 years. 
 
 The traitor Bessus did not escape the fate due to his crimes. 
 Alexander pursued him, to avenge on the murderer the death of his 
 royal master. After wandering, in anxiety and horror, from province 
 to province, he was delivered, by the associates of his guilt, int» 
 the hands of Alexander, by whom he was put to a cruel death. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The death of Darius only served to inflame the spirit of ambition 
 in Alexander to pursue further conquests. He crossed Parthia, 
 and arrived in the province of Hyrcania, which submitted to his 
 arms. He afterwards subdued the Mardi, the Arii, the Drangae, 
 the Arachosii, and several other nations, into which his army 
 marched with greater speed than people generally travel. He fre- 
 quently would pursue an enemy for whole days and nights together, 
 almost without Suffering his troops to lake any rest. By this pro- 
 digious rapidity, he came unawares upon nations, who thought him 
 at a great distance, and subdued them before they had time to put 
 themselves in a posture of defence. 
 
 Alexander, now enjoying a little repose, abandoned himself to 
 sensuality ; and he, whom the arms of the Persians could not con- 
 quer, fell a victim to their vices. Nothing was now to be seen but 
 games, parties of pleasure, women and excessive feasting, in which 
 he used to revel whole days and nights. Not satisfied with the 
 buffoons, and the performers on instrumental music, whom he had 
 brought with him out of Greece, he obliged the captive women, 
 whom he carried along with him, to sing songs after the manner 
 of their country. He happened, among those women, to perceive 
 one who appeared in deeper affliction than the rest, and who by a 
 modest, and at the same time a noble confusion, discovered a 
 greater reluctance than the others to appear in public. She was a 
 perfect beauty, which was very much heightened by her bash ful- 
 ness, whilst she threw her eyes to the ground, and did all in her 
 power to conceal her face. The king soon imagined, by her air 
 and mien, that she was not of vulgar birth ; and enquiring himself 
 into it, the lad" answered, that she was granddaughter to Ochus, 
 who not long before had swayed the Persian sceptre, and daughter 
 of his son ; that she had married Hystaspes, who was related to 
 Darius, and general of a great army. Alexander being touched 
 with compassion, when he heard the unhappy fate of a princess of 
 
§8 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the blood royal, and the sad condition to which she was reduced, 
 riot only gave her liberty, but returned all her possessions ; and 
 caused her husband to be sought for, in order that she might be 
 restored to him. This single act of generosity should draw a veil 
 over many of his faults. 
 
 Hitherto we have seen Alexander triumphing by a course of 
 virtue, we are now to behold him swollen up by success, spoiled 
 by flattery, and enervated by vices, exhibiting a very doubtful cha- 
 racter, and mixing the tyrant with the hero. Upon a charge of a 
 real or imaginary plot against him, he first put Phi lotas to death, 
 and afterwards the father, Parmenio, who was at the time of his 
 death seventy years of age, and had served his master with fidelity 
 and zeal, which in the end was thus rewarded. Alexander, thus 
 uniting in his person at once great cruelty and great enterprise, 
 still marched forward in search of new nations, whom he might 
 subdue. 
 
 Having subdued the Massagetce, the Dahae, and other nations, 
 he entered the province of Bazaria, from thence he advanced to 
 Maracanda, and appointed Clitus governor of that province. This 
 was an old officer, who had fought under Philip, and signalized 
 himself on many occasions. At the battie of the Granicus, as 
 Alexander was fighting bareheaded, and Rhosaces had his arm 
 raised, in order to strike him behind, Clitus covered the king with 
 his shield, and cut off the barbarian's hand. This favour, howev- 
 er, only advanced Clitus to a post of greater danger. One eve- 
 ning, at an entertainment, the king, after drinking immoderately, 
 began to celebrate his own exploits, in a manner which shocked 
 all his old generals. Clitus, who was also intoxicated, contradicted 
 Alexander in all his assertions, and sung, with an air of insolence, 
 verses reflecting highly on the prince, who seeing the general near 
 him, struck him dead with a javelin. The king had no sooner 
 murdered his faithful servant, than he perceived the atrociousness 
 of the act ; he threw himself upon the dead body, forced out the 
 javelin, and would have destroyed himself, had he not been pre- 
 vented by his guards, who seized and carried him forcibly to his 
 own apartment, where the flattery and persuasions of his friends 
 at length served to alleviate his remorse. Alexander, in order to 
 divert his melancholy, assembled his army, rod marched in pursuit 
 of new conquests. 
 
 He advanced into India, which, having never been a warlike 
 nation, he subdued with the rapidity rather of a traveller than a 
 conqueror. Numberless petty states submitted to him, sensible 
 that his stay would be short, and his conquests evanescent. Sail- 
 ing down the river Indus, and conquering every thing in his way, 
 he at last came to the country of the Oxydracx and the Malli, the 
 most valiant people in the East. However Alexander defeated 
 them in several engagements, dispossessing them of their strong 
 holds, and at last marched against their capital city, where the 
 greatest part of their forces were retired. It was upon this occa- 
 sion, that seizing a scaling ladder, himself first mounted the wall. 
 
GRECIAN" STATES. G9 
 
 followed only by two of his officers. Kis attendants believing him 
 to be in danger, mounted swiftly to succour hirn ; but the ladder 
 breaking, he was left alone. It was now that his rashness became 
 his safety ; for leaping from the wall into the city, which was crowd- 
 ed with enemies, sword in hand, he repulsed such as were nearest, 
 and even killed the general, who advanced in the throng. Thus with 
 his back to a tree that happened to be near, he received all the darts 
 of the enemy in a shield, and kept even the boldest at a distance. 
 At last, an Indian discharging an arrow of three feet long, it pierced, 
 his coat ofmail, and his right breast, and so great a quantity of blood 
 issued from the wound, that he dropped his arms, and lay as dead. 
 The Indian came to strip him, supposing him really what he ap- 
 peared ; but Alexander that instant recalled his spirits, and plung- 
 ed a dagger into his side. By this time, apart of the king's attend- 
 ants came to his succour, and forming themselves round his body, 
 till his soldiers without found means of bursting the gates, saved 
 him, and put all the inhabitants, without distinction, to the sword. 
 The wound which at first seemed dangerous, having, in the 
 space of six or seven days, assumed a more favourable appearance, 
 Alexander mounted his horse, and shewed himself to the army, 
 who seemed to view him with insatiable pleasure. Then continu- 
 ing his voyage, and subduing the country on each side, as he passed 
 along, the pilots perceived from the swell of the river that the sea 
 could not be far distant ; and they informed the king, that they 
 already felt the breezes of the ocean. Nothing so much astonished 
 the Macedonian soldiers as the ebbing and flowing of the tide. — 
 Accustomed to the gentle floods of the Mediterranean, they were 
 amazed when they saw the Indus rise to a great height, and over- 
 flow the country, which they considered as a mark of divine resent- 
 ment. They were no less terrified some hours afterwards, when 
 they saw the river forsake its banks, and leave those land* uncov- 
 ered, which it had so lately overflowed. Thus, after a voyage of 
 nine months, he at last stood upon the shore ; and after having 
 offered sacrifices to Neptune, and looked wishfully on the immense 
 expanse of waters before him, he is said to have wept for having 
 no more worlds left to conquer. Here he put an end to his excur- 
 sions ; and, having appointed Nearchus admiral of his fleet, with 
 orders to coast along the Indian shore as far as the Persian gulf, 
 he set out with his army for Babylon. 
 
 His army sustained incredible hardships on their return : pass- 
 ing through a country destitute of all sorts of provisions, they were 
 obliged to feast on the beasts of burden, and were forced to burn those 
 rich spoils, for the sake of which they had encountered so many dan- 
 gers. Those diseases also, that generally accompany famine, com- 
 pleted their calamity, and destroyed them in great numbers : but the 
 king's fortitude appeared to great advantage on this occasion. The 
 army being in absolute want of water, some soldiers were sent to 
 endeavour to find out a spring. They fortunately fell upon one ; 
 but it yielded them but a very small quantity of water. With 
 what they had gotten, the soldiers returned rejoicing to the king, 
 
70 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 who, instead of drinking it, poured it upon the ground, unwilling 
 that his soldiers should sustain a calamity, in which he refused to 
 bear a part. This generous act inspired the soldiery with fresh 
 spirits. 
 
 After a march of sixty days, they arrived in the province of Ge- 
 drosia, the fertility of which soon banished from the minds of the 
 soldiery all their former difficulties. Alexander passed through 
 the country, not in the military pomp of a conqueror, but in the 
 licentious disguise of an enthusiast: still willing to imitate Bac- 
 chus, he was drawn by eight horses, on a scaffold in the form of a 
 square stage, where he spent the days and nights in feasting. — 
 Along the roads where he passed, were placed casks of wine in 
 great abundance, and these the soldiers drained in honour of their 
 mock deity. The whole country echoed with the sound of instru- 
 ments, and the howling of bacchanals, who, with their hair dishe- 
 velled, and frantic mirth, ran up and down, abandoning themselves 
 to every kind of lewdness. This vice produced one of a much 
 more formidable nature in the king's mind ; for it always inflamed 
 his passions to cruelty, and the executioner generally crowned the 
 feast. 
 
 After various combats, conquests, cruelties, follies, and exces- 
 ses, Alexander arrived at Babylon. On his approach to the city, 
 many sinister omens were observed ; on which account the Chal- 
 deans, who pretended to foresee future events, attempted to per- 
 suade him not to enter that city. The Greek philosophers, on the 
 other hand, displayed the futility of their predictions. Babylon was 
 a theatre for him to display his glory on ; and ambassadors from all 
 the nations he had conquered were there in readiness to celebrate 
 his triumphs. After making a most magnificent entry, he gave au- 
 dience to the ambassadors with a grandeur and dignity suitable to 
 his power, yet with the affability and politeness of a private cour- 
 tier. 
 
 Alexander, finding Babylon, in extent and conveniency superior 
 to all other cities of the East, resolved to make it the seat of his 
 empire ; and for that purpose was desirable of adding to it all the 
 ornaments possible Though he was much employed in projects of 
 this kind, and in schemes beyond human power to execute, he spent 
 the greater part of his time in such pleasures as this magnificent 
 city afforded ; but his pleasures often terminated iu licentiousness 
 and riot. The recollection of the cruel manner, in which he had 
 put a period to the lives of some of his best friends and favourites 
 festered in his mind, and cast a thick gloom over his spirits ; to dis- 
 sipate which, required the application of some very powerful reme- 
 dy. The remedy, to which he had recourse, was intemperance. 
 He was, of course, frequently invited to banquets, at which he 
 drank so immoderately, as often to have no command left of him- 
 self. 
 
 On a particular occasion, having spent the whole night in a de- 
 bauch, a second was proposed : he accepted the invitation, and 
 drank to such excess, that he fell upon the floor, to appearance 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 71 
 
 dead, and in this lifeless manner was carried, a sad spectacle of 
 debauchery, to his palace. The fever continued, with some inter- 
 vals, in which he gave the necessary orders for the sailing of the 
 fleet, and the marching of his land forces, being persuaded he 
 should soon recover. But at last, finding himself past hopes, and 
 his voice beginning to fail, he gave his ring to Perdiccas, with, 
 orders to convey his corpse to the temple of Ammon. He strug- 
 gled, however, with death for some time, and raising himself upon 
 his elbow, he gave his hand to the soldiers, who pressed to kiss it. 
 Being then asked to whom he would leave his empire, he answer- 
 ed, " To the most worthy." Perdiccas inquiring at what time he 
 should pay him divine honours, he replied, " When you are hap- 
 py." With these words he expired, being thirty-two years and 
 eight months old, of which he had reigned twelve, with more for- 
 tune than virtue. 
 
 By the death of this illustrious conqueror were fulfilled many of 
 the prophecies of the sacred writers. One of them is singularly 
 striking : M The temple of Belus shall be broken down to the 
 ground, never to rise from its ruins." That the word of God 
 might stand firm, Alexander is cut off, at the very instant he is 
 preparing to rebuild that temple, and to raise Babylon to its wont- 
 ed splendour. Alexander left one son, named Hercules, who was 
 born of Barsine, the daughter of Artabazus, and widow of Mem- 
 non. Both Roxana and Statira are said to have been left pregnant. 
 
 In whatever light we view this monarch, we shall find little to 
 admire, and less to imitate. That courage, for which he was cele- 
 brated, is but a subordinate virtue ; that fortune, which con- 
 stantly attended him, was but an accidental advantage ; that dis- 
 cipline, which prevailed in his army, was produced and cultivated 
 by his father ; but his intemperance, his cruelty, his vanity, his 
 passion for useless conquests, were all his own. His victories, 
 however, served to crown the pyramid of Grecian glory ; they 
 served to show, to what a degree the arts of peace can promote 
 those of war. In this picture we view a combination of petty states, 
 by the arts of refinement, growing more than a match for the rest 
 of the world united, and leaving mankind an example of the supe- 
 riority of intellect over brutal force. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Alexander having by his last words, bequeathed his empire 
 * to the most worthy," men who had been accustomed to rule 
 with absolute power, in distant, extensive, populous, and wealthy 
 provinces, must have been highly pleased to find, that their sove- 
 reign's will threw no bar in their way to dominion or power. There 
 was one, however, who appeared to have an extraordinary claim to 
 distinction : Perdiccas, to whom Alexander, in his last moments, 
 
 7 
 
72 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 had delivered his royal signet. Possessed of merit, equal at least 
 to t'nat of his competitors, this adventitious circumstance might 
 seem to have given him a superior title to the vast object in ques- 
 tion ; but his rivals were too proud to suffer an equal to be exalted 
 above them, without throwing some embarrassment in his way ; and 
 toofond of power to bestow a title to an empire, without advancing 
 their own pretensions. Accordingly they all remonstrated, and 
 opposed Perdiccas's elevation ; and, finding that they were not 
 likely to succeed in their private schemes, by acting interestedly, 
 they resolved to overturn his, by acting justly, in supporting the 
 claims of the lawful heirs to the crown. These were Hercules, 
 the son of Alexander ; and Aridxus, Alexander's own brother. — 
 There was little or no contest about Aridxus's right to a share in 
 the sovereignty. He had been acknowledged to be insane ; and 
 that circumstance, perhaps more than his consanguinity to the 
 king, procured him an easy admission to the throne. The right of 
 Hercules was not so readily recognised ; his mother was not of 
 royal extraction : and as Alexander had always shown a preference 
 to Roxana and Statira,and had, moreover, omitted to mention Her- 
 cules in his last hours, his title was at once set aside ; but thcex- 
 clusive right to the throne was not to be granted to one person. 
 It was therefore judged proper, by all the leading men, to divide 
 the sovereignty between Aridseus and the child to be born of Rox- 
 ana, should it prove a son. This appointment was easily acceded 
 to, as the government that was naturally to be expected from it, 
 would have full scope frr the exercise of avarice and ambition. 
 This settlement being made, the various competitors for the Mace- 
 donian empire retired to their respective employments. 
 
 Roxana being delivered of a son, whom they named Alexander, 
 Olympias had been recalled to take charge of her infant grandson, 
 and to sanction the new administration of Macedon by her presence. 
 On her arrival at Macedon, she first iet loose her savage revenge 
 on Aridrcus, and his queen Eurydice. Aridaeus, the son of Philip 
 by a concubine, had from his infancy been subjected to that aver- 
 sion and hatred from Olympias, which the relatii nship that subsist- 
 ed between her and him naturally excited. The infirmity of his 
 understanding was said to have been the effect of a potion, which 
 she gave him. Cynane, the mother of Aridxus's queen, had been 
 murdered at the instigation of Olympias. Amyntas, her father, 
 the son of Philip the First's eldest brother, had also been destroyed 
 through her contrivance : so tli^t neither Aridaeus, nor Eurydice 
 his wife, could be supposed to look upon her with complacence. — 
 Indeed, they had every reason to apprehend bad consequences from 
 her getting into power, and they set themselves to provide for the 
 worst. Eurydice raised an army, and marched to meet Olympias ; 
 but on the two armies meeting, the troops of Eurydice went over to 
 the standard of Olympias, and Aridseus and bis queen fell into her 
 hands. 
 
 Olympias persecuted the royal couple with all that unrelenting 
 hatred which marked her disposition : they were confined to a 
 
GRECIAN STATES. to 
 
 prison, which was so small, that they could scarcely turn them- 
 selves in it. Their wretched sustenance was thrown in at a little 
 hole, through -which passed light and air, and all the other limited 
 comforts they were permitted to enjoy. Perceiving that this bar- 
 barous treatment had no other effect than to excite the compas- 
 sion of the people, and fearing that their commiseration would 
 soon be converted into indignation towards her, she resolved to 
 put a period to the miserable existence of her prisoners. She 
 instructed some Thracians to enter the prison, and despatch Ari- 
 cheus, which they did without remorse. He had reigned six years 
 and four months. 
 
 This inhuman action being perpetrated, Olympias sent mes- 
 sengers to the queen, furnished with a poniard, a rope, and a cup 
 of poison, desiring her to choose which she pleased. They found 
 her binding up the wounds of her bleeding spouse, with linen 
 which she had torn from her own body, and paying all that decent 
 and solemn respect to the lifeless corpse, which became her deplorg 
 able situation. She received the message that was brought to 
 her with the greatest composure ; and, after entreating the gods, 
 that Olympias might be rewarded with the like present, she took: 
 the rope, and strangled herself. Thus were that hapless pair cut 
 off. Olympias had now seen a period to the life of Aridseus, whom 
 she had long since deprived of every rational enjoyment, by rob- 
 bing him of his understanding ; and she had completed the ruin 
 of kurydice and her family, by consigning her to an end similar to 
 that, which her violent and vindictive passions had formerly pro- 
 cured to her unfortunate parents. Nor was her thirst of blood yet 
 quenched : for she caused Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, to 
 be put to death. The body of Iolas, another brother of Cassan- 
 der, which had long rested in the tomb, she had brought forth, 
 and exposed on the highway ; and a hundred Macedonians of no- 
 ble birth were seized and executed, on suspicion of having been 
 in the interest of Cassander. At last, however, the fortune of 
 war threw her into the power of Cassander, who delivered her in- 
 to the hands of those whose kindred she had murdered, and who 
 thereupon cut her throat. 
 
 The furious contentions that now subsisted among the ambitious 
 surviving captains of Alexander, deluged Greece in blood, and 
 brought on the most unnatural murders. Besides those horrid and 
 unnatural scenes we have already described, Roxana and her son 
 Alexander were imprisoned, and treated wit!) contempt ; and Her- 
 cules, the son of Alexander by Barsine, the only remaining branch 
 of the royal family, was murdered about two years after. Not 
 more than twenty-eight years had elapsed since the death of Alex- 
 ander, and not a single branch of his house remained to enjoy a 
 portion of that empire, which Philip and his son had acquired at 
 the price of the greatest policy, dangers, and bloodshed. Such, 
 to the royal family of Macedon, were the effects of that ambi- 
 tion, which had lighted the torch of war over Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa. 
 
74 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 Among the last kings of Macedon, was Philip, son of Demetri- 
 us. He had two sons, Perseus and Demetrius ; the former of" 
 which accused the latter of a design to assassinate the king-, who 
 retiring into the inner apartment of his palace, with two of his 
 nobles, sat in solemn judgment on his two sons, being under the 
 agonizing necessity, whether the charge should be proved or dis- 
 approved, of finding one of them guilty. Perseus took care to 
 procure such evidence against his brother, as might not fail of 
 convicting him, and Demetrius was accordingly put to death. — 
 Philip, when too late, discovered that he had been imposed upon 
 by a forgery, and died of a broken heart. He was succeeded by 
 his son Perseus, who, some time after, was taken prisoner by the 
 Romans, led in triumph through the streets of Rome, and then 
 thrown into a dungeon, where he starved himself to death. 
 
 The fatal dissention among the Grecian chiefs exposed them to 
 the inroads of every neighbouring power. The Romans, after the 
 defeat of Perseus, established a new form of government in Ma- 
 cedon. The whole kingdom was divided into four districts ; the 
 inhabitants of each were to have no connexion, intermarriage, or 
 exchange of possessions, with those of the other districts ; and, 
 among other regulations tending to reduce them to a state of the 
 most abject slavery, they were inhibited from the use of arms, 
 unless in such places as were exposed to the incursions of the bar- 
 barians. Triumphal games at Amphipolis, to which ail the neigh- 
 bouring nations, both Europeans and Asiatics, were invited, an- 
 nounced the extended dominion of Rome, and the humiliation not 
 only of Macedon, but of all Greece ; for the Romans now found 
 nothing in that part of the world that was able to oppose them. 
 
 Greece, now sunk in that mass of nations which composed the 
 Roman empire, had lost every vestige of national existence ; and, 
 while she was excluded from all participation in the prosperity of 
 her conquerors, she shared deeply in their misfortunes. The 
 civil war of Rome drenched Greece with blood ; and, when that 
 war was concluded, whoever had not appeared on the side of the 
 victor, was considered as his enemy. Greece, in common with 
 the other Roman provinces, had suffered many oppressions under 
 the emperors, and from the repeated invasions of barbarians, 
 when the accession of Constantine the Great to the Imperial 
 throne seemed to promise to the Grecian annals a new a:ra of glory, 
 and some comforts for their past misfortunes. 
 
 The hopes of Greece, however, were even here disappointed ; for 
 Constantine, by dividing his dominions among his three son?, in- 
 volved the empire in the flames of civil war; and his son Julian, 
 who at last prevailed, overturned every tiling his father had done. 
 He was unable to protect the public prosperity, undermined by 
 the despotism of a military government, and a general pusillani- 
 mity of manners. These invited attacks on the empire on every 
 side. Julian was forced to yield a considerable territory to the 
 Persian monarch. In Britain, the Roman ramparts were oppos- 
 ed in vain to the hardv valour of the north ; even the legionary 
 
GRECIAN STATES. 75 
 
 troops had been found unable to sustain the shocks of the uncon- 
 quered Caledonians. The German tribes renewed their inroads 
 into Gaul ; Africa rebelled, and a spirit of discontent and insurrec- 
 tion began to appear among the barbarian tribes on the Danube.— 
 In the reign of the Emperor Valens, the Huns, a new tribe of bar- 
 barians, in manners and aspect more horrid than any that had yet 
 appeared on the Roman frontiers, plundered and drove from their 
 settlements, the Gothic tribes on the further side of the Danube, 
 Gratian, nephew and heir to Valens, shared the empire with The- 
 odosius, whom the calamities of the times raised to the possession 
 of the whole. The abilities and personal valour of this prince 
 bestowed on the empire an appearance of vigour during his 
 reign ; but his sons Arcadius and Honorius, between whom he 
 divided the empire, brought up in the bosom of a luxurious pal- 
 ace, and sunk in effeminacy, were unequal to the task of govern- 
 ing an empire weakened by division. The reign of Honorius 
 concluded the Roman empire in the East. Alaric, the Gothic 
 chief, who, twenty-five years before, deemed it an honour to bear 
 arms on the side of the empire, was adorned with the imperial 
 purple. Augustulus the last Roman who was graced with impe- 
 rial dignity at Rome, was compelled to abdicate the Western em- 
 pire by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, about the year of Christ 475. 
 
 Amidst the calamities which attended and followed this revolu- 
 tion, Greece saw her magnificent cities laid in ruins, her numer- 
 ous towns levelled with the ground, and those monuments of her 
 glory, which had hitherto escaped barbarian outrage, defaced and 
 overthrown ; while the wretched descendants of men, who bless- 
 ed the nations with science and art, were either enslaved by 
 the invaders, or led into captivity, or slaughtered by the swords of 
 barbarians. Without inhabitants, or cultivation, and buried as it 
 were in ruins, Greece was too insignificant to be an object of ambi- 
 tion, and left to the possession of any of the rovers of those days, 
 who chose to make a temporary settlement in that desolated coun- 
 try. Constantinople itself, during the greater part of this gloomy 
 period, retained little more than a shadow of greatness. The 
 chief inhabitants were those families who, during the incursions of 
 the barbarians, had made their escape to the mountains. Such was 
 the state of Greece, with little variation, from the Gothic invasion, 
 to the final overthrow of the Eastern empire by the Ottoman arms, 
 in the year of the Christian sera one thousand four hundred and 
 fifty-three. 
 
 However, even in the midst of war, devastation and slavery, 
 Greece continued long to be the seat of philosophy and the fine 
 arts. Whatever conjecture may be formed concerning the advance- 
 ment of science in India and in Egypt, it is certain, that Greece 
 was the country which enlightened, exalted, and adorned the rest of 
 Europe, and set an example of whatever is beautiful and great It 
 was the genius of Greece that formed those very politicians and 
 heroes, who first bent her lofty spirit under the yoke of foreign 
 dominion. It was in Thebes, under the tuition of Epaminonda!?, 
 
 7* 
 
76 HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES* 
 
 that her heroes were trained to a love of glory, and of all ihose arts 
 and accomplishments of both peace and war, by which it is best at- 
 tained. It was a Grecian philosopher who taught Alexander how 
 to manage the passions, and govern the minds of men; while the 
 writings of Homer, by a most powerful contagion, inspired his mind 
 with contempt of danger and death in the pursuit of glory. As the 
 light of Greece illuminated her Macedonian, so it spread over her 
 Koman conquerors. Philosophy, literature, and arts, began to fol- 
 low glory and empire to Rome in the times of Sylla and Lucullus, 
 and, in their progress, drew to different schools every man of 
 rank and fashion in Italy. Wealth, luxury, and corruption, and at 
 last tyranny, banished it from Rome ; but while it lasted, it made 
 up, in some degree, for the want of liberty : if it were unable 
 to resist oppressive power, it sustained the mind in the midst of 
 sufferings. Even in the worst of times, when the Roman empire 
 was in the last period cf its decline, amidst the ruins of the an- 
 cient world, distracted by internal divisions, and torn to pieces 
 by the incursions of barbarous nations from the east, north, and 
 south, a succession of ingenious, learned, and contemplative minds, 
 transmitted the sacred light of truth (which, like the sun, though 
 eclipsed or obscured, never deserts the world) from one age to 
 another. 
 
 The modern Greeks, without the least political importance, and 
 sunk in slavery to a military government, retain but little of their 
 original character. The gradations, by which that character faded 
 away, are clearly discernible in their history, and present to the 
 attentive eye a speculation of great curiosity and importance. The 
 relaxation of manners gradually undermined the political institu- 
 tions of the leading states of Greece, and the complete subversion 
 of these, reacting on manners, accelerated the declination of vir- 
 tue. Simplicity, modesty, temperance, sincerity, and good faith, 
 fied first : the last of the virtues that took its flight, was military 
 valour. 
 
 END OF THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 
 
 OF THE PRINCIPAL OCCURRENCES AND EVENTS DURING 
 THE EXISTENCE OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 N. B. The figures at the end of the lines refer to the Date of the Events 
 before the Birth of Christ. 
 
 Foundation of the kindom of Athens by Cecrops 
 
 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece 
 
 Troy taken by the Greeks .... 
 
 The kingdom of Lacedemon begins » 
 
 Homer, according to Arund. Marb. flourished 
 
 Hesiod, contemporary with Homer, flourished 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom of Macedon 
 
 Beginning of the common xra of the Olympiad 
 
 Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, born 
 
 Draco, legislator of Athens 
 
 Solon, and the other sages of Greece, lived about 
 
 Pythagoras born about - 
 
 Simonides, the celebrated poet, born about 
 
 Pisistratus makes himself master of Athens 
 
 Death of Pisistratus - 
 
 Heraclitus, chief of the sect that bears his name, flourished 
 
 Battle of Marathon .... 
 
 Death of Miltiades - 
 
 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius 
 
 Xerxes sets out to make war against the Greeks 
 
 Battle of Thermopylae .... 
 
 Battle of Salamis, and Xerxes' retreat into Persia 
 
 Battle of* Platsea ..... 
 
 Pindar, the celebrated poet, flourished about 
 
 Sophocles and Euripides appeared in Greece about 
 
 The Persians defeated by the Greeks, and their fleet taken, 
 
 near the mouth of the river Eurymedon 
 Birth of Socrates ..... 
 Xerxes killed by Artabanus, the captain of his guard 
 Birth of X( nophon - . . » 
 
 End of the war between the Greeks and the Persians, which 
 
 had continued fifty-one years 
 Alcibiades appears in the war between the Corinthians and 
 
 the people of Corcyra .... 
 
 Before J. C. 
 1556 
 1493 
 1184 
 1104 
 907 
 870 
 814 
 776 
 640 
 624 
 604 
 568 
 560 
 560 
 527 
 5U0 
 490 
 488 
 486 
 480 
 480 
 480 
 479 
 476 
 473 
 
 470 
 470 
 465 
 450 
 
 449 
 
 439 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Beginning' of the Peloponnessian war, which lasted twenty- 
 seven years - - - - 431 
 A ternble plague raged at Athens - - 430 
 Death of Pericles - 428 
 Lysander makes himself master of Athens, and establishes 
 
 the Thirty Tyrants - - - 404 
 
 Death of Socrates . 401 
 
 Birth of Aristotle, founder of the Peripatetics - 384 
 
 Birth of Philp, king of Macedon - 383 
 
 Birth of Demosthenes - - - 382 
 
 Battle of Leuctra - 371 
 
 Bittle of Mantinea, and death of Epaminondas - 363 
 
 Philip ascends the throne of Macedon - - 360 
 
 Bit ih of Alexander the Great - - - 356 
 
 Plaio died - - - - 348 
 Battle of Cheroncea, in which Philip defeats the Athenians 
 
 and Thebans - 338 
 
 Philip declared Generalissimo of the Greeks - - 337 
 
 Death of Philip, who is succeeded by his «on Alexander 336 
 
 Thebes taken and destroyed by Alexander - . 335 
 Battle of the Granicus, followed with the conquest of almost 
 
 all Asia Minor - 334 
 
 Battle of Issus .... 333 
 
 Tyre taken by Alexander - 332 
 Alexander goes to Jerusalem, makes himself master of Gazaj 
 
 and soon after of all Egypt. Builds the city of Alexandria 332 
 
 Battle of Arbela .... 331 
 Darius seized and put in chains by Bessus, and soon after 
 
 assassinated - - . 331 
 
 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, pays a visit to Alexander 330 
 
 Bessus brought to Alexander, and soon after put to death 329 
 
 Lysippus, of Sicyon, a famous sculptor, flourished about 329 
 
 Clilus killed by Alexander at a feast - . 328 
 
 Alexander's entrance into India - . 327 
 Alexander, on his return to Babylon, dies there, at the age 
 
 of thirty-two years and eight months - . 303 
 Olympias, the mother of Alexander, causes Aridzeus, and 
 Eurydice, his wife, to be put to death, as she herself is 
 
 soon after, by order of Cassander - . 317 
 Greece reduced into a Roman Province, under the name of 
 
 the province of Achaia • .346 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Th£ principal advantage derived from the study of History, i3 
 the knowledge of men and things. We there see mankind rising 
 suddenly to the highest pitch of glory and grandeur, and in an in- 
 stant falling again into obscurity: we are there taught, that virtue 
 only is the true source of happiness ; and that, however prospe- 
 rous and triumphant vice and wickedness may be for a time, they 
 will at last sink beneatli the influence of truth and justice. 
 
 We may look upon History as the first master that children 
 should have, equally fit to amuse and instruct them, to form their 
 minds and hearts, and enrich their memories with an infinite num- 
 ber of facts as agreeable as useful. It is even very conducive, by 
 the allurement of pleasure, which is inseparable from it, to excite 
 the curiosity of that age eager to learn, and give them a taste for 
 study. It is therefore, in point of education, a fundamental prin- 
 ciple, and observed in all times, that the study of History ought to 
 go before all others, and pave the way to them. Plutarch tells us, 
 that old Cato, that celebrated Censor, whose name and virtues 
 have done so much honour to the Roman republic, and who took a 
 particular care to bring up his son, himself, without relying upon 
 the care of masters, composed purposely for him, and wrote with 
 his own hand, in large letters, entertaining pieces of history: 
 hence, said he, that child, from the lowest age, could, without 
 quitting his father's house, become acquainted with the great men 
 of his country, and found himself upon those ancient patterns of pro- 
 bity and virtue. 
 
 The age we live in, and this nation in particular, stand much in 
 need of being undeceived in an infinite number of errors, and 
 false prejudices, which almost every day increase, with respect to 
 Poverty and Itiches, Modesty and Pomp, the Simplicity of Build- 
 ings and Furniture, Costliness and Magnificence, Frugality, and 
 the refined Arts of Cookery : in a word, concerning almost every 
 thing, which makes the object of the contempt or admiration of 
 mankind. The public taste herein becomes the rule of young 
 people, who cannot but think that valuable, which is valued by all ; 
 for it is not reason, but' custom, that guides them. One bad ex- 
 ample alone would be capable of corrupting the minds of young 
 people, susceptible of every impression. Wiiat is not, therefore, 
 to be feared from them in a time, wherein vices are grown into 
 custom, and sensuality exerts her utmost endeavours to extinguish 
 all sentiments of honour and probity ? 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The chief end in the study of History is to dispel the false pre- 
 judices which seduce us, because they please us; to cure and set 
 us free from the vulgar errors, which we have gradually imbibed 
 from our infancy ; to teach us to discern the true from the false, 
 the good from the bad, and to distinguish between solid greatness 
 and vain pride. 
 
 There is no History, of what age or nation soever, which affords 
 such a variety of characters, such subjects for reflection, as that 
 of the Romans. These considerations induced me to set about the 
 following little Book, for the use of young Ladies and Gentlemen, 
 On a plan different from any thing of the kind that has yet appear. 
 ed. It cannot be expected, in so short a compass as this work is 
 comprised, that the reader will here find a regular account of all 
 the transactions of the Romans, from the building of the city to 
 the fall of that great empire. Those, who have attempted it, even 
 in works of ten limes this size, have produced little more than a. 
 Table of Names and Dates ; and this is an error, into which those, 
 who have written for young Readers, have generally fallen : this is 
 an error I shall endeavour to avoid. I shall begin the History with 
 the Foundation of Rome, and bring it down to the time of Au- 
 gustus : in the course of which, my principal aim shall be to no- 
 tice the actions of those illustrious persons, whose names will be 
 ever famous through every part of Europe, and even the remotest 
 regions of the earth, where history shall be read. Above all, the 
 young Readers must remember, if they mean to derive any advan- 
 tage from the perusal of this Utile Book, that they must read it 
 with attention, reflect niceiy on the characters they here meet with, 
 the Rewards of Virtue, and the Punishments of Vice ; they must 
 remark, by what means men became great and powerful, and how 
 they afterwards lost their credit and authority. By making such 
 reflections as these, they will soon acquire a taste for the study of 
 useful History, will become an ornament to their country, will grow 
 in love with Virtue, Honour, and Prudence, and be a comfort and a 
 blessing to their parents and friends. 
 
A NEW 
 
 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER J. 
 
 From the Foundation of Rome to the End oj the regal Government. 
 
 I he Roman empire, so inconsiderable in its beginning-, but ex- 
 tensive in its progress, (to a degree not to be equalled throughout 
 all the nations that have existed) received its foundation from Ro- 
 mulus, who was the twin brother of Remus, by their mother, a 
 Vestal virgin. Their father, according to the ignorance and super- 
 stition of those times, was the god Mars. He 'lived at firs', among 
 the shepherd* by plundering, and afterwards, at the age of eighteen, 
 founded a small city on the Palatine hill, in the year of the world 
 3251. 
 
 Romulus having funded this city, which from his own name he 
 called Rome, admitted a number of the neighbouring inhabitants 
 into the government, selected a hundred of the oldest, by whose 
 advice he might transact every thing, and named them senators, 
 on account of their age. Finding himself and people then with- 
 out wives, he invited the neighbouring states to a show of sports ; 
 and, while the Sabine virgins were fixed attentively on the sight, 
 Romulus gave the signal, when immediately the Romans carried 
 off 683 virgins, and married them. Wars ensued, in consequence 
 of this violence offered to the damsels ; but he soon conquered the 
 surrounding states. 
 
 Romulus was said to have disappeared in a tempest, which arose 
 on a sudden, in the thirty-seventh year of his reign, and, being 
 thought to have ascended to the gods, "was afterwards deified. How- 
 ever, it is more probable, that he was murdered by the senate, to 
 whom his growing tyranny was become intolerable. The senat a 
 then governed at Rome by turns, for five days each, and, under 
 their administration, a whole year was completed. 
 
 Numa Pompilius was afterwards created king, who, though he 
 did not delight in war, being engaged in none during the whole 
 course of his reign, was of no less service to the state than Ro- 
 mulus ; for he establishecrjbpth laws and customs a Ro- 
 mans, who, from a habit offighting, were now looked upon as 1 
 better' than robbers and barbarians. He divided the year, be- 
 fore undistinguished by any computation, into ten months, and 
 founded all infinite number of sacred rites and temples at Rome. 
 He died of sickness aft fourscore years of age, and was buried 
 
82 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 with great solemnity, being laid in a stone coffin, and not burnt, 
 according to the custom of the Romans. 
 
 He was succeeded in the regal authority by Tullus Hostilius, who 
 recommenced hostilities, and subdued the Albani, and other neigh- 
 bourisg nations. He enlarged Rome by the addition of mount 
 Cxlius, which was appointed for the residence of the people who 
 were brought from Alba, to whom the king granted all the Roman 
 privileges. He incorporated the Alban nobility with the senate, 
 and, after having reigned thirty-two years, perished in a conflagra- 
 tion of his own house by lightning, with his whole family ; but, 
 more probably, by the wicked conspiracies of those, whom neither 
 reason nor philosophy could influence in those barbarous ages. 
 
 After him, Ancus Martius, Numa's grandson by a daughter, took 
 upon him the government : he fought against the Latins, added the 
 Aventine mount and Janiculum to the city, built the city ofOslia 
 on the sea-shore, and died a natural death in the twenty-fourth 
 year of his reign. 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus next assumed the sovereignty; he doubled 
 the number of senators, built a Circus, and instituted the Roman 
 games; he also vanquished the Sabines, added a large portion of 
 land, which had been taken from them, to the Roman territories, 
 and was the first that entered the city in triumph. He made com- 
 mon sewers to drain the city of the filth, and carry it into the Ti- 
 ber ; and it is to this prince, perhaps, we are originally indebted 
 for that useful invention. He had acquired the supreme authority 
 by means not to be justified : and however justly he may have sup- 
 ported his conduct as a sovereign, yet even that will not excuse the 
 manner in which he obtained it. The two sons of Ancus Martius 
 (the late king) enraged to see Tarquin possessed of the kingdom, 
 disguised several of their companions like shepherds, who, going 
 to court, pretended a quarrel, and demanded justice of the king. 
 Tarquin appearing, they slew him and fled ; but being apprehended 
 soon after, were punished with death. This happened in the thirty- 
 eighth year of his reign. 
 
 After him Scrvius Tullius took upon him the government, being 
 descended .from a woman of noble extraction, though a captive 
 and a slave. He also vanquished the Sabines, added three hills to 
 the city, and surrounded the wall with a ditch. He was the fi>st 
 that ordained the Census, which had been till then unknown 
 throughout the whole world : its business was, to take a survey 
 of the people, their effects, 8cc. in order to an equal taxation, and 
 to make them serve occasionally in the wars. Upon this survey it 
 appeared, that Rome contained, though the city had not been 
 built much more than 186 years, 84,000 citizens. He fell a vic- 
 tim, in the forty-fourth year of his reign*fo the cruelty of his own 
 son-in-law, Tarquin the Proud, son to mat king whom he himself 
 had succeeded, and of his own daughter, whom Tarquin had re- 
 ceived in marriage. 
 
 Lucius Tarquin the Proud, the seventh and last of the Roman 
 kings, vanquished the Volsci, a nation not far from Rome, and re- 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 83 
 
 tiuced other cities. He was justly deprived of his crown fur his 
 tyranny and cruelty ; but the following circumstance brought that 
 revolution about. 
 
 While Tarquin was encamped before Ardea, the capital of the 
 Rutuli, whom he was then at war with, Sex; us, his eldest son, who 
 was as lewd and cruel as his father, fell in love with Lucretia, the 
 wife of Tarquinius Collatinus, and daughter of Spurius Lucretius 
 Tricipitinus, a very illustrious citizen of Rome. Collatinus car- 
 ried Sextus and others to his house at Collatia, in order to give 
 them a sight of Lucretia, and next day returned with them to^the 
 camp. But Sextus, now inflamed with Lucretia's beauty, went 
 privately to Collatia, where he was entertained with great hospi- 
 tality by that lady, and lodged in her house. In the dead of night, 
 he found means to convey himself into her bed-chamber; when, 
 drawing near to her bed-side, with his drawn sword, and thrusting 
 his hands into her bosom, protested that he would kill her that in- 
 stant, if she made the least noise. The unhappy Lucretia, thus 
 awakened from her peaceful slumbers, and seeing the instrument 
 of death before her, was seized with the utmost horror and con- 
 fusion. 
 
 At first, Sextus had recourse to entreaties ; hut, these not avail- 
 ing, he declared, that if she refused to consent, he would first 
 murder her, and then lay his own slave dead by her side ; that he 
 would afterwards spread a report, that he had killed tiiem both in 
 the act of adultery. The ill-fated Lucretia, terrified at these threats, 
 yielded to his impious wishes, and Sextus left her the next morn- 
 ing. 
 
 Lucretia, stung to the soul at this barbarous treatment, sent for 
 her fathei^and her husband, with whom came Pubhus Valerius and 
 Junius Brutus. They found her involved in despair, and drowned 
 in tears. She related the whole story, and rejected all thoughts 
 of consolation, conjured them to revenge her injuries. After 
 this, to give them the strongest proof she could of her chastity, 
 she stabbed herself to the heart. The youthful reader must here 
 be cautioned, that this last act of Lucretia was by no means meri- 
 torious, and could be justified only by the barbarous age she lived 
 in. 
 
 Brutus her father, and Collatinu* her husband, raised an insur- 
 rection among the common people on that account, and deprived 
 Tarquin of the government. The army too, soon after, which was 
 besieging the city of Ardea, with their king, deserted him; and 
 the king himself, on his arrival at Rome, found the gates shut 
 against him, without hope of admittance. Thus, after he had 
 reigned five and twenty years, he was banished with his wife and 
 children. 
 
 This happened in the year of the world 3596 ; 215 years from 
 the building of the city ; thirty one years after the ruin of the Ba- 
 bylonian empire, and the setting up of the Persian, and 507 before 
 the birth of our Saviour. 
 
 8 
 
84 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 From the Commencement of the Consular State to the year of 
 Rome 331. 
 
 From this time two consuls began to be created in the room of 
 one king-; for this reason, that if one of them should entertain 
 any ill designs upon the state, the other, being- invested with equal 
 authority, might restrain him ; and it was enacted, that they should 
 not hold" the government for more than one year, lest, by the con- 
 tinuance of their power, they should be rendered insolent; where- 
 as they were likely to act with moderation, when they knew that 
 within a year's time, they were to be reduced to the level of pri- 
 vate persons. 
 
 In the fiist year after the expulsion of the kings, Lucius Junius 
 Brutus, who had been the principal means of Tarquin's banishment, 
 and Tarquin Collutinus, Lucretia's husband, were elected consuls. 
 However, the latter was soon deprived of that dignity ; for it was 
 enacted, that no one of the name of Tarquin should remain in 
 Home. Accordingly, having received all his patrimony, he quit- 
 ted the city, and Valerius Publicola was created consul in his stead. 
 King Tarquin, however, who had been expelled, made war upon 
 liome ; and having drawn together many nations, endeavoured to 
 reinstate himself in his kingdom by force. 
 
 In the first battle lirutus^and Aruns Tarquin's son, slew each 
 other ; but the Romans came off victorious in that fight. The Ro- 
 man matrons mourned a whole year for Brutus, because he had 
 so valiantly revenged the death of the injured Lucretia. Valerius 
 Publicola chose Spurius Lucretius Tricipilinus, Lucretia's father, 
 for his colleague, who dying of sickness, lie next chose for his col- 
 league Horatius Pulvillus. Thus the first year had five consuls : 
 Tarquinius Collatinus withdrawing from the city on account of his 
 name, Brutus falling in battle, and Spurius Lucretius, dying of 
 sickness. 
 
 Tarquin having fled to Porsena, king of Thuscia, prevailed 
 with that prince to undertake his defence. Accordingly, Porsena 
 being arrived at the head of a powerful army before Rome, in or- 
 der to restore Tarquinius Superbus, gained some advantage in the 
 first attack, and there remained only one bridge to be taken, which 
 would have made him master of the city. At this instant, Hora- 
 tius, accompanied by two officers of great distinction, defended, 
 singly, the passage with great bravery, till his own party had broke 
 down the bridge ; after which he plunged, armed, into the Tiber, 
 and though wounded in the thigh by a spear, swam over to his 
 friends. 
 
 Soon after, Mutius Cordus desired leave from the senate to go 
 to Porsena's camp, where he promised to murder that prince. The 
 senate consenting, Mutius disguised himself in a Tuscan habit, 
 and, being a master of the language, went over to the enemy's ar- 
 my, where, instead of Porsena, with whom he was not personally 
 acquainted, he killed his secretary. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 85 
 
 Mutius was that instant seized, and carried before the king- ; 
 and, on his examination, instead of making any answer, he tiuust 
 his right hand into the fire, saying, he punished it in that manner, 
 because it had done him no better service. The kino-, being at 
 once surprised and moved with compassion, ordered him to with- 
 draw it, and himself returned him his sword. 
 
 Mutius taking it with his left hand, said to the king: "Thy 
 generosity has conquered him, whom fear never could. You have 
 won my heart, and I will now discover to you (as a just tribute of 
 gratitude which 1 owe you) a secret, which force could not have 
 extorted. There are in the camp three hundred Romans, equally 
 intrepid as myself, who have all taken an oath to destroy you. I 
 was appointed first to attempt the blow : I am not sorry I failed in 
 it since so magnanimous a prince as Porsena ought to be the friend 
 and ally of the Romans, not their enemy." 
 
 Porsena, struck with this generous declaration, immediately con- 
 eluded a peace with the Romans, to ihe no small mortification of 
 Tarquin, who now found that all hopes were lost of being restored 
 to his kingdom, and that Porsena would no longer afford him any 
 assistance, retired to Tusculum, a city not far from Rome, and lived 
 there with his wife, for fourteen years", as a private person, and died 
 in a good old age. 
 
 In the fourth year after the expulsion of the kings, the Sabines, 
 making war upon the Romans, were vanquished/ and a triumph 
 granted upon that account. Lucius Valerius, the colleague of 
 Brutus, and now a fourth time consul, died a natural death, and so 
 poor, that the expenses of his funeral were defrayed by contribu- 
 tions raised among the people, and the matrons bewailed his death 
 for a whole year, which was the same tribute they had before paid 
 to the memory of Brutus. His poverty arose, not from luxurv and 
 extravagance, like that of all the great men of modern times", but 
 from his love of his country. How happy would England be, could 
 she imitate the virtues of the Roman people. 
 
 In the ninth year after the expulsion of the kings, Tarqum's son- 
 in-law, having raised a powerful army, in order to revenge Tarquin's 
 injuries, a new magistracy, called the Dictatorship, more powerful 
 than the Consulate, was created. From this lay no. appeal, being 
 invested with absolute power for a limited time. In the same ycav 
 too was created a master of the horse, who was to be under the di- 
 rection of the dictator. 
 
 In the sixteenth year after the expulsion of the kings, the people 
 raised a sedition at Rome, under a pretence of being oppressed by 
 the senate and consuls: they then created themselves tribunes of 
 the people, as it were for their own proper judges and protectors, 
 by whose means they might be secured against the senate and the 
 consuls. 
 
 In 'he eighteenth year after the expulsion of the kings, the Ro. 
 mans lost several battles, and their city was near being taken by 
 Quintus Marcius, one of their own countrymen, who had raised an 
 
86 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 army in the neighbouring kingdoms ; but was at last, by his mother 
 ami wife, persuaded to draw oil* his troops. 
 
 Caeso Fabius, and Titus Virginius, being consuls, three hundred 
 noblemen of the family of Fabii, alone undertook the war against 
 the Vejentes, promising the senate and people, that they would 
 carry on the whole dispute by themselves. Marching out therefore 
 to battle, all of them being persons of noble extraction, and each of 
 whom deserved to he the leader of a powerful army, they fell in the 
 fight. One only remained of so numerous a family, who, on ac- 
 count of his tender years, could not be led forth to war. After this 
 the Census was held in the city, and there were found to be 119,01,0 
 Roman citizens. 
 
 The year following, the Roman army being blocked up in mount 
 Algidumj Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus was created dictator, who, 
 possessing a spot ot ground, of about four acres, cultivated it with 
 his own hands. He was found ploughing in the fields, and, having 
 wiped off the sweat from his brow, he was invested with the con- 
 sular habit, then went and defeated the enemy, and delivered the 
 army. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 From the Tear of Rome 331, to the first Punic or Carthaginian War. 
 
 At this time the consular government ceased, and, instead of two 
 consuls, ten magistrates, named the Decemviri, were created, in 
 whom the supreme power was to be lodged. After they had acted 
 with reputation for the first year; in the second, one of them, 
 named Appius Claudius, attempted to debauch a young lady, 
 daughter to one Virginius, who had already served with reputation 
 in the wars ; but her father murdered her with his own hands, that 
 she might not suffer violence from the Decemvir, and, returning 
 to the army, raised an insurrection among the soldiers. Upon this 
 the Decemviri were deprived of their authority, and they them- 
 selves condemned. 
 
 Soon after, the Gauls marching towards Rome, and pursuing the 
 Romans, whom they had defeated at about ten miles distance from 
 the city, made themselves masters of the city itself, nor could any 
 tiling holdout against them but the capitol ; which, when they had 
 besieged a long time, and the Romans began now to be oppressed 
 with famine, Camillus, who lived in banishment, came suddenly 
 ■upon them, and overthrew them with very great slaughter. The 
 Gauls had reduced the city to ashes, and would have made them- 
 selves masters of the capitol by surprise had not the cackling of 
 the sacred geese alarmed the garrison. The Romans, however, 
 agreed to pay the Gauls a thousand pounds weight of gold, and the 
 latter using false dealing in their weighing, a contest arose, when 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 87 
 
 Camillus, taking the gold out of the scales, told the Gauls, that it 
 was the custom of the Romans to free their country will) iron, not 
 with gold. Immediately a bloody battle ensued, in which the 
 Gauls were so entirely routed, that ail the Roman territories 
 were soon cleared of them. 
 
 In the three hundred and sixty-fifth year from the building of 
 the city, but the first after its being taken by the Gauls, the form 
 of government underwent a change ; and, instead of two consuls, 
 military tribunes, invested with consular power, were created. — 
 From this lime the Roman empire began immediately to gather 
 strength. 
 
 In the year 422, a conspiracy was discovered to the senate by a 
 female slave, of several women of quality, who had undertaken to 
 poison their husbands. Twenty of them being examined, with re- 
 gard to the quality of the draughts found in their custody, they 
 obstinately denied their being poison ; but, being forced to try the 
 experiment upon themselves, they died soon after. Besides these, 
 l?Uwere executed publicly, who had poisoned some of the first 
 people in the state. 
 
 I shall pass over the several battles lost and won by the Romans, 
 and come to their wars with the Tarentines This peopJe lived at 
 the distance of 240 miles from Rome, and were the last of the 
 Italians who made a vigorous opposition to ihe Romans. The 
 Tarentines, being almost conquered, called in Pyrrhus, king of 
 Epirus, to their assistance, who derived his origin from the race of 
 Achilles He immediately passed over into Italy; and it was then, 
 for the first time, that the Romans fought with a foreign enemy. 
 Publius Valerius Lxvmug, t he consul, was sent out against him, 
 who, taking some of Pyrrhus's spies prisoners, ordered them to be 
 led through the camp, and the whole army to be shown them, and 
 the spies then to be dismissed, that they might inform Pyrrhus of 
 what was doing among the Romans. 
 
 A battle being fought soon after, Pyrrhus when, on the point of 
 flying 1 , conquered by means of his elephants, which the Romans, 
 beingfunacquainted with, were afraid of; but night put an end to 
 the battle. Pyrrhus lost 13,000 men, the Romans 15,000, and 
 1800 were taken prisoners, whom Pyrrhus treated with the greatest 
 honour. He gave their dead honourable interment; and, observ- 
 ing that they looked stern and menacing even in death, he lifted 
 up his hands to heaven, and cried, u how easily might the whole 
 world be conquered, were the Romans commanded by Pyrrhus !'* 
 
 Pyrrhus afterwards, in conjunction with the Samnites, Lucanians, 
 and Brutians, advanced towards Rome, laid all waste with fire and 
 sword, depopulated Campania, and arrived at Prseneste, about 
 seventeen miles distant from Rome ; but soon after retired to 
 Campania, for fear of the army, which pursued him with a consul 
 at their head. Ambassadors being despatched to Pyrrhus, to treat 
 ■with him about ransoming the prisoners, they were honourably 
 entertained by him, and the prisoners, without any ransom, sent 
 back to Rome, Fabricius, one of the ambassadors, he admired so 
 8* 
 
88 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 much that, understanding he was poor, he endeavoured to win him 
 over by services, and made him considerable offers ; which were 
 rejected by FaJbricius with disdain. 
 
 There is something so particularly great in this Roman, and so 
 contrary to every thing we meet with in these times, that it is not 
 even the narrow limits of this epitome, that can induce me to pass 
 over in silence the speech of Fabricius to Pyrrhus. 
 
 " It would be needless (said Fabricius) for me to mention the 
 experience I have had in state affairs, as well as in those of a pri- 
 vate nature, since you have been told these things by others. You 
 also seem to be so well informed of my poverty, that there will be 
 no occasion for me to acquaint you, that I have neither money to 
 put out to interest, nor slaves to produce me any income, all my 
 wealth consisting of a little house and a small field, which yield 
 sufficient for my subsistence. Though I am not possessed with a 
 considerable estate, 1 never thought, nor can yet think, that my 
 poverty ever did me the least* injury, when I consider myself as one 
 who shares in the public posts, or as a private man. I am raised to 
 the highest dignities, I am placed at the head of the most illustrious 
 embassies, I assist at the most august ceremonies, and am entrusted 
 nth the most holy functions of divine worship. When affairs of 
 'he highest importance are to be debated, I have my seat in coun- 
 cil, and give my opinion in them. I am on a level with those who 
 boast the greatest wealth and power; and, if 1 have the least cause 
 of complaint, it is, that 1 am too much applauded, and too highly 
 honoured by my fellow-citizens. 
 
 u During my enjoyment of these several employments, lam not 
 obliged, any more than other Romans, to expend my own money; 
 for Rome amply rewards her citizens who toil for the public good. 
 We are all wealthy, so long as the commonwealth enjoys affluence, 
 because i' is rich only for us By indiscriminately admitting to pub- 
 lic employments both rich and poor, according as men are judged 
 worthy of them, all the citizens are thereby reduced to a level. 
 Rome knows no other difference or distinction than that of virtue 
 and merit. 
 
 " With regard to my fortune, so far from repining at it, I look 
 upon myself as the happiest ofmen, when I compare my condition 
 to that of the rich, and I even feel, on this occasion, akind of com- 
 placency and pride. My little field, though not over fruitful, fur- 
 nishes me sufficiently with all things necessary, provided I do but 
 bestow the proper culture, and preserve the produce of it. Do I 
 need any thing more ? All food, when seasoned by hunger, is 
 agreeable to me. When I am parched with thirst, it is luxury to 
 nuench it ; and, when 1 am fatigued, 1 taste the sweets of sleep 
 with exquisite pleasure. 1 content myself witfi a suit that shelters 
 me from the inclemency of the weather: and, among the several 
 moveables, which may be of like use, the meanest always suit me 
 best. 
 
 u l\. would be unjust in me to accuse fortune, since she furnishes 
 me with all that nature requires. It is indeed true, that, for want 
 
ROMAN HISTORF. 89 
 
 of this affluence, I am prevented assisting the necessitous, which 
 is the only advantage fo<- which the opulent may justly be envied. 
 Even with my little, I assist where that little can be of service, 
 and 1 do my fellow citizens all the service in my power. 
 
 " The thought of accumulating riches never once entered my 
 mind. Being employed so many years in the government, I had a 
 thousand opportunities of amassing great treasures, without the 
 least reproach to my integrity. Could a more favourable one be 
 desired, than that which presented itself some years since, when, 
 invested with the consular dignity, I was ordered to march, at the 
 head of a powerful army, against the Samniles, the Lucamans, and 
 Bfutli ? I laid waste a vast tract of ground, I defeated the enemy 
 in several battles, stormed many rich cities, enriched the whole 
 army with plunder, paid to every citizen the money he had dis- 
 bursed towards defraying the expenses of the war, and, after be- 
 ing honoured with a triumph, deposited four hundred talents in the 
 public treasury. 
 
 •■After having neglected so considerable a booty, part of which 
 1 might have applied to my own use ; after contemning riches that 
 have been so justly acquired, and sacrificed, to a love of glory, 
 spoils taken from the enemy, would it become me, O king, to ac- 
 cept of your gold ? What opinion would mankind entertain of me, 
 and what an example should I set to my fellow citizens ? I there- 
 fore advise you to keep your riches, and leave me in possession of 
 my poverty and reputation." 
 
 The next day Pyrrhus, trying all methods to unsettle the mind 
 of Fabricius, ordered one of his largest elephants, completely arm- 
 ed, to be placed behind the hangings ; and, in the midst of their 
 conversation, ihe tapestry was drawn aside, when the elephant 
 raising his trunk over the head of Fabricius, set up a hideous 
 roar. Fabricius though he had never before seen this animal, was 
 n<-t in the least intimidated, but turning gently about, and smiling, 
 " Neither your gold yesterday," (said he) M nor your terrible ani- 
 mal to day, can make the least impression upon me." 
 
 Pyrrhus, being struck with the greatest admiration of the Ro- 
 mans, despatched one Cineas, the principal person about him, to 
 sue for peace upon reasonable terms ; which were, that Pyrrhus 
 should remain possessed of that part of Italy which he had already 
 made himself master of by arms. 
 
 These terms displeased the Romans, and answer was sent back 
 by the senate, that he could have no peace with the Romans unless 
 he retired out of Italy. The Itomans then ordered, that all the 
 prisoners, whom Pyrrhus had sent back, should be deemed infa- 
 mous, as being persons who might have defended themselves by 
 arms, and never to be restored to their former condition, till they 
 had produced the spoils of some enemies, whom they were known 
 to have slain. 
 
 The ambassador of Pyrrhus returned, and being asked by him 
 what kind of a plare Rome was, Cineas replied, that he had seen 
 a nation of kings; that is to say, that all there were such as Pyrr- 
 
*30 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 hus alone was thought to be in Epirus and the rest of Greece. 
 Publius Sulpicius and Decius Mus, the consuls, being afterwards 
 sent out generals against, Pyrrhus, and a battle being f ->ight, Pyrr- 
 hus was wounded, his elephant killed, and 20,000 of his men slain. 
 Of the Romans there Ml only 5000, and Pyrrhus was driven to 
 Tarentum. We may hence observe, that with all the modern in- 
 vention fop the destruction of mankind in battle, the slaughter of 
 these times is but a shadow of that of former ages. 
 
 The year after Fabricius was sent out against Pyrrhus, the 
 same who, being before among the ambassadors, could not be won 
 by the otters of that prince. Their camp lying at no great distance, 
 Pyrrhus's physician came to Fabiicius by night, offering to des- 
 patch Pyrrhus by poison if he would reward him for it. 
 
 Fabricius instantly ordered him to be bound, and carried back to 
 his master, and that Pyrrhus should be informed what proposals 
 the physician had made against his life. The king was so struck 
 with admiration, that he is reported to have said, " Fabricius is a 
 person of such virtue, that it is more difficult to divert him from 
 the paths of honour, than the sun from his course." 
 
 Pyrrhus then departed for Sicily, and Fabricius, having defeated 
 the Samnites and Lucanians, obtained a triumph. Manlius Curius 
 Dentatus and Cornelius Lentnlus, the consuls, were then ordered 
 against Pyrrhus ; and Curius fought him, cut off his army, drove 
 him to Tarentum, and took his camp. Of the enemy 2~>,000 were 
 slam that day, and Curius Dmitatus triumphed in his consulate ; 
 he was the first that brought elephants to Home, of which he took 
 four. Pyrrhus soon after retired to Tarentum, and was slain at 
 Argos, a city of Greece, by a large stone thrown upon his head 
 from the walls, by the hand of a woman, whose son he was on the 
 point of killing in the attack. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 From the Commencement of the first Punic War to the End of the 
 Second. 
 
 In the four hundred and seventy-seventh year from the building 
 of the city, though the name of Rome was now become famous, 
 yet their arms had not been carrird out of I-aly That it might 
 be known, therefore, what the forces of the Ronnans were, a sur- 
 vey was taken, and the number of cit zens appeared to be 262.333, 
 though they had hardly ever ceased from wars since tin building 
 of the city ; 'and the first foreign war was declared agamst the 
 Africans. Appius Claudius and Quint us Fulvius being consuls. — 
 These fought against th^rn in Sicily and Appius Claudius tri- 
 umphed over the Africans and Hiero king of Sicily. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 91 
 
 In the year following- great tilings were done by the Romans, 
 who received fifty cities more into alliance. 
 
 In the fifth year of the Punic war, which was carried on against 
 the Africans, the Romans first fought by sea, having provided 
 themselves with vessels properly armed. The consul Cornelius 
 was trepanned by treachery ; but Duillius, the other consul, giv- 
 ing them battle, defeated the Carthaginians, took thirty-one of 
 their ships, sunk fourteen, made eight thousand prisoners, and 
 killed three thousand more. 
 
 Never was a victory more acceptable to the Romans, who know- 
 ing themselves before invincible by land, now found they could do 
 much by sea also. Caius Aquilius Florus, and Lucius Scipio, be- 
 ing consuls, the latter laid waste Corsica and Sardinia, carried 
 away numbers of captives from thence, and obtained a triumph. 
 
 The Romans having taken seventy-four cities by surrender, the 
 vanquished Carthaginians sued for peace, which Regulus refusing; 
 but upon the severest conditions, the Africans applied to the La- 
 cedaemonians for assistance ; and under their leader Xantippus, 
 Regulus was overthrown with a very great slaughter, two thousand 
 men only remaining of all the Roman army; fifteen thousand, with. 
 Regulus their general, were taken prisoners, and thirty thousand 
 slain. Regulus himself was thrown into prison. 
 
 The Romans, however, prosecuted the war, and at last obliged 
 the Carthaginians to sue for peace. The latter sent Kegulus, ac- 
 companied by their ambassadors, to Rome, to propose terms of 
 peace to the senate. Kegulus had suffered five years imprison- 
 ment in Carthage, and, before his departure from that city, he had 
 been obliged to take an oath, that he would return to it, should 
 he prove unsuccessful in his negotiations, or not obtain the desir- 
 ed exchange of prisoners. 
 
 On his arrival at Rome, he acquainted the senate with the busi- 
 ness he came on ; and being required to give his opinion freely, 
 he told them, that he could not do that as a senator, having lost 
 that character from the time he had become a prisoner; but that 
 he would not hesitate to give his sentiments as a private person. 
 Every bosom felt fqp his misfortunes, and he might easily have re- 
 stored himself to liberty, to the possession of every thing desirable, 
 hia wife, his children, and his country ; but it was inconsistent 
 with the honour of a Roman. " An exchange of prisoners" (said 
 Regulus to the senate) "should not be so much as thought of, 
 since an example of that nature would be of fatal consequence to 
 you : those citizens, who so ingloriously surrendered themselves 
 and their arms to their enemies, are unworthy of the least pity, 
 and ought never more to be employed in the service of their coun- 
 try. As to myself, 1 am so far advanced in \eais, that my death 
 ought to be considered as nothing; whereas you have in your 
 hands several Carthaginian generals, in the prime of life, who are 
 capable of doing great services to their country. I have so much 
 the t-ue spirit ofa Roman, that I cannot do any thing- that is base 
 or dishonourable ; nor do I so much fear the tortures of a cruel 
 
92 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 rack, as the reproach of an infamous action : the former aflects 
 only the body, but the latter penetrates the soul." 
 
 It was with no small difficulty the senate complied with such 
 noble and disinterested advice. Regulus, however, left Rome, to 
 return to Carthage, unmoved either with the deep sorrow of his 
 friends, or the tears of his family, though He was sensible of the 
 torments that were preparing- for him. 
 
 The moment the Carthaginians saw Regulus return, without 
 having obtained the exchange of prisoners, they put him to all 
 kinds of torment cruelty could invent. They threw him into a 
 horrible dungeon, there cut off his eye-lids, and then placed him 
 in the sun, when its beams darted the strongest heat. They next 
 put him into a barrel stuck full of nails, whose points, piercing his 
 flesh, allowed him not a moment's ease. At last, to complete 
 their cruelty, they nailed this noble Roman to a cross, where he 
 expired. They shortened his life, it is true, but they brought 
 eternal infamy on themselves. 
 
 The senate were so enraged at this piece of cruelty, that they 
 delivered up some prisoners of the greatest distinction to Marcia 
 his wife, who shut them into an armoury filled with iron spikes, 
 where she kept them five days together without sustenance, intending 
 to torture them as her husband had been. The magistrates, how- 
 ever, relented at what they had permitted, and gave strict orders, 
 that no captives should, for the future, be treated in that manner. 
 
 Pubhus Claudius Pulcher, a>d L.Junius Pullus, being consuls, in 
 the year of Rome 504, Claudius fought in opposition to the au- 
 spices and was defeated by the Carthaginians; for, of two bun- 
 dled and twenty ships, he escaped with thirty only, ninety, together 
 witn their men, b^ing taken, the rest sunk, and twenty thousand 
 made prisoners. The other consul lost his fleet by shipwreck ; 
 but the army escaped by being near the shore. 
 
 However, the Romans were afterwards more fortunate, and 
 obliged the Carthaginians to sue for peace. This put an end to 
 the first Punic war, which had continued twenty-four years without 
 intermission, in which the Romans are said to have lost 700 ships, 
 and the Carthaginians only 500- Greatness of soul, in forming 
 and executing exploits, was equally conspicuous in both, as was 
 their obstinacy in disputing for empire. The Carthaginians were 
 at that time deemed the most powerful by sea. and were the 
 mist expert in maritime affairs; but the Romans, though unex- 
 perienced in naval affairs, not only disputed the empire of the 
 sea with a people, who had been deemed more powerful than any 
 before them, but even conquered them in several sea engage- 
 ments. 
 
 The peace, thus concluded between the Romans and Carthagi- 
 nians, did not continue many years. Those states, who delight in 
 war, are never at a loss to find pretences for breaking the peace. 
 I shall not enter into the causes of the rupture between these two 
 great people, it will be sufficient to observe, that about the j 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 93 
 
 535 from the building of Rome, began the second Punic war, one 
 of the most remarkable that is recorded in history; whether we 
 consider the boldness of the enterprises, the wisdom employed in 
 the execution, the obstinate efforts of two rival nations, and the 
 ready resources they found in the utmost extremity of fortune ; 
 the variety of uncommon events, the assemblage of the most per' 
 feet models in every species of merit, and the most instructive les- 
 sons that occur in history, with regard to war or politics. Rome 
 and Carthage, the two first cities in the world, having already 
 tried their strength in the first Punic war, now knew perfectly well 
 what either could do; in the second war, the fate of arms was so 
 equally balanced, and the success so intermixed with vicissitudes, 
 that the party which seemed most exposed to ruin, seemed most 
 to triumph ; and, great as the forces of these two nations were, 
 it may be almost said, that their mutual hatred was greater. It 
 seems necessary here to advise the youthful reader, should this 
 epitome induce him to pursue his historical inquiries in larger 
 works, to spare no pains in studying this part of the Roman his- 
 tory. 
 
 Hannibal, the famous Carthaginian commander, undertook the 
 management of the war, being then about 27 years of age. Having 
 overrun all Spain to the Pyrenean mountains, he crossed them with 
 50,000 foot and 9000 horse. Having passed the Rhone with great 
 danger and difficulty, he at last came to the foot of tke Alps, resolv- 
 ing from thence to cross into Italy. 
 
 The sight of these horrible mountains, it being then winter, 
 struck the minds of the soldiers with terror. However, Hannibal, 
 in spite of all difficulties, put the enemy to flight, and seized upon a 
 fortress, and a considerable quantity of corn and cattle. 
 
 Advancing forward, they came to a steep and craggy path, which 
 terminated in a precipice above a thousand feet deep. Here, as 
 the soldiers and horses marched on nothing but ice, they found it 
 impossible for them to go further; when Hannibal, after causing all 
 the new-fallen snow to be removed, ordered a path to be cut in the 
 rock, which was carried on with amazing patience and ardour; for 
 the general always animated them by'his presence. 
 
 Scipio, the Roman commander, hearing of Hannibal's progress, 
 marched forward, and the armies met at a place now called Pavia. 
 Here a battle was fought, in which the Romans were put to flight, 
 and were soon after vanquished a second time. 
 
 In a battle, which was afterwards fought between Flaminius and 
 Hannibal, in the year 537 from the building of Rome, both parties 
 fought with such amazing animosity, that they did not perceive an 
 earthquake which happened in Hetruria, the seat of uarat that time, 
 and which laid whole towns in ruins. In this confusion, Flaminius 
 was slain, with 15,000 Romans, 6000 were taken prisoners, and 
 about 10,000 escaped to Rome. 
 
 Fabius was afterwards sent against Hannibal, who, by his pru- 
 dent and cautious management, harassed Hannibal, and kept him 
 in a perpetual alarm. After various marches, Hannibal, without 
 
94 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 being able to bring the Romans to a battle, found himself blocked 
 up in a valley surrounded by hills. Fabius, observing this, detach- 
 ed 4000 men, who seized the pass. Hannibal now finding himself 
 blocked up, had recourse to a stratagem. Me ordered small bun- 
 dles of vine branches to be tied to the horns of 2000 oxen : the 
 branches were set on fire in the dead of the night, and the oxen 
 driven to the summit of the hills, where the Romans were encamp- 
 ed. As soon as these creatures felt the flame theyflew up and 
 down m a rage, and set fire to all the bushes and shrubs that fell \u 
 their way. This sight so terrified the party who guarded the en- 
 trance, that they quitted their posts ; when Hannibal taking the ad- 
 vantage of their confusion, drew off" his army and csoaped. 
 
 In the year 538 after the building of Rome, a desperate battle was 
 fought between the Carthaginians and the Romans Lucius j£milius 
 and Publius Terentius Varro were sent to succeed Fabius against 
 Hannibal. Fabius assured the two consuls, that thee was no other 
 way of conquering the Carthaginians, commanded by that crafty 
 and impetuous general, Hannibal, than by declining an engage- 
 ment. But, a battle being fought, through the obstinacy of Varro, 
 the consul, in opposition to his colleague, near a village called Can- 
 nx in Apulia, both the consuls were defeated In that fight 3000 
 of the Africans fell, and a great part of Hannibal's army was wound- 
 ed. The Romans, however, never reec'ned such a blow in all the 
 Fume war, for the consul ytmilius Paulus fell in the battle, together 
 with twenty Others of consular and prxtnrian rank; thirty senators 
 were taken or slain, 300 gentlemen of liable extraction, 40,000 loot, 
 and 35o0 horse: three bushels of golden rings were likewise said 
 to be taken from them on this occasion. In the midst of all these 
 calamities, not one, however, of the Romans, condescended to 
 mention a word about peace. 
 
 \n the fourth year afier Hannibal's arrival in Italy, Marcellus, 
 the consul, engaged him with success, near Nola, a city of Cam- 
 pana. About this time, Philip, king of Macedon, sent ambassa- 
 dors to Hannibal, promising him assistance against the Romans, 
 provided that, when he had' subdued them, he, in his turn, should 
 receive assistance from Hannibal against the Grecians ; but Phi- 
 lip's ambassadors being taken, and the affair thus discovered, they 
 sent Marcus Valerius Lxvinus to march against them ; and Man- 
 lius the proconsul, was sent into Sardinia, that state too, at the 
 solicitation of Hannibal, having deserted the Romans. Thus they 
 carried on a war in four different countries at one and the same 
 time: in Italy against Hannibal; in Spain against Astlnibal his 
 brother ; in Macedon against Philip ; and, in Sardinia, against the 
 people of that island, and another Asdrubal who commanded the 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 Various was the success of the war on both sides; but, in the 
 fourteenth year after Hannibal's arrival in Italy, Scipio, who had 
 performed so many gallant things in Spain, was created consul, 
 and sent into Africa. In this man there was thought something 
 
ROMAN HISTORY, 
 
 divine, insomuch, that it was imagined he had converse with the 
 -ods. He fought Hanno, the Carthaginian, in Africa, and destroy- 
 ed his army In a second battle he took his camp together with 
 4500 soldiers, 11,000 being slain. Syphax, king of Num.dia, who 
 had joined the Afr.cana, he took prisoner, and forced bis camp. 
 Synhax himself, with the noblest of the Numid.ans, and an immense 
 booty, were sent to Rome ; on advice of which almost all Italy for- 
 sook Hannibal, and he himself was ordered by the Carthaginians to 
 return to Africa, which Scipio was laying waste. ..."'. 
 
 In the seventeenth year after the arrival of Hannibal, Italy was 
 delivered from him, which he is said to have quitted with tears. 
 Ambassadors from the Carthaginians applied to Scipio for peace by 
 whom they were referred to the senate, and a truce of forty-five days 
 was granted them to go to and return from Rome. Thirty thousand 
 pounds weight of silver was accepted at their hands, and the 
 senate ordered a peace to be concluded with the Carthaginians, on 
 such terms as Scipio should think proper. Scipio's conditions 
 were, that they should maintain no more than thirty ships ; that 
 they should pay the Romans 5^0,000 pounds weight of silver, 
 amounting to about the value of 1,575,000/. sterling, and restore all 
 the prisoners and deserters. t 
 
 Hannibal, in the mean time, arriving in Africa, the peace was 
 interrupted, and many hostilities committed by the Carthaginians. 
 The war being curried on, Hannibal sent three spies into Scipio s 
 camp, who being taken, Scipio ordered to be led round the camp, 
 and the whole army shown them, and then to be feasted and dis- 
 missed, that they might tell Hannibal what they had seen among 
 the Romans. * " , , 
 
 In the mean time both generals prepared for a battle, such as 
 had hardly ever been remembered, when the skilful led ♦orti 
 their troops to war. Scipio was victorious, and Hannibal himselt 
 narrowly escaped being taken. He at first fled, with several horse 
 which were at last reduced to only four. In this battle 20,000 
 Carthaginians were slain, and as many taken prisoners ; 20,000 
 pounds weight of silver, and 800 of gold, with plenty of all sorts 
 of stores, were found in Hannibal's camp. After this battle, a 
 peace was concluded with the Carthaginians, Scipio, returning to 
 Rome, triumphed with great glory, and began from that time to be 
 called Africanus, an honour till then unknown, no person betore 
 him having assumed the name of a vanquished nation. Thus an 
 end was put to the second Punic war, in the nineteenth year atter 
 its commencement. 
 
