C 1109 R25 Copy 1 PC 1109 .R25 j Copy 1 :■» > GRAMMAR ITALIAN LANGUAGE. GRAMMAR ITALIAN LANGUAGE. JOSEPH RAMPINI, Fellow of the Educational Institute of Scotland; Teacher of the Italian Language and Literature in the Naval and Military Academy, the Edinburgh Philosophical Institution, the Scottish Institution for Young Ladies, the Edinburgh Institution for Languages, &c. EDINBURGH: OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 1852. PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT, HIGH STREET, EDINBURGH. TO HER GRACE CHAELOTTE ANN, fineness of tynccltncl) att& fautmbttty, &c. &c. May it please your Grace, Haying already experienced so much kindness and consideration whilst engaged in the Instruction of Junior Members of the noble Family of Buccleuch in the Italian Language, I have to offer additional acknowledgments for your Grace's kindness in permitting me to send forth to the world, under the distinguished patronage of your name, a Grammar of my native tongue written in the English Lan- guage. This Work is therefore now presented with the sincere and grateful respect Of your Grace's Faithful and obedient Servant, J. RAMPINI. Edinburgh, March 1852. PEEFACE. This Grammar has been written principally for the use of students in this country who learn the Italian Language as a branch of educa- tion. At the same time, those who wish to extend their knowledge will be better able ta do so after having made themselves thoroughly acquainted with a short treatise of this kind, than if they had com- menced with a more complicated work. The Author's experience has convinced him that long courses of Grammar are often under- taken, but seldom completed. The beginner is unable to distinguish the essential parts from those which are of secondary importance and may therefore be taken up with advantage at an after-period. No doubt this inconvenience may be obviated to a certain extent by typographical distinctions and directions, or by the judgment of the teacher ; but it is better to keep what is unnecessary at first out of sight. To learn a little well will enable the pupil to learn more afterwards : to learn a great deal imperfectly is an impediment to all future progress. In the language of Whately, — " It is better to un- derstand even a little, that it is possible to accomplish, than to make splendid professions, which can only lead to disappointment." — Early Lessons on Reasoning. Much useful information may be conveyed, and with little effort on the part of the pupil, by the observations of an able preceptor. To render this Work a really good Hand-book, to be thoroughly learned and continually referred to, all observations not absolutely necessary have been omitted. Many Grammars are made up of mere verbiage. The Author having observed that pupils often employ technical words without understanding them, a more simple mode of expression has been used, though with reluctance, which may present fewer learned words, but is fitted to impart clearer ideas. And here again Whately's words maybe quoted : — " Even in the common mechanical arts, something of a technical language is foimd needful for those who are learning or exercising them. It would be a very great inconvenience, even to a common carpenter, not to have a precise, well-understood name for each of the several operations he performs, such as chiselling, sawing, planing, &c, and for the several tools [or instruments] he works with. And if we had not such words as Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division, &c, employed in an exactly denned sense, and also fixed rules for conduct- Vlll PREFACE. ing these and other arithmetical processes, it would be a tedious and uncertain work, to go through even such simple calculations as a child very soon learns to perform with perfect ease. And after all, there would be a fresh difficulty in making other persons understand clearly the correctness of the calculations made. '• You are to observe, however, that technical language and rules, if you would make them really useful, 7nust be not only distinctly under- stood, but also learnt, and remembered as familiarly as the Alphabet ; and employed constantly, and with swupulous exactness. Otherwise, technical language will prove an encumbrance instead of an advantage; just as a suit of clothes would be, if, instead of putting them on and wearing them, you toere to carry them about in your hand." The best way to acquire a foreign language is to compare it closely with our own. The Author regrets that the brevity and simplicity, which he thought of vital importance in a first booh on Grammar, prevented his paying sufficient attention to this. The rules them- selves are very few ; and the difficulties and character of a language arise from its numerous peculiarities and idiomatical expressions, which cannot be reduced to general rules, but must each be studied by itself. The English and Italian resemble each other in both being very idiomatical. In writing an elementary Grammar, the chief difficulty lies in being able judiciously to draw a line between those idioms and peculiarities that should be taught at first, and such as may be safely