 It seems here highly necessary, notwithstanding the narrow 
 limits to which I am confined, to point out a few reasons, how the 
 Romans came to be so victorious, and the Carthaginians so unfor- 
 tunate. Carthage, at the beginning of the second Punic war, and 
 in Hannibal's time, was in its decline, the flower of its youth, and 
 its sprightly vigour, being now in a hasty decay. It had begun to 
 fall from its exalted pitch of power, and was inclining towards its 
 ruin ; whereas Rome was then, as it were, in its bloom ana 
 
 9 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 strength of life, and swiftly advancing to the conquest of the uni- 
 verse. It is easy to see, that the declension ofthe one, and the rise 
 of the other, was owing to the different forms of government estab- 
 lished in those republics, at the time we are speaking of. At Car- 
 thage every thing was in confusion, and the advice of the old and 
 experienced was no longer listened to, every thing was transacted 
 1 \ intrigue and cabal. On the other hand, at this very time, the 
 Romuos paid the highest deference to the senate, which was com- 
 posed of men, more remarkable for their wisdom than their riches. 
 Hence it is no wo.ider, that the Romans, governed by the greatest 
 
 , should completely conquer a rival, in a state of anarchy and 
 ision. May France, the Carthage of these modern times, ever 
 
 i her attempt to sow those seditions among us, which at last 
 conquered invincible Rome. 
 
 ( HA1 rER V. 
 
 From the second Punic War to the Destruction of Carthage. 
 
 Tnc Punic wars, which had brought the Roman state almost to the 
 of ruin, ended nevertheless to its advantage. The Romans 
 I more to know the value of riches; and the polite 
 lied among them, in proportion as they grew better ac- 
 quainted with the Greeks. The Punic war being concluded, the 
 Bomans carried their arms against Philip, king of Macedon. 
 
 In the yea:- 551 from the building of the city, Titus Qoinlius 
 Flaminvus was ordered ag Philip. He managed matters 
 
 successfully, and peace was granted to Philip conditions: 
 
 that he should not eece, which had 
 
 been defended i n bj the 11 Id restore 
 
 the prison ' S maintain on]f fifty vessels, and deliver 
 
 i t p the rest to the Rom ); foi ten years pay a tribute of four 
 thousand pounds weight of silver, and give his own son, Demetrius, 
 for a 1 
 
 Flaminius made war also upon the Lacedemonians, defeated their 
 general, Nabis, at ' ' them into an alliance, upon such 
 
 terms as he thought proper, leading Demetrius, the son of Philip, 
 and Armenes, the son of Nabis, hostages of noble extraction, in 
 triumph before his chariot. 
 
 About the year 55 ( j y Plautus had his plays exhibited in Rome, 
 where he brought comedy to great perfection, he being a conside- 
 rable genius, and a perfect master of the Latin tongue, which, 
 though it was not then arrived to its utmost purity, boasted even at 
 that time, a noble strength and energ>. 
 
 The Macedonian war being now finished, another was com 
 menced against Antiochus, king of Syria. Publius Cornelius Scipio, 
 
ROMAN HISTORV. 97 
 
 and Marcus Glabrid, being then consuls at Rome. To this An- 
 tiochus, Hannibal had joined himself, having quitted Carthage, the 
 place of his nativity, fearing he should be delivered to the Romans. 
 Marcus Acilius Glabrio fought with success at Achaia, the camp 
 of Antiochus being taken by storm in the night, and he himself 
 obliged to fly. Philip having assisted the Romans in this battle, 
 had his son, Demetrius, restored to him. 
 
 Not long after, Scipio, the consul, pressed so hard upon Antio- 
 chus at Magnesia, that he was forced to draw out his army, con- 
 sisting of 70,000 foot, and 12,000 horse, which Scipio attacked, 
 though his force was very inconsiderable. The battle lasted, with 
 great obstinacy, for some hours, when the Syrian troops were at 
 last defeated ; and the king's own chariots, which were armed 
 with Bcyth< - . upon liis soldiers, contributed very 
 
 much to his overthrow. There fell this day, of the Syrian army, 
 as well in the battle, as in the pursuit and plunder of the camp, 
 50,000 foot, and 4000 horse ; 1-100 were taken prisoners, with fif- 
 teen elephants and their guides. The Romans lost but 300 foot, 
 and twenty-four horse. This victory won the Romans, all the 
 cities of Asia Minor, which now submitted to them. 
 
 Antiochus then sued for peace, which was granted him upon the 
 same conditions by the Benate, though now vanquished, as \ 
 before offered : that he should retire out of Europe and Asia, and 
 confine himself within the river Taurus, pay 10,000 talents, and 
 give them twenty hostages, and that he should deliver up Hanni- 
 bal, the author of the war. 
 
 Scipio returned to Rome, and trium] hed with great glory. In 
 imitation of his brother, he received the name of Asiaticus, be- 
 cause he had subdued Asia; as his brother, on account of his 
 reduction of Africa, had received the name Af'ricanus. 
 
 Scipio Africanus being afterwards accuseel by the senate of de- 
 frauding the treasury, withdrew to Lintemum, a town of Campania, 
 where he spent the rest of his days in cultivating the muses, and 
 the conversation of karned men. He died the same year, and 
 ordered words to the following purport to be engraved on ids tomb : 
 Ungrateful country J thou sha't not possess tny aslies. Scipio Asiati- 
 cus was also aroused of much the like c imes with his brother, 
 but escaped punishment by the means of Gracchus. At this time 
 luxury and ind gaii insensibly to gain on the Romans, 
 
 which is said to have been introduced by the army on their return 
 from the wars of A^ia. 
 
 As for Hannibal, after flying from place to place, to escape fall- 
 ing into the hands of the Romans, he at la>t Bought an asylum in the 
 court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. Hannibal making some stay 
 there, that prince engaged him in the war with Eumencs, king of 
 Pergamus. He gained for Prusias several battles by land and sea, 
 when Hannibal imagined, that such important services would for 
 ever secure him a faithful fiend in that prince. 
 
 The Romans, however, would not suffer him to rest any where : 
 they despatched Flaminius to Prusias, to complain of his protecting 
 
98 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Hannibal. The latter knew too well the motive of this embassy, 
 and therefore determined not to give his enemies the opportunity 
 of delivering him up. He at first attempted his security by flight, 
 but perceiving that the seven secret outlets, which he had con- 
 trived in his palace, were all seized by the soldiers of Prusias, who, 
 by this treacherous action, hoped to ingratiate himself with the 
 llornans, he ordered poison, which he had long kept for this me!- 
 ancholy occasion, to be brought him ; and taking it in his hand, 
 "Let us (said lie) free the Romans from a disquietude, with which 
 they have been long tortured, since they have not patience to wait 
 for the death of a man, whom old age has already overtaken The 
 victory, which Flaminius gams over a naked, betrayed man, will 
 not do him honour. This single day Will f>e a lasting testimony of 
 the great degeneracy of the Romans. Their forefathers sent no- 
 tice to Pyrrhus, to caution him to guard against a traitor, who 
 intended to poison him, and that at a time when this prince was 
 engaged in an obstinate war against them, in the very heart of Italy; 
 but their inglorious sons have deputed a person of consular dignity 
 to spirit up Prusias impiously to murder one, who is not only his 
 guest but his friend." 
 
 After calling down curses upon Prusias, and invoking the gods, 
 the protectors and avengers of the sacred rights of hospitality, he 
 swallowed the poison, and died in the seventieth year of his age, 
 being buried at Libyssa, in the territories of the Nicomedians. 
 
 Thus fell, perhaps, one of the greatest generals the world ever 
 produced, and to whom, during the seventeen years of the Punic 
 war, only two faults are imputed ; first, his not marching, immedi- 
 ately after the battle of Cannae, his victorious forces to Home, in 
 order to besiege that city ; and, secondly, his suffering their cour- 
 age to be softened and enervated during their winter-quarters in 
 Capua. But this only shows, that human nature is frail, and that 
 the greatest have their errors. These failings, however, are to- 
 tally absorbed in the shining parts of his character: he had that 
 presence of mind, even in the heat and fire of action, to take all ad- 
 vantages ; and, though his army consisted of so great a variety of 
 nations, who were often in want both of money and provisions, yet, 
 so artful was his management, that his camp was never once dis- 
 turbed with any insurrection, either against himself, or any of his 
 generals. He must have been very fruitful in expedients, to be 
 able to carry on, for so many years, a war in a far distant country, 
 in spite of the opposition made at home by a powerful faction, 
 which refused him supplies of every kind, and thwarted him on all 
 occasions. He was not only the warrior but the statesman : so 
 superior and universal was his genius, that he grasped all parts of 
 government ; and so great were his natural talents, that he was able 
 to acquit himself of the various functions of it with glory. He 
 shone as conspicuously in the cabinet as in the field, being equally 
 capable to fill civil or military employments. In a word, there were 
 united in his person, the warrior, the senator, and the financier. 
 
 About the year 586, from the building of Rome, learning began 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 99 
 
 to flourish much more than ever among- the Romans, who had 
 greatly improved themselves from their familiarity with the 
 Greeks, and was very much encouraged by Scipio, (JEmilius, the 
 consul's son, adopted by the son of Africanus) and by Lselius, son 
 to him who had formerly done signal services in Africa. Scipio 
 and Laelius, who boasted the finest accomplishments, were the 
 noble patrons of eloquence, poetry, and the polite arts. Under 
 them flourished Terence, the famous comic poet, who wrote with 
 vast accuracy, and very much improved the graces of the Roman 
 tongue. 
 
 The inhabitants of Rome were now considerably increased, 
 312,081 free citizens being cessed about this time. For about 
 •eighteen years, the Romans were employed in less important wars 
 with the Ligurians, Corsicans, Dalmatians, Spaniards, and Mace- 
 donians, all which, being considered only as so many revolts, did 
 not any way endanger the Roman Commonwealth. 
 
 About the year 604, from the building of Rome, began the third 
 Punic war, when it was determined in the Roman senate, that 
 Qvtbage must be destroyed The next year, Censorinus and Ma- 
 nilius, then consuls, were sent to Africa with 150 galleys, 80,000 
 foot, and 4000 horse, which terrifying the Carthaginians, they sent 
 ambassadors to Rome to offer an unlimited submission. Answer 
 was made, that the senate of Rome granted them their liberty, the 
 enjoyment of their laws, all their territories, and other possessions, 
 provided thai, within thirty days, they should send as hostages to 
 Lilybxum 30j young Carthaginians, of the first distinction, and 
 comply with the orders of the consuls. 
 
 These severe terms were submitted to, and the hostages were 
 ordered to depart ; but the cries, groans, and lamentations of their 
 mothers at their departure, whom they were to see no more, is 
 much easier to be conceived than described. 
 
 No sooner had the Carthaginian deputies arrived at the Roman 
 camp, than they were told by Censorinus, that the people of Car- 
 thage must immediately deliver up all their arms to him; to which 
 they were forced to consent ; and which was no sooner command- 
 ed than done. 
 
 Censorinus, having applauded their obedience, told them, that 
 the Roman people were determined totally to demolish Carthage ; 
 but that the inhabitants might remove from it, and found another 
 city in their own territories, provided its distance from the sea did 
 not exceed ten miles. 
 
 The most tremendous thunder from the skies could not have 
 more affected the Carthaginians, than did this sentence of the con- 
 sul. They knew neither where they were, what they did or said; 
 but, tearing their clothes, rolled themselves in the dust. After 
 some time, recovering from the first emotions of horror and des- 
 pair, though destitute of men and arms, they shut their gates, and 
 resolved to make an obstinate resistance. 
 
 The Roman consul, thinking he had nothing to fear from them ; 
 made no great haste to march against Carthage, whose inhabitants 
 9 * 
 
100 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 instantly set about making- arms with incredible expedition ; the 
 temples, palaces, and open squares, were all changed into so many 
 arsenals, where men and women worked day and night; and be- 
 cause materials were wanting to make ropes, the women cut oft 
 their hair, which amply supplied the want of proper materials. 
 
 The Romans marched and invested the city, but were repulsed at 
 every assault, and no material advantage was gained by them during 
 the whole campaign. The siege was carried on very slowly, and 
 the besieged recovered their spirits, having made the boldest sallies, 
 burnt their engines, and harassed their foragers. 
 
 The Romans being determined on the destruction of Carthage, 
 and uneasy at the little progress made by their generals, sent Scipio 
 thither in 607. His first business was to revive the discipline among 
 the troops, which had been entirely neglected, and then prepared to 
 carry on the siege with vigour. During the winter quarters, Scipio 
 endeavoured to defeat the enem>'s troops without the city, and in 
 one engagement slew 70,000 of ihem. 
 
 Early the next spring, Scipio, having attacked, at one and the 
 same time, the harbour called Cotbon, and the citadel, he thai 
 marched towards the forum, where was the most shocking specta- 
 cle of slaughtered people ; some cut to pieces by the murdering 
 weapons, others half-killed by the fall of horses; others torn limb 
 from limb, or half-buried in the earth and trampled on, lay mangled 
 in heaps in the mist shocking manner. 
 
 The Carthaginians, wearied out with these ill successes, besought 
 the Romans, to spare the lives of all those who should be willing to 
 leave the citadel. This was granted to all, Accept deserters; and, 
 in consequence thereof, there came out 50,000 men and women, 
 who were sent into the fields under a strong guard. 
 
 Asdrubal, with his wife and two children, together with about 
 900 deserters, fortified themselves in tl.e temple of jEsculapius ; but 
 Asdrubal being at last conquered by famine, and desirous of saving 
 his own life, came down privately to Scipio, and threw himself at 
 his feet. The Roman general showed him immediately to the de- 
 serters, who, transported with rage and fury at the sight, vented 
 the most horrid imprecations against him, and set five to the tem- 
 ple. 
 
 As the flames were spreading, Asdrubal's wife, dressing herself 
 as splendidly as possible, and placing herself and her two children 
 in sight of Scipio, addressed herself to him, in a loud voice, as fol- 
 lows: " I call not down curses upon thy head, O Roman; for you 
 have acted only as the laws of war permit you ; but may the gods 
 ofCarthage, and thou in concert with them, punish, according to 
 his deserts, the base wretch, who has betrayed his country, his 
 gods, his wiie, and his children." 
 
 She then thus addressed herself to Asdrubal: "Perfidious 
 wretch! Thou basest of creatures! This fire will soon consume 
 both me and my children; but, as to thee, go and adorn the gay 
 triumph of thy conqueror, and suffer, in the sight of all Rome, the 
 tortures you have so justly merited.'* N» sooner had she spoken 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 101 
 
 these words, than, snatching up her children, she cut their throats, 
 threw them into the flames, then rushed headlong into them her- 
 self, and was followed by the deserters, where they all instantly 
 perished. 
 
 Thus tell the mighty Carthage 708 years after its building, and 
 about 608 years after the building of Rome. It contained an innu- 
 merable multitude of inhabitants, and, being twenty-four miles in 
 compass, continued burning seventeen days together. The con- 
 quering Scipio, after seeing this mighty pile in flames, could not help 
 weeping over its ruins. He did not enrich himself with the spoils 
 of this ill-fated country, but distributed them among his soldiers — 
 Remember, youthful reader, however prosperous fortune may be at 
 present, however flattering the bloom of life, calamities may overtake 
 you, and though you should be happy enough to escape them, do 
 not forget that old age, winch steals imperceptibly on you, will one 
 day lay you, as the power of Rome did Carthage, in the dust. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 From the destruction of Carthage to the Tear of Rome 650. 
 
 Soon after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans likewise con- 
 quered and demolished Corinth, which was one of the finest and 
 most beautiful cities in all Greece, because they had affronted the 
 Roman ambassadors, sent to dissolve the confederacy, and to leave 
 the cities in the government of their own peculiar lavs. 
 
 In the mean time Viriathus, a shepherd, who made himself cap- 
 tain of a band of robbers, and afterwards became general of a nu- 
 merous party of men like himself, stirred up so many nations in 
 Spain to rebellion, that the R mans were in danger of being dis- 
 possessed of that country. Viriathus having reduced Q. Fabius to 
 Buch extremity, that he was obliged to accept of equal teims. 
 Cacpio, who was consul the succeeding year, refused to abide with 
 those terms, and thereupon continued the war Tins consul hav- 
 ing bribed three of the friends of Viriathus, they murdered him in 
 his sleep. This was a matter of no small disgrace to Rome, and 
 particularly to Cacpio. It is amazing that a people, who had con- 
 quered the most powerful nations then in being, should be guilty of 
 such, an enormous crime to get rid of one man. Ore would almost 
 imagine, that this man had rendered himself as formidable to 
 the Romans as ever was Hannibal, since they took the same road to 
 get rid of both. 
 
 In the year of Rome 612, the war was carried on with the great- 
 est vigour in Spain, where the Romans made but a very indifferent 
 figure, being several times repulsed by the Numantines, \\ ho at 
 last obliged them to accept of a peace no ways honourable to the 
 Romans. 
 
102 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 The war proving every year more unsuccessful, the Romans hav- 
 ing sustained great losses, in 'he year of Home 616, Mancinus was 
 sent to command in Spain, who was defeated in four engagements. 
 In the last battle, the Numantines seized his camp, after attacking 
 them in a narrow passage, where tiny fought with the greatest ad- 
 vantage, and made him submit to a most inglorious peace. 
 
 The senate was exasperated with Mancinus, and refused to ratify 
 his peace. They stripped him quite naked, and, tying his hands 
 behind him, sent him to the enemy, that they might revenge them- 
 selves on him for their breaking the ignominious peace l/e had con- 
 cluded. The enemy, however, would not receive him, saying, the 
 bio d of one person was net a sufficient expiation for the breach of 
 public faith 
 
 The war with the Numantines continued till the year of Rome 
 622; and, till that time, the Romans were defeated in almost every 
 battle. The senate, exasperated at their ill success, now resolved 
 to send Scipio, who had destroyed Carthage. He had no sooner 
 taken on him the command, than he began to restore the discipline 
 of the troops, the want of which had been the chief cause of their 
 ill success ; and, in fifteen months after his arrival in bpain, lefp 
 Numautia in ashes. 
 
 If we compare the Numantines with the R mans, we shall find 
 that the former had as much bravery and greatness of Boul as the 
 latter, if we may give the name of bravery and greatness to what 
 would, in these times, be considered as savage bru'ality. The 
 Numantines, oppressed by famine, and despairing of obtaining from 
 Scipio any other terms, than that of surrendering at discretion, mur- 
 dered their wives and children, to prevent their falling into the 
 hands of the Romans, and burnt them with their most precious 
 elFects : after this, the) either killed themselves, or rushed into the 
 midst of the Roman army, where they were all cut to pieces, hardly 
 a man being left to adorn Scipio's triumph. This famous city, 
 with only 4000 men, supported a siege of nine years against 
 40,000 Romans, whom they beat in several battles. Un Scipio's 
 return to Rome, to the surname of Africanus was now added that of 
 Nun antinus. 
 
 In proportion as Rome grew powerful in her conquests abroad, 
 her citizens grew weak and enervated at home. Those, who had 
 formerly been accustomed to brave the most threatening dangers 
 and the most toilsome labours, were now sinking into effeminacy, 
 ease, and affluence, and the love of arms were succeeded by that 
 of riches and splendour. To t his fatal degeneracy was owing 
 the fall of the grandeur, and the destruction of the happiness of 
 Rome; their ambition and thirst after honours and dignities; 
 their avarice, which s>on banished plain dealing, justice, probity, 
 and all the social virtues; their pride, cruelty, contempt of the 
 gods, and mercenary prostitution of every thing; their ambition, 
 which taught them the art of dissimulation, and the use of good or 
 bad means to arrive at their several ends ; all these, combined to- 
 gether, hastened their destruction. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 103 
 
 These vices, having- once taken root, like poisonous weeds, are 
 difficult to be eradicated. The government of Rome, once so fa- 
 mous for justice and lenity, now degenerated" into cruelty and op- 
 pression. Though the Romans, indeed, after this period, con- 
 quered many powerful nations, though learning, and the polite arts 
 were continually increasing-, yet every thing was sullied at home by 
 inglorious factions, jealousies and feuds, which were sometimes 
 carried even to the destruction of each other, of which Tiberius 
 Gracchus was the first remarkable instance. 
 
 This man, who was of a restless disposition, had been concerned 
 in the dishonourable treaty concluded by Mancinua in Spain ; and 
 being reflected upon on that account by the senate, he endeavoured 
 to make himself popular by taking the part of the poor peasants, 
 who were dispossessed of their lands by the rich ; whereby the 
 public was defrauded of its revenues, and the poor of their sub- 
 sistence. 
 
 Being elected tribune, he enacted* several laws in behalf of the 
 poor, which obliged the patricians to give up a considerable part of 
 their estates. Disputes running high between Gracchus and the 
 senate, the latter commanded Mutius Scxvola, the consul, to de- 
 fend the commonwealth by force of arms ; but he refused. Imme- 
 diately Scipio Nasica, then Pontifex Maximus, and Gracchus's 
 kinsman, a person of great merit, and friend to the common- 
 wealth, went to seek Gracchus at the capitol, calling aloud to 
 all those who had the welfare of their country at heart to follow 
 him. 
 
 At these words the senators, the principal patricians, and the 
 greatest part of the Roman knights, with such of the people, armed 
 with clubs and staves, as had not joined in the insurrection, rushed 
 upon Gracchus, while he was haranguing the populace, and beat out 
 his brains, killing also 300 of his followers at the same time. 
 
 This was the first sedition after the expulsion of the kings, which 
 ended in the effusion of blood. After the fall of Gracchus there 
 was no tribune who had courage or generosity enough to espouse 
 the part of the oppressed. Avarice and self-interest produced a 
 servile submission to the will of the great, and the regard the Ro- 
 mans once had for their country was now totally forgotten. Pride 
 and luxury succeeded that noble disinterestedness, to which Rome 
 owed its power and grandeur. 
 
 in the year of Rome G25, the number of free citizens who were 
 cessed amounted to 330,825. In the year 631, notwithstanding 
 the precautions taken to hinder Carthage from ever being rebuilt, 
 in less than twenty-five years after its destruction, and even in 
 Scipio's life-time, Cains, younger bother of Tiberius Gracchus, 
 in order to make himself popular, undertook to rebuild it, and con- 
 ducted thither a colony of 6000 citizens for that purpose. The 
 senate did all in their power to interrupt it, as they were informed 
 of several unlucky omens at the time of laying the foundation: 
 but the tribunes, who were not overscrupulous in religious mat 
 
104 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 ters, went on with the building and finished it in a few days, 
 was the first colony bent out oj 1 
 
 Cams Gracchu6 being appointed one « fthe triumviri for dividing 
 the lands, gave great offence to the Italians, who thought them- 
 . with great severity, and called in Scipio to their 
 ction ; who did ith that vigour, the people expected. 
 
 Not long- after. S is oi;e morni g found dead in his bed : 
 
 his wife, Sempronia, and Cornelia, Ins mother-in-law, who was 
 mother of the Gracchi, being d bite. 
 
 He was, at the time of I , ah Hit fil 
 
 and possessed every qualification necessary in the w i the 
 
 senator. Jle knew 
 
 bow to employ his leisi eat delicacy and taste: he di- 
 
 vided his time between the toi , I the peaceful study 
 
 of the best authors: between the military labours of the camp and 
 the quiet business of lh< an example to 
 
 those of the most illi rth, as well », either dig- 
 
 nified with t is, that they .should 
 
 improve tl. I foi tify tl 
 
 ho lived before them." Hu- 
 man life is < row limits, therefore know little 
 of itself: 1. i it, that we should call it * 
 
 nee such things, whi< ike the pains to inquire 
 
 into them, will at oi n we ought to ; 
 
 arrive at glory. In readii g history, we are shown by what n 
 some have sunk into obscurity, and others risen to the hi.. 
 pitch of grandeur ; v. tabled to choose the good, and 
 
 vil, without buying knowledge at the highest" puce of 
 experience. 
 
 Caius Gracchus now carried things with a high hand, and even 
 raised an • consul published a proclamation 
 
 offering to any person, who should bring the bead of Cams, the 
 weight <d* it in gold. Cam-, nowdoubting the stability of the | 
 lace who had joined him, alter bo great a reward offered fof 
 his head, 6ew to u g d to the furies, on the other 
 
 Bide the Fiber, where, believing it not possible for him to escape 
 those who wire in search of h m, lie prevailed crates his 
 
 faithful slave, to kill him ich Philocrates murdered him- 
 
 self on ihc body of his master. This happened about the year of 
 63 1 • 
 
 Much about this time, or S'»on after, Fabius Miximus, over- 
 threw Bituitus, king of t lie Arverni, or people of Auvergne in 
 Fiance, and lock him and his son prisoners, aft. I killing 12 ,000 of 
 his men. This bloody battle was fought near the banks of the 
 Rhone ; and F ibius Maximus, at his return to Home, was honoured 
 with a triumph. 
 
 The king of Numi lift, named Masinissa, having three legitimate 
 sons, had ordered, by his last will, that his dominions should 
 divided among them by Scipio, which he afterwards did with the 
 most impartial justice. The youngest of these sons left also a 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 105 
 
 called Jugurtha, whom a concubine had brought bin). The vir- 
 tues of this young prince had rendered him the darling of the 
 Numidians : lie was a master of the most delicate wit r.nd solid 
 judgment, and did not devote himself, as young men commonly do, 
 to a life of hixuary and pleasure : he used to exercise himself in 
 all manly sports with the young nobility; and, though he exceeded 
 them all" in judgment and activity, he never appeared to pride him- 
 self on that consideration. 
 
 So conspicuous an assemblage of fine talents and perfections be- 
 gan to excite the jealousy of Micipsai his father's eldest brother, 
 who was then king of Numidra, and he therefore resolved to ruin 
 him. For this purpose, he gave Jugurtha the command of the 
 forces, which he sent to the Romans, who, at that time, were be- 
 sieging Numantia, under the conduct of Scipii , Battering himself, 
 that his natural impetuosity would hurry him into danger, and cause 
 him to lose his life. 
 
 Mioipaa was herein mis*akcn ; for this young prince joined to an 
 undaunted courage the utm rst calmness of mind, and preserved so 
 nice a conduct during the , ! h<d he won the good will of 
 
 the whole army; insomuch that Scipio, after the destruction of 
 Numantia, sent him back to his uncle with letters filled with the 
 highest compliments. 
 
 Micipsa now changed his opinion of his nephew, and determined 
 if possible, to win Ids affections b; j. lie accord 
 
 adopted him, and, by his last will, made him joint h-ir with 
 two sons H*PP) would it h:.\e been for Jugurtha, had he, after 
 the death of Micipsa, shown the same love for virtue he had during 
 his lifetime; but he was one of those examples which show that 
 politicians do not rank gratitude in the number of their virtues. 
 
 At last, interest and ambition, those powerful motives to every 
 f'il action, prompted him to turn his r _•- the 
 
 family of Micipsa of that 
 
 tude to p- N umi- 
 
 dia, he resolved to destroy Hiempsal and Adh< rl al, the two young 
 princes. Hiempsal he found n ans to gi J, and this was 
 
 nrst victim lie saci fie on, 
 
 Adherbal, terrified at this wicked deed, fled with the utmost pre- 
 cipitation into his own province; and thi of a v\aiiike dis- 
 position, he found himself obi arms, as well for his 
 own security, as to r< urlha gave him 
 battle, conquered him, an I 
 
 his life, was obliged to di the favour of which 
 
 he hastened to the Roman ..'ice. 
 
 Jugurtha was uneasy at Ad scape, and the more so, as 
 
 he had heart! he was gone to Rome ta cl lim theii protection. He 
 immediately sent ambassadors thither, with orders to bribe the 
 principal senators, by which means they wen b< 
 Adherbal. Jugurtha therefoi I every thing he wanted 
 
 at present, and Lower Numidia only was allowed to Adherbal. 
 
iOG ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 When every thing seemed to be amicably settled, Jugurtha, with- 
 out paying the least regard to the late regulation made by the Ro- 
 mans, commenced hostilities against Adherbal, and, having reduc- 
 ed him to the utmost extremity, made him large promises on his 
 surrender: but he no sooner saw himself master of the city, than 
 he cut the Numidi3n garrison to pieces, and put Adheibal to death 
 in the most cruel manner. 
 
 Various were the opinions of the Romans on this treacherous be- 
 haviour of Jugurlha. The most equitable senators thought the 
 tyrant ought to be instantly destroyed ; but those, who had received 
 his bribes, were of a different way of thinking. C Memmius, who 
 had been newly elected tribune of the people, and whose greatest 
 care was to curb the authority of the great, made an elegant speech 
 in the senate on this occasion, in which were the following very re- 
 markable words : " Integrity is quite banished from the senate^ and 
 justice is fled from it : money is the tyrant of Rome, and the people 
 have fatally experienced, that gold is the only deity of the nobles; 
 these make a public traffic of their faith and thei'r honour. The 
 glory and interest of the state are now sunk into venality, the ma- 
 jesty of the empire has been betrayed, and the republic has been 
 sold, both in tl>e army, and in Home itself." 
 
 This speech had its proper effect, and the senators immediately 
 ordered one of the consuls to cross into Africa, at the head of a 
 powerful army. Long was this war, :.ru\ various its successes ; Ju- 
 gurtha being esteemed a second Hannibal. At last, he, who bad 
 been so long accustomed to treacherj and deceit, was himself de- 
 livered up to the Romans by Bocchus, his father-in-law. 
 
 It is reported, that Jugurtha ran distracted as he was walking in 
 chains to adorn the triumph of Matins. After the ceremony was 
 ended, he was cast info prison, when the lictors were so eager to 
 seize h'13 robe, that they rent it in several pieces, and tore away the 
 tips of his ears, to get the rich jewels, with which they were adorn- 
 ed. In this condition, he was thrown, stark naked, and in the 
 •utmost terror, into a deep dungeon, doomed to be his grave, where 
 he lived six days struggling with hunger. The fruitless desire of 
 prolonging life served as a punishment to a king, who had made no 
 scruple to murder his relations and principal courtiers, whenever it 
 tended to gratify his ambition. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 From the Tear of Rome 650, to the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla. 
 
 About the year of Rome 650, and but a short time after the 
 defeat of Jugurtha, the consuls Mallius or Manlius, and Caepio, 
 who had been continued as proconsul, received a most severe 
 shock on the banks of the Rhone, losing upwards of 80,000 men. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 107 
 
 Manlius fell in the battle; but Caepio, unadvisedly returning to 
 Rome, was murdered, and his body thrown into the fields. 
 
 Two years afterwards Marius; who was now a fourth time elect- 
 ed consul, marched towards the Teutones, defeated them, and took 
 Teutobobus, their king-, prisoner, after a slaughter of 140,000 men. 
 On this account Marius was a fifth time created consul. 
 
 In the mean time the Cimbri and Teutones, whose numbers were 
 still immense, passed over into Italy. They were engaged by 
 Caius Marius and Quinlus Catulus, in which battle Catulus gained 
 the greatest advantage, and besides 60,000 taken prisoners, above 
 double that number were slain, whereby almost the whole nation 
 wa9 extirpated. Of the Roman soldiers, in both armies, 300 only 
 were slain. Of the thirty-three standards taken from the Cimbri, 
 Marius's party took only two, but Catulus's thirty-one. This put 
 an end to the war, and a triumph was decreed "both the consuls. 
 In this battle, the wives of the Cimbri made an unparalleled re- 
 sistance from their chariots ; but, finding the battle desperate, they 
 murdered all their children, and afterwards themselves, that they 
 might not survive their loss. 
 
 Marius, after this, got himself elected consul a sixth time, and 
 procured L. Valerius Flaccus to be chosen his colleague, in preju- 
 dice of Metellus, which he accomplished by the most shameful arti- 
 fices. At this time, there was not the least freedom in elections, 
 every thing being decided by corruption and venality, an 1, where 
 that failed, violence was made use of. Rome, entirely unlike what 
 she formerly was, seems at this time to have been the seat of tyran- 
 ny and oppression. 
 
 Caius Marius, now the sixth time consul, as just mentioned, kind- 
 led the first civil war in Rome. Sylla the consul, being sent to take 
 upon him the management of the war against Mithridates, who had 
 possessed himself of Asia and Achaia, and detaining his army a 
 little in Campania, in order to extinguish the remains of a dange- 
 rous war, which had broke out in Italy, Marius attempted to get the 
 command of the war against Mithridates. Svlla, being incensed at 
 these proceedings, marched to Rome with his army, and there 
 fought Marius and Sulpicius. In this battle, he slew Sulpicius, and 
 put Marius to flight : then, having settled Cneus Octavius and 
 Lucius Cornelius Cmna in the consulship for the succeeding year, 
 :ie departed into Asia. 
 
 Mithridates, who was king of Pontus, and possessed Armenia 
 Minor and the whole circumference ofthe Pontic sea, with the Bos- 
 phorus, first attempted to expel Nicomedes, an ally ofthe Roman 
 people, out of Bitbynia, sending word to the senate, that he was 
 preparing to make war upon him, on account of the injuries he 
 had received at his hands. 
 
 The senate sent answer back to Mithridates, that, if he did, he 
 himself should feel the weight of the Roman arms. Enraged at 
 this reply, he immediately seized on Cappadocia, expelling the king 
 and ally of the Roman people thence. He then marched to Ephe- 
 
 10 
 
ROMAX HISTORY. 
 
 sus.and despatched circular letters into all parts of Asia, ordei 
 that wherever any Roman citizens should be found, they should be 
 all put to deaih in one day. 
 
 In the mean time, Athens also, a city of Achaia, was delivered 
 into the hands of Mithridates, by Aristion the Athenian ; for Mi- 
 thridates had despatched hie general into Achaia, with 120,000 
 horse and foot, bv whom the rest of Greece was likewise seized. 
 A battle being afterwards fought by the Romans and the army of 
 Mithridates, the latter was so entirely defeated, that, out of 
 120.000, scarce 10,000 remained, whereas the Romans lost only 
 14,000: a loss, which, in those days of blood and slaugther, was 
 deemed as nothing. 
 
 Mithridates, on receiving the news of this defeat, despatched 
 70,000 select troops to his general, 20,000 of which were slam in 
 the first battle, and in the second they were all cot oil*. The gen- 
 eral was obliged to hide himself, for three days, naked in the fens \ 
 upon which Mithridates began to think of treating about peace with 
 Sylla. 
 
 'While Rome was all in confusion, being exasperated with the 
 arbitrary conduct of Sylla, who was then employed in the wars in 
 Asia, Manus lived in a kind of exile, in an island nn the coast of 
 Africa, whither he had fled with his son and some Roman senators, 
 who followed Ins fortune. This unhappy Manus, being then seven- 
 ty yean of age, who had so long enjoyed the highest glory in 
 Kome, had been forced to fly from that city on foot, unattended 
 even bv a single servant. After wandering some time in this de- 
 plorable condition, he was obliged, in order to secure himself from 
 his pursuers, to retire into a fen, where he passed the whole night, 
 standing up to his neck in mud. 
 
 At daybreak he quitted his uncomfortable place of concealment, 
 in order" to reach the seashore, hoping to meet with some vessel 
 to carry him out of Italy. However, he was soon known by the 
 inhabitants of a neighbouring town, who seized him, and, putting a 
 rope about his neck, naked and covered with dirt as he was, drag- 
 ged him to prison ; when die magistrates, in obedience to the order 
 of the senate, immediately sent a public slave to kill him. 
 
 Marius, as soon as he saw the slave enter, guessed on what er- 
 rand he came, by the nuked sword he held in his hand. Marius 
 then cried out, with a voice of authority, il Barbarods wre'eh, dar- 
 cst thou to assassinate Caius Marius ?" The slave, terrifr d • . the 
 name of a man, so formidable t.> his nation, threw down his sword, 
 and ran out of prison in the utmost ten-or and c nfution, enring, 
 "It will he impossible for me to kill Manus!" The magistrates 
 looked upon the timidity of this slave, as a testimony of the gods 
 to preserve the life of that great man: " Let him go (said they) 
 wherever the fates may conduct him, and let the decree of the 
 senate take place against him in any other spot than this We only 
 beseech the gods to forgive us, it a superior authority forces us 
 to drive from'our City, the man who formerly secured all Italy from 
 the incursions of the barbarians." They afterwards provided him 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 109 
 
 with a ship, which carried him to the island of vEnaria. This lis 
 one of the many instances that may be produced, that nothing so 
 much procures. us assistance under our misfortunes, as bearing up 
 against them with boldness and intrepidity. Had Marius acted 
 the weak or effeminate part at this time, he must have fallen a sa- 
 crifice to the unnatural war then carrying on in his country. 
 
 Marius being informed that his son was fled to the court of the 
 king of Numidia, he sailed t'-n- Africa ; but a storm arising, he was 
 obliged to put into Sicily, where new dangers awaited him. Scarce 
 had he got on shore, when a Roman quaestor, who commanded in 
 that country, attempted to seize him ; hut Marius escaped to his 
 ship, after losing sixteen of his attendants, who sacrified themselves 
 to save him. 
 
 After some days sail he arrived in Africa, and landed near Car- 
 lhage. Sextilius was then praetor of that province j and as lie had 
 never given him any umbrage, he had no reason to expect an ene- 
 my in him ; but he had not been there many days, when a Lictor 
 came, and ordered him, in ih<- | aetor*s name, to leave the country, 
 otherwise he must expect to bt treated as an enemy to the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 Marius, enraged to find that a resting-place was no where allow- 
 ed him, and that not even a corner was left him to hide his head 
 in, gazed upon the lictor in deep silence. At last, an answer be- 
 ing demanded, u Tell thy master," said he, "that thou h*Bt seen 
 Marius banished from his native country* and sitting on the ruins 
 of Carthage" It should seem as though, by comparing his mis- 
 fortunes with those of the mighty empire of the Carthaginians, he 
 thereby would remind the praetor of the instability of all human 
 things. 
 
 V t withstanding the severity of the season, he submitted him- 
 self again to the ocean, and spent part cf the winter in roving up 
 and down those seas. However, a short time after, we see Ma- 
 rius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorius, matching at the head of an ar- 
 m> to block up Rome. Sylla being at too great a distance to be re- 
 called, the seiNite sent fur Caecilitts Melellus, a very brave and ex- 
 perienced general. 
 
 Rome was now in the utmost confusion, and the senate, to put 
 an end to these distractions, sent a deputation to Cinna, by which 
 the) recognised him as consul; upon which Metellus finding af- 
 fairs grow desperate, he withdrew to Liguria. (inna then enter- 
 ed the city first, attended by his guards, after having made a sol- 
 emn promise, not to put any person to death in an illegal manner. 
 Mariirs", after having halted at the gates some time, and there pre- 
 te n d e d a reverence to the laws, at last threw off the veil, which 
 concealed his bloodthirsty soul, and rushing into the city with a 
 party of soldiers, immediately butchered those he had marked out 
 for destruction. Several illustrious senators were murdered in 
 the streets, and made the first victims to the inglorious revenge of 
 Marius. He ordered their heads to be set upon the Rostra, and, 
 as though he wished to extend his vengeance even beyond the 
 
HO ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 grave, he ordered the mangled bodies to be left in the streets, that 
 they night be devoured by the dogs : so soon had he forgotten how 
 mucli he himself so lately stood in need of pity ! 
 
 Among the multitude who fell in this bloody massacre was Oc- 
 tayius the consul, who was killed in his tribunal ; and Merula, the 
 priest of Jupiter, hearing that he was proscribed, ordered his veins 
 to be cut open, that his enemies might not have the cruel satisfaction 
 of prescribing the mode of his execution. Afterwards fell Mark 
 Antony, a senator of consular dignity, who, by the charms of his 
 eloquence, defended himself a considerable time against the fury of 
 the soldiers ; and Catulus suffocated himself by the smoke of coals. 
 The furious multitude of slaves, whom Marius had appointed the 
 bloody instruments of his inhuman revenge, murdered the fathers 
 of families, plundered houses, ravished women, and forced away 
 children: at the least signal given by their inglorious leader, they 
 butchered any person, and he even commandedthem to kill all those 
 whose salute he did not return. 
 
 Marios, having now glutted himself with the blood of his fellow 
 citizens, and a kind of calm succeeding this honible storm, he 
 began to revolve in his mind his former misfortunes, and the dan- 
 gers he had experienced both by sea and land. These reflections 
 were aggravated by the apprehension of Sjlla's return, when, in all 
 human probability, he should be again reduced to the like calami- 
 ties. To drive those horrible images from his mind he took to 
 drinking, but the excess he gave into brought on him a pleurisy, of 
 which he died in his seventh consulate, no man having enjoyed that 
 office so many times, and in the seventieth year of Ins age. 
 
 Young Marius, inheriting both the power and cruelty of his fa- 
 ther, immediately put to death several senators, who had escaped 
 the first fury of the proscription. While matters were in this 
 disorder and confusion at Home, where they were taking all possible 
 steps to destroy Sylla, that general was conquering Mithridates, 
 with whom he concluded a peace on such terms as himself prescribe 
 ed, and then marched for Home. 
 
 In the year of Rome 667, on the report of Sylla being on his 
 march to the city, Cinna and Carbo. who were then consuls, raised 
 a powerful army to oppose him, but a mutiny happening in that 
 division of the army commanded by Cinna, that general was run 
 through the body. After his death Carbo enjoyed the consulate alone 
 the remaining part of the year. 
 
 Sylla being come to the sea shore of Asia, his whole army bound 
 themselves to him by a fresh oath. He then embarked, and land- 
 ed safe at Brandusium, without meeting with the least opposition. 
 While his troops were refreshing themselves there, he was joined 
 by Metellus, at the head of a great body of new levied forces, and 
 also by Marcus Crassus, who shared v\ith Sylla in all the glory and 
 danger of this war; but, of all the succours Sylla was favoured 
 with on this occasion, none gave him so much satisfaction as that 
 brought him by Pompey, called afterwards Pompey the Great, and 
 at that time scarce twenty-three years of age. His army consist- 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 1 11 
 
 ed of three legions, and he had been forced to fight his way t,o 
 Sylla, after having given Brutus, a leader in the other party, a signal 
 overthrow. Sylla received Pompey with the highest marks of dis- 
 tinction, and gave him the title of Imperator, notwithstanding he 
 had not yet sat in the senate. 
 
 In the year of Rome 671, Carbo, being elected consul a third 
 time, with young Manus, in the spring both armies took the field. 
 Being come in sight of each other, Marius offered bailie to Sylla. 
 who accepted the challenge. Both parties fought with incredible 
 bravery, and victory was long in doubt, till Sylla found means to 
 corrupt five cohorts, which turned out to the disadvantage of Ma- 
 rius, who displayed in the battle all the capacity of a veteran gen- 
 eral, and the intrepid valour of a young officer : he often rallied his 
 troops, returned to the charge, and was one of the last who retired. 
 Sylla, having- now blocked up Marius in Pi icneste, set out for Rome 
 at the head of a detachment ; and, on his arrival (here, the gates 
 were opened to him. 
 
 After having settled matters in Rome to his own mind, he return- 
 ed to the siege of Praenests. Marius finding it impossible for him 
 to escape, slew himself, after which Sylla put all the inhabitants of 
 Praeneste to the sword, the women and children excepted. Sylla 
 then entered Rome at the head of his triumphant army, and his 
 lieutenants possessed themselves of all the cities in Italy. Such 
 was the conclusion of these lamentable civil wars, which las'ed ten 
 years, and occasioned the destruction of more than 150,000 men, 
 twenty. four of consular dignity, seven of praetorian, sixty of 'xdilitian, 
 and near three hundred senators. 
 
 Sylla no sooner found himself in the absolute possession of Rome, 
 than he commenced the tyrant, and perpetrated the most shocking 
 cruelties. He caused an inhuman massaci e to be made of 6000 men, 
 who had Med to that city, to avoid the death with which they were 
 threatened. Not long a'ter, he caused to be posted up in the forum 
 the names of forty senators, and 1600 knights, all of whom he pro- 
 scribed. Two days after, he proscribed the like number of sena- 
 tors, and a multitude ol the wealthiest citizens of Rome, merely for 
 the sake of their effects. 
 
 Such slaves as had assassinated their masters were largely recom- 
 pensed for their treachery ; and, to the immortal scandal of Sylla, 
 children were seen, their hands reeking with the blood ol the 
 thers, coming to ask a horrid reward for having murdered them. 
 Quintus Aurelius, a peaceable citizen, who had always lived in a 
 happy obscurity, wfthout being known to either Marius or Sylla, was 
 proscribed and murdered, for the sake of a fine house he had built 
 in Alba. Nothing was now heard of every day but new proscrip- 
 tions, and no man was sure one hour that he should not be massa- 
 cred 'he next. 
 
 S>lla then seized on all the possessions, houses, and territories 
 
 of such cities of Italy as had, in the course of the civil war, sided 
 
 with Marius, and ga*e them to his soldiers, theieby binding them 
 
 the stronger to his fortune arid mterests. After this, he caused 
 
 10 * 
 
U 2 
 
 M IflaTOAi. 
 
 himself to be created perpetual dictator, and, in this manner, the 
 unhappy Romans fell again under the tyranny of one ma<\ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 From the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla, to the Uirjh of Augustus 
 
 Ccesar. 
 
 ovlla, being- now appointed perpetual dictator, changed the 
 form of government to his own liking ; l»e abolished the old laws, 
 enacted new ones, seized upon the public treasury, and disposed of 
 every thing just as he pleased. He was as liberal to his friends as 
 he was implacable and cruel to his enemies, enriching the former 
 with the plunder of the state, and inhumanly butchering the latter. 
 
 There is something very amazing in the character of Sylla, who, 
 after having three years reigned with a kind of absolute dominion in 
 Rome, and when there w;is no power to oppose his will, in the year 
 of Rome 675, resigned the honour of dictator, and, to the surprise 
 of all the world, reduced himself to the condition of a private citizen, 
 without fearing the just resentment of those illustrious families, 
 whose chiefs he had butchered in the most cruel manner. It was 
 not long before, that he appointed twenty-four lictors, with their 
 fasces and axes, and a strong body-guard, to attend him constantly ; 
 but we now see him walking unguarded in the forum with some of 
 his friends, in the preset ce I f thousands of the people, who, struck 
 with astonishment, considered this unexpected change as a prodigy. 
 
 He returned home in the evening, unattended, and as a private man ; 
 and, though his conduct must have raised him a multiplicity of en- 
 emies, not one person dared to insult him, except a \ oung man who 
 imprudently made u-c of some scurrilous language. Sy Ha, however, 
 took no farther notic e . \ it than saying, in a kind of prophetic strain, 
 that behaviour like this would deter any man, who should arrivi 
 a high pitch of power, from resigning it. 
 
 The Romans in general considered thisrevgnation as the highest 
 mark of magnanimity : they endeavoured to forget the remembrance 
 of his horrid proscriptions, and in some degree pardoned the many 
 murders he had been the cause of, since he hauWt last restored lib- 
 erty to his oppressed country. There were those, however, who, 
 with some reason, ascribed his resignation to the perpetual alarms 
 lie was in, lest there should be one Roman, who had still virtue 
 enough left to hazard his own life in destroying a monster, who 
 had been the death of so many illustrious citizens. 
 
 Sylla, however, after shedding so much human blood, died 
 
 seably in his bed; but his body was putrified, and turned into 
 
 \,rc. Historians tlo not agree concerning the disorder of which. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. H3 
 
 he died, and which only could account for this extraordinary inci- 
 dent. He wrote his own epitaph a few days before he expired, 
 which shews that he had sense enough, in spite of his insatiable 
 thirst for riches and power, which drew a veil over the finest un- 
 derstanding, to be sensible of the character he deserved, and in 
 which every succeeding- age has agreed. The purport of his epi- 
 taph was, •• No man ever did more good offices to his friends : no 
 man ever was more cruel to his enemies." His body was carried 
 in great pomp through Rome, and was the first which was burnt in 
 that city, in order to prevent its being treated like that of Marius, 
 whose bones, by Sylla's orders, were dug up and scattered about. 
 Upon the whole, inglorious revenge seems to have been the darling 
 passion of Sylla. 
 
 After the death of Sylla, Rome was again disturbed by civil con- 
 tentions, which no one had dared to attempt while Sylla was living. 
 Ambition, and the thirst after honours and power, are not always 
 centered in the man who has abilities to support them ; the weak 
 and the giddy think they can do as much as the knowing and ex- 
 perienced, till they find their mistake in their ruin. 1 shall, however, 
 pass over these matters, and hasten to a circumstance, which seems 
 to have given the Romans no small trouble, and which may serve 
 to convince us, how perilous it is to treat the mere appearance of 
 danger with indifference. 
 
 About the year of Rome 680, a gladiator of great bravery, whose 
 name was Spartacus, having escaped from Capua, with seventy of 
 his companions, exhorted them to sacrifice their lives f>r the de- 
 fence of their liberties, rather than serve as spectacles to the inhu- 
 manity of their patrons. Then wandering through the neighbour- 
 ing countries, and increasing their number, they commenced a dan- 
 gerous war in Italy. 
 
 The Senate despising Spartacus, sent at first but a few troops, 
 headed by two pr«eiors, to 9ubdue him, thinking it beneath the dig- 
 nity of the commonweath to oppose the legions to a heid of slaves 
 and vagabonds. Spartacus, however, cut them all to pieces, which 
 surprised and exasperated the senate. 
 
 I lie affair became now very serious, and the consuls each at the 
 head of a very considerable arm}', were ordered to march against 
 them. These magistrates inconsiderately persuading themselves, 
 that a body of slaves and vagabonds would not dare to look the 
 legions in the face, marched very carelessly to meet the enemy, 
 -. ho, taking a proper advantage <>f their negligence, made so skilful a 
 choice of the field of battle, that the Romans were put to the flight. 
 The consuls rallied them some time after, and came to a second 
 engagement ; but, to their disappointment and disgrace, were again 
 repulsed. 
 
 Spartacus, having gained this victory over the legions, soon found 
 himself at the head of 120,000 peasants, slaves, and deserters, 
 who, having no ideas of honour or humanity, spread horror and 
 desolation wherever they went. This i" *meslic war having- raged 
 three years in Italy, the senate gave the command of the Roman 
 
114 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 army to Licinius Crassus, who soon gave a new face to the appear- 
 ance of the war. 
 
 Crassus suou restored good discipline among the troops, and con- 
 vinced ihe Romans, that, under his command, they must either 
 conquer or die. The rebels were at first surprised, and 20,000 of 
 them cut to pieces, as they were out on a party of foraging; after 
 which their army, commanded by Spartacus himstlf, was defeated 
 in a pitched battle : however, lie determined once more to try the 
 fate of arms, and accordingly very skilfully drew up his forces in 
 order of battle. A horse being brought him just before the battle, 
 he drew his sword, killed it, and then, turning about to his soldiers, 
 said, "It 1 am victorious I shall not want a horse; and if we are 
 defeated, I will not make use of one." 
 
 This reply so animated ins soldiers, that they fought with the ut- 
 most fury, and victory remained doubtful for a long time; but, at 
 last, the valour of the legions carried every thing before It. A. ter- 
 rible slaughter was made of these vagabonds : Spartacus himself 
 being wounded in the thigh by a javelin, defended himself obsti- 
 natel) on his knees, holding his shield in one hand, and his sword 
 with the other; but, being at last covered with wounds, he fell on a 
 heap, either of Romans whom he had sacrificed to his fury, or of his 
 own soldiers, who had lost their lives in defending him. Such of 
 them as escaped wave afterwards all cut to pieces by Pompey, who 
 met them in Ins return from Spain 
 
 About this lime, anno GS2, Rome was found to contain 450,000 
 free citizens, notwithstanding the long and bloody wars they had 
 been engaged in. Learning and the polite aits, gained ground 
 considerably, and with them corruption, faction, pi ,de and effemi- 
 nacy. 
 
 In the mean time the war was going on against Mithridates, who 
 had fled to Tigranes, king of Armenia. It ma) not be amiss here 
 to mention one instance of the vanity and ostentation of this Arme- 
 nian king. Having obtained some conquests, he was grown so in- 
 supportably proud, that he obliged four kin^s, whom he had taken 
 prisoners, to run by his side, like so many footmen ; and, when he 
 was seated on his throne, made them stand before him in a dejected 
 posture, with folded arms — Deluded Tigranes, blinded with vanity 
 and presumption, you could not reflect on the short duration of 
 human life, and that even that life, short as it is, is every moment 
 producing unexpected vicissitudes ! You could not foresee, that 
 you, who then thought yourself a god, would, in a short time, be 
 conquered by the Roman Lucullus ; that jour own capitol would 
 be taken by that general, and yourself driven to distress ! Happy 
 those, whom misfortunes teach wisdom ! but happier those whose 
 wisdom prevents them ! 
 
 About the year of Rome 684, Crassus and Pompey being elect- 
 ed consuls, each endeavoured to excel 'he other in the affections 
 of the people, not on laudable, but on ambitious motives. Crassus, 
 in order to gain them to » . interest, ordered a thousand tables 
 to be spread, and gave an entertainment to the whole city. — 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 115 
 
 At the same time, he distributed among the lower sort of people 
 corn sufficient to subsist them three months. Crassus was im- 
 mensely rich ; and, by such public and liberal artifices, the great 
 men in Rome purchased the votes of the people. 
 
 Pompey, on his side, in order to ingratiate himself with the tri- 
 bunes of the people, restored to those magistrates all the authority 
 of which Sylla had deprived them. Thus these ambitious men in 
 turn sported with the laws ; increased the power of the senate one 
 moment, and in the next, that of the people, just as it suited their 
 different interests. Pompey, however, carried his point ; for the 
 tribunes soon after, gave him the command against some pirates 
 who infested the coast of Cilicia, and invested him with absolute 
 authority. He was allowed 500 ships, 120, 000 foot, 5000 horse, 
 6000 Attic talents, and the power of choosing fifteen lieutenants 
 out of the senate. 
 
 With these forces Pompey took near 400 ships and 120 firts, 
 killing 10,000 men. — Thus, in one campaign, he put an end to the 
 war, behaving with great clemency towards the vanquished, and 
 was honoured with a triumph. Pompey was now so high in esteem 
 with the people, that they took from Lucullus the command of 
 the army in Asia, then employed against Mithridates, and gave it 
 to him. Indeed, Pompey was now raised by the people to as high 
 a pitch of power as ever Sylla had acquired by his sword. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the cabals which were raised at Rome against 
 Lucullus, in favour of Pompey, the former on his return was hon- 
 oured with a triumph ; for he brought with him, among other 
 spoils, a great number of valuable books, of which he composed 
 a library. At his triumph were exhibited things of immense 
 value, and in particular a statue of Mithridates, of solid gold, sis 
 feet high, and his shield, enriched with a great number of precious 
 •tones. After his triumph, lie ingloriously sunk into luxury and 
 effeminacy. 
 
 Pompey, in the mean tine, pushed Mithridates closely ; and, 
 having defeated him in several banks, obliged him to fly from 
 place to place for shelter. The time too was now come, when 
 rigranes, that proud and haughty king of Armenia, was tube 
 convinced, (hat the tide or human iffairi does not always carry us 
 through the flowery meadowq of prosperity. Tigranes, being re- 
 duced to the utmost extn mities, went ami threw himself at the 
 Roman general's feet, gave him his diade m, and sued for peace. 
 Pompey returned the monarch his crown, and grai t'd him peace 
 upon certain conditions, which were gladly complied with. Pom- 
 pey seems to have differed very much from many of the Roman 
 generals, as he does not appear to have added cruelty to ambi- 
 tion. 
 
 In the year of Rome, 689, Pompey crossed mount Taurus, and 
 directed his march against Darius, the Mtde, and Antiochus, 
 Kmg of Syria, For molesting the Roman allies, • r C cc ur'mg their 
 enemies. ' Much about this time, Mithridates sent to Pompey to 
 ?ue for Peace. Pompey sent back for answer, that if he intended 
 
116 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 to make peace with him, he must come himself in person. Mithri- 
 dates could not persuade himself to this, and therefore renewed 
 hss warlike preparations. After this several of his garrisons revolt- 
 ed ; and many of his friends, with one of his sons, suffered death 
 on the occasion. 
 
 Mithridates determined to cross into Europe, to advance into 
 Italy, and there make the same havock as Hannibal had done be- 
 fore him ; but his soldiers, terrified at the dangers it. threatened, 
 refused to follow him : they looked upon him as a desperate prince 
 who, rather than live in obscurity, was determined to die with glory. 
 These mighty projects be had thus formed, hastened his ruin; 
 for his son, Pharnaces, taking the advantage of this temper of the 
 troops, stirred thera up to rebellion, and got himself proclaimed 
 king 
 
 Mithridates perceiving this from an upper room, sent a messen- 
 ger, desiring that he might have leave to depart ; but his son 
 sent him back this base and unnatural answer, that he must die. 
 Mithridates, justly exasperated with this answer, uttered many 
 terrible imprecations, and wished that his son might one day re- 
 ceive the same message from his own offspring. How terrible 
 must be the reflection, that this son, whom he had tenderly loved 
 and intended for his successor, was the very person who pronoun- 
 ced his destruction. And now, rather than fall into the hands of 
 the Romans, life being become insupportable, he determined to 
 deapatch himself. 
 
 He first gave poison to his wives, his daughters, and his concu- 
 bines, who all swallowed the fatal draught without the least mur- 
 muring, and then swallowed a dose himself; but, as he had been 
 accustomed to take antidotes, this had no effect on him. He then 
 begged an officer, his attendant, to kill him, who run him through 
 the body. Thus ended the Mithridatic war, having continued 
 twenty-five years ; after which all his dominions were added to the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 Pompey was at that time marching towards Jerusalem, and Ga- 
 binius, Pompey's lieutenant, having already taken the city, there 
 remained only the citadel to attack, which was vigorously defend- 
 ed by a party that had retired thither. Pompey invested it the 
 day after his arrival ; and, having lain before it three months, car- 
 ried it on a sabbath-day, and that with the greatest ease ; for the 
 Jews would not take up arms, even in their own defence, on that 
 day 
 
 Pompey went into the temple at the time the sacrifices were 
 performing, and cut to pieces 12,000 Jews. He and many of his 
 followers entered the Holy of Holies, where he viewed those things, 
 which none but the priests were allowed to behold. However, he 
 shewed so much veneration for. the place, that he forbore touching 
 any thing. Judea was reduced under the consulship of Cicero, the 
 same year that .ruugustus Csesar was born. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY, 117 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 -totn the Birth of Augustas Caesar to the Beginning of the Jirat Tn 
 umvirate. 
 
 Soon after the birth of Augustus Cxsar, one of the most danger- 
 ous conspiracies broke out that had ever threatened Rome. At the 
 head of this conspiracy was Lucius Sergius Catiline, who was de- 
 scended from a very illustrious patrician family of great antiquity. 
 He had been brought up amidst the tumults and disorders of a civil 
 war, and had been the instrument or the cruelties of Sylla, to whom 
 he was devoted. Catiline had been accused of debauching a vestal 
 virgin, and was even suspected of murdering his son for the love of 
 another woman. Destitute of either morals or probity, he discover- 
 ed not the least veneration for the gods ; and, being ever disgusted 
 with the present, was always unhappy with respect to the future. 
 
 Though master of a few abilities, he was bold, rash, and intre- 
 pid, and had not even prudence enough properly to conceal his 
 own infernal designs, where it was necessary he should to prevent 
 their miscarriage. As extravagance is the first cause of the viola- 
 tion of all laws, so Catiline, having contracted vast debts, and be- 
 ing unable to pay them, grew desperate, and aimed at nothing less 
 than the highest and most lucrative employments. For this pur- 
 pose, he associated himself with those young Romans, whose ex- 
 cesses in the freedom of wine, women, and gaming, had ruined 
 their fortunes, and rendered them the contempt of every discerning 
 person in the city. 
 
 These abandoned wretches formed a horrid conspiracy to mur- 
 der the consuls, and put to death the greatest part of the senators. 
 Even the day was fixed, which was to have given birth to the most 
 infamous attempt that ever happened in the commonwealth, since 
 the foundation of R>me. At the signal given by Catiline, thev wer*» 
 to rush upon the consuls and murder them ;-but, being too hasty in 
 his signal, it was not obeyed; and thus the massacre was put off 
 till another time. ! 
 
 Several women, of the greatest families in Rome, who were no 
 less remarkable for their libertinism »han their beau»y, engaged in 
 this plot out of complaisance *o their lovers Among these, was 
 the famous Sempronia, who was as bold *9 she was beautiful ; s'ie 
 wa9 a perfect mistress oPboth the Greek and Latin tongues and 
 could s:ng and dance to more advantage than became a virtuous 
 woman ; nor was she wanting in any of those charms., which are 
 capable of lighting up a passion. The only i:se she made of them 
 was to pass away her days in riot and excess; j>nd she had been 
 accused of being accessory to more than one murder 
 
 This conspiracy was d:uiy strengthened by all the young people 
 in Rome, who, having been rocked in the cradle of luxury, and en- 
 
118 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 ervated by a continual succession of pleasures ; such as had ruined 
 themselves by excesses, and were no longer able to support their ex- 
 travagances ; the ambitious, who aspired to the highest posts of 
 the stale; and others, who had revenge, which they wanted to gra- 
 tify on some superior ; all these, actuated by different passions, em- 
 barked in the cause of Catiline, who made them the largest promises, 
 and at the same time exhorted them to employ their interest to 
 procure his being elected consul. No time could better suit the 
 conspirators, as Pompey was then engaged in a war in the East, 
 and Italy had no army to protect it. 
 
 Cicero, however, who was then consul, found means to bribe Ful- 
 via, a lady of an illustrious family, which she dishonoured by her 
 criminal amours with one of the chief of the conspirators. From this 
 woman, Cicero got such information, as enabled him to counteract 
 all Catil ne's projects. Soon after, Cicero accused Catiline, while 
 he was present in the senate, of his impious design ; but he endea- 
 voured to quit himself of the charge. Finding he could not 
 bring the senators to his way of thinking, and being called by them 
 an enemy and a parricide, he cried, in a funous tone of voice, 
 ** Since snares are every where laid for me, and those, to whom I 
 am odious, exasperate me beyond measure, 1 will not perish singly, 
 but involve my enemies in my rum." 
 
 Catiline, having spoken these words, flew out of the senate-house, 
 and sending for the chief conspirators, he told them what had pass- 
 ed. Then, exhorting them to murder the consul, he left Rome the 
 next night, accompanied by three hundred of his companions, and 
 went and joined Manlius. He caused lictors, with fasces and axes, 
 to walk before him, as though he had really been a magistrate. 
 Upon the news of this insurrection, the senate ordered Antonius, 
 the consul, to march the legions against the rebels, and Cicero to 
 look after the peace of the city. 
 
 Soon afterwards, Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, and two more, 
 who were principals in the conspiracy, were arrested, convicted, and 
 conveyed to different prisons. The contest in the senate was long 
 and warm, what kind of punishment should be inflicted on them. 
 It was, however, at last resolved, that they should be put to death ; 
 and Cicero, upon the bare sentence of the senate, and without sub- 
 mitting the matter to the people, as was usual, ordered them to be 
 executed in the different prisons, in which they were confined. 
 These executions at once crushed the plot, and overturned all the 
 designs of the conspirators, who had that night resolved to rescue 
 them from their confinement, that they might immediately join 
 Catiline. 
 
 News being brought to Catiline*s camp of the late execution, 
 great numbers of his soldiers abandoned him in the night ; but 
 Catiline was no ways disconcerted or disheartened at this ; for he 
 was determined either to ruin the commonwealth, or perish in the 
 attempt. He thereupon raised new forces, filled the cohorts with 
 them, and soon completed the legions, which, were all inflamed 
 with the same passion for blood and slaughter, and the destruction 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 119 
 
 of their native country. By the good management of the consul, 
 Catiline at last found himself surrounded by the enemy, and his re- 
 treat cut off ; he therefore resolved to hazard a battle, though he 
 was considerably inferior in number. 
 
 Petreius, who had served thirty years in the field, and from a 
 private soldier had been made a general, commanded for the re- 
 public, in the room of the consul, who was suddenly taken ill. He 
 engaged Catiline with the greatest bravery, and the battle was sus- 
 tained on both sides with the utmost intrepidity Petreius was at 
 last victorious, and the rebels were all put to the sword ; but Cati- 
 line, who could not bear the thoughts of surviving the ruin of his par- 
 ty, rushed into that part of the battle, where death was making the 
 greatest havock, and there fell a victim to his own folly and iniquity. 
 He was afterwards found among the dead and mangled bodies of 
 the rebels, which lay in heaps On his pale and lifeless face was 
 still pictured t lie haughty ferocity of his soul, which even death couid 
 not extinguish. 
 
 In the year 692, Pompey returned to Rome, having spent five 
 years in his expedition, and acquired the greatest glory by military 
 exploits. As soon as he reached the borders of haly, he sen! back 
 his army, that he might not give either the senate or the people 
 room to suspect him of any ambitious views on the commonwealth ; 
 by which means he obtained the honours of a triumph with univer- 
 sal approbation. 
 
 This triumph lasted two days, and therein were exhibited the 
 names of fifteen conquered kingdoms, eight hundred cities, &c. 
 Among the captives were the king of .ludea, and the wives and chil- 
 dren of several other kings. Innumerable trophies were likewise ex- 
 posed, and among them a statue of Pharnaces, of solid silver; also 
 chariots of the same metal, tables of gold, and thirty-three pearl 
 crowns of inestimable value. To complete the grandeur of the 
 show, Pompey's car was drawn by elephants, it appeared from Pom- 
 pey's accounts, that he had improved the revenue of the republic 
 to the value of 120,000 talent*, besides the very large sums he had 
 distributed amoi g the meanest of his troops. 
 
 After this, Pompey was seldom seen in public; and, whenever he 
 came out of his house, he was attendedvwith such a number of his 
 dependants, that one would have taken him rather for an eastern 
 emperor, than a Roman citizen ; but, as Rome was a free city, every 
 thing disgusted them which had the appearance of royalty, and this 
 disgust was hinted to Pompey, who, having so many yi ars been ac- 
 customed to command armies, could not persuade himself to appear 
 as a common citizen. His manners and conduct in almost every 
 other respect, were pure and unsullied, and he was talked of as 
 remarkable for his temperance. No one accused him of avarice, 
 and, in the dignities he aspired to* power was not so much his pur- 
 suit, as the splendour with which they were surrounded. Vanity 
 was his predominant passion, and%his led him to seek those ho- 
 nours, which might distinguish him above all the commanders.of 
 those times. Moderate in every thing else, any competition will* 
 him in glory was insupportable. 
 
 11 
 
120 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 No wonder that a foible of this nature made him a number of ene^ 
 mies amidst such a warlike people; but, of that number, Caesar 
 was afterwards the most dangerous and implacable. The one 
 could not bear the thoughts of an equal, nor the other a superior, 
 and this unhappy disposition in these two great men, was the source 
 of new troubles. 
 
 Julius Caesar was esteemed the handsomest man in those times, 
 and was skilled in all. kinds of exercises ; he was indefatigable, 
 brave, and generous to excess, but withal ambitious. Nature, 
 which seemed to have formed him for the government of mankind, 
 had given him such an air of empire, as added dignity to his de- 
 portment, which was softened by a sweet and engaging carriage. 
 The insinuating and invincible thunder of his eloquence resulted 
 more from the gracefulness of his person than the strength of his 
 arguments ; and be began by insinuating himself into the hearts of 
 the people, as the surest means of obtaining those honours to which 
 he aspired. 
 
 Caesar, though born only a private citizen, had, from his youth, 
 formed a design of one day raising himself to that power, which 
 might enable him to give laws to the commonwealth ; nor was he 
 at least intimidated when he reflected on the danger of so great an 
 attempt. Manns and Sylla were uppermost in his thoughts, and 
 their example taught him, that there was nothing, which bravery 
 and resolution could not conquer. Happily for him, he was prudent, 
 even in these immoderate designs, and wailed patiently till proper 
 opportunities offered themselves. 
 
 In the seventeenth year of his age he was Jmade high priest of 
 Jupiter ; and, after having carried his arms into Asia, at his return 
 went to Rhodes, to complete his studies under Apollonius Molo. 
 From thence he returned to Rome, where he was created military 
 tribune, and a little after, quaestor. In this capacity he was sent into 
 Spain, in order to visit the assemblies, and administer justice. As 
 he passed through Cadiz, he visited the temple of Hercules, and 
 seeing there the picture of Alexander the Great, he wept on reflect- 
 ing, that he had done no glorious action, at an age in which that. 
 king had subdued the world. 
 
 While Caesar was in Spain, he employed his whole time in extend- 
 ing its frontiers, and carried his arms into Gallicia and Lusitania, 
 which he made a Roman province. He was not, however, forgetful 
 of his own private interest ; for he extorted all the gold and silver 
 he could get at in those provinces, and, on his return to Rome, was 
 received with the universal acclamations of the people. 
 
 Caesar, being now returned to Rome, put up for the consulate, 
 when he lavished the wealth he had amassed in Spain, in getting 
 r.ew crea'ures, to whom his house was open at all times, and from 
 whom he concealed nothing but his heart- He found, however, that 
 the affections of the people singly would not be sufficient for bis pur- 
 pose, and he concluded it would be impossible for him ever to ar- 
 rive at sovereign authority, unless he obtained the command of the 
 armies, and could procure a great numbgr of friends, and even a 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 121 
 
 party in the senate. The assembly was then divided between Pom- 
 pey and Crassus, who were competitors for the government. 
 
 Caesar now resolved, as the only probable means he had at pre- 
 sent of arriving at power, to endeavour to reconcile Pompey and 
 Crassus, and unite himself with them. He succeeded in his design, 
 and these three men now agreed, that nothing should be transacted 
 in the republic in opposition to their respective interests, or with- 
 out their approbation; and this they confirmed with the most sol- 
 emn oaths. 
 
 In this manner was formed the first grand triumvirate, which to- 
 tally subverted both the consular and popular slate, the whole 
 power being now vested in the hands of the three. greatest men in 
 Rome, as to valour, authority and riches. Thus ft-ii the liberty of 
 Rome, owing to venality and corruption, after having made such 
 an illustrious figure for so many ages. It is no wonder, that it was 
 soon after plunged into the greatest miseries, as it was impossible 
 the triumviri should long agree together. It is h ue, they had sworn 
 to support each other's interest ; but oaths are only the footstool of 
 ambition, which men trample on the moment it can assist them to 
 climb higher. 
 
 This triumvirate was formed about fifty eight years before the 
 birth of our Saviour, and in the year of Rome 69-1, at which time 
 the Roman dominions were almost unlimited, containing all Itab r , 
 the grea'est part of Gallia, all Spain, Africa, Greece, and lllyri- 
 cum ; all the kingdoms of Asia Minor, with Syria, Judaea, Arme- 
 nia, Media, and Mesopotamia. So great was the grandeur of Rome 
 at this time, that it was at once the dread and admiration of the 
 whole world: her lands were fertile, her general? invincible, and 
 her revenues inexhaustible; tier inhabitants were innumerable, 
 and she was become the favourite seat of the muses and the po- 
 lite arts. But, alas ! she was distempered by feuds, jealousies, 
 and factions, and it was easy to foresee, that the union of these 
 three great men could not be of long duration, and that the break- 
 ing of that knot was big with the most disastrous events. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 From the Commencement of the Triumvirate td the Tear rf Rome 706 
 
 Rome became now a prey to the ambition of Caesar, Pompey, 
 and Crassus, by whose authority all employments in t he common- 
 wealth were arbitrarily filled up, just as they pleased. Crassus 
 was insatiable in the pursuit of riches, having no other idol than 
 gold; Pompey lived in ease and idleness, contented with the bare 
 name of greatness and power ; while Caesar was indefatigable in 
 strengthening his own party, and lessening that of the other two ; 
 but this he did with so much art as to give neither of them umbrage. 
 
122 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Caesar and Bibulus being- now elected consuls, the former con- 
 firmed all Pompev's acts, according to an agreement between them. 
 He now set about artfully sowing 1 a division between Pompey and 
 the senate, and the senate and the people, and preferred a law, for 
 dividing- certain lands in Campania among- 20,000 of the poorer 
 citizens, who had three children or more. This proposal gave high 
 satisfaction to the plebeians, and Caesar had it drawn up in such 
 plausible and just terms, as left but little room for controverting it. 
 The senate, however, opposed it strongly, but Pompey and Crassus 
 both approved it ; and the former being asked his opinion by the sen- 
 ate, declared, that should any man oppose it with his drawn sword, 
 he would not only unsheath his own, but take up a shield also. The 
 law, however, passed, and Pompey, by his last speech, rendered 
 himself completely odious to the senate. 
 
 From this period, Caesar troubled the senate very little ; and his 
 colleague, Bibulus, was drivtn out of the forum by the populace, 
 who broke his fasces, and wounded his dolors, after winch he dar- 
 ed not to appear any more in public. In the mean time Casar man- 
 aged every thing, and disposed matters just as he pleased. The 
 government of Syria was afterwards given to Crassus, which he had 
 requested, in hopes of acquiring additional riches; and Spain was 
 allotted to Pompey, which he governed by his lieutenants, not being 
 able to persuade himself to abandon the pleasures of Rome. Thus 
 these three men divided the world among them, as though it had 
 been their natural inheritance. 
 
 Cato in vain exclaimed against this prostitution of the common- 
 wealth ; whom Csesar found means to put under an arrest, nor were 
 Lucullus and Cicero much better treated. The abilities of Cicero 
 had offended Caesar, who was now bent on his ruin ; and, for this 
 purpose, he even condescended to associate himself with Clodius, 
 Cicero's mortal enemy, and got him elected one of the tribunes, 
 though he had, but a short time before, been accused of criminal 
 conversation with Caesar's wife. 
 
 In consequence of this, Cicero was soon afterwards accused be- 
 fore the people of having illegally put to death Lentulus, Cethegus, 
 and the rest of the conspirators, contrary to law. Cicero, now see- 
 ing the danger to which he was exposed, forgot himself so far, as 
 to dress himself meanly, and, letting his beard and hair grow, went 
 about the city imploring the protection of the great men; but, at 
 last, finding himself deserted, he found he must either take up arms 
 or quit Rome ; which last Ca ! o, and the rest of bis friends, advised 
 him to. He accordingly left the city in the night time, and went to 
 Sicily. Clodius then banished him, by the votes of the people, 400 
 miles from Italy, demolished all his houses, and disposed of his 
 goods by public sale. 
 
 After sixteen months banishment Cicero was recalled, when all 
 the cities through which he passed, paid him such singular honours, 
 as in some measure to represent a continual triumph ; and, when 
 he approached Rome, the equites, and all the people, went out to 
 congratulate him on his return. 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 123 
 
 Caesar now chose the government of Gaul, that being an object 
 which would a fiord him an opportunity of displaying his valour and 
 military skill, hoping, at the same time, to enrich himself with the 
 plunder of that country. H'<s first battle, about the year of Rome 
 696, was with the Helvetians or Swiss, whose army consisted of 
 upwards of 300,000 men, whom he entirely defeated, leaving them 
 hardly 100,000. In this battle their wives and children fought 
 with the greatest obstinacy, till they were all entirely demolish- 
 ed. 
 
 He afterwards entered Germany, where he carried every thing 
 before him : and, in the following year, turned his arms against the 
 Belgae, who inhabited a part of Gaul, and Were considered as the 
 most formidable people io those parts. Their army consisted of 
 near 300,000 men, when he attacked them, and obtained a complete 
 victory. He then turned his arms against the Nervii, who attack- 
 ing his troops unexpectedly, broke his cavalry, and surrounding 
 two of his legions, killed his officers, and would have cut them al! 
 to pieces, had not Coesar come to their assistance. The Nervii, 
 however, were all of them at last demolished. The fame of Cae- 
 sar's mditary exploits being every where spread, many nations sent 
 ambassadors, and submitted themselves to him. 
 
 In the year of Rome 698, Caesar took up his head quarters at 
 Luca in Italy, where a multitude of people went to pay him their re- 
 spects, and among them near 400 senators, prsetors, and proconsuls. 
 The same year Pompey and Crassus were chosen consuls, more by 
 the force of arms than any other means, who continued Caesar five 
 -ears longer in the government of Gaul. 
 
 The next year, having made some conquests in Germany, he re- 
 turned to Gaul, and resolved to cross into Britain, which was so 
 very hazardous an enterprize, that none but Caesar would have at- 
 tempted it. Of all the difficulties, that of a pretence for his intend- 
 ed invasion was the least. Caesar embarked with two legions, and 
 coming to Dover cliff's, as is generally imagined, he saw them cov- 
 ered with troops. He stayed there some hours, till he was joined 
 by the other ships, and then sailed two leagues farther, whither the 
 Britons followed him with their chariots and cavalry. After mov- 
 ing towards the coast, as tli e Romans delayed to plunge into the 
 water, their vessels not being able to get near enough the shore, 
 the siandurd-bearer «>f the tenth legion leaped in, and cried out a- 
 loud, M Follow me, fellow soldiers, unless you will suffer the Roman 
 eagle to fall into the hands of the enemy. Animated with this sin- 
 gular mark of courage, the soldiers followed bim, and blood and 
 slaughter ensued. 
 
 The Britons instantly attacked the Romans, and fought in the 
 water with so much resolution, that, in ail probability, the latter 
 must have been repulsed, had not Caesar taken care to supply them, 
 from time to time, with fresh recruits." The Britons, overcome by 
 numbers were at last obliged to give way, and the Romans so well 
 improved this advantage, that they at last put them to flight. Be- 
 ing now terrified at the Roman valour, they sued for peace, which 
 11* 
 
124 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Caesar granted them. A favourable opportunity afterwards happen 
 ing, the Britons again took to arms ; but, being a second time de- 
 feated, were once more reduced to sue for peace. 
 
 During- this interval, the senate being- informed of what Ccesar 
 had done in Britain, gave orders for a solemn festival to be held in 
 honour of him, which was to continue twenty days. All this migh- 
 ty parade was granted him for an action, which was of little conse- 
 quence to the commonwealth, but occasioned the slaughter of some 
 thousands of men. Thus Ccesar, and even the Roman senate, 
 thought nothing of sacrificing the lives of mortals to their false ambi- 
 tion, and the vain love of momentary glory. 
 
 In the year of Home 700, Caesar resolved on a second expedition 
 to Britain, and accordingly made all the preparations necessary for 
 that expedition. He landed without opposition ; and, though the 
 Britons were successful in some attacks, they were entirely defeat- 
 ed at last. 
 
 If we take a critical review of Caesar, we shall find, that the 
 commonweal; h had never given birth to a more able commander ; 
 though it must be owned, at the same time, that his unbounded 
 ambition, and his insatiable thirst after riches, which he courted 
 for the sake of corrupting those who might oppose his designs, 
 sulled the glory of all his conquests. Venality prevailed in the 
 camp, and he plundered even the temples of the gods, nor spared 
 the allies of the Romans. Cato, and the rest of the senators, wished 
 to bring him to an account, but the magnificence of his conquests, 
 the blindness of the people, and the senators he had bribed, over- 
 turned every attempt of this nature. So far from punishing him for 
 his crimes, sacrifices were offered to the gods for his sacrilegious ac- 
 tions, and his vices were considered as virtues. 
 
 Pompey now began to see his mistake, and resolved, if possible, 
 to ruin Caesar, whose elevation he considered himself as the sole 
 cause of. He had already a great ascendency over the senate ; 
 and, in order to ingratiate himself with the people, he built a mag- 
 nificent theatre, in which plays and other spectacles were exhibit- 
 ed. As it was in Rome, so it is now wit!) almost every other 
 stale : the great sometimes condescend to shew the vulgar a favour, 
 with no other view, than that they may assist them in their ambi- 
 tious designs, which, when obtained, prove the ruin of those that 
 were the cause of it. Those in power use tyranny and oppression ; 
 those who want to obtain it, fia'tery and deceit. 
 
 In the mean time, Crass us being on his march plundered the 
 temple of Jerusalem of ten thousand talents; and, on every occa- 
 tion, shewed himself more avaricious than heroic. He was care- 
 less of taking any advantage of the enemy, who at last engaged 
 Siini, and obtained a complete victory. In this engagement Ins son 
 lost his life, and he himself, being afterwards betrayed, was killed 
 also. The Parthians, in this battle, killed 20,000 Romans, and 
 look 13,000 prisoners. The person who killed Crassus cut off his 
 head and his right hand, and carried them to the Parthian king, 
 who ordered melted gold to be poured down his throat, upbraiding 
 
ROMAN HISTORY* 125 
 
 him with these words: u Glut thyself now with that gold, with 
 which in thy life-time thon wast never to be satisfied!" One of 
 the principals of the triumvirate being- thus no more, it was easy to 
 foresee that a violent struggle would ensue beiween the other two, 
 who, for some time past, had broken off' all professions of friend- 
 ship. 
 
 To such a height was corruption now got in Rome, that employ- 
 ments were sold in the most public manner; nor were the chiefs 
 of the different factions less cau'ious in taking bribes ; and, where, 
 they could not carry their point by the number of votes, never failed 
 to call in force and violence. In fact, no office was now obtained 
 till it had been contested with the sword, and the blood of some 
 citizen shed on the occasion. In one of these scenes of confusion, 
 Clodius was murdered by Milo, and the body was exposed all bloody 
 to the people, who thereupon broke all the seats of the magistrates, 
 made a funeral pile of them, and set it on fire, when all the mag- 
 nificent buildings, in which the magistrates used to assemble, were, 
 with the body of Clodius, reduced to ashes So many people 
 were afterwards murdered that it became dangerous to walk the 
 city unarmed. 
 
 Hereupon Pompey was elected dictator, and had great authority 
 given him, which increased his number of friends in the senate ; 
 nor did those of Caesar decrease, who, by means of bribes, and the 
 fame of his heroic actions, found his party very powerful in Rome. 
 Caesar having finished the war in Gaul, which had been the most 
 dangerous, though the most glorious, he had ever undertaken, he 
 sued for the consulship, and desired to have the time of his govern- 
 ment prolonged. 
 
 In the mean time matters seemed to run against Caesar in the 
 senate; but, as he was informed of every thing i hat was transacting 
 in Rome, he concerted his measures accordingly. Caesar, exaspe- 
 rated at the little respect paid him by the senate, immediately 
 passed the Alps at the head of his third legion, and halted at Ra- 
 venna, whence he wrote to the senate. His let'er concluded with, 
 u If 1 have not justice immediately done me, 1 will march to Rome." 
 These last words filled the assembly with horror, and Caesar was 
 commanded to resign his army, on pain of being declared an enemy 
 to his country. This decree of the senate was as a declaration of 
 war, and both parties had immediately recourse to arms. Mark An- 
 thony, the tribune, Curio and Cassius, in the habits of slaves, quit- 
 ted the city, and went over to Caesar. 
 
 Caesar immediately retired secretly from Ravenna, and went and 
 joined his army, which was then near the Rubicon. He there 
 found about 5000 foot and 300 horse, and with these inconsidera- 
 ble forces he began the civil war. He hahed some time on the 
 banks of the Rubicon, reflecting on the miseries and calamities 
 inseparable from intestine wars: u If I do not cross this river,*' 
 said he to himself, M I am ruined ; and should I pass it, what 
 multitudes shall I ruin !" After ruminating some time, and the 
 
126 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 animosity of his enemies presenting itself to liis mind, lie plunged 
 into the river, and cried out, " Let us go whither the omens of the 
 gods, and the injustice of our enemies, call us : the die is cast !" 
 
 The army having crossed the Rubicon, Caesar tor ; his robe in the 
 presence of the tribunes of the people, and implored the protection 
 of his soldiers, when they all cried out, with loud acclamations, 
 that they were ready to die in the service of their general. He 
 then mar«;hed with all possible expedition, and took Ariminum, 
 which diffused terror all over Italy. The senate met several times, 
 but so great was the consternation, that they could come to no 
 conclusion. Pompey, having no troops, nor any place to which he 
 could retire, was under some uneasiness : and the senate, and Cato 
 in particular, reproached him for having thus suffered himself to be 
 seduced by the artifices of Caesar. 
 
 Pompey resolved to move the seat of war to Apulia, fearing, 
 should he oblige the people to take up arms, they might turn those 
 arms against him. At Apulia were two legions, which Caesar had 
 resigned to him; and, having endeavoured, in an oration, to per- 
 suade the senators to follow him, several o'.'.hem, with the consuls, 
 left liome in the night, and accompanied Pompey, being determined 
 to share v\iih him his fortune. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 From the year cf Koine 7\j6, to the Death offjfulitu C<esar. 
 
 About this time, Casar made himself master of Picenum ; and 
 having obtained some other advantages, before he set out for Spain, 
 in order to drive Pompey's veterans thence, he marched first to 
 Rome, to settle some kind of government there. Having taken 3000 
 pounds weight of gold out of the treasury, he left Rome, saying, 
 that he was going to attack an army without a general, and that 
 then he would go and combat a general without any army. 
 
 After several skirmishes and battles on both sides, the armies of 
 Pompey and Ca?sar met on the plains of Pharsalia. In these armies 
 was the flower of the Roman legions, whose bravery was to deter- 
 mine the late of that mighty empire. The animosity and ambition 
 of their chiefs, who were fired with the hopes of riches and glory 
 that must necessarily f> How the conquest of the day, made every 
 one conclude, that a general battle was unavoidable. Pompey, hav- 
 ing twice the number of soldiers to what Caesar had, thought himself 
 sure of victory : and his soldiers even quarrelled amor.g themselves 
 about the share of plunder. 
 
 Caesar employed his time in a different manner : he exerted his 
 utmost skill to improve his soldiers, and inspire them with vigour 
 and activity. Hearing that Pcmpey's army was drawn up in older 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 127 
 
 of battle, he told his troops, with an air of the highest satisfaction, 
 that the long-wished-for moment was arrived, in which it was in then- 
 power to gain immortal honour. Having thus spoken, he advanced 
 with his troops towards the field of battle. Pompey was vei y much 
 disturbed by ill omens, but, nevertheless, exhorted his smdiers to 
 behave courageously As the armies approached, the two generals 
 rode from rank to rank to animate their soldiers The signal was 
 then given for battle, and the contest on both sides was long and 
 bloody, and seemed for some time equal. Pompey's cavalry charged 
 with great vigour, and obliged the enemy to give ground. Cp>ar 
 instantly advanced with his reserved corps, and, attacking the faces 
 of the enemy with their pikes, these knights were soon broken, and 
 thrown into disorder. Caesar pursued the advantage with so much 
 vigour, that they were at last overpowered. The auxiliaries began 
 the flight, though Pompev's right wing maintained their ground 
 with great bravery At this instant, Csesar ordering his men to cry 
 aloud, " Kill the foreigners, but save the Romans," the latter threw 
 down their arms and received quarter. Mean time a dreadful 
 daughter was made of the foreigners, who were flying with the 
 utmost precipi'ation. 
 
 After the battle Pompey did not act consistently with that charac- 
 ter he had hitherto b-.rne ; hut, mounting a horse, went to Lanssa, 
 and thence to the sea-shore. The rich furniture, and other things 
 which were found in Pompey's camp, were a convincing proof how 
 much luxury had prevailed there. There fell in this memorable 
 battle 15,000, and 24,000 surrendered prisoners. 
 
 Pompey, la'ely thai great and poweiful commander, was now 
 obliged, with a few friends only, to retreat to a fisherman's bark, 
 whence he got on board another vessel, and made all possible sail. 
 His misfortunes had now so completely conquered him, 'hut he for- 
 got to make use of those advantages he still had at sen, being mas- 
 fer of a powerful and victorious fl< et P >mpey fiVd to the island oi 
 Lesbos, where he had before senl Cornelia, his \\ fe, and Sesfus, his 
 younger son, whom he took with him from Lesbos to Cyprus, and 
 thence came to Egypt. 
 
 P-.mpfy had bern a great friend to Auletes, the r aP»pr oi the 
 young Egyptian king, and it was chiefl; through 'he influence of 
 this illustrious Roman, that he was rest red 'o lies kingdom : he 
 therefore expected to be assisted and received with equal kindi ess 
 by the son. Pompey, on his drawing near to land, sen! messengers 
 to Ptolemy, to require hia protection, and aid him in his present 
 distress. "The king was then only thirteen years of age, a d there- 
 fore consulted his ministers what answer to return At last, after 
 variousopiniuns.it was thought most expedient to despatch h-m. 
 Achillas and St ptimius, a Roman commander, were sent to execute 
 the horrid deed. 
 
 They went to take P-mpev on board a small boat, under pre- 
 tence "that great vessels could not approach the shore without 
 much difficulty. The Iroops were drawn up on the sea-side, as 
 
128 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 with a design to honour Pompey, with Ptolemy at their head. 
 Pompey embraced Cornelia, (alas, little did he think for tlie last 
 time !) and entered t lie boa% where he was shamefully murdered, 
 in the sight of Lis wife and the young king 1 . The murderers cut 
 )<I Ii is head, and threw his body on I he sand, where it had no other 
 fune'ral than what one of his freed men g»*e it, with the assistance 
 of an old ll'iman, who was there by accident. Thus unworthily 
 ended the life of Pompey the Great, in the fifty-ninth year of his 
 age. 
 
 Cornelia had seen Pompey massacred before her eyes ; and it 
 is easier to imagine the condition of a woman in the height of 
 grief from so tragical a scene than to describe it. The lioman 
 ships made off' to sea with all imaginable speed. Cornelia aid 
 Sextos escaped first to Tyre, and thence into Africa; but most 
 of the o:Uer sh»ps were taken by the Egyptian galleys, and all on 
 board them cruelly put to the sword, among whom was Lucius 
 Leniulus, the late consul, who, obstinately i ejecting all the propo- 
 sals that had been made by C&sar, was the author of this falal 
 war. 
 
 In the mean lime, Caesar made all possible haste to arrive in 
 Egypt, where he suspected Pompey had retired, and was in hopes 
 of finding him alive. He came to Alexandria with two legions and 
 bOO horse. In these legions were not above 3200 men ; but Caesar 
 confided so much in the fame of his exploits, that he thought every 
 place would entertain him with safety. On his arrival at Alexandria 
 he was informed of Pompej's death, and soon after on his entering 
 the place, he was presented with his head At the sight of it he 
 wept, and turned Ins face from it with abhorrence, as from an un- 
 grateful spectacle, and ordered it to be buried in a proper place 
 with all honourable solemnites. 
 
 As Cce->ar v\as going out ( r his ship, he heard a clamour of the 
 soldiers, which the king had left to guard the city, and saw a con- 
 course of people gathen d about him, became the fasces were car- 
 ried before him, which made the populace cry out, that it diminished 
 the authority of their king. This tumult w:»s soon quelled j but 
 others happened every day, in which man} soldiers were slain. Cae- 
 sar >herefbre sent for some other legions out of Asia, as he was oblig* 
 ed to continue at Alexandria, on account of the Etesian winds then 
 blowing from the north, which preve< ted his Bailing thence. 
 
 In the mean time, he employed himself in calling in the debt due 
 to him frum Auletes, and in hearing and determining the controver- 
 sy between Ptolemy and Cleopatra. Auletes>.had engaged the in- 
 ters' of Caesar by a bribe of 10,000 talents, part of which was un- 
 paid, and now exacted by Caesar with rigour. The case of Cleopatra 
 and Auletes being at th:s time to be argued before Carsar, advocates 
 were appoint d < n both sides to plead the cause. 
 
 Cleopatra, bearing that Caesar was unboundedly fond of women, 
 laid a plot ;o attach him first to her person, and then to her cause : 
 for she was a woman who made nothing of •prostituting her person 
 
ROMAN II1STGRY. 129 
 
 to any ooe, either through passion or interest. She desired Caesar 
 to permit her to come in person, that she miglrt plead her own 
 cause before him. This being easily granted, she was privately con- 
 veyed into die city by her own servant, who carried her on his back 
 tied up in her bedding, to Cesar's apartment in the citadel, where 
 he threw down his burden, untied it, and up started the lady, with the 
 best airs she could put on. Cacsai was pleased with her stratagem, 
 and smitten with her beauty, which had all the effect she wished 
 for. He lay with her thai night, and afterwards had by her a sun, 
 who was named Caesa- ion. 
 
 The next morning Caesar sent for Ptolemy, and pressed him to 
 receive his sister ag;on upon her own terms ; at which the young 
 king was so much enraged, that he run out of the palace into the 
 street, tore the diadem from Ins head and complained to the people 
 that he was betrayed. In a moment the whole city was in an up- 
 roar, and the populace came on tumulluously to assis» their king, 
 \vh'>se person was seized by the Romans, which quelled the Egyp- 
 tians, who were assured by Caesar, that they would be fully satisfied 
 with the judgment he should p;iss. 
 
 The next day Cx^r summoned an assembly of the people, be- 
 fore whom he brought out P>olemy and Cleopatra: and, after hav- 
 ing caused the will of the hue king to be read, he decreed that 
 they sh mid reign jointly in Egypt, according to the tenor of that 
 will ; and farther, that Ptolemy, the younger son, and Arsinbe.the 
 younger daughter, should reign in Cyprus. This contented the 
 whole assembly, except Pothinus, who dreaded the resentment of 
 Cleopatra, and not only created new discontents among the people, 
 but also prevailed with Achillas to bring his army from Pelusium 
 to Alexandria, to drive Caesar out of it. Achillas had 20,00 (J good 
 troops, and thought to overcome Caesar immediately : but this 
 great Roman posted his little army so judiciously, that he easily 
 sustained the assult. Achillas then marched against the port, with 
 an intention to seize the fleet, and shut up Caesar by sea; but he 
 also frus'ra'ed th<s attempt, by burning the Egyptian fleet, which 
 consisted of 50 galleys, and 22 large ships. He then took posses- 
 sion of the tower of Pharos, which lie garrisoned, and by this means 
 preserved his communication by sea, without which he had been 
 effectually ruined. Caesar also fortified himself in the strongest 
 quarter of the city, from which Atsinoe escaped to Achillas ; and 
 such, he says, was the beginning of the Alexandtian war, at which 
 place he concludes his Commentaries. 
 
 Some of the ships, when on Are, drove to the shore, and communi- 
 cated their flames to the adjoining houses ; and, spreading into that 
 quarter of the city called Btuchium, consumed the noble library 
 there, which had be^n the collection of several ages, and then 
 contained four hundred thousand volumes. Such was the loss the 
 sons of literature sustained by the ravages of war. 
 
 Ca?sar sent for succours to all the adjacent parts, while the 
 eunuch Ganymedes put Achillas to death, and succeeded him in 
 the command of the Egyptian army, as also the administration of all 
 
J 30 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 other affairs. He contrived many stratagems to distress Caesar 
 during this war ; and, in particular he found means to spoil all the 
 fresh water in his quarter, and was very near destroying 1 him by 
 that means, there being no other fresh water in Alexandria but that 
 of the Nile, which was kept in vaulted reservoirs in every house, 
 supplied from the rivei by a canal, which communication he stop- 
 ped, and turned the sea-water into the reservoirs : but Caesar sunk 
 wells so deep that he found springs which supplied him with fresh 
 water again. 
 
 Cxsar afterwards defeated Ganymedes in three naval engage- 
 men's, and was joined by a legion sen' by Calvmus, while a consid- 
 erable at my was assembling for him in Syria and Cilicia, under 
 Mithridatesof Pergamus, who entered Egypt, and took Pelusium by 
 storm. In the second sea-fight, Ca:^. bad like In bave perished. 
 By attempting to take the town in the island of Pharos, and the 
 mnle leading t • it ; he was repulsed with the loss of about eight hun- 
 dred men, and had like to have been lost himself in the rout ; for, 
 finding the ship in which he endeavoured to escape ready to sink, 
 by reason nt tin* number of those who had crowded into it, he 
 threw himself into the 9ea, and with difficulty got off by swimming 
 to another of his ships in the port . while he thus mnle his escape, 
 he rained some valuable papers, which he had ab mt him, in one 
 hand and swam With the other, whereby he saved both them and 
 himself. 
 
 Cae-ar was persuaded to send king P-olemy to the Egyptian army, 
 in compliance with their desire, and on a promise of peace : but 
 when they found that ihev had their king at their head, they pushed 
 on the war with greater vigour than before. Milhridates advanced 
 with his army, and defeated a body of Egyptians, who defended the 
 banks ofthe Nile Ptoh-my then advanced with his whole army to 
 i p pose the victors, and Caesar marched to support them. A deri- 
 sive battle ensued, in which Caesar obtained a complete victory. 
 Ptolemy endeavoured to escape in a boat, which sunk, and he was 
 drowned in the N le. Caesar then returned to Alexandria, and all 
 Egypt submitted to the conqueror. 
 
 Caesar gave the crown of Egypt to Cleopatra, in conjunction with 
 Ptolemy, her younger brother, who was only eleven years of age. 
 The passion which Caesar had conceived for that princess, was pro- 
 bably the sole cause of his embarking in so dangerous a war ; and 
 his affection for her kept him much longer in Egypt than his affairs 
 required He passed whole nights in feasting with her, and even 
 intended to many her ; but, after continuing some months in Egypt, 
 he was obliged to quit it, to oppose Pharnaces, son of the great 
 Mithridates. Pharnaces being conquered, and endeavouring to 
 break in»o Bosphorus, was repulsed and slain by Asander, who had 
 revolted from hiro. Thus deservedly fell a man, so rebellious to 
 his father, and ungrateful to his friends. 
 
 After tins, he set out for Rome with the utmost diligence, having 
 settled his affairs in these parts, as well as time would permit. No 
 sooner had he arrived in Italy, than Cicero, and many others of 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 131 
 
 Pompey's party, met him, and congratulated him on his return. 
 Caesar received' them in the kindest manner, which paved the way 
 for making every thing quiet in the commonwealth. 
 
 In the year of Rome 7 08, the time of Caesar's dictatorship being 
 expired, he was elected consul with j£milius Lcpidus However, 
 he was obliged to quit Rome, Scipio, Cato, and Juba, king of Numi- 
 dia, having raised forces in Africa, where Caesar landed, and totally 
 defeated them. Juba would have retired with Petreius to Zairta, 
 which was the strongest city in his dominions, hut the inhabitants 
 refused him admittance, and gave his treasures to Caesar. Juba 
 resolutely determined not to survive this misfortune, and agreeing 
 with Petreius that they should kill each other, the laUer fell dead on 
 the spot ; but Jnba having received only a slight wound, was oblig- 
 ed to ask the assistance of a slave to despatch him. 
 
 As to Cato, he returned to Utica, and there established a kind of 
 senate, which consisted of three hundred Romans lie at first in. 
 tended to stand a siege ; but finding the inhabitants were not to be 
 relied on, he changed his resolution, and advised his friends either 
 to escape by sea, or submit to the mercy of Caesar. He embraced 
 them with uncommon tenderness, and discoursed on moral subjects, 
 of which this was the theme : " The virtuous are only happy and 
 free, and the wicked are ever wretched and slaves." 
 
 His sons, suspecting he had some design on himself, at supper 
 took his sword from him, which he did not then miss, lie after- 
 wards threw himself on his bed, and read Plato's Dialogue on the 
 Immortality of the Soul; then missing his sword, which not being- 
 brought him so s-)on as he expected, lie fell into a violent passion. 
 At last, his friends, bringing it to him, implored him not to lay vio- 
 lent hands on himself, but to continue among them, as their only 
 genius, guardian, and protector. On receiving his sword, he felt 
 the point of it, and said, " I am now my own master." He then 
 read again, and afterwards fell into a sound sleep. At day break 
 lie awoke, when he stabbed himself; but not doing it effectually, he 
 staggered, and threw down a table, the noise of winch brought in 
 his slaves, his friends, and his sons, who found him weltering in his 
 gore. His physician replaced his bowels, and sewed up the wound ; 
 but Cato, afterwards coming to himself, tore open the wound, and 
 rushed out of life with fury, rage, and indignation ; which finished 
 Caesar's war in Africa. 
 
 Whether the manner in which this great republican put a period 
 to his life was justifiable, or not, has ever since b°en a matter of 
 much dispute. I must own, that he did not herein act conforma- 
 bly to his own system of philosophy ; and, if we try him by the 
 laws of Christianity, he will still appear more culpable Life is but 
 a short summer's campaign, in which we have many battles to 
 fight, many breaches to mount, many strong fortresses to sto m. 
 The prudent general, however unfortunate he may have been for a 
 long time, experience teaches us, often proves at last successful, 
 and gives us a convincing proof, that it is cowaidice to despair, 
 though, in all human appearance, every thing seems lost. I am 
 
 12 
 
132 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 however, for allowing Cato some favourable circumstances : we 
 must consider the age in which he lived, and the barbarity of those 
 times, in which suicide was not forbidden by either religion or 
 laws. Shall Cato become the sport and mockery of those people to 
 whom he once gave laws ? Shall he live to see his country, once 
 the seat of sweet liberty and freedom, become the den of tyrannv 
 and oppression ; her laws subverted, venality and corruption carry- 
 ing every thing before them, and that once fair and stately city, 
 Rome, the mistress of the world, now, through faction and part), 
 precipitating into a pile of ruins ? 
 
 Caesar hereupon returned to Rome, and triumphed four times in 
 one month : first for Gaul ; then f<>r Egypt, in which Arsinoe was 
 loaded with chums ; his third triumph was for Pontus, and king* 
 Pharnaces ; and his last for Africa, in which the younger Juba was 
 exposed. He then began to settle the commonwealth, enacted new 
 laws, and committed judicial matters to the senators and knights 
 only. \Vi:h the assistance of some of the ablest astronomers he 
 reformed the calendar, regulated the year according to the course 
 of the sun, nllotti' g to each year 365 days, and added one day 
 more to every fourth year, which was called the Bissextile, or Leap 
 Year. 
 
 The Inst war in which C?esar was engaged about the year of 
 Rome 709, and which had liked to have proved fatal to him, was 
 against Pomney's two son9, who had a powerful army in Spain. A 
 decisive battle was fought in the plains of Munda, in which Carsar 
 was more melancholy than usual, and, perhaps, reflected on the in- 
 stability of terrestrial affairs. He began to distrust so long a series 
 of prosperity; and, seeing himself arrived to the same height of 
 glory to which Pompey had once attained, he was fearful of expe- 
 riencing the same fate. He now saw, what he believed could have 
 never come to pass, that his veteran soldiers, after fourteen years 
 service in the field, gave ground, and would have fled, had not 
 shame prevented them. Cxsar, in his distraction and despair, leap- 
 ed from his horse, and ran to them with the utmost fury. He 
 stopped the fugitives, reanimated them, and flying from rank to 
 rank, was every where in an instant- Victory was now wrested 
 from the enemy, which fortune seemed to have given them, and 
 3000 of them were killed on the spot. Caesar had been exposed lo 
 so much danger in this battle, as occasioned him frequently to say, 
 that, on other occasions he had fought for glory, but at Munda to save 
 his life. 
 
 After this he returned to Rome, and had the honour of a tri- 
 umph ; but he did not meet with the same universal acclamations 
 as formerly. The name of Pompey was still dear to the Romans, 
 and they grieved to see his whole family thus almost extirpat- 
 ed. Extraordinary honours were, however, heaped on Caesar, 
 and Rome seemed to have nothing left but the shadow of liberty. 
 He was allowed to assist at all games in a gilded chair, with a 
 golden crown on his head ; which crown and chair, after his death, 
 were decreed to be exhibited at all public sports, to perpetuate his 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 133 
 
 memory. These honours were heaped on him by the senate only 
 to render him odious to the people, and thereby bring about his 
 ruin. His enemies detested his ambition, and llie most zealous re- 
 publicans resolved to die, rather than be eye-witnesses to the total 
 ruin of their liberties. 
 
 Upwards of sixty senators entered into a conspiracy to destroy 
 Caesar, Brutus and Cassius being at the head of this combination. 
 Brutus was the soldier and scholar ; but he never drew his sword 
 with any other design than to serve his country, nor read with any 
 other purpose than to subdue his passions. In all his actions, he 
 strictly adhered to justice and honour, and all lie said, as well as 
 all he did, seemed to flow from a public and unbiassed sp'u it. Eve- 
 ry man in the commonwealth, who loved himself, loved Brutus. 
 
 Though Brutus was the avowed enemy of absolute power, vet he 
 could not prevail on himself to hate the usurper, who had Indulged 
 him on so many occasions. It was the love of his country, the 
 strongest of all human ties, and that only which could prevail on him 
 to join the conspiracy ; nor had Cassius less obligations to Caesar 
 than Brutus, having in battle received horn that conqueror life and 
 quarter. Cassius however, engaged in this conspiracy, not out of 
 any love to his country, but to satiate his unjust revenge. 
 
 The conspirators carried on their plot with all imaginable caution 
 and secrecy ; and, the better to justify their designs, deferred it till 
 the ides of March, on which day Caesar was to be declared king. 
 A famous augur told Caesar that great dangers threatened him on 
 the ides of March : and those writers who would add horror to 
 the description of this day, tell us, "that the world bore a gloom 
 and heavy presage of Caesar's fate ; that wild beasts came into 
 the most frequented parts of the city, apparitions were seen in the 
 streets, and illuminations in the skies, and that inauspicous sacrifices 
 damped the hearts of all men, except the assassins, who, with an in- 
 credible serenity of mind, waited the approaching opportunity of 
 sacrificing the usurper." 
 
 Csesar's wife, having had frightful and ominous dreams the pre- 
 ceeding night, persuaded him not to go abroad that day ; but De- 
 cimus Brutus, one of the conspirators, calling on him in the morn- 
 ing, and laughing at those silly omens, took him by the hand, and 
 led him out of his house. As Caesar was going into the senate- 
 house, he met the augur, who had forewarned him of the danger 
 of that day : " The ides of March are come," said Caesar. " True, 
 (replied tiie augur) but they are riot yet past." 
 
 Scarce had Caesar taken his seat, but all the assassins pressed 
 about him and sued for favours which they knew would not be grant- 
 ed. The sign was given : immediately, one, oppressed with the 
 greatness of the attempt, made an irresolute pass at him. CcesaC 
 then rushed upon Casca and beat him to the ground ; but, while 
 they were struggling, another of the conspirators came behind 
 him, and plunged his dagger in his bosom : at the same time, 
 Cassius wounded him in the face, and Brutus in the thigh. Till 
 this time he had made a very vigorous resistance, but now made no 
 
134 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 more, and, submitting to the strokes of a person, who owed to him 
 his life, he only uttered these words, " And thou too, my son, Bru- 
 tus !" Caesar used to call him by this tender name, supposing him 
 to be his illegitimate son by an intrigue with Servilia. Growing 
 now faint with the loss of blood, he reeled to Pompey's statue, 
 where, covering his face with his robe, and drawing his skirts to his 
 knees, that he might fall decently, he sunk down and expired, hav- 
 ing received twenty-three wounds. 
 
 Caesar had long before been advised by his friends to be more 
 cautious of the security of his person, and not to walk, as was his 
 common practice, among the people, without arms, or any one to de- 
 fend him; but to these admonitions he always replied, •' He that 
 lives in fear of death, every moment feels its tortures ; I will die 
 but once." At last, thus fell, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, the 
 conqueror of the Gauls, of Pompey, and the senate, the master of 
 the Roman republic and the world, who died without uttering the 
 least complaint, or shewing any mark of grief or weakness. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 From the Death of Julius Caesar to the End of the Commons ealtli,. 
 
 After the murder of Caesar, every thing was in a state of an- 
 archy and confusion. Had the conspirators properly considered, 
 they might have easily foreseen, that the death of Caesar would 
 not put an end to the invasion of their liberties ; but that it would 
 give rise to fresh civil commotions, and endanger the ruin of the 
 commonwealth. It was natural to suppose, that, as the unlimited 
 power of C?esar had been the envy of the great men, as soon as he 
 was taken off, many would be candidates to succed him, as presently 
 will evidently appear. 
 
 Anthony and Lepidus resolved to revenge Caesar's murder. An- 
 thony, the next day read Ceesar's will to the people, in which Octa- 
 vius was appointed his successor ; and, in case he died without 
 issue, Decimus Brutus, one of the principal conspirators, was to 
 succeed him ; large legacies were likewise given to the people, who 
 were hereupon so charmed with Cesar's goodness and so enraged 
 against his assassins, that they found themselves obliged for the 
 present to quit the city in order to preserve their lives. 
 
 In the mean time, Octavius, Caesar's heir, arrived at Rome. He 
 resolved to revenge Csesar's murder, and to support his own pre- 
 tensions, though at the hazard of his life. He landed first at Brun- 
 dusium, where the soldiers resorted to him in crowds, and, over- 
 joyed to see so near a relation of their former general, gave up the 
 town to him, and hereupon he assumed the name of Caesar, by 
 which name we shall hereafter call him. He then marched boldly 
 towards Rome, attended only by a few domestics : but was joined 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 135 
 
 In his way by all his father's friends, his freed men and the veteran 
 soldiers, on whom Caesar had bestowed, lands in Italy. Money was 
 brought him from all quarters, and at his coming near the capital, 
 he was met by the greatest part of the magistrates, the officers, and 
 people. 
 
 Long, and alternately successful, were the disputes between 
 Caesar and Anthony, which last aimed at nothing less than the de- 
 struction of the former, that he might thereby arrive at sovereign 
 power. Caesar was sensible of this, and took all possible care to 
 avoid the snares laid for him .- sometimes they would fain a friend- 
 ship for each other, though the rankest haired subsisted between 
 them. 
 
 In the year of Rome 711, Anthony, by virtue of the orders of the 
 people, though contrary to those of the senate, took upon him the 
 government of Gallia Cisalpina ; and, after winning most of the 
 cities of that province, actually besiged D. Brutus in Modena. 
 This so exasperated the senate, that he was soon after declared an 
 enemy to the commonwealth, and Caesar immediately sent to the 
 relief of Brutus. Thus the dictator's adopted son was seen march- 
 ing, under his enemies' standards, to succour one of his father's 
 assassins ; but the design of Caesar was not so much to relieve Bru- 
 tus, as to ruin Anthony. 
 
 A general battle being fought near Modena, Anthony was there 
 defeated, after a great slaughter. He then fled to Gallia Transal- 
 pina, where Lepidus, Plancus, and Asinius Pollio, were at the head 
 of a considerable body of forces, hoping they would assist him. 
 Caesar after this victory, finding himself only the tool of the senate, 
 resolved on accommodating matters with Anthony, and managed 
 things so well, that he not only gothimself elected consul, but obliged 
 the senate solemnly to renounce all the decrees that had been 
 enacted against Anthony, Dolabella, and others ; and likewise to 
 condemn Brutus, Cassius, and their several accomplices. 
 
 Decimus afterwards endeavouring, with a few attendants to pass 
 through Gaul, was taken and betrayed at Aquileia by Sequanus, 
 governor of that country, who sent his head to Anthony. Much 
 about the same time, Trebonius, another of the conspirators, was 
 taken, and, after being put to grievous torments, his head was 
 struck off, and kicked about in a most contemptuous manner by the 
 soldiers. 
 
 Differences being at last accomodated between Caesar and An- 
 thony, it was agreed, they, in conjunction with Lepidus, should in- 
 vest themselves with the supreme authority during five years, under 
 the name of Triumviri. It was also agreed that Anthony should 
 have all Gaul, except Narbonne, which Lepidus was to have with 
 Spain; whilst Caesar was to possess Africa, Sicily and Sardinia, 
 with the other islands, and that Italy, and the Eastern provinces, 
 should continue for a time in common. In this manner did three 
 men again divide the empire of the world ; but of these, two were 
 toogreat long to be satisfied with a division of power. 
 12* 
 
130 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 They further agreed, to their eternal infamy, to destroy all their 
 enemies, on which occasion Cicero caused the greatest controver- 
 sy. Anthony was his implacable enemy, and would come to no 
 firm accommodation, till his destruction was determined. Lepi- 
 dus, who was little better than a tool, consented to this. Cresar, 
 on account of his former friendship, would have spared his life ; but, 
 at last, he ignominiously consented to his death. They prescribed 
 300 senators, and upwards of 2000 knights, so that Rome was now in 
 a most horrible situation, nothing being heard but cries and lamenta- 
 tions in every part of it, and murders were every where committed 
 by the soldiers. 
 
 The triumviri carried their inhumanity to such lengths, as to 
 give up to one another their nearest relations. Lepidus sacrificed 
 his brother Paulus to his colleagues ; Mark Anthony abandoned to 
 Caesar his uncle Lucius ; and Czcsar gave up to Anthony, Cicero, to 
 whom he was bound by the strictest obligations. Cicero, while on 
 his flight, seeing ruffians coming towards him, ordered his litter 
 to be set down, and quietly submitted Ids neck to Pomponius Lena, 
 whom he before had saved from condemnation. This wretch cut 
 off his hands and his head, and carried them to Anthony, who in- 
 sulted over them. Some authors tell us, that it was his custom to 
 have the heads of those, whom he had proscribed, brought upon 
 his table, and that he there used to feed his eyes a long time with 
 this cruel spectacle I'uhia, his wife, says Dion, spit upon Cicero's 
 head, and laying it in her lap, pulled out the tongue, and pierced it 
 several times with her bodkin. The head and hands, being after- 
 wards, by order of the cruel Anthony, fixed upon the rostrum, the 
 people were struck with horror, to see the remains of a man, whose 
 unequalled eloquence had so often triumphed in that very place. 
 Thus fell, about the sixty-fourth year of his age, the greatest orator 
 the world ever produced. 
 
 About the year of Rome 712, a decisive battle was fought, in 
 which Anthony commanded on one side, and Marcus Brutus and 
 Cassius on the other. Victory declared for Anthony; on which 
 Cassius by his ownorder, was killed by his servant, and Brutus fell 
 upon his sword, and expired. Such was the end of Brutus and 
 Cassius, who, as some relate/died by the same weapons with which 
 they had stabbed Cxsar. The triumviri, by this victory, established 
 their empire on the ruins of the commonwealth, its liberties being 
 buried in the plains of Pharsalia, with Brutus and Cassius, the last 
 Roman republicans. 
 
 Cxsar then returned to Italy, and Anthony, after visiting Athens, 
 where he was present at the conferences of the philosophers, crossed 
 into Asia with all his troops, to establish the authority of the trium- 
 virate. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, (who had poisoned her younger 
 brother, that she might reign alone) met him at Tarsus in Cilicia, 
 which proved his destruction : for her beauty, wit, and art, inflamed 
 him almost to madness, and extinguished all his military ardour. 
 
 Cleopatra was then, twenty-five years of age, when the graces of 
 her person were more powerful thaji the magnificence of her d(ess, 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 137 
 
 The brilliancy of her equipage, on entering- the river Cydnus, will 
 hardly admit of a description- The poop of her ship flamed with 
 gold, the sails were ot purplesilk, and the oars inlaid with silver. 
 A pavilion of cloth of gold was rareed upon the deck, under which 
 appeared the queen robed like Venus, and surrounded with the most 
 beautiful virgins of her court, of whom some represented the Ne- 
 reids, and others the Graces. Instead of trumpets were heard flutes, 
 hautboys, harps, and such other musical instruments, warbling the 
 softest airs, to which the oars kept time, and rendered the harmony 
 enchanting. Perfumes were burnt on the deck, which spread their 
 odours to a great distance on the river, whose shores were covered 
 with an infinite number of people, crying out, that Venus was com- 
 ing to make Bacchus a visit for the good of Asia. 
 
 Great feasts were every day made between Anthony and Cleopa- 
 tra ; and it was at this time, that Arsinoe, Cleopatra's sister, was, at 
 the request of that cruel queen, put to death. It was also, at one 
 of these feasts, that Clenpatra had two of the finest pearls in her 
 ears that were ever seen, each of which being valued at about 50,000 
 pounds sterling. She melted one of these pearls in vinegar and 
 swallowed it. She would have done the same by the other but was 
 prevented. This other pearl was afterwards consecrated to Venus 
 by Augustus, who carried it from Alexandria to Rome. 
 
 Cleopatra accompanied Anthony as far as Tyre, and he followed 
 her to Alexandria, where they spent the whole winter in a most scan- 
 dalous excess of luxury and effeminacy. Anthony afterwards return- 
 ed to Rome, and married Octavia, the sister of Cxsar, and widow of 
 Marcellus ; but he still retained his fondness for Cleopatra, and 
 met her at Lucecome in Phoenicia, from whence he returned with 
 her to Egypt, where he indulged his inordinate passion for this las- 
 civious woman to the highest excess of voluptuousness. He gave 
 her Phoenicia, the lower Syria, and Cyprus, with great part of Cdi- 
 cia, Judea, and Arabia. He also made her a present of the libraries 
 of Pergamus, in which were above 200,000 volumes, and she placed 
 them in a new library, which she built where the former stood. She 
 had a taste for polite learning and sciences, and understood several 
 languages. She omitted no kind of arts to keep Anthony in her 
 chains, and he entered Alexandria in triumph dragging at his cha- 
 riot wheels, the king of Armenia, laden with golden chains, and 
 presented him in that condition to Cleopatra, who was pleased to 
 see a captive king at her feet. At one of their banquets, when An- 
 thony was intoxicated with wine, she presumed to ask him to give 
 her the Roman empire, which he was not aahamed to promise her. 
 
 In the mean time, and about the year of Rome 713 v , Caesar hav- 
 ing triumphed over all the republicans, thought it time to break 
 with his colleagues. He wanted to reign singly, and was there- 
 fore determined, if possible, to rid himself of them. He easily re- 
 moved Lepidus, who being little esteemed by his soldiers, was 
 abandoned by them in the midst of his camp, which Caesar became 
 master of by his artful conduct and secret negotiations . Lepidus 
 
138 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 was afterwards reduced to such an abject state, as to become even 
 the pity of his enemies. 
 
 Cleopatra had two sons by Anthony, one of whom was called 
 Alexander, and the other Ptolemy. He heaped a profusion of ho- 
 nours on these young princes, and celebrated the coronation of their 
 mother with the utmost magnificence. Matters being carried to 
 this pitch by Anthony, he gave great disgust to the Romans, and 
 particularly to Octavia, his wife : she set out to meet Anthony with 
 Caesar's consent, who gave it with no other view, but that Anthony's 
 passion for Cleopatra might induce him to act dishonourably by 
 Octavia, and thereby increasing the indignation of the Romans 
 against Anthony, he should have a plausible pretence for drawing 
 his sword against him. 
 
 Every thing succeeded to Caesar's wishes ; for Octavia received 
 a letter from Anthony, in which she was ordered to come no farther 
 than Athens, and accordingly she there stopped. Cleopatra, who 
 very much dreaded the charms and virtues of Octavia, employed 
 all her artifice to prevent Anthony's giving her a meeting. She 
 assumed an air of melancholy, and would frequently let fall a tear 
 on his approach, which she would wipe away immediately, affecting 
 to conceal her weakness and grief. This had its desired effect, for 
 he at last ordered Octavia to return to Rome. On her return, she 
 took the greatest care of her family and behaved in such a manner 
 as procured her immortal honour. She loved her husband in spite 
 of his ill usage, and could not bear to think, that his ungenerous 
 treatment of her should again kindle the flames of a civil war. How 
 opposite was the character of Octavia to that of Cleopatra : how 
 amiable does the former appear even amidst repeated insults ! and 
 how contemptible the latter amidst the parade of magnificence ! 
 
 Anthony now suffered himselftobe persuaded to divorce Octavia 
 and declare war against Caesar, both which he accordingly did. 
 He then assembled his forces at Samos, where he and Cleopatra 
 lived as luxuriously as they had done in Egypt. Here several kings 
 had orders to send arms, provisions, and soldiers; and others to 
 send musicians, dancers, and buffoons; so that frequently when a 
 ship was thought to come loaded with military stores, it proved to 
 be only scenes, players, and machines. 
 
 Anthony's temper, however, began at last to be much soured, 
 and he even suspected, that Cleopatra had designs on his life, and 
 would never eat cf any thing till she had first tasted it. Cleopatra, 
 perceiving his suspicion, poisoned the tops o the flowers with 
 which she and Anthony, according to the custom of those times, 
 were crowned with at their meals. Anthony being enflamed with 
 wine, Cleopatra proposed drinking their flowers ; on which he in- 
 stantly broke off the tops of them with his fingers, and, throwing 
 them in a goblet of wine, was going to drink them, when Cleopa- 
 tra stopped him, saying, " I am the person whom you suspect of 
 designing to poison you ; but now judge, whether 1 should want 
 opportunies to despatch you, were you become tiresome to me^ 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 130 
 
 or I could Vive without you ; " then ordered a prisoner to be brought 
 in who had been sentenced to die, she obliged him to drink off the 
 liquor, when he expired immediately. This rivetted Anthony's 
 fetters beyond all hopes of shaking them off. 
 
 Csesar had now got his forces together ; for Anthony, being lost 
 in luxury and effeminacy with Cleopatra, had given him time to re- 
 cruit, who might otherwise have been totally ruined, had Anthony 
 come upon him, before he was prepared. Anthony's fleet consisted 
 of 500 large ships, on board which was an army of 200,000 foot and 
 22,000 horse. Caesar had only 250 ships, 80,000 foot, and 12,000 
 horse. Anthony was advised by his ablest officers not to engage 
 by sea; but Cleopatra advising the contrary, they came to a gene- 
 ral engagement near the city of Actium in Epirus, in sight of both 
 armies. * Victory was for some time doubtful, till the retreat of 
 Cleopatra, who fled with the whole Egyptian squadron, and was 
 precipitately followed by Anthony, declared every thing lost ; foe 
 Anthony's army immediately submitted to Caesar. 
 
 Anthony and Cleopatra escaped to Alexandria, where she put 
 many great persons to death, fearing, since the defeat she had met 
 with, they might take up arms against her. To avoid falling into 
 the hands of Csesar, she formed the very extraordinary design of 
 having her ships, in the Mediterranean, carried into the Red Sea, 
 over the isthmus of seventy miles ; but in this she was prevented 
 by the Arabians, who burnt them all. Anthony, finding himself de- 
 serted by all his followers, for some time secluded himself from 
 company in his house, which he called Timonium, where he pre- 
 tended to act the part of Timon the man-hater ; but he soon re- 
 turned to the arms of Cleopatra, and with her revelled away the 
 remainder of his life. 
 
 They agreed to send ambassadors to Ca>sar to sue for peace ; and 
 Anthony submitted to the meanness of demanding life of him upon 
 the shameful condition of passing it at Athens as a private person, 
 if Caesar would assure Egypt to Cleopatra and her children. The 
 queen, however, was so treacherous as to give private orders to her 
 ambassadors to mention her only in the treaty. Caesar would not 
 admit Anthony's ambassadors to an audience, but he gave a favour- 
 able reception to those of the queen, he being particularly desirous 
 of securing her person to adorn his triumph, and her treasures to 
 enable him to pay the debts he had contracted, to defray the ex- 
 penses of the war. 
 
 The ambassadors proving unsuccessful, Anthony endeavoured to 
 extinguish in himself the sense of his present misfortunes, and the 
 apprehension of those that threatened him, by abandoning himself 
 to feasting and voluptuousness Cleopatra and h< 4 regaled them- 
 selves alternately, and emul'usly contended to exceed each other 
 in the incredible magnificence of their banquets. Cleopatra, how- 
 ever, foresaw what might happen, and coflecred all sorts of poison 
 to try which of them occasioned death with the least pain. Site 
 made the experiment of their virtues and strength upi>n condemned 
 criminals, whereby she found, that the .strongest poisons caused 
 
HO EGMAN HISTORY. 
 
 death the soonest, but with great torment ; and that those which' 
 are gentle brought an easy but slow death. She tried the bitings 
 of venomous creatures, and caused various kinds of serpents to be 
 applied to different persons. She every day made these experi- 
 ments, and discovered, ai length, that the asp was the only one that 
 caused neither torture nor convulsions, and which, throwing the 
 person bit into an immediate heaviness and stupefaction, attended 
 with a slight sweating upon the face, and a numbness of all the 
 organs of sense, gently extinguished life; so that those, in that 
 condition, were angry when any one awakened them, or endeavourd 
 to make them rise, like peo;ae exceedingly sleepy. This was the 
 poison she fixed upon; but applied herself with extraordinary soli- 
 citude in caressing Anthony, to dispel his suspicions and complaints. 
 
 Caesar, being fully sensible that it was of the highest importance 
 to him not to leave his victory unfinished, invested Pelusium, and 
 summoned the governor 10 open the gates. Seleucus, who com- 
 manded there for Cleopatra, had received secret orders upon that 
 head, and surrendered the place without wailing for a siege. Such 
 was the wickedness of this queen, in wli^m the most odious vices 
 were complicated ; she absolutely renounced all modesty, had a 
 violent propensity to fraud, injustice and cruelty ; and, what is 
 worse than all, was a most detestable hypocrite. While the ru- 
 mour of this 1 reason spread in the city, Cleopatra ordered her most 
 precious moveables to be carried to a place of security. Adjoining the 
 temple of Isis she had caused tombs and halls to be erected, su- 
 perb as well for their beauty and magnificence as their loftiness and 
 extent. Hiiher she removed all her jewels, gold, silver, ebony, 
 ivory, an a large quantity of perfumes aim aromatic wood, as if 
 she intended 10 ra>&e a funeral pile, upon which she would consume 
 herself with her treasures. Caesar was alarmed on being informed 
 of this, and di-ly despatched messe' gers to her, giving her the 
 greatest hopes of he most kind and g< ner us treatment; while he 
 advanced towards the ciiy with has*y marches. 
 
 Upon Caesar's arrival there, he encamped near the Hippodrome 
 and was in lv pes of soon making himself master of the city, by 
 means of the ii telbgence he hail held with Cleopatra, on which 
 he relied ho less than on his army Anthony, being ignorant of 
 her intrigues, prepared for an ubsiinate defence. He made a vigor- 
 ous saiiy, and leiuined victorious into the city, which was the 
 last eff.-rt of his expiring genius: for, after this exploit, his for- 
 titude and sense of glory forsook him, or were no more of service 
 to him. Instead of pui suing his victory, and keeping a watchful eye 
 over Cleopatra, who betrayed him, he flew to her in his armour, 
 and threw himself at her fret. The palace echoed with acclama- 
 tions, as though the siege had been raised, and Anthony and Cleo- 
 patra spent that day and part of the night in the most abandoned 
 folly. 
 
 Anthony now resolved to make the last attempt both by sea and 
 land, with a fixed resolution to conquer or die. He ordered his 
 attendants to fill him out wine plentifully, 6aying, u This may be* 
 
R0MAN HISTORY. 141 
 
 perhaps, the last service you will be able to do me ; for to-morrow 
 you may change your master, when I, stretched on the ground, 
 shall be no more M On the approach of day, Anthony drew up his 
 forces on some rising ground out of the city, and from thence be- 
 held his galleys, which were rowing out of the port, and going to 
 attack those of Caesar; but how shall I express his astonishment 
 when he beheld his admiral delivering up his fleet to his enemy ! 
 At the same time, his cavalry, seeing this, deserted him and went 
 over to Caesar when his infantry was obliged to submit. Unhappy 
 Anthony, in vain do you fly to the palace to seek Cleopatra, that 
 you may murder her for her perfidy, for she is not there— the igno- 
 minious wretch is retired ! 
 
 Cleopatra had secured herself from his fury among the tombs, 
 which quarter wa* fortified with good walls, and the gates were 
 shut. She- caused Anth->ny to be told, that she had destroyed her- 
 self, and chose her own sepulchre anftmg those of her ancestors. 
 Struck with the idea of her death, he passed immediately from the 
 excess of rage to the most violent transports of grief, and thought 
 only of following her to the grave. Having taken this resolution, he 
 Shut himself up in his apartment with a heed man, whom he had 
 caused to take off his armour, and commanded him to plunge his 
 dagger into his bosom j but his servant, full of affection, respect, 
 and fidelity for his master, stabbed himself win it, and fell dead 
 at his feet. Anthony, looking upon this action as an example for 
 him to follow, thrust his sword into his body, and fell upon the floor 
 in a torrent of his blood, which he mingled with that of his faith- 
 ful servant. 
 
 At that moment an officer came to let him know that Cleopatra 
 was alive. He no sooner heard her name pronounced, than he open- 
 ed his dying eyes, suffered his wounds to be dressed, and caused 
 himself to be carried to the fort, where she had shut herself up. 
 Cleopatra would not permit the gates to be opened to give him en- 
 trance, for fear of some surprise; but she appeared at the lofty 
 window, from whence she threw down chains and cords. Anthony 
 was made fast to these, and Cleopatra, assisted by two women, 
 who were the only persons she had brought with her into the 
 tombs, drew him up. Never was there a more moving sight. An- 
 thony, all batiied in his blood, with death painted in his face, was 
 dragged up in the air, turning his dying eyes, and extending his 
 feeble hands, to Cleopatra, as if to conjure her to receive his last 
 breath ; while she, with her features distorted, and her arms 
 strained, pulled the cord with her whole strength. When she had 
 drawn him up to her, and placed him on a bed, she threw her 
 clothes upon him, and, making the most mournful exclamations, 
 out off his hair, according to the superstition of the Pagans, who 
 believed that was a relief to those who died a violent death. Her 
 cries recalling his fainting spirits, and seeing the affliction she was 
 in, he told her, with a view to comfort her, that he should die in 
 peace, since he should expire in her arms; and that he did not 
 Mush at his defeat, since he had been vanquished by Roman*. 
 
142 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Having thus spoken, he expired, being then in the fifty third year 
 of his age. His death put an end to all the civil wars, and gave 
 Caesar an opportunity of completing his ambitious designs. 
 
 Proculeius arrived from Caesar, who could not refrain shedding 
 tears on this melancholy occasion, which was aggravated by the 
 bloody sword that was presented to him. This Roman had receiv- 
 ed particular orders to seize Cleopatra, and, rf possible, to bring 
 her alive to Cxsar. The queen refused t» go with him, but per- 
 mitted him to speak to her from without. Proculeius, after having 
 observed the situation of the sepulchre, went and informed Caesar 
 of his observations. Caesar then sent Callus to speak with her, 
 which he did in the same manner as Proculeius. In the mean time, 
 the latter bringing a ladder, and being followed by two officers, got 
 in at the window where Anthony had been drawn up, and went 
 down to the gate, where Cleopatra was talking to Callus. One of 
 her female attendants seeing him, shrieked, and cried, " 111 fitted 
 princes, thou art taken !" Cleopatra had raised a dagger to stab 
 herself,' when Proculeius, catching her in his arms, " You injure," 
 said he, " both Caesar and yourself, in attempting to deprive him of 
 so noble an opportunity to exert his clemency." He seized her 
 dagger, and shook her robes, to discover if any poison was conceal- 
 edunder them. Caesar then sent a freed man to guard Cleopatra, 
 ordering him to use her like a queen, but to prevent her from lay- 
 ing violent hands on herself. 
 
 Caesar then entered Alexandria without farther opposition, and 
 gave Cleopatra fair hopes of the kindest treatment; though he in- 
 tended only to pervert her treasure to his own purposes, and re- 
 serve her person to_grace his triumph ; but, when he had both in his 
 power, he disregarded her, and she found she had no other means 
 of avoiding the disgrace of adding to the glory of his triumph, than 
 by putting a period to her life. Caesar went and paid her a visit, 
 when she endeavoured to captivate that young conqueror, as she be- 
 fore had Julius Caesar and Anthony; but, alas, the charm was now 
 broken ! Caesar with the utmost coolness, only advised her not to 
 despond, declaring, that he would treat her with all possible ten- 
 derness. He gave her leave to dispose of her jewels as she thought 
 proper; and, after giving her the kindest assurances, he left her. 
 Caesar imagined he had artfully overreached Cleopaira, by inspir- 
 ing her with the love of life, which he, in fact, wished to prolong 
 only for the sake of his triumph ; but herein he soon found his 
 mistake. 
 
 Caesar had before given Cleopatra leave to bury Anthony, which 
 she did with the utmost magnificence, sparing no cost in his inter- 
 ment According to the custom of Egypt, she caused his body to 
 be embalmed with the most exquisite perfumes of the East, and 
 placed it among the tombs of the Egyptian kings. 
 
 Cleopatra, hearing that Csesar intended to send her and.her chil- 
 dren away within three days, she conjured him to let her pay 
 her last oblations to the manes of Anthony, which he granted 
 
ROiMAfl HISTOR 
 
 She then visited Anthony's tomb, strewing ii with 6 • ■■ ei 
 tering it with tears. She then returned to her chamber, w( nl ii' o 
 a bath, and from rhence to a table, where a splendid entertainment 
 was prepared. When she ruse from table she wrote a letter to 
 Caesai, wherein she earnestly desired to be laid in the same tomb 
 with«A"thony ; and, having- made ail quit her chamber, except !ep 
 two women, ..she shut die door, sat down upon a bed, and asked t^p 
 a basket offig-s, which a peasant had lately brought. This suppos- 
 ed peasant was one of the queen's domesticks, who had eluded the 
 vigilance of the guards. She placed the basket by her, and a mo- 
 ment after lay down, as if she had fallen asleep ; but that was the 
 effect of the asp, which was concealed among the fruit, and had 
 stung her in the arm, which she had held to it. The poison imme- 
 diately communicated itself to the heart, and killed her without 
 pain. 
 
 Thus died this princess, whose wit and beauty had made so mucli 
 noise in the world, in the year of Rome 7^4, after having reigned 
 twenty-two years from the death of her father, twelve whereof she 
 had passed with Anthony, and in the thirty-ninth year of her age. 
 She was a woman of great parts, as well as of great vice and wick- 
 edness, and spoke several languages with the utmost readiness; 
 for, besides being well skilled in (ireek and Latin, she could con- 
 verse with Ethiopians, Troglodites, Jews, Arabians, Syrians, 
 Medes, and Persians, without an interpreter, and always gave to 
 such as were of these nations, as often as they had occasion to ad- 
 dress her, an answer in their own language. In her death ended 
 the reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had continued, from 
 the death of Alexander, 294 years. 
 
 Learn hence, my fair readers, how dangerous is the possession of 
 wit and beauty, where prudence and virtue are wanting. The young; 
 lady, on whom Heaven has bestowed an uncommon share of natural 
 abilities, if she neglects to improve them by the practice of every 
 social virtue, will, like the wretched Cleopatra, turn those blessings 
 to punishments, in making her ruin the more public, and her mem- 
 ory the more detested. Ease, pleasures, and luxuries, are too apt 
 to lull the mind into a state of imaginary security, which throws 
 virtue oft" its guard, and exposes the deluded fair to the most fatal 
 dangers. Surrounded, in the bloom of life, by a crowd of admir- 
 ers, who are ever ready to offer up the incense of flattery and adu- 
 lation at the shrine of beauty, they are early accustomed to admire 
 such declarations, and form such a plan for their future conduct, as 
 pave the way to their ruin. Remember, that female virtue, once 
 lost, is never to be regained. 
 
 But, to return, Caesar, on the receipt of Cleopatra's letter, instant- 
 ly despatched a messenger to her, but he found her dead on a gol- 
 den couch, dressed in royal robes, aad looking like one asleep, with 
 one of her maids dead at her feet, and the other exp ; ring. Czsar 
 was very much troubled at Cleopatra's death, as it robbed him of 
 the noblest ornament of his triumph, though he could not but ad- 
 mire the greatness of her courage. He ordered her body to be 
 
 13 
 
J 44 ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 buried near that of Anthony, agreeably to her request, which was 
 accordingly dene with the greatest funeral pomp. Her women had 
 also a pompous interment, in memory of their fidelity. After Cle- 
 opatra's death, Egypt was made a Roman province, and governed 
 by a prefect sent from Rome for that purpose. 
 
 Caesar, having now greatly enlarged the Roman dominions, was 
 received at Rome as a conqueror, who had put an end to the mise- 
 ries and calamities of most nations. He triumphed three days suc- 
 cessively with extraordinary magnificence; first for Illyricum, 
 secondly for the victory at Actium, and thirdly for the conquest of 
 Egypt. On this occasion the temple of Janus was shut, which was 
 the third time since the foundation of Rome, after having stood 
 open two hundred and five years. 
 
 Cjesar now considering himself as supreme governor of the Ro- 
 man empire, resolved to shew all the clemency of a wise prince, 
 and the art of a refined politician. His first care was to make the 
 adherents of Anthony his friends; after this he gave splendid en- 
 tertainments to those in power, and amused the people with shows 
 and plays. Heregula'ed the many abuses that hid crept into the state, 
 banished corruption from the senate^and allowed the people the 
 free possession of their liberties. Having settled every thing in the 
 most excellent order, a variety of thoughts crowded on his mind, 
 end he reflected for a considerable time, whether he should con- 
 tinue to rule the empire, or restore it to its former state. Sylla and 
 Julius Caesar were two examples too recent to be soon forgotten : 
 the former, by giving up his power, was suffered to die peaceably 
 in his bed ; whereas the latter, hy maintaining it, was assassinated 
 by the hands of his best friends, who afterwards triumphed in the 
 deed, 
 
 Not being able to determine for himself, he consulted his two 
 best friends, Agrippa and Maecenas. Agrippa advised him to re- 
 sign it ; but Maecenas was of a different opinion. He insisted on it, 
 that it would be impossible for the state to subsist but under a 
 monarch, whose person and power would be equally secure under 
 a mild and wise administration. He followed the advice of Mae- 
 cenas ; and, though he offered the senate to resign it, he had no in- 
 tention of so doing. The senate and people, however, all refused 
 to accept his resignation : so that he had the pleasure of being 
 forced to accept of that which he wished for. 
 
 Cxsar, in order to appear the less fond of the power they had 
 voted him, immediately declared, that he would not accept of sove- 
 reign dignity for more than five years ; but he continued to enjoy it 
 thirty years after the expiration of that term. However fond Cae- 
 sar might be of power, it is cer'ain he employed all his care in set- 
 tling the empire on a happy and lasting foundation; and, during 
 the rest of his life, acted with so much justice and tfemency, that 
 after his death, it was said of him, that it had been well he had 
 never been born, or never died 
 
 The Romans were now arrived to the highest pitch of perfection, 
 With resoect. to literature, arts, and sciences. There flourished at 
 
ROMAN HISTORY. 145 
 
 this time, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, and Propertius, all 
 inimitable poets; and besides them, Livy, that immortal Roman 
 Historian. Happily, those men of genius lived in the times of Cae- 
 sar and Maecenas, who were the greatest encouragers of learning 
 that perhaps ever existed. 
 
 About the year of Rome 727, the number of inhabitants are said 
 to have amounted to 4,063,000; nor is this much to be wondered 
 at, when it is said, that the city and suburbs of Rome were at this 
 time fifty miles in compass. The provinces were then divided, 
 and all public affairs settled, when the name of Augustus was add- 
 ed to that of Cxsar, as intimating something more than mortal. 
 Here ended the greatest commonwealth upon earth, and at the 
 same time began the greatest monarchy, which made so great 
 a figure, that, for many years it was thought to be immortal : The 
 Romans were at this time masters of almost the whole giobe. 
 Never before had that nation seen such happy days : wars no long- 
 er desolated mankind ; but the improvement of arts and sciences 
 rendered them humane and happy : peace and plenty poured forth 
 her gifts in abundance; and their monarch, the source of ail these 
 blessings, became their idol. 
 
 Though we have completed the plan we set out on, that of giv- 
 ing a Roman History from the foundation of Rome to the estd of 
 the commonwealth, it may not, nevertheless, be improper to ob- 
 serve, that Augustus Carsar died a natural death in the seventy- 
 sixth year of his age, in Nola, a town of Campania, and was buried 
 at the Campus Martius at Rome. He was looked upon as ag-ady 
 for hardly ever was there a man more successful in war, or more 
 moderate in peace, enjoying the empire with universal satisfaction. 
 He was liberal to all, and most faithful to his friends, whom he 
 raised to so great honours, that they almost equalled his own elevat- 
 ed sphere. 
 
 END OF THE HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
_<3 
 
 W-\s+t?vi/ C T SOUTH AMERICA. 151 
 
 j • 
 
 being 1 numbered among the nations which contributed to improve 
 : navigation, or to make any material or useful discoveries. 
 22 The Carthaginians caught the spirit of commerce from the Phe- 
 nicians and Jews. The commonwealth of Carthage applied to 
 trade and naval affairs with the greatest success. They extended 
 their navigation chiefly towards the west and north, and visited not 
 only all the coasts of Spain, but those of Gaul, and penetrated at 
 last into Britain. They made considerable progress by land, into 
 the interior provinces of Africa, traded with some of them, and sub- 
 jected others to their empire. They sailed along the western coast 
 of that great continent, almost to the tropick of Cancer, and placed 
 several colonies, in order to civilize the natives, and accustom them 
 to commerce. 
 
 It is evident that the Phenicians, who instructed the Greeks in 
 many useful arts and sciences did not communicate to them that 
 extensive knowledge of navigation, which they themselves posses- 
 sed ; nor did the Romans imbibe that commercial spirit and ardour 
 for discovery, which distinguished their rivals, the Carthaginians. 
 Though Greece be almost encompassed by the sea, which formed 
 many spacious bays and commodious harbours : though it be sur- 
 rounded by a- vast number of fertile islands, yet, notwithstanding 
 such a favourable situation, which seemed to invite that ingenious 
 people to apply themselves to navigation, it was long before this 
 art attained any degree of perfection among them. Even at the 
 time when the Greeks engaged in the famous enterprise against 
 Troy, their knowledge in naval affairs seems not to have been 
 much improved. Their vessels were of inconsiderable burden, and 
 mostly without decks. These had only one mast, and they were 
 strangers to the use of anchors. All their operations in sailing were 
 clumsy and unskilful 
 
 The expedition of Alexander the Great into the east, considera- 
 bly enlarged the sphere of navigation and of geographical know- 
 ledge among the Greeks He founded a great city, which he called 
 Alexandria, near one of the mouths of the river Nile, that by the 
 Mediterranean sea, and the neighbourhood of the Arabian Gulf it 
 might command the trade both of the east and west. This situa- 
 tion was chosen with such discernment, that Alexandria soon be- 
 came the chief commercial city in the world. 
 
 , The progress made by the Romans in navigation and discovery, 
 was still m»re inconsiderable than that of the Greeks. The genius 
 of the Roman people, their military education, and the spiri," of their 
 laws concurred to discourage them from commerce and naval af- 
 fairs. It was the necessity of opposing a formidable rival, not the 
 desire of extending trade, which first prompted them to aim at 
 maritime power. 
 
 As soon as the Romans acquired a taste for the luxuries of the 
 east, the trade with India, through Egypt was pushed with new 
 vigour, and carried on to greater extent. By frequenting the In- 
 dian continent, navigators became acquainted with the periodical 
 course of the winds, which, in the ocean that separates Africa froni 
 
\b c 2 HISTORY OF 
 
 India, blow with little variation during one half of the year from the 
 east, and during the other half blow with equal steadiness from the 
 west. Encouraged by this observation, they abandoned their an- 
 cient, slow and dangerous course, along the coast, and as soon as 
 the western monsoon set in took their departure from Ocelis, at the 
 mouth of the Arabian Gulf, and stretched boldly across the ocean. 
 The uniform direction of the wind, supplying the place of the com- 
 pass, and rendering the guidance of the stars less necessary, con- 
 ducted them to the port of Musiris, on the western shore of the 
 Indian continent. There they took on board their cargo, and re- 
 turning with the eastern monsoon, finished their voyage to the Ara- 
 bian Gulf within the year. This part of India, now known by the 
 name of the Malabar coast, seems to have been the utmost limit of* 
 ancient navigation in that quarter of the globe. 
 
 The discovery of this new method of sailing to India, is the most 
 considerable improvement in navigation made by the Romans dur- 
 ing the continuance of their power. In ancient times, the knowl- 
 edge of remote countries was more frequently acquired by land 
 than by sea ; and the Romans, from their particular dislike to 
 maritime affairs, may be said to have totally neglected the latter, 
 though a much preferable way to make discoveries, being more 
 easy and expeditious 
 
 If we rejec* fabulous and obscure accounts, if we closely abide 
 by the light and information of authentic history, without giving 
 way to the conjectures of fancy, or the dreams of etymologists, we 
 must conclude, that the knowledge which the ancients had acquir- 
 ed of the habitable globe was very confined and superficial. In 
 Europe, the extensive provinces in the eastern part uf Germany 
 were little known to them. They were almost totally unacquainted 
 with the vast countries which aienow subjects to the kings of Den- 
 mark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland and the Russian empire. The 
 more barren regions, which stretch within the arctic circle were 
 quite unexplored In Africa, their researches did not extend far 
 beyond the provinces which border on the Mediterranean, and those 
 situated on the western shore of the Arabian Gulf. In Asia, they 
 were unacquainted with all the fertile and delightful countries be- 
 yond the Ganges, whjch furnish the most valuable commodities for 
 the European commerce with India ; nor do they seem to have ever 
 penetrated into those immense regions, occupied by the wandt ring 
 tribes, which they called by the. general name of Scythians, and now 
 possessed by Tartars of various denominations, and by the Asiatic 
 Russian subjec's. 
 
 But however imperfect or inaccurate the geographical know- 
 ledge which the Greeks and Romans had acquired may appear, in 
 respect of the present improved state or that science, their progress 
 in discovery will seem considerable, and the extent to which they 
 carred navigation and commerce, must be considered as great, 
 when compared with the ignorance of early times. Geography 
 continued to improve under the Romans so long as they remained 
 in their powerful state ; but when the barbarians broke in upon 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 153 
 
 them, the consequence of luxury and effeminacy, the sciences 
 dwindled, and discoveries ceased to be made. 
 
 Constantinople, after the destruction of the Roman empire, though 
 often threatened by the fierce invaders, who spread desolation over 
 the rest of Europe, was so fortunate as to escape their destructive 
 rage. The knowledge of ancient arts and discoveries was pre- 
 served in that city ; a taste for splendour and elegance stdl subsist- 
 ed ; the productions and luxuries of foreign countries were in re- 
 quest ; and commerce continued to flourish in Constantinople, when 
 it was almost extinct in every other part of Europe. 
 
 Much about the same time, a gleam of light and knowledge broke 
 in upon the east. The Arabians, having contracted some relish for 
 the sciences of the people whose empire they had contributed to 
 overturn, translated the books of several of the Greek philosophers 
 into their own language. The study of geography, of course, be- 
 came an early object of attention to the Arabians: but that acute 
 and ingenious people cultivated chiefly the speculative and scien- 
 tific parts of geography. In order to ascertain the figure and di- 
 mensions of our earth, they applied the principles of geometry, 
 they had recourse to astronomical observations, and employed ex- 
 pei iments and operations, which Europe, in mure enlightened times, 
 have eagerly adopted and imitated. 
 
 The calamities and desolation brought upon the western provin- 
 ces of the Roman empire by its barbarous conquerors, by degrees 
 were forgotten and in some measure repaired. The rude tribes 
 which settled there, acquired insensibly some idea of regular go- 
 vernment, and some relish for the functions and comforts of civil 
 life. Europe awakened, in some degree, from its torpid and inac- 
 tive state, the first symptoms of which were discerned in Italy. The 
 acquisition of liberty and independence roused industry, and gave 
 motion and vigour to all the active powers of the human mind : for- 
 eign commerce revived, navigation was attended to, and great pains 
 taken to improve it. 
 
 From that period, the commercial spirit of Italy became active 
 and enterprising. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, rose from inconsidera- 
 ble towns, to be populous and wealthy cities; their naval power 
 increased, their vessels frequented not only all the ports in the 
 Mediterranean, but venturing sometimes beyond the Straits, visit- 
 ed the maritime towns of Spain, France, the Low Countries, and 
 England. 
 
 While the cities of Italy were thus advancing in their career of 
 improvement, an event happened, the most extraordinary perhaps 
 in the history of mankind, which, instead of obstructing the com- 
 mercial progress of the Italians, contributed to its increase. The 
 martial spirit of the Europeans, heightened and inflamed by reli- 
 gious zeal, prompted them to attempt the deliverance of the Holy 
 Land from the dominion of infidels. Vast armies composed of all 
 the nations in Europe, moved towards Asia on this strange enter- 
 prise. The Genoese, Pisans and Venetians furnished the trans- 
 ports to carry them thither, and supplied them with provisions and 
 
154 HISTORY OP 
 
 military stores. Besides the immense sums which they received 
 on this account, they obtained commercial privileges and establish- 
 ments. From these sources prodigious weahh flowed into the cities 
 above mentioned. This was accompanied with a proportional in- 
 crease of power, and by the end of the Holy War, Venice, in parti- 
 cular, became a great maritime state, possessing an extensive com- 
 merce and ample territories. 
 
 Communications being thus opened between Europe and the 
 western provinces of Asia, several persons were encouraged to ad- 
 vance far beyond the countries in which the crusaders carried on 
 their operations, and to travel by land into the more remote and opu- 
 lent regions of the east. The wild fanaticism, which seem at that 
 period to have mingled in ail the schemes of individuals, no less 
 than in all the councils of nations, first incited men to enter upon 
 these long and dangerous excursions. They were afterwards un- 
 dertaken from prospects of commercial advantage, or from motives 
 of mere curiosity. 
 
 In the midst of this rising desire for discovery a very fortunate 
 event took place, which contributed more than all the efforts and 
 ingenui'y of preceding ages'to improve and extend navigation. That 
 wonderful property of the magnet, by which it communicates such 
 virtue to a net die or slender rod of iron, as to point towards the 
 poles of the earth, was happily discovered. The use which might be 
 made of this in directing navigation, was immediately perceived. 
 That most valuable, but now familiar instrument, the mariner's com- 
 pass, was firmed. As soon as navigators found by means of this, 
 that at all seasons, and in every place, they could discover the 
 north and south with so much ease and accuracy, it became no 
 logger necessary to depend merely on the light of the stars, and the 
 observation of the sea-coast. They gradually abandoned their an- 
 cient timid and lingering course along the shore, launched boldly 
 into the ocean, and relying on this new guide, could steer in the 
 darkest night, and under the most cloudy sky, with a security and 
 precision hitherto unknown. The compass may be said to have 
 opened to man the dominion of the sea, and to have put him in full 
 possession of the earth, by enabling him to visit every part of it. 
 
 About the year 1365, Providence seemed to have decreed, that 
 at this period men were to pass the limits within which they had 
 been so long confined, and open to themselves a more ample field, 
 wherein to display their talents, their enterprise, and courage. 
 The first considerable efforts towards this were not made by any 
 of the more powerful states of Europe, or by those who had ap- 
 plied to navigation with the greatest assiduity and success. The 
 glory of taking the lead in this bold attempt was reserved for the 
 Portuguese, whose kingdom was the smallest and least powerful 
 of any in Europe. As the attempts of the Portuguese to acquire 
 the knowledge of those pa'ts of the globe, with which mankind 
 were then unacquainted, not only improved and extended the art 
 of navigation, but roused such a spirit of curiosity and enterprise, 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 165 
 
 as led to the discovery of the New World, of which we are present- 
 ly to give the history, it is necessary to take a view of their naval 
 operations. 
 