deferred. The General Rules of Grammar have been separated from the Practical Rules of the Italian, in the belief that the latter would be better learned by themselves. As to the General Principles, the Author has perused the principal works on the subject, and has not found one, not excepting Becker, superior in fulness, precision, clear- ness, and simplicity, to the Principes de Grammaire Generale, by A. J. Silvestre de Sacy, the celebrated Oriental scholar ; and he is persuaded that a great benefit would be conferred on teachers and students were the work translated and adapted to the English lan- guage. What is said on this subject has been chiefly taken from it. Being unwilling to obtrude his own views, the Author has allowed some definitions to remain which appear to him to be erroneous. He considers the Adjective to be as important and necessary a word as either the Noun or the Verb, and as different from either as they are from each other. In the infancy of Language among uncivilized tribes, what first attracts notice are objects, the different qualities of them, and motion or action : hence arise Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. " The stone is hard" seems a more natural expression than " the stone has hardness," which supposes abstraction, and consequently PREFACE. IX requires a considerable development of the reasoning faculty. All the other words might, for the sake of simplicity, be conveniently arranged under the denomination of Particles, not being sufficiently important, like the other three, to require a separate classification. These are, Articles, Pronouns, Prepositions, Adverbs, and Conjunc- tions ; excluding the Interjection, which is a mere expression of feeling. Of these words the Conjunction only seems to be absolutely necessary in order to connect the other three. The place of the Pre- position may be supplied by Cases. The Adverb performs the office of an Adjective, and is often an Adjective : it expresses the qualities of actions, as the adjective does of objects : e.g. he runs fast. Articles are Adjectives; Pronouns either Xouns or Adjectives. What is said on Moods and Tenses is necessarily brief. To have treated them more fully would have drawn too largely on the time and attention of the pupil ; who, though anxious to acquire a know- ledge of the Italian Language, may not be prepared to enter upon the study of General Grammar. The Author's object in introducing this subject at all was, to render the student as much as possible indepen- dent of other books, either by imparting new information or refresh- ing his memory. With the same view are given in Part II., which treats of Pronunciation and the Writing of Italian, a number of Rules which by some may be considered as unnecessary. Owing to a veiy general deficiency, however, in these important branches of knowledge among young students, it was not deemed advisable to exclude any- thing that might tend to ensure accuracy. The Eules for Pronun- ciation have been minutely given, after a comparison of the English with the Italian sounds, and the explanations of Dr Latham, in his Elements of English Grammar, have been closely followed. Part III., extending to 59 pages, contains the Practical Rules of the language. It should be read attentively, and any difficulties that occur should be marked, and an explanation requested from the teacher. It will be of advantage to commit the more important of the Rules to memory ; and the student should constantly refer to this Part, both in reading and writing. Such an ever-recurring reference will have the effect of familiarizing him with the Rules. But a more effective method is to learn through examples. Every rule should be preceded by an example, and every example expressed in colloquial language. The examples, which would be the student's Phrase Book, should not only be learnt thoroughly, but repeated very frequently and systematically. A few minutes bestowed regularly at a fixed time every day on the repetition of such phrases, would greatly facil- itate the acquisition of the language. When he afterwards learns a rule, he will readily be able to give the example which refers to it ; X PEEFACE. also to remember it easily, and apply it. For example : the Italian for "give me your hand," is "datemi la mano." The student who has systematically repeated this short and easy phrase, with many others, will have no greater difficulty in saying to an Italian " datemi la mano" than in saying to an Englishman "give me your hand." When he takes up his Grammar, he learns that 1. To give is translated by dare. 2. The second person plural of the present indicative of the verbs in are, has ate for its termination (d-ate-mi). 3. To me or me is translated by mi. 4. Mi is affixed to a verb in the imperative. 5. The definite article for the feminine is la. 6. Mano (hand) is the only noun ending in o which is feminine. 