 Various circumstances urged the Portuguese to exert their ac- 
 tivity in this new direction, and enabled them to accomplish under- 
 takings apparently superior to the natural force of their monarchy. 
 John I. King of Portugal, surnamed the Bastard, having obtained se- 
 cure possession of the crown, in the 1411, soon perceived, that it 
 would be impossible to preserve public order, or domestic tranquil- 
 lity, without finding some employment for the restless spirit of his 
 subjects. With this view, lie assembled a numerous fleet at Lisbon, 
 composed of all the ships he could fit out in his own kingdom, and 
 of many hired from foreigners. This great armament fitted out in 
 1412, was destined to attack the Moors settled on the coasts of Bar- 
 bary While the fleet was equipping, a few vessels were appointed 
 to sail along the western shore of Africa, bounded by the Atlantic 
 ocean, and to discover the unknown countries situated there. 
 
 The particular situation of Portugal was an invitation to this new 
 undertaking, and the genius of the age being favourable to the exe- 
 cution of it, it proved successful. The vessels 6ent on the discovery 
 doubled the formidable Cape N>n, which had terminated the progress 
 of former navigators, and proceeded one hundred and sixty miles be- 
 yond it, to Cape B>jador. As hs rocky cliffs, which stretched a 
 considerable way into the Atlantic, appeared more dreadful than 
 the promontory they had passed, the Portuguese commander was 
 afraid to attempt to sail round it, but returned to Lisbon, more 
 satisfied with having advanced so far, than ashamed of not having 
 gone further. 
 
 Though this voyage was in itself inconsiderable, yet it increased 
 the passion for discovery, which began to shew itself in Portugal. 
 The fortunate issue of the king's expedition against the Moors of 
 Barbary, added strength to that spirit in the nation, and pushed it on 
 to new undertakings. In order to render these successful, it was 
 necessary, that they should be conducted by a person who possessed 
 abilities capable of discerning what was attainable, who enjoyed 
 leisure to form a regular system for prosecuting discovery, and who 
 was animated with ardour, that would persevere in spite of obsta- 
 cles and repulses : happily for Portugal, she found all these qualities 
 in Henry duke of Viseo, the fourth son of King John. That prince, 
 in his early youth having accompanied his father in his expedition to 
 Barbary, distinguished himself by many deeds of valour. To the 
 martial spirit which waf. the characteristic of every man of noble 
 birth at that period, he added all the accomplishments of a moreen- 
 lightened and polished age. He cultivated the arts and sciences, 
 which were then little known, and despised by persons of his 
 exalted situation. He was particularly fond of the study of geo- 
 graphy, and he early acquired such a knowledge of the habita- 
 ble globe, as discovered the great probability of finding new and 
 opulent countries, by sailing along the coast of Africa, 
 
 14 
 
156 HISTORY OF 
 
 Th.e commencement of every new undertaking is usually attend- 
 ed with trifling success. In the year 1418 he fitted out a single 
 ship, and gave the command of it to two gentlemen of his house- 
 hold, who offered themselves as volunteers to conduct die enter- 
 prise. He instructed them to double Cape Bojador, and thence to 
 steer towards the south. They held their course along the shore, 
 the mode of navigation which still prevailed, when a sudden squall 
 of wind arose, which drove them out to sea, and, when tiiey expect- 
 ed every moment to perish, it blew them on an unknown island, 
 which, from their happy escape, they named Porto Santo. They 
 instantly returned to Portugal with the news of their discovery, and 
 were received by Henry with the applause and honour due to for- 
 tunate adventurers. 
 
 The next year Henry sent out three ships under the same com- 
 manders, in order to make a settlement in Porto Santo. From this 
 island they observed towards the south a fixed spot in the horizon, 
 like a small black cloud. They were by degrees led to conjecture 
 it might be land, and steering towards it, they arrived at a con- 
 siderable island, uninhabited and covered with wood, which on 
 that account they called Madeira. As it was Henry's principal ob- 
 ject to render his discoveries useful to his country, he immediately 
 equipped a fleet to carry a colony of Portuguese to these islands. 
 He took care that they should be furnished not only with the seeds, 
 plants, and domestic animals common in Europe, but, as he foresaw 
 that the warmth of the climate and fertility of the soil, would prove 
 favourable to the rearing of other productions, he procured slips 
 of the vine from the island of Cyprus, the rich wines of which 
 were then in great request, and plants of the sugar cane from 
 Sicily, into which it had been recently introduced. These throve 
 so prosperously in this new country, that the advantage of their 
 culture was immediately perceived, and the sugar and wine of Ma- 
 deira, soon became considerable articles of commerce, from which 
 the Portuguese derived great advantage. 
 
 These important successes gave a spur to the spirit of discovery, 
 and induced the Portuguese, instead of servilely creeping along the 
 coast, to venture into the open sea. They doubled Cape Bojador, 
 ^n 1433, and advanced within the tropics. In the course of a few 
 years they discovered the river Senegal, and all the coast extend- 
 ing from Cape Blanco, to Cape de Verd. 
 
 The Portuguese had hitherto been guided in their discoveries, 
 or encouraged to attempt them, by the light and information they 
 received from the works of the ancient mathematicians and geo- 
 graphers ; but when they began to enter the torrid zone, the no- 
 tions which prevailed among the ancients that the heat was so in- 
 tense as to render it insupportable, deterred them, for some time, 
 from proceeding. However, notwithstanding these unfavourable 
 appearances, in 1449 the Portuguese discovered the Cape de Verd 
 islands, which lie off the promontory of that name, and soon after 
 the isles called Azores. As the former of these are above three 
 fcundred miles from the African coast and the latter nine hundred 
 
SOUfH AMERICA. 157 
 
 miles from any continent, it is evident that the Portuguese had 
 made great advances in the art of navigation. 
 
 The passion for discoveries received an unfortunate check hy the 
 death of Prince Henry, whose superior knowledge had hitherto di- 
 rected, all the operations of the discoveries, and whose patronage had 
 encouraged and protected them. However, notwithstanding all the 
 advantages they derived from these, the Portuguese, during his 
 life, did not advance, in their utmost progress towards the south, 
 within five degrees of the equinoctial line ; and after their continued 
 exertions for half a century, hardly 1500 miles of the coast of Africa 
 were discovered. 
 
 The Portuguese in 1471. ventured to cross the line, and, to their 
 astonishment, found that region of the torrid zone, which was sup- 
 posed to be scorched with intolerable heat, to be habitable, popu- 
 lous, and fertile. 
 
 Under the direction of John II. in 1484, a powerful fleet was fit- 
 ted out, which advanced above fifteen hundred miles beyond the 
 line, and the Portuguese, for the first time beheld a new heaven, 
 and observed the stars of another hemisphere. 
 
 By their constant intercourse with the people of Africa, they gra- 
 dually acquired some knowledge of those parts of that country, which 
 they had not visited. The information they received from the na- 
 tives, added to what they had observed in their own voyages, began 
 to open prospects of a more extensive nature. They found, as they 
 proceeded southward, that the continent of Africa, instead of ex- 
 tending in breadth, according to the doctrine of Ptolemy, appeared 
 sensibly to contract itself and to bend towards the east. This in- 
 duced them to give credit to the ancient Phenician voyages round 
 Africa, which had long been considered as fabulous, and gave them 
 reason to hope, that by following the same route, they might arrive 
 at the East Indies, and engross that commerce, which had so long- 
 contributed to enrich other powers. 
 
 In 1486, the conduct of a voyage for this purpose, the most dan- 
 gerous and difficult the Portuguese had ever embarked in, was 
 entrusted to Bartholomew Diaz, who stretched boldly towards the 
 south, and proceeding beyond the utmost limits to which his coun- 
 trymen had hitherto advanced, discovered near a thousand miles of 
 a new country. Neither the combined powers of violent tempests, 
 and the frequent mutinies of his crew, nor even the calamities of 
 famine, which he suffered from losing his store-ship, could deter 
 him from the pursuit of his grand object. In spite of all, he at last 
 discovered that lofty promontory, which bounds Africa to the south ; 
 but he did nothing more than discover it. The violence of the 
 winds, the shattered condition of his ships, and the turbulent spirit 
 of his sailors compelled him to return after a voyage of sixteen 
 months. The king of Portugal, as he now entertained no doubt of 
 having found the long desired mute to India, gave this promontory 
 the name of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 These sanguine ideas of success were strengthened by the in- 
 telligence the king received over land, in consequence of his em- 
 
158 HISTORY OF 
 
 bassy to Abyssinia. Covijlam and Payva, by the king's instructions, 
 had repaired to Grand Cairo From this city they travelled in com- 
 pany with a caravan of Egyptian merchants, and embarking on the 
 Red Sea, arrived at Aden, in Arabia. There they separated ; Pay- 
 va sailed directly towards Abyssinia; Covillam embarked for the 
 East Indies, and having visited Calecut, Goa, and other cities of 
 the Malabar-coast, returned to Sofala, on the east side of Africa, 
 and thence to Grand Cairo, which Payva and he had fixed upon as 
 their place of meeting. The former however was unfortunately and 
 cruelly murdered in Abyssinia : but Covillam found at Cairo two Por- 
 tuguese Jews, whom the king of Portugal had despatched after 
 them, in order to receive an account of their proceedings, and to 
 communicate to them new instructions Uy one of these Jews, Co- 
 villam transmitted to Portugal a journal of his proceedings by sea 
 and land, his remarks upon the trade of India, together with exact 
 maps' of the coast on which he had touched ; and from what he him- 
 self had observed, as well as from the information of skilful seamen in 
 different countries, he concluded, that by sailing round Africa, a 
 passage might be found to the East Indies. The happy coinci- 
 dence of Covillam's report and opinion with the discoveries lately 
 made by Diaz, left hardly any shadow of doubt with respect to the 
 possibility of sailing from Europe. However, the vast length of the 
 voyage, and the furious storms, which Diaz had encountered near 
 the Cape of Good H<>pe, alarmed and intimidated the Portuguese to 
 such a degree, although they were become adventurous and skilful 
 mariners, that some time was requisite to prepare their minds for 
 this dangerous and extraordinary voyage. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 Introduction of commercial pursuits- 
 
 Imperfections of navigation among the a7icients. 
 
 Navigation and commerce of the Egyptians, Phenicians, Jews, Car- 
 thaginians, Greeks, and Romans 
 
 The first regular plan of discovery formed by the Portuguese. 
 
 The use of the mariner's compass discovered about 1302. 
 
 The Portuguese doubled Cape Bojador about the year 1<*33. 
 
 Attempts to discover a new route to the East Indies 
 
 Voyage of Bartholomew Diaz, in I486, who penetrated as far as the 
 Cape °f Good Hope. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, a subject to the republic cf Genoa, 
 was among the foremost of those foreigners whom the fame of 
 the discoveries made by the Portuguese had allured into their ser- 
 vice Though neither the time nor place of his birth are certainly 
 known, yet it was on all hands agreed, that he was descended from 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 159 
 
 an honourable family reduced to indigence by misfortunes. As his 
 ancestors were accustomed to a seafaring life, Columbus became 
 naturally fond of it himself, and very early discovered those tal- 
 ents for that profession, which plainly indicated the great man he 
 was one day to be. He applied with uncommon ardour to "the study 
 of the Latin tongue, geography, astronomy, and the art of drawing. 
 Thus qualified, in 1461, at the age of fourteen, he went to sea, and 
 began his career on that element, which conducted him to so much 
 glory. 
 
 In 1467, he repaired to Lisbon, where many of his countrymen 
 were settled They soon conceived such a favourable opinion of his 
 merit and talents, that they warmly solicited him to remain in their 
 kingdom, where his naval skill and experience could not fail of ren- 
 dering him conspicuous. 
 
 To find out a passage by sea to the East Indies, was the great 
 object in view at that period. From the time that the Portuguese 
 doubled Cape de Verd, this was the point at which they aimed in 
 all their navigations. The tediousness of the course, which the Por- 
 tuguese were pursuing, naturally led Columbus to consider, whether 
 a shorter and more direct passage to the East Indies, than that 
 projected by sailing round the African continent, might not be found 
 out. After revolving long arid seriously every circumstance sug- 
 gested by his superiour knowledge in the theory, as well as prac- 
 tice of navigation, after comparing attentively the observations of 
 modern pilots, with the hints and conjectures of ancient authors, 
 he at last concluded, that by sailing directly towards the west, 
 across the Atlantic ocean, new countries, which probably formed 
 a part of the vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered. 
 
 Filled with these ideas, he laid his scheme before the senate of 
 Genoa, and making his country the first tender of his service, offer- 
 ed to sail under the banners of the republic, in quest of the new re- 
 gions he expected to discover ; but they inconsiderately rejected 
 his proposal, as a dream of a chimerical projector. He then submit- 
 ted his plan to the Portuguese, who endeavoured to rob him of the 
 honour, by sending another person privately to pursue the same 
 track proposed by him ; but the pilot chosen to execute Columbus's 
 plan, had neither the genius nor the fortitude of its author Con- 
 trary winds arose, no sight of approaching land appeared, his cou- 
 rage failed, and he returned to Lisbon, execrating a plan, which he 
 had no abilities to execute. 
 
 Columbus no sooner discovered this dishonourable treatment, than 
 he instantly quitted Portugal in disgust, and repaired to Spain about 
 the close of the year 148-1. Here he resolved to propose it in per- 
 son to Ferdinand and Isabella, who at that time governed the united 
 kingdoms of Castile and Arragon. He also sent his brother to Eng- 
 land, to propose his plan to Henry VII. 
 
 After a long succession of mortifying circumstances and disap- 
 pointments, Isabella was persuaded to send for Columbus to court. 
 The cordial reception he there met with from the queen, together 
 
 14* 
 
160 HISTORY OP 
 
 with the near prospect of setting out upon that voyage, which had 
 sf> long 1 been the object of his thoughts and wishes, soon effaced the 
 r . membrance of all that he had suffered in Spain, during eight te- 
 pious years of solicitation and suspense. The negotiation now went 
 forward rapidly, and a treaty with Columbus was signed on the 
 17th of April, 1492. 
 
 The chief articles of it were, 1. Ferdinand and Isabella, as sov- 
 reigns of the ocean, constituted Columbus their high admiral in all 
 the seas, islands, and continents, which should be discovered by 
 his industry; and stipulated, that he and his heirs should enjoy 
 this office, with the same powers and prerogatives, which belonged 
 to the high admiral of Castile, within the limits of his jurisdiction. 
 2. They appointed Columbus their viceroy in all the islands and 
 continents which he should discover : but if, for the better adminis- 
 tration of affairs, it should hereafter be necessary to establish a 
 separate governor in any of those countries, they authorized Co- 
 lumbus to name three persons, of whom they would choose one for 
 that office ; and the dignity of viceroy, with all its immunities, was 
 likewise to be hereditary in the family of Columbus. 3. They grant- 
 ed to Columbus and his heirs, for ever, the tenth of the free profits 
 accruing from the productions and commerce of the countries 
 which he should discover. 4 They declared, that if any contro- 
 versy or lawsuit should arise with respect to any mercantile trans- 
 action in the countries which should be discovered, it should be 
 determined by the sole authority of Columbus, or of judges to be 
 appointed by him. 5. They permitted Columbus to advance one 
 eighth part of what should be expended in preparing for the expedi- 
 tion, and in carrying on commerce with the countries which he 
 should discover, and entitled him, in return, to an eighth part ok' 
 the profit. 
 
 Ferdinand, though his name appears conjoined with that of Isa- 
 bella in this transaction, refused to take any part in it as king of 
 Arragon, his distrust of Columbus being very violent. 
 
 After all the efforts of Isabella and Columbus, the armament wafr 
 not suitable, either to the dignity of the power who equipped it, or 
 to the importance of the service for which it was destined. It con- 
 sisted of three vessels The largest, a ship of no considerable bur- 
 den, was commanded by Columbus, as admiral, who gave it the 
 name of Santa Maria. Of the second called the P.nta, Martin 
 Pinzon was captain, and his brother Francis pilot. The third, nam- 
 ed the N'gna, was under the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon. 
 These two were light vessels, hardly superior in burden or force to 
 large boats. The sum employed in the whole of this equipment 
 did not exceed 40001 
 
 On the 3d day of August, 1492, Columbus set sail, a little before 
 sunrise in presence of a vast crowd of spectators, who sent up 
 their supplications to Heaven for the prosperous issue of the voyage, 
 which they wished rather »han expected. Columbus steered di- 
 rectly for the Canary Islands, from which he departed on the 6th 
 of September. In the short run to the Canaries, the ships were 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 161 
 
 found to be so crazy and il! appointed, as to be very improper for a 
 navigation, which was expected to be bo'h long and dangerous. 
 
 Columbus, on leaving the Canaries, held his course due west, left 
 immediately the ususl track of navigation, and stretched into un- 
 frequented and unknown seas By the 14th of September, the fleet 
 was about two hundred leagues to the west of the Canary islands, 
 at a greater distance from land than any Spaniard had been before 
 that time. Columbus early discovered from the spirit of his follow- 
 ers, that he must prepare to struggle, not only with the unavoidable 
 difficulties, which might be expecied from the nature of his under- 
 taking, but with such as were likely to arise from the ignorance and 
 timidity of the people under his command. All the art and ad- 
 dress he was master of was hardly sufficient to quell the mutinous 
 disposition of his sailors ; who grew the more turbulent in propor- 
 tion as their distance increased from home. 
 
 On the 11th of October, Columbus was so confident of being near 
 land, that he ordered the sails to be furled, and the ships to lie 
 to, keeping strict watch, lest they should be driven on shore in the 
 night. During this interval of suspense and expectation, no man 
 shut his eyes, all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards that quar- 
 ter where they expected to discover the land, which had been so 
 long the object of their wishes A little after midnight, the joyful 
 sound of land ! land! was heard from the Pinta, which kept always 
 ahead of the other ships ; but, having been so often deceived by 
 fallacious appearances, every man was now become slow of belief, 
 and waited, in all the anguish of uncertainty and impatience, for the 
 return of day. 
 
 On the 12th of October, as soon as morning dawned, all doubts 
 and fears were dispelled From every ship an island was seen 
 about two leagues to the North, whose flat and verdant fields, well 
 stored with wood, and watered with many rivulets, presented the 
 aspect of a delightful country. The crew of the Pinta instantly 
 began the Te Deum, as a hymn of thanksgiving to God, and were 
 joined by those of the other ships, with tears of joy and transports 
 of congratulation. They then un their knees \» gged pardon of 
 Columbus for the mutinous spirit they had shewn, acknowledged 
 his superior abilities, and promised implicit obedience to his will in 
 future. 
 
 The boats being manned and armed as soon as the sun arose, 
 they rowed towards the island with their colours displayed, with war- 
 like music, and other martial pomp. As they approached the coast 
 they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the novelty of 
 the spectacle had drawn together, whose attitudes and gestures 
 expressed wonder and astonish men' at the strange objects before 
 Vhem. He landed in a rich dress, with a sword in his hand. His 
 men followed, and kneeling down, they all kissed the ground which 
 they had so long desired to see. They then took solemn possession 
 of the country' for the crown of Castile and Leon. 
 
 The dress of the Spaniards, the whiteness of their skins, their 
 beards, their arms, appeared strange and surprising to the natives. 
 
162 HISTORY OF 
 
 The vast machines in which they had traversed the ccean, that 
 seemed to move upon the water with wings, and uttered a dread, 
 ful sound resembling thunder accompanied with lightening and 
 smoke, struck then/ with such 'error, that ihey began to consider 
 them as children of the Sun, who had descended to visit mortals 
 here below. . , , , 
 
 The Spaniards were no less surprised at the novelty of their 
 situation. Every herb, shrub, and tree, was different from those 
 which flourished in Europe, The inhabitants appeared in the simple 
 innocence of nature, entirely naked. Their black hair, long and un- 
 curled, floated upon their shoulders, or was bound in tresses round 
 their heads. They had no beards, and every part of t heir bodies was 
 perfectly smooth. Their complexion was of a dusky copper colour, 
 their features singular, rather than disagreeable, and their aspect 
 gentle and timid. They were at first shy through fear, but soon 
 became familiar with the Spaniards, and with transports of joy re- 
 ceived from them hawks-bells, glass beads, or other baubles, in 
 return for which they gave such provisions as they had, and seme 
 cotton yarn, the only commodity of value that they could produce. 
 Thus in the first interview between the inhabitants of the new and 
 old worlds, every thing was conducted amicably and to their mu- 
 tual satisfaction. 
 
 Columbus now assumed the title and authority of admiral and 
 viceroy, and called the island he had discovered San Salvador. It 
 is one of that large cluster of islands called the Lucaya or Bahama 
 isles. It is situated above 3000 miles to the west of Gomera from 
 which the squadron took its departure, and only four degrees to the 
 south of it. 
 
 It soon appeared evident to Columbus that this was but a poor 
 place, and consequently not the object of his pursuit. But, conform- 
 ably to this theory concerning the discovery of those regions of Asia, 
 which stretched towards the east, he concluded that San Salvador 
 was ooe of the isles, which geographers described as situated in the 
 vast ocean adjacent to India ; but he was herein mistaken. Hav- 
 ing observed, that most of the people whom he had seen wore small 
 plates of gold, by way of ornament, in their nostrils, he eagerly in- 
 quired where they got that precious metal. They pointed towards 
 the south, and made him comprehend by signs, that gold abounded 
 in countries situated in that quarter. 
 
 In consequence of this intelligence, he sailed to the southward 
 and saw several islands. He touched at three of the largest, on 
 which he bestowed the names of St. Mary, Fernandina, and Isabella ; 
 but, as his inquiries were after gold, and none of them produced 
 any, he made no stay in any of them. He afterwards discovered Cu- 
 ba,:-and soon after fell in with Hispaniola. 
 
 Columbus, still intent on discovering the mines which yielded 
 gold, sailed hence on the 24th of December, 1492. The great 
 variety of business in which he was engaged having prevented 
 Columbus from taking any sleep for two days, he retired at mid- 
 night to take some repose, having committed the helm to the 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 163 
 
 pilot, with strict injunction not to quit it for a moment. The pilot, 
 dreading no danger, carelessly left the helm to an unexperienced 
 cabin-boy, and the ship, carried away by a current, was dashed 
 against a rock The violence of the shock awakened Columbus. 
 He ran up to the deck, where all was confusion and despair, he 
 alone retaining presence of mind. However all his endeavours werei 
 in vain ; the vessel opened near the keel, and filled so fast with wa- 
 ter, that its loss was inevitable. The boats from ihe Nigna saved 
 the crew, and the natives in their canoes did every thing in their 
 power to serve them, by whose assistance they saved almost every 
 thing that was valuable. 
 
 The distress of Columbus was at this time very great. The Pinta 
 had sailed away from him, and he suspected was treacherously 
 gone to Europe, There remained but one vessel, and that the 
 smallest and most crazy of the squadron, to traverse such a vast 
 ocean, and carry so many men back to Europe. He resolved there- 
 fore to leave a part of his crew on the island, that, by residing there, 
 they might learn the language of the natives, S'udy their disposi- 
 tions, search for mines, and prepare for the commodious settlement 
 of the colony, with which he proposed to return. Having settled 
 this business with his men and the natives, he built a fort and plac- 
 ed in it the guns saved out of his own ship He appointed thirty- 
 eight of his people to remain on the island, under the command of 
 Diego de Arada, and furnished them with every thing requisite for 
 the subsistence or defence of the infant colony. 
 
 Having thus settled matters, he left Navidad on the 4th of Jan- 
 uary, 1493, and stretching towards the east, discovered and gave 
 names to most of the harbours on the northern coast of the island. 
 On 'he 6ih he descried the Pinta, and soon came up with her after 
 an absence of six v*eeks Pinzon endeavoured to justify his con- 
 duct, and though Columbus was by no means satisfied in Ins own 
 mind, yet he thought it prudent t d ssemble at present, and accord- 
 ingly received him again into favour. Pinzon during his absence 
 from the admiral, had visited several hat boms in Ihe island, had 
 acquired some gold by traffic with the natives, but had made no 
 discovery of any importance. 
 
 Columbus now f itind it necessary, from *he condition of h>s slops, 
 and the temper of Ins men, to return to Europe. Accordingly, on 
 the 16'h of January, he directed his course towards the northeast, 
 and scon lost sight of land. The voyage was prosperous to the 
 14th of February, when lie was overtaken bv so violent a storm, that 
 all hopes of surviving it were given up. At length Providence in- 
 terposed to save a life reserved for other purposes ; and after ex- 
 periencing a second storm almost as dreadful as the first, he an ived 
 at the Azores, then Lisbon, and reached Spain on ihe 15ih f 
 March, in the port of Palos, seven months a -id eleven days from 
 the time when he set out thence upon his voyage. 
 
 Columbus was received, on his landing, with all the honours due 
 to his great abilities ; and Ferdinand and Isabella were no less 
 
164 HISTORY OF 
 
 astonished than delighted with this unexpected event. Every 
 mark of honour, that gratitude or admiration could suggest, was 
 conferred upon Columbus. Letters patent were issued, confirming 
 to him and his heirs all the privileges contained in the capitulation 
 eoncladed at Santa Fe ; his family was ennobled, and the king, queen, 
 and courtiers, treated him as a person of the highest rank. But 
 what pleased him most was an order to equip, without delay, an 
 armament of such force, as might enable him not only to take pos- 
 session of the countries he had already discovered, "but to go in 
 search of those more opulent regions, which he still confidently ex- 
 pected to find. 
 
 Cautious as Ferdinand was, and averse to every thing new and 
 adventurous, preparations for a second expedition were carried on 
 with a rapidity unusual in Spain, and to an extent that would be 
 deemed not inconsiderable in the present age. The fleet consisted 
 of seventeen ships, some of which were of good burden. It had 
 on board fifteen hundred persons, among whom were many of noble 
 families, who had served in honourable stations. 
 
 Every thing being ready, Columbus set sail from the bay of Ca- 
 diz on the 25th day of September, 1493, and arrived at Hispaniola 
 on the 22d of November. When he appeared off Navidad, from 
 the station in which he had left the thirty eight men under the 
 command of Arada, he was astonished that none of ihem appeared, 
 and expected every moment to see them running with transports of 
 joy to welcome their countrymen. But he soon found, that the im- 
 prudent and licentious behaviour of his men had roused the re- 
 sentment of the natives, who at last destroyed them all and burned 
 their fort. 
 
 He then traced out the plan of a town in a large plain, near a 
 spacious bay, and oblig* d every person to put his hand to a work 
 on which their common safety depended. This rising city, the 
 first that the Europeans founded in the New World, he named Isa- 
 bella, in honour of his patroness the queen of Castile. 
 
 His followers loudly complained of being obliged to turn build- 
 ers, where tiny exj ected to meet with riches and luxuries. He 
 therefore found it necessaiy to proceed in quest of these golden 
 shadows. Havng settled every thing respecting the government of 
 the new colony in his absence, he we ghed ai chor on the 24' h of 
 April, 1494, with one ship a»>d two small barks under his command. 
 During a tedious voyage of full five mouths, he had a trial of al- 
 most all the numerous hardships, to which persons of his profession 
 are exposed, without making any discovery of importance, except 
 the island .4 Jamaica. 
 
 On his return to Hispaniola, he met with his brother Bartholo- 
 mew at Isabella, aftei an absence of near thirteen years, which gave 
 him inexpressible joy. He could not have arrived more seasona- 
 bly, as the Spaniards were not only threatened with famine, but 
 even with an insurrection of the natives owing to the shameful 
 liberties the new sealers took with 'he w men and property of the 
 Indians, who united their forces to drive these formidable invader* 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. I6o 
 
 from the settlements, of which they had violently taken posses- 
 sion. 
 
 O.i the twenty-fourth of March, Columbus took the field with 
 his little army, which consisted only of two hundred foot, twenty 
 horse, and twenty large dogs ; and how strange soever it may seem 
 to mention the last as composing part of a military force, they 
 were not perhaps the least formidable and destructive of the 
 whole, when employed against naked and timid Indians. If we 
 may believe the Spanish historians, the Indian army amounted to 
 100,000 men ; but they were ignorant of the arts of war, and had 
 nothing but ciubs and arrows for then- defence. Columbus attacked 
 them during the night, and obtained an easy victory. Many were 
 killed, more taken prisoners, and reduced to servitude ; and so tho- 
 roughly were the rest intimidated, that they abandoned themselves 
 to despai , considering their enemies as invincible. 
 
 Columbus employed several months in marching through the 
 island, and in subjecting it to the Spanish government, without 
 meeting with any o\ position He imposed a tribute upon all the 
 inhabitants above f urteen years of a^e. h.ach person who lived 
 in th>se districts where gold was found, was obliged to pay quar- 
 terly as much gold dust as filled a hawk's bell ; from those in 
 other parts of the country, twenty pounds of cotton were demand- 
 ed This was the first regular taxation of the Indians, and served 
 as a precrdent for exactions, still more exorbitant. Such an impo- 
 sition was extremely contrary to those maxims which Columbus 
 had hitherto inculcated, with respect to the mode of treating 
 them. 
 
 The condition of the Indians became insupportable, and they en- 
 deavoured to starve the Spaniards, by destroying all the produce 
 of the earth, and then retired to the mountains. This reduced the 
 Spaniards to extreme want ; hut they received such seasonable 
 supplies of provisions from Europe, anil found so many resources 
 in their ingenuity and industry, that they suffered no great loss of 
 men. 
 
 Columbus finding he had many enemies in the court of Spain, 
 resolved to return home in order to justify himself, leaving his 
 brother Bartholomew as lieutenant governor, and Francis K >ldan 
 chief justice He was received at court, on his arrival, with so 
 many marks of approbation, after having perfectly cleared up his 
 conduct, as made his enemies ashamed of themselves, and it was 
 resolved to send him on discoveries a third time. 
 
 After innumerable disappointments and delays, he sailed on his 
 third voyage on the 30 ! h day of May, 1498. His squadron consist- 
 ed of six ships only, of no great burden, and but indifferently pro- 
 vided for so long and dangerous a navigation. 
 
 He sailed in a different direction from what he had hitherto done, 
 in order to fall in with the coast of India. On the 1st of August, 
 the man stationed in the round top surprised them with the joyful 
 cry of land. They stood towards it and discoved a considerable 
 
160 HISTORY OF 
 
 island, which the admiral called Trinidad, a name it still retains. 
 He did not arrive at H spaniola till the 30th of August, when he 
 found the affairs of the colony in such a situation as afforded him 
 no prospect of enjoying that repose, of which he stood so much in 
 need. 
 
 Many revolutions had happened in that country during" his ab- 
 sence His brother, the deputy gotxrnor, in consequence of the 
 advice the admiral gave him before his departure, had removed 
 the colony from Isabella to a more commodious station, on the op- 
 posite side of the island, and laid the foundation of St. Domingo. 
 The natives were soon after reduced to the Spanish yoke, which 
 appeared so oppressive to them, that they rose in their own de- 
 fence, but were easilv conqueied At the same time, Roldan, 
 whom Columbus had placed in a station, which required him to 
 be the guardian of order and tra> qudiity, persuaded the colony to 
 rise in arms 
 
 Such was the distracted s'ate of the colony when Columbus ar- 
 rived at St Domingo, but his wisdom and moderation soon brought 
 every thing to order 
 
 While Columbus was thus engaged in the west, the spirit of 
 discovery did not languish in Portugal. Emanuel, who inherited 
 the enterprising genius of his predecessors, persis'ed in their grand 
 scheme of opening a passage to the East Indies by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and soon after his accession to the throne equipped a 
 squadron for that important voyage He gave the command of it 
 to Vasco de Gama, a man of noble birth, possessed of virtue, pru- 
 dence, and courage, equal to the station. The squadron, like all 
 those fitted out for discovery in the infancy of navigation, was ex- 
 tremely feeble, consisting only of three vessels, of neither burden 
 nor force adequate to the service. 
 
 He set sail from Lisbon on the 9th of July, 1497, and standing to- 
 wards the South, had to struggle for four months with contrary 
 winds, before he could reach the Cape of Good Hope : Here their 
 violence began to abate, and during an interval of calm weather, in 
 the latter end of November, Gama doubled that formidable pro- 
 montory, which had so long been the boundary of navigation, and 
 directed his course towards the northeast, along the African coast. 
 He touched at several ports, and after various adventures he came 
 to anchor before the city of Melinda. Gama now pursued his voy- 
 age with almost absolute certainty of success, and under the con- 
 duct of a Mali -metan pilot he arrived at Calecut, upon the coast of 
 Malabar, on the 22d of May, 1498. 
 
 What he beheld of the wealth, the populousness, the cultivation, 
 the industry, and arts of this highly civilized country, far exceed- 
 ed any idea that he had formed from the imperfect accounts which 
 the Europeans had hitherto received of it. But as he possessed 
 neither sufficient force to attempt a settlement, nor proper com- 
 modities with which he could carry on commerce of any conse- 
 quence, he hastened back to Portugal, with an account of his suc- 
 cess in performing a voyage the longest, as well as the most diffi- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 167 
 
 cult, that had ever been made since the first invention of navigation 
 He landed at Lisbon on the 14th of September, 1499, two years, two 
 months, and five days from the time he left that port. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine gentleman, having accompanied 
 Ojeda in a voyage to the New World, on his return transmitted an 
 account of his adventures and discoveries to one of his countrymen, 
 and labouring with the vanity of a traveller to magnify his own 
 exploits, he had the address and confidence to frame his narrative, 
 so as to make it appear, that he had the glory of having first dis- 
 covered the continent in the New World. The country, of which 
 Amerigo was supposed to be discoverer, came gradually to be 
 called by his name. By the universal consent of nations, America 
 is the name bestowed on this new quarter of the globe. The bold 
 pretensions of a fortunate im, oster have robbed the discoverer of 
 the New World of a distinction which belonged to him. The 
 name of Amerigo has supplanted that of Columbus, and it is now 
 too late so redress ihe injury. 
 
 During the last year of the fourteenth century, Pedro Alvarez 
 Cabial was fitted out by the king of Portugal in order to carry on 
 trade or attempt conquests in India, to which place Gatna had just 
 shewn them the way. In order to avoid the coast of Africa, where 
 he was certain of meeting with variable breezes, or frequent calms, 
 which might retard his voyage, Cabrul stood out to sea, and kept 
 so far to the west, that, to his surprise, he found himself upon the 
 shore of an unknown country, in the tenth degree beyond the line. 
 The country with which he fell in belongs to that province in 
 South America, now known by the name of Brazil. Ke landed, and 
 having formed a very high idea of the fertility of the soil, and 
 agreeableness of the climate, he took possession of it for the crown 
 of Portugal, and despatched a ship to Lisbon with an account of 
 this event, which appeared to be no less important than it was un- 
 expected. 
 
 While the Spaniards and Portuguese were daily acquiring more 
 enlarged ideas of the extent and opulence of that quarter of the 
 globe which Columbus had made known to them, he himself, far 
 from enjoying the tranquillity and honours, with which his services 
 should have been recompensed, was struggling with every distress, 
 in which the envy and malevolence of the people under his com- 
 mand, or the ingratitude of the court which he served, could in- 
 volve him. 
 
 As soon as the court of Spain became prejudiced against Co- 
 lumbus, a fatal resolution was taken. Francis de Bovaclilla, a 
 knight of Calatrava, was appointed to repair to Hispaniola, with 
 full powers to inquire into the conduct of Columbus ; and, if he 
 should find the charge of maladministration proved, to supersede 
 him, and assume the government of the island. It was impossible 
 to escape when this preposterous commission, made it the inter- 
 est of the judge to pronounce the person, whom he was sent to 
 try, guilty of every charge. What followed cannot at all appear 
 
 15 
 
^68 HISTORY OF 
 
 surprising- ; Columbus was sent to Spain loaded with chains. For- 
 tunately, his voyage to Spain was extremely short, where he arrived 
 on the 23d of November, 1500. 
 
 As soon as Ferdinand and Isabella were informed that Columbus 
 was brought home a prisoner, and in chains, they were ashamed of 
 their conduct and dreaded the censure of all Europe. They in- 
 stantly issued orders to set Columbus at liberty, invited him to court, 
 and remitted him money to enable him to appear therein a manner 
 suitable to his rank. On his appearance at court, the modest man- 
 ner in which he told his tale, and related his grievances, were felt 
 by every one, the new governor of Hispaniola was recalled, ami 
 Ovando was sent in his room. 
 
 While the necessary steps were taking for securing the prosperi- 
 ty and welfare of the colony which Columbus had planted, he him- 
 self was engaged in the unpleasant employment of soliciting the 
 favour of an ungrateful court, and notwithstanding all his merit and 
 services he solicited in vain. After attending the court of Spain for 
 near two years, as an humble suitor, he found it impossible to re- 
 move Ferdinand's prejudices and apprehensions, and perceived at 
 length, that he laboured in vain, when he urged a claim of justice or 
 merit with an interested, ungenerous, and unfeeling prince. 
 
 However, Columbus, at last, prevailed on the court of Spain to 
 fit him out on his fourth expedition, which they were persuaded to 
 embark in, on the promised hope of his finding out a shorter and 
 safer route to the East Indies. He accordingly sailed from Cadiz, 
 on the 9th of May, 1502, with only four small barks, the largest of 
 which did not exceed severity tons in burden. On his arrival at 
 Hispaniola, he met with the most ungenerous treatment from 
 Ovando, who would not suffer him to enter their harbours. 
 
 After various and fruitless attempts to discover a passage to the 
 Indian ocean, Columbus met with all the disasters to which naviga- 
 tion is exposed. Furious hurricanes, with violent storms of thunder 
 and lightning, threatened his destruction, and at last drove him on 
 the coast of Jamaica, where his little crazy fleet was wrecked, on 
 the 24th of June, 1503 
 
 The distress of Columbus in this situation was truly lamentable, 
 but his genius rose above every thing. He supported the insolence 
 and cruelty of the inhabitants, the siiil more alarming mutiny of his 
 men, and the infamous conduct of the governor of Hispaniola, till 
 some ships appeared, when the Spaniards quitted an island in which 
 the unfeeling jealousy of Ovando had suffered them to languish 
 above a year. 
 
 Onthe 12th of September, 1504, he set sail for Spain with two 
 ships, and his ill fortune pursued him even in his passage home ; 
 being overtaken by a storm, he with the greatest difficulty got buck 
 to Spain. On his arrival, he received the fatal news of the death of 
 his patroness Queen Isabella, 
 
 Columbus, disgusted with the ingratitude of a monarch, whom he 
 had served with such fidelity and success, exhausted with the fa- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 169 
 
 tigues and hardhips he had endured, and broken with the infirmities 
 these brought upon him, ended his life at Valladolid, on the 20th 
 of May, 1506, in the 59th year of his age. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1492 Columbus sets out on his first voyage. 
 Discovers the island of Cuba and Hispaniola. 
 
 1493 Columbus sets out on his second voyage, 
 
 1494 Discovers the island of Jamaica 
 
 1498 Third voyage of Columbus, be discovers the continent of 
 
 America. 
 1199 The Portuguese sail to the East Indies, by the way of the 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 On what account the name of America was given to the Ne~v 
 World. 
 1500 Columbus sent in chai?is to Spain. 
 
 1502 He sets out on his fourth voyage. 
 
 Searches in vain for a passage to the East Indies. 
 
 1 503 Shipwrecked on the island of yam aica . 
 1506 Death of Columbus. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Iiie colony "of Hispaniola, before the death of Columbus, had 
 gradually acquired the form of a regular and prosperous state. The 
 humane solicitude of Isabella to protect the Indians from oppres- 
 sion, and particularly the proclamation, by which the Spaniards werf 
 prohibited to compel them to work, for some time, it is true, retard- 
 ed the progress of improvement. The natives considering every 
 exemption from toil as a supreme felicity, despised every allurement 
 and reward by which they were invited to labour. The Spaniards 
 were not numerous enough, either to work the mines or cul- 
 tivate the soil, the distempers peculiar to the climate having carried 
 off great numbers. 
 
 In order to save the colony from ruin, Ovando ventured to relax 
 the rigour of some royal edicts that had been sent to him. He made 
 anew distribution of the Indians among the Spaniards, and com- 
 pelled them to labour for a stated time, in digging the mines, or in 
 cultivating the grounds ; but in order to screen himself from the 
 imputation of having subjected them again to servitude, lie enjoined 
 their masters to pay them a certain sum, as the price of their work. 
 But the Indians, after enjoying respite from oppression, though dur- 
 ing a short interval, now found the yoke of bondage? to be so galling-, 
 that they made several attempts to vindicate their own liberty. 
 However they were subdued as often as they rose, and the treatment 
 the,v received from Ovando was both cruel and treacherous. 
 
HO HISTORY OF 
 
 The attention of the Spaniards was so much engrossed by their 
 operations in the mines of Hispaniola, that the spirit of discovery 
 languished for some time. In 1508 Juan Ponce de Leon, who 
 commanded under Ovando, in the eastern district of Hispaniola, 
 passed over to the island of St. Juan de Puerto Rico, which Colum- 
 bus had discovered in his second voyage, and penetrated into the 
 interior parts of the country. As he found the soil to be fertile, 
 and expected, from symptoms, us well as from the information of 
 the inhabitants, to discover mines of gold in the mountains, Ovando 
 permitted him to attempt making a settlement in the island. In a 
 few years, Puerto Rico was subjected to the Spanish government, 
 the natives were reduced to servitude, and being treated with the 
 same inconsiderate rigour as their neighbours in Hispaniola, the 
 •-•are of original inhabitants worn out with fatigue and sufferings, 
 was soon exterminated. 
 
 Sebastian de Ocampo, by the command of Ovando, sailed round 
 Cuba, and first discovered, with certainty, that this country which. 
 Columbus once supposed to be a part of the continent was only a 
 targe island. 
 
 This voyage round Cuba was one of the last occurrences under 
 the administration of Ovando. Ever since the death of Columbus, 
 his son Don Diego had been employed in soliciting Ferdinand to 
 grant him the offices of viceroy and admiral in the New World, 
 together with all the other immunities and profits which descended 
 to him by inheritance, in consequence of the original capitulation 
 with his father. But if these dignities and revenues appeared so 
 considerable to Ferdinand, that, at the expense of being deemed 
 unjust, as well as ungrateful, he had wrested them from Columbus, 
 it is not surprising that he should be unwilling to confer them on 
 his son. Accordingly Don Diego wasted two years in incessant 
 but fruitless importunity. Weary of this, he endeavoured at length 
 to obtain, by a legal sentence, what he could not procure from the 
 favour of an interested monarch. He commen- ed a suit against 
 Ferdinand before the council which managed Indian aflairs, and 
 that court with an integrity which reflects hohoui upon its proceed- 
 ings, decided against the king, and confirmed all the privileges 
 stipulated in the capitulation. Ferdinand still shewed his repug- 
 nance to do Diego justice, nor would he at last have done any thinjg 
 had he not been in a manner forced to it by a powerful party, raised 
 in consequence of the marriage of Don Diego with D «>nna Maria, 
 daughtei of Don Ferdinand, great commendator of Leon, and bro- 
 ther of the duke of Alva, a nobleman of the first rank and nearly 
 related to the king The duke and Ins family espoused so warmly 
 the cause of their new ally, that Ferdinand could not resist their 
 solicitations. 
 
 In 1509, he recalled Ovando, and appointed D^n Diego his suc- 
 cessor, though even in conferring this favour he could not conceal 
 his jealousy ; for he allowed him to assume only the title of gover- 
 nor and not that, of vicerov. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 171 
 
 Don Diego immediately set off for Hispaniola, attended by his 
 brother, his uncle, his wife, whom the courtesy of ihe Spaniards 
 honoured with the title of Vice-queen, and a numerous retinue of 
 both sexes, born of good families. He lived with a splendour and 
 magnificence hitherto unknown in the new world, and the family of 
 Columbus seemed now to enjoy the honours and rewards due to his 
 inventive genius, of which he himself had been cruelly defrauded. 
 The colony itself acquired new lustre by the accession of so many 
 inhabitants of a different rank and character from most of those 
 who had hitherto emigrated to America, and many of the most 
 illustrious families in the Spanish settlements are descended from 
 the persons who at that time accompanied Don Diego Columbus. 
 
 Juan Diaz de Solis, about this time, set out in conjunction with 
 Pinzon, upon new discoveries. They sailed due south, towards the 
 equinoctial line, which Pinzon had formerly crossed, and advanced 
 as far as the40th degree of southern latitude. They were astonish- 
 ed to find that the continent of America stretched on their right 
 hand, through all this vast extent of ocean. They landed in differ- 
 ent places, to take possession in the name of their sovereign ; but 
 though the country appeared to be extremely fertile and inviting, 
 their force was so small, having been fitted out rather for discovery 
 than making settlements, that they left no colony behind them. 
 Their voyage however, served to give the Spainiards more exalted 
 and adequate ideas, with respect to the dimensions of the New 
 World. 
 
 Private adventurers attempted to make settlements on the new 
 continent ; but the loss of their ships by various accidents upon un- 
 known coasts, the diseases peculiar to a climate the most noxious 
 in all America, the want of provisions, unavoidable in a country 
 imperfectly cultivated, dissentions among themselves, and the in 
 cessant hostilities of the natives, involved them in a succession of 
 calamities, the bare recital of which would strike my readers with 
 horror 
 
 Notwithstanding the unfortunate issue of these expeditions, Ihe 
 Spaniards were not deterred from engaging in new schemes of a 
 similar nature. Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1512, fitted out three ships 
 at his own expense, for a voyage of discovery, and his reputation 
 soon drew together a respectable body of followers. He directed 
 his course towards the Luc ay a islands ; and, after touching: at seve- 
 ral of them, as well as of the Bahama isles, he stood to the south- 
 west, and discovered a country hitherto unknown to the Spaniards, 
 which he called Florida, either because he fell in with it on Palm 
 Su. day, or on account of its gay and beautiful appearance. He 
 attempted t-> land in different places, but met with such vigorous 
 opposition from the natives, who were fierce and warlike, as con- 
 vinced him, that an increase of force was requisite to effect a set- 
 tlement. Satisfied with having opened a communication with a 
 new country, of whose value and importance he conceived very 
 sanguine hopes, he returned to Puerto Rico, through the channel 
 now known by the name of the Gulf of Florida. 
 15* 
 
172 HISTORY O* 
 
 S' on after the expedition to Florida, a discovery of much greater 
 importance was made in another part of America, Balboa, having- 
 been raised to the government of the small colony at Santa Maria 
 in Darien, made frequent inroads into the adjacent country, and col- 
 lected a considerable quantity of gold, which abounded more in 
 that part of the continent than in the islands. In one of these ex- 
 cursions, the Spaniards contended with such eagerness about the 
 division of some gold, that they were at the point of proceeding to 
 acts of violence against one another. A young Indian prince, who 
 was present, astonished at the high value they set upon a thing, of 
 which he did not discern the use, tumbled the gold out of the bal- 
 ance wiih indignation, and, turning to the Spaniards, u Why do 
 you quarrel," (said he) " about such a trifle ? If you are so passion- 
 ately fond of gold, as to abandon your own country, and to disturb 
 the tranquillity of distant nations for its sake, 1 will conduct you to 
 a region, wheie this metal, which seems to be the chief object of 
 your admiration and desire, is so common, that the meanest utensils 
 are formed of it." 
 
 Balboa and his companions, transported with what they heard,, 
 eagerly inquired where this happy country lay, and how they might 
 arrive at it. He informed them, at the distance of six suns, that 
 is, of six days journey towards the south, they should discover 
 another ocean, near to which this wealthy kingdom was situated; 
 hut, if they intended to attack that powerful state, they must assem- 
 ble forces far superior in number and strength to what they were at 
 present. This was the first information which the Spaniards receiv- 
 ed concerning the southern ocean, or the opulent and extensive 
 country known afterwards by the name of Peru. 
 
 Balboa, having mustered all the forces he could, which amounted 
 only to 190 men, set out on this important expedition on the first 
 of September, 1513, about the time the periodical rains began to 
 abate. Though their guides had represented the breadth of the 
 isthmus to be only a journey of six days, they had already spent 
 twenty five in forcing their way through the woods and mountains. 
 Many of them were ready to sink under such fatigue in that sultry 
 climate, several were seized with the diseases peculiar to the 
 country, and all became impatient to reach the period of their la- 
 bours and sufferings. At length the Indians assured them, that from 
 the top of the next mountain they should discover the ocean which 
 vms t!>e object of their wishes. When with infinite toil they had 
 climbed up the greater part of that steep ascent, Balboa command- 
 ed his men to halt and advanced alone to the summit, that he might 
 be lie first who should enjoy such a spectacle which he had so 
 long desired. As «oon as he beheld the South Sea stretching in 
 endless prospect below him, be fell on his knees, and lifting up his 
 hands 'o heaven, returned thanks to God, who had conducted him 
 to a discovery, so beneficial to his country, and so honourable to him- 
 self. His followers, observing his transports of joy, rushed forward 
 to join his wonder, exultation and gratitude. They held on their 
 course to the shore, with great alacrity, when Balboa advancing up 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 173 
 
 to the middle in the waves, with his buckler and sword, took posses- 
 sion of that ocean in the name of the king his master, and vowed to 
 defend it. 
 
 That part of the great Pacific or Southern ocean, which Balboa 
 first discovered, still retains the name of the Gulf < f St. Michael, 
 which he gave to it, and is situated to the east of Panama. From 
 several of the petty princes, who governed in the districts adjacent 
 to that gulf, he extorted provisions and gold by force of arms: 
 others sent them to him voluntarily. Together with the acquisi- 
 tion of this wealth, winch served to soothe and encourage his fol- 
 lowers, he received accounts which confirmed his sanguine hopes 
 of future and more extensive benefits from this expedition. All the 
 people on the coasts of the South Sea concurred in informing him, 
 that there was a mighty and opulent kingdom situated at a consid- 
 erable distance towards the south-east. 
 
 Though the information Balboa received from the people, on the 
 coast, as well as his own conjectures and hopes, made him ex- 
 tremely impatient to visit this unknown country, his prudence re- 
 strained him from attempting to invade it with a handful "f nun, 
 exhausted by fatigue, and weakened by diseases He determined 
 to lead back his followers to their settlement at Santa Maria in Da- 
 rien, and to return next season with a force more adequate to such 
 an arduous enterprise. He reached Santa Maria after an absence 
 of four months, with greater glory and more treasure, than the 
 Spaniards ever had acquired in any former expedition in the New 
 World. 
 
 He took care to acquaint the court of Spain with the important 
 discovery he had made, and demanded a reinforcement of a thou* 
 sand men, in order to attempt the conquest of that opulent country, 
 concerning which he had received such inviting intelligence 
 
 The meanness and jealousy of Ferdinand, and the acUice of men 
 around him worse than himself, induced him to supersede Balboa, 
 the most proper man he c< uld have employed, and to appoint 
 Pedrarias Davila governor of Darien. He gave him the command 
 of fifteen stout vessels, and twelve hundred soldiers. These were 
 fitted out at the public expense, and granted with a liberality un- 
 usual to Ferdinand. 
 
 Pedrarias reached the gulf at Darien without any remarkable 
 accident, in July, 1514; but his ill conduct aid base treatment of 
 Balboa, stopped all operations, and neatly ruined this flourishing 
 colony. Both parties sent home complaints to Spain against each 
 other. 
 
 At length, Ferdinand became sensible of his imprudence in su- 
 perseding the most active and experienced officer he had in the 
 New World, and, by way of compensation to Balboa, he appointed 
 him lieutenant governor of the countries up n the South Sea, with 
 very extensive privileges and authority, at the same time ordering 
 Pedrarias to support him in all his operations, and to consult him 
 on every measure which he himself pursued. Surely nothing could 
 
174 HISTORY OF 
 
 be more ridiculous and absurd in Ferdinand than this conduct ? 
 Pedrarias now conceived the most implacable hatred to Balboa, 
 and, though he afterwards seemed so far reconciled to him, as to 
 give him his daughter in marriage, he soon found means falsely to 
 accuse him of high treason, had him tried, condemned, and pub- 
 licly executed in 1517. Pedrarias, notwithstanding the violence 
 and injustice of his proceedings, was not only screened from pun- 
 ishment by the powerful patronage of the infamous bishop of Bur- 
 gos, an inveterate enemy to real merit, but continued in the go- 
 vernment. 
 
 While matters were thus going forward in Darien, several im- 
 portant events occurred with respect to the discovery, the con- 
 quest, and government of other provinces in the New World. 
 Ferdinand was so intent upon opening a communication with the 
 Molucca or Spice Islands by the west, that, in the year 1515, he 
 fitted out two ships at his own expense, in order to attempt such 
 a voyage, and gave the command of them to Juan Diaz de Solis, 
 who was deemed one of the most skilful navigators in Spain. He 
 stood along the coast of South America, and on the first of January, 
 1516, entered a river which he called Janeiro, where an extensive 
 commerce is now carried on. Thence he proceeded to a spacious 
 bay which he supposed to be the entrance into a strait that com- 
 municated wi'h the Indian ocean ; but upon advancing farther, he 
 found it to be the mouth of Rio de Plata, one of the vast rivers by 
 which the southern continent of America is watered In endea- 
 vouring to make a descent in this country, De Solis and several of 
 his crew were slain by the natives, who, in sight of the ships, cut 
 their bodies in pieces, roasted and devoured them. Discouraged 
 by the loss of their commander, and terrified at this horrid specta- 
 cle, the surviving Spaniards set sail for Europe, without aiming at 
 any further discovery. Though this attempt proved abortive it 
 was not without benefit : it turned the attention of ingenious men 
 to this course of navigation, and prepared the way for a more fortu- 
 nate voyage. 
 
 While discoveries were thus going forward, Hispaniola continu- 
 ed as their principal colony, and the seat of government. Don 
 Diego Columbus wanted neither inclination nor abilities to have 
 rendered the members of this colony, who were most immediately 
 under his direction, prosperous and happy; but he was circum- 
 scribed in all his operations by the suspicious policy of Ferdinand, 
 who f >n every occasion, and under the most frivolous pretexts, re- 
 trenched his privileges, and encouraged the treasurer, the judges, 
 and other subordinate officers, to counteract his measures, and to 
 dispute his authority. In short, Ferdinand's conduct a as so un- 
 generous, as obliged Don Diego to quit Hispaniola, and repair to 
 Spain, in order to se^k redress for his injuries. 
 
 On the death of Ferdinand, in 1517, Charles V. took possession 
 of the government. D'ego Velasquez, who conquered Cuba in 
 the year 1511, still retained the government of that island, as the 
 deputy of Don Diego Columbus, though he seldom acknowledged 
 
South America. 175 
 
 his superior, and aimed at rendering his own authority altogether 
 independent. Under his prudent administration, Cuba became one 
 of the most flourishing of the Spanish settlements. The fame of 
 this drew many persons from the other colonies, expecting there 
 to find some permanent establishment, or some employment for 
 their activity. As Cuba lay to the west of all the islands pos- 
 sessed by the Spaniards, and as the ocean which stretches be- 
 yond it towards that quarter, had not hitherto been explored, these 
 circumstances naturally invited the inhabitants to attempt new dis. 
 coveries. 
 
 An expedition for this purpose in which activity and resolution 
 might conduct to sudden wealth, was more suited to the genius of 
 the age, than the patient industry requisite in clearing ground, and 
 manufacturing sugar. Hence it happened, that several officers 
 who had served under Pedrarias in Darien, entered into an associa- 
 tion to undertake a voyage of discovery. They persuaded Fran- 
 cisco Hernandez Cordova, an opulent planter in Cuba, and a man 
 of great courage, to join with them in the adventure, and chose him 
 to be their commander. Velasquez not only approved of the design, 
 but assisted in carrying it on. 
 
 Three small vessels were purchased, and furnished with every 
 thing requisite either for traffic or war. An hundred and ten men 
 embarked on board of them, and sailed from St. Jago de Cuba on 
 the 8th of February, 1517. 
 
 On the twenty.first day after their departure from St Jago, they 
 saw land which proved to be Cape Catoche, the eastern point of 
 that large peninsula projecting from the continent of America, 
 which still retains its original name u\ Yucatan. As they approach- 
 ed the shore, five canoes came off full of people decently clad in 
 cotton garments •. an astonishing sight to the Spaniards, who had 
 found every other part of America possessed by naked savages. 
 Cordova endeavoured by sm-ll presents to gain the good will of 
 these people. '1 hey, though amazed at the strange objects now 
 presented for the. first tine to their view, invited the Spaniards to 
 visit their habitations, with an appearance of c< rdiality. They 
 landed accordingly, and as they advanced into the country, they 
 observed with new wonder some large houses built will) siont : but 
 they soon found, if the Yucatans bad made progress in improve- 
 ment beyond their countiymen, they were likewise more aitful and 
 warlike. Though the Indian chief received Cordova wnh many 
 tokens of friendship, he had posted a considerable body of his sub- 
 jects in ambush behind a thicket, who upon a signal j^iven b\ h ; m, 
 rushed out and attacked the Spaniards with great boldness, and 
 with some degree of martial order. At the frs'. flight of their 
 arrows, fifteen of the Spaniards were wounded ; but Hie Indians 
 were so terrified with the sudden explosion of the fire arms, and so 
 surprised at the execution done by them, by the cross bows, and by 
 the other weapons of their new enemies, that they precipitately 
 fled Cordova immediately quitted % country where he had met 
 with so unwelcome a reception, carrying off two prisoners, with the 
 
176 HISTORY OF 
 
 ornaments of a small temple which he plundered in making 1 his re« 
 treat to his ships. 
 
 Cordova continued bis course towards the west, without losing 
 sight of the coast, and on the sixteenth day arrived at Campeachy. 
 At this place the natives received them more kindly ; but the Span- 
 iards were much surprised, that on all the extensive coast along 
 which they had sailed, they had not met with any river. Their 
 water beginning to tail, they advanced in hopes of finding a supply ; 
 at length they discovered the mouth of a river. 
 
 Cordova landed all his troops in order to protect his sailors, whose 
 business it was to fill the cask? ; but the natives rushed upon them 
 with such fury, and in such numbers that forty-seven of the Span- 
 iards were killed on the spot, and one man only of the whole body 
 escaped unhurt. Their commander though wounded in twelve 
 different places, directed the retreat with presence of mind equal to 
 the courage with which he had led them on in the engagement, 
 and with much difficulty they reached their ships Having met 
 with this terrible repulse, nothing remained but to hasten back to 
 Cuba with their shattered forces. In their passage thither, they suf- 
 fered the greatest distress from the want of water, that men wound- 
 ed and sickly, shut up in small vessels, and exposed to the heat of 
 the torrid zone, can be supposed to suffer. Some died on their pas- 
 sage ; and Cordova their commander, soon after he landed at Cuba 
 paid the debt of nature. 
 
 Unfortunate as this expedition proved, it contributed rather to 
 animate than damp a spirit of enterprise among the Spaniards. 
 They had discovered an extensive country, situated in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Cuba, fertile in appearance, and possessed by a people 
 far more refined than any they had hitherto met with in America. 
 Velasquez, through particular views of ambition and interest, not 
 only encouraged their ardour, but at his own expense fitted out four 
 ships for a voyage. Two hundred and forty volunteers, among 
 whom were several persons of rank and fortune, embarked in this 
 enterprise. The command of it was given to Juan de Grijalva a 
 young man of known merit and courage, with instructions attentively 
 to observe the nature of the countries wkich he should discover ; to 
 barter for gold ; and, if circumstances were inviting, to settle a 
 colony in some proper station. He sailed from St. Jago de Cuba, 
 on the 8th of April, 1 a8. 
 
 They held the same course as in the former voyage, and at last 
 reached Potonchan, were the last adventurers had been so roughly 
 handled. The desire vf avenging their countrymen who had been 
 slain there, concurred with -heir ideas of good policy, in prompting 
 them to land, that they might chastise the Indians with such ex- 
 emplary i 'pour, as would strike «error into all the people round 
 them ; but, though they disembarked all their troops and carried 
 ashore s >me field pieces, the Indians fought with such courage, 
 that the Spaniard* with difficulty gained the victory : and were con- 
 firmed in their opinion, that the inhabitants of this country would 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 177 
 
 prove fnore formidable enemies than any they had met with in other 
 parts of America. 
 
 From Potonchan, they continued their voyage towards the west, 
 keeping as near as possible to the shore, and casting anchor every 
 evening, from the dread of the dangerous accidents to which they 
 might be exposed in an unknown sea. During the day their eyes 
 were turned continually towards land, with a mixture of surprise and 
 wonder at ihe beauty of the country, as well as the novelty of the 
 objects they beheld. Many villages were scattered along the coast, 
 in which they could distinguish houses of stone that appeared 
 white and lofty at a distance. One of the soldiers happening to re- 
 mark, that this country resembled Spain in its appearance, Grijalva, 
 with universal applause, called it New Spain, the name which still 
 distinguishes this extensive and opulent province of the Spanish em- 
 pire in America. 
 
 On the 19th of June, they landed in a river, which the natives call- 
 ed Tabasco, and the fame of their victory at Potonchan having 
 reached this place, the chief not only recehed them amicably, but 
 bestowed presents upon them of such value, as confirmed the high- 
 est ideas, which the Spaniards had formed, with respect to the 
 wealth and fertility of the country. These ideas were raised still 
 higher, by what occurred at the place where they next touched. 
 This was considerably to the west of Tabasco, in the province since 
 known by the name of Guaxaca. There they were received with 
 the respect due to superior beings. The people perfumed them as 
 they landed with gum copal, and presented to them as offerings the 
 choicest delicacies of their country 1 hey were extremely fond of 
 trading with their new visitants, and in six days the Spaniards ob- 
 tained ornaments of gold, of curious workmanship, to the value of 
 fifteen thousand pesos, in exchange for European toys of small 
 price. The two prisoners, whom Cordavo had brought from Yuca- 
 tan, had hitherto served as interpreters : but as they were unac- 
 quainted with the language of this country, the Spaniards learned 
 from the natives by signs, that they were subjects of a great mon- 
 arch, called Montezuma, whose dominion extended over that and 
 many other provinces. 
 
 Leaving this province, with which lie had so much reason to be 
 contented, Grijalva continued his course towards the west. He 
 landed on a small island, which he named the Isle of Sacrifices, be- 
 cause there the Spaniards beheld the horrid spectacle of human 
 victims, which the barbarous superstition of the natives o fit red to 
 their gods, lie touched at another small island, which he called 
 St. Juan de U'ua. 
 
 From this place he despatched Predo de Alva»-ado, one of his 
 officers, to Velasqu z, with a full account of the important discov- 
 eries he had made, and with all the treasure that he had acquired 
 by trafficking with the natives After the departure of Alyarado, 
 he himself, with the remaining vessels, proceeded along the coast 
 as far as the river Panuco, the country sldl appearing to be well 
 peopled, fertile and opulent. 
 
178 HISTORY 01' 
 
 It was the opinion of several of Grijalva's officers, that it was not 
 enough to have discovered those delightful tegions, or to have per- 
 formed, at their different landing places, the empty ceremony of 
 taking possession of them for the crown of Castile, and that their 
 glory was incomplete, unless they planted a colony in some proper 
 station, which might not only secure the Spanish nation a footing in 
 the country, but with the reinforcements they were certain of re- 
 ceiving, might gradually subject the whole to the dominion of their 
 sovereign. H wever, the squadron had n.*w been above five months 
 at sea, the greater part of their provisions were exhausted, and what 
 remained ot their stores so much corrupted by the heat of the cli- 
 mate, as to be almost unfit for use ; they had lost s<>me men by 
 death, and others were sickly; the country was crowded wi'h peo- 
 ple, whf> seemed to be 'n'elligent as well as brave; and they were 
 under the government of one powerful monarch, who could bring 
 them to act against their imaders with united force. To plant a 
 colony under so many conspiring difficulties, appeared a matter too 
 hazardous to be attempted. Though Gnjalva was not without am- 
 bition and courage, yet he was destitute of the superior abilities re- 
 quisite to foi n an I execute so exens ve a plan. He judged it more 
 prudent to return to Cuba, having fulfilled the purpose of his voyage, 
 and accomplished every thing, which the a-mament he commanded 
 enabled him to perform He returned to St. Jago de Cuba, on the 
 26th of October, from which lie had sailed about six months before, 
 without having met with any material accident. 
 
 As this was the longest, so it had been the most successful voyage 
 the Spaniards had hitherto made in the .New World. They had 
 discovered that Yucatan was not an island as they had supposed, 
 but part of the great continent of America. From Potonchan they 
 had pursued their course for many hundred miles along a coast for- 
 merly unexplored, stretching at first along the west and then turn- 
 ing to the north. All the country they discovered appeared to be 
 no less valuable than extensive. As soon as Alvarado reached Cu- 
 ba, Velasquez, transported with success so far beyond his most 
 sanguine expectations, immediately despatched a person of confi. 
 dence to carry this important intelligence to Spain, to exhibit the 
 rich productions of the countries which had been discovered by his 
 means, and to solicit such an increase of authority, as might enable 
 and encourage him to attempt the conquest of them. Without wait- 
 ing for the return of his messenger, or for the arrival of Grijalva, of 
 whom he was become so jealous or distrustful, that he resolved no 
 longer to employ him, he began to prepare such a powerful arma- 
 merit, as might prove equal to an enterprise of so much danger and 
 importance.^ The little and mean jealousies, which the Spaniards 
 seem naturally to entertain of every man of merit, is a very singular 
 blemish in the character of that nation. 
 
 The expedition for which Velasquez was now preparing with so 
 much ardour and activity, had in its views conquests far beyond 
 what the Spanish nation had hitherto accomplished. It led them 
 to the knowledge of a people, who, if compared with those tribes of 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 179 
 
 South America, and the West Indies, with whom they were hither- 
 to acquainted, were infinitely more civilized, and far better ac- 
 quainted with the arts of war and the sciences in general. Before 
 we proceed to the history of events extremely different from those 
 we have already related, it may not be improper to take a view of 
 the state of the New World, such as it was when first discovered, 
 and to contemplate the politics and manners of the rude and uncul- 
 tivated tribes, by whom the different parts of it were occupied, and 
 with whom the Spaniards at this time had intercourse. This shall 
 be the subject of our next chapter. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1505 War with the American Indians. 
 
 1508 Neiu discoveries and settlements. Diego Columbus appointed 
 Governor of Hispaniola. 
 
 1511 Cuba conquered. 
 
 1512 Florida discovered. 
 
 1513 The South Sea discovered. Pedr arias appointed Governor of 
 Darien. 
 
 1517 Balboa executed by the order of the treacherous Pedr arias. 
 Death of Ferdinand, King of Spain: succeeded by Charles V. Yucatan 
 discovered. 
 
 1518 Campeachy discovered. Grijalva discovers New Spain, Ta> 
 basco, Guaxaca, and St. Juan de Ulua. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The immense extent of the New World is a circumstance that 
 strikes us with wonder. America is remarkable not only for its 
 magnitude, but for it3 position. It stretches from the northern po- 
 lar circle to a high southern latitude, above fifteen hundred miles 
 beyond the farthest extremity of the old continent on that side of 
 the line. Next to its extent, the grandeur of the objects which it 
 
 presents to our view is most apt to strike the eye of an observer. 
 
 Nature seems to have carried on her operations upon a larger scale, 
 with a bolder hand, and to have distinguished the features of this 
 country by a peculiar magnificence. The mountains of America 
 are much superior in height to those in the other divisions of the 
 globe. Even the plain of Quito, which may be considered as the 
 base of the Andes, is elevated farther above the sea, than the top of 
 the Pyrenees. From those lofty mountains descend rivers propor- 
 tionally large, with which the streams in the ancient continent are 
 not to be compared, either for length of course, or the vast body of 
 water which they roll towards the ocean. Its lakes are no less con. 
 spicuous for grandeur than its mountains and rivers. They may be 
 properly termed inland seas of fresh water. 
 16 
 
"<VA) HISTORY OF 
 
 The temperature of the climate of America and the different laws 
 to which it is subject with respect to the distribution of heat and 
 cold, are marks winch particularly distinguish it from other parts of 
 the earth. Throughout all these vast regions, there were only two 
 monarchies remarkable for extent of territory, or distinguished by 
 any progress in improvement. The rest of this continent was pos- 
 sessed by small independent tribes, destitute of arts and industry, 
 and neither capable to correct the defects, nor desirous to meliorate 
 the condition of that part of the earth allotted to them for their habi- 
 tation. Countries occupied by such people, were almost in the same 
 state as it they had been without, inhabitants. 
 
 Notwithstanding the vast extent of America, and the variety of 
 its climates, the different species of animals peculiar to it are much 
 fewer in proportion, than those of the other hemisphere. In the 
 islands, there were only four kinds of quadrupeds known, the largest 
 of which did not exceed the size of a rabbit. On the continent, the 
 variety was greater ; and though the individuals of each kind could 
 not fail of multiplying exceedingly, when almost unmolested by men, 
 who were neither so numerous, nor so united in society, as to be 
 formidable enemies to the animal creation, yet the number of dis- 
 tinct species must be considered as extremely small. 
 
 To the causes, which checked the growth and vigour of the more 
 noble animals, may be attributed the propagation and increase of 
 reptiles and insects. The ar is often darkened with clouds of in- 
 sects, and the ground covered with shocking and noxious reptiles. 
 
 The American birds of the torrid zone, like those of the same 
 climate in Asia and Africa, are decked in plumage, which dazzles 
 the eye with the beauty of its colours ; but nature, satisfied with 
 clothing them in this gay dress, has denied most of them that me- 
 lody of sound, and variety of notes, which catch and delight the ear. 
 Let my youthful readers stop here, and pause for a while : — through 
 all the conditions and circumstances of life, they will find, on re- 
 flection, that the hand of Providence has distributed things more 
 equally than they are awaic of, as well in human, as in the feather- 
 ed race. 
 
 In a continent so extensive as America, the nature of the soil 
 must be various. In each of its provinces, we find some distinguish- 
 ing peculiarity, the description of which belongs to those who write 
 their particular history, but would be idle to attempt in this epi- 
 tome. 
 
 How America was first peopled, by what course mankind migrat- 
 ed from one continent to the other, and in what quarter it is most 
 probable the communication was first opened between them, are 
 matters for which we have little grounds to go upon, beyond that of 
 conjecture. The theories and speculations of ingenious men, with 
 respect to this subject, would fill many volumes; but they are often 
 so wild and chimerical, that it would be offering an insult to the 
 understanding of our readers, to attempt either to enumerate or re- 
 lute ihtrn, even provided the limits of this work would admit of it. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 181 
 
 To inquire into the character and condition of the American na- 
 tions, at the time when they hecame known to the Europeans, de- 
 serves more attentive consideration, than the inquiry concerning 
 their original. The discovery of the New World enlarged the 
 sphere of contemplation, and presented nations to our view in a state 
 very rude and uncultivated. The greater part of its inhabitants 
 were strangers to industry and labour, ignorant of arts, imperfectly 
 acquainted with the nature of property, and enjoying- almost without 
 restriction or control the blessings which flowed spontaneously from 
 the bounty of nature Among the small independent tribes of South 
 America, their customs, manners and institutions, were nearly simi- 
 lar, and so extremely rude, that the denomination of savages may 
 be applied to them all. The Spaniards who hist visited America, 
 and who had opportunity of beholding its various tribes, while en- 
 tire and unsubdued, were far from possessing the qualities requisite 
 for observing the striking spectacle presented to their view Nei- 
 ther the age in winch they lived, nor the nation to which they be- 
 longed, had made such progress in true science, as inspires enlarged 
 and liberal sentiments. The conquerors of the New World were 
 mostly illiterate adventurers, destitute of all the ideas which should 
 have directed them in contemplating objects, so extremely different 
 from those with which they were acquainted. Surrounded con- 
 tinually with danger, or struggling with hardships, they had little 
 leisure, and less capacity, for any speculative inquiry. Lager to 
 take possession of a country of such extent and opulence, and happy 
 in finding it occupied by inhabitants so incapable to defend it, they 
 hastily pronounced them to be a wretched order of men, formed 
 merely for servitude ; and were more employed in computing 
 the profits of their labour, than in inquiring into the operations of 
 their minds, or the reason of their customs and institutions. 
 
 The human body is leas affected by climate than that of any other 
 animal. Some animals are confined to a particular region of the 
 globe, and cannot exist beyond it; others, though they may be 
 brought to bear the injuries of a foreign climate, cease to mul- 
 tiply when carried from their native air and soil. Even such as 
 seem capable of being naturalized in various climates, feel the 
 effect of every remove from their proper station, and gradually 
 dwindle and degenerate from the vigour and perfection peculiar to 
 their species. Man is the only living creature, whose frame is at 
 once so hardy and so flexible, that he can spread over the whole 
 earth, become the inhabitant of every region, and thrive and multi- 
 ply under every climate, though not without some attending incon- 
 veniences. 
 
 The complexion of the Americans is of a reddish brown, nearly 
 resembling the colour of copper. Their persons are of a full size, 
 extremely straight, and well proportioned ; but they are more re- 
 markable for agility than strength. As the external form of the Ame- 
 ricans leads us to suspect that there is some natural debility in their 
 frame, the smallness of their appetite for food has been mentioned 
 
182 HISTORY OF 
 
 by many authors as a confirmation of this suspicion. The quantity 
 of food which men consume varies according to the temperature of 
 the climate in which they live, the degree of activity which they 
 exert, and the natural vigour of their constitutions. Under the en- 
 ervating heat of the torrid zone, and where men pass their days in 
 indolence and ease, they require less nourishment than the active 
 inhabitants of temperate or cold countries. 
 
 Notwithstanding the feeble make of the Americans, hardly any of 
 them are deformed, mutilated, or defective in any of their senses. 
 All travellers have been struck with this circumstance, and have 
 celebrated the uniform symmetry and perfection of their external 
 figure. 
 
 In the simplicity of the savage state, when man is not oppressed 
 with labour, or enervated by luxury, or disquieted with care, we 
 are apt to imagine that his life will flow on almost untroubled by 
 disease or sufiering, until his days be terminated in extreme old 
 Age, by the gradual decays of nature. We find, accordingly among 
 the Americans, as well as among other rude people, persons, 
 whose decrepit and shrivelled form seem to indicate an extraordi- 
 nary length of life ; but as most of them are unacquainted with the 
 art of numbering, and all of them as forgetful of what is past, as they 
 are improvident for what is to come, it is impossible to ascertain 
 their age with any degree of precision. 
 
 Whatever maybe the situation in which man is placed, he is born 
 to suffer ; and his diseases in the savage state, though fewer in 
 number, are like those of the animals whom he nearly resembles in 
 his mode of life, more violent and more fatal. If luxury engenders 
 and nourishes distempers of one species, the rigour and distress of 
 savage life brings on those of another. As men in this state are 
 wonderfully improvident, and their means of subsistence precarious, 
 they often pass from extreme want to exuberant plenty, according 
 to the vicissitudes of fortune in the chase, or in consequence of the 
 various degrees of abundance, with which the earth affords to them 
 its productions in different seasons. Their inconsiderate gluttony 
 in the one situation, and their severe abstinence in the other, are 
 equally pernicious. The strength and vigour of savages are, at some 
 seasons, impaired by what they suffer from scarcity of food ; at 
 others, they are afflicted with disorders arising from indigestion, 
 and a superfluity of gross aliment These are so common, that 
 they may be considered as the unavoidable consequence of their 
 mode of subsisting, and cut off considerable numbers in the prime 
 of life. There are other disorders, to winch they are continually 
 exposed, owing to the inclemency of different seasons. In the sav- 
 age state, hardships and fatigues violently assault the constitution ; 
 in polished societies, intemperance undermines it. It is n<t easy to 
 determine which of them operates with most fatal effect, or tends 
 most to abridge human life. 
 
 The thoughts and attention of a savage are confined within the 
 small circleof objects, immediately conducive to his preservation 
 or enjoyment. Everv thing beyond that, is beneath his observa- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 133 
 
 lions, or is entirely indifferent to him. Like a mere animal, what is 
 before his eyes interests and affects him ; what is out of sight, or at 
 a distance, makes little impression. They follow blindly the im- 
 pulse of ihe appetite they feel, but are entirely regardless of distant 
 consequences, and even of those removed in the least degree from 
 immediate apprehension. 
 
 The active efforts of their minds are few and languid. The de- 
 sires of simple nature are very limited, and where a favourable cli- 
 mate yields almost spontaneously what suffices to gratify them, 
 they scarcely stir the soul, or excite any violent emotion. Hence 
 the people of several tribes in America waste their lives in a state 
 of indolence. 
 
 To be free from occupation, seems to be all the enjoyment to 
 which they aspire. Such is their aversion to labour, that neither 
 the hope of future good, nor the apprehension of evil, can surmount 
 it. They appear equally indifferent to both, discovering litile soli- 
 citude, and taking no precaution to avoid the one, or to secure the 
 other. The cravings of hunger may rouse them : but as they de- 
 vour with little distinction, whatever will appease its instinctive de- 
 mands, the exertions these occasion are of short duration. 
 
 Among the rudest tribes in America, a regular union between hus- 
 band and wife was universal, and the rights of marriage were un- 
 derstood and recognised. In these districts where subsistence was 
 scanty, and the difficulty of maintaining a family was great, the man 
 confined himself to one wife. In warmer and more fertile provin- 
 ces, the facility of procuring food concurred with the influence of 
 climate, in inducing the inhabitants to increase the number of their 
 wives. Iu some countries, the marriage union subsisted during life ; 
 in others, the impatience of the Americans under restraint of any 
 species, together with their natural levjty and caprice, prompted 
 them to dissolve it on very slight pretexts, and often without as- 
 signing any cause. 
 
 The situation of the American women, in whatever light we con- 
 sider them, was equally humiliating and miserable. Among many 
 people of America, the marriage contract is properly a purchase. 
 The man buys his wife of her parents Though unacquainted with 
 the use in money, or with such commercial transactions as take 
 place in more improved society, he knows how to give an equiva- 
 lent for an object he desires to possess. In some places, the suitor 
 devotes his service for a certain time to the parent of the maid 
 whom he courts; in others, he hunts for them occasionally, or as- 
 sists in cultivating their fields, and forming their canoes; in others, 
 h? offers presents of such things as ate deemed most valuable on 
 account of their use fulness or rarity. In return for these, he re- 
 ceives his wife; and this circumstance, added to the low estimation 
 of women among savages, leads him to consider her as a female ser- 
 vant whom he has a title to treat as an inferior. Ttie condition of 
 an American women is so peculiarl) grievious, and their depression 
 so complete, that servitude is a name too mild to describe their 
 wretched stale. A wife, among most tribes, is no better than a 
 16* 
 
184 HISTORY OF 
 
 beast of burden, destined to every office of labour knd "fatigue.— * 
 While the men loiter out the day in sloth, or spend it in amuse- 
 ment, the women are condemned to incessant toil. Tasks are im- 
 posed upon them without pity, and services are received without 
 complacence or gratitude. Every circumstance reminds women of 
 this mortifyiug inferiority. They must approach their lords with 
 reverence, regard them as more exalted beings, and are not permit- 
 led to eat in their presence. 
 
 The Americans are not deficient in affection and attachment to 
 their offspring. They feel the power of this instinct in its full force, 
 and as long as their progeny continue feeble and helpless, no peo- 
 ple exceed them in tenderness and care. In the simplicity of the 
 savage state the affections of parents, like the instinctive fondness 
 of animals, ceases almost entirely as soon as their offspring attain 
 maturity. Little instruction fits them for that mode of life to 
 which they are destined. The parents, as if their duty were accom- 
 plished, when they have conducted their children through the 
 helpless years of infancy, leave them afterwards at entire liberty. 
 In an American hut, a father, a mother, and their posterity, live 
 together like persons assembled by accident, without seeming to 
 feel the obligation of the duties mutually arising from such con- 
 nexion. 
 
 Though the people of America may be all comprehended under 
 the general denomination of savage, the advances they had made in 
 the art of procuring to themselves a certain and plentiful subsis- 
 tence were very unequal. On the vast plains of South America, 
 man appears in one of the rudest slates in which he possibly can 
 exist, several tribes depending entirely upon the bounty of nature 
 for subsister.ee. They discover no solicitude, they employ little 
 foresight, and scarcely exert any industry to secure what is neces- 
 sary tor their support. The roots which the earth produces spon- 
 taneously, the fruits, the berries and the seeds, which they gather 
 in the woods, together with lizards and other reptiles, which multi- 
 ply amazingly with the heat of the climate in a fat soil, moistened 
 by frequent rains, supply them with food during some part of the 
 vear. At other times they live upon fish ; and nature seems to 
 have indulged the laziness of the South American tribes by her lib- 
 eralities in this way. The vast rivers of that part of America 
 abound with an infinite variety of delicate fish, and are so numerous 
 as to be caught with little trouble„ None but tribes contiguous to 
 p-reat rivers can support themselves in this manner. The greater 
 part of the American nations, dispersed over the forests with which 
 their country is covered, do not procure subsistence with the same 
 facility ; but are obliged to obtain it by hunting, which in many 
 parts is their principal occupation, and which requires strenuous 
 exertions. 
 
 As game and^fish are the principal food of the Americans, their 
 agriculture is neither extensive nor laborious. Their principal 
 productions in this line are maize, manioc, plantain, potatoes, and 
 pimento. All the fruits of their industry, together with what 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. IOj 
 
 their soil and climate produced spontaneously, afforded ihem but a 
 scanty maintenance. Though their demands for food were verv 
 sparing', they hardly raised what was sufficient for their own con- 
 sumption. 
 
 In America, the word nation is not of the same import as in other 
 parts of the globe. It is applied to small societies, perhaps not ex- 
 ceeding" two or three hundred persons, but occupying provinces 
 larger than some kingdoms in Europe. In the provinces which 
 border on the Orinoco, one may travel several hundred miles, in 
 different directions, without rinding a single hut or observing the 
 footsteps of a human creature. 
 
 The Americans had no idea of property. As the animals on 
 which the hunter feeds are not bred under his -inspection, nor nour- 
 ished by his care, he can claim no right to them, while they run 
 wild in the forest. The forests, or hunting grounds, are deemed 
 the property of the tribe, from which it has a title to exclude every 
 rival nation ; but no individual arrogates a right to any district of 
 these, in preference to his fellow citizens. 
 
 We shall now proceed to take a cursory view of their art of war. 
 Savage nations, in carrying on their public wars, are influenced by 
 the same ideas, and animated with the same spirit, as in prosecut- 
 ing private vengeance. The maxims by which they regulate their 
 military operations, though extremely different from those, which 
 take place among more civilized and populous nations, are well 
 suited to their own political state, and the nature of the country in 
 which they act. They never take the field in numerous bodies, as 
 it would require a greater effort of foresight and industry, than is 
 usual among savages, to provide for their subsistence, during a 
 march of some hundred miles through dreary forests, or during a 
 long voyage upon their lakes and rivers. 
 
 Their armies are not encumbered with baggage or military stores. 
 Each warrior, besides his arms, carries a mat and a small bag of 
 pounded maize, and with these is completely equipped for any ser- 
 vice. While at a distance from the enemies' frontier, they disperse 
 through the woods, and support themselves with the game they kill, 
 and the fish they catch. The manner in which they attack their 
 enemies, the treatment of their prisoners, and the surprising forti- 
 tude they shew in bearing the most cruel tortures, being nearly the 
 same among the South American Indians as among the North, we 
 shall not here mention what will be found on that head in our History 
 of North America. 
 
 In the warmer and more mild climates of America, none of the 
 rude tribes were clothed. To most of them Nature had not even 
 suggested any idea of impropriety in being altogether uncovered. 
 As under a mild climate there was little need of any defence from 
 the injuries of the air, and their extreme indolence shunned every 
 species of labour, to which it was not urged by absolute necessity, 
 all the inhabitants of the isles, and a Considerable part of the people 
 on the continent, remained in this state of naked simplicity. Others 
 were satisfied with some slight covering, such as decency required ; 
 
186 HISTORY OF 
 
 but though naked, (hey were not unadorned. They fastened bits of 
 gold or shells or shinning stones, in their ears, their noses, and 
 cheeks. They stained their skins with a gteat variety of figures, 
 and they spent much time, and submitted to great pain, in orna- 
 menting their persons in this fantastick manner. 
 
 In one part of their dress, which, at first sight appears the most sin- 
 gular and capricious, the Americans have discovered considerable 
 sagacity in providing against the chief inconveniences of their cli- 
 mate, which is often sultry, and moist to excess All the different 
 tribes, which remain unclothed, are accustomed to anoint and rub 
 their bodies with the grease of animals, with viscous gums, and 
 with oils of different kinds. By this they check that profuse per- 
 spiration, which in the torrid zone, wastes the vigour of the frame, 
 and abridges the period of human life. By this too they provide a 
 defence against the extreme moisture during the rainy season. 
 They likewise, at certain seasons, temper paint of different colours 
 with those unctuous substances, and bedaub themselves plentifully 
 with that composition. 
 
 Sheathed with this impenetrable varnish, their skins are not only 
 protected from the heat of the sun, but as all the innumerable tribes 
 of insects have an antipathy to the smell or taste of that mixture, 
 they are delivered from their teasing persecution, which amidst 
 forests and marshes, especially in the warmer regions, would have 
 been wholly insupportable in a state of perfect nakedness. 
 
 Savage nations, being far from that state of improvement, in which 
 the mode of living is considered as a mark of distinction, and unac- 
 quainted with those wants, which requite a vahety of accommoda- 
 tions, regulate the construction of their houses according to their 
 limited ideas of necessity. Some of the American tribes were so 
 extremely rude and had advanced so little beyond the primeval sim- 
 plicity of nature, that they had no houses at all. During the day, 
 they took shelter from the scorching rays of the sun under thick 
 trees, and at night they formed ashed with their branches and leaves. 
 In the rainy season they retired into caves, formed by the hand of 
 nature or hollowed out by their own industry. Others, who had no 
 fixed abode, and roamed through the forest in quest of game, so- 
 journed in temporary huts, which they erected with litile labour, 
 and abandoned without any concern 
 
 Clubs made of heavy wood, slakes hardened in the fire, lances 
 whose heads were armed with flint or the bone of some animal are 
 weapons known to the rudest nations. All these, however, were 
 of use only in close encounter ; bin men wished to annoy their ene- 
 mies while at a distance, and the bow and arrow is the most early 
 invention for this purpose. The people in some provinces of Chili, 
 and those of Patagonia, towards the southern extremity of America, 
 use a weapon peculiar to themselves. They fasten stones about 
 the size ufa man's fist to each end of a leather thong of eight feet 
 in length, and swinging these round their heads, throw them with 
 such dexterity that they seldom miss the object at which they aim. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 187 
 
 As their food and habitations are perfectly simple, their domestic 
 utensils are few and rude. Some of the southern tribes discovered 
 the art of forming vessels of earthern ware, and baking them in the 
 sun so as they could endure the fire. These vessels they used in 
 preparing part of their provisions, and this may be considered as a 
 step towards refinement and luxury ; for men in their rudest state 
 were not acquainted with any method of dressing their victuals, but 
 by roasting them on the fire, and among several tribes in America, 
 this is the only species of cookery yet known. 
 
 What appears to be the master-piece of art among the savages of 
 America is the construction of their canoes. An Indian, shut up in 
 his boat of whalebone covered with skins, can brave that stormy 
 ocean, on which he is compelled to depend for part of his subsist- 
 ence. The inhabitants of the isles in South America, form their 
 canoes by hollowing the trunk of a large tree, with infinite labour, 
 and though in appearance they are extremely awkward and unwieldy, 
 they paddle and steer them with such dexterity, that Europeans, 
 well acquainted with all the improvements in the science of naviga- 
 tion, have been astonished at the rapidity of their motion, and the 
 quickness of their evolutions. 
 
 With respect to their religion, even among those tribes, whose 
 religious system was more enlarged, and who had formed some 
 conception of benevolent beings, which delighted in conferring 
 benefits, as well as of malicious powers prone to inflict evil, super- 
 stition still appears as the offspring of fear, and all its efforts were 
 employed to avert calamities. They were persuaded that their 
 good deities, prompted by the beneficence of their nature, would 
 bestow every blessing in their power, without solicitation or ac- 
 knowledgment ; and their only anxiety was to sooth and depre- 
 cate the wrath of the powers, whom they regarded as the enemies 
 of mankind. 
 
 With respect to the immortality of the soul the sentiments of the 
 Americans were more united. The human mind, even when least 
 improved and invigorated by culture, shrinks from the thoughts of 
 dissolution, and looks,, forward with hope and expectation to a state 
 of future exigence. The most uncivilized savages of America do 
 not apprehend death as the < extinction of being: all entertain hopes 
 of a future and mor^ happy state, where thry shall be for ever ex- 
 empt f*r.,m the calamities, which embitter human life in its present 
 condition This future state they conctive to be a delightful coun- 
 try, oUst with perpe'ua! spring, whose forests abound with game, 
 Whose rivers swarm with fish, where famine is never felt, and un- 
 interrupted plenty shall be enjoyed without labour or toil. 
 
 A.s the diseases of men, in the savage state, are like those of the 
 animal creation, few but extremely violent, their impatience under 
 whfct they suffer, and solicitude for the recovery of health, soon 
 irfspired Inert with extraordinary reverence for such as pretended 
 to understand the nature of their maladies, or to preserve them 
 from their sudden and fatal effects. However these ignorant pre- 
 tenders were such utter strangers to the structure of the human 
 
188 HISTORY OF 
 
 frame, as to know neither the causes of disorders, nor of the manner 
 in which they were likely to terminate. Superstition, frequently 
 mingled with some portion of craft, supplied what they wanted in 
 knowledge. They imputed the origin of diseases to supernatural 
 influence, and advised or performed a variety of superstitious rites, 
 which they represented to be sufficient to remove the most obsti- 
 nate and dangerous disorders. 
 
 From the superstition and credulity of the Americans likewise 
 proceeded their faith in' dreams, their observation of omens, their 
 attention to the chirping of birds, and the cries of animals, all 
 which they supposed to be indications of future events ; and if any 
 one of the prognostics was deemed unfavourable, they eagerly aban- 
 doned the object they had in pursuit. 
 
 Savage as the Americans were, they were not without their 
 amusements ; and of these, dancing appears to be the principal, 
 The war dance seems to be the most striking, in which are repre- 
 sented all the manoeuvres of an American campaign. Their songs 
 and dances are mostly solemn and martial, they are connected with 
 some of the most serious and important affairs of life, and, hav- 
 ing no relation to love or gallantry, are seldom common to the two 
 sexes, but execuied by the men and women apart. 
 
 The Americans are universally fond of gaming. Though they 
 are at other times so indifferent, phiegmatick, silent, and animated 
 with so few desires, as soon as they engage in play, they become 
 rapacious, impatient, noisy, and almost frantic with eagerness. 
 Their furs, their domestic utensils, their clothes, their arms, are 
 staked at play ; and when all is lost, high as their sense of indepen- 
 dence is, in a wild emotion of hope or despair, ihey will often risk 
 their personal liberty upon a single cast. Among severaHnbes, 
 such gaming parties are frequently made, and become their most 
 ■agreeable entertainment at every great festival. 
 
 From the same causes, that contribute to render them fond of 
 play, are they addicted to drunkenness. It seems to have been one 
 of the first exertions of human ingenuity to discover some compo- 
 sition of an intoxicating quality; and there is hardly any nation so 
 rude, or so destitute of invention, as not to have succeeded in this 
 fatal research The most barbarous of the American tribes have 
 been so unfortunate as to attain this art ; and even those which are 
 so deficient in knowh dge as not to be acquainted with the (method 
 of giving an inebriating strength t-> liquors by fermentation, can 
 acc< mplish the same by some other means. 
 
 It is customary with the American Indians, when their parents 
 and other relations become old, or labour under any distemper 
 which they have not an enough to cure, to put an end to their lives, 
 in order to be relieved from the burden of tending and supporting 1 
 them. The «ame hardships and difficulty of procuring subsistence, 
 •which prevent savages, in some east-s, from rearing their children, 
 prompt them to destroy the aged at d infirm. The declining state 
 of the one is as helpless as the infancy of the other ; and the Ameri- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 189 
 
 can thinks he does nothing more than his duty, in easing his fa- 
 tberbr friend of a burdensome life of pain and disease. 
 
 A hardness of heart and insensibility of feeling are ramarkable 
 in all savage nations. Their minds, roused only by strong emo- 
 tions, are little susceptible of gentle, delicate, or tender affections. 
 When any favour is done an individual, he neither feels gratitude, 
 nor thinks of making any return. The high idea of independence 
 among the Americans nourishes a sullen reserve, which keeps them 
 at a distance from each other. 
 
 A savage, frequently placed in situations of danger or distres?, 
 depending on no one but himself, and wrapped up in his own 
 thoughts and schemes, is a serious and melancholy animal. The 
 Americans, when not engaged in action, often sit whole days in one 
 posture, without opening their lips. When they engage in war or 
 ^he chase, they usually march in a line at some distance from each 
 other, and do not exchange a single word. Even in their canoes, 
 the same profound silence is observed ; and nothing but intoxicating 
 liquors or jollity attending their dances, can at any rate render 
 them in the least conversable. 
 
 We mcy attribute the refined cunning, with which they form and 
 execute their schemes, to the same causes. With the American 
 Indians, war is a system of craft, in which they trust for success to 
 stratagem more than to open force, and have their invention con- 
 tinually at work to circumvent and surprise their enemies. The 
 people of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their arti- 
 fice and duplicity. The natives of Peru were employed above thir- 
 ty years, in forming the plan of an insurrection, which took place 
 under the viceroyalty of the Mai qui s de Villa Garcia ; and though 
 a great number of people of different ranks, were let into ihe se- 
 cret, yet not a syllable of it transpired during all that period, no 
 man betrayed his trust, or by an unguarded look, or imprudent 
 word, gave rise to any suspicion of what was meditated 
 
 However, let us not suppose that the Americans were without 
 their virtues, among which fortitude and courage were remarkably 
 conspicuous. Accustomed as the Indians are to continual alarms, 
 they grow familiar with danger; courage becomes an habitual vir- 
 tue, resulting naturally from their situation, and strengthened by 
 constant exertions. They are naturally attached to the community 
 of which they are members. From the nature of their political 
 union, we should be l^d to suppose this tie to be very feeble ; but 
 each individual freely and cheerfully undertakes the most perilous 
 service, when the community deems it necessary. T'<ey have a 
 fierce and deep rooted antipathy to the enemies of their country, 
 and that zeal for the honour oftheir tribe, which prompts them to 
 brave danger in tlie pursuit of triumph, and to endure the most 
 exquisite torments, without a groan, that it may not be dishonoured, 
 Fh worn complaining of their own situation, or viewing that of 
 men in a more unproved state with admiration or envy, they regard 
 themselves as the standard of excellence, as being the best enti, 
 tied, as well as the most perfectly qualified, to enjoy real happiness. 
 
190 HISTORY OF 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Ambition and avarice united to induce Velasquez to prepare 
 for the conquest of New Spain, so that when Grijalva returned to 
 Cuba, he found the armament destined to attempt the conquest of 
 that rich country lie had discovered, almost complete and ready to 
 sail. Velasquez knew not whom to entrust with the command of 
 this important expedition. Though he was of most aspiring- ambi- 
 tion, and not destitute of talents for government, he possessed nei- 
 ther such courage, nor such vigour and activity of mind, as to un- 
 deitake in person ihe conduct of the aimament he was preparing. 
 He meanly wished to find some person who had bravery and abili- 
 ties equal to the undertaking, but who would attribute all the hon- 
 our and <lory to him. After some time searching for such a person 
 and finding that no man of abilities would submit to such disgrace- 
 ful tetms, he at last appointed Fernando Cortes to the command. 
 Cortes was a man of noble blood, but whose family was of moderate 
 fortune : he was a good soldier, and every way qualified for such an 
 undertaking. 
 
 Though the governor had laid out considerable sums, and each 
 adventurer had exhausted his stock, or strained his credit, the 
 poverty of the preparation was such, as must astonish the present 
 age, arid bore no resemblance to an armament destined for the 
 conquest of a great empire. The fleet consisted of eleven vessels 
 the larg stof one hundred tons, which was dignified with the name 
 of Admiral ; three of seventy or eighty tons, and the rest small open 
 barks On board of these were 617 men ; of which S08 belonged 
 to the land service, and 109 were seamen or artificers. As the use 
 of fire arms among the nations of Europe was hitherto confined to 
 a few battalliona of regularly disciplined infantry, only thirteen sol- 
 diers were armed with muskets ; thirty two were crossbow men, 
 the rest had swords and spears. They had only sixteen horses and 
 ten small field pieces. 
 
 On the 10th of February, 1519, Cortes sailed with his small ar- 
 mament to attack a most powerful monarch. He touched first at 
 Cozumel, then at Tabasco, and on the 2d of April arrived at St. 
 Juan de Ulua in Mexico. As soon as they entered the harbour, a 
 boat came off to them, to know what was the intention of their visit, 
 and to offer them their assistance if needful. Cortes assured them, 
 in respectful terms, which he did by means of an interpreter, that 
 he approached their country with most friendly sentiments, and 
 came to propose matters of great importance to the welfare of their 
 prince and his kingdom, which he would unfold more fully, in person 
 to the governor and the general. Next morning, without waiting for 
 any answer, he landed his troops, his horses, and artillery ; and hav- 
 ing chosen proper ground, began to erect huts for his men, and for- 
 tifv his camp. 
 
 The Mexicans treated the Spaniards with the greatest civility, 
 but wished to divert them from their intention of visiting the capital. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 1 <H 
 
 whew the emperor Montezuma resided. For this purpose, they 
 .-ommenced a negotiation, by introducing a tram of* hundred In- 
 dian* loaded with presents, sent from Montezuma to Cortes 1 he 
 magnificence of these were such as became a great monarch, and 
 far exceeded any idea the Spaniards had hitherto formed of bis 
 wealth. They were placed upon mats spread on the ground in such 
 order as shewed them to the greatest advantage. Cortes and his 
 officers viewed with admiration the various manufactures of the 
 country; cotton stuffs so fine, and of so delicate texture, as to re- 
 semble silks ; pictures of animals, trees and other natural objects, 
 formed with feathers of different colours, disposed and mingled 
 with such skill and elegance, as to rival the works of the pencil m 
 ♦ruth and beauty of imitation ; but what more particularly attracted 
 the attention of the Spaniards, was the amazing quantity of un- 
 wrought gold and silver, and the profusion of pearls and precious 
 stones, the produce of the country. 
 
 These rich presents, instead of inducing the Spaniards to quit 
 Mexico, made them the more resolute to make a conquest of it. 
 Cortes insisted on visiting the king in his capital, and declared be 
 would not leave the island till that was granted. Of all the princes 
 whohadswaved the Mexican sceptre, Montezuma was the most 
 haughty, violent, and impatient of control. His subjects viewed 
 him with awe, and his enemies with terror. The former he govern- 
 ed with unrelenting rigour, and the latter he reduced to awe by the 
 power of his arms. However, though his power and tyranny kept 
 his subjects and neighbours in awe, he wanted those qualities of 
 mind, which were necessary to intimidate and subdue his new 
 visiters. , 
 
 Montezuma from the moment the Spaniards appeared on the 
 coast, discovered symptoms of timidity and embarrassment. In- 
 stead of taking such resolutions as his power enabled him, he delibe- 
 rated with an anxiety and hesitation that did not escape the notice of 
 the meanest of his courtiers. He spent his time in fruitless negotia- 
 tions with the Spaniards, and thereby raised their courage and con- 
 sequence. . 
 
 In the mean time, Cortes was watching the opportunity to throw 
 off all connexions with Velasquez, whose natural jealousy had in- 
 duced him to endeavour to deprive Cortes of the command of the 
 expedition before he sailed. He secured the confidence of the officers 
 and soldiers, and, having assembled a council, he resigned the 
 commission he had received from Velasquez, and was immediately 
 chosen chief justice and captain general of the new colony. 
 
 Cones owed much of his success to the Mexican gold, which he 
 distributed with a liberal hand among both friends and opponents, 
 and thereby brought all to be of one mind. Having thus settled 
 every thing to the satisfaction of his army, by engaging it to join 
 him in disclaiming any dependence on the governor of Cuba, he 
 thought he might now venture to quit the camp, in which he had 
 hitherto remained, and advance into the country. To this he was 
 encouraged bv an event no less fortunate than seasonable. He re- 
 
 17 
 
iO:2 HISTORY OF 
 
 ceived a profser of friendship from the cazique of Zempoalia, a con- 
 siderable town at no great distance. He found by their message 
 that tiiey were filled with such dread and hatred of Montezuma, 
 that nothing Could be more acceptable to them, than a prospect of 
 deliverance from the oppression under which they groaned. Cortes 
 was highly delighted to find, that the great empire he intended to 
 attack was not united, nor its sovereign beloved. 
 
 Some officers, whom Cortes had employed to suri T eythe coast 
 having discovered a village about forty miles to the northward, 
 which, as well on account of the fertility of the soil, as commo- 
 diousness of the harbour, seemed to be a more proper station for a 
 settlement than that where he was encamped, he determined to re- 
 move thither, Zempoalla lay in his way, where the cazique wel- 
 comed him in the manner he had reason to expect. He received 
 Cortes with respect, almost approaching to adoration, and like one 
 to whom he looked up as a deliverer. From the cazique he learned 
 many particulars with respect to the character of Montezuma, 
 whom he represented as a tyrant, cruel and suspicious. Cortes as- 
 sured the cazique, that one great object of the Spaniards in visiting 
 a country so remote from their own, was to redress grievances, and 
 to relieve the oppressed. 
 
 Having taken his leave of the cazique, he continued his march to 
 Quiabislan. The spot his officers had chosen as a proper situation, 
 appeared so well to meet his approbation, that he immediately 
 marked out ground for a town. The houses to be erected were 
 only huts ; but these were to be surrounded with fortifications, of 
 sufficient strength to resist the assaults of an Indian army. Every 
 one, even Cortes not excepted, gave an helping hand to the erecting 
 of fortifications, so essential to the preservation of every individual 
 of the colony. His next care .was to form an alliance with the 
 neighbouring kings, whom he taught to despise their emperor, by 
 gradually inspiring them with an high opinion of the Spaniards, as 
 beings of a superior order, and irresistible in arms. 
 
 Cortes perceiving that some of his men grew tired of their pre- 
 sent pursuits, and had even formed the plan of making their escape 
 to Cuba in one of the ships, saw no hopes of success, but in cutting" 
 off all possibility of retreat, and reducing his men to the necessity 
 of adopting the same resolutions with which he himself was ani- 
 mated, either 10 conquer or perish. With this view he determined 
 to destroy his fleet, and his address in persuading his followers to 
 adopt his ideas, was not inferior to the boldness of the undertaking. 
 With universal consent the ships were drawn ashore, and after 
 stripping them of their sails, rigging, iron work, and whatever else 
 might be of use, they were broken in pieces. Thus from an effort 
 of magnanimity, to which there is nothing parallel in history, five 
 hundred men voluntarily consented to be shut up in a hostile coun- 
 try, filled with powerful and unknown nations ; and having preclud- 
 ed every means of escape, left themselves without any resource but 
 what their own perseverance and valour could procure them, and 
 on which every thing now depended. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 193 
 
 On the 16th of August, 1519, Cortes began his march from 
 Zempoalla, with five hundred men, fifteen horse and six field pieces. 
 The remainder of his troops, consisting chiefly of such as from age 
 or infirmity were less fit for active service, he left as a garrison in 
 Vdla Itica, under the command of Escalante, an officer of merit, 
 and warmly attached to the interest of Cortes. 
 
 The first war he engaged in was with the Tlascalans, who ad- 
 vanced against him with numerous armies, and attacked him in va- 
 rious forms, with a degree of valour and perseverance to which the 
 Spaniards hud seen nothing equal in the new world. The Tlasca- 
 lans, however, were at last glad to sue for peace, seeing their own 
 people so dreadfully destroyed, while the Spaniards remained un- 
 hurt. " If (said they to the Spaniards) you are divinities of a cruel 
 and savage nature, we present to you five slaves that you may 
 drink then- blood andeat ihei: flesh, if you are mild deities, accept 
 an ofier of intense and variegated plumes. If you are men, here is 
 meat, and bread, and fruit to nourish you " As both parties were 
 equally desirous of peace, matters were soon settled between them. 
 The Tlascalans acknowledged themselves as dependent on the 
 crown of Castiie ; when Cortes took the republic under his protee- 
 tection, and promised to secure them against every attempt of inju- 
 ry on their persons or property. 
 
 On the 13th of October, Cortes set out on his march for Mexico, 
 accompanied by six thousand Tlascalans, so that he now appeareu 
 at the head of something like a regular army. As the Spaniards 
 descended from the mountains of Chalco, over which the road lay, 
 the vast plain of Mexico gradually* unfolded itself to their view. 
 This prospect afforded one of the most striking and beautiful views 
 on the face of the earth ; when they beheld fertile and cultivated 
 fields, stretching beyond the reach of the human eye ; when they 
 saw a lake resembling the sea in extent, encompassed with large 
 towns, and beheld the capital city rising upon an island in the cen- 
 tre, adorned with its temples and turrets ; the prospect so far sur- 
 passed their most sanguine expectations, that some believed the 
 fancified descriptions of romance were realized, and that its en- 
 chanted palaces and gilded domes were presented to their sight ; 
 others could hardly persuade themselves, that this wonderful sight 
 was any thing more than a dream. As they proceeded their doubts 
 were removed, but their amazement increased. 
 
 Cortes was almost at the gates of the capital before Montezuma 
 had determined whether he should receive him as a friend, or op- 
 pose him as an enemy. On their arrival near the city, about a 
 thousand persons, who bore marks of distinction, came out to meet 
 them, dressed in mantles of fine cotton, and adorned with plumes. 
 Each of these separately passed Cortes, and paid the most sub- 
 missive obedience to him according to the mode of their country. 
 They announced the approach of Montezuma himself, and his har- 
 bingers soon after came in sight. Two hundred persons in an uni- 
 form dress first appeared, ornamented with feathers, proceeding 
 two and two, barefooted, and in profound silence, with their eyes 
 
194 history or 
 
 fixed to the ground. A company r,f higher rank next followed, in 
 their "most sumptuous ornaments ; in the midst of whom was Mon- 
 tezuma, in a litter richly ornamented with gold, and feathers of va- 
 rious colours lie was carried on the shoulders of four of his prin- 
 cipal favourites, while others supported a canopy of curious work- 
 manship over his head. Before him marched three officers with 
 rods of gold in their hands, which they lifted up on high at certain 
 intervals, when all the people immediately bowed their heads and 
 hid their faces, as unworthy to look on so great a monarch. As soon 
 as he approached, Cortes dismounted, advanced towards him with 
 officious haste, and in a respectful posture. Montezuma immediately 
 alighted from his chair, a:id leaning on the arms of two of his near 
 relations, approached with a slow and stately step, his attendants 
 covering the street with cotton cloth, that he might not touch the 
 ground. Cortes accosted him with profound reverence, after the 
 European fashion ; and Montezuma returned the salutation accord- 
 ing t: the mode of his country, by touching the earth with his hand, 
 and then kissing it. Montezuma conducted Cortes to the quarters 
 he had prepared for his reception, and immediately took leave of 
 him with a politeness not unworthy of acourt more refined. Nothing 
 material passed at this first interview. 
 
 In the evening Montezuma returned to visit his guests with. 
 the same pomp as in their first interview. He told Cortes, that 
 from what he had heard and seen of him and his followers, he was 
 convinced that they were the vevy persons, whose appearance the 
 Mexican traditions and prophecies taught them to expect, in order 
 to reform their constitution and laws ; that he had accordingly re- 
 ceived them not as strangers, but as relations of the same blood 
 and parentage, and desired that they might consider themselves 
 as masters in ids dominions, for both himself and his subjects 
 &hou!d be ready to comply with their will, and even to prevent their 
 wishes. The three subsequent days were employed in viewing 
 the city ; the appearance of which, so far superior in the order of 
 its buildings, and the number of its inhabitants, to any place the 
 Spaniards had beheld in America, filled them with wonder and 
 surprise. 
 
 Though the novelty of these objects amused the Spaniards, yet 
 they were not without their alarms on account of their safety. The 
 allies of the Spaniards assured Cortes, that the Mexican priests 
 had, in the name of the gods, counselled their sovereign to admit 
 the Spaniards into the capital, that he might cut them off there at 
 one blow with perfect security. 
 
 Cortes very plainly perceived that his destruction was intended ; 
 it was therefore necessary to extricate himself out of the difficul- 
 ties, in which one bold step had involved him, by venturing upon 
 another still bolder. The situation was trying, but his mind was 
 equiltoit; and, after revolving the matter with deep attention, 
 he fixed upon a plan no less extraordinary than daring. He de- 
 lei mined to seize Montezuma in his palace and cany him as a 
 
SOtJTH AMERICA. 195 
 
 prisoner to the Spanish quarters. The plan being- properly settled 
 between Cortes and his officers, this powerful monarch was seized 
 by a few strangers in the midst of his capital, at noon day, and 
 carried off" as a prisoner, without opposition or bloodshed. History 
 contains nothing- parallel to this event, either with respect to the 
 temerity of the attempt, or the success of the execution, and fc*ere 
 not all the circumstances of this extraordinary transaction authen- 
 ticated by the most unquestionable evidence, they would appear so 
 wild and extravagant as to go far beyond the bounds of reason and 
 probability. 
 
 On the 4th of December, 1519, Qualpopoca, the son of Monte- 
 zuma, and five of the principal officers who served under him, 
 were brought prisoners to the citadel, formally tried by a Spanish 
 court-martial, and, though they had acted no other part than what 
 became loyal subjects and brave men, they were condemned to be 
 burnt aiive, which was immediately put in execution. The rigour 
 with which Cortes punished the unhappy persons, who first pre- 
 sumed to lay violent hands upon his followers, seems to have made 
 all the impressions he desired. The spirit of Montezuma was not 
 only overawed, but subdued. During six months that Cortes re- 
 mained in Mexico, the monarch continued in the Spanish quarters, 
 with an appearance of an entire satisfaction, and tranquillity, as if 
 he had resided there, not from constraint, but through choice. 
 His ministers and officers attended him as usual, he took cogni- 
 zance of all affairs, and every order was issued in his name. The 
 external aspect of government appearing the same, and all its an- 
 cient forms being scrupulously observed, the people were so little 
 sensible of any change, that they obeyed the mandates of their 
 monarch with the same submissive reverence as ever. Thus, by 
 the fortunate temerity of Cortes in seizing Montezuma, the Span- 
 iards at once secured to themselves more extensive authority in the 
 Mexican empire, than it was possible to have acquired in a long- 
 course of time by open force ; and they exercised more absolute 
 sway in the name of another, than they could have done in their 
 own. 
 
 Cortes, encouraged by so many instances of the monarch's tame 
 submission to his will, ventured to put it to a proof still more try- 
 ing. He urged Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal of 
 the king of Castile, to hold his crown of him as superior, and to 
 subject his dominions to the payment of an annual tribute. With 
 this requisition, the last and most humbling that can be made to 
 one possessed of sovereign authority, Montezuma was so obsequi- 
 ous as to comply. The act of submission and homage was executed 
 ■with all the formalities the Spaniards were pleased to dictate. 
 
 The next attempt Cortes made was to alter their religion, which 
 had such an effect upon the Mexicans, that they determined to de- 
 stroy the Spaniards if they persisted in it; and even Montezuma 
 himself had expressed his wish to Cortes, that he would think of 
 returning home. 
 
 17* 
 
196 HISTORY 0? 
 
 While things continued in this critical situation, Cortes, artiidUfl 
 about what was past, uncertain with respect to the future, and much 
 oppressed by the late declaration of the Mexicans, received an ac- 
 count of some ships having appeared on the coast. He idly imagin- 
 ed that his messengers were returned from Spain, and that the 
 completion of all his hopes and wishes were at hand However a 
 courier soon brought certain information, that the armament was 
 fitted out by Velasquez, governor of Cuba, and instead of bringing 
 the aid they expected, threatened them with immediate destruc- 
 tion. This armament was commanded by Pamphilo de Narvaez. 
 
 Cortes was now greatly alarmed, as Narvaez seemed determined 
 to ruin him, having received orders from Velasquez to seize him 
 and send him to Cuba in irons. Cortes at first attempted to treat 
 with his enemies ; but finding that impossible, he marched against 
 them with an army infinitely inferior to theirs, and rushing upon 
 them, in the night, obtained fa complete victory. Narvaes was 
 wounded, taken prisoner, and put in irons. 
 
 This victory proved the more acceptable, as it was gained with 
 little bloodshed, only two soldiers being killed on the side of 
 Cortes, and two officers, with fifteen private men, of the adverse 
 faction. Cortes treated the vanquished not like enemies, but as 
 countrymen and friends, and offered to send them back immedi- 
 ately to Cuba, or to take them into his service, as partners in his 
 fortune, on equal terms with his own soldiers. The greater part 
 of them accepted the offer, and vied with each other in professions 
 of fidelity and attachment to a general, whose recent successes had 
 given them such a striking proof of his abilities. Thus, by a series 
 of events no less fortunate than, uncommon, Cortes not only escaped 
 from the destruction that seemed inevitable, but, when he had 
 least reason to expect it, was placed at the head of a thousand reso- 
 luie Spaniards. 
 
 While Cortes was engaged in this business, the Mexicans seized 
 the opportunity of his absence to take up arms, to which they had 
 been more particularly urged by the cruelly and treachery of Alva- 
 rado, whom Cortes had left in the city, in order to take care of the 
 royal prisoner and keep the natives in awe. 
 
 On the 24>h of June, 1520, Cortes marched back to the city and 
 took quiet possession of his ancient station. However, being too 
 much elated with his success, he neglected to visit Montezuma, 
 aid embittered the insult by expressions full of contempt for that 
 unfortunate prince and his people. This being rumoured about, 
 they flew to arms in every quarter, and attacked the Spaniards in 
 their fortifications. Though the artillery pointed at their nume- 
 rous battalions, crowded together in narrow streets, swept off mul- 
 titudes at every discharge, though every blow of the Spanish 
 weapons fe'l with mortal effect upon their naked bodies, the vio- 
 lence of the assault by no means abated. Fresh men rushed for- 
 ward to occupy the places of the slain, and meeting with the same 
 fate, were succeeded by others no less intrepid and eager for ven- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 197 
 
 geance. The utmost afforts and abilities of Cortes, seconded by 
 the disciplined valour of his troops, were hardly sufficient to de- 
 fend the fortifications of the Spaniards, into which the Mexicans 
 had nearly forced their way. 
 
 Cortes was now willing- to try what effect the sight of the empe- 
 ror would have upon his subjects. He was accordingly brought on 
 the ramparts, from which he addressed the Mexicans, exhorting 
 them to peaceable measures, which so enraged them, that he 
 was soon wounded by two arrows, and the blow of a stone on his 
 temples brought him to the ground. The Spaniards carried him 
 to his apartments ; but he was so broken and dejected by the se- 
 verity of his fate, that he tore off the bandage from his wounds, and 
 soon expired. 
 
 Soon after the death of Montezuma, Cortes found it absolutely 
 necessary to abandon the cily. He attempted his retreat by night, 
 but the Mexicans, who had watched all his motions, fell upon him in 
 his march and destroyed nearly one half of his army. All the artil- 
 lery, ammunition, and baggage, were lost, and only a very small por- 
 tion of the treasure they had amassed was saved. Many of the sol- 
 diets, having so overloaded themselves with bars of gold as rendered 
 them unfit for action, and retarded their flight, fell ignominiously 
 the victims of their own inconsiderate avarice. 
 
 Cortes directed his march towards a rising ground at some little 
 distance, and having fortunately discovered a temple situated on an 
 eminence, he took possession of it. He there found not only the 
 shelter for which he wished, but, what was no less wanted, some 
 provisions to refresh his men. On leaving this place they marched 
 tor six days with little respite, and under continual alarms, nume- 
 rous bodies of the Mexicans hovering around them, and harassing 
 them in front, rear, and flank, with great boldness. As the barren 
 country through which they passed, afforded hardly any provisions, 
 they were reduced to feed on berries, roots, and the stalks of green 
 maize ; and at the very time that famine was depressing their spirits 
 and wasting their strength, their situation required the most vig- 
 orous and unremitting exertions of courage and activity. Amidst 
 ihese complicated distresses, one circumstance supported and ani- 
 mated the Spaniards. Their commander sustained this sad reverse 
 of fortune with unshaken magnanimity. His presence of mind never 
 forsook him, his sagacity foresaw every event, and his vigilance 
 provided for it. He was foremost in every danger, and endured 
 every hardship with cheerfulness. His soldiers, though despairing* 
 themselves, continued to follow him without reluctance. 
 
 On the sixth day of their march, they reached the summit of an 
 eminence, when a spacious valley opened to their view, covered 
 with a vast army, extending as far as the eye could reach. The 
 Mexicans, while with one body of their troops they harassed the 
 Spaniards in their retreat, had assembled their principal force on 
 the other side of the lake, and posted it in the plain of Olumba, 
 throttp-h which they knew Cones must pass. At the sight of this 
 incredible multitude, which they could survey at once from the ris- 
 
198 HISTORY OF 
 
 ing ground, the Spaniards were astonished, and even the boldest 
 began to despair. Cortes, however, without allowing leisure for 
 their fears to acquire strength by reflection, after reminding them, 
 that nothing remained but to die or conquer, led them immediately 
 to the charge. The Mexicans with unusual fortitude waited their 
 approach; but such was the superiority of the Spanish arms and 
 discipline, that the impression of this small body was irresistible, 
 and which ever way its force was directed, it pene' rated and dis- 
 persed the most numerous battallinns. However while these gave 
 way in one quarter, a fresh supply of enemies advanced from an- 
 other, and the Spaniards, though successful in every attack, were 
 ready to sink under these repeated efforts, without peeing any end 
 of their toil, or any hope of victory. 
 
 Cortes now observed, that the great standard of the empire, 
 which was carried before the Mexican general was advancing. 
 He fortunately recollected to have heard, that on the fate of it de- 
 pended the event of every battle. He therefore assembled a few 
 of his bravest officers, whose horses were still capable of service, 
 and placing himself at their head, pushed forward towards the 
 standard, with an impetuosity that bore down every thing before 
 it. A chosen body of nobles, who guarded the standard, made 
 some resistance, but were soon vanquished Cortes, with a stroke 
 of his lance, wounded the Mexican general, and threw him to the 
 ground. One of the Spanish officers alighting, finished his life, 
 and seized the imperial standard. The instant their leader fell, 
 and their standard, to which all directed their eyes, was no longer 
 to be seen, an universal panic struck the Mexicans, every ensign 
 was lowered, each soldier threw away his weapons, and every 
 one made the best of his way to the m untains. The Spaniards, 
 who were not in a condition to pursue them, contented themselves 
 with collecting the spoils of the weld, which were so valuable, as 
 to be some compensation for the wealth they had lost in the city of 
 Mexico. 
 
 After this victory, Cortes despatched an officer of confidence with 
 four ships of Narvaez's to Hispaniola and Jamaica, to engage ad- 
 venturers, and to purchase horses, gunpowder, and other military 
 stores. As he knew it would be in vain to attempt the reduction 
 of Mexico, unless he could secure the command of the lake he found 
 means to procure the materials for building twelve brigantines, so 
 that they might be carried 'hitler in pieces, ready to be put toge- 
 ther, and launched, whenever he should want them. 
 
 While he was harassed and perplexed with the mutinous dispo- 
 sition of his troops, two ships arrived, with a supply of men and 
 military stores, sent by the governor of Cuba, not to assist Cortes, 
 but wi'h a view of Ins ruin. His address, however, brought them 
 ov.^r to his views. He now found his army reinforced with 180 
 Spaniards, and twenty horses 
 
 Soon after this four ships arrived at Vera Cruz from Hispaniola, 
 with two hundred soldiers, eighty horses, and two battering canon, 
 and a considerable supply of ammunition and arms. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 199 
 
 On the 28th of April, 1521, all the Spanish troops, together with 
 the auxiliary Indians, were drawn up on the banks of a canal ; and 
 with extraordinary military pomp, lightened and rendered more 
 solemn by the celebration of the most sacred rites of religion, the 
 brigantines were launched. Cortes now determined on making an 
 attack on the city of Mexico. — The brigantines no sooner appeared 
 before the city, than the lake was covered with innumerable canoes, 
 which made but a feeble resistance against these vessels manned by 
 Europeans. 1'he brigantines, with the utmost ease, broke through 
 their feeble opponents, overset many canoes, and dissipated the 
 wlmle armament with such slaughter, as convinced the Mexicans, 
 that it was not in their power to contend with the Spaniards on the 
 watery element. 
 
 Cortes now determined to attack the city, and for this purpose he 
 nude all the wise preparations an able general could do ; but, owing 
 to his orders not being properly observed, he was at last repulsed, 
 received some dangerous wounds and would have been taken by the 
 Mexicans had not some Spanish officers rescued him at the ex- 
 pense of their lives. Forty Spaniards fell alive into the hands of the 
 Mexicans, who sacrificed those unhappy victims, in the most cruel 
 manner, to their god of war. 
 
 However unpromising an aspect matters wore at present, Cortes 
 had a mind that rose above all difficulties. He soon found himself 
 enabled to renew the attack on the city of Mexico, in which he 
 proved so fortunate, that he took the emperor Guatimozin prisoner, 
 who seemed worthy of a better fate. When the emperor was 
 conducted to Cortes, he appeared neither with the sullen fierceness 
 of a barbarian, nor with the dejection of a supplicant. a l have 
 done (said he, addressing himself to the Spanish general) what be- 
 came a monarch. 1 have defended my people to the last extremity. 
 Nothing now remains but to die. Take this dagger, (laying his 
 hand on one which Cortes wore) plant it in my breast, and put an 
 end to a life, which can no longer be of use.*' 
 
 As soon as the fate of this unfortunate sovereign was known, 
 the Mexicans ceased all resistance, and Cortes took possession of 
 that small part of the "capital, which had not been destroyed during 
 the siege. Thus terminated the siege of Mexico, the most mem- 
 orable event in the conquest of America. It lasted twenty-five 
 days, of which hardly one passed without some singular effort on 
 the part of the besiegers or the besieged. The great abilities of 
 Guatimozin, the number of his troops, the peculiar situation of his 
 capital, so far counterbalanced the superiority of the Spaniards 
 in arms and discipline, that they must have relinquished the en- 
 terprise, had they trusted for success to themselves alone ; but 
 Mexico was overturned by its own tyranny, and the jealousy of its 
 neighbours. 
 
 The Spaniards were no sooner masters of the city, than they set 
 about seeking for the profuse riches they expected it would pro- 
 duce ; but they were herein sadly disappointed. The soldiers 
 could collect only an inconsiderable booty amidst ruins and desota- 
 
200 HISTORY OF 
 
 tion, and liis disappointment excited them almost to an open rebel- 
 lion against Cortes. Arguments, entreaties, and promises, were 
 employed in order to soothe them ; but with so little effect, that 
 Cortes, with a view to check this growing spirit of discontent gave 
 way to a deed, which stains the glory of all his great actions. The 
 unhappy monarch together with his chief favourite, were given up 
 to be tortured, in order to force from them a discovery of the royal 
 treasures, which it was supposed they had concealed. — Guatimozin 
 bore whatever the refined cruelty of his tormeniers could inflict, 
 with the invincible fortitude of an American warrior. His fellow 
 sufferer, sinking under the violence of his anguish turned a sor- 
 rowful eye towards his master, which seemed to implore his per- 
 mission to reveal all he knew ; but the high spirited prince, dart- 
 ing on him a look of authority, mingled with scorn, checked him by 
 asking, *' Am I now reposing on a bed of flowers ?" His favourite 
 felt the reproach, persevered in his dutiful silence, and expired.— 
 Cortes was so much ashamed of this horrid scene, that he rescued 
 the royal victim from the hands of his torturers, and thereby pro- 
 longed a life devoted to future miseries. 
 
 The fate of the capital, as both parties had conjectured, decided 
 that of the empire, and the provinces submitted, one after another, 
 to the conquerors. Cortes, being now more at leisure, began to 
 form schemes of discovery, and to complete the original plan of 
 Columbus, by finding a passage to the East Indies by that quarter 
 of the world they were in ; but he did not then know that this scheme 
 had been undertaken and accomplished. 
 
 Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese gentleman, on the 10th of 
 August, 1519, sailed from Seville, with five ships, and, after touch- 
 ing at the Canaries, stood directly South along the coast of America, 
 and on the 12th of January, 1520, reached the river De la Plata. 
 Hence he continued his course, after having conquered the muti- 
 nous disposition of his crew, and at length discovered, near the fifty- 
 third degree of latitude, the mouth of a strait, into which he en- 
 tered, in spite of the murmurs and remonstances of the people 
 under his command. After sailing twenty days in that winding- 
 dangerous channel, to which he gave his own name, and where one 
 of his ships deserted him, the ^reat Southern Ocean opened to his 
 view, when he shed tears of joy and gratitude for that happy dis- 
 covery. 
 
 After enduring inexpressible hardships, from the want of provi- 
 sions and other necessaries, on the 6th of March, 1521, they fell in 
 with a cluster of small but fertile islands, which afforded them re- 
 freshments rn such abundance, that their health was soon re-estab- 
 lished. This extensive sea Magellan called the Pacific Ocean which 
 name it still bears. He afterwards discovered the Philippine islands, 
 and was there k lied by the barbarous natives. 
 
 John Sebastian del Cano prosecuted the expedition after the 
 death of Magellan. After visiting many of the smaller islands, 
 scattered in the eastern p^rt of the Indian Ocean, they touched at 
 the great island of Borneo, and at length landed in Tidore, one of 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 201 
 
 the Moluccas. He followed the course of the Portuguese by the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and, after many disasters and sufferings, he 
 arrived at St. Lucar an the 7th of September, 1522, having sailed 
 round the globe in the space of three years and twenty-eight days. 
 
 But let us turn to the transactions in New Spain. At the time 
 that Cortes was acquiring such vast territories for his native coun- 
 try, and preparing the way for future conquests, it was his singular 
 fate not only to be destitute of any commission or authority from the 
 sovereign, whom he was serving with such successful zeal, but to be 
 regarded as an undutifuland seditious subject. The court of Spain 
 sent a person to supersede him, to seize his person, and confiscate 
 bis effects ; but Cortes triumphed over all his enemies, and was ap- 
 pointed Captain-General and Governor of New-Spain. 
 
 The jealousies and ingratitude of the court of Spain threw so 
 many obstacles in the way of Cortes, that his government became 
 very uneasy to him, and the court went so far as to send persons to 
 inquire into his conduct, and to bring him to justice, should his in- 
 terested judges find him guilty. He resolved, however, not to 
 expose himself to the ignominy of a trial, in that country, which had 
 been the scene of his triumphs ; and without waiting for the arrival 
 of his judges, to repair directly to Castile, and commit himself and 
 his cause to the justice and generosity of his king. 
 
 The Emperor Charles, having now nothing to apprehend from 
 the designs of Cortes, received him at Court like a person, whom 
 conscious innocence had brought into the presence of his master, 
 and who was enti'led, by the eminence of his services, to the high- 
 est marks of distinction and respect. The order of St Jago, the 
 title of Marquis del Valle de Guaxaca, and the grant of a vast ter- 
 ritory in New Spain, were successively bestowed upon him. 
 
 Cortes returned to New-Spain ; but his power was so cramped, 
 that he found himself in a very disagreeable situation. He formed 
 schemes for new discoveries, explored California, and surveyed th£ 
 greater part of the gulf which separates it from New-Spain. On 
 his return to his government he found himself surrounded with so 
 many enemies, that he determined once more to seek redress in his 
 native country. 
 
 On his arrival in Old Spain, the emperor behaved to him wiih 
 cold civility, his ministers treated him.sometimes with neglect, and 
 sometimes with insolence. His grievaT?c< s received no redress, his 
 claims were urged without effect, and several years passed in fruit- 
 Jess applications to ministers and judges ; an occupation the most 
 irksome and moi tifying to a man of spirit. Cortes finished his mor- 
 tal career on the second day of December, 154:7, in the sixty-ise- 
 cond year of his a<je, having experienced the same fate with that of 
 ail ihe persons who distinguished themselves in the discovery or 
 conquest of the New World: envied by hi- cotemporaries, and ill 
 requited by the courts he served, he has been admired and cele- 
 brated by succeeding ages. 
 
202 HISTORY OF 
 
 REMARKABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 2518 Cortes is appointed by Velasquez to conquer New Spain. 
 
 1519 Lands his troops in New Spain. 
 Destroys his Q$vn fleet. 
 
 Sets out for Mexico with his little army. 
 
 1520 Montezuma acknowledges himself a vassal of Spain. 
 Death of the emperor Montezuma. 
 
 1521 The conquest of all Mexico, followed by the taking of the city. 
 The Strait of Magellan discovered. 
 
 1522 Cortes appointed Captain-General, and Governor of New Spain. 
 1530 Cortes discovers California. 
 
 1540 Returns home. 
 
 1 547 Ended his days, in the 62d year of his age. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The discovery of the Southern Ocean by Balboa excited a spirit of 
 adventure in the colonies of Darien and Panama, who sighed after 
 the imaginary wealth of those unknown regions. Several armaments 
 were fitted out in 1523, in order to explore and take possession of 
 the countries to the east of Panama, but under the conduct of 
 leaders, whose talents and resources were unequal to the attempt. 
 They proved unsuccessful, and thereby damped the ardour of 
 others. 
 
 Three persons settled in Panama, whose names were Francisco 
 Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando Luque, resolved to at- 
 tempt the discovery of Peru, notwithstanding the ill success of for- 
 mer adventurers. These three men were destined to overturn one 
 of the most extensive empires on the face of the earth ; though 
 Pizarro was a bastard, with very little education ; Almagro a found- 
 ling ; and Luque, a priest and schoolmaster at Panama. 
 
 Each engaged to employ his whole fortune in this adventure— 
 Pizarro, being the poorest of the three, undertook the depart- 
 ment of the greatest fatigue and danger, and to command in 
 person the armament destined for the discovery. Almagro was to 
 conduct the supplies of provisions and reinforcement of troops, of 
 which Pizarro might stand in need. Luque was to remain at Pa- 
 nama to negociate with the governor, and superintend whatever 
 was carrying on for the general good. As the spirit of enthusiasm 
 uniformly accompanied that of adventure in the New World, and by 
 that strange union both acquired an increase of force, thi& confede- 
 racy formed by ambition and avarice, was. confirmed by the most 
 solemn act of religion Luque celebrated ma«s, divided a conse- 
 crated host into three, and reserving one part to himsHf, gave the 
 other two to his associates, of which they partook, and thus, in the 
 name of the Prince of Peace, ratified a contract, of which plunder 
 and bloodshed were the principal objects in view. 
 
# SOUTH AMERICA. 203 
 
 On the 14th of November, 1525, Pizarro set sail from Panama 
 with a single vessel of small burden, and 112 men. His voyage, 
 however, was attended with great difficulties and hardships. After 
 remaining five months in the island of Gorgona, noted for the most 
 unhealthy climate in that region of America, a vessel arrived from 
 Panama. This transported them with such joy, that all their for- 
 mer sufferings were forgotten. Their hopes revived, and Pizarro 
 found little difficulty to induce not only his own followers, but also 
 the crew of the vessel from Panama, to resume his former scheme 
 with no less ardour. Instead of returning to Panama, they stood 
 towards the south east, and more fortunate in this than in any of 
 their past efforts, on the twentieth day after their departure from 
 Gorgona, they discovered the coast of Peru. 
 
 After touching at several villages on the coast, they landed at 
 Tumbez, a place of some note, about three degrees south of the 
 line, distinguished for its stately temple, and a palace of the Incas, 
 or sovereigns of the country. There the Spaniards feasted their 
 eyes with the first view of the opulence and civilization of the Peru- 
 vian empire. They beheld a country fully peopled and cultivated 
 with an appearance of regular industry; the natives decentiy cloth- 
 ed, and possessed of ingenuity so far surpassing the other inhabi- 
 tants of the New World, as to have the use of tame and domestic 
 animals. But what chiefly attracted their notice, was such a show 
 of gold and silver not only in the ornaments of their persons and 
 temples, but in several vessels and utensils for common use, form- 
 ed of those precious metals, as left no room to doubt that it abound- 
 ed with profusion in the country. Pizarro and his companions now 
 seemed to have attained the completion of their most sanguine 
 hopes, and fancied that all their wishes and dreams of rich dn^ 
 mains, and inexhaustible treasures, would soon be realized. 
 
 Pizarro, having explored the country as far as it was necessary to 
 ascertain the importance of the discovery, procured from the inha 
 bitants some of their Llamas, or tame cattle, to which the Spaniards 
 gave the name of sheep; some vessels of gold and silver, as well 
 as some specimens of their other works of ingenuity ; and two 
 young men whom he proposed to instruct in the Castilian language, 
 that they might serve as interpreters in the expedition he meditat- 
 ed. With these he arrived at Panama, towards the close of the 
 third year from the time of his departure thence. No adventurer 
 of the age suffered hardships or encountered dangers which equal 
 those to which he was exposed during this long period. 
 
 On their arrival at Panama, Pizarro could not prevail on the go- 
 vernor to assist him in the conquest of Peru ; his associates there- 
 fore sent him to Spain to negociate, where he managed matters 
 more to his own interest than to theirs. On the 26th of July, 1528, 
 Pizarro was appointed governor, captain-general, and adelantado 
 of the countries he had discovered and hoped to conquer, with su- 
 preme authority, civil as well as military : thus he secured to him- 
 self whatever bis boundless ambition could desire. 
 
 18 
 
204 HISTORY OF | 
 
 After all the efforts of Pizarro and his associates, three small 
 vessels, with 108 soldiers, 36 of whom were horsemen, composed 
 the whole of the armanent. With this contemptible force in Feb- 
 ruary, 1531, Pizarro did not hesitate to sail to invade a great em- 
 pire. 
 
 He no sooner landed in Peru, than he began hostilities, by which 
 imprudent conduct his followers were exposed to famine, fatigue, 
 and diseases of various kinds. However they at length reached the 
 province of Coaque ; and having surprised the principal settlement 
 of the natives, they seized their vessels and ornaments of gold and 
 silver, to the amount of thirty thousand pesos, with other booty of 
 such value, as dispelled all their fears, and inspired the most des- 
 ponding with sanguine hopes. 
 
 The dominions of the sovereigns of Peru, at the time that the 
 Spaniards invaded them, extended in length, from north to south, 
 above fifteen hundred miles along the Pacific Ocean. Its breadth 
 from easi to west, was much less considerable ; being uniformly 
 bounded by the vast ridge of the Andes, stretching from its one ex- 
 tremity to the other. 
 
 Pizarro, soon after his landing in Peru, discovered that a civii 
 war was carrying on in that country. By these means he was per- 
 mitted to pursue his operations unmolested, and advanced to the 
 centre of a great empire, before one effort of its power was exerted 
 to stop his career. The first complete information the Spaniards 
 received of this war, was by messengers from Huascar, one of the 
 contending parties, sent to Pizarro in order to solicit his aid against 
 his opponent Atahualpa. Pizarro at once perceived the importance 
 of this intelligence, and foresaw so clearly all the advantages, which 
 might be derived from this divided state of the kingdom he had in- 
 vaded, that without waiting for the reinforcements he expected 
 rom Panama, lie determined to push forward, while intestine dis- 
 cord put il out of the power of the Peruvians to attack him with 
 "heir whole force, and while by taking part, as circumstances should 
 incline him, with one of the competitors, he might be enabled with 
 greater ease to crush them both. 
 
 Strange as it may appear, Pizarro marched into the heart of the 
 country attended by his followers, consisting only of 62 horsemen, 
 <md 102 foot soldiers, of whom twenty were armed with cross bows, 
 and three with muskets. Pizarro in the course of his march, re- 
 ceived an ambassador from the lnca of Caxamalca, who brought 
 him very valuable presents from that prince, accompanied with a 
 proffer of alliance. Pizarro according to the usual artifice of his 
 countrymen in America promised every thing without meaning to 
 fulfil any thing but what his interest directed. In consequence of 
 'hese declarations, the Spainiards were permitted to march where 
 they pleased. 
 
 On entering Caxamalca, Pizarro took possession of a large court 
 on one side of which was r. house, which the Spanish historians 
 call a palace of the lnca, and on the other a temple of the Sun, the 
 whole surrounded with a strong rampart or wall of earth. When 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 205 
 
 he had posted liis troops in this advantageous situation, and had 
 seen what profusion of riches the Inca possessed, Pizarro treach- 
 erously seized on his person, during the interview to which the 
 monarch had invited him. While the Inca was engaged in con- 
 ference with the Spaniards, Pizarro gave the signal of assault. 
 At once the martial musick struck up, the cannon and muskets 
 began to fire, the horse saiiiedout fiercely to the charge, and the 
 infantry rushed on sword in hand. The Peruvians astonished at 
 the suddenness of the attack which they did not expect, and'dis* 
 maved with (he destructive effect of fire arms, ami the irresistible 
 impression of ihe cavalry, tied with universal consternation in every 
 quarter, without attempting either to annoy the enemy, or to. de- 
 fend themselves. Pizarro at the head of his followers, advanced 
 directly towards the Inca ; and though his nobles crowded around 
 him with officious zeal, and fell in numbers at his feet, while they 
 vied one with another in sacrificing their own lives, that they might 
 cover the sacred person of their king, the Spaniards soon pene- 
 trated to the royal seat, and Pizarro seizing the Inca by the arm 
 dragged him to the ground, and carried him as a prisoner to his 
 quarters. The fate of the monarch precipitated the flight of his fol- 
 lowers. The Spaniards every where pursued them, and with a 
 deliberate unrelenting barbarity, continued to slaughter the wretch- 
 ed Peruvians, who never attempted to resist. The carnage did 
 not cease till the close of the day put an end to it, when above four 
 thousand Peruvians lay dead on the spot. Not a single Spaniard 
 fell, nor was any one wounded but Pizarro himself, whose hand 
 was slightly hurt. 
 
 The plunder the Spaniards acquired on this massacre, was far 
 beyond every thing they had formed in their minds of the wealth of 
 Peru, and they were so transported with the value of the acqui- 
 sition as well as the greatness of their success, that they passed the 
 night in those extravagant exultations natural to indigent adventur- 
 ers on so sudden a change in their affairs. 
 
 The captive monarch could not at first hardly believe what he 
 saw to be real : and the dejection into which he sunk was in propor- 
 tion to the height of grandeur from which he had fallen. However, 
 the Inca soon discovered the ruling passion of the Spaniards, and by 
 applying to that made an attempt to recover his liberty. — He offered 
 as a ransom what astonished the Spaniards, even after all they 
 now knew concerning the opulence of his kingdom. The apart- 
 ment in which he was confined was twenty-two feet in length, and 
 sixteen in breadth; he undertook to fill it with vessels of gold as 
 high as he could reach. Pizarro eagerly closed with this tempting 
 proposal, and a line was drawn upon the wall of the chamber, to 
 mark the stipulated height to which the treasure was to reach. 
 
 As fast as the gold was brought in, it was melted down, except 
 some pieces of curious fabric, which were reserved as a present for 
 the emperor. After setting apart the fifth due to the crown, and 
 a hundred thousand pesos as a donative to the soldiers, who 
 were just arrived with Almagro, there remained 1,528,500 pesos 
 
•206 HISTORY OP 
 
 to Pizarro and his followers. The festival of St. James, (July 25, 
 1533) the patron saint of Spain, was the day chosen for the partition 
 of this vast sum. Though assembled to divide the spoils of an in- 
 nocent people, procured by deceit, extortion and cruelty, the trans- 
 action began with a solemn invocation of the name of God, as if 
 they could have expected the guidance of heaven in distributing 
 those wages of iniquity. In this distribution 8000 pesos, at that 
 time not inferior in effective value, to as many pounds sterling in 
 the present century, fell to the share of each horseman, and half 
 that sum to each foot soldier. Pizarro and his officers received 
 their dividends in proportion to their superior station. 
 
 The In.ca having thus fulfilled his engagement, demanded his re- 
 lease ; but the treachery of the Spaniards induced them instead of 
 .selling him at liberty, to put a period to his life. lie was tried and 
 . ond< 'Ttned to be burnt alive. At last the unfortunate prince con- 
 futed to receive baptism, and was therefore indulged with being 
 strangled at the stake. 
 
 Pizarro, having by these cruel proceedings established his au- 
 thority in Caxamalca, no longer hesitated to advance towards Ctiz- 
 co ; and having received considerable reinforcements, he could ven- 
 ture, with little danger to penetrate into the interior part of the 
 fountry. The Peruvians had assembled some large bodies of troops 
 to oppose his progress, and several fierce encounters happened ; but 
 they terminated like all the actions in America : a few Spaniards 
 were killed or wounded, and the natives were put to flight with in- 
 credible slaughter. At length Pizarro forced his way to Cuzco, 
 end took quiet possession of the capital. The riches found there, 
 even after all the natives had carried off and concealed, either from 
 a superstitious veneration for the ornaments of their temples, or 
 out of hatred to their rapacious conquerors, exceeded in value what 
 had been received as the Inca's ransom. — However, as Pizarro's 
 forces were now more numerous, the common soldiers did not re- 
 ceive so much as they expected, which proved a disappointment to 
 their rapacity. 
 
 After all these conquests, Pizarro set out for his native country, 
 and arrived in Spain in 1534. The immense quantities of gold and 
 silver which he imported, filled the kingdom with astonishment. — 
 Pizarro was received by the Emperor with the attention due to the 
 bearer of a present so rich, as to exceed any idea the Spaniards had 
 formed concerning the value of their acquisitions in America, even 
 after they had been ten years masters of Mexico. Pizarro was ad- 
 mitted into the order of St. Jago, and, after getting his authority, 
 confirmed with new powers and privileges, he set out on his return 
 to Peru, accompanied by many persons of higher rank than had yet 
 served in that country. Almagro received the honours he had so- 
 long desired : the title of adelantado, or governor, was conferred 
 upon him, with jurisdiction over two hundred leagues of the coun- 
 try stretching beyond the southern limits of the province allotted to 
 Pizarro. 
 
 On his arrival at Peru, he found Almagro in arms opposing hi* 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 207 
 
 Interest, and endeavouring to do himself justice for the treacherous 
 conduct of Pizarro, who had engrossed himself all the honours and 
 emoluments, which ought to have been divided with his associate. 
 However, matters were accommodated between ihcm. Their new 
 agreement was confirmed with the same power of solemnities as 
 the first, and observed with as little fidelity. 
 
 Cuzco, the capital city of the Incas, was situated in the corner of 
 the empire, above four hundred miles from the sea, and much fur- 
 ther from Quito, a province of whose value he had formed an high 
 idea. No other settlement of the Peruvians was so considerable 
 as to merit the name of a town, or to allure the Spaniards to fix 
 their residence in it. Pizarro, in marching through the country, 
 had been struck with the beauty and fertility of the valley of Ri- 
 mac, one of the most extensive and best cultivated in Peru. There, 
 on the bank of a small river of the same name with the vale which it 
 waters and enriches, at the distance of six miles from Callao, the 
 most commodious harbour in the Pacific ocean, he founded a city, 
 which he destined to he the capital of his government. On the 
 18th of Jan. 1535, he gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, 
 either from the circumstance of having laid the first stone, at that 
 season when the church celebrates the festival of the three Kings, 
 or as is more probable, in honour of Juana and Charles, the sove- 
 reigns of Castile. This name it still retains among the Spaniards 
 in all legal and formal deeds, but it is better known to foreigners by 
 that of Lima, a corruption of the ancient appellation cf the valley 
 in which it is situated. Under his inspection, the buildings advanc- 
 ed with such rapidity, that it soon assumed the form of a city, which 
 by a magnificent palace that he erected for himself, and by the 
 stately houses built by several of his officers, gave a strong proof of 
 the grandeur it was at last to acquire. 
 
 Almagro, as agreed on between him and Pizarro, set out for 
 Chili ; but on his march, he met with so many hardships and diffi- 
 culties, that many of his men died with fatigue. They no sooner 
 entered on the fertile plains of Chili, than they met with new diffi- 
 culties to encounter. They there found a nice of men very differ- 
 ent from the people of Peru, intrepid, hardy, independent, and in 
 their bodily constitution, a9 well as vigour of spirit, nearly resem- 
 bling the warlike tribes in North America. Though filled with 
 wonder at the first appearance of the Spaniards, and still more as- 
 tonished at the operation of their cavalry, and the effects of their 
 fire arms, the Chilese soon recovered so far from their surprise, as 
 not only to defend themselves with obstinacy, but to attack their 
 new enemies with more determined fierceness than any American 
 nation had hitherto discovered. The Spaniards, however, continu- 
 ed to penetrate into the country, and collected some considerable 
 quantities of gold, when they were recalled to Peru by an unexpect- 
 ed event. 
 
 The Inca of Peru, having observed the inconsiderate security of 
 the Spaniards in dispersing their troops, and that only a handful of 
 soldiers j emained in Cuzco, thought that the happy period was at 
 18* 
 
208 HISTORY Of 
 
 length come for vindicating 1 his own rights, for avenging the wrong l 
 of his country, and extirpating its oppressors. The lnca, who wa3 
 the prisoner of Pizarro, obtained permission from him to attend a 
 great festival, which was to be celebrated a few leagues from the 
 capital. Under pretext of that solemnity, the great men of the em- 
 pire were assembled. As soon as the lnca joined them the standard 
 of war was erected, and in a short time, all the fighting men, from 
 the confines of Quito to the frontiers of Chili, were in arms. Many 
 Spaniards, living securely on the settlements allotted them, were 
 massacred. Several detachments, as they marched carelessly 
 through a country which seemed to be tamely submissive to their 
 dominion, were cut off* to a man. The Spanish writers assert, that 
 the Peruvian army amounted to 200,000 men, and with this power- 
 ful army, and their lnca at the head of it, they laid siege to Cuzco. 
 During nine months they carried on the siege with incessant ar- 
 dour, and in various forms. The lnca, in spite of the valour of the 
 Spaniards, recovered possession of one half of his capital, and, in 
 their various efforts to drive him out of it, Pizarro lost one of his 
 brothers, and some other persons of note. 
 
 Almagro arrived at Cuzco in a critical moment. The lnca at 
 first endeavoured to gain the friendship of Almagro ; but after ma- 
 ny fruitless overtures, despairing of any cordial union with a Spa- 
 niard, he attacked him by surprise with a numerous body of chosen 
 troops. However, the Spanish discipline and valour maintained 
 their usual superiority. The Peruvians were repulsed with such 
 slaughter, that a great part of their army dispersed, and Almagro 
 proceeded to the gates of Cuzco without opposition. 
 
 The Spaniards had no sooner got rid of their Peruvian enemies, 
 .hey began to quarrel among themselves, and the flame at last 
 burst owl into civil war. Though countrymen and friends, the sub- 
 jects of the same sovereign, each with the royal standard display- 
 ed ! and though they beheld the mountains that surrounded the 
 plain in which they were drawn up, covered with a vast multitude 
 of Indians, assembled to enjoy the spectacle of their mutual car- 
 nage, and prepared to attack whatever party remained master of 
 the field ; so fell and implacable was the rancour which had taken 
 possession of every breast, that not one pacific council, not a single 
 overture towards accommodation, proceeded from either side. 
 Almagro was defeated and taken, tried by the Pizarros as guilty of 
 treason, and condemned and executed, in 1538. 
 
 However rapid the progress of the Spaniards had been in South 
 America since Pizarro landed in Peru, their avidity of dominion 
 was not yet satisfied. The officers to whom Ferdinand Pizarro 
 gave the command of different detachments, penetrated into sev- 
 eral new province;, ar.d though some of them were exposed to 
 great hardships in tlie cold and barren regions of the Andes, and 
 others suffered distress not inferior amidst the woods and marshes 
 of the plains, they made discoveries, and conquests which not only 
 extended their knowledge of the country, but added considerably to 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. . 209 
 
 the territories of Spain in the new world. Pedro de Valdivia re- 
 assumed Almagro's scheme of invading Chili, and notwithstanding" 
 the fortitude of the natives in defending their possessions, made such 
 progress in the conquest of the country, that he founded the city of 
 St. Jago, and gave a beginning to the establishment of the Spanish 
 dominions in that province. 
 
 Gonzalo Pizarro, whom his brother Francisco had made governor 
 of Quito, had entrusted one of his confidential officers, named Orel» 
 lana, with an expedition on discoveries, appointing a proper place 
 where they were to meet ; but this young officer began to fancy 
 himself independent, and transported with the predominant passion 
 of the age, formed schemes of distinguishing himself as a discoverer, 
 and treacherously abandoned his friend and employer. 
 
 It is impossible to describe the consternation of Pizarro, when 
 he did not find the bark at the confluence of the Napo and Marag- 
 non, where he had ordered Orellana to wait for him ; but that 
 treacherous servant, after having made some discoveries, got back 
 to Spain, and there magnified his wonderful exploits. In the mean 
 time, Pizarro was twelve hundred miles from Quito ; and, in that 
 long march towards the capital, the Spaniards encountered hard- 
 ships greater than those they had endured in their progress out- 
 ward, without the alluring hope that then soothed and animated 
 them under their sufferings. Hunger compelled them to feed on 
 roots and berries, to eat all their dogs and horses, to devour the 
 most loathsome reptiles, and even to gnaw the leather of their sad- 
 dles and sword belts. Four thousand Indians, and two hundred 
 and ten Spaniards perished in this wild and disastrous expedition, 
 which continued near two years. Those that got back to Quito 
 we* naked like savages, and so emaciated with famine, or worn 
 out with fatigue, that they had more the appearance of spectres 
 than men. 
 
 Gonzalo Pizarro was not much more happy on his arrival at his 
 government of Quito, where he found every thing in a state little 
 short of open rebellion against his brother Francisco. The young 
 Almagro, after the execution of his father, never lost sight of tak- 
 ing revenge of Pizarro. He possessed all the qualities which cap- 
 tivate the affection of soldiers ; he was of a graceful appearance, 
 dexterous at all martial exercises, bold, open and generous, he seem- 
 ed to be formed for command ; and as his father, conscious of his own 
 inferiority from the total want of education, had been extremely 
 attentive to have him instructed in every science becoming a gen- 
 tleman, the accomplishments he had acquired heightened the re- 
 spect of his followers, as they gave him distinction and eminence 
 among illiterate adventurers. In this young man the AJmagrians 
 found a point of union which they wanted, and looking up to him as. 
 their head, were ready to undertake any thing to promote his inter- 
 est. Their affection for Almagro was not the only incitement, be- 
 ing urged on by their own distresses. Many of I hem, destitute of 
 common necessaries, and weary of loitering away life a burden to 
 their chief, or to such of their associates as had saved some rem- 
 
210 HISTORY Of 
 
 nant of their fortune from pillage and confiscation sighed for an oc- 
 casion to exert their activity and courage, and began 10 deliberate 
 how they might be avenged on the author of-all their misery. Juan 
 de Herrada, an officer of great abilities, who had the charge of 
 Almagro's education, took the direction of their consultations, with 
 all the zeal which this connexion inspired, and with all the authority 
 which the ascendency that he was known to have over the mind of 
 of his pupil gave him. 
 