7. The possessive pronoun is seldom used in Italian when the clear- ness of the sense renders it unnecessary. After a pupil is familiar with an example, he cannot have any diffi- culty in remembering the rules connected with it. It is important that the same example (or examples) should always be given for the same rule. When he afterwards translates from Italian into English, or, which is much better,* from English into Italian, he should be made to prove the correctness of what he speaks or writes. Supposing that he has to translate " show me your hand," if he has seen in some phrase that to show is mostrare, he would say mostratemi la mano, giving as a proof " datemi la mano," and the phrase in which mostrare is found. He could make no mistake, as he has only correct proofs to give ; he could not say il mano, as he had no example for it. A strict adherence to this system from the beginning would soon prove that it was not more difficult, while it is far more efficient, than others usually pursued. The necessity of proving ensures accuracy — the repetition, facility — the constant comparison of what is new with what has been previously learnt, a habit of thinking. As almost every master has his own peculiar views in teaching, and as the present Work is intended to be one of general use, and not to suit any particular system, it has been thought unnecessary to increase its size by the addition of such phrases ; but the Author contemplates their publication in such a form as will admit of their being bound along with the Grammar. Part IV. containing the Verbs, and Part V. the Exercises, are reprinted from the Author's translation of Biagioli's Grammar. * The first exercise enables him to understand the language; the second to understand and to use it. CONTEXTS. PAET I. Page GrENER AL PRINCIPLES OF GrRAMKAB 3 PARI II. Pronunciation and "Writes g- of the Italian Language. Sounds 15 Vowel Sounds 16 Mute Sounds 16 Liquid Sounds 17 Compound Sounds 17 Diphthongs and Triphthongs 17 Letters 17 Observations on the Pronunciation of the Italian 18 Directions for the Pronunciation of the e and o 19 Accent 20 Quantity 21 Directions for acquiring a good Pronunciation of the Italian 21 Syllables, and the Eules for arranging them 23 Apostrophe 21 Contraction ; 25 Use of Capital Letters 26 Punctuation 26 Tones 26 Pauses 26 Emphasis 27 The Dash 27 Xli CONTENTS. Page Euphony 27 Exercises on Pronunciation — Table of the most remarkable Sounds in the Italian Language 28 List of words that have a different meaning according as their ac- cented e or o is pronounced closely or openly 30 List of Words in which the z has the sound of ds 32 On the Accent 33 Exercise in Italian Poetry 34 PART III. Principal Rules of the Italian Language. Gender , 45 Number 46 Article 48 Case 50 Personal Pronouns... , 51 Pronominal Particles 53 Adjectives 56 Comparatives and Superlatives 58 Augmentatives and Diminutives 61 Numerals 63 Pronouns 65 General Observations on the Italian Pronouns 68 Possessive Pronouns 72 Demonstrative Pronouns 74 Indefinite Pronouns 75 Prepositions 79 Adverbs 86 Moods and Tenses 90 Regular and Irregular Tenses 94 Peculiarities in the Use of the Verbs 100 PAET IV. On the Italian Verbs 109 Regular Verbs Ill Irregular Verbs 114 Defective Verbs 121 List of Verbs conjugated like JJalre 123 CONTENTS. X111 PART Y. Exercises. Page On the Articles 133 On the Personal Pronouns 136 On si. &c 138 On the Adjectives 141 On the Comparatives and Superlatives 144 On the Augmentatives and Diminutives 147 On the Numbers 149 On the Pronouns 152 On the Relative Pronouns 155 On the Possessive Pronouns 158 On the Demonstrative Pronouns 161 On the Words tutto and ogni 163 On the Prepositions 166 On the Adverbs 169 On the Conjunctions 171 On the Use of the Auxiliary Yerbs 174 On the Irregular Verbs 177 On the Present Participle 180 On the Past Participle 183 On the Moods 186 The Interjections 189 PART I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. ITALIAN GEAMMAE. PAET I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 1. Language is the expression of our ideas, and their various relations. 2. An idea expressed by words is called a Proposition. 3. Every proposition is the enunciation of a judgment ; as, "ink is black." 4. Every proposition has three elements or parts, called the Subject, the Predicate, and the Copula. 5. The Subject is the person or thing which forms the subject of our discourse. 6. The Predicate is the assertion made concerning any subject. 7. The Copula is that part of a proposition which con- nects the subject and predicate. 8. The copula is always the verb to be, which is called the Substantive Verb. 9. If the verb to be stand by itself, the proposition is called Affirmative ; if it be accompanied by the word not, it is Negative. 10. The copula and predicate may be expressed by a single word. 1 1 . All verbs, except the verb to be, express both the a 4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. copula and the predicate ; as, " man lives," which is the same as "man is living." 12. The Predicate is also called the Attribute. All verbs that express both the copula and predicate may be called Attributive Verbs, to distinguish them from the verb to be, which is called the substantive verb. 13. The subject is either simple or compound. 14. The simple subject indicates but one thing; as, "ink" in the proposition, "ink is black." 