 On Sunday, the twenty-sixth of June, 1541, at midday, the season 
 of tranquillity and repose in all sultry climates, Herrada, at the head 
 of eighteen of the most determined conspirators, sallied out of Al- 
 magro's house in complete armour, and drawing their swords, hastily 
 advanced towards Pizarro's house. Their associates, warned of 
 their motions by a signal, were in arms at different stations to sup- 
 port them. Though Pizarro was usually surrounded by such a 
 numerous train of attendants, as suited the magnificence of the 
 most opulent subject of the age in which he lived, yet he was just 
 risen from table, and most of his domestics had retired to their 
 own apartments, so that the conspirators passed through the two 
 outward courts of the palace unobserved. They were at the bot- 
 tom of the staircase, before a page in waiting could give the alarm 
 to his master, who was conversing with a few friends in a large 
 hall. The governor, whose steady mind no form of danger could 
 appal, starting up, called for arms, and commanded Francisco de 
 Chaves to make fast the door : but that officer, who did not retain 
 so much presence of mind as to obey this prudent order, running 
 to the top of the staircase, wildly asked the conspirators what they 
 meant, and whither they were going. Instead of answering, they 
 stabbed him to the heart, and burst into the hall. Some of the per- 
 sons w!.* were there threw themselves from the windows, others 
 attempted to fly, and a few, drawing their swords, followed their 
 leader into an inner apartment. The conspirators, animated with 
 having the object of their vengeance now in view, rushed forward 
 after them. fizarro, with no other arms than his sword and buck- 
 ler, defended the entry, and supported by his half brother Alcan- 
 tara, and his little knot of friends, he maintained the unequal con- 
 test with intrepidity worthy of his past exploits, and with the vigour 
 of a youthful combatant. u Courage, (he cried) companions, we 
 are yet enow to make those traitors repent of their audacity." Hut 
 the armour of the conspirators protected them, while every thrust 
 they made took effect. Alcantara fell dead at his brother's feet, 
 and his other defenders were mortally wounded. The governor, 
 unable any longer to parry the many weapons furiously aimed at 
 him. received a deadly thrust full in the throat, sunk to the ground 
 and expired. 
 
 As »oon as Pizarro was killed, the assassins ran out into the 
 streets, and waving their bloody swords, proclaimed the death of 
 the tyra#it. About two hundred of their associates having joined 
 them, they conducted young Almagro in solemn procession through 
 -the c'ty, and assembling the magistrates and principal citizen?. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 211 
 
 compelled them to acknowledge him as lawful successor to his 
 father in his government. 
 
 Matters were not properly settled, when the arrival of Vaca de 
 Castro, who assumed the title of governor, threw every thing again 
 into fresh confusion. Castro and Almagro both took the field. The 
 former, knowing his strength to be far superior to that of the enemy, 
 was impatient to determine the contest by a battle. Nor did the 
 followers of Almagro, who had no hopes of obtaining a pardon for 
 a crime so atrocious as the murder of the governor, decline that 
 mode of decision. 
 
 On the 16th of September, 1542, they met at Chupaz, about two 
 hundred miles from Cuzco.. and fought with all the fierce animosity 
 inspired by the violence of civil rage, the rancour of private enmity, 
 the eagerness of revenge, and the last efforts of despair. Victory, 
 after remaining long doubtful, declared at last for Vaca de Castro. 
 The carnage was great in proportion to the number of combatants. 
 Of fourteen hundred men, the total amount of the armies on both 
 sides, five hundred lay dead on the field, and the number cf the 
 wounded was still greater. Of the prisoners, Castro condemned 
 some to deaih, others were banished from Peru, and Almagro be- 
 ing taken, was publicly beheaded. 
 
 The feelings of the emperor were exceedingly hurt at the reoital 
 of so many actions shocking to humanity. He perceived, that re- 
 lieving the Indians from oppression was but one step towards ren- 
 dering his possessions in the new world a valuable acquisition, and 
 won Ul be of little avail, unless he could circumscribe the power and 
 usurpations of his own subjects there. With this view, he formed a 
 body of laws, containing many salutary appointments with respect 
 to the constitution and powers of the supreme council of the Indies; 
 concerning the station and jurisdiction of the royal audiences in dif- 
 ferent parts of America ; and the order of government, both eccle- 
 siastical and civil. 
 
 Notwithstanding these regulations, Peru was hastening to the 
 highest pitch of anarchy and confusion. Castro however, by his wise 
 and prudent measures, for some time averted the storm A viceroy was 
 i;ent over by ihe emperor, and, so'.n after his arrival in Peru, he was 
 first imprisoned, and, after obtaining his liberty, and raising an army 
 to support his authority, was slain in battle. In this citical situa- 
 tion, t he emperor sent over Pedro de la Gasca as president of Peru, 
 who, by his moderation and good management, might have done 
 great things, had not Gonzalo Pizarro, supported by a stro-tg party, 
 assumed the government of Peru Gasca, perceiving that force 
 must be employed in order to accomplish the purpose of his mission, 
 collected troops from all quarters 
 
 On the 9th of April, 1547, as the two parties moved forward to 
 the charge, they exhibited a very singular appearance. In that of 
 Piz:<t ro, composed of men enriched with the spoils of the most 
 opulent country in America, every officer and almost all the private 
 men, were clothed in stuffs of silk or brocade, embroidered with 
 gold and silver; and their horses, their arm?, their standards^ ¥ 
 
212 HISTORY OF 
 
 adorned with all the pride of military pomp. That of Gasca, though 
 not so splendid, exhibited what was no less striking. He himself, 
 accompanied by the archbishop of Lima, the bishops of Quito and 
 Cuzco, and a great number of ecclesiastics, marching along the lines, 
 blessed the men, and encouraged them to a resolute discharge of 
 their duty, which could not fad that day of restoring Peru to peace 
 and tranquillity. 
 
 When both armies were just ready to engage, several of Pizarro's 
 principal officers set spurs to their horses, and went over to Gasca, 
 and many others silently slipped away. Pizarro, seeing all irre- 
 trievably lost, cried out in amazement to a few officers, who still 
 faithfully adhered to him, u What remains for us to do ?" " Let us 
 rush (replied one of them) upon the enemy's firmest battalion, and 
 die like Romans." Pizarro, dejected with such a reverse of fortune, 
 had not spirit to follow this soldierly counsel, and, with a tameness 
 disgraceful to his former fame, he surrendered to one of Gasca's 
 officers. Gasca, happy in this bloodless victory, did not stain it 
 with cruelty. Pizarro, and a small number of the most distinguish- 
 ed or notorious offenders, were capitally punished. Pizarro was 
 beheaded on the day after he surrendered. He submitted to his 
 fate with a composed dignity, and seemed desirous to atone by re- 
 pentance far the crimes he had committed. 
 
 Pizarro was no sooner dead, than the malecontents in every quar- 
 ter of Peru laid down their arms^and tranquillity was soon restored- 
 Gasca then endeavoured to find employment for the mutinous sol- 
 diers who had laid down their arms, which he did by engaging them 
 in the conquest of Chili. In order to reward his own soldiers, he 
 made a division of the country among them, without reserving the 
 smallest portion to himself. 
 
 Gasca having now accomplished every object of his mission, and 
 longing to return again to a private station, committed the govern- 
 ment of Peru to the court of audience, and set out for Spain on the 
 fourth of February, 1550. 
 
 There had been no remittance of the royal revenue for four 
 years, owing to the distracted slate of the country. Gasca, how- 
 ever, on his return to Spain, carried with him 1,300,000 pesos of 
 public m»ney, which ihe prudence and good order of administra- 
 tration enabled him to save, after paying all the expenses of the war. 
 He was received in»his native country with universal admiration 
 and esteem for his abilities and his virtues, both which were highly 
 conspicuous Without army or fleet, or public funds ; with a train 
 so simple, that only three thousand ducats were expended in equip- 
 ping him. he set nut to oppose a formidable rebellion. But the 
 praise bestowed on his abilities were exceeded by that which his 
 virtues merited. After residing in a country where wealth pre- 
 sented allurements, which had seduced every person who had 
 hitherto possessed power there, he retired from the trying station 
 with integrity, not only untainted but unsuspected. After distri- 
 buting among his countrymen possessions of greater extent and 
 value than had ever been in the disposal of a subject in any age or 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 213 
 
 nation, he himself remained in his original state of poverty, and at 
 the very time when he brought such a large recruit to the royal 
 treasury, he was obliged to apply by petition for a smalt sum to 
 discharge some petty debts, which he had contracted during the 
 course of his service. Charles was not insensible to such disinter- 
 ested merit. Gasca was received by him with the most distinguish- 
 ed marks of esteem, and being promoted to the bishoprick of 
 Palencia, he passed the remainder of his days in the tranquillity of 
 retirement, respected by his country, honoured by his sovereign, 
 and beloved by all. . ° 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1526 Pizarro discovers Peru. 
 
 1528 He is appointed gnrer nor of the newly discovered countries, 
 
 1532 Massacre of the Peruvians by the Spaniards. 
 
 1533 The Inca of Caxamalca tried, condemned and executed. 
 
 1534 Pizarro arrives in Spain . 
 
 1535 On his return to Peru, he builds Lima. 
 Chili invaded by Almagro. 
 
 1536 Siege of Cuzco. 
 
 3538 Almagro tried condemned, and executed. 
 
 1541 Pizarro assassinated in bit palace. 
 
 1546 Pedro de la Gasca appointed President of Peru. 
 
 1548 He suppresses the rebellion in Peru. 
 
 1550 Peturns to Spain, and is made Bishop of Palencia. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Having now taken a review of the conquest of the two great em- 
 pires of Mexico and Peru, very little more seems worthy of notice 
 in the History of South America than to mention a few circumstan- 
 ces relative to their political institutions and national manners. 
 
 According to the account of the Mexicans themselves, their em- 
 pire was not of long continuance. They relate, that their country 
 was originally possessed, rather than peopled, by small independent 
 tribes, whose manners and mode of life resembled those of the ru- 
 dest savages in South America. About a period corresponding to 
 tiie beginning of the tenth century in the Christian era, several 
 tribes moved in successive migrations from unknown regions to- 
 wards the north and north-west, and settled in different provinces 
 of Anahuac, the ancient name of New Spain. These, more civiliz- 
 ed than the original inhabitants, began to form them to the arts of 
 ■social life. At length, towards the commencement of the thir- 
 teenth century, the Mexicans, a people more polished than any of 
 the former, advanced from the borders of the Californian gulf, and 
 took possession of the plains adjacent to a great lake near the centre 
 of the country . After residing there about fifty years, they founded 
 
314 HISTORY OF 
 
 a town, since distinguished by the name of Mexico, which from 
 humble beginnings soon grew to be the most considerable city in 
 the New World. The Mexicans, long after they were established in 
 their new possessions, continued, like other martial tribes in Ameri- 
 ca, unacquainted with regal dominion ; and were governed in 
 peace, and conducted in war, by such as were entitled to pre-emi- 
 nence by their wisdom or their valour. Among them, as in other 
 states, whose power and territories become extensive, the supreme 
 authority centred at last in a single person ; and when the Spaniards 
 under Cortes invaded the country, Montezuma was the ninth mon- 
 arch in order, who had swayed the Mexican sceptre, not by heredi- 
 tary right, but by election. Such is the traditional Jaie of the 
 Mexicans concerning the progress of their own empire, which, ac- 
 cording to this account, must have been but of short duration. 
 
 While the jurisdiction of the Mexican monarchs was limited, it 
 is probable that much ostentat'on was not exercised ; but as their 
 authority became more extensive, the splendour of their govern- 
 ment increased. It was in this lust state the Spaniards beheld it, 
 and struck with the appearance of Montezuma's court, they de- 
 scribe its pomp at great length, and with much adtr.irarion The 
 number of his attendants, toe order, the silence, and tne reverence 
 with which they served him ; the vast extern of his royal mansion, 
 the variety of apartments allotted to ditTeient officers, and the osten- 
 tation with which his grandeur was displayed whenever he per- 
 mitted his subjects to behold hirn, seem to resemOle the magnifi- 
 cence of the ancient monarchies in Asia, rather than the simplicity 
 of the infant states in the New World. 
 
 The Mexicans, like the rude tribes around them, were incessant- 
 ly engaged in war, and the motives that prompted them to hostili- 
 ties seem to have been the same. They fought in order to gratify 
 their vengeance, by shedding the blood of their enemies. In bat- 
 tle, they were chiefly intent on taking prisoners, and it was by the 
 number of these that they estimated the glory of victory. No 
 captives were ever ransomed or spared : all were sacrificed with- 
 out mercy, and their flesh devoured with the same barbarous joy 
 as among the fiercest savages. On some occasions, it rose to even 
 wilder excesses. Their principal warriors covered themselves 
 with the skins of the unhappy victims, and danced about the 
 streets, boasting of their own valour, and exulting over their ene- 
 mies. 
 
 Their funeral rites were not less bloody than those of the most sa- 
 vage tribes. On the death of any distinguished personage, espe- 
 cially of the emperor, several of his attendants were chosen to ac- 
 company him to the other world, and these unfortunate victims were 
 put to death without mercy, and buried in the same tomb. 
 
 Though the agriculture of the Mexicans was more extensive 
 than that of the roving tribes, who trusted chiefly to their bow for 
 food, it seems not to have supplied them with such subsistence as 
 men require when engaged in efforts of active industry. Tiie Spa- 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 215 
 
 niards appear not to have been struck with any superiority of the 
 Mexicans over 'he other people of America in bodily vigour. Both 
 according to their observation, were of such a feeble frame as to be 
 unable to endure fatigue, and the strength of one Spaniard exceed- 
 ed that of several Indians. This they imputed to their scanty diet, 
 on poor fare, sufficient to preserve life, but not to give firmness to 
 the constitution. 
 
 In Mexico, though the disposition of the houses was somewhat 
 orderly, yet the structure of the greater part of them was mean.— 
 Nor does the fabric of their temples, and other public edifices, ap- 
 pear to have been such as entitled them to the high praises bestow- 
 ed upon them by many Spanish authors. The great temple of Mex- 
 ico, the most famous in New Spain, which has been represented as 
 a magnificent building, raised to such a height, that the ascent to 
 it was by a staircase of an hundred and fourteen steps, was a solid 
 mass of earth of a square form, faced partly with stone. Its base 
 on each side extended ninety feet, and decreasing gradually as it 
 advanced in height, it terminated in a quadrangle of about thirty 
 feet, where were placed a shrine of the deity, and two altars on 
 which the victims were sacrificed. Greater skill and ingenuity 
 were displayed, if we may believe the Spanish historians, in the 
 houses of the emperor, and in those of the principal nobility. — - 
 There some elegance of design was visible, and a commodious ar- 
 rangement of the apartments was attended to ; but if buildings 
 corresponding to such descriptions had ever existed in the Mexi- 
 can cities, it is probable that some remains of them would still be 
 visible. As only two centuries and an half have elapsed since the 
 conquest of New Spain, it seems altogether incredible, that in a pe- 
 riod so short every vestige of this boasted elegance and grandeur 
 should have disappeared. 
 
 The Mexicans have been represented, perhaps, more barbarous 
 than they really v.ere ; their religious tenets, and the rites of their 
 worship, are described as wild and cruel in an extreme degree. 
 The aspect of superstition in Mexico was gloomy and frightful ; its 
 divinities were clothed with terror, and delighted in vengeance. 
 They were exhibited to the people under detestable forms, which 
 created horror. The figures of serpents, tigers, and other destruc- 
 tive animals, decorated their temples. Feasts, mortifications, and 
 penances, all rigid, and many of them excruciating to an extreme 
 degree, were the means employed to appease the wrath of their 
 gods, and the Mexicans never approached their altars without 
 sprinkling them with blood drawn from theirbodies ; but of all offer- 
 ings, human sacrifices were deemed the most acceptable. 
 
 The empire of Peru boasts of an higher antiquity than that of 
 Mexico. According to the traditionary accounts collected by the 
 Spaniards, it had subsisted near four bundled years under twelve 
 successive monarchs; but the knowledge of their ancient story, 
 which the Peruvians could communicate to their conquerors, must 
 have been both imperfect and uncertain. Like the other Ameri- 
 
 19 
 
216 HISTORY OF 
 
 can nations, they were totally unacquainted with the art of writing, 
 and destitute of the only means, by which the memory of pass 
 transactions can be preserved with any degree of accuracy. 
 
 The authority of the lnca was unlimited and absolute, in the most 
 extensive meaning of the words. Whenever the decrees of a prince 
 are considered as the commands of the divinity, it is not only an 
 act of rebellion, but of impiety, to dispute or oppose his will. Obe- 
 dience becomes a duty of religion ; and as it would be profane to 
 control a monarch under the guidance of heaven, and presumptuous 
 to advise him, nothing remains but to submit with implicit respect. 
 This must necessarily be the effect of every government established 
 on pretensions of intercourse with superior powers. — Such accord- 
 ingly was the blind submission which the Peruvians yielded to their 
 sovereign. 
 
 The Incas of Peru were immensely rich in gold and silver, long 
 before they knew any thing of the rich silver mines of Potosi, which 
 were accidentally discovered in the year 1545, by an Indian, as he 
 was clambering up the mountain in pursuit of a Llama, which had 
 strayed from his flock. Soon after the mines of Sacotecas in New 
 Spain, little inferior to the other in value, were opened. From that 
 time successive discoveries have been made in both colonies, and 
 silver mines are now so numerous, that the working of them, and of 
 some few mines of gold in the province of Tierra Firme, and the 
 new kingdom of Grenada, has become the capital occupation of the 
 Spaniards, and is reduced into a system no less complicated than 
 interesting. 
 
 To return : the wars in which the Incas engaged, were carried 
 on with a spirit very different from those of other American nations. 
 They fought not like savages, to destroy or exterminate, or, like 
 the Mexicans, to glut blood-thirsty divinities with human sacrifices. 
 They conquered in order to reclaim and civilize the vanquished, and 
 to infuse the knowledge of their own institutions and arts. Prison- 
 ers seem not to have been exposed to the insults and tortures which 
 were their lot in every other part of the new world. The Incas 
 took the people whom they subdued under their protection, and ad- 
 mitted them to a participation of all the advantages enjoyed by 
 their original subjects. 
 
 In Peru, agriculture, the art of primary necessity in social life, 
 was more extensive, and carried on with greater skill, than in any 
 other part of America. The Spaniards, in their progress through 
 the country 9 were so fully supplied with provisions of every kind, 
 that in the relation of their adventures we meet with few of those 
 dismal scenes of distress, occasioned by famine, in which the con- 
 querors of Mexico were so often involved The quantity of soil un- 
 der cultivation was not left to the discretion of individuals, but regu- 
 lated by public authority, in proportion to the exigencies of the 
 community. Even the calamity of an unfruitful season was but lit- 
 tle felt ; for the product of the lands consecrated to the sun, as 
 well as those set apart for the Incas, being deposited in the public 
 storehouses, it there remained as a stated provision for times of 
 scarcity. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 217 
 
 The ingenuity of the Peruvians was also conspicuous in the con- 
 struction of their houses and public buildings. In the extensive 
 plains which stretch along the Pacific Ocean, where the sky is per- 
 petually serene, and the climate mild, their houses were very pro- 
 perly built only of slight materials; but in the higher regions, 
 where rain falls, where the vicissitudes of seasons are known, and 
 their rigour felt, houses were constructed with gr^at solidity. They 
 were generally of a square form, the walls about eight feet high, 
 built of bricks hardened in the sun, without any windows, and the 
 door low and straight. Simple as these structures were, and rude 
 as the materials may seem to be, of which they were formed, they 
 were so durable, that many of them still subsist in different parts of 
 Peru, long after every monument that might have conveyed to us 
 any idea of the domestic state of the other American nations, has 
 vanished from the face of the earth. It was in the temples conse- 
 crated to the Sun, and in the buildings destined for the residence 
 of their monarchs, that the Peruvians displayed the utmost extent 
 of their art and contrivance. The descriptions of them by some of 
 the Spanish writers, who had an opportunity of contemplating them, 
 while, in some measure, entire, might have appeared highly ex- 
 aggerated, if the ruins which still remain did not vouch for the truth 
 of their relations. 
 
 The un warlike spirit of the Peruvians was the most remarkable, 
 as well as the most fatal defect in their character. The greater 
 part of the rude nations of America opposed their invaders with 
 the most undaunted ferocity, though with little conduct or success. 
 The Mexicans maintained the struggle in defence of their liberties 
 with such persevering fortitude, that it was with difficulty they tri- 
 umphed over them. Peru was subdued at once, and almost without 
 resistance ; and the most favourable opportunities of regaining 
 their freedom, and of crushing their oppressors, were lost through 
 the timidity of the people. 
 
 END OF THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Future generations will perhaps view the late Revolution in North 
 America, as the most singular phenomenon that ever appeared in 
 the political hemisphere of any nation. 
 
 To point out the gradual steps by which America finally obtain- 
 ed her Independence, to describe those terrible scenes of rapine,V 
 blood, and slaughter, which accompanied those struggles, so fatal to 
 thousands of brave officers and men on both sides, and so ruinous to 
 the finances of the mother-country are principally the objects of this 
 epitome. 
 
 In the execution of this business, we have endeavoured to divest 
 ourselves of every spark of national prejudice, and have therefore 
 contented ourselves with barely relating facts, without presuming 
 to give our opinion thereon, wishing to leave our readers the sole 
 power of judging for themselves. 
 
 Besides the detail of these important events, we have given an 
 account of the customs and manners of the original inhabitants of 
 North America, and such as they nearly are at this day. We have 
 also shewn at whattime, and by what causes, the British colonies, 
 in North America were first settled, and having marked their rise 
 from their original insignificance, till they became Thirteen United 
 and Independent States. 
 
 19* 
 
HISTORY 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 -Before we proceed to describe what America- is at present, or 
 by what means she became independent of the mother-country, it 
 cannot be disagreeable to our readers, to be informed of the per- 
 sons, customs, and manners, of the original inhabitants of North 
 America. 
 
 The native American Indians are tall and straight in their limbs, 
 beyond the proportion of most nations. Their bodies are strong, 
 but more fitted to endure much hardship, than to continue long at 
 any servile work, which they cannot support. Their bodies and 
 heads are -flatfish ; their features are even and regular, but their 
 countenances fierce ; and their hair is long, black, lank, and very 
 strong. They are without beards. The colour of their skin is a 
 reddish brown, which most of them admire, and take proper me- 
 thods to improve. 
 
 The Europeans, on their first arrival in America, found the In- 
 dians quite naked, except those parts, which it is common for the 
 most uncivilized people to conceal. Since that time, they have 
 generally a coarse blanket to cover them, which they buy from their 
 neighbours. The whole tenor of their lives is of a piece : they are 
 hardy, poor, and squalid ; and their education, from their infancy, 
 is solely directed to fit their bodies for the mode of life they pursue, 
 and to form their minds to inflict and endure the greatest evils. 
 Their only occupations are hunting and war, for agriculture is left 
 to their women. 
 
 As soon as their hunting season is over, which thay go through 
 with much patience, and in which they exert great ingenuity, they 
 pass the rest of their lives in entire indolence. They sleep half the 
 day in their huts, and observe no bounds of decency in their eating 
 and drinking. Before the Europeans discovered them, they had no 
 spirituous liquors ; but now, the acquirement of these is the princi- 
 pal object of their pursuit. 
 
 The Indians are grave, even to sadness, in their deportment upon 
 any serious occasion, observant of those in company, respectful to 
 
222 HISTORY OF 
 
 the old, and of a temper cooi and deliberate. They are never in 
 haste to speak before they have thought well of the matter, and 
 are sure the person, who spoke before them, has finished all he has 
 to say. They have, therefore, the greatest contempt for the viva- 
 city of the Europeans, who interrupt each other, and frequently 
 speak all together. In their public councils and assemblies, every 
 man speaks in his turn, according as his years, his wisdom, or his 
 services to his country, have ranked him. Not a word, not a whis- 
 per, not a murmur is heard from the rest while he speaks ; no in- 
 decent condemnation, no ill-limed applause. The younger class 
 attend for their instruction, and here they learn the history of their 
 nation; here they are inflamed with the songs of those who cele- 
 brate the warlike actions of their ancestors ; and here they are 
 taught what are the interests of their country, and how to pursue 
 them. 
 
 Though the American Indian is naturally humane and hospitable, 
 yet, to the enemies of his country, or to those who have privately 
 offended him, he is implacable. He conceals his resentments, he 
 appears reconciled, till, by some treachery or surprise, he has an 
 opportunity of executing an horrible revenge. No length of time 
 is sufficient to allay his resentment, no distance of place great enough 
 to protect the object ; he crosses the steepest mountains, he 
 pierces the most impervious forests, and traverses the most hide- 
 ous bogs and deserts for some hundreds of miles, bearing the in- 
 clemency of the seasons, the fatigue of the expedition, the extremes 
 of hunger and thirst, with patience and cheerfulness, in hopes of 
 surprising his enemy, on whom he exercises the most shocking 
 barbarities. 
 
 The Americans have scarce any temples ; for, as they live by 
 hunting, inhabit mean cottages, and are given to change their habi- 
 tation, they are seldom very religious. Some appear to have little 
 ideas of God ; others entertain better notions, and hold the exis- 
 tence of the Supreme Being, eternal and uncorruptible, who has 
 power over all Satisfied with owning this, which is traditionary 
 among them, they pay him no sort of worship. 
 
 The darling passion of the Americans is liberty, and that in its 
 fullest extent : to liberty the native Indians sacrifice every thing. 
 This is what makes a life of uncertainly and want supportable to 
 them, and their education is directed in such a manner as to cherish 
 this disposition to the utmost. They are indulged in all manner of 
 liberty ; they are never, upon any account, chastised with t blows,and 
 very rarely even chidden. 
 
 Though some tribes are found in America with a king at their 
 head, yet his power is rather persuasive than coercive, and he is 
 reverenced as a father, more than feared as a monarch. He lias 
 no guards, no prisons, no officers of justice. In some tribes, there 
 is a kind of nobility, who, when they come to years of discretion, 
 are entitled to a place and vote in the councils of the nation. But 
 among the Five Nations, or Iroquois, the most celebrated com- 
 monwealth of North America, and in some other nations, there is 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 223 
 
 no other qualification absolutely necessary for the head-men, but 
 age, with ability and experience in their affairs. 
 
 Whenever any affair of consequence is to be transacted, they ap- 
 point a feast, of which almost the whole nation partakes. There 
 are smaller feasts on matters of less general concern, to which none 
 are invited but those who are engaged in that particular business^ 
 At these feasts it is against all rule to leave any thing ; so that, if 
 they cannot eat all, what remains is thrown into the fire. They 
 look upon fire as a thing sacred, and in all probability their feasts 
 were anciently sacrifices. Before the entertainment is ready, the 
 principal person begins a song, the subject of which is the fabulous 
 or real history of their nation, the remarkable events which have 
 happened, and whatever matters may conduce to their honour or 
 instruction The others sing in their turn. They have dances too, 
 with which they accompany their songs, chiefly of a martial kind j 
 and no solemnity or public businesss is carried on without such 
 songs and dances. 
 
 The charge of the internal peace and order is likewise committed 
 to the same council of their elders, which regulates whatever re- 
 gards the external policy of the state. Their suits are few, and 
 quickly decided, having neither property nor art enough to render 
 them perplexed or tedious. 
 
 The loss of any of their people, whether by war or a natural death, 
 is lamented by the whole town he belongs to. In such circum- 
 stances no business is taken in hand, however important, nor any 
 rejoicings permitted, however interesting the occasion, until all the 
 pious ceremonies due to the dead are performed, which are always 
 discharged with the greatest solemnity. The dead body is washed, 
 anointed, and painted, so as in some measure to abate the horrors 
 of death. Then the women lament the loss with the most bitter 
 cries, and the most hideous howlings, intermixed with songs, which 
 celebrate the great actions of the deceased, and those of his ances- 
 tors. The men mourn in a less extravagant manner. The whole 
 village attends the body to the grave, which is then interred, habit- 
 ed in their most sumptuous ornaments. With the body of the de- 
 ceased are placed his bow and arrows, with what he valued most in 
 his life, and provisions for the long journey-he is to take. Feasting 
 attends this, as it does every solemnity. 
 
 No instances of regard to their deceased friends are so striking 
 as what they call the Feast of the Dead, or the Feast of Souls. 
 The day of this ceremony is appointed in the council of their chiefs, 
 who give orders for every thing that may enable them to celebrate 
 it with pomp and magnificence. The neighbouring people are in- 
 vited to partake of the feast, and to be witnesses of the solemnity. 
 At this time, all who have died since the last solemn feast of that 
 kind are taken out of their graves ; those who have been interred at 
 the greatest distance from the villages are dilligently sought after, 
 and brought to this great rendezvous of sepulchral relics. 
 
224 HISTORY OF 
 
 The opening of these tombs displays one of the most striking' 
 scenes that can be conceived. This humiliating' portrait of human 
 miser}', exhibited in so many images of death, where in a thousand 
 various shapes of horror are depicied, according- l« the different ra- 
 vages that time lias made, forms altogether a scene too indelicate 
 to be here described. I know not which ought to affect us most, 
 the horror of so striking- a sight, or the tender piety and affection 
 of those poor people towards their departed friends. 
 
 This strange festival is the most magnificent and solemn of any 
 they have, not only on account of the great concourse of natives and 
 strangers, and of the pompous re-interment they give to the dead, 
 whom they dress in the finest skins they can get, after having ex- 
 posed them for some time in this pomp, but for the games of all 
 kinds which they celebrate upon the occason, in the spirit of those 
 which the ancient Greeks and Romans celebrated upon similar oc- 
 casions. In this manner do they endeavour to sooth the t calamities 
 of this life, by the honours they pay to the dead. Though among 
 these savage nations this custom is impressed with strong marks of 
 the ferocity of their nature-; yet an honour to the dead, a tender 
 feeling of their absence, and a revival of their memory, are some of 
 the most excellent means of softening our rugged nature into hu- 
 manity. 
 
 Though the -women in America have generally the laborious 
 part of economy upon themselves, yet they are far from being the 
 slaves they appear, and are not at all subject to the great subordi- 
 nation, in which they are placed in countries where they seem to be 
 Jnore respected. On the contrary, they hold their councils, and 
 lhave their share in all deliberations that concern the state ; nor ar6 
 they found inferior to the part they act. Polygamy is p-actised by 
 some nations, but it is not general. In most places, they content 
 themselves with one wife ; but a divorce is admitted, and for the same 
 causes that it was allowed among the Jews, Greeks^ and Romans. 
 No nation of the Americans is without a regular marriage, in which 
 there are many ceremonies. Incontinent before marriage, after 
 wedlock their women are remarkably chaste. The punishment of 
 the adulteress, as well as that of the adulterer, is in the hands of 
 the husband himself, and it is often severe, being inflicted by him 
 who is at once the party and the judge. Their marriages are not fruit- 
 ful, seldom producing above two or three children ; and hence we 
 may derive the principal cause of the depopulation of America. 
 
 The manner of their preparing for war, and their mode of carry- 
 ing it on, seem peculiar to themselves. Almost the sole occupa- 
 tion of the American Indian is war, or such an exercise as qualifies 
 him for it. His whole glory consists in this, and no man is at all 
 considered, until he has increased the strength of his country with 
 a captive, or adorned his hat with the scalp of one of his enemies. 
 When the Indians resolve upon war, they do not always declare 
 what nation it is they are determined to attack, that the enemy, 
 upon whom they really intend to fall, may be off their guard ; and 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 225 
 
 they sometimes even let whole years pass over without committing 
 any act of hostility, that the vigilance of all may be unbent by the 
 long continuance of the watch, and the uncertainty of the danger. 
 
 In the meau time, they are not idle at home. The principal cap- 
 tain summons the youths of the town to which he belongs, the war- 
 kettle is set on the fire, the war songs and dances commence, the 
 hatchet is sent to the villages and allies of the same nation, and the 
 most hideous howlings continue, without intermission, day and 
 night, over the whole tract of country. The women add their cries 
 to those of the men, lamenting those whom they have either lost in 
 war or by natural death, and demanding their places to be supplied 
 by their enemies. 
 
 The fury of the nation being thus raised to the greatest height, 
 and all longing to imbrue their hands in blood, the war-captain pre- 
 pares the feast, which consists of dog's flesh. All that partake of 
 this feast receive little billets, which are so many engagements they 
 take to be faithful to each other, and obedient to their commander. 
 None are forced to the war; but, when they have accepted tiiis bil- 
 let, they are looked upon as enlisted, and it is then death to recede. 
 All the warriors in this assembly have their faces blackened with 
 charcoal, intermixed with dashes and streaks of vei million, which 
 give them a most horrid appearance. Their hair is dressed up in 
 an odd manner, with feathers of various kinds. 
 
 In this assemby, which is preparatory to their military expedition, 
 the chief begins the war-song, which having continued for some 
 time, he raises his voice to the highest pitch, and turning off sudden- 
 ly in a sort of prayer, he addresses himself to the god of war, whom 
 they call Areskoni. " I invoke thee (says he) to be favourable to 
 my enterprise ! I invoke thy care of me and my family! I invoke 
 ye likewise, all ye spirits and demons good and evil ! all ye that are 
 in the skies, or on the earth, or under the earth, to pour destruction 
 on our enemies, and to return me and my companions safely to my 
 country !" All the warriors join him in his prayer with shouts and 
 acclamations. The captain renews his song, strikes his club 
 against the stakes of the cottage, and begins the war-dance, accom- 
 panied with the shouts of all his companions, which continue as 
 long as he dances. 
 
 On the day appointed for their departure, they take leave of their 
 friends, and change their clothes, or what moveables they have, in 
 token of friendship. Their wives and female relations go out be- 
 fore them, and attend at some distance from the town. The war- 
 riors march out all dressed in their finest apparel and most showy 
 ornaments, regularly one after another, for they never march in 
 rank. Their chief walks slowly on before them, singing the death- 
 song, while the rest preserve the most profound silence. When 
 they come up to the women, they deliver to them all their tinery, 
 put on their worst clothes, and then proceed as their commander 
 directs. 
 
 The Indians seldom engage in a war upon motives common to 
 Europe : they have no other end but the glory of victory, or the 
 
226 HISTORY Of 
 
 benefit of their slaves, which it enables them to add to their nation, 
 or sacrifice to their brutal fury ; and it is very seldom, that they 
 take any pains to give their wars even a colour of justice. They 
 fall sometimes on one nation, and sometimes on another, and sur- 
 pise some of their hunters, whom they scalp and bring home as 
 prisoners. Their senators wink, at this, or rather encourage it, as 
 it tends to keep up the martial spirit of the people, inures them to 
 watchfulness and hardships, and gives them an early taste for blood. 
 The qualities of an Indian war are vigilance and attention, and to 
 give and avoid a surprise ; and patience and strength to endure the 
 intolerable fatigues and hardships which always attend it. 
 
 They often enter a village, while the strength of the nation is em- 
 ployed in hunting, and massacre all the helpless old men, women, 
 and children, or make prisoners of as many as they can manage, op 
 have strength enough to be useful to their nation. They often cut 
 offsmall parties of men in their huntings; but when they discover 
 an army of their enemies, their way is to throw themselves flat on 
 their faces among the withered leaves, the colour of which their 
 bodies are painted exactly to resemble. They generally let a part 
 pass unmolested, and then, rising a little, they take aim, being ex- 
 cellent marksmen, and setting up a tremendous shout, which they 
 call the war-cry, they pour a storm of musket bullets on the enemy, 
 having long since laid aside the use of arrows. The party attacked 
 returns the same cry. Every man in haste retires behind a tree, 
 returns the fire of the adverse party, as soon as they raise them- 
 selves from the ground to give the second discharge. 
 
 Having fought some time in this manner, the party which thinks 
 it has the advantage rushes out of its cover, with small axes in their 
 hands, which they dart with great address and dexterity. They 
 redouble their cry, intimidate their enemy with menaces, and en- 
 courage each other with a boastful display of their own brave ac- 
 tions. Thus, being come hand to hand, the contest is soon decided, 
 and the conquerors satiate their savage fury with the most shocking 
 insults and barbarities to the dead, biting their Mesh, tearing their 
 scalps from their heads, and wallowing in their blood, like the wild 
 beasts of the forests, 
 
 The fate of their prisoners is indeed miserable. During the 
 greater part of their journey homewards they suffer no injury; but 
 when they arrive at the territories of the conquering state, or at 
 those of their allies, the people from every village meet them, and 
 think they shew their attachment to their friends by the barbarous 
 treatment of the unhappy victims ; who on their arrival at their des- 
 tined station, generally bring with them marks of the most cruei 
 and merciless treatment. 
 
 The conquerors enter the town in triumph ; the war captain 
 waits upon the head-men, and in a low voice gives them a circum- 
 stantial account of every particular of the expedition, of the dam- 
 ages the ene;ny has suffered, and his own loss in it. This being 
 done, the public orator relates the whole to the people. Before 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 227 
 
 they yield to the joy which the victory occasions, they lament the 
 friends they have lost in the pursuit of it. The parties most nearly 
 concerned are apparently afflicted with a deep and real sorrow ; 
 but, by one of those strange turns of the human mind, fashioned to 
 any thing- by custom, as if they were disciplined in their grief, upon 
 the signal for rejoicing, in a moment the tears are wiped from their 
 eyes, and they rush into an extravagance and phrensy of joy for 
 their victory. All this time, the fate of the prisoners remains unde- 
 cided, until the old men meet, and determine concerning their dis- 
 tribution. 
 
 It is usual to offer a slave to each house that has lost a friend, 
 giving the preference according to the greatness of the loss. The 
 person who has taken the captive attends him to the door of the 
 party's cottage, where he delivers him, and with him gives a belt 
 of wampum, to shew that he has fulfilled the purpose of the expe- 
 dition, in supplying the loss of a citizen. They for some time view 
 the present that is made them, and according as they think him ot- 
 her, for the sex matters not, proper or improper for the business of 
 the family, or as they take a capricious liking or displeasure to the 
 countenance of tiie victim, or in proportion to their natural barbari- 
 ty, or their resentment for their losses, they decide whether they 
 will receive him into the family, or sentence him to death. If he be 
 received into the family, happy is his lot, as he is then accepted 
 into the -place of father, son, or husband that is lost; and he has 
 no other mark of his captivity, but that of not being suffered to re- 
 turn to his own country, to attempt which would be certain death. 
 On the contrary, if they dislike the captive, they tbrow away the 
 belt with indignation. Then it is no longer in the power of any one 
 to save him, the nation is assembled as upon some great solemnity, 
 a scaffold is raised, and the prisoner tied to the stake. He instant- 
 ly begins his death-song, and prepares for the ensuing scene of 
 cruelty with the most undaunted courage. On the otherside, they 
 prepare to put it to the utmost proof, with every torment that the 
 mind of man ingenious in mischief can devise. 
 
 It would be too shocking for the ear of our youthful readers to 
 be told what inhuman tortures are inflicted on him, till at last, one 
 of the chiefs, out of compassion, or weary with cruelty, generally 
 puts an end to his life with a club or dagger. The body is then 
 ptR into a kettle, and this barbarous employment is succeeded by 
 a feast equally inhuman. 
 
 On this occasion, the women, forgetting their female nature, and 
 transferring themselves into something worse than furie3, act their 
 part, and even outdo the men in this scene of horror. The prin- 
 cipal persons of the country sit round the stake smoking, and look- 
 ing on without the least emotion. What is most extraordinary, 
 the sufferer himself, in the little intervals of his torments, smokes 
 also, appears unconcerned, and converses with his torturers about 
 indifferent matters. Indeed, during the whole time of his execution 
 there seems a contest between him and them, which shall exceed, 
 20 
 
228 HISTORY OF 
 
 Ihey in inflicting the most horrid pains, or lie in enduring them with 
 a firmess and constancy almost above human. Not a groan, not a 
 sigh, not a distortion of countenance, escapes him ; he possesses his 
 mind entirely in tha midst of his torments ; lie recounts his own ex- 
 ploits, informs them what cruelties he had inflicted upon their coun- 
 trymen, and threatens them with the revenge that will attend his 
 death ; and though his reproaches exasperate them to a perfect state 
 of madness, rage, and fury, he continues his reproaches even of their 
 ignorance in the art of tormenting, pointing out himself more exqui- 
 site methods, and more sensible parts ofthe body to be afflicted. 
 
 We do not dwell upon these circumstances of cruelty, which so 
 much degrade human nature, out of choice ; but as all, who men- 
 tion the customs of this people, have very particularly insisted upon 
 their behaviour in this respect, and as it seems necessary, in order 
 to give a true idea of their character, we do not choose wholly to 
 omit it. It serves to show, in the strongest light, to what an incon- 
 ceivable degree of barbarity the passions of men let loose will carry 
 them. It will point out to us the advantages of a religion that 
 teaches a compassion to our enemies, which is neither known nor 
 practised in other religions ; and it will make us more sensible, 
 than some appear to be, ofthe value of commerce, the benefits of a 
 civilized life, and the lights derived from literature, which, if they 
 have abated the force of some ofthe natural virtues by the luxuries 
 •which attend them, have taken out likewise the sting of our natural 
 vices, and softened the ferocity ofthe human race, without enervat- 
 ing their courage. On the other hand, the constancy of the suffer- 
 ers in this trying scene, shows the wonderful powers of an early in- 
 stitution, and a ferocious thirst of glory, which makes men imitate 
 and exceed what philosophy, and even rsligion, do not produce. 
 
 Having thus taken a cursory view ofthe customs and manners of 
 the original natives of North America, we shall now proceed to give 
 an account of the first settlement of the British colonies, and show 
 from what small beginnings time has raised them to one immense 
 republick, under the title of the United and Independent States of 
 America. In order to accomplish this matter, we shall give a 
 general history ofthe late war, which ended in the loss of thirteen 
 British American colonies. The different sieges and battles that 
 took place during that period, we shall describe as copiously as our 
 narrow limits will permit us. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 g E VERAt ofthe most zealous and eminent protectants, in the 
 reign of Edward VI. opposed the popish ceremonies and habits, 
 though otherwise? united to their brethren in religious tenets. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 229 
 
 Hundreds of them fled into foreign parts to avoid persecution, where 
 they connected themselves with protestanls of other nations, who 
 were equally arduous for a reformation. 
 
 Upon the accession of queen Elizabeth, in 1558, the refugees re- 
 turned to England, loaded with experience and learning, but \j\ the 
 utmost distress and poverty. Those of the clergy, who could com- 
 ply with the queen's establishment, were quickly preferred ; but the 
 rest, after being permitted to preach awhile, were supended and re- 
 duced to their former indigence. 
 
 The clergy and laity, who wished for greater ecclesiastical purity, 
 struggled hard for the abolishment of popish ceremonies and ha- 
 bits, or at least, leaving the use of them indifferent in divine service, 
 by which, they obtained nothing but the honourable nick-name of 
 PURITANS Queen Elizabeth had enough of the blood of Henry 
 the eighth, to make her impatient of any opposition to her will, 
 especially in matters of religion, in which she had a high opinion 
 of her own knowledge; and, during her whole reign, she kept 
 down the puritans with an uniform and inflexible severity. The 
 merits, however, of their sufferings, the affected plainness of their 
 dress, the gravity of their deportment, and the use of scripture 
 phrases on the most ordinary occasions, and even their names, which 
 had in them something 1 striking and venerable, as being borrowed 
 from the Old Testament, gained them a general esteem among 
 sober people of ordinary understandings. 
 
 When king James came to the throne, he had a very fair opportu- 
 nity of pacifying matters, or, at least, he might have left them in 
 the condition he found them. On the contrary, he suffered the pu- 
 ritans to be persecuted, but not destroyed ; they were exasperateu, 
 and yet left powerful ; and the tlren ministry, like those who Lately 
 lost us our colonies, exposed iheir own weakness, ignorance and 
 baseness, by an ill-timed severity. 
 
 In this state matters remained, until the accession of Charles the 
 first, when they were far from being mended. This prince, en- 
 dowed with some virtues, had very few amiable qualities. As grave 
 as the puritans themselves, he could never engage the licentious 
 part of the world in his favour ; and that gravity being turned 
 against the puritans, made him more odious to them. He gave 
 himselfup entirely to the church and churchmen, and he finished 
 his ill conduct, in this respect, by conferring the first ecclesiastical 
 dignity of the kingdom, and a great sway in temporal affairs upon 
 Dr. Laud, who, hardly fit to direct a college, was entrusted with 
 the government of an empire. 
 
 The puritans considered the most dreary realms, and the most 
 unfrequented regions, where they could enjoy liberty of conscience, 
 as superior to the mos^t splendid palaces, where they were to be 
 governed by Laud. In consequence of these disafiections, a little 
 colony sailed from England, and established itself at a place called 
 New Plymouth, on the continent of America. This happened in 1620. 
 
 They were but few in number, they landed in a bad season, and 
 were supplied only from their private funds. The winter was pre • 
 
230 HISTORY OF 
 
 mature, and extremely cold. v The country was every where cover- 
 ed wiih wood, and afforded very little for the refreshment of persons 
 sickly wiih such a\eyage, or even for the sus'enance of an infant 
 people. Nearly half of them perished by the scurvy, by want, and 
 the severity of the climate : but those who survived, not dispirited 
 with their losses, nor wih the hardships they were still to endure, 
 supported by the vigour which was then the character of English- 
 men, and by the satisfaction of finding themselves out of the reach 
 of the spiritual arm, were enabled to procure in this savage country 
 a tolerable livelihood, and by degrees a comfortable subsistence for 
 themselves and their families 
 
 The people of New Plymouth, having cleared the way for other 
 sufferers to settle in America, with less difficulty and danger than 
 what they had experienced; the fame of their plantation spreading 
 through the western part of England, and the government in church 
 and state growing every day more oppressive, the territory of the 
 Massachusetts Bay w as purchased of the Plymouth council, in 1628, 
 and a company soon formed, who consulted on settling a plantation, 
 to which non-conforming puritans might emigrate in order to enjoy 
 their own principles in full security. 
 
 In 1630, a large company arrived at Salem, consisting of more 
 than fifteen hundred persons, from different counties in England. 
 From the beginning of the coiony, until the emigration ceased, in 
 1640, through a change of affairs in England, there arrived, in 
 298 vessels, about 2i 5 2U0 settlers, men, women, and children, or 
 four thousand families. 
 
 They did not, however, ail confine themselves to this colony: 
 several families removed to Connecticut river, by mutual agree- 
 ment with their fellow ■ m. grants, who remained behind. Planta- 
 tions were formed at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. The 
 inhabitants being soon after fully satisfied, that they were out of 
 the Massachusetts limits, and of course its jurisdiction, entered 
 into a combination aftwuig themselves, became a body politic, 
 without restraining the freedom of their civil government to the 
 membershn of their churches, and proceeded to the choice of 
 magistrates and representatives. 
 
 Two large ships arrived at Massachusetts Bay, in 1637, with 
 passengers from London. Great pans were taken to prevail upon 
 them to remain in the colony; but they hoped, by removing to a 
 considerable distance, to be out of the reach of a general governor, 
 with whom the country was then threatened They sent to their 
 friends in Connecticut :o purchase of the natives the lands lying 
 between them and Hudson's river. They then laid the foundation 
 of a flourishing colony, of which New Haven was the capital. 
 Connecticut and New Haven continued two distinct colonies for 
 many years. At length, the general court of Connecticut deter- 
 mined to prefer an address and petition to Charles the second, 
 professing their subjection and loyalty to his m.vjesty, and soliciting 
 a royal charter; and John Winthrop, Esq who had been chosen 
 governor, was appointed to negotiate the affair with the king. He 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 231 
 
 succeeded, and a royal charter was obtained, constituting the two 
 colonies for ever one body corporate and politic. 
 
 Mr. Roger Williams, a pastor of the church of Salem, being ban- 
 ished from Massachusetts, on account of some religious disputes, 
 went to the Narraganset country, accompanied with twelve com- 
 panions, and had land given him by the Indian sachem Canonicus ; 
 of whom he afterwards purchased the large tract, lying between 
 Pawtucket and Pawtuxet rivers, (the great falls and the little falls, 
 as the Indian name signify) and styled it Providence, from a sense of 
 God's merciful providence to him in his distress. 
 
 The authority and power of Miantonimoh, another sachem, and 
 his uncle Canonicus, awed all the Indians round to assist him and 
 his few associates. When the determinations of the Massachusetts 
 general court, occasioned by what they called antinomian disputes, 
 banished many, and induced others to leave the colony, the heads 
 of the party were entertained in a friendly manner by Mr. Williams, 
 who advised them to seek a settlement on Rhode Island, in the 
 year 1638, and was very instrumental in procuring it of the Indian 
 sachems. 
 
 New Hampshire and Maine were settled about the same time 
 with Massachusetts, by different proprietors, who had obtained 
 patents, and whose views were to enrich themselves by the fishing 
 trade at sea, and the beaver trade ashore. 
 
 The colony of New York demands our next attention. The Dutch 
 had settled it, and named it the New Netherlands. Charles the 
 -Second resolved upon its conquest in 1664 : and in March granted 
 to his brother, the Duke of York, the region extending from the 
 western bank of the Connecticut to the eastern shore of the Dela- 
 ware, together with Long Island, conferring on him the civil and 
 military powers of government. Col. Nicolls was sent with four 
 frigates and three hundred soldiers, to effect the business. The 
 Dutch governor being unable to make resistance, the New Nether- 
 lands submitted to the English crown, in September, without any 
 other change than of rulers. Few of the the Dutch removed, and 
 Nicolls instantly entered upon the exercise of his power, as deputy- 
 governor for the duke of York, the proprietary. 
 
 About the same time, 1664, New Jersey, which was also taken 
 from the Dutch, who were considered as having no right to any of 
 their settlements in these parts of America, were included in the 
 grant to the duke of York. The Duke disposed of it to lord Berke- 
 ley and Sir George Carteret, who, being sole proprietors, for the 
 better settlement of it, agreed upon certain constitutions of govern- 
 ment, so well liked, that the eastern parts were soon considerably 
 peopled. 
 
 Virginia was the original name of all the English.North American 
 continental claims, given in honour to the virgin queen Elizabeth. 
 &ing James, being applied to, granted letters patent to a body of 
 gentlemen, on the 6th of April, 1606, with powers to divide them- 
 selves into two distinct companies, the one consisting of London ad- 
 20* 
 
239 HISTORY OF 
 
 venturers, called the first, or southern colony of Virginia ; the se- 
 cond, or northern colony, composed of merchants, belonging to 
 Bristol, Plymouth, and Exeter. The territory granted to the first, 
 or southern colony, was generally called Virginia, without any dis- 
 tinguishing epithet, and retained that name after the second, or 
 northern colony, obtained the name of New England in 1614. 
 
 We come next to speak of Maryland. The first emigration to 
 this part of America consisted of two hundred gentlemen of con- 
 siderable fortune and rank, with their adherents, chiefly Roman 
 Catholics, who hoped to enjoy liberty of conscience under a pro- 
 prietary of their own profession. They sailed from England in 
 November, and landed in Maryland the beginning of 1633. Gov. 
 Calvert, brother to lord Baltimore, very wisely and justly purchas- 
 ed by presents of various goods, the rights of the Indians, and with 
 their free consent took possession of their town, which he called 
 St. Mary's The country was settled with so much ease, and 
 furnished with so many conveniences, that emigrants repaired 
 thither in such numbers as soon to render the colony populous and 
 flourishing. 
 
 Carolina follows Maryland in the order of existence. A few ad- 
 venturers emigrated from Massachusetts, and settled round Cape 
 Fear, about the time of the Restoration. They considered mere 
 occupancy, with a transfer from the natives, without any grant from 
 the king, as a good title to the lands they possessed. They deem- 
 ed themselves entitled to the same civil privileges as those of the 
 country from whence they had emigrated. For years they experi- 
 enced the complicated miseries of want. They solicited the aid of 
 their countrymen, and the general court of Massachusetts, with an 
 attention and humanity which did it the greatest honour, ordered an 
 extensive contribution for their relief. 
 
 The final settlement of the province was effected equally through 
 the rapacity of the courtiers of Charles the second, and his own 
 facility in rewarding those, to whom he was greatly indebted, with 
 a liberality that cost him little. The pretence, which had been 
 used on former occasions, of a pious zeal for the propagation of the 
 gospel among the Indians, was successively employed to procure a 
 grant of the immense region, lying between the 36th degree of 
 North latitude, and the river of St. Matheo, under the 31st degree. 
 In March 1663, this territory was erected into a province by the 
 name of Carolina, and conferred on lord Clarendon, the duke of 
 Albemarle, lord Craven, lord Berkeley, lord Ashley, Sir George 
 Carteret, Sir John Colleton, and Sir William Berkeley, as abso- 
 lute lord proprietaries, for ever, saving the allegiance due to the 
 crown. 
 
 Pennsylvania and the Delaware counties next demand our atten- 
 tion. Mr. William Penn, one of the joint purchasers of the western 
 part of the Jerseys, having received the most exact information of 
 the country to the.westward of the Delaware, while engaged in the 
 administration of (lie joint purchase, became desirous of acquiring a 
 separate estate. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 233 
 
 He presented a petition to Charles the second in June, 1680, stat- 
 ing not only h'S relationship to the late admiral, but that he was de- 
 prived of a debt due from the crown, when vhe Exchequer was shut. 
 He prayed for a grant cflands, lying to the northward of Maryland, 
 and westward or the Delaware ; and added, that by his interest, he 
 should be abie to settle a province, which might in time, repay his 
 claims Having a prospect of success, he copied from the charter 
 of Maryland, the sketch of a patent, which in November was laid 
 before the attorney-general for his opinion 
 
 Penn had the same object in view as lord Baltimore had, the 
 guarding against the exeitiuns of prerogative, which experience had 
 taught both were very inconvenient. The attorney-general declar- 
 ed the cause of exemption from taxation illegal; and chief justice 
 North being of the same opinion, and observing its tendency, added 
 the saving of the authority of the English parliament; so that it 
 was stipulated by the king, for himsuif and his successors, that " no 
 custom or other contribution shall be laid on the inhabitants or their 
 estates, unless by the consent of the proprietary, or governor and 
 assembly, or by act of parliament in England." 
 
 The next year, 1681, the patent was granted, in consideration of 
 "the merits of the father, and the good purposes of the son, in 
 order to extend the English empire, and to promote useful com- 
 modities " It was provided by fit clauses, that the sovereignly of 
 the king should be preserved, and that acts of parliament, concern- 
 ing trade, navigation, and the customs be duly observed. Penn 
 was empowered to assemble the freemen, or their delegates, in such 
 a form as he should think proper for raising money for the use of 
 the colony, and for making useful laws, not contrary to those of 
 England, or the rights of the kingdom. A duplicate of the acts of 
 the assembly was to be transmitted within five years, to the king in 
 council, and the acts might be declared void within six months, if 
 not approved. 
 
 It now remains only to give a concise account of the settlement 
 of Georgia. 
 
 In 1732, a number of gentlemen considering the vast benefit that 
 might arise from the tract of land, lying between the Savannah and 
 the river Alatamaha, petitioned the king for a charter, which was 
 accordingly granted in June. They meant, that the country should 
 be made a bulwark for the southern colonies against the Spaniards, 
 and should give employment to numbers of people, who were bur- 
 densome at home to their friends and parishes. 
 
 Towards the end of August, Sir Gilbert Heathcote recommended 
 in the strongest terms, to the directors of the Bank, the interest of 
 the colony. His speech had the desired effect, and the members 
 of the court after Ins example, contributed largely towards the un- 
 dertaking, as did great numbers of the nobility, gentry, clergy and 
 others ; and the parliament granted 10,0001. By the beginning of 
 November, about one hundred and sixteen colonists presented them- 
 selves, most of them labouring people, and were furnished with 
 working tools of all kinds, stores, and small arms. 
 
234 HISTORY OF 
 
 Mr. Oglethorpe, one of the trustees, generously attended tiie first 
 set of emigrants to Carolina, where they arrived in good health if? 
 January, 1733. The Carolinians made them a present of one hun- 
 dred breeding cattle, besides hogs, and twenty barrels of rice ; and 
 furnished them with a party of horse, and with scout boats, by the 
 help of which they reached the Savannah, where Mr. Oglethorpe, 
 ten miles up the river, pitched upon a spot for a town, and in Feb- 
 ruary the building of the firsf house commenced. 
 
 Mr. Oglethorpe was waited upon by a numerous deputation from 
 the Lower Creek nation, with whom he concluded a treaty, and soon 
 after set out for Charleston on his reiurn to England, bringing with 
 him several chiefs and a war captain. Before the end of March, 
 1734, more emigrants, to the amount of six hundred, were either 
 sent over by chanty, or went at their own expense. 
 
 In October, the Indians embarked for their own country, having 
 had an allowance, while in London, of twenty pounds a week, of 
 which they spent little, as they commonly ate and drank at the table 
 of persons of the highest distinction. They embarked at Graves- 
 end, in a ship which carried over a number of Saltz burghers, being 
 German protestants, who, with others of their countrymen that fol- 
 lowed, settled on the Savannah, a town they called Ebenezer, and 
 which, by their habits of industry and sobriety, soon became con- 
 siderable. 
 
 The Georgians made a surprising progress in clearing their lands, 
 and building their houses ; and, as an encouragement, the British 
 parliament granted them a supply of 26,0001. which, with very great 
 private donations, were expended upon strengthening the southern 
 part of Georgia. 
 
 Thus have we given a succinct account of the first establishment 
 of the British colonies in North America. By what unhappy means 
 they at last became separated from the mother country, will be 
 clearly shown in the subsequent part of this history. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER 
 
 1606 First settlement made at Virginia. 
 
 1620 Settlement at New Plymouth, 
 
 1628 New Hampshire and Maine settled. 
 
 1628 Puritans purchase and settle Massachusetts Bay. 
 
 1633 Settlement at Maryland. 
 
 1635 Connecticut settled. 
 
 1636 Providence settled. 
 
 1637 New Haven settled. 
 
 1638 Settlement of Rhode Island. t 
 
 1663 Carolina settled. 
 
 1664 New York and New Jersey settled. 
 
 1681 Pennslyoania and Delaware counties settled. 
 
 1733 Georgia settled. \ 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 235 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The narrow limits prescribed to us in this epitome, will not per- 
 mit us to enter into a copious detail of all the minute concerns of 
 the colonies, which may be found in more voluminous works, and 
 there read by those, who have leisure and inclination to pursue so 
 dry a study. We shall therefore proceed to describe only events of 
 some consequence. 
 
 News being received in Massachusetts of war being 1 declared 
 against France and Spain, the general court, then sitting, made im- 
 mediate provision for raising forces for Annapolis in Nova Scoiia. 
 
 Towards the end of the month of April, 1745, Commodore War- 
 ren arrived from the West Indies, with a sixty-gun ship, and two of 
 forty. He was soon after joined by another of forty, which had 
 reached Canso a short time before. The men of war sailed imme- 
 diately to cruise before Louisbourg. The forces soon followed, and 
 landed at Chapeaurouge Bay the last day of April. The transports 
 were discovered from the town early in the morning, which gave 
 the inhabitants the first knowledge of the design. 
 
 The second day after landing, four hundred men marched round, 
 behind the hills, to the northeast harbour, where they got about 
 midnight, and set fire to all the dwellings and storehouses, till they 
 came within a mile of the grand battery. The clouds of thick 
 smoke, proceeding from the pitch, tar, and other combustibles, 
 prevented the garrison's discovering the enemy, though they were 
 but at a short distance. 
 
 They expected the body of the army upon them, and therefore 
 deserted the fort, having thrown their powder into a well ; but the 
 cannon and shot were left, which proved of great service to the be- 
 siegers. The army had near two miles to transport their canon, 
 mortars, &c. through a morass, which required great labour to 
 accomplish. The men were yoked together, and, during the night, 
 made great advances. 
 
 While the forces were busily employed on shore, the men of war, 
 and other vessels were cruising off the harbour, as often as the 
 weather would permit. On the 18th of May, they captured a 
 French sixty-four gun ship, having five hundred and sixty men on 
 board, and stores of all sorts for the garrison. 
 
 It was given out, that an attack would be made by sea with the 
 ships, on the eighteenth, while the army did the like by land. 
 Whether a general storm was really intended or not, the French 
 appeared to expect it, from the preparations making on board the 
 men of war, and seemed not inclined to attempt to withstand it. 
 
 On the fifteenth, a flag of truce was sent to the general, desiring 
 a cessation of hostilities, that they might consider of articles for 
 a capitulation. Time was il'owed, hot their articles were reject- 
 ed by the general and commodore, and others offered, which were 
 
236 HISTORY OF 
 
 accepted by the French, and hostages given on both sides. The 
 town was in consequence.delivered up on the seventeenth. As this 
 was a time, when vossels were expected from all parts at Louis- 
 bourg, the French flag was kept flying as a decoy. Two East-ln- 
 diamen, and one South-Sea ship, of the value of 600,0' 01 sterling, 
 were taken by the squadron, at the mouth of the harbour, into 
 which they sailed as usual, not knowing that the place had been 
 taken by the English. 
 
 The French having been very troublesome in the back settlements 
 of our colonies, it was concluded to take effectual methods to drive 
 them from the Ohio. The reduction of Niagara, Crown Point, and 
 their forts in Nova Scotia, were also resolved on. Gen. Bradd<>ck was 
 accordingly sent from Ireland to Virginia, with two regiments of 
 foot ; and on his arrival, when joined by the rest of the forces des- 
 tined for that service, he found himself at the head of 2,200 men. 
 He had bravery, but wanted other qualifications to render him fit 
 for the service to which he was appointed. The severity of his dis- 
 cipline made him unpopular among the regulars, and his haughti- 
 ness deprived him of the esteem of the Americans. His pride dis- 
 gusted the Indians, and led him to despise the country militia, and 
 to slight the advice of the Virginian officers. 
 
 Colonel Washington earnestly begged of him, when the army was 
 marching to fort Du Que6ne, to admit of his going before, and 
 scouring the woods with his rangers, which was contemptuously re- 
 fused. The general had been cautioned by the Duke of Cumber- 
 iand to guard against a surprise, and yet lie pushed on heedlessly 
 with the first division, consisting of 1200 men, till he fell into an am- 
 buscade of 400, chiefly Indians, by whom he was defeated and mor- 
 tally wounded, on the ninth of July, 1755. 
 
 The regulars were put to the greatest panic, and fled in the ut- 
 most confusion; but the militia had been used to Indian fighting, and 
 were not so terrified. The general had disdainfully turned them in- 
 to the rear, where they continued in a body unbroken, and served 
 under colonel Washington as a most useful rear-guard, which co- 
 vered the retreat of the regulars, and prevented their being entire- 
 ly cut to pieces. 
 
 Previous to this, and agreeable to the views of the British minis- 
 try, the Massachusetts assembly raised a body of troops, which 
 were sent to Nova Scotia, to assist lieutenant governor Lawrence 
 in driving the French from their several encroachments within that 
 province 
 
 The expedition against Niagara was entrusted to governor Shir- 
 ley, but failed through various causes. 
 
 Sir William, then colonel, Johnson, was appointed to go against 
 Crown Point. The delays, slowness, and deficiency of preparation, 
 prevented the several colonies joining their troops till about August. 
 In the mean time, the active enemy had transported forces from 
 France to Canada, marched them clown to meet the provincials, and 
 attacked them ; but, meeting with a repulse, lost six hundred men 
 besides having their general baron Dieskau wounded and made 
 prisoner 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 237 
 
 The next year Massachusetts raised a great armament to go 
 against Crown Point; but lord Loudon, on his arrival, did not think 
 it proper that the forces should proceed, owing to a temporary mis- 
 understanding between his lordship and the general court. 
 
 In the yeas 1758, happily for the British nation, the great Mr. Pitt 
 was placed at the head of the ministry, when the face of affairs was 
 soon changed, < he war was prosecuted with unexampled success, 
 and the enemy was at length driven out of America. 
 
 Mf. Israel Mauduit, the Massachusetts agent, in 1763, gave early 
 notice of the ministerial intentions to tax the colonies ; but the ge- 
 neral court not being called together till the latter end of the year, 
 instructions to the agent, though solicited by him, could not be sent 
 in proper time. 
 
 The next year however, 1764, ihe house of representatives came 
 to the following resolutions: "That the sole right of giving and 
 granting the money of the people of that province, was vested in 
 them as their legal representatives; and that the imposition of r?u- 
 ties and taxes by the parliament of Great Britain, upon a people 
 who are not represented in the House of Commons, is absolutely ir- 
 reconcileable with their rights." — " That no man can justly take the 
 property of another without his consent ; upon which original prin- 
 ciple, the right of representation in the same body, which exercises 
 the power of making laws for levying taxes, one of the main pillars 
 of the British constitution is evidently founded." 
 
 These resolutions were occasioned by intelligence of what had 
 been done in the British House -of Commons. It had been there de- 
 bated in March, whetherthey had a right to tax the Americans, they 
 not being represented, and determined unanimously in the affirma- 
 tive. Not a single person present ventured to controvert the right. 
 
 Afier various propositions for taxing the colonies, Mr. Grenville's 
 intended stamp act was communicated to the American agents. 
 Many of them did not oppose it, half their number being placemen 
 or dependents on the ministry. Mr. Joseph Sherwood, an honest 
 Quaker, agent for Rhode Island, refused his consent to America's 
 being taxed by a British Parliament. Mr. Mauduit, the Massachu- 
 setts agent, favoured the raising of the wanted money by a stamp 
 duty, as it would occasion less expense of officers, and would in- 
 clude the West India Islands. The scheme, however, was postpon- 
 ed, and the agents authorized to inform the American assemblies, 
 that they were at liberty to suggest any other ways of raising mo- 
 neys, and that Mr. Grenville was ready to receive proposals for any 
 other tax that might be equivalent in its produce to the stamp-tax. 
 The colonies seemed to consider it as an affront, rather than as a 
 compliment. The minister would not be content with any thing 
 short of a certain specific sum, and proper funds for the payment of 
 it. Had not the sums been answerable to his wishes, he would have 
 rejected them ; and he would scarcely have been satisfied with less 
 than 300,0001. per annum, which was judged absolutely necessary 
 to defray the whole expense of the army proposed fvr the defence of 
 America. 
 
238 HISTORY OF 
 
 No satisfactory proposals being- made on the side of the Ameri- 
 cans, Mr. Grenville adhered to his purpose of bringing forward the 
 stamp-bill, though repeatedly pressed by some of his friends to de- 
 sist. Richard Jackson, esq. had been chosen agent for the Massachu- 
 setts, who, with Mr. Franklin, and others, lately come from Phila- 
 delphia, waited on Mr. Grenville, in February, 1765, to remonstrate 
 against the stamp-bill, and to propose, that, in case any tax must 
 be laid upon America, the several colonies might be permitted to 
 lay the tax themselves. Mr. Grenville, however, adhered to his 
 own opinions, and said, that he had pledged his word for offering 
 the stamp-bill to the house, and that the house would hear their 
 objections. 
 
 The bill was accordingly brought in, and in March, the same 
 year, received the royal assent. The framers of the stamp-act 
 flattered themselves, that the confusion which would arise from 
 the disuse of writings, would compel the colonies to use stamp- 
 paper, and therefore to pay the taxes imposed. Thus they were led 
 to pronounce it a law which would execute itself. 
 
 Mr. Grenville, however, was not without his apprehensions, that 
 it might occasion disorders ; to prevent or suppress which, he 
 projected another bdl, which was brought in the same session,where- 
 by it was made lawful for military officers in the colonies to quarter 
 their soldiers in private houses. This seemed intended to awe the 
 people into a compliance with the other act. Great opposition be- 
 ing made to it, as under such a power in the army, no one could 
 look on his house as his own, that part of the bill was dropt ; but 
 there si ill remained a clause, when it passed into a law, to oblige 
 the several assemblies to provide quarters for the soldiers, and to 
 furnish them with firing, bedding, candles, small beer, rum, and 
 sundry other articles, at the expense of the several provinces. This 
 clause continued in force after the stamp-act was repealed. 
 
 These proceedings of the mother country gave rise to great dis- 
 turbances in America. Some persons of consequence at Boston, to 
 manifest their abhorrence and detestation of a party in England, who 
 they supposed were endeavouring to subvert the British constitu- 
 tion, to enslave the colonies, and to alienate the affections of his 
 majesty's most faithful subjects in America, early in the morning of 
 the 14th of August, hung upon the limb of a large dead elm, near 
 the entrance of Boston, in one of the most public stree's, two effi- 
 gies. One of them, as appeared by the labels affixed thereto, was 
 intended to represent the stamp-nfficer; the other was a jack-boot, 
 with a head and horns peeping out of the top. 
 
 The report of tins novelty drew great numbers from every part 
 of «he town and neighbouring country. This affair was left to take 
 its own course, so that an enthusiastic spirit diffused itself into the 
 minds of the spectators. In the evening, the figures were cut down, 
 and carried in funeral procession, the populace shouting, Liberty and 
 property for ever ! No stamps, &c. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 239 
 
 They then went to a new building, erected by Mr. Oliver, which 
 they pulled down, falsely supposing it to be designed for the stamp 
 office. As soon as they "approached Mr. Oliver's house, they be- 
 headed the effigy, at the same time breaking all his windows, and 
 demolished his gardens, fences, barns, and every thing else that 
 came in their way. 
 
 The next day, Mr Oliver, fearful of what might happen, de- 
 clared that he had written to England and resigned. The mob 
 assembled again at night : and, after some expressions of joy fop 
 the resignation, proceeded to the lieutenant governor's, Mr. Hutch- 
 inson's house, which they besieged for an hour, but in vain ; insist- 
 ing repeatedly upon knowing, whether he had not written in favour 
 of the stamp-act. 
 
 These disorders grew every day more enormous and alarming. 
 Mobs once raised, soon become ungovernable by new and large 
 accessions, and extend their intentions far beyond those of the 
 original instigators. Crafty men may intermix with them, when 
 they are much heated, and direct their operations very differently 
 from what was at first designed. 
 
 People in England were differently affected by the disturbances 
 in the colonies. Some were for supporting the authority of parlia- 
 ment at all events, and for enforcing the stamp-act, if needful, with 
 the point of the sword; while others were for quieting the colonies 
 by the repeal of it. Happily for them, Mr, Grenville and his party 
 were thrown out of place, and were succeeded hy the marquis of 
 Rockingham, when, on 22d of February, 1766, this obnoxious act 
 was repealed. 
 
 In May, 1767, Mr. Charles Townsend, then chancellor of the 
 exchequer, moved the House of Commons for leave to bring in 
 bills for granting a duty upon paper, glas3, painter's colours, &.c. in 
 the British American colonies ; for settling salaries on the governors, 
 f judges, Sec. in North America; and for taking off the duties on 
 teas exported to America, and granting a duty of three pence a 
 pound on the importation in America. Two bills were at length 
 framed, and in June and July received the royal assent. 
 
 These acts occasioned fresh disturbances in America, where 
 matters were carried to a greater height than before. In conse- 
 quence of this, lord Hillsborough wrote to general Gage, in June, 
 1768, to send troops to Boston, in order to preserve the peace of 
 that town. 
 
 The introduction of troops into Boston was attended with very 
 serious consequences. The inhabitants became exceedingly riotous, 
 and some of the rabble pushed their ill conduct so far, as to oblige 
 the soldiers to fire on them in their own defence. This happened 
 on the 5th of March, 1770, when three persons were killed, five 
 dangerously wounded, and a few slightly. 
 
 This was far from removing the evil, and only tended to widen the 
 breach. Under the notion of zeal for liberty, the rabble ran into 
 the most excessive licentiousness, and were every where guilty oft 
 21 
 
240 HISTORY OF 
 
 the most lawless, unjust, and tyrannical proceedings, pulling down 
 houses, destroying the property of every one that had fallen under 
 their displeasure, and delivering prisoners out of the handsof justice, 
 
 Let us now turn our attention to see what was doing in the mean 
 time, at home. The supporting the authority of parliament was 
 the only cause assigned by the minister himself for retaining the 
 tea-duty, at the very time when he acknowledged it to be as anti- 
 commercial a lax as any of those that had been repealed upon that 
 principle. 
 
 The East India company, feeling the bad effects of the colonial 
 smuggling trade, in the large quantities of tea, which remained 
 in their warehouses unsold, requested the repeal of the threepence 
 per pound in America, and offered that, on its being complied with, 
 government should retain six pence in the pound on the exportation. 
 Thus the company presented the happiest opportunity that could 
 have been offered for honourably removing the cause of difference 
 with America. This afforded an opening for doing justice, without 
 infringing the claims oi: either side. The minister was requested and 
 entreated, by a gentleman of great weight in the company, and a 
 member of parliament, to embrace the opportunity ; but it was ob» 
 slinaiely rejected. 
 
 New contrivances were set on foot to introduce the tea, attended 
 with the threepenny duty, into all the colonies. Various intrigues 
 and solicitations were used to induce the East India company to un- 
 dertake this rash and foolish business. It was protested against as 
 contrary to the principle of the company's monopoly; but the power 
 of the ministry prevailed, and the insignificant three penny duty on 
 tea was doomed to be the fatal bone of contention between Great 
 Britain and her colonies. The company at least adopted the system, 
 and became their own factors. They sent 600 chests of tea to 
 Philadelphia, the like quantity to New York and Boston, besides 
 what was consigned to other places. Several ships were also 
 freighted for different colonies, and agents appointed for the dispo- 
 sal of the commodity. 
 
 In the meantime, the colonists, who well knew what had passed 
 in the mother country, were concerting measures to counteract the 
 views of the British ministry. Soon after the arrival of the tea-ships 
 at Boston, a number of persons, chiefly masters of vessels and 
 ship-builders from the north end of the town, about seventeen in 
 number, dressed as Indians, went on board the ships, and in about 
 two hours hoisted out of them, and broke open 342 chests of lea, 
 the contents of which they emptied into the sea. They were not 
 in the least molested ; for the multitude of spectators on the wharf 
 served as a covering party. The whole business was conducted 
 with very little tumult, and no damage was done to the vessels or 
 any other property, When the business was finished, the people 
 returned quietly to their own towns and habitations. 
 
 These and other decisive proceedings of the Boslonians induced 
 the British ministrv to bring a bill into parliament, "for the im* 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 241 
 
 mediate removal of the officers concerned in the collection of the 
 customs at Boston, and to discontinue the landing and discharging 1 , 
 lading and shipping* of goods, wares and merchandises, at Boston, 
 or within the harbour thereof." On the 31st of Marc!), 1774, the 
 bill received the royal assent. 
 
 Other bills were passed by the British parliament, brought in by 
 lord North, all tending to punish the Americans, and the Bostoni- 
 ans in particular, for their refractory behaviour. Petitions were 
 sent over from America, and several of the members of both houses 
 reprobated these severe and dangerous proceeding's ; but no regard 
 was paid either to the petitions, or to the remonstrances of the mi- 
 nority in both houses. The then ministry, at the head of which 
 was lord North, were determined to accept from the Americans of 
 nothing short of absolute and implicit obedience to the laws of taxa- 
 tion. On the other hand, the people of Massachusetts Bay, sup- 
 ported and spurred on by the other colonies, were determined not 
 to submit, and prepared to repel force by force. They collected 
 all the arms they could, and spent much of their time in the exer- 
 cise of them. 
 
 These proceedings of the people, and their manifest disposition 
 to resistance, alarmed the general, who thought it necessary, for 
 the safety of the troops, as well as to secure the important post of 
 Boston, to fortify the entrance at the neck, which afforded the only 
 communication, except by water, between the town and the conti- 
 nent. 
 
 In England, petitions were presented from the merchants of 
 London, and almost all the trading towns in the kingdom ; and Mr. 
 Bollan, Dr. Franklin, and Mr. Lee, also presented petitions from 
 the American congress ; but government treated them with indif- 
 ference and contempt. 
 
 Lord Chatham persevered in the prosecution of his conciliatory 
 scheme with America, and accordingly brought into the house of 
 lords the outlines of a bill, which he hoped would answer that salu- 
 tary purpose ; but the ministy rejected it. At the same time, lord 
 North gave a sketch of the measures he intended to pursue, which 
 were to send a greater force to America, and to bring in a tempora- 
 ry act to put a slop to all the foreign trade of the different colonies of 
 New England, particularly their fishery on the banks of Newfound- 
 land, till they returned to their duty. 
 
 While matters were thus going on at home, general Gage, at Bos- 
 ton, received intelligence that cannon and carriages were deposited 
 in the neighbourhood of Salem. He accordingly sent a body of 
 troops from the castle to seize them ; but the Americans found 
 time to get them away, and the troops returned without effecting 
 any thing. 
 
 A skirmish having happened at Lexington, between the king's 
 troops and a party of the militia, general Gage no sooner received 
 this intelligence, than he detached lord Percy to Concord, with six- 
 teen companies of foot, and a number of marines, 900 men in the 
 whole, and two pieces of cannon, to support colonel Smith. 
 
242 HISTORY OF 
 
 The junction of the brigade under lord Percy, with the detach* 
 ment under colonel Smith, gave the last a breathing time, especially 
 as they now had cannon, which awed ihe provincials from press- 
 ing upon the rear in a direct line ; but the whole force did not ven- 
 ture to halt long, as the minute men and militia were every where 
 collecting, in order to cut ofi' their retreat to Boston. They soon re- 
 newed their march, constant skirmishing succeeded, and a continual 
 fire, though often irregular and scattering on their side, as well 
 as on the part of the provincials. The close firing from behind the 
 walls, by good marksmen, for such were almost all the provincials, 
 put the troops into no small confusion, and made it so dangerous 
 for the officers, that they were more attentive to their safety than 
 common. The regulars, when near Cambridge, were upon the 
 point of taking a wrong road, which would have led them into the 
 most imminent danger ; but were prevented by the direction of a 
 young gentleman residing at college. They made good their re- 
 treat a little after sunset over Chariestown neck to Bunker's hill, 
 but spent and worn down by the excessive fatigues they had under- 
 gone, having marched that day between thirty and forty miles. 
 Here they remained secure till the next day, when they crossed 
 at Chariestown ferry and returned to Boston. In this skirmish, 
 ihe regulars had 65 killed, 180 wounded, and 28 made prisoners. 
 The provincials had 50 men killed, thirty-four wounded, and four 
 missing. t . 
 
 Lef us now return to the mother country, where the restraining 
 and fishery bill met with great opposition in both houses of parlia- 
 ment. The fishery bill had scarcely cleared the house of com- 
 mons, when lord North brought in another, to restrain the trade 
 and commerce of the colonies of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary- 
 land, Virginia, and South Carolina, to Great Britain, Ireland, and 
 the British islands in the West Indies, under certain conditions and 
 limitations. ■ ■ , . , 
 
 The British ministry did not confine themselves to the making ot 
 laws ; they also sent out against the Americans generals Howe, 
 Clinton, and Burgoyne, who left England on the 28th of May ; and 
 in about a week afterwards, transports laden with troops sailed 
 from Cork, to reinforce general Gage. 
 
 MEMGRAELE EVEKTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1745 Expedition cf Loidsbourg. 
 
 1755 General Braddock defeated. 
 
 1764 Massachusetts assembly declare against parliamentary taxes. 
 
 1765 The stamp-act passed — fiiots at Boston en account of that act. 
 
 1766 The stamp act repealed. 
 
 1767 Mr. Charles Townsend taxes the colonies again. 
 
 1768 Troops ordered to Boston. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. i43 
 
 1770 Soldiers at Boston fire on the inhabitants. 
 
 1773 The East India company empowered to export their own teas. 
 The tea thrown into the sea at Boston. 
 
 1774 The Massachusetts people prepare to defend their rights by arms , 
 General Gage fortifies the entrance into Boston. 
 
 1175 General Gage sends troops to Salem. Skirmishes at Concord 
 and Lexington. The restraining bills passed in England. 
 The generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne, sail for Boston. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 •The necessity of securing Ticonderoga was early attended to by 
 many in New England. General Gage had set the example of at« 
 tempting to seize upon military stores, and by so doing had com* 
 menced hostilities, so that retaliation appeared warrantable. 
 
 Colonel Allen was at Castleton, with about 270 men ; 230 of which 
 were Green Mountain Boys, so called from their residing within the 
 limits of the Green Mountains, the Hampshire grants being so de- 
 nominated from the range of green mountains that runs through 
 them. Sentinels were placed immediately on all the roads, to pre- 
 vent any intelligence being carried to Ticonderoga. 
 
 Colonel Arnold, who now joined colonel Allen, reported, that there 
 were at Ticonderoga, 80 pieces of heavy cannon, 20 of brass, from 
 four to eighteen pounders, ten or a dozen mortars, a number of* 
 small arms, and considerable stores ; that the fort was in a ruinous 
 condition, and, as he supposed, garrisoned by about forty men. It 
 was then settled, that colonel Allen should have the supreme com- 
 mand, and colonel Arnold was to be his assistant. 
 
 Colonel Allen, with his 230 Green Mountain Boys, arrived at 
 lake Champlain, opposite to Ticonderoga, on the ninth of May, at 
 night. Boats were with difficulty procured, when he and colonel Ar- 
 nold crossed over with 83 men, and landed near the garrison. The 
 two colonels advanced along side each other, and entered the port, 
 leading to the fort, in the grey of the morning. A sentry snapped 
 his fusee at colonel Allen, and then retreated through the covered 
 way to the parade. The main body of the Americans then followed, 
 and drew up. Captain de la Place, the commander, was surprised 
 in bed. Thus was the place taken without any bloodshed. 
 
 On the 15th of June, 1775, the congress proceeded to choose by 
 ballot a general to command all the continental forces, and George 
 Washington, esq. was unanimously elected. 
 
 The next day, orders were issued by the Americans, for a de- 
 tachment of a thousand men, to march at evening, and entrench 
 upon Bunker's Hill. By some mistake, Breed's hill, high and 
 large like the other, but situated on the farthest part of the penin- 
 sula, next to Boston, was marked out for the entrenchment instead 
 of Bunker's. The provincials proceeded therefore to Breed's hill, 
 21* 
 
244 HISTORY OF 
 
 but were prevented going to work till near twelve o'clock at night, 
 whe> they pursued their business with the utmost diligence and 
 alacrity; so that, by the dawn of the day, they had thrown up a small 
 redoubt, about eight rods square. Such was the extraordinary silence 
 that reigned among them, that they were nut heard by the British on 
 board their vessels in the neighbouring waters. The sight of the 
 works was the first notice that the Lively man of war had of them, 
 when the captain began firing upon them about four in the morning. 
 
 The guns called the town of Boston, the camp, and the fleet, to 
 behold a novelty, which was little expected. The prospect obliged 
 the British generals to alter the plan they intended to have pursu- 
 ed the next day. They grew weary of being cooped up in Boston, 
 and had resolved upon making themselves masters of Dorchester 
 heights; but the present provincial movement prevented the expe- 
 dition. They were now called to attempt possessing themselves of 
 Breed's bill, on which the provincials continued working, notwith- 
 standing a heavy fire from the enemy's ships, a number of floating 
 batteries, and a fortification upon Copp's hill in Boston, directly op- 
 posite to the little American redoubt. An incessant shower of shot 
 and bombs was poured by the batteries upon the American works, 
 and yet but one man was killed. 
 
 The Americans continued labouring indefatigably till they had 
 thrown up a small breastwork, extending from the east side of the 
 redoubt to the bottom of the hill ; but they were prevented com- 
 pleting it from the intolerable fire of the enemy. By some unac- 
 countable error, the detachment, which had been working for hours, 
 was neither relieved, nor supplied with refreshments, but were left 
 to engage under these disadvantages. 
 
 Between twelve and one o'clock, and the day exceedingly hot, a 
 number of boats and barges, filled with regular troops from Boston, 
 •approached Charlestown, when the men were landed at More- 
 ton's point. They consisted of four battalions, two companies of 
 grenadiers, and ten of light infantry, with a proportion of field artil- 
 lery; but, by some oversight, their spare cartridges were much 
 too big for them : so that, when the Americans were at length 
 forced from their lines, there was not a round of artillery cartridges 
 remaining. 
 
 Major general Howe and brigadier general Pigot had the com- 
 mand. The troops formed, and remained in that position, till joined 
 by a second detachment of light infantry and grenadier companies, 
 a battalion of the land forces, and a battalion of marines, amounting 
 in the whole to about 3000 men. The generals Clinton and Bur- 
 goyne took their stand upon Copp's hill, to observe and contemplate 
 the bloody and destructive operations that were now commencing. 
 The regulars formed in two lines, and advanced deliberately, fre- 
 quently halting to give time for the artillery to fire, which was not 
 well served. The light infantry were directed to force the left 
 point of the breastwork, and to take the American line in flank. 
 The greradiers advanced to attack in front, supported by two bat- 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 245 
 
 taiions, while the left, under general Pigot, inclined to the right of 
 the American line. One or two of the continental regiments had 
 been posted in Charlestown, but afterwards removed, to prevent 
 their being cut off by a sudden attack ; so that the British were not 
 in the least hurt by the musquetry thence. 
 
 General Gage had for some time resolved upon burning the town, 
 whenever any works were raised by the Americans upon the hills 
 belonging to it : and while the British were advancing nearer to the 
 attack, orders came, to Copp's hill for executing the resolution. 
 Soon after a carcass was discharged, which set fire to an old house 
 near the ferry way ; the fire instantly spread, and most of the 
 place was soon in flames; while the houses at the eastern end of 
 Charlestown were set on fire by men who landed from the boats. 
 
 The regulars derived no advantage from the smoke of the confla- 
 gration, for the wind suddenly shifting, carried it another way, so 
 that it could not cover them in their approach. The provincials had 
 not a rifleman among them, not one being yet arrived from the 
 southward: nor had they any other guns than common muskets, 
 and even those were not furnished with bayonets. However, they 
 were almost all marksmen, being accustomed to sporting of one 
 kind or other from their youth. A number of Massachusetts peo- 
 ple were in the redoubt, and the part of the breastwork nearest it, 
 The left of the breastwork, and the open ground stretching beyond 
 its point to the water-side, through which there was not an oppor- 
 tunity of carrying the work, was occupied partly by the Massachu- 
 setts forces, and partly by the people of Connecticut. 
 
 The British moved on slowly to the attack, instead of using a 
 quick step ; which gave the provincials the advantage of taking surer 
 and cooler aim. These reserved their fire, till the regulars came 
 within ten or twelve rods, when they began a furious discharge of 
 small arms, which stopped the regulars, who kept up the firing with- 
 out advancing. The discharge from the Americans was so inces- 
 sant, and did such execution, that the regulars retreated in disor- 
 der, and with great precipitation towards the place of landing. 
 Their officers used every effort to make them return to the charge, 
 with which they at length complied ; but the Americans again re- 
 served their fire till the regulars came within five or six rods, when 
 the enemy was a second time put to flight. 
 
 General Howe and the officers redoubled their exertions; and 
 general Clinton, perceiving how the army was staggered, passed 
 over without waiting for orders, and joined them in time to be of 
 service. The Americans being in want of powder, sent for a sup- 
 ply, but could procure none ; for there was but a barrel and a half 
 in the magazine. This deficiency disabled them from making the 
 same defence as before; while the British reaped a further advan- 
 tage by bringing some cannon to bear, so us to rake the inside of 
 the breastwork from end to end. The regular army now made a 
 decisive push, and the fire from the ships and batteries was redoub- 
 led. The provincials were of necessity ordered to retreat. 
 
246 HISTORY 0? 
 
 It was feared by the Americans, that the British troops would 
 push the advantage they had gained, and march immediately to 
 the head quarters at Cambridge, about two miles distant, and in no 
 state of defence. But they advanced no farther than to Bunker's 
 hill, where they threw up works for their own security. The pro- 
 vincials did. the same upon Prospect hill, In front of them, about 
 halfway to Cambridge. 
 
 The loss of the British, according to general Gage, amounted to 
 1054, of whom 226 were killed ; of these 19 were commissioned 
 officers, including a lieutenant colonel, two majors, and seven cap- 
 tains. Seventy other officers were wounded. Among those more 
 generally regretted, were lieutenant colonel Abercromby, and major 
 Pitcairn. 
 
 The provincials had 139 killed, 278 wounded, and S6 were miss- 
 ing, in all 453. 
 
 In the opinion of many, general Howe was chargeable with acapi. 
 tal error in landing and attacking as he did. It might originate 
 from too great a confidence in the forces he commanded, and in too 
 contemptuous an opinion of the enemy he had to encounter. He 
 certainly might have entrapped the provincials, by landing on the 
 narrowest part of Charlestown neck, under the fire of the floating 
 batteries and ships of war. Here he might have stationed and for- 
 tified his army, and kept up an open communication with Boston by 
 a water-carriage, which he would have commanded through the aid 
 of the navy, on each side of the peninsula. Had he made this ma- 
 noeuvre, the provincials must have made a rapid retreat from Breed's 
 hill, to escape having his troops in their rear, and being inclosed, 
 It was said, that general Clinton proposed it. The rejection of that 
 proposal greatly weakened the British army, and probably prevent" 
 ed the ruin of the Americans. 
 
 In July, the congress received a letter from the convention of 
 Georgia, setting forth, that the colony had acceded to the general 
 association, and appointed delegates to attend the congress. 
 
 The accession of Georgia to the colonies occasioned their being 
 afterwards called The Thirteen United Colonies. The first hostilities 
 that happened in this part between the opposite parties, commenc- 
 ed about the middle of November, when a number of royalists at- 
 tacked the Americans, and obliged them, after three days, to sur- 
 render a fort they bad taken possession of, in which they expected 
 to make an effectual resistance. 
 
 In the month of November, the New York convention having 
 resolved upon the removal of the cannon from the battery of the 
 city, captain Sears was appointed to the business. Captain Van- 
 deput, of the Asia man of war, was privately informed of the de- 
 sign, and prepared to oppose its execution. Learning when it was 
 to be attempted, he appointed a boat to watch the motion of the 
 people assembled for the purpose about the dead of night. The 
 sailors in the boat giving the signal, with a flash of powder, of what 
 was going forwards, the persons on shore mistook it for an attempt 
 to fire a musket at them, and immediately aimed a volley of shot 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 247 
 
 at the boat, by which a man was killed. Captain Vaiuleput soon 
 after commenced a firing from the Asia with grape shot, swivel shot, 
 18 and 24 pounders, without killing a single person, and wounded 
 only three, two slightly, the other lost the calf of his leg. He then 
 ceased for a considerable time, supposing that the people had de- 
 sisted from their purpose, while they were only changing their mode 
 of operation. 
 
 Captain Sears provided a deceiving party, intended to draw the 
 .Asia's fire from the line of the working party. He sent the former 
 behind a breastwork, by which they were secured by dodging down 
 upon observing the flash of the Asia's guns. When all was in readi- 
 ness, they huzzaed, and sung out their notes as though tugging in 
 unison, and fired from the walls ; white the working party silently 
 ?;ot oft' twenty-one eighteen pounders, with carriages, empty car- 
 tridges, rammers, &c. 
 
 Upon hearing the noise, and seeing the fire of the musketry, the 
 captain ordered the Asia to fire a whole broadside towards that 
 part of the fort, where the deceiving party had secured themselves, 
 without intending any particular injury to the city. However, some 
 of the shot flew into the city, and did damage. 
 
 This affiaii* happened at a very late hour, between twelve and two, 
 and threw the citizens into the utmost consternation. The distress 
 of the New Yorkers was very much increased by a painful appre- 
 hension, that captain Vandeput, would renew his firing upon the 
 city. A removal of men, women, children, and goods instantly com- 
 menced, and continued for some time. Matters were however so 
 far adjusted, as to quiet the apprehensions of the people, in refer- 
 rence to their suffering further from the fire of the Asia. To pre- 
 vent it, the convention permitted Abraham Lott, Esq. to supply all 
 his majesty's ships, stationed at New York, with all necessaries, as 
 well fresh as salted, for the use of those ships. 
 
 In the month of November the general assembly of Rhode Island 
 passed an act for the capital punishment of persons, who should be 
 found guilty of holding a traiterous correspondence'with the ministry 
 of Great Britain, or any of their officers or agents, or of supplying the 
 ministerial army or navy, employed against the United Colonies, 
 with provisions, arms, &c. or of acting as pilots on board any of 
 their vessels. They also passed an act for sequestering the estates 
 of several persons, whom they considered as avowed enemies to the 
 liberties of America. 
 
 On the night of the 26th of August, about 2000 American troops 
 entrenched on Plowed-hill. within point blank shot of the British on 
 Bunker's-hill ; and notwithstanding a continual fire almost all the 
 day foil wing, I hey had only two killed and two wounded. The 
 British finding that their firing d ; d not answer, relaxed, and after a 
 while desisted entirely, and the Americans remained quiet in their 
 new post. 
 
 In the beginning of September, general "Washington received a 
 very acceptable remittance of 7000 pounds weight of powder, whith 
 had been very scarce in the American army, 
 
248 HISTORY OF 
 
 General Washington having received pleasing accounts from 
 Canada, being 1 assured that neither Indians nor Canadians could be 
 prevailed upon to act against the Americans, concerted the plan of 
 detaching a body of troops from the head quarters, across the coun- 
 try to Quebec. He communicated the same lo general Schuyler, 
 who approved it, and all things were got in readiness. They set out 
 on the expedition on the 13th of September, under the command of 
 colonel Arnold, assisted by the colonels Green and Enos, and majors 
 Meigs and Bigelow, the whole force amounting to about eleven 
 hundred men. 
 
 On the 18th of October, captain Mowat destroyed 139 houses, 
 278 stores and other buildings, the far greater and better part of the 
 town of Falmouth, in the northern part of Massachusetts. The in- 
 habitants, in compliance with a resolve of the provincial congress, to 
 prevent tories carrying out their effects, gave some violent obslruc- 
 tion to the loading of a mast ship, which drew upon them the indig- 
 nation of the British admiral. 
 
 In the mean time, general Montgomery was sent forward to Ticon- 
 deroga with a body of troops ; and being arrived at the Isie aux 
 Noix, he drew up a declaration, which he sent among the Canadians 
 by colonel Allen and major Brown, assuring them, that the army 
 was designed only against the English garrisons, and not against the 
 •ountry, their liberties, or religion. 
 
 Colonel Allen and major Brown being on their return, after exe- 
 cuting the commission, with which the general had entrusted 
 them, the latter advised colonel Allen to halt, and proposed, that the 
 colonel should return to Longueil, procure canoes and cross the river 
 St. Lawrence, a little north of Montreal, while he, the major, cross. 
 ed a little to the south of the town, with near 200 men, as he had 
 boats sufficient. The plan was approved, and colonel Allen passed 
 the river in the night. The major, by some means, failed on his 
 part, and colonel Allen found himself, the next morning, in a criti- 
 cal situation, but concluded on defending himself. General Carle- 
 ton, learning how weak colonel Allen was, marched out against him 
 with about forty regulars, together with Canadians, English and 
 Indians, amounting to some hundreds The colonel defended him- 
 self with much bravery ; but being deserted by several, chiefly Ca- 
 nadians, and having had fifteen of his men killed, was under the 
 necessity of surrendering with thirty-one effectives and seven wound- 
 ed. He was directly put in irons. 
 
 On the 4th of October, a party of Canadians, who had joined and 
 greatly assisted the besiegers, entrenched themselves on the east 
 side of the lake, on which the enemy sent an armed sloop with troops 
 to drive them away; but the Canadians attacked the sloop with 
 vigour, killed a number of the men, and obliged her to return to Sr, 
 John's in a shattered condition. 
 
 On the 7th, the main body of the army decamped from the 
 south, and marched to the north side of the fort. In the evening, 
 they began to throw up a breastwork, in order to erect a battery 
 of canon and mortars. The continental troops brought such a 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 249 
 
 spirit of liberty into the field, and thought so freely for themselves, 
 thai they would not bear either subordination or discipline. The 
 general could not in truth direct their operations, and would not 
 have sayed an hour at their head, had he not feared that the exam- 
 ple would be too generally followed, and so have injured the public 
 service. There was a great want of powder, which, with the disor- 
 derly behaviour of the troops, was a damp to the hope of termi- 
 nating the siege successfully. The prospect, however, soon bright- 
 ened, for the Americans planned an attack upon Chamblee, and in 
 batteaux carried down the artillery, past the fort of St. John's. Af- 
 ter a short demur, it surrendered to the majors Brown and Living- 
 ston, The greatest acquisition was about six tons of powder, which 
 gave great encouragement to the provincials. 
 
 On the 12th of November, geneial Montgomery pressed on to 
 Montreal, which, not being capable of making any defence, governor 
 Carleton quitted one day, and the American general entered the 
 next. 
 
 Notwithstanding the, advanced season of the year, general Mont- 
 gomery marched on for the capital, and on the 5th of December 
 appeared before Quebec. The garrison consisted of about fifteen 
 hundred, while the besiegers were said to consist of little more 
 than half that number. Upon his appearing before the city, he 
 sent forward a flag of truce, which was fired upon by order of Sir 
 Guy Carleton. At this general Montgomery was so provoked, that 
 the next day he wrote to Sir Guy, and in his letter departed from 
 the common mode of conveying his sentiments; he made use of 
 threats and language, which in his cooler moments he would have 
 declined. 
 
 In spite of the inclemency of the season, he set about erecting 
 works. His batteries were composed of snow and water, which soon 
 became solid ice. He planted on them five pieces of ordnance, 
 twelve and nine pounders, with one howitzer; but the artillery was 
 inadequate, and made no impression. 
 
 In the evening a council was held by all the commanding officers 
 of colonel Arnold's detachment, and a large majority were for 
 storming the garrison, as soon as the men were provided with bay- 
 onets, spears, hatchets, and hand granades. The plan of storming 
 the garrison was wholly the work of general Montgomery, who, in 
 the council of war, held on the occasion, shewed the necessity, 
 practicability, and importance of it, in such a clear and convincing 
 manner, that they unanimously agreed to the measure. The at- 
 tempt had the appearance of rashness ; but the general was per~ 
 suaded that men, who had behaved so bravely, would follow him, 
 and that sir Guy Carleton'^ forces would not fight, when actual ser- 
 vice commenced. 
 
 On the 31st of December, the troops assembled at the hour ap~ 
 pointed. They were to make the attack by the way of Cape Dia- 
 mond, at the general's quarters on the heights of Abraham, and 
 were headed by the general himself. Colonel Arnold was to make 
 the attack through the suburbs of St. Roe. Colonel Livingston and 
 
250 HISTORY 01 
 
 major Brown were to make a false attack upon the walls, to the 
 southward of St. John's gate, and in the mean time to set fire to the 
 gate with the combustibles prepared for that purpose. The colonel 
 was also to give the signals for the combination of the attacks, which 
 was to begin exactly at five o'clock. It is said that captain F racer, 
 of the regulars, who was then on piquet, going his rounds, saw the 
 rockets fired off as signals, and, forming a conjecture of what was 
 going forwards, beat to arms without orders, and so prepared the 
 garrison for defence. 
 
 The different routs the assailing bodies had to make, the depth of 
 the snow, and other obstacles, prevented the execution of Living- 
 ston's command. The general moved with his division, attended 
 by a number of carpenters, to the piquets at Cape Dimond. These 
 were soon cut with the saws, and the general pulled them down 
 himself. He then entered, attended by the carpenters and some of 
 his officers. 
 
 On \heir entrance, their guides forsook them, which alarmed the 
 general and other officers, who were unacquainted with the pass 
 and situation of the enemy's artillery. However, they pressed on, 
 and the general, observing that the troops did not follow with spirit, 
 called out, '« Fie, for -shame ! will the New York troops desert the 
 cause in this critical moment ? Will you not follow when your 
 general leads ? Push on, brave boys, Quebec is ours." A few 
 acted with resolution, advanced, and attacked the guard-house, 
 when the enemy gave a discharge of grape shot from their canon, 
 and also of small arms, which proved fatal to the general, his aid 
 de camp, captain Cheeseman, and others. The firing from the 
 guard-house ceased, by the enemies quitting their post, and the 
 opportunity offered for the assailants to push forward with success ; 
 but the deputy quartermaster general, Campbell, with the rank of a 
 colonel, assumed the command, ordered a retreat, which took 
 place, and the wounded were carried off to the camp. 
 
 The division under colonel Arnold was equally unsuccessful. The 
 colonel received a wound in one of his legs from a musket ball, and 
 xvas carried to the general hospital. His men maintained their 
 ground till ten o'clock, when, all hopes of relief being over, they 
 were at last obliged to surrender prisoners of war. In this attack the 
 provincials lost upwards of an hundred men. General Montgomery 
 was -shot through both his thighs and his head. His body was taken 
 up the next day, an elegant coffin was prepared, and he was soon 
 after decently interred. The general was tall and slender, well 
 limbed, of easy, graceful, and manly address. He had the love, es- 
 teem, and confidence of the whole army ; he was of a good family in 
 Ireland, and had served with reputation in the late war with France. 
 His excellent qualities and disposition procured him an uncommon 
 share of private affection, and his abilities of public esteem. His 
 death was considered as a greater loss to the American cause, than 
 ail the others with which it was accompanied. 
 
 When the continental troops had collected after the unsuccessful 
 
NORTH AMERICA. $51 
 
 attack on Quebec, there arose a dispute who should command, and 
 whether it was adviseable to raise the siege, or wait till a reinforce- 
 ment should arrive. A council of war agreed, that colonel Arnold 
 should command, and should continue the siege, or rather the 
 blockade, which was accordingly done, apparently at no small risk, 
 as they had not more than four hundred men fit for du;y ; but they 
 retired about three miles from the city, and posted themselves ad. 
 yantageously. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1775 The expedition against Ticonderoga. 
 
 — — George Washington, esq. elected commander in chief of the 
 continental forces. 
 
 . The battle of Bunker's Hill. 
 
 — - Georgia accedes to the Union. 
 
 The Thirteen United Colo?iies. 
 
 The Asia man of war fires upon New York. 
 
 ■ Colonel Arnold's expedition into Canada. 
 
 — — Falmouth destroyed, and on what account. 
 
 - Colonel Allen taken prisoner, and put in irons. 
 
 " ' General Montgomery appears before Quebec, and is killed 
 there. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Xjet us now return to Boston and its environs, and see what was 
 transacting there. On the 15th of February, 1776, the strength of 
 the ice having been tried in one place, and the frost continuing, 
 general Washington was desirous of embracing Die season for pass- 
 ing over it, from Cambridge side into Boston. He laid before the 
 council of war the following question : " A stroke well aimed at this 
 critical juncture may put a final period to the war, and restore peace 
 and tranquillity so much to be wished for; and therefore, whether 
 part of Cambridge and Roxbury bays being frozen over, a general 
 assault should not be made on Boston ?" 
 
 General Ward opposed the idea, saying, « the attack must be made 
 with a view of bringing on an engagement, or of driving the enemy 
 out of Boston, and either end will be answered much better by pos- 
 sessing Dorchester heights." When the votes were called for, the 
 majority were against the attack. It was however determined to 
 possess themselves of Dorchester heights, which was accordingly 
 afterwards accomplished. 
 
 On the fifth of March, the British admiral informed general Howe, 
 that if the Americans possessed those heights, he could not keep 
 22 
 
!252 HISTORY OF ' 
 
 cyie of his majesty's ships in the harbour. Every design of general 
 Howe to force the American works on the hill being frustrated, a 
 council of war was called, when it was agreed to evacuate the town 
 as soon as possible. The time that had been gained by the Ameri- 
 cans for strengthening their works, took away all hopes of any suc- 
 cessful attempts to be made on them by the British forces. The 
 Americans had provided a great number of barrels, filled with stones, 
 gravel and sand, which were placed round the works, ready to be 
 roiled down, with a view to break the lines of any hostile advancing 
 troops, when ascending the hills. 
 
 On the 7th of March, there was a general hurry and confusion in 
 Boston, every one, in the royal interest, being busy in preparing to 
 quit the town, and to carry off every thing that was valuable, A 
 iBag was sent out from the select men, acquainting general Wash- 
 ington with the intention of the troops, and that general Howe was 
 disposed to leave the town standing, provided he could retire unin- 
 terrupted. General Washington bound himself under no obliga- 
 tion, but expressed himself in words, which admitted of a favourable 
 construction, and intimated his good wishes for the preservation of 
 Boston. At four o'clock in the morning of the 17th, the embarka- 
 tion was completed, and before ten the whole fleet was under sail, 
 and the provincials soon after took possession of the town. 
 
 Let us now take a view of what was doing in Virginia. Towards 
 the close of 1775, the Liverpool frigate arrived at Norfolk from 
 Great Britain. Soon after, the captain sent a flag of truce, and 
 demanded to be informed, whether his majesty's ship of war 
 would be supplied from the shore with provisions. The reply was 
 in the negative ; and the ships in the harbour being continually an- 
 noyed by the riflemen from behind the buildings and warehouses 
 on the wharves, it was determined to dislodge them by destroying 
 the town. 
 
 Previous notice was given, that the women, children, and other 
 innocent persons, might remove from the danger. The entrance of 
 the new year was signalized, at four o'clock in the morning, by a 
 violent canonad , from the Liverpool, two sloops of war, and the 
 governor's armea ship the Dunmore, seconded by parties of sailors 
 and marines, who landed and fired the houses next the water. 
 Where buildings, instead of being covered with tile, slate, or lead, 
 are covered with shingles, (thin light pieces of fir or cedar, half a 
 yard in length, and about six inches broad) let the wind be ever so 
 moderate, they will, upon being fired, be likely to communicate the 
 conflagration to a distance, should the weather be dry, by the burn- 
 ing shingles being driven by the force of the flames to the tops of 
 other houses. 
 
 Thus the whole town was reduced to ashes, that the Americans 
 might have no shelter, should they be inclined to establish a post 
 vn the spot. A few men were killed and wounded at the burning of 
 Norfolk, the most populous and considerable town for commerce 
 of any in Virgina. It contained about 6000 inhabitants, and many 
 i affluent circumstances. The whole loss was estimated at more 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 253 
 
 than three hundred thousand pounds sterling. However urgent the 
 necessity, it was an odious sight to see the governor, lord Dur.more, 
 a principal actor in burning and destroying the best town in his go- 
 vernment. The horrid distresses brought upon numbers of innocent 
 persons, by these operations, must wound the feelings of :^ll who 
 are not hardened by a party spirit. 
 
 While matters were thus transacting in America, the ministry 
 at home gave into great expenses, to supply the army at Boston 
 with fresh provisions and other articles. Sir Peter Parker and 
 Earl Cornwallis, with the Acteon and Thunder bomb, sailed from 
 Portsmouth for Cork, lo convoy the troops and transports there to 
 America; but, owing to some delays, the fleet did not sail before 
 the 13th of February. It consisted of forty-three sail, and about 
 2500 troops. 
 
 On the 14th of March, a fresh attempt was made in the house of 
 lords, to prevent a continuance of hostilities, which so far succeeded, 
 that in the May following, letters patent, by his Majesty's orders, 
 passed under the great seal, constituting lord Howe and general 
 Howe, to be his majesty's commissioners for restoring peace to the 
 colonies in North America, and for granting pardon to such of his 
 majesty's subjects there, then in rebellion, as should deserve the 
 royal mercy. The same month, commodore Hotham, with all the 
 transports, having the first division of Hessians on board, sailed 
 from St. Helen's for North America. But let us return to Canada, 
 and attend to what was going forward in that quarter. 
 
 The blockade of Quebec was continued ; but the fears of the 
 Americans were great, as they had no more than 400 men to do 
 duty, while there were upwards of three times the number in the 
 city ; they were in daily expectation that the besieged would sally 
 out upon them. At length, a small reinforcement arrived, which 
 enabled them to take a little more rest, though the army was again 
 soon reduced by the small-pox that broke out among them. 
 
 Towards the end of May, several regiments arrived from Eng- 
 land, and the British forces in Canada were estimated at about 
 23,000 men. The general rendezvous was appointed to be at 
 Three Rivers, half way between Quebec and Montreal. The 
 Americans now formed a plan to surprise the British troop?, and 
 for that purpose marched undercover of the night, on the 8th of 
 June, in order to attack them a little before daybreak. General 
 Thompson, who commanded in this expedition, had procured a 
 Canadian guide, who was either ignorant or unfaithful ; for, a little 
 before sunrise, he found his forces were out of the proper road. 
 They returned, but losing their way by the side of the river-, they 
 were soon in view of some of the enemy's boats, between which and 
 the flanking party several balls were exchanged. They then quick- 
 ened their pace, and continued advancing in sight of the shipping, 
 with drums beating and fifes playing, as they knew they were 
 discovered. The general, judging there was no possibility of 
 passing the ships, without being exposed to all their fire, and yet 
 determining to persist in the expedition, filed off at a right angle 
 
254 HISTORY OF 
 
 from the river. He meant to take a circuitous rout, and enter the 
 town on the back side. A bad morass interposed, the troops enter- 
 ed it, and ihe men were almost mired. About nine o'clock, they 
 came to a cleared spot, formed, and got into some order about ten. 
 They advanced, but before the rear had got off the place of forma- 
 tion, the from received a heavy fire from the enemy, which struck 
 them with terror. The fire was instantly repeated, and though the 
 balls flew over the heads of the troops, without doing any material 
 execution, they gave way, and crowded back, in the utmost confu- 
 sion, which left them without a leader, so that every one did as he 
 pleased. They turned their faces up the river, and hastened through 
 the swamp as fast as possible. About eleven they began to col- 
 kct, stid soon learned from the Canadians, that the enemy had sent 
 a detachment, with several fieidpieces by land, to cut of}' their 
 retreat, and a party by water to seize their boats. About four they 
 were told that the enemy had secured the bridge before them, 
 which it was supposed they must pass. They were also soon con- 
 vinced, that a large body was closely in the rear. Colonel Maxwell 
 ordered all who had collected together to halt, called the officers to 
 him, and said, u What shall we do ? Shall we fight those in the 
 front or in the rear ? Shall we tamely submit ? or shall we turn off' 
 into the woods, and each man shift for himself?" The last propo- 
 sal was preferred ; but the enemy was so near that the rear of the 
 Americans was exposed to another tremendous fire, while going 
 down the hill into the woods, but the balls flew over them without 
 injuring any. The person, who was entrusted with the care of the 
 boats, had removed them in time to a secure place ; so that the loss 
 of the Americans, which must otherwise have been much greater, 
 amounted only to about 200 prisoners. 
 
 The roops that escaped began to collect about ten the next day, 
 and by noon were considerably numerous. They got along by de- 
 grees, and by sunset the day following arrived opposite Sorel ~ 
 General Thompson and colonel Irwin, the second in command, with 
 some other officers, were taken. The killed and wounded of the 
 king's troops were trifling. 
 
 The king's forces having joined at Three Rivers, proceeded by 
 land and water to Sorel, off" which the fleet arrived in the even- 
 ing, a few hours after the rear of the Americans had left it A 
 considerable body was landed, and the command of the column 
 <nven to general Burgoyne, with instructions to pursue the conti- 
 nental army up the river to St. John's, but without hazarding any 
 thing till another column on his right should be able to co-operate 
 with him Sir Guy Carleton's extraordinary precaution to put 
 nothing to hazard, when not absolutely necessary, gave the Ameri- 
 cans the opportunity of escaping. Had Burgoyne been instructed 
 to press on with the utmost expedition, great numbers of the pro- 
 vincials must have heen made prisoners, and but few would have 
 crossed lake Champlain. Thus ended the expedition against 
 Quebec. 
 
T NORTH AMERICA. 255 
 
 To return to Boston. The British commodore Brinks, omitting 
 to leave cruisers in the bay, afforded an opportunity to the Ameri- 
 can privateers of taking- a number of Highlanders. Three days af- 
 ter his quitting it, the George and Annabella transports entered; 
 after a passage of seven weeks from Scotland, during the course of 
 which they had not an opportunity of speaking with a single vessel, 
 that could give them the smallest information of the British troops 
 having evacuated Boston. They were attacked in the morning by 
 four privateers, with whom they engaged till the evening, when the 
 privateers bore away, and the transports pushed for Boston harbour, 
 not doubting but they should there receive protection, either from a 
 fort or ship of force stationed for the security of British vessels. 
 They stood up for Nantasket road, when an American battery open- 
 ed upon them, which was the first serious proof they had of the 
 situation of affairs at the port to which they were destined. They 
 were too far embayed to retreat, as the wind had died away, and 
 the tide was half expended; The privateers, with which they had 
 been engaged, joined by two others, made towards them. They 
 prepared for action ; but, by some misfortune, the Annabella got a 
 ground so far astern of the George, that the latter expected but a 
 feeble support from her musketry. About eleven at night,the pri- 
 vateers anchored close by, and hailed them to strike the British 
 flag. The mate of the George, and every sailor on board, the cap- 
 tain excepted, refused to fight any longer; but the officers and pri- 
 vates of the seventy.first regiment stood to their quarters till all their 
 ammunition was expended, when they were forced to yield. They 
 had eight privates and a major killed, besfdes seventeen wounded. 
 The number of Highlanders taken were 267 privates, 48 officers, 
 besides lieutenant colonel Campbell. 
 
 On the 25th of June, general Howe arrived at Sandy Hook in the 
 Greyhound frigate. He soon received from governor Tryon a fuil 
 account of the state and disposition of the province, as well as of 
 the strength of tiie Americans. General Washington's army was 
 small, rather below 9000 fit for duty. Of this little army, it was 
 said, at least 2000 were wholly destitute of arms, and nearly as 
 many with arms in such condition as to be rather calculated to dis- 
 courage than animate the user. On the 2d of July, general Howe's 
 troops took possession of Staten Island. 
 
 On the first of July, congress resolved itself into a committee of 
 the whole, upon the subject of independence ; but neither colonies 
 nor members being unanimous, it was postponed till the next day. 
 On the fourth, they had it under further consideration, when the 
 declaration of independence was agreed to and adopted. The title 
 of it was, 
 
 " J Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America 
 in Congress assembled" 
 
 The preamble follows in these words.—" When, in the course of 
 human events, it becomes necessarv for one people to dissolve the 
 22* 
 
256 HISTORY OF 
 
 political bands, which have connected them with another, and to as- 
 sume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal sta- 
 tion, to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, 
 a descent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
 should declare the causes that impel them to the separation. 
 
 " We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are creat. 
 ed equal— that they are endowed by their Creator with certain un- 
 alienable rights, among which are life, liberty and the pursuit of 
 happiness— that to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
 among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the 
 governed — that whenever any form of government becomes destruc- 
 tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, 
 and to institute a new government, laying its foundations upon such 
 principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
 seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
 indeed, will dictate, that governments long established, should not 
 be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all ex- 
 perience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, 
 while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
 the forms 10 which they are accustomed. But when a long train of 
 abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evin- 
 ces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
 right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
 new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient 
 sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity that con- 
 strains them to alter their former systems of government." 
 
 The declaration proceeds to give a history of repeated injuries 
 and usurpations, ail having in direct object the establishment of an 
 absolute tyranny over these states. 
 
 On the 8th of July, at twelve o'clock, the declaration of indepen- 
 dence was proclaimed at the state house in Philadelphia, amidst 
 the greatest acclamations. The next day, in consequence of gene- 
 ral orders, it was read at the head of each brigade of the continental 
 army at New Yoik, and every where received with loud huzzas, 
 and the utmost demonstrations of joy. The same evening, the 
 equestrian statue of the king, was laid prostrate on the ground, and 
 the lead of which it was made was doomed to be run into bullets. 
 
 On the 14tii of August, lord Dunmore quitted Virginia, and 
 joined the British forces. He arrived with lord Campbell ar.d Sir 
 Peter Parker off S'.aten Island. His lordship continued on the 
 coasts, and in the rivers of Virginia, till thcrcloseness and filth of 
 the small vessels, in which the fugitives were crowded, together 
 with the heat of the weather, the badness and scarcity of water and 
 provisions, produced a pestilential fever, which made great havock, 
 especially among 'he negroes, many of whom were swept away. 
 When at length every place was shut against him, and neither 
 water nor provisions were to be obtained, but at the expense of 
 blood, it was found necessary to burn several of the smaller and 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 257 
 
 least valuable vessels, to prevent their falling into the hands of the 
 Americans, and to send the remainder, with the exiled friends of 
 government, to seek shelter in Florida, Bermudas, and the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Lord Howe arrived off'Halifax towards the end of June, and thence 
 proceeded to New York, and reached Staten Island by the 12th of 
 July. Thence he sent on shore by a flag to Amboy, a circular let- 
 ter, together with a declaration to several of the late governors of 
 the colonies, acquainting them with his powers, and desiring them 
 to publish the same as generally as possible, for the information of 
 the people. But it was now too late to bring them back to the obe- 
 dience of the mother country, since the declaration of independence 
 had been every where solemnly read. 
 
 In the month of August, general Howe finding himself sufficient- 
 ly strong to attempt something, resolved on making a descent on 
 Long Island. The necessary measures being taken by the fleet for 
 covering the descent, the army was landed, without opposition, be- 
 tween two small towns, Utrecht and Gravesend, not far from the 
 Narrows, on the nearest shore to Staten Island. 
 
 On this island are several passes through the mountains or hills, 
 which are easily defensible, being very narrow, and the lands high 
 and mountainous on each side. These were the only roads that 
 could be passed from the south side of the hills to the American lines, 
 except a road leading round the easterly end of the hill to Jamaica. 
 An early attention had been given to the importance of these passes. 
 To the second of them, the small American parties, patroling on 
 the coasts, retired upon the approach of the British boats with the 
 troops. Lord Cornwallis pushed on immediately with the reserve 
 and some other forces; but finding the Americans in possession of 
 the pass, in compliance with orders, he risked no attack. 
 
 The Americans had on each of the three passes or roads a guard 
 of 800 men ; and to the east- of them in the wood, colonel Miles 
 was placed with his battalion to guard the road from the south of 
 the hills to Jamaica, and to watch the motion of the enemy on that 
 side, with orders to keep a party constantly reconnoitring to and 
 across the Jamaica road. The sentinels were so placed as to keep 
 a continual communication between the three guards on the three 
 roads. 
 
 On the 26th of August, general Howe, having fully settled a plan 
 of surprise, general de Heister, with his Hessians, took post at 
 Flatbush in the evening, and composed the centre. About nine 
 o'clock the same night, the principal army, containing much the 
 greater part of the British forces, under the commands of general 
 Clinton, earl Percy, and lord Cornwallis, marched in order to 
 gain the road leading round the easterly end of the hills to Jamaica, 
 and so to turn the left of the Americans. Colonel Miles, whose 
 duty it was to guard this road, suffered the British to march not 
 less than six miles, till they were near two miles in the rear of the 
 guards, before he discovered and gave notice of their approach. 
 
25$ HISTORY OF 
 
 The next day, before day-break, general Clinton arrived within 
 half a mile of the road, when he halted, and settled his disposition 
 for the attack. One of his patrols fell in with a patrol of American 
 officers on horseback, who were trepanned and made prisoners. Ge- 
 neral Sullivan, though in expectation that they would bring him in- 
 telligence, neglected sending out a fresh patrol on finding himself 
 disappointed. Clinton, learning from the captured officers, that 
 the Americans had not occupied the road, detached a battalion of 
 light infantry to secure it, and advancing with his troops upon the 
 first appearance of day, possessed himself of the heights that com- 
 manded the road. 
 
 About midnight, the guard, consisting all of New Yorkers and 
 Pennsylvanians, perceiving that there was danger at hand, fled with- 
 out firing a gun, and carried to general Parsons, who commanded 
 them, the account of the enemy's advancing in great numbers by 
 that road. General Grant's movements were to divert the attention 
 of the Americans from the left, where the main attack was to be 
 made by general Clinton. By day-light, general Parsons perceived, 
 that the British were got through the wood, and were descending 
 on the north side. He took twenty of his fugitive guard, being all 
 he could collect, and posted them on a height in front of the Brit- 
 ish, about half a mile distant, which halted their column, and gave 
 time for lord Stirling to come up with his forces, amounting to about 
 1500, who possessed himself of a hill about two miles from the 
 camp. 
 
 The engagement began soon after day-break, by the Hessians 
 from Flatbush, under general Heister, and by general Grant on the 
 coast ; and a warm cannonade, with a brisk fire of small arms, were 
 eagerly supported on both sides for some considerable time. The 
 Americans opposing general Heister were the first who were apprized 
 of the march of the British troops under general Clinton. They ac- 
 cordingly retreated in large bodies, and in tolerable order, to recover 
 their camp; but they were soon interrupted by the right wing un- 
 der general Clinton, who, having halted and refreshed his forces 
 after passing the heights, continued his march, and getting into 
 the rear of the left of the Americans, about half past eight o'clock, 
 attacked them with his light infantry and light dragoons, while quit- 
 ting the heights 10 return to their lines. They were driven back, 
 and again met the Hessians, and thus were they alternately chased 
 and intercepted. In these desperate circumstances, some of their 
 regiments, overpowered and outnumbered as they were, forced their 
 way to the camp, through all the dangers with which they were 
 pressed. 
 
 The Americans under lord Stirling, who were engaged with ge- 
 neral Grant, behaved with great bravery and resolution ; but were 
 so late in their knowledge of what passed elsewhere, that their 
 retreat was intercepted by some of the British troops, who, besides 
 turning the hills and the American left, had traversed the whole 
 extent of country in their rear. Several broke through the ene- 
 my's line, and got into the woods, General Parsons, with a small 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 259 
 
 party, escaped by doing the same ; numbers threw themselves into 
 the marsh at Gowan's cove, some were drowned, and others perish- 
 ed in the mud. However, a considerable body escaped to the Hne3. 
 The nature of the country, and the variety of the ground occasioned 
 a continuance and extension of small engagements, pursuits and 
 slaughter, which lasted for many hours before the scene closed. 
 
 The British troops displayed great valour and activity on this 
 occasion. So impetuous was their ardour, that it was with diffi- 
 culty they could be restrained, by general Howe's orders, from at- 
 tacking the American lines. They would probably have entered 
 them, had not the works been completed the night before the ac- 
 tion, by closing an opening on the right, and placing an abbatis 
 before it The Americans were most completely surprised and 
 effectually entrapped. Colonel Smallwood's Maryland regiment 
 suffered extremely, and was almost cut to pieces, losing 259 men. 
 The loss was much regretted, on account of their being young men 
 of the best families in the country. All who were engaged in the 
 actions of this day did not display the same courage; nor was it to 
 be expected from such raw troops. Many escaped from the want 
 of discipline j for they broke at the sight of danger, and saved 
 themselves by flight, whereas otherwise they must have been killed 
 or taken. Large bodies however were captured. General SSulli- 
 van, lord Stirling, and general Udell, besides three colonels, four 
 lieutenant colonels, three majors, eighteen captains, forty-three 
 lieutenants, eleven ensigns, an adjutant, three surgeons, and two 
 volunteers, were made prisoners, together with a thousand and six 
 privates, in all a thousand and nineiy-seven. As among the prison- 
 ers the wounded were included, an allowance of between four and 
 five hundred for killed, drowned, perished in the woods, the mud, 
 and the like, may be reckoned about the mark The loss of the 
 British, in killed and wounded, did not exceed three hundred and 
 eighteen, of whom only sixty-one were killed After the battle, 
 the Americans retreated to New York, to which place they crossed 
 over, under the favour of a fog, taking with them all their military 
 stores, and leaving nothing behind them but a few pieces of cannon, 
 and some trifling matters. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER 
 
 1776 General Hoive evacuates Boston. 
 
 — — Norfolk in Virginia burnt 
 
 — — Sir Peter Parker and earl Cornwallis sail for America. 
 
 — — The blockade of Quebec continued. 
 
 The Americans raise the blockade and retreat. 
 
 ■ A number of Highlanders taken in Boston bay. 
 
 Declaration of American Independence. 
 
 — — General Howe lands the royal army on Long Island, and 
 drive* the Americans off it, 
 
260 HISTORY OF 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 After the affair of Long 1 Island, endeavours were used by the 
 Americans to keep up the spirits of the people, by puffing accounts 
 of the extraordinary bravery of their troops, and the destruction 
 they made of the enemy. But that matters were not very promis- 
 ing appears from a letter of general Mercer, who commanded the 
 flying camp, dated September the 4tb, wherein he writes : " Gene- 
 ral Washington has not, so far as I have seen, 5000 men to be de- 
 pended on for the service of a campaign; and I have not 1000. 
 Both our armies are composed of raw militia, perpetually fluctuat- 
 ing between the camp and their farms; poorly armed, and still 
 worse disciplined. These are not a match for, were their numbers 
 equal to veteran troops, well fitted and urged on by able officers. 
 Numbers and discipline must at last prevail. Giving soldiers, or 
 even the lower orders of mankind, the choice of officers, will for 
 ever mar the discipline of armies." 
 
 General Howe having fully prepared for a descent on New York 
 island, embarked a strong division of the army under the command 
 of general Clinton and others, in boats, at the head of Newtown 
 inlet, and at another place higher up, where they could not be ob- 
 served by the Americans, who expected the attack would be made 
 on the side next to the East river, and had therefore thrown up 
 lines and works to defend themselves. 
 
 On the 15th of September, about eleven o'clock, general Howe's 
 troops landed, underthe cover of five ships of war, in two divisions, 
 the Hessians in one place, and the British in another. As soon as 
 general Washington heard the firing of the men of war, he rode 
 with all despatch towards the lines ; but to his great mortification, 
 found the troops posted in them retreating with the utmost pre- 
 cipitation ; and those ordered to support them, Parsons's and Fel- 
 lows's brigade, flying in every direction, and in the greatest con- 
 fusion. His attempts to stop them were fruitless, though he drew 
 his sword, threatened to run them through, and cocked and snap- 
 ped his pistols. 
 
 On the appearance of a small party of the enemy, not more than 
 sixty or seventy, their disorder was increased, and they ran off 
 without firing a single shot, leaving the general in a hazardous 
 situation, so that his attendants, to extricate him out of it, caught 
 the bridle of his horse, and gave him a different direction. 
 
 Three large ships were stationed in the North river, opposite 
 to those in the East river, and both kept up a constant cannonad- 
 ing with grape-shot and langrage quite across the island. The 
 Hessians, upon their landing, seized and secured, in a neighbour- 
 ing building, as enemies, some persons who had been placed there 
 to serve as guides, which for a while subjected them to a difficulty. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 261 
 
 When the regulars were completely landed, they advanced to- 
 wards the Kingsbridge road. The American brigades which had 
 fled on the enemy's approaching the lines, did not stop till they were 
 met by colonel Glover's and fhe other brigades, who were hastening 
 down to them. As soon as they joined, the whole marched for- 
 ward, and took post on some heights, when suddenly 8000 of the 
 enemy appeared on the next height, and halted. General Washing- 
 ton at first consented that his troops should march forward, and 
 give them batile ; but, on a second consideration, he gave counter 
 orders, as he could not have any dependence on the militia and the 
 flying camp, which composed half the number then present. When 
 the Americans retired, and no prospect of action remained, the 
 English took possession of New York. 
 
 General Washington, while moving the army from New York, 
 into the country, was careful to march and form the troops, so as to 
 make a front towards the enemy, from East Chester almost to 
 White-plains, on the east side of the highway, thereby to secure 
 the march of those who were behind on their right, and to defend 
 *he removal of the sick, cannot), and other matters of consequence; 
 but the want of many necessary articles considerably retarded their 
 march. 
 
 On the 2.5th of October, the royal army moved in two columns, 
 and took a position they thought the most advantageous. Observ- 
 ing, however, that general Washington's lines were much streng- 
 thened by additional works, he deferred all further attack till the 
 arrival of more troops. Several skirmishes had already taken 
 place, but nothing decisive had yet happened. 
 
 On the last day of October, general Howe, being joined by the 
 troops from lord Percy, made dispositions for attacking the 
 American lines early the next morning ; but an extreme wet night 
 and morning prevented the execution at the time appointed, and. 
 it was not attempted afterwards, though the day proved fair. Gene- 
 ral Washington gained intelligence of his danger from a deserter, 
 when he drew off most of his troops at night, totally evacuated his 
 camp early in the morning of the first of November, and took 
 higher ground towards the North Castle district; leaving a strong 
 rear-guard on the heights and in the woods of White-plains. Or- 
 ders were given by general Howe to attack this corps ; but the exe- 
 cution of it was prevented by a violent rain. 
 
 Though this affair at White-plains made so much noise at the 
 time in which it happened, no general action took place, and the 
 Americans retreated, leaving the English in possession of New- 
 York and the Jerseys. 
 
 General Washington, however.soon after made a descent on Jer- 
 sey, and at Trenton surprised and took prisoner twenty-three Hes 
 sian officers, and 886 men of the. same nation. In the evening, 
 general Washington repassed the Delaware, and retired to Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 From this period to the month of June, 1777, nothing passed in 
 Jersey but one continued scene of blood and slaughter among de* 
 
262 history or 
 
 tached parties, without any decisive advantages being gained by 
 either side. On the 30th of June, at ten o'clock in the morning, 
 the English troops began to cross over to Staten Island, and the 
 rear-guard passed at two in the afternoon, without the least ap- 
 pearance of an enemy. Thus they evacuated the Jerseys, to enter 
 upon new conquests, in hopes of reducing the United States to 
 unconditional submission. 
 
 Let us now turn to the British operations in the north, which 
 were taken out of the hands of sir Guy Carleton, and committed to 
 the charge of general Burgoyne. The forces allotted to them, 
 consisting of British and German troops, amounted to more than 
 7000 men, exclusive of the artillery corps. A powerful brass train 
 of artillery was furnished, probably the finest, and the most ex- 
 cellently supplied as to officers and private men, that had ever 
 been destined to second the operations of an army not exceeding the 
 present number. The army was, in every respect, in the best con- 
 dition, the troops were in the highest spirits, admirably disciplined, 
 and uncommonly healthy. 
 
 The main body,under general Burgoyne, proceeded up lake Cham- 
 plain, landed and encamped at no great distance frow Crown-point, 
 where he met the Indians in congress, and afterwards, in compli- 
 ance witheir customs, gave them a war-feast. He made a speech 
 to them, calculated to excite their ardour in the common cause, at 
 the same time to repress their barbarity. He conjured them, to 
 kill those only who opposed them in arms ; that old men, women, 
 children, and prisoners, should be held sacred from the knife or 
 hatchet, even in the heat of actual conflict; that they should scalp 
 those only whom they had slain in fair opposition ; but that under 
 no pretence should they scalp the wounded, or even dying, much 
 less kill persons in that condition. They were promised a compen- 
 sation for prisoners, but informed, that they should be called to ac- 
 count for scalps. 
 
 On the near approach of the right wing of the royal army on the 
 Ticonderoga side, the Americans abandoned their works towards 
 lake George, and left general Phillips to possess the advantageous 
 post of Mount-hope, without making any resistance, which would 
 have been ineffectual, and could have answered no good purpose. 
 That apparent supineness and want of vigour, with which they were 
 chargeable, was not occasioned by cowardice, but actual imbecility. 
 
 General Burgoyne's troops proceeded with much expedition, in 
 the construction of their works, the bringing up of artillery, stores, 
 and provisions ; but what gave the greatest alarm was, the rapid 
 progress they made in clearing a road, and getting artillery on 
 Sugar-hill. When once they had erected a battery on this height, 
 only a few hours more would have been required to have invested 
 the Americans on all sides. 
 
 General St. Clair, having received intelligence by spies, that in 
 twenty-four hours the investiture would be completed, when he 
 should be cut off' from all possibility of succour, general Schuyler 
 
NORTH AMERICA. r263 
 
 not having force sufficient at fort Edward to relieve him, he deter- 
 mined to evacuate ins posts, though he knew it would produce such 
 astonishment as had not happened since the commencement ol the 
 War, He plainly perceived, that if he continued there, he should 
 lose the army, but save his character ; whereas, by abandoning the 
 place he should save the army, and lose his character. A council 
 of war was called, and it was unanimously concluded upon to eva- 
 cuate as soon as possible. 
 
 At two o'clock in the morning- of July the 6th, general St. Clair 
 left Ticonderoga. About three the troops were put in motion tor 
 the evacuation of the Mount; but Fermoy having set fire to his 
 house, contrary to positive orders, the whole mount was enlightened 
 by it, so that the enemy had an opportunity of seeing every thing 
 that passed, which damped the spirits of the Americans, and induced 
 them to push off in a disorderly manner. 
 
 In the morning, general Frazer, perceiving the evacuation, and 
 that the Americans were retiring, commenced a pursuit with his 
 brigade, consisting of the light troops, grenadiers, and some other 
 corps. General Keidesel, with most of the Biunswickers, was or- 
 dered by general Burgoyne to join in the pursuit, either to support 
 Frazer, or to act separately. The latter continued the pursuit 
 through the day, and receiving intelligence, that St Clair's rear 
 was at no great distance, he ordered his troops to he that night on 
 their arms. In the morning, he came up with the Americans, com- 
 manded by colonel Warner, who had, besides his own, the regi- 
 ments of colonels Francis and Hale. The British advanced bold- 
 ly, and the two bodies formed within ab-mt sixty yards of each 
 other. Frazer began the attack about seven o'clock, expecting 
 every moment to be joined by Reidesel, and apprehending, that if 
 he delayed, the enemy w<uld escape. Hale b^ing apprized of the 
 danger, never brought his regiment to the charge, but fled; so 
 that Warner could bring into action no more than about 700 
 men. The conflict was bloody. Francis fell fighting with great 
 bravery, and Warner, his officers, and soldiers, behaved with 
 much resolution and gallantry ; so that the British broke and gave 
 way, but soon formed again, and running on the Americans with 
 their bayonets, the latter were put into no small confusion, which 
 was increased by the critical arrival of general Reidesel with the 
 foremost of his column, consisting of the chasseur company, and 
 light infantry, who were immediately led into action. The Ameri- 
 cans now fled on all sides General St. Clair heard when the firing 
 began, and would have supported Warner; but the troops that 
 were nearest, two militia regiments, would not obey orders, and 
 the others were at too great a distance. Hale, who had attempt- 
 ed to get off by flight, fell in with an inconsiderable party of 
 British, and surrendered himself and a number of his men prison- 
 ers. The Americans lost 324 in killed, wounded, and prisoners* 
 and among the last were twelve officers. The royal troops, in- 
 cluding British >and German, had not less than 183 killed and 
 wounded, 
 
 23 
 
264 HJSTORV OF 
 
 The evacuation of Ticonderoga and Mount Independence surpris- 
 ed genera! Washington, and spread astonishment and terror through 
 l is New England states. The general was led to believe that the 
 •anison was much stronger. , The Massachusetts General court 
 were faulty, in not having seasonably forwarded their quota of troops, 
 agreeably to the requisition of Congress. 
 
 Let us now return to see what was doing by general Howe. The 
 British fleet and army which lay at Sandy Hook, were destined for 
 the reduction of Philadelphia, in pursuance of a plan which had 
 been settled between Sir William Howe and lord George Germain, 
 but did not sail till the 23d of July. The land forces consisted of 
 thirty-sis British and Hessian battalions, including the light infantry 
 and grenadiers, with a powerful artillery, a New York corps, called 
 Queen's Hangers, and a regiment of light horse, estimated all to- 
 gether, at about 16,000 men. The fleet consisted of 267 sail. Gen- 
 eral Howe's thus abandoning Burgoyne equally excited the astonish- 
 ment of friends and enemies. 
 
 On the 14th of June, the Congress resolved, that the flag of the 
 Thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white ; 
 that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a 
 new constellation. 
 
 It was not till the third of September that the royal army began 
 to m<<ve forwards. On its advancing near to the Americans, these 
 abandoned their ground, perceiving that it would not answer their 
 first expectation. They crossed Brandywine at Chad's ford, and 
 took possession of the heights on the east side of it, with an evident 
 intention of disputing the passage of the river; but the superior* 
 numbers of the regular forces at last obliged them to retire. 
 
 A little after sunrise on the 11th of September, a warm engage- 
 ment commenced, which lasted till the approach of night. On 
 this occasion, the Americans shewed great resolution and cou- 
 rage ; but a few hours more of day-light might have so animated 
 the conquering regulars, fatigued as they were, as to have pro- 
 duced those exertions, which would have been productive of a 
 total and ruinous defeat to the Americans. It was said, by the 
 Americans themselves, that in this action, their loss in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners, was about twelve or thirteen hundred; 
 and that the royal army did not suffer, on their part, short of seven 
 or eight hundred, in killed and wounded. The Americans also 
 lost ten small fieldpieces, and a howitzer, of which all but one were 
 brass. 
 
 The evening after the battle, a party of regulars was sent to 
 Wilmington, who took the governor of the Delaware slate, Mr. 
 M'Kenly, out of his bed, and possessed themselves of a shallop 
 lying in the creek, loaded with the rich effects of some of the in^ 
 habitants, together with the public records of the county, and a 
 large quantity of public and private money, besides articles of plate, 
 and other things. 
 
 After various motions of the regular army, on the 9-6 h of Sep- 
 tember, general Howe made his triumphal entry into Philadelphia, 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 265 
 
 with a small part of his army, where he was most cordially receiv- 
 ed by the generality of the quakers, and a few other royalists, * i.a 
 bulk of his troops were If ft in and about Germantown, a village form- 
 ing one continued street for near two mik-s General Washington** 
 army was encamped near Shippach-creek, about eighteen miles from 
 that place. The Congress, on the loss of Philadelphia, removed to 
 Yorktown . 
 
 To return to the northern army, under the command of general 
 Burgoyne. §everal actions took place between the Americans and 
 regulars, in the intended march r-f the British towards Albany In 
 these different skirmishes, the regulars suffered very considerably, as 
 well as the Indians in their interest. The principal action happened 
 at Bennington, in which die Americans took from the English fur 
 brass fieldpieces,t welve drums, 250 dragoon swordsy four ammunition 
 waggons, and about seven hundred prisoners, among whom was 
 lieutenant colonel Baum. 
 
 On the 30th of August, the English commander had occasion to 
 write to general Gates, and in his letter complained of inhumanity 
 exercised towards the provincial soldiers in the king's service after 
 the affair of Bennington, and then hinted at retaliation. General 
 Gates in his answer of September the 2d, invalidated the charge, 
 and then retorted the Indian cruelties, which he imputed to Bur- 
 goyne, saying, " Miss M'Rea a young lady of virtuous character, 
 and amiable disposition, engaged to an officer in your army, was, 
 with other women and children, taken out of a house near fort Ed- 
 ward, carried into the woods, and there murdered and mangled, in a 
 most shocking manner. Two parents, with their six children, were 
 all scalped and treated with the same inhumanity, while quietly re- 
 siding in their once happy and peaceful dwellings. The miserable 
 fate of Miss M'Rea was particularly aggravated, by her being dress- 
 ed to receive her promised husband, when she met her murderer 
 employed by you. Upwards of one hundred men, women, and chil- 
 dren, have perished by the hands of the ruffians, to whom it is as- 
 serted, you have paid the price of blood." General Burgoyne, in his 
 reply of the sixth of the same month, vindicated his own character ; 
 shewed that Miss M'Rea's death was no premeditated barbarity, and 
 declared, that every other charge, exhibited by general Gates, was 
 ill funded and erroneous. 
 
 The murder of Miss M'Rea exasperated the Americans, and from 
 that and other cruelties occasion was taken to blacken the royal party 
 and army. The people detested that army which accepted of such 
 Indian aid, and ioudiy reprobated that government which could call, 
 in such auxiliaries General Gates was not deficient in aggravating, 
 by several publications, the excesses that had taken place, and with 
 no small advantage to his own military operations. 
 
 On the 18th of September, general Burgoyne, having been very 
 short of provisions, at length received a supply for about thirty- 
 days, together with other necessary stores. He then resolved upon 
 passing Hudson's river with the army, which having executed, he 
 encamped on the heights and on the plain of Saratoga. The Ameri> 
 
"266 HISTORY OF 
 
 cans, observing- the motions of the royal army, marched out 3000 
 strong, in order to attack him, but found that to be prudentially im- 
 practicable. However, they drew up in full view of him, and there 
 remained till dark. 
 
 The next day somp of the American scouting parties fell in with 
 those of t lie British, and with great boldness began the attack about 
 one o'clock at noon. The firing was no sooner heard by general 
 Phillips, than he made his way, with a part of the artillery, through 
 the woods, and rendered essential services. Each commander sup- 
 ported, reinforced, and ordered different regiments to engage.— 
 The battle was hot and obstinate on both sides, till about half past 
 two o'clock, when it ceased for half an hour. The American and 
 British lines being fully formed, the action was renewed, and be- 
 came general at three. Both armies appeared determined to con- 
 quer or die, and there was one continual biaze of fire for three hours 
 without intermission ; the report of the muskets resembled an in- 
 cessant roll beating on a number of drums The Americans and 
 British alternately drove and were driven by each other. Three 
 British regiments, the 20:h, 21st., and the 62d, were in constant 
 and close fire for near four hours. All suffered considerable loss : 
 the 62d, which was 500 strong when it lef' Canada, was now reduc- 
 ed to less than 60 men, and to four or five officers. Few actions 
 laave been characterised, by more obstinacy in attack or defence, 
 than Mas the. present. Both parties claimed the victory, though 
 neither had much advantage to boast of. 
 
 From this time till near the middle of October, battles and skir- 
 mishes continually took place between the two armies, and the 
 Biitish were sadly reduced and weakened. On the I3ih general 
 Burgoyne, finding that the troops had only three days provision in 
 store, on short allowance, and no apparent means of retreat remain- 
 ing, called into council all the generals, field-officers, and captains 
 commanding troops. There was not a spot of ground in the whole 
 camp fir holding the council of war, but what was exposed to canon 
 or rifle shot; and while the council was deliberating, an eighteen- 
 pound ball crossed the table By the unanimous advice of the 
 council, the general was induced to open a treaty with general 
 Gates. The'fi'-st proposals of the latter were rejected, and the 
 sixth article with disdain, wherein it was required, that the British 
 army should lay down their arms in their entrenchments. Bur- 
 goyne's counter proposals were unanimously approved, and being 
 sent to Gates were agreed to, on the loth, without any material 
 alteration. 
 
 General Gates being fearfiil of the consequences that might fol- 
 low, should general Vaughan with his troops come up in time to Bur- 
 goy.ne's assistance, determined upon bringing the matter to an imme- 
 diate issue. On the morning of the 17th, he got every thing in readi- 
 ness for attacking the royal army. This done he took out his watch, 
 the time agreed for signing being come. He then sent colonel Greaton 
 on horseback to Burgoyne with a message, requiring the general to 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 267 
 
 sign, and allowed him no more than ten minutes to go and return. 
 He was back in time, the treaty was signed, all hostile appearances 
 ceased, and the Americans marched into the British lines to the 
 tune of Yankee Doodle. They were kept there until the royal ar- 
 my had marched out of their lines, and deposited their arms at the 
 place appointed by the treaty. 
 
 The delicacy with which this business was conducted reflects the 
 highest honour upon the American general. It intimated, that 
 he was sensible of the mortification attending a reverse of fortune, 
 and that he was unwilling to aggravate the painful feelings of the 
 royal troops, by admitting the American soldiers to be eye-witnes- 
 ses to the degrading spectacle of piling their arms When the arm? 
 were deposited agreeable to treaty, the royal troops were served 
 with bread by the Americans, as they had not any left nor flour to 
 make it. They had only one day's salt meat remaining. 
 
 The treaty was styled, " A convention between lieutenant gene- 
 ral Burgoyne and major general Gates." Among other articles it 
 was stipulated, "That the troops under lieutenant general Bur- 
 goyne shall march out of their camp with the honours of war, and 
 the artillery of the entrenchments, to the verge of the river, where 
 the arms and artillery are to be left. — The arms to be piled by word 
 of command from their own officers.— A free passage to be granted 
 to the royal army to Great Britain, upon condition of not serving 
 again in North America during the present contest; and the port 
 of Boston to be assigned for the entry of transports to receive the 
 troops, whenever general Howe shall so order. — The officers' bag- 
 gage not to be molested or searched — During the slay of the troops 
 in the Massachusetts bay, the officers are to be admitted on parole, 
 and be allowed to wear their side arms." 
 
 The return signed by general Burgoyne, at the time of the con- 
 vention, made the British army, including Germans, amount to 5791, 
 which was very short of the number they had on setting out from 
 Canada. The train of brass artillery, consisting of 42 pieces, was 
 a fine acquisition to the Americans . There were also 4647 muskets, 
 6000 dozen of cartridges, besides shot, carcasses, shells, &c. 
 • Had Clinton advanced in time, Burgoyne would have been saved ; 
 but the troops he despatched under general Vaughan amused them- 
 selves with burning iEsopus, a fine village in the neighbourhood of 
 Stillwater. General Vaughan with a flood tide, might have reached 
 Albany in four boors, as there was no force to hinder him. Had 
 he proceeded thither, and burnt »he stores, Gates as he himself af- 
 terwards declared, must have retreated into New England. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1776 Wretched state of the armies under the generals Washington and 
 
 Gates. 
 — — New Tori tak n bv the royal forces. 
 
 The battle of the White Piains 
 
 — — A body of Hessians defeated at Trenton. 
 
 23* 
 
268 HISTORY OF 
 
 1777 General Howe embarks his army from Staten Island 
 
 ■■ General Burgoyne proceeds to Crown-Point. 
 
 — -— Ticonderoga and Mount -Independence evacuated. 
 
 • Flag of the United States erected. 
 
 Battle at the Brandyvjine. 
 
 Account of Miss M'Rea's death. 
 
 Americans engage the British under general Burgoyne 
 
 — — Distress and calamity of the royal army. 
 
 • General Burgoyne baffled in all his designs. 
 
 Signs the convention. 
 
 JEsopus burnt by the troops under general Vaugha:. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Iowards the end of October, 1777, the royal army, under the 
 command of Sir Wil'iam Howe removed to Philadelphia. Meas- 
 ures being concerted between the general and admiral for clearing 
 the Delaware of it obstructions, the former ordered batteries to be 
 erected on the western or Pennsylvanian shore, to assist in dislodg- 
 ing the Americans from Mud-Island. He also detached a strong 
 body of Hessians across the river, who were to reduce the fort at 
 Red bank, while the ships and batteries on the other side were to 
 attack Mud-Island. Count Donop, in the service of the English, 
 was intrusted with the expedition against Red-bank ; but he failed 
 in the attempt. He was mortally wounded and taken prisoner, 
 several of his best officers were killed or disabled, and the Hes- 
 sians, after a desperate engagement, were repulsed. The second 
 m command being also dangerously wounded, the detachment was 
 brought off by lieutenant colonel Linsing, It is said that the royal 
 detachment lost, on this occasion, between four and five hundred 
 men. 
 
 The expedition against Mud-Island met with better success, the 
 Americans being driven thence, and forced to retire to Red- 
 bank. 
 
 On the night of the 18th of November, lord Cornwallis marched 
 with a considerable force, and the next day crossed the Delaware, 
 in his way to Red bank, which the Americans abandoned, leaving 
 behind them the artillery, and a considerable quantity of cannon 
 ball. The English generals confessed, that the long and unexpect- 
 ed opposition they received at Red-bank and Mud-Island, broke in 
 upon the'r plans fur the remainder of the campaign. 
 
 On the third of May, 1778, Mr. Simeon Deane arrived in Ameri- 
 ca express from France, with very important despatches. The Con- 
 gress was immediately convened, and the despatches opened and 
 read, among which, to their inexpressible joy, were a treaty of 
 commerce, and a treaty of alliance, concluded between his most 
 Christian majesty, the king ©f France and the United States, of 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 269 
 
 America. The treaties were duly weighed and considered sepa- 
 rately the next day, and upon each it was unanimously resolved, 
 " That the same be, and is hereby ratified " The next resolu'ion 
 was, "That this Congress entertain the highest sense of the magna- 
 nimity and wisdom of his most christian majesty, so strongly exem- 
 plified in the treaty of amity and commerce, and the treaty of alli- 
 ance; and the commissioners representing these stares, at the 
 court of France, are directed to present the grateful acknowledg- 
 ments of this Congress to his most christian majesty, for his truly 
 magnanimous conduct respecting these states, in the said generous 
 and disinterested treaties, and to assure his majesty, on the part of 
 this Congress, it is sincerely wished, that the friendship so happily 
 commenced between France and these United States may be per- 
 petual " 
 
 The Congress, after receiving the treaties, had a stronger feel- 
 ing of their own importance than before, and resolved, u That the 
 commissioners appointed for the courts of Spain, Tuscany, Vienna, 
 and Berlin, should live in such style and manner at their respective 
 courts, as they may find suitable and necessary to support the digni- 
 ty of their public character." 
 
 On the eighth of May, they agreed to a draught of" An address 
 to the inhabitants of the United States of America" In this publi- 
 cation when they come to the French treaty, they say, l « You have 
 still to expect one severe conflict. Your foreign alliances, though 
 they secure your independence, cannot secure your country from 
 desolation, your habitations from plunder, your wives from insult or 
 violation, nor your children from butchery Foiled in the principal 
 design, you must expect to feel the rage of disappointed ambition. 
 Arise then ! to your tents, and gird you for battle ! It is time to 
 turn the headlong current of vengeance upon the head of the de- 
 stroyer. They have filled up the measure of their abominations, 
 and like fruit must soon drop from the tree. Although much is 
 done, yet much remains to do. Expect not peace, while any cor- 
 ner of America is in the possession of your foes. You must drive 
 them away from this land of promise, a land flowing indeed with 
 milk and honey. Your brethren at the extremities of the continent 
 already implore your friendship and protection. It is your duty to 
 grant their request. They hunger and thirst after liberty. Be it 
 yours to dispense to them the heavenly gift. And what is there 
 now to prevent it ?" 
 
 In the month of May, the American Randolph frigate of 36 guns, 
 snd 305 men, sailed on a cruise from Charlestown. The Yar- 
 mouth, of 64 guns discovered her and five other vessels, and came 
 up with her in the evening. Captain Vincent hailed the Randolph 
 to hoist colours, or he would fire into her ; on which she hoisted 
 American, and immediately gave the Yarmouth her broadside, 
 which was returned, and in about a quarter of an hour she blew 
 up Four men saved themselves upon a piece of her wreck, and 
 subsisted for five days upon nothing more than rain water, which 
 they sucked from a piece of blanket they had picked up On 
 the fifth, the Yarmouth being in chase of a ship, happily discover- 
 
i/0 HISTORY OP 
 
 ed them waving". The captain humanely suspended the chase, 
 hauled up to the wreck, got a boat out, and brought them on 
 board. 
 
 On the 7th of May, the second battalion of British light infantry, 
 in flat boats, ai tended by three galleys and other armed boats, pro- 
 ceeded up the Delaware, in order to destroy all the American ships 
 and vessels lying in the river between Philadelphia and Trenton. 
 They landed the next morning, advanced towards Bordentown, 
 drove the Americans that opposed them, entered the town, and 
 burn', four storehouses, containing provisions, tobacco, some military 
 Stores and camp-equipage. The country being alarmed, and a strong 
 body collected, the battalion crossed to the Pennsylvania?! shore. 
 The next day they resumed their operations, and at sunset embark, 
 ed and returned to Philadelphia. While upon the expedition, they 
 burnt two frigates, one of 32, the other of 28 guns, nine laFge 
 ships, three privateer sloops of 16 guns each, three of ten guns, 
 twenty-three brigs, with a number of sloops and schooners. Two 
 of the ships were loaded with tobacco, rum, and military stores. 
 