15. The compound subject indicates several things, the nature of which is determined by ideas independent of each other ; as, " peaches and apricots are good." 16. The simple subject is either complex or incomplex. 17. The simple incomplex subject indicates a thing, the nature of which is determined by a single idea; as, " ink is black." 18. The simple complex subject indicates a thing, the nature of which is determined by several ideas ; as, "peaches, which are ripe, are excellent." 19. The predicate is divided like the subject into simple and compound, and the simple predicate into complex and incomplex. 20. Nouns are words which express persons or things in a determinate manner by recalling the idea of their nature. 21. Nouns are either proper, common, or abstract. 22. Proper nouns designate persons and things in such a manner that the designation is only applicable to one individual, person, or thing. 23. Common nouns designate persons and things in manner common to all individuals of the same species. 24. Abstract nouns express a manner of existence abstracted as it were from the person or things to which it belongs ; as, " virtue, goodness." GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 5 25. The number of particular ideas comprehended in a common or abstract noun forms the comprehension of the noun. 26. The number of individuals or classes comprehended in the signification of a common or abstract noun forms the extension of the noun. 27. The greater the comprehension of a noun the smaller is its extension. 28. Articles are words which serve to determine the extension of nouns. 29. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 30. The person that speaks is called the First Person ; the person spoken to, the Second Person ; and the person spoken of, the Third Person. There are different • pro- nouns for each of these persons. 31. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- press a quality of it. 32. Adjectives may be divided into two classes accord- ing as they express either a quality or a circumstance ; as, " a good book, every book." 33. Numerals are properly adjectives which express a circumstance. 34. We are often obliged to join several words to express completely the idea of the thing of which we speak. Such words are said to be related or connected together. 35. The relation or connexion between words may be indicated in three different ways ; 1st, By the position of the words ; 2d, By a change in their terminations ; 3d, By a separate word placed between the words con- nected together. This word is called a Preposition. 36. Sometimes the natural position of words being changed, the sense alone enables us to distinguish their b GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. proper meaning. In Italian such inversions are very common. 37. Adverbs are words which unite the meaning of a preposition and a noun. 38. Adverbs serve to express the circumstances which accompany an action ; such as, time, place, manner. 39. As several words are connected together in a pro- position, so various propositions have relations with each other that require to be expressed. 40. Conjunctions are words that connect propositions and words together. 41. Interjections are cries of pain, joy, wonder, &c, and which escape us at the moment of sudden excitement. 42. Words are often used in different ways ; thus, an adjective is often used as a noun, or an adverb; a pre- position as a conjunction, &c. 43. There are also words which it is not always easy to say to what class they belong ; yes, no, not, are among such words. 44. Two or three words are often joined together so as to form but one word. 45. Words may also belong at the same time to two different classes ; who, for example, seems to be partly an adjective and partly a conjunction. Such words might be called with propriety Conjunctive Adjectives. They generally go under the name of Relative pronouns. 46. Possessive pronouns are adjectives. 47. Demonstrative pronouns are articles. 48. What are called Distributive pronouns are adjectives. 49. The Indefinite pronouns are nouns. 50. As the introduction of new technical terms is not desirable, it is the more important that the true nature of words should be understood* v GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 7 51. Words are divided into two classes according as they undergo a change in their form or termination or do not. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, articles, and verbs belong to the first class, namely, that which undergoes modification. Conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, and interjections to the second, or that which undergoes no modification. 52. In almost all languages nouns undergo a change either in their form or in their termination, by which we know whether the nouns are applied to one or more in- dividuals. These different forms or terminations are called Number. 53. The distinction of number is observed also with the articles, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. 54. All bodies in nature are divided into three classes ; the first embraces all those bodies in which there is no distinction of sex, as in minerals, or in which the distinc- tion of sex is unnoticed, as in the Vegetable Kingdom ; such bodies are called Neuter. All other bodies are divided according to their sex into Masculine or Feminine. 55. In some languages, as in English, the division of nouns into masculine, feminine, and neuter is correct ; in others, as in Italian, it is a mere conventional division founded upon the termination of the noun. Thus, Donna, woman, when it takes the termination one, becomes masculine. 56. Augmentatives and diminutives are terminations added to nouns, and sometimes to adjectives and verbs, to express an idea of sm alines s or large size, beauty or ugliness, affection, esteem, contempt, &c. 57. A noun may be connected or related to a noun, a verb, or an adjective, as stated before. The relation may be determined by the position of the word, a preposi- 8 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. tion or a change of termination, as in Latin. This change is called a Case. 58. To decline a noun, an adjective, or a pronoun, is to repeat all the different changes of termination of which it is capable. 59. Adjectives express quality — the different degrees of these qualities being known only by comparison, we call in grammar degrees of comparison, the various ways by which these differences are marked. 60. There are commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 61. The positive state expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution.; as, "good, wise, great." 62. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification; as, "wiser, greater, less wise.' 7 63. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree; as, "wisest, greatest, least wise." 64. There is another superlative, which may be called the superlative of eminence ; as, u very eloquent," to dis- tinguish it from the other superlative. 65. The degrees of comparison may be determined : 1st, By adverbs, as more, less ; 2d, By terminations, as stronger ; 3d, As, in Italian, by the use of an article before the adverb; thus, piu forte, stronger; il piu forte, the strong^. 66. Tenses are forms which a verb takes to indicate the circumstances of time. 67. Tenses are indefinite when they express the exis- tence of a subject and its relation with a predicate, without indicating any time; and definite when they determine a period past, present, or future. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. \) 68. Tenses are also absolute when they indicate a re- lation with the time in which we speak, and relative when besides this relation they express another relation with an event either past or future. 69. Past and future tenses are proximate when they indicate a time near the moment in which we speak, and remote when they indicate a distant time. 70. Relative tenses are either anterior, simultaneous, or posterior, according as they indicate a time past, present, or future, in reference to an event past or future. 71. It is very important that these different distinc- tions should be well understood by the student, as it is very difficult without a clear notion of them to state the different rules of a particular language in regard to them. 72. Sometimes a definite tense is used to express an indefinite time. "Do you like bread ?" does not mean do you like bread just now; but " do you like bread at all times, in general ? ,; The sense alone here marks the distinction. 73. Tenses are therefore ; 1st, Either definite or in- definite; 2d, Absolute or relative; 3d, Past, present, or future; 4th, Proximate or remote; 5th, Anterior, simul- taneous, or posterior, 74. Propositions may be divided into three classes according as they express doubts, judgments, or desires, 75. Verbs often take different forms, by which we know the nature of the propositions. These forms are called Moods. 76. The principal moods in every language are, the Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive, 77. Different moods often adopt the same form ; thus, the Subjunctive in English signifies doubt, condition, motive, ivish, apprehension, and supposition. 10 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 78. All verbs, except the substantive verb, express either an action or a quality. 79. Verbs are of three kinds : Active, Passive, and Neuter. 80. When the action expressed by the verb is done by the subject, the verb is said to be active. 81. When the action expressed by the verb is suffered by the subject ; as, " I am loved," the verb is said to be passive. 82. The neuter verbs express a quality, or a state of being ; as, "I stay, I sit." 83. The Voice of the verb is that particular form which the verb takes sometimes to indicate whether the verb is active, passive, or neuter.* 84. The passive verbs are not necessary. They serve, however, 1st, To avoid the expression of the subject when it is not known, or we prefer not to mention it ; 2d, Even when the subject is used, it lays the stress and fixes the attention upon the object; 3d, It introduces variety in the discourse. 