 General Howe was succeeded in the command of the army by Sir 
 Henry Clinton, who arrived at Philadelphia on the 8th of May. 
 
 On the 6th of February, the treaties between France and the 
 United States were signed. The alliance between these two pow- 
 ers was known to the British ministry soon after they were signed. 
 Mr. Fox, in a debate in the house of commons five days afterwards, 
 made it appear from different calculations, that the number of men 
 lost to the army, k lied, disabled, deserted, and from various other 
 causes, from the commencement of hostilities with America to that 
 period, amounted to above twenty thousand. 
 
 On the 17th, lord North introduced his conciliatory propositions, 
 His plan was to enable the crown to appoint commissioners to treat 
 with the colonies concerning the means of putting an end to the 
 present contest ; for which five persons were invested with ample 
 powers. His lordship said in his speech, that general Howe had 
 been, in the late actions, and in the whole course of the campaign, 
 not only in the goodness of troops, and in all manner of supplies, but 
 also in point of numbers, much superior to the American army that 
 opposed him in the field ; that general Burgoyne had been in num- 
 bers, until the affair at Bennington, nearly twice as strong as the 
 army of the enemy ; that he promised a great army should be sent 
 out, and that a great army had accordingly been sent out, to the 
 amount of 60 000 men and upward. 
 
 The speech was long, able, and eloquent, and kept him up two 
 full hours. A dull melancholy silence for some time succeeded. 
 It was heard with profound attention, but without a single mark of 
 approbation Astonishment, dejection, and fear, over-clouded the 
 wlv le assembly. It was conjectured, that some powerful motive 
 had induced the ministry to adopt such an alteration of measures. 
 This tdea was confirmed by the positive assertion of Mr Fox, that 
 a treaty had been signed at Paris between the colonies and France. 
 by which she recognised their independence. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 271 
 
 On the 13th of March, the French ambassador delivered a re- 
 script to lord Weymouth, in which he informed the court of Lon- 
 don, that the king had signed a treaty of friendship and commerce 
 with the United states of America The knowledge of this tran- 
 action was communicated under the parade of cultivating the good 
 understanding between France and Great Britain. 
 
 On the 21st of March, a public audience and reception were 
 given to the American commissioners, Messrs. Franklin, Deane, 
 and Lee, by the French monarch. They were introduced by 
 Mons Vergennes, and received by the king with the usual formali- 
 ties and ceremonies. The striking acknowledgment of the pleni- 
 potentiaries from the United States mortified the ministry and 
 crown of Great Britain, and may be pronounced the political phe- 
 nomenon of Europe. The day before it was exhibited, the French 
 ambassador, in consequence of orders to quit London, set out for 
 Paris. 
 
 From this time, the courts of London and Versailles were busied 
 in fitting out their fleets, which met each other in the month of July. 
 The English fleet was commanded by the admirals Keppel, Palliser, 
 and Harland. But, as the action of that day is amply related in our 
 History of England, we shall not introduce in these annals of Ame- 
 rica, an account of so foul a tarnish to the British flag. 
 
 In the beginning of June, the Trident British man of war arrived 
 in the Delaware, with the earl of Carlisle, Mr. Eden, and governor 
 Johnstone, three of the commissioners for restoring peace between 
 Great Britain and America. 
 
 On the 18'h ot June, at three o'clock in the morning, the British 
 evacuated Philadelphia, Mr. Eden having brought with him secret 
 instructions from England for that purpose. They proceeded to 
 Gloucester point, three miles down the river, and before ten the 
 whole had passed in safety across the Delaware into New Jersey. 
 
 When intelligence of Sir Henry Clinton's having evacuated Phi- 
 ladelphia reached the American headquarters, general Washington 
 took his measures accordingly. Several skirmishes happened be- 
 tween the Americans and the regulars with various success, til! on 
 the 30th of June the royal army arrived in the neighbourhood of 
 Sandy Hook. During the course of the march from Philadelphia, 
 the royal army was much reduced, upwards of 800 having deserted, 
 a great number of whom were Hessians. 
 
 On the 5th of July, the army passed over a bridge of boats across 
 a narrow channel to Sandy Hook, and were afterwards carried up to 
 New York. On the 7th, lord Howe received advice that the 
 squadron from Toulon was arrived at Virginia. Count d'Estaing 
 anchored on the 8th at night at the entrance of the Delaware. 
 The next morning,he weighed and sailed towards the Hook, and 
 on the evening of the 11th anchored without it. Had not bad 
 weather and unrxpected impediments prevented, the count must 
 have surprised Howe's fleet in the Delaware, as the latter would 
 not have bad time to escape after being apprized of his danger. The 
 
2^2 
 
 HISTORY OF 
 
 destruction of the fleet must have been the consequence of such a 
 surprisal ; and that must have occasioned the inevitable loss of the 
 royal army, which would have been so enclosed by the French squad- 
 ron on the one side, and the American forces on the other, thai the 
 Saratoga catastrophe must have been repeated .Lord Howe's fleet 
 consisted only of six sixty-four gun .ships, three of fifty, and two of 
 forty, with some frigates and sloops. Count d'Estaing had twelve 
 ships of the line, some of which were of great force and weight. 
 
 On the 22d of July, the count sailed from Sandy Hook, where 
 about twenty sail of vessels bound to New York had fallen into his 
 possession. They were chiefly prizes taken from the Americans : 
 but, had he stayed a few days longer, admiral Byron's fleet must 
 have fallen a defenceless prey into his hands. That squadron had 
 met with very bad weather, and being separated in different 
 storms, and lingering through a tedious passage, arrived, scattered, 
 broken, sickly, dismasted, or otherwise damaged, in various de- 
 grees of distress, upon different and remote parts of the American 
 coast. Between the departure ofd'Estaing and the 30th of July, 
 %he Renown of $0 guns from the West Indies, the RaisonabJe and 
 Centurion of 64, and the Cornwall of 74 guns, all arrived singly at 
 Sandy Hook. By d'Estaing's speedy departure a number of pro- 
 vision ships from Cork escaped alf.o, together with their convoy. 
 They went up the Delaware within fifty miles of Philadelphia after 
 lord Howe had quitted the river, not having obtained any informa- 
 tion of what had happened. The British ministry had neglected 
 countermanding their destination, though orders for the evacuation 
 of Philadelphia had been sent off so early, as to admit of their receiv- 
 ing fresh instructions before sailing where to steer. Great rejoicings 
 were made at New York upon their safe arrival, especially as pro- 
 visions were much wanted both by the fleet and army. 
 
 Let us now quit the military operations for the present, and take 
 a view of the pending negotiations. Governor Johnstone, meaning 
 to avail himself of former connexions, endeavoured to commence or 
 renew a private correspondence with several members of congress, 
 and other persons of consideration. In his letters to them he used 
 a freedom with the authority under which he acted, not customary 
 with those entrusted with delegated power, and afforded such a 
 degree of approbation to the Americans in the past resistance they 
 had made, as is seldom granted by negotiators to their opponents. 
 In a letter to Joseph Reed, esq. of April the 11th, he said, " The 
 man, who can be instrumental in bringing us all to act once more 
 in harmony, and to unite together the various powers which this 
 contest has drawn forth, will deserve more from the king and 
 people, from patriotism, humanity, and all the tender ties that are 
 affected by the quarrel and reconciliation, than ever wa» yet be- 
 stowed on human kind." 
 
 On the 16th of June, he wmte to Robert Morris, esq — M I be- 
 lieve the men, who have conducted the affairs of America, inca- 
 pable of being influenced by improper motives ; but in all such 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 273 
 
 transactions there is risk, and I think that whoever ventures should 
 be secured; at the same time that honour and emolument should 
 naturally follow the fortune of those, who have steered the vessel 
 in the storm, and brought her safely to port. I think Washington 
 and the president have a right to every favour that grateful nations 
 can bestow, if they could once more unite our interest, and spare 
 the miseries and devastation of war." 
 
 On Sunday the 21st of June, Mr Reed received a written mes- 
 sage from Mrs. Ferguson, expressing a desire to see him on busi- 
 ness, which could not be committed to writing. On his attending 
 in the evening, agreeable to her appointment, after some previous 
 conversation, she enlarged upon the great talents and amiable qua- 
 lities of governor Johnstone, and added, that in several conversa- 
 tions with her, he had expressed the most favourable sentiments of 
 Mr. Reed ; that it was particularly wished to engage his interest 
 to promote the object of the British commissioners, viz. a reunion 
 of the two countries, if consistent with his principles and judgment; 
 and in such case it could not be deemed unbecoming or improper in 
 the British government to take a favourable notice of such conduct ; 
 und that, in this instance, Mr. Reed might have ten thousand pounds 
 sterling, and any office in the colonies in his majesty's gift. 
 
 Mr. Reed, finding an answer was expected, replied, " I am not 
 worth purchasing ; but, such as 1 am, the king of Great Britain is 
 not rich enough to do it." However right the principles might be, 
 on which this insinuating scheme of conciliation was adopted, its 
 effects were inimical. 
 
 On the 9lh of July, congress ordered, *« That all letters received 
 by members of congress from any of the British commissioners, or 
 their agents, or from any subject of the king of Great Britain, of a 
 public nature, be laid before congress." The preceding letters 
 being communicated, and Mr. Reed making a declarationof what 
 had passed within his knowledge, congress resolved, "That the 
 same cannot be considered but as direct attempts to corrupt and 
 bribe the congress ; tha> as congress feel, so they ought to demon- 
 strate, the highest and most pointed indignation against such daring 
 and atrocious attempts to corrupt their integrity; and that it is 
 incompatible with the honour of congress to hold any manner of 
 correspondence or intercourse with the said George Johnstone, esq. 
 especially to negotiate with him upon affairs, in which the cause of 
 liberty is concerned " 
 
 Their proceedings in this business were expressed in the form of 
 a declaration, a copy of which was ordered to be signed by the 
 president, and sent by a fia^ to the commissioners at New York. 
 
 These proceedings produced a very angry and violent declara- 
 tion from "overrun Johnsleme, in which the immediate operations of 
 passion a..d disappointment were loo conspicuous The language 
 of his publication but poorly agreed with the high and flattering 
 compliments he bad so lately lavished on the Americans, in those 
 very letters, which were the subject of the present contest. It 
 
274 HISTORY OF 
 
 was dated the 26th of August, and transmitted to congress ; to- 
 gether with a declaration of the same date from lord Carlisle, Sir 
 Henry Clinton, and Mr. Eden, which went to a solemn and total dis- 
 avowal, so far as related to the present subject, of their having had 
 any knowledge, directly or indirectly, of those matters specified by 
 congress. 
 
 Thus were all hopes of further negotiation with congress at an 
 end. Had lord North, and the rest of the ministry then in being, 
 adopted these corrupting measures in the more early part of the 
 American disputes, it is possible they might have succeeded ; but 
 to attempt it at a time, when the spirits of the Americans were 
 raised to the highest pitch by their new alliance with France, was 
 surely little short of folly and madness. 
 
 On the 6th of August, the honourable sieur Gerard was introduc- 
 ed to the congress, in quality of minister plenipotentiary, who pro- 
 duced a letter from his master the king of France to his very dear 
 great friends and allies ; and the compliments Mons. Gerard receiv- 
 ed on this occasion were very different from those sentiments the 
 Americans lately entertained of their now faithful allies. 
 
 On the 14th of September, congress proceeded to the election of 
 a minister plenipotentiary to the court of France, when Dr. Benja- 
 min Franklin was elected by ballot. His instructions were dated 
 the 26th of October, and by them he was directed to obtain, if pos- 
 sible, the French king's consent to expunge two of the articles in 
 the treaty of commerce. The doctor was to inculcate the certainty 
 of ruining the British fishery on the banks of Newfoundland, and 
 consequently the British marine, by reducing Halifax and Quebec. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1777 Count Donop repulsed in the attack upon Red-bank. 
 Mud-island reduced. 
 
 Congress receive the treaties concluded between France and the 
 United States. 
 
 1778 Ihe Randolph American frigate blown up. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton succeeds general Howe in America. 
 
 The treaties between France and the United States signed. 
 
 Lord North's conciliatory propositions. 
 
 Messrs Franklin, Deane, and Lee. have a public audience at 
 
 the French court 
 The British army evacuates Philadelphia. 
 Skirmishes between the English and Americans. 
 The British forces arrive at Sandy Hook 
 Governor yohns tone attempts to corrupt certain members of 
 
 the congress. 
 Dr. Franklin sent as minister to the court of-France. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 275 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 The campaign in the northern states having produced nothing acL 
 vantageous to the British, and the winter being the proper season 
 for southern expeditions, Sir Henry Clinton concluded upon turning 
 his arms against Georgia. He might propose to himself the reduc- 
 tion of all the southern states, and he strongly inclined to it, by rea- 
 son that these states produced the most valuable articles of com- 
 merce for the European market, and carried on a considerable ex- 
 port trade, which appeared no otherwise affected by the war than as 
 it suffered from the British cruisers. The rice was devoted to the 
 service of its enemies, while it was wanted for the support of the 
 royal fleet and army in America. A plan of operations was concert- 
 ed with general Prevost, who commanded in East Florida; and it. 
 was intended, that Georgia should be invaded both on the north and 
 south sides at the same time. 
 
 This expedition was committed to colonel Campbell, and the 
 forces appointed to act under him amounted to full 2500, which 
 sailed from Sandy Hook, on the 27th of November, being escorted 
 by* a small squadron under commodore Hyde Parker. The fleet 
 arrived at the isle of ribee, near the mouth of the Savannah, and 
 on the 29th of December, the troops effected a landing. They were 
 no sooner landed, than they were led to attack the fort, which the 
 British persisted in with so much spirit and rapidity, that the 
 Americans retreated with precipitation and disorder. No victory- 
 was ever more complete : thirty-eight officers, and 415 non-com- 
 missioned and privates, 48 pieces of cannon, 23 mortars, the fort 
 with its ammunition and stores, the shipping in the river, a large 
 quantity of provisions, with the capital of Georgia, were all, in the 
 space of a few hours in the possession of the British troops. 
 
 The 30th of December was appointed as a thanksgiving. day, by 
 order of congress. The affairs of the United States were at this 
 period in a most distressed, deplorable, and ruinous condition.-— 
 Idleness, dissipation, and extravagance, seemed to have engrossed 
 the attention of the generality of the American sons of liberty ; 
 and self-interest, speculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches, 
 appeared to have got the better of every other consideration, and 
 almost of every order of men Party disputes and personal quarrels 
 were too much the general object, while the momen'ous concerns 
 of the empire, a vast accumulated debt, ruined finances, depre- 
 ciated money, and want of credit, which naturally brings on the 
 want of every thing, were but secondary considerations, and 
 postponed by congress from time to time, as if their affairs were in. 
 the most flourishing situation. The paper currency in Philadel- 
 phia was daily sinking, and at length even so low as fifty per cent, 
 yet an assembly, a concert, a dinner or supper, which cost two op 
 three hundred pounds, did not only take men off from acting, but 
 24 
 
276 HISTORY OF 
 
 even from thinking of what ought to have been nearest their hearts. 
 Some of the most disinterested and patriotic Americans felt more 
 distress from this appearance of things, than they had done at any 
 other time, from the disappointments and losses in the course of 
 the war. 
 
 In the mean time, Mons. Gerard, the French ambassador, mani- 
 fested a desire, that the war might not be prolonged by too high and 
 unreasonable demands, and that the United States would reduce 
 their ultimatum as low as possible. He strongly recommended 
 moderation, as the fate of war was uncertain ; and he hinted, that a 
 decisive naval engagement, in favour of the British, might give a 
 great turn to their affairs. 
 
 The South Carolina delegates, rather with a view to conquest, 
 than from any special apprehension of danger to their own or 
 neighbouring states from the troops under general Clinton, request- 
 ed the congress to appoint general Lincoln, on whose character 
 they justly reposed great confidence, to the command of all their 
 forces to the Southward. Accordingly they made the appointment 
 on the 25ih of September, and ordered him immediately to repair 
 to Charleston. 
 
 On the 2d of March, 1779, the American officer of the day re- 
 ported, that reconnoitring parties of the enemy's horse and foot 
 had been seen within their pickets the night preceding. General 
 Ashe, who had crossed the Savannah with about 1200 troops, be- 
 sides 200 light horse, returned on the evening of the same day to his 
 camp. In snort, the conduct of general Ashe was so pusilanimous, 
 that he made no preparations to impede the march of the British , 
 and, soon after their appearance, he and his troops fled with preci- 
 pitation, without firing a gun. 
 
 In the month of May, sir Henry Clinton despatched sir George 
 Collier and general Matthews, with about 2000 men, besides 500 
 marines, to make a descent upon Virginia. They sailed for Ports- 
 mouth in that province, and upon their arrival landed their troops 
 at a distance, Vhen marched, and took immediate possession of the 
 town, which was defencless. The remains of Norfolk, on the oppo- 
 site side of the river, fell of course into their hands. On the ap- 
 proach of the fleet and army, the. Americans burnt several vessels? 
 others were saved and possessed by the British. The guards were 
 pushed forward eighteen miles by night to Suffolk, where they ar- 
 rived by daylight, and proceeded to destroy a magazine of provi- 
 sions, together with the vessels and naval stores found there. A 
 similar destruction was carried on at other places in that quarter, 
 nor were the frigates and armed vessels less active or successful in 
 their service. 
 
 Within the fortnight that the fleet and army continued upon the 
 coast, the loss of the Americans was prodigious. Above 130 ves- 
 sels of all sorts, including some privateers and ships of force, were 
 destroyed or taken by them ; seventeen prizes were brought away, 
 besides 3000 hhds. of tobacco, which fell into their possession at 
 Portsmouth. Except the house of a widow and the church, they 
 
NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 277 
 
 burnt every house in Suffolk, and alt the principal houses of gentle- 
 men in this route shared the same fate. 
 
 On the 30th of Miy, the troops </ere joined to others going up 
 the North river to attack the posts of Stony point and Verplank, 
 where the Americans had begun to construct strong works, for 
 keeping- the lower communication open between the eastern and 
 southern states. General Vaughan landed with the greater part on 
 the east side, while the remainder, accompanied by sir Henry 
 Clinton, advanced further up, landed on the west side, and took pos- 
 session of Stony point without oppositition Directly opposite, the 
 Americans had completely finished a strong fort, which was de- 
 fended by four pieces of artillery, and a garrison of about seventy 
 men. But it was commanded by Stony point ; to the summit ot 
 whose rocks canon and mortars were dragged up during the night. 
 By five in the morning, a baitery was opened, which poured a storm 
 of fire on the fort, while Vaughan with his division, making a 
 long circuit by the sides of tlu hills, arrived, and closely invested it 
 by land. The garrison, finding themselves totally overpowered, 
 surrendered themselves prisoners of war. By the loss of these 
 posts, the Jersy people were obliged to make a circuit of about 
 ninety miles through the mountains, to communicate with the states 
 east of Hudson's river. 
 
 Afiet the French had taken Grenada, and count d'Estaing was 
 , lying with his fleet at Cape Francois, he received letters from go- 
 vernor Rutledge, general Lincoln, the French consul at Charleston, 
 and others, urging him to visit the American coast, and proposing 
 an attack upon Savannah. The general engaged to join him with a 
 thousand men certain, and promised that every exertion should be 
 made to increase the number. The application coinciding with the 
 king's instructions, to act in concert with the forces of the United 
 States, whenever an occasion presented itself, he sailed for the 
 American continent within a few days after it was received. 
 
 On the 1st of September, count d'Estaing arrived with a fleet of 
 twenty sail of the line, two of fifty guns, and eleven frigates. The 
 appearance of the French fleet on the coast of South Carolina and 
 Georgia was so unexpected by the British, that the Experiment 
 man of war, of fifty guns, sir James Wallace, commander, and three 
 frigates were captured. No sooner was it known at Charleston, that 
 the count was on the coast, than Lincoln marched with all expedi- 
 tion for Savannah, with the troops under his command : and orders* 
 were also given for the South Carolina and Georgia militia to ren- 
 dezvous immediately near the same place. The British were equal- 
 ly diligent in preparing for their defence. 
 
 The French and Americans, after having spent sometime in mak- 
 ing regular approaches, at last determined to take the place by 
 storm. Accordingly, the morning of the 9th of October was fixed 
 for the attack, and neither the French nor the Americans had the 
 least doubts of success. 
 
 Two feints were made with the country militia, and a real attack 
 a little before daylight, on the Spring- hill battery, with three thou^ 
 
278 HISTORY OF 
 
 sand five hundred French troops, 600 continentals, and 350 of the 
 Charleston militia, headed by count d'Estaing and general Lincoln, 
 They marched up to the lines with great boldness ; but a heavy 
 and well directed fire from the batteries, and a cross fire from the 
 galleys, threw the front of the column into confusion. Two stand- 
 ards, however, one an American, were planted on the British re- 
 doubts. Count Pulaski, at the head of 200 horsemen, was in full 
 gallop, riding into town between the redoubts, with an intention of 
 charging in the rear 5 when he received a mortal wound. A general 
 retreat of the assailants took place, after they had stood the ene- 
 my's fire for fifty five minutes. D'Estaing received two slight 
 wounds ; 637 of his troops, and 234 of the continentals, were kill- 
 ed or wounded. Of the 350 Charleston militia, who were in the 
 hottest of the fire, only six were wounded, and a captain killed. — 
 General Prevost, and major Moncrieff deservedly acquired great 
 reputation by thtir successful defence. There were not ten guns 
 mounted on the lines when the enemy first appeared, and in a few 
 days the number exceeded eighty. The garrison was between two 
 and three thousand, including 150 militia. The damage it sustained 
 was trifling, as the men fired under cover, and few of fche assailants 
 fired at all. 
 
 Let us now see what the northern army was doing. In the mid- 
 dle of December, a part of gei>eral Washington's army was without 
 bread ; and for the rest he had not, either on the spot or within reach, 
 a supply sufficient for four days. Both officers and men were al- 
 most perishing through want for a fortnight. The deficiency pro- 
 ceeded from the absolute emptiness of the American magazines in 
 eve-ty place, and the total want of money and credit to replenish them. 
 So that the general was obliged to call upon the magistrates of the 
 Jersy State, to express his- situation to them, and to declare in plain 
 terms, that he and his army were reduced to the alternative of dis- 
 banding or catering for themselves, unless the inhabitants, would 
 afford them aid. He allotted to each county a certain proportion of 
 flour or grain, and a certain number of cattle to be delivered on cer- 
 tain days. To the honour of the magistrates, and the good disposi- 
 tion of the people, be it added, that these requisitions were punctu- 
 ally complied with, and in many counties exceeded. 
 
 But to return to the southern armies. On the 20th of March 
 1780, admiral Arbuthnot, with a small fleet, crossed the bar, in 
 front of rebellion road, and anchored in Five Fathom Hole. The 
 American fleet retreated to Charleston, and the crews and guns of 
 all the vessels, except the Ranger, were put on shore to reinforce 
 the batteries. Before the Americans' had taken this step, they 
 should have considered, whether the ships were able to defend 
 ihe bar, and should have sent them off, when they found it imprac- 
 ticable. 
 
 On the 12th of April, the British opened their batteries against 
 Charleston, and a constant fire was kept up between both parties 
 until the 20th. On the 18th of April, sir Henry Clinton received 
 a reinforcement of 3000 wen from New York ; and on the 12th of 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 279 
 
 May, general Lincoln, after having made the most vigorous defence 
 he was capable of, was obliged to capitulate. It was stipulated, 
 that the continental troops and sailors should remain prisoners of 
 war until exchanged, and be provided with good and wholesome 
 provisions, in such quantities as were served out to the British 
 troops. The militia were to return lnme as prisoners on parole, 
 which, as long as they observed, was to secure them from being 
 molested in their property by the British troops. The officers^' 
 the army and navy were to keep their swords, pistols, and baggie, 
 which last was not to be searched; but their horses were not to go 
 out of town, but might be disposed of by a person left for the pur- 
 pose. The garrison, at an hour appointed, was to march out c£ 
 the town to the ground between the works of the place and the 
 canal, where they were to deposit their arms. The drums were 
 not to beat a British march, nor the colours to be uncased. All 
 civil officers and citizens, who had borne arms during the siege. 
 were to be prisoners on parole ; and with respect to their property 
 in the city, they were to have the same terms as the militia ; and 
 all other persons in the town, not described in any article, were not- 
 withstanding to be prisoners upon parole. 
 
 The capital having surrendered, the next object of the British 
 was to secure the general submission of the inhabitants. With this 
 view they posted garrisons in different part of the country, and 
 marched a large body of troops over the Santee, towards the ex- 
 tremity of the State, which borders on the most populous parts of 
 North Carolina. This occasioned the retreat of some American 
 parties, who had advanced into the upper part of South Carolina, 
 in expectation of relieving Charleston. Among the corps which 
 had come forward with that view, there was one consisting of about 
 300 continentals, the rear of the Virginia line, commanded by colo- 
 nel Buford. Tarleton, with about 700 horse and foot, was sent in 
 quest of this party. Having mounted his infantry, he marched 105 
 miles in fifty-four hours, came up with them at 'he Waxhaws, and 
 demanded their surrender on terms similar to those granted to the 
 continentals at Charleston. While the flag's were passing and re* 
 passing on this business, Tarleton kept his men in motion, and 
 when the truce was ended, had nearly surrounded his adversaries. 
 An action instantly ensued, when the continental party, having par- 
 taken of the general consternation occasioned by the British suc- 
 cesses, made but a feeble resistance, and begged for quarter. A 
 few, however, continued to fire. The British cavalry advanced, but 
 were not opposed by the main body of the continentals, who con- 
 ceived themselves precluded by their submission. The accidental 
 firintr of the few was an argument, however, for directing the Bri- 
 tish ifgion to charge those who had laid down their arms. In con- 
 sequence of this order, 'he unresisting Americans, praying for 
 quarter, wei cut in pieces. By Tarleton's official account of this 
 bloody scene, 113 were killed, 150 badly wounded, unable to travel, 
 and left on parole, and 53 made prisoners ; while they made such 
 ineffectual opposition as only to k;il seven and wound twelve of the 
 24* 
 
i280 HISTORY OF 
 
 British. Lord Cornwallis bestowed on Tarleton the highest enco- 
 miums for this enterprise, and recommended him in a special man* 
 ner to royal favour and patronage. 
 
 The expected succour at length arrived from France, on the 
 evening- of the 10th of July, at Rhode Island. The Chevalier de 
 Ternay commanded the fleet, which consisted of two ships of 80 
 guns, one of 74, four of 64, two frigates of 40, a cutter of 20, an 
 hospital ship, pierced for 64, a bomb vessel, and thirty-two trans* 
 ports. The land forces consisted of four old regiments, beside the 
 legion de Lauzun, and a battalion of artillery, amounting to about 
 6000 men, under the command of lieutenant general Count de Ro» 
 chambeau. 
 
 About the time that Charleston surrendered, Sir Henry Cintora 
 received intelligence, that a large number of forces and a French, 
 fleet, commanded by Mons. Ternay, might soon be expected on the 
 American coast. This induced him to re-embark for New York, 
 leaving lord Cornwallis with about 4000 men, which were deemed 
 fully sufficient for his purposes. 
 
 On the|4th|of September, 1778, was signed the plan of a treaty of 
 amity and commerce to be concluded afterwards, between the 
 states of Holland and the United States of America. Mons. de 
 Neufville, being properly authorized by the regency of Amster- 
 dam, engaged, that as long as America should not act contrary to 
 the interest of the states of Holland, the city of Amsterdam would 
 never adopt any measure that might tend to oppose the interest of 
 America ; but would, on the contrary, use all its influence upon the 
 states of the Seven United Provinces of Holland, to effect the desir- 
 ed connexion. This business was conducted by Mr. Adams, on 
 the part of America. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis went on successfully in South Carolina. On the 
 loth of August he engaged the forces under general Gates, and 
 completely routed them after a long and obstinate contest, general 
 Gates was borne off the field by a torrent of dismayed militia. 
 They constituted so great a part of his army, that when he saw 
 them break and run with such precipitation, he lost every hope of 
 victory ; and his only care was, if possible, to rally a sufficient num. 
 ber to cover the retreat of the other troops. He retired with gene- 
 ral Caswell to Clermont, in hope of halting them in their late en- 
 •ampment ; but the further they fled, the more they dispersed, and 
 the generals giving up all as lost, retired with a few attendants to 
 Charlotte. 
 
 The Americans lost eight field pieces, the whole of their artillery, 
 ivith all their ammunition waggons, besides 150 others, and a con- 
 siderable quantity of military stores, and the greatest part of their 
 baggage. The numbers slain cannot be precisely ascertained, no 
 returns of the miiitia ever being made after the action ; but it is 
 supposed, that the Americans lost about 700 on this occasion. 
 Though Cornwallis's victory was complete, yet, from the account 
 the British gave of the action, it may be inferred, that it was dearly 
 bought, upwards of 500 of their old troops being killed or wounded 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 281 
 
 A minute representation of the retreat of the Americans from 
 Charlotte to Salisbury, would be the image of complicated wretch- 
 edness. Care, anxiety, pain, humiliation and dejection, poverty, 
 hurry and confusion, promiscuously marked the shocking scene. 
 Painful objects presented themselves to view ; several men with- 
 out an aim, some with but one, and many standing in need of the 
 most kind and powerful assistance. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, notwithstanding his victory, was restrained for 
 some time from pursuing his conquests, by the loss he had sustain- 
 ed in the battle, the extreme heat of the weather, the sickliness of 
 the season, and the want of necessary supplies: he therefore re- 
 mained at Camden. 
 
 In the month of September, a discovery of the utmost importance 
 was made, which was a scheme for delivering West-point into the 
 hands of Sir Henry Clinton. General Arnold, who had the com- 
 mand of that post, was brave but mercenary, fond of parade, and ex- 
 tremely desirous of acquiring money to defray the expenses of it. 
 When he entered Philadelphia after the evacuation, he made gove- 
 nor Penn's, the best house in it, his head quarters. This he fur- 
 nished in a very costly manner, and lived in a style far beyond his 
 income. He continued his extravagant course of living, was un- 
 successful in trade and privateering, his funds were exhausted, and 
 his creditors importunate, while his lust for high life was not in the 
 least abated. He had exhibited heavy accounts and demands against 
 the public: and the commissioners, upon examination, rejected 
 about one half of the amount. He appealed to Congress, and a 
 committee was appointed, who were of opinion, that the commis- 
 sioners had allowed more than the general had a right to expect or 
 demand. This provoked him to outrageous expressions and pro- 
 ceedings. Disgusted at the treatment he had met with, embarrass- 
 ed in Iiis circumstances, and having a growing expensive family, he 
 turned his thoughts toward bettering his circumstances by new 
 means. In 1779, a correspondence commenced between general 
 Arnold and major Andre, adjutant general to the British army, a 
 rising young officer of great hope and merit. 
 
 For the speedy completion of the negotiation that was carrying on 
 between Sir Henry and general Arnold, the Vulture sloop of war was 
 stationed in the North river, at such a distance from the American 
 posts, as, without exciting suspicion, would serve for the necessary 
 communication. Before this, a written correspondence, through 
 other channels, had been maintained between Arnold and Andre at 
 New York, under the names of Gustavus and Anderson. 
 
 On the 21st of September, 1780, the necessary arrangements be- 
 ing made, a boat was sent at night from the shore to the Vulture tc 
 fetch major Andre, which brought him to the beach without th« 
 posts of either army, where he met Arnold The major continued 
 with him during the following day, and at night, the boatmen re- 
 fusing to conduct him back to ihe Vulture, which had shifted her 
 position, as she lay exposed to the file of a cannon sent to annoy 
 her, he was obliged to concert his escape by land. He quitted^ his 
 
£82 HISTORY OP 
 
 uniform, which he had hitherto worn under his surtout, for a com- 
 mon coat. He was furnished with a horse, and under the name of 
 John Anderson, with a passport from Arnold, to go through the 
 lines at White plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being on 
 public business. 
 
 He pursued his journey alone to New York, passed all the guards 
 and posts on the road without suspicion, and was much elated. 
 The next day he travelled without any alarm, and began to consider 
 liimself out of danger ; but, unhappily for him, three of the New 
 York militia were with others out on a scouting party between the 
 out-posts of the two armies. One of them sprung from his covert, 
 and seized Andre's horse by the bridle. The major, instead of in- 
 stantly producing his pass, asked the man where he belonged to, 
 who answered, •' To below." Andre, suspecting no deceit, said, 
 " So do I** Then declared himself a British officer, and pressed 
 that he might not be detained, for that he was upon urgent business. 
 Upon the other two coming up, and joining their comrade, he dis- 
 covered his mistake. The confusion that followed was apparent, 
 and they proceeded to search him till they found his papers. He 
 offered the captors a considerable purse of gold, and a very valua- 
 ble watch, to let him pass; but they nobly disdained the tempta- 
 tion, besides the fascinating offers of permanent provision, and even 
 of future promotion, on condition of their conveying and accompany- 
 ing him to New York. They conducted him to lieutenant colonel 
 Jameson, the continental officer, who had the command of the scout- 
 ing parties, amounting to 800 men, chiefly militia. Arnold's con- 
 duct with regard to this body of men, and in other respects, had 
 excited such suspicions in the breast of the lieutenant colonel, and 
 the rest of the officers, that they had determined upon seizing the 
 general at all events, had he come down and ordered them nearer 
 the enemy. Jameson, notwithstanding his strong jealousy of Ar- 
 nold, was in the issue the means of his escape. 
 
 Major Andre, in order to give Arnold time to escape, requested 
 that a line might be sent to acquaint him with the detention of An- 
 derson, the name Andre had assumed, which Jameson through an ill- 
 judged delicacy granted. The papers which were found in the major's 
 boots, were in Arnold's hand-writing, and contained exact returns 
 of the state of the forces, ordnance and defences at West-point and 
 its dependences, with the artillery orders, critical remarks on the 
 works, an estimate of the number of men that were ordinarily on 
 duty to man them, and the copy of a state of matters that had been 
 laid before a council of war by the commander in chief. These 
 papers were enclosed in a packet to general Washington, accom- 
 pained with a letter from the prisoner, avowing himself to be major 
 Andre, adjutant general to the British army, relating the manner of 
 his capture, and endeavouring to show, that he did not come under 
 the description of a spy. These papers were forwarded by Jame- 
 son. 
 
 No sooner had Arnold received the major's letter, than he hasten- 
 ed on board the Vulture, which lay some miles below Stony and 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 283 
 
 Verplank's points ; and Arnold had not been long gone, when Wash- 
 ington arrived at his quarters. Had the plot succeeded, the conse- 
 quences must have been ruinous to the Americans. The forces 
 under Arnold's command must have either laid down their arms, 
 or have been cut to pieces. Their loss, and the immediate posses- 
 sion of West-point, and all its neighbouring dependences, must have 
 exposed the remainder of Washington's army so to the joint exer- 
 tion of the British forces, by land and water, that nothing but ruin 
 could have been the result with rrspect to the Americans. 
 
 On the 29th of September, general Washington appointed a 
 board of fourteen general officers, with the assistance of the judge 
 advocate general, to examine major Andre's case, and to determine 
 in what light it ought to be considered. Andre disdaining all sub- 
 terfuge and evasion, and studying only to place his character in so 
 fair a light, as might prevent its being shaded by present circum- 
 stances, voluntarily confessed more than he was asked, and sought 
 not to palliate any thing relating to himself, while be concealed, 
 with the most guarded and scrupulous nicety, whatever might in- 
 volve others. The board showed him every possible mark of in- 
 dulgence, and sufficiently witnessed how much they felt for his 
 situation. However, public justice obliged them to declare, " that 
 major Andre ought to be considered as a spy from the enemy ; and 
 that agreeably to the law and usage of nations, it is their ©pinion 
 he ought to suffer death." 
 
 Several letters passed between the generals Clinton and Wash- 
 ington relative to this unhappy affair ; but nothing was capable of 
 saving the unfortunate major. On the 2d of October, the tragedy 
 was closed. The major was superior to the terrors of death ; but 
 the disgraceful mode of dying, which the usage »f war had annex- 
 ed to his unhappy situation, was infinitely dreadful to him. He 
 was desirous of being indulged with a professional death, and had 
 accordingly written, the day before, a pathetic letter, fraught with 
 all the feelings of a man of sentiment and honour, in which he re- 
 quested of general Washington, that he might not die on a gibbet. 
 The general cunsulted his officers on the subject. Pity and esteem 
 wrought so powerfully, that they were all for shooting him, till 
 Greene insisted on it, that his crime was that of a common spy ; 
 that the public good required his being hanged ; and that, were he 
 shot, the generality would think there were favourable circumstan- 
 ces entitling him to notice and lenity. His observations convinced 
 them, tha^ there would be an impropriety in granting the major's 
 request, ivh'de ;enderness prevented its being divulged. 
 
 Wi.vn major Andre was led out to the place of execution, as 
 he wcit al.nghe b^wed himself familiarly to all those with whom 
 he had heen acquainted in his confinement. A smile of compla- 
 cency expressed -he serene fortitude of his mind. Upon seeing the 
 preparatory at the fatal spot, he asked with some emotion, " Must 
 I die in this manner V* He was told it was unavoidable. He re- 
 plied, "lam reconciled to my fa<e, but not to the mode." Scon 
 &fter 5 recollecting himself, he added, " It will be but a momenta- 
 
284 HISTORY OF 
 
 ry pang ;" and springing upon the cart, he performed the last of- 
 fices to himself, with a composure that excited the admiration, and 
 melted the hearts of all the spectators. Being told the final moment 
 was at hand, and asked if he had any thing to say, he answered, 
 " Nothing but to request you will witness to the world, that I die 
 like a brave man." He died universally esteemed and regretled. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1778 The British operations against Georgia. 
 
 The affairs of the United States in a deplorable condition. 
 General Lincoln sent to South Carolina. 
 
 1779 General Ashe surprised aud defeated. 
 Sir Henry Clinton takes Stony Point. 
 
 Count d'Estaing sails from the West Indies Jor the American 
 
 coasts. 
 The French and Americans repulsed+at Savannah. 
 Washington's army in distress for want of bread. 
 Charleston taken by the British forces. 
 x78Q Tarleton defeats colonel Buford. 
 
 A French feet with troops arrive at Newport. 
 
 Treaty signed between Holland and America. 
 
 Earl Coruwallis defeats general Gates. 
 
 Major Andte taken and executed as a spy. 
 
 General Arnold makes his escape on board the Vulture British 
 
 sloop of war. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton, on the 15th of October, 1780, i.. obedience to 
 the orders sent him, to prosecute the war with vigour in North Ca- 
 rolina and Virginia, despatched general Leslie from New York to 
 the bay of Chesapeake, with near 3000 choice troops. He was to 
 co-operate with lord Cornwallis, who was expected to be far ad- 
 vanced towards, if not to have reached Viiginia. In a few days, 
 the fleet arrived in the bay, and the troops were landed in different 
 parts of Virginia, 
 
 On the 10th of June, the French and Spanish fleets formed a junc- 
 tion in the West Indies They amounted to 36 *ail of the line, which, 
 with their united land forces, formed such an apparent superiority, 
 as nothing in those seas or islands seemed capable of resisting. 
 The Spanish troops were too much crowded on board their trans- 
 ports. Through the length of the voyage, the change of climate 
 and diet, and other circumstances, a most mortal and contagious 
 disorder was generated, which first infected their own seamen, and 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 285 
 
 at length spread, though not with so fatal an effect, through the 
 French fleet and land forces. Besides the great mortality on their 
 passage, the Spaniards landed 1200 sick on their first arrival at Do- 
 minique, and a much greater number afterwards at Guadaloupe 
 and Martinico. Thus the spirit of enterprise was damped, and 
 some part of their strength diminished. 
 
 In the month of September, Mr. Laurens was taken an his way 
 from congress to Holland, on the banks of Newfoundland. A 
 packet of papers being thrown overboard, and not sinking sudden- 
 ly, was saved by the boldness and dexterity of an English sailor, 
 and most of them were recovered from the effects of the water. 
 On bis arrival in England, he was committed, upon a charge of high 
 treason, as a state prisoner to the tower, under an order signed by 
 the three secretaries of state. By the medium of his papers, ad- 
 ministration came to the knowledge of the eventual treaty of amity 
 and commerce between America and Holland. 
 
 In consequence of this discovery, strong remonstrances were 
 made to the states general ; but, as no satisfactoiy answer was re- 
 turned, Sir Joseph Yorke received orders to withdraw from the 
 Hague; and, on the 20th of December, general reprisals were issued 
 against the ships, goods, and subjects, of the states general. 
 
 On the 12th of January, 1781, general Greene's troops consisted 
 of about 1110. The next day, colonel Lee's partisan legion arrived 
 from the northward, consisting of about 100 horsemen, well mount- 
 ed, and 120 infantry; and on the 13th the legion was detached on 
 a secret expedition. They pushed on for Georgetown, where they 
 surprised several officers, and took them prisoners. Major Irwin, 
 and many more of the garrison, were killed ; but the principal part 
 fled to the fort, which Lee was not in a condition to besiege. While 
 this enterprise was carrying on, the enemy aimed a blow at Mor- 
 gan, who was advised by Greene not to risk too much. 
 
 General Leslie, in compliance with his orders, left Virginia, and 
 arrived at Charleston, and joined lord Cornvvallis, who wished to 
 drive general Morgan from his station, and to deter the inhabitants 
 from joining him. The execution of this business was entrusted to 
 lieutenant colonel Tarieton, who was detached with about 1100 
 men for that purpose". On the 17th of January, Tarieton came up 
 with Morgan, when an action commenced, which terminated much 
 to the disadvantage of Tarieton. 
 
 Tarieton was very much censured for his conduct in this battle, 
 which he was supposed to have Hst by his un- officerlike impetu- 
 osity. Lord Cornvvallis, with the expectations of regaining the 
 prisoners, and demolishing Morgan's corps, instantly concluded on 
 a pursuit, which Morgan was aware of, and took his measures ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 On the 31st of January, Greene succeeded Morgan in the com- 
 mand of the southern army, when a kind of military race com- 
 menced between the pursuing British and the fleeing Americans ; 
 but Greene got off' before Cornvvallis could overtake him. 
 
286 HISTORY OF 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, bein£ afterwards convinced, from Greeners 
 movements, that he intended to venture an engagement, on the 
 14th of March sent off his baggage under a proper escort, and the 
 next morning at daybreak, marched with the remainder of his 
 army, amounting to about 2400 men, chiefly troops grown veteran 
 in victory, either to meet Greene on the way, or attack him in his 
 encampment. 
 
 The battle took place near Guildford court-house ; and, after a 
 hard struggle for near two hours, the Americans retreated in good 
 order to the Reedy Fork, and crossed the river, about three miles 
 from the field of action. Greene4ost his artillery, and two ammuni- 
 tion waggons, the greatest part of the horses being killed before the 
 retreat began. 
 
 In the month of February, reprisals having been commenced 
 against the Dutch, Rodney and VaUghan received instructions 
 from Great Britain, to direct their views to the reduction of the 
 Dutch island of St. Eustatia. The British fleet and army, instant- 
 ly appeared there, and surrounded it with a great force. Rodney 
 and Vaughan sent a peremptory summons to the governor, to sur. 
 render the island and its dependences within an hour, accompa- 
 nied with a threat, that if any resistance was made, he must abide 
 the consequences. Mons. de Graaff, totally ignorant of the rup- 
 ture between Great Britain and Holland, could scarcely believe 
 the officer, who delivered the summons, to be serious. He return- 
 ed for answer, that being utterly incapable of making any de- 
 fence, he must of necessity surrender, only recommending the 
 town and inhabitants to the clemency of the British commanders. 
 The wealth of the place excited the astonishment of the conquer- 
 ers, the whole island seeming to be one great magazine. All the 
 storehouses were filled with various commodities, and the very 
 beach was covered with hogsheads of sugar and tobacco. The va- 
 lue was estimated considerably above three millions sterling. But 
 this was only a part ; for above 150 vessels of all denominations, 
 many of them richly laden were captured in the bay, exclusive of a 
 Dutch- frigate of 38 guns, and five smaller. The neighbouring 
 small isles of St. Martin and Saba were reduced in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Rodney being informed, that a fleet of about 3.0 large ships, all 
 richly iaden, with sugar and other West India commodities, had 
 sailed from Eustatia for Holland just before his arrival, under con- 
 voy of a flagship of 60 guns, he despatched the Monarch and Pan- 
 ther, with the Sybil frigate, in pursuit cf them. These soon over- 
 took the convoy," when the Dutch admiral refusing to strike his 
 colours, and all remonstrances proving ineffectual, a short engage- 
 ment took place between his ship the Mars and the Monarch. He 
 died b'avely in defence of his ship, when she instantly struck, and 
 the whole convoy was taken. 
 
 The keeping of Dutch colours flying at Eustatia, rendered it 
 for some time a decoy to French, Dutch, aud American vessels, a 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 28" 
 
 considerable number of which fell accordingly into the hands of the 
 conquerors without trouble. 
 
 Preparations began to be made, on the 2lst of June, for the army 
 under general Washington to take the field. The Americans march- 
 ed towards White-plains, where they were joined by the French 
 troops under Rochambeau. 
 
 Sir George Rodney, in consequence of information concerning 
 the French fleet under the count de Grasse, detached the admirals, 
 Sir Samuel Hood and Drake, with seventeen sail of the line, to 
 cruise off Fort Royal for the purpose of intercepting him. On the 
 28th of April, some of Sir Samuel's headmost ships returned hastily 
 in sight, and with signals announced the appearance of a superior 
 fleet, and a numerous convoy, to the windward of point Salines. The 
 admiral made a signal for a general chase to windward ; and at 
 night it was determined by the admirals to continue the line ahead 
 so that getting as much as possible to windward, they might close 
 in with Fort Royal at daylight, and cut off the enemy from the 
 harbour. 
 
 In the morning the French appeared, their convoy keeping close 
 in with the land, while count de Grasse drew up his fleet in aline of 
 battle for their protection. Admiral Hood used every manoeuvre to 
 bring him to action ; but he being to windward, and so having the 
 choice, preferred a long shot distance. A partial engagement en- 
 sued. The van and the nearest ships, in the centre of the British, 
 were exposed to along and heavy weight of fire, in their struggles 
 to close the French, and get to the windward ; but suffered princi- 
 pally in their masts, hulls, and rigging. The action lasted about 
 three hours, when admiral Hood perceiving, that not one shot in 
 ten of the French reached, and that his attempts to gain the wind 
 were fruitless, ceased firing, and the British fleet bore away for 
 Antigua. 
 
 Let us now return to the transactions under lord Cormvallis. 
 One great object of the British force was the establishment of a 
 strong post and place of arms, and such as might render them per- 
 fectly masters of Chesapeak bay, and therefore they, repaired to 
 Yorktown and Gloucester. 
 
 The French and American armies continued their march from 
 the northward, till they arrived at the head of Elk ; and within an 
 hour after, they received an express from count de Grasse, with 
 the joyful account of his arrival and situation. By the 23th of Sep- 
 tember, all the troops were arrived and landed at Williamsburgh, 
 and preparations were made with all possible despatch for, putting 
 the army in a situation to move down towards Yorktown. 
 
 On the 30th of September, lord Cornwallis was closely invest 
 ed in Yorktown. The trenches were opened by the combined 
 armies on the 6th of October, at 600 yards distance from Corn- 
 wall's works. On the 9th they opened their batteries, and con- 
 tinued firing all night without intermission- The next morning- 
 *he French opened their batteries on the left, and a tremendous 
 25 
 
288 history or 
 
 roar of cannon and mortars was continued for six or eight hours 
 without ceasing-. 
 
 The French and Americans continued to carry on the siege with 
 great success. On the 16th their several batteries were covered 
 with near 100 pieces of heavy ordnance ; while the British works 
 were so destroyed, that they could scarcely show a single gun. 
 Thus was lord Cornwallis reduced to the necessity of preparing for 
 a surrender, or of attempting an escape. He determined upon the 
 latter. Boats were prepared under different pretences, for the 
 reception of the troops by ten at night, in order to pass them over to 
 Oloucester point. The arrangements were made with the utmost 
 secrecy. The intention was to abandon the baggage, and to leave 
 a detachment behind to capitulate for the town's people, and for the 
 sick and wounded, his lordship having already prepared a letter on 
 the subject, to be delivered to general Washington after his de- 
 parture. The first embarkation had arrived at Gloucester point, 
 and the greater part of the troops were already landed, when the 
 weather, which was before moderate and calm, instantly changed to 
 a most violent storm of wind and rain. The boats with the remain- 
 ing troops were all driven down the river, and the design of passing 
 over was not only entirely frustrated, but the absence of the boats 
 rendered it impossible to bring back the troops from Gloucester. 
 Thus weakened and divided, the army was in no small danger. 
 However, the boats returned, and the troops were brought back in 
 the course of the forenoon with very little loss. 
 
 Things were now hastening to a period, which could be no longer 
 protracted ; for the British works were sinking under the weight 
 of the French and American artillery. All hopes of relief from 
 New York were over, and the strength and spirits of the royal 
 army were broken down and exhausted by their constant and unre- 
 mitting fatigue. Matters being in this situation, on the 17th of 
 October, lord Cornwallis sent out a flag with a letter to general 
 Washington, requesting a cessation of arms for twenty-four hours, 
 and that commissioners might be appointed for digesting the terms 
 of capitulation. Commissioners were accordingly appointed ; and 
 on the side of the allies, were viscount de Noaille and lieutenant 
 colonel Laurens, whose father was in close confinement in the tower 
 of London, while the son was drawing up articles, by which ?«n Eng^ 
 lish nobleman and a British army became prisoners. 
 
 On the 19th of October, the posts of Yorktown and Gloucester 
 were surrendered. The honour of marching out with colours fly- 
 ing, which had been denied to general Lincoln, was now refused to 
 lord Cornwallis, and Lincoln was appointed to receive the submis- 
 sion of the royal army at Yorktown, precisely in the same way his 
 own had been conducted about eighteen months before. The 
 troops that surrendered prisoners exceededed 7000; but so 
 great was the number of sick and wounded, that there were only 
 3800 capable of doing duty. The officers and soldiers retained 
 their baggage ard effects. Fifteen hundred seamen shared the 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 239 
 
 same fate as the garrison. The Guadaloupe frigate of 24 guns, and 
 a number of transports, were surrendered to the conquerors. About 
 twenty transports had been sunk or burnt during the siege. The 
 land forces became prisoners to confess ; but the seamen and 
 ships were assigned to the French admiral. The Americans ob- 
 tained a fine train of artillery, consisting of 7o brass ordnance, z\m\ 
 69 iron cannon, howitzers, and mortars. 
 
 On the 24ih of October, a fleet destined for the relief of lord 
 Gornwallis arrived off the Chesapeak { but, on receiving the news 
 of his surrender, they returned to New York. The fleet consisted 
 of 25 ships of the line, two fifties, and eight frigates. When they 
 appeared off the Chesapeak, the French niade no manner of move- 
 ment, though they had 36 ships of the line, being perhaps satisfied 
 with their present success. Every argument and persuasion was 
 used with the count de Grasse to induce him to aid the combined 
 army in an operation against Charleston ; b.it the advanced season, 
 the orders of his court, and his own engagements to be punctual to 
 a certain time fixed for his future operations, prevented his compli- 
 ance. His instructions had fixed his departure to the 15ih of Oc- 
 tober, and he had already exceeded that time. On the 27th, the 
 troops under the marquis St. Simon began to embark for the West 
 Indies, and about the 5th of November, de Grasse sailed from the 
 Chesapeak. 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1780 Sir Henry Clinton sends 3000 troops to the bay of Chesapeak . 
 The French and Spanish fleet form a conjunction in the WtH 
 
 Indies. 
 Mr. Laurens taken in bis passage to Holland. 
 Sir yoseph Yorke leaves the Hague. 
 
 1781 Lieutenant colonel Tar let on detached after general Morgan 
 
 by whom he is defeated. 
 
 Sir George Rodney and general Vaughun take St. Euttatia, 
 St Martin, and Saba. 
 
 The French troops join the Americans under Washington. 
 
 Sir Samuel Hood and count de Grasse engage. 
 
 Lord Cormvallis repairs to Tori town and Gloucester. 
 
 Is obliged to capitulate, and surrender Toritovjn ur.:' Glou- 
 cester, 
 
 De Grasse sails for the West Indies. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 O n the 27th of November, the king of England went to the house 
 of peers, and opened the session of parliament. Warm debates 
 
290 HISTORY OF 
 
 took place, en account of the ruinous manner in which the American 
 war was continued ; but lord North and his party, who thought they 
 had not yet carried tilings far enough, maintained a considerable 
 majority in the house of commons. Mr. Burke had made several 
 motions, relative to the release of Mr. Laurens from the tower. 
 However, at length, Mr. Laurens was brought before lord Mans- 
 iield, on the last day of the year, in consequence of an order from 
 the secretary of state, and was discharged upon certain conditions. 
 
 The naval force of France and Spain in the West Indies, in the 
 month of FebruaFy, 1782, amounted to 60 ships of the line, and their 
 land forces when joined would have formed a considerable army. Ja- 
 maica had no more than six incomplete battalions of regular troops 
 and the militia of the island to defend it ; and therefore, in case of 
 an attack, must have been soon conquered. The arrival of Sir 
 George Rodney with 12 sailofthe lineal Barbadoes, and his subse- 
 quent junction with Sir Samuel Hood's squadron, together with the 
 arrival of three ships of the line from England a few days after- 
 wards, perhaps providentially saved Jamaica from falling into the 
 hands of the enemy.' The English fleet at St. Lucia amounted to 
 36 ships of the line', and the force under de Grasse at Martinico to 
 34, besides two ships of the line armed en Jlute, and two fifty-fours. 
 The metal of the French is always heavier than that of the English 
 in equal rates, so that in this point the French had the advantage. 
 
 The van of 'he British fleet was commanded by Sir Samuel Hood, 
 the centre by Sir George Rodn.-y, and the rear by admiral Sir Fran- 
 cis Drake. The three divisions of the French fleet were under 
 count de Grasse, Prions, de Vaudreuil, and Mons. de Bougainville. 
 
 On the 8th of April, the French fleet began to turn out of Fort 
 Royal harbour early in the morning, with a great convoy under 
 their protection, all" bound to the French or Spanish ports in His- 
 paniola. De Grasse, in order to avoid any encounter on his passage, 
 meant to keep close in under the islands, till he had eluded the 
 pursuit of the English. However, their departure from the bay 
 was so speedily communicated by signals from the frigates, and 
 the English fleet was in such excellent preparation, that all the ships 
 were clear of Gross Islet bay by noon, and pursued with the utmost 
 expedition ; so that the French saved only a few hours, by being 
 masters of the time of departure. The English gained sight of them 
 under Dominique at night j and afterwards regulated the pursuit 
 by signals. 
 
 Early the next morning, count de Grasse formed the line of bat- 
 tle, and thereby afforded ah opportunity to his convoy for proceed- 
 ing on their course, whil- he remained to abide the consequences. 
 The van of the English fleet first closed with the French centre, 
 while the English centre and rear were becalmed. The action com- 
 menced about nine o'clock on the ninth. The Barfleur, Sir Samu- 
 el's own ship, had at times seven and generally three ships firing 
 upon her; and none of the division escaped encountering adispro^ 
 
MORTII AMERICA. 291 
 
 portionate force. The firm and effectual resistance, with which 
 they supported all the efforts of the enemy's superiority, was to 
 the highest degree glorious. At length, the leading ships of the 
 centre were enabled to come up to their assistance. These were 
 soon followed by Sir George Rodney in the Formidable, with his 
 seconds, the Namur and the Duke, all of 90 guns : they made and 
 supported a most tremendous fire. De Grasse now changed the 
 nature of the action, and kept at such a distance during the re- 
 mainder of the engagement, as might prevent any thing decisive 
 happening. The rest of the English fleet coming up, de Grasse 
 withdrew his ships from the action, and evaded all the efforts of the 
 English commanders for its renewal. Two of the French ships 
 were so damaged, that they were obliged to quit the fleet, and put 
 into Guadaloupe. On the side of the English, the Royal Oak and 
 the Montague suffered extremely ; but they were capable of being 
 repaired at sea, so as not to be under the necessity of quitting the 
 fleet. 
 
 On the 11th the French fleet weathered Guadaloupe, and gained 
 such a distance, that the body of their fleet could only be descried 
 from the mast-heads of the British centre, and all hopes of Si;* 
 George Rodney's coming up with them seemed to be at an end. 
 In this critical situation, one of the French ships, which had suffered 
 in the action, was perceived, about noon, to fall off considerat' 
 from the rest of the fleet to leeward. This produced signals 
 from the English admiral for a general chase, which was so vigor- 
 ous, that the Agamemnon, and some others of the headmost of lie 
 English line, were coming up so fast with this ship, that she would 
 assuredly have been cut off before evening, had not her signals- and 
 imminent danger induced de Grasse to bear down with his whole 
 fleet to her assistance. This movement put it out of the power of 
 the French to avoid fighting. The pursuing English fell back into 
 their station, and a close line was formed. The French also pre- 
 pared for battle with the greatest resolution, and the night passed 
 in preparations on both sides. 
 
 About seven o'clock in the morning of the 12th of April, the battle 
 commenced, and was continued with unremitting fury until near the 
 same hour in the evening. As the English came up, they ranged 
 slowly along the French line, and close under their lee. Being so 
 near, every shot took effect ; and the French ships being so full of 
 men, the carnage in them was prodigious. The Formidable, admi- 
 ral Rodney's ship, fired near eighty broadsides, and it may be sup- 
 posed the rest were not idle. The Trench stood and returned this 
 dreadful fire with the utmost firmness, each side fighting, as if the 
 honour and fate of their country wee that day to be decided. 
 
 Sir George Rodney in the Formidable, with his seconds the Na- 
 mur and the Duke, and immed^uely supported by the Canada, 
 between twelve and one o'clock, bore directly and with full sail 
 athwart the French line, and successfully broke through, about 
 three ships short of the centre, where count de Grasse command- 
 ed in the Ville de Faris of 110 guns. Being followed and supported 
 
"292 HISTORY 03*- 
 
 by the remainder of his division, and wearing round close upon the 
 enemy, he effectually separated their line. This bold adventure 
 proved decisive. The battle hsted till sunset, for the French fought 
 with the greatest bravery. 
 
 The British fleet having- now gained the wind of the French, 
 their general confusion was completed. Hood's division had been 
 long becalmed and kept out of action ; but his head ships and part 
 of his centre, as far at least as the Barfleur, which he himself com- 
 manded, came up at this juncture, and contributed to render the 
 victory more decisive. The Caesar, Glorieux, and Hector, did 
 not strike their colours, till after they had made the most noble 
 defence. 
 
 Count de grass© was nobly supported, even after the line was 
 broken ; and the Diadem, a French 74, went down by a single 
 broadside, in a generous exertion to save him. The Ville de Paris 
 was almost reduced to a wreck, but de Grasse still held out. At 
 length, Hood in the Barfieur approached him just at sunset, and 
 poured in a most destructive fire* The Ville de Paris supported all 
 these shocks for a quarter of an hour longer, when she struck to Sir 
 Samuel Hood. It was said, that, at the time she struck, there were 
 but three men left alive and unhurt on the upper deck, and that the 
 count was one of them. 
 
 The Caesar was unfortunately set on fire, and blew up in the night 
 of the action. A lieutenant and fifty English seamen perished with 
 about 400 prisoners. The number of the French slain in this en- 
 gagement, and that of the ninth, was computed at 3000, and of the 
 wounded at near double. The 1 small superiority of British ships, in 
 point of number, contributed nothing to the success of the day, as 
 more of Hood's division than that difference amounted to, were pre- 
 vented coming into action through the want of wind. The whole 
 loss of the English, in killed and wounded in the two actions, was 
 stated only at 1050, of which 253 w^re killed on the spot. 
 
 In the Ville de Paris were found thirty-six chests of money, destin- 
 ed to the pay and subsistence of the troops in the designed attack on 
 Jamaica. Sir Samuel Hood being- sent in pursuit of the scattered 
 enemy, on the 19th he came up and took the Jason and Caton, of 64 
 guns each, anil two frigates. 
 
 Thus the French lost eight ships of the line : six were in posses- 
 sion ofthe English, one had been sunk, and the Csesarblew up after 
 her capture. The English having joined off-cape Tiberoon, and the 
 French having- no force to the windward, Sir George Rodney pro- 
 ceeded with the disabled ships and prizes to Jamaica, as well for 
 their repair, as the greater security of the island, should the com- 
 bined fleet still venture upon the prosecution of their former design. 
 Sir Samuel Hood was left with about 25 ships of 'he line, to keep 
 the sea, and watch the motions ofthe enemy. 
 
 Let us now return to North America, where all parties seemed 
 to be heartily tired ofthe war. On the 5th of May, Sir Guy Carle- 
 
 e '>v»'- 
 h a+ v -l 
 
 ton arrived at New York, Wd on the 7th he wrote to general Wash- 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 293 
 
 ington, and sent him some public papers, that his excellency might 
 learn from them, the disposition that prevailed in the government 
 and people of Great Britain, relative to the making of a peace with 
 America. 
 
 The British administration having resolved upon abandoning all 
 offensive operations in America, the scheme of evacuating all the 
 weakest posts in the United States was adopted. Accordingly, on 
 the 11th of July, Savannah was evacuated, and the Americans im- 
 mediately took possession of it, the works and town being left 
 perfect. 
 
 On the 14th of December, general Leslie, who commanded at 
 Charleston, completed the embarkation of his troops on his quit- 
 ting that town. General Wayne, with the legion and light infantry, 
 had been before their works for several days, by order of general 
 Greene. It was hinted to him from general Leslie, through a cer- 
 tain medium, that if they were permitted to embark without inter- 
 ruption, every care should be taken for the preservation of the 
 town. Wayne was directed to accede to the proposal, the British 
 also agreeing not to fire on the town after getting on board. The 
 conditions being fully understood by both parties, Charleston was 
 evacuated and possessed without the least confusion, the American 
 advance following close on the British rear. The governor was 
 conducted into his capital the same day, the civil police establish- 
 ed the day following, and on the third the town was opened for 
 business. On the 17th, the British crossed the bar, and went to 
 sea. 
 
 Every thing now seemed to announce the approach of peace. The 
 American commissioners expedited the negotiation with the utmost 
 assiduity, and on the 30th of November, provisional articles were 
 agreed upon and signed, to take effect whenever terms of peace 
 should be finally settled with the court of France. The business 
 was finished so privately and unexpectedly that the ministers and 
 ambassadors, as well as others in and about the court of Versailles, 
 were surprised upon hearing the news. 
 
 We must not here avoid mentioning an unfortunate event, which 
 happened at the close of the still more unfortunate American war. 
 Ten men of war, including count de Grasse's ships, with a large 
 fleet of merchantmen from Jamiaca, suffered exceedingly by a 
 tremendous gale of wind off Newfoundland, on the 17th of Sep- 
 tember. The Viile de Paris and the Glorieux foundered, and only 
 one man out of the complement of both ships escaped to tell the 
 melancholy tale. The Hector also sunk ; but being descried in time 
 by a snow that made towards them, the crew were saved. The 
 Ramifies went down, but her people were saved by the merchant- 
 men in company. The Centaur was likewise lost, and all her com- 
 pany, except twelve, with the captain, who got into the only remain- 
 ing boat. They traversed a space of near 800 miles in the Atlantic 
 ocean, without compass or quadrant, and with a blanket for a sail. 
 They had only two biscuits divided afiong them every twenty-four 
 hours ; and as much water during that space to every man, as the 
 
294 HISTORY OF &C. 
 
 neck of a wine bottle broken off would hold. At the expiration of 
 sixteen days, when the last division of biscuits and water had been 
 made, to their inexpressible joy, they discovered the Portuguese 
 island of Fayal, where they safely arrived at night, and received 
 every assistance their melancholy situation demanded. 
 
 On the 3d of September, 1783, the definitive treaties between 
 Great Britain, France and Spain, were signed at Versailles by the 
 Duke of Manchester, and the plenipotentiaries of the said court. 
 On the same day, the definitive treaty with Great Britain and the 
 United States of America was also signed at Paris, by David Heart, 
 ley, esq. the British plenipotentiary, and the plenipotentiaries of the 
 said states. 
 
 By the articles of this treaty, his Britannic majesty acknowledged 
 the independence of the United States of New Hampshire, Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecti- 
 cut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
 Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. He also relinquished all 
 claims to the government of them, and consented to treat with them 
 as free and independent people. Their boundaries were also settled, 
 and they were allowed the liberty of fishing and drying fish, as usual, 
 on the banks of Newfoundland. 
 
 The particulars of the treaty between Great Britain, France, and 
 Spain will be found in our History of England, to which it more 
 properly belongs. 
 
 Thus ended the unhappy American war, which added to the na- 
 tional debt of the mother country one hundred and twenty millions, 
 besides the loss of many thousands of our braves; officers, soldiers, 
 and seamen, to the eternal infamy and disgrace of those ministers, 
 who advised and carried it on, contrary to the general voice of the 
 people ! 
 
 MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 1781 Mr. Laurens discharged from his confinement in the Towjr of 
 
 London. 
 
 1782 The fleets of Sir George Rodney and count de Grasse meet in the 
 
 Went Indies. 
 They engage, and count de Grasse is defeated and taken. 
 Savannah evacuated by the British forces 
 And afterwards Charleston in South Carolina. 
 Provisional articles of peace signed between the British and 
 
 American commissioners. 
 
 1783 The definitive treaties signed between Great Britain, France, 
 
 Spain, and America. 
 
 END OF THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
JOSEPH AVERY 
 
 Keeps constantly for sale at his Bookstore, in Plymouth, a 
 large collection of Books, consisting of History, Divinity, 
 Law, Voyages, Travels, Medicine, Anatomy, Novels, Mis- 
 cellanies, &fc. 4*c 
 
 Amongst which are 
 
 Laws of Massachusetts, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Laws of United States, 11 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Marshall on Insurance 
 
 Abbot on Shipping 
 
 Freeman's Justices Assistant 
 
 — — Town officer 
 
 *—— American Clerk's Magazine 
 
 Probate Laws and Directory 
 
 Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England 4 vols. 12 00 
 
 Saunders Reports, 3 vols. 
 
 Bosanquet and Puller's Reports, 5 vols. 
 
 Douglas' Reports, 2 vols. 
 
 Espenasses Reports, 2 vols. 
 
 Jacob's Law Dictionary, 5 vols. 
 
 Coke's Comm'-niaries upon Lyltleton, 3 vols. 
 
 Colony and Province Laws, 
 
 Dickinson's Digest of the Powers and Duties of Sheriffs, 
 
 Coroner's, Constables, and collectors of taxes. 
 Dickinson's Compilation of the Laws of Massachusetts 
 
 Powell on Mortgages 
 Maritime Loans 
 
 Pauper Laws 
 
 Voters Guide 
 
 White's Digest of the Laws of Massachusetts 
 
 Adams Flowers of Modern Travels, 
 
 Beauties of Goldsmith 
 
 Chesterfield's Letters to his son, 3 vols. 
 
 Adventures of Gil Bias, 4 vols. 
 
 Hutchinsons' History of Massachusetts, 2 vols. 
 
 William's History of Vermont, 2 vols. 
 
 Belknap's History of New Hampshire, 3 vols. 
 
 Whitney's History of the County of Worcester 
 
 Harris' Encyclopedia, 4 vols. 
 
 Domestic Encyclopedia, 5 vols. 
 
 Robertson's History of America, 2 vols. 
 
 Carey's Pocket Atlas 
 
 History of Charles 12th King of Sweden 
 
 History of Charles the 5th, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Plutarch's Lives, 6 vols. 
 
 $10 00 
 
 22 00 
 
 6 00 
 
 4 50 
 
 2 50 
 
 1 371-2 
 
 1 25 
 
 1 12 1-2 
 
 s. 12 00 
 
 16 00 
 
 22 50 
 
 9 00 
 
 10 00 
 
 27 00 
 
 20 00 
 
 7 00 
 
 s, 
 
 1 75 
 
 1 50 
 
 4 50 
 
 3 00 
 
 75 
 
 62 1-2 
 
 11 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 75 
 
 5 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 50 
 
 5 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 1 50 
 
 4 50 
 
 15 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 6 50 
 
Books for sale 
 
 Life of Bonaparte 
 
 Life of Nelson 
 
 Life of Moreau 
 
 Life of Suwaroff 
 
 Life of Wellington 
 
 Life of Bernadotte 
 
 Marshall's Life of Washington, 5 vols. 
 
 Bancroft's Ditto 
 
 Ramsay's Ditto 
 
 Weems's Ditto 
 
 Life of Franklin 
 
 Adams View of Religions 
 
 Alcoran or Mahometan Bible 
 
 American Biographical Dictionary 
 
 Addison's Works, 6 vols. 
 
 Swift's Works, 24 vols, calf gilt 
 
 Alison's Sermons 
 
 Abbot's Sermons to Mariners 
 
 Edwards' Works, 3 vols. 
 
 Ditto Life and Sermons 
 
 Ditto on the Affections 
 
 Ditto on the Will 
 
 Ditto on Redemption 
 Buck's Theological Dictionary 
 Buck's Miscellany, 2 vols. 
 Bellamy's Works, 3 vols. 
 Brown's Dictionary of the Bible, 2 vols, 
 Buchanan's Researches in Asia, 
 
 Ditto Apology 
 Buckminister's Sermons 
 Lee's Ditto 
 
 Lathrop's Ditto 6 vols. 
 
 Taylor's Sermons 
 Emmons's Sermons 
 Clarke's Sermons 
 Smith's Sermons 2 vols. 
 Kirwan's Sermons 
 Parrish's Bible Gazeteer 
 Smith on the Prophecies 
 Faberon the Prophecies 
 Bibles, various prices from 87 1-2 cents to 
 Complete Duty of Man 
 Coopc's Sermons 
 ZoilikofTer's Sermons 2 vols. 
 Thacher on Hydrophobia 
 
 Ditto Dispensatory 
 Buchans Domestic Medicine 
 Bell's System of Surgery improved edition, 4 vols 
 
 ■ on the Nature and Cure of Wounds 
 
 — Anatomy, 2 vols. 
 
 $ l oo . 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 50 
 
 2 00 
 
 1 75 
 
 15 00 
 
 3 00 
 
 1 121-2 
 
 1 00 
 
 75 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 00 
 
 3 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 42 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 18 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 1 25 
 
 3 SO 
 
 2 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 7 00 
 
 1 00 
 
 75 
 
 2 25 
 
 2 00 
 
 12 00 
 
 1 50 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 50 
 
 4 00 
 
 1 75 
 
 2 50 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 50 
 
 18 00 
 
 1 75 
 
 2 00 
 
 4 50 
 
 2 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 3 00 
 
 14 00 
 
 2 00 
 
 11 00 
 
by Joseph Avery. 
 
 
 Bell's Surgery Abridged 
 
 58 5 00 
 
 
 5 00 
 
 1 75 
 
 2 50 
 
 on the Urethri 
 
 Cheselden's Anatomy 
 
 Blacks' Chemistry, 3 vols. 
 
 8 00 
 
 Lavoseer's Chemistry, 2 vols. 
 
 4 00 
 
 Chaptal's Chemistry 
 
 3 00 
 
 Cooper's Surgery, 2 vols. 
 
 7 00 
 
 Cullens Materia Medica 
 
 2 50 
 
 Denman's Midwifery 
 
 3 00 
 
 Edinburgh New Dispensatory 
 
 3 00 
 
 Corvesait on the Diseases of the Heart 
 
 2 50 
 
 Senac on Fevers 
 
 2 00 
 
 Fordyce on Fevers 
 
 2 50 
 
 Smellie's Philosophy 
 
 2 50 
 
 Smellie's Anatomical Tables 
 
 1 75 
 
 Townsend's Guide to Health 
 
 2 50 
 
 Lawrence on Ruptures 
 
 3 00 
 
 Rush's Pringle 
 
 3 00 
 
 Rush's Sydenham 
 
 3 00 
 
 Wilson on Febrile Diseases, 2 vols, 
 Haller on the Arteries 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 00 
 
 Bailies Morbid Anatomy 
 
 1 75 
 
 Boyle's Voyages 
 
 1 00 
 
 English Hermit 
 
 75 
 
 Gulliver's Travels 
 
 1 00 
 
 Burroughs' Memoirs, 2 vols. 
 
 1 75 
 
 Byron's Poetical Works 
 
 3 75 
 
 Scotts Poetical Works calf gilt 
 
 7 50 
 
 Campbell's Poems 
 
 1 00 
 
 Parents Assistant, 3 vols. 
 
 2 50 
 
 Pindar's Works, 4 vols. 
 
 7 00 
 
 School and Classical Books. 
 
 Morse, Adams, Cummings, Dwight, and Goldsmith's Geography 
 Beauties of \he Bible 
 Murray's English Reader 
 
 Sequel to the English Reader 
 
 Introduction to the English Reader 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Abridged 
 
 ■ English Exercises 
 Key to the Exercises 
 
 Columbian Orator 
 American Preceptor 
 Art of Reading 
 Adams English Grammar 
 
 Understanding Reader 
 
 Columbian Orthographer 
 
Books for sale by Joseph Avery. 
 
 Richardson's American Reader 
 
 Childs First Book . . 
 
 Perry, Walker, Rowson, Webster, and Johnson's Dictionary 
 Pikes, Adams, Walkers, Carlton, Temples, Judson's, and Colum- 
 bian Arithmetics 
 Flint, Love, Clendenin, and Gibson's Surveying 
 Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Sallust, and Cicero's Delphini 
 Simson's Euclid 
 Simson's Algebra 
 Stoughton's Virgil 
 Davidson's Virgil 
 Cicero's Orations 
 Cicero's de Oratore 
 Cicero's Select Orations 
 Schrevelius Greek Lexicon 
 Leusden's Latin and Greek Testament 
 Duncan's Cicero 
 Smart's Horace 
 Francies Horace 
 Mattansie's Homer 
 Ainsvvorth's Latin Dictionary 
 Enticks Latin Dictionary 
 Biglow's New Latin Primer 
 Biglovv's Introduction to the Making of Latin 
 Dana's Latin Exercises 
 Gloucester's Greek Grammar 
 Greek Testament 
 Valpy's Greek Grammar 
 Smith's Greek Grammar 
 Smith's Latin Grammar 
 Clark's Introduction to the Making of Latin 
 Playfairs Geometry 
 Lemprieres Classical Dictionary 
 
 A great variety of Books for the Instruction and amusement 
 of Juvenile readers. 
 
 Purchasers of Social and Private Libraries supplied on 
 the best terms. 
 
 * \i 
 
 : : 
 
 
C*v 
 
 -\ * sfj 
 
 .0* 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 'U 
 
 ^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
 
 \^^*<V NeuUallzTng7gent: Magnesium Oxide 
 
 Treatment Date: ^AY 2002 
 
 PreservationTechnologies 
 
 A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 
 
 <?' 111 Thomson Park Drive 
 
 . V Cranberry Township, PA 1 6066 
 
 (724)779-2111