85. The union of all the forms which a verb can take to indicate the voices, tenses, moods, numbers, and persons, is called Conjugation ; and to repeat all these forms is to conjugate a verb. 86. Verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive. 87. Transitive verbs are those which are or may be joined to an accusative ; as, " I read a book." 88. Intransitive verbs are those which are never joined to an accusative.-|- * Though neuter verbs have no distinctive voice, they might have it. + The beginner will avoid every difficulty in distinguishing tran- sitive from intransitive verbs, by considering whether the two accusatives, "some person" or "some thing," may be joined to a verb. If they do, the verb is transitive; if they do not, it is intransitive. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 11 89. Reflective verbs express an action done by the subject upon itself; as, "You deceive yourself." 90. Impersonal verbs are those which are only used in the third person. 91. Defective verbs are used only in certain tenses and persons. 92. Verbs are regular when they follow a general standard — irregular when they deviate from it. PABT II. PRONUNCIATION AND WRITING OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. PAET II PRONUNCIATION AND WRITING OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. SOUNDS. 1. The elementary Sounds of the Italian language are twenty- seven ; of these twenty-one are single, and six compound. 2. The simple elementary sounds are as follows :— 1. The sound of the letter a in padre, father. 2. e in mele, apples. 3. e in mele* honey. 4. i in cibo, food. 5. o in voto, vow 6. o in voto, empty. 7. u in prudenza, prudence. These seven sounds are vowel sounds. (In English the vowel sounds are twelve.) 8. The sound of the letter p in pane, bread. 9. b in bocca, mouth. 10. fin fame, hunger. 11. v in vino, wine. 12. t in terra, earth. 13. d in duro, hard. * The circumflex accent is not used in Italian. It is adopted oc- casionally in this Grammar to mark the open sound of the e and o, to assist the pupil. 16 SOUNDS. 14. The sound of the letter c in cuore, heart. 15. g in gomito, elbow. 16. s in sonriOy sleep. 17. s in rosa, rose. These ten sounds are called mute sounds. 18. The sound of the letter I in lingua. 19. m in muro> wall. 20. n in naso, nose. 21. r in rete, net. These four sounds are called liquid sounds. 22. The sound of the letters see, sci, in scena y scene ; sciu- gatojo 9 towel. 23. gli in giglio, lily. 24. gn in cigna, strap. 25. c in cena, supper ; cema, summit. 26. g in gemma, gem ; ginocchio, knee. 27. # in zucchero, sugar. These last six sounds are called compound sounds. The first three can only be represented by joining two conso- nants. The c seems to combine the sound of t, and g of d with another sound which could not be expressed by itself. The sound of z in zucchero is a combination of t and s ; and in mezzo , of d and s. 3. Sounds of the Italian language as they are found in English words. VOWEL SOUNDS. 1. a as in father. 5. o close, as in no. 2. e close, as in paint. 6. o open, as in not . 3. e open, as in met. 7. u as in prudence. 4. i as in fee. MUTE SOUNDS. 1. p as in pain. 6. d as in dart. 2. b as in lone. 7. c as in cant. 3. /as mfee. 8. # as in go. 4. -u as in voice. 9. * as the first in season. 5. £ as in tone. 10. * as the second in season. LETTERS. 17 LIQUID SOUNDS. 1. I in lent. 3. n in nose. 2. mm. mouth. 4. r in rent. COMPOUND SOUNDS. 1. see as sh in shame. 6. ci as cA in cheese. 2. sci as $7& in she. 7. #e as g in #em. 3. #/i as // in brilliant. 8. gi as s. One silent h. Four liquid — I, m, n, r. Two compound, or letters having a double sound — j and z* The letter q is called by some Italian grammarians half a letter {rnezza lettera), as it can only be pronounced with the letter u. Its sound is the same as in English ; as, qualitd, quality ; questione, question ; requisite, requisite ; quoziente, quotient. * The c and g being pronounced either as mutes or compound consonants, have been placed among the mutes only. J is the same as ii ; thus we may write tempj or tempii, temples. At the begin- ning of a word and when between vowels it is the same as i. 18 PRONUNCIATION. 9. The number of the letters is twenty-two, 10. The order of the letters is as follows : — a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i,j, l 9 m, n, o, p 9 q, r 9 s, t, u, v, z. 11. The order of the letters is called the Alphabet, because in the Greek language the names of the two first letters were alpha and beta respectively ; that is, alpha was the name of the letter which we call a, and beta of b. 12. The names of the letters are as follow : — a, bi, ci, di, e, effe, gi, acca, i, i lungo, elle, emme, enne, o, pi, cu, erre, esse, ti, u, vi, tseta or dseta* OBSERVATIONS ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE ITALIAN. 13. The spelling of the Italian follows exactly the pronunciation, with very few exceptions. It does not do so in the majority of English words. 14. Every letter is pronounced except A, which is used as a sign in writing in the three following cases. 15. (I.) The h is used in Ho, I have; Hat, Thou hast ; Ha, He has ; Hanno, They have ; to distinguish (in writing only) these words from o, or ; ai, to thee ; a, to ; anno, year. 16. (II.) It is used after c and g when e or i follow, to give to these letters a hard sound, which otherwise would be soft. (See section 18.) 17. (III.) The h is used after the vowels in interjections, as ah ! eh I ih I oh ! uh ! to prolong and sustain the sound of the vowel. 18. The consonants c (ch) and g are always pronounced hard, except when followed by e or u Remember cect, chick-pease ; gengive, the gums. * The z is not only a compound, but also a double letter like e and o ; that is, it represents two different sounds ; it has therefore two different names. The same might be said of e and o. PRONUNCIATION. 1 9 19. The syllables see and sci are pronounced as sh in shame and she. Rem. scelta, choice ; scienza, science. 20. The syllable gli is pronounced as the 11 in brilliant, except in negligente, negligent, and Anglia, a poetical word for Inghilterra, England. 21. The two letters gn are pronounced somewhat like the first n in the word onion (cipolla). 22. The consonant 5 between two vowels is pronounced as the second s in season (stagione), and like the first s in all other cases.* 23. When a word beginning with an s, followed by a vowel, is joined to a word ending with a vowel, the sound of the s is not changed. 24. The consonant z is generally pronounced like ts. 25. The two vowels e and o are sometimes pronounced open and sometimes close. In the greater number of cases, no certain rule can be given to determine the pro- nunciation of these letters. The Italians themselves do not always agree on this point. The following directions should, however, be attended to. DIRECTIONS FOR THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE e AND 0. 26. (I.) The difference between the two vowels is only marked distinctly on the accented vowels. 27. (II.) An accented o at the end of a word is always open. 28. (III.) o preceded by u is always open. 29. (IV.) The Pupil should notice the pronunciation * The 5 is pronounced like the second s in season before b 9 d, r, v ; as, sbiadato, faded ; sdentato, toothless ; sregolato, unruly ; svista, oversight. In cosa, thing, and cost, thus, the s is like the first s in season. 20 ACCENT. of the common termination of words ; thus, if ore in dolore (pain) is close, it will be close also in furore (fury), sa- por e (taste). 30. (V.) As the close sound is perhaps more common than the open, it will be safer for the Pupil to use it in preference in all doubtful words. ACCENT. 31. In pronouncing a word formed of many syllables, the voice is heard more distinctly upon one than on the other. This raising of the voice is called an Accent The mark ( * ) that indicates it is called accent also. It is only used, however, when the accented vowel is the last letter of a w r ord. 32. The accent is generally placed on the last syllable but one. It is also found — 1. On the last syllable. 2. On the last syllable but two. 3. On the last syllable but three. 33. Words having the accent on the last syllable but one are called parole piane, smooth or regular ; words having their accent on the last syllable are called tronche, broken, or having the final syllable cut off ; and, lastly, words having the accent either on the last syllable but two, or on the last syllable but three, are called sdruc- . dole (sliding), and lisdrucciole* * The Italians, being accustomed to end all their words with an unaccented vowel, consider all those having at the end an accented vowel as having their last vowel cut off. Poetical lines ending with such a word have always a syllable less than the others. 21 QUANTITY. 34. Quantity is the measure of time in pronouncing a syllable. A syllable is considered as long or short. 35. In Italian, accented vowels are long, and all others short. 36. A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing. DIRECTIONS FOR ACQUIRING A GOOD PRONUNCIATION OF THE ITALIAN. 37. The difficulty in an Englishman's acquiring a good Italian pronunciation does not consist in his learning new sounds, for all Italian sounds are found in the English language, except perhaps the sounds gli in egli, and gn in signore, but in his having to pronounce the Italian sounds in a different manner from what he is accustomed to do in his own language. 38. The final letter of a syllable is naturally pronounced more strongly than the others. In Italian it is generally a vowel;* in English a consonant The English will there- fore find it difficult to mark well the sound of the vowel, not being accustomed to do so. 39. As noticed above (32), the Italians place their accent generally on the last syllable but one ; the English generally on the last syllable, and principally on account of their numerous monosyllables. The latter will there- fore naturally, unless they pay great attention, or have heard or spoken Italian for a considerable time, place the accent on the last syllable. * The words that end with a consonant are °. in, in ; con, with ; per, for ; il, the ; sur, upon ; un, a. All others end with a vowel. B 22 SYLLABLES. 40. The Italians have only one sound for the letter a r as in father (padre). The English have four : 1. The long, as in pale (pallido) ; 2. The short,, as in fat (grasso) ; 3. The middle, as in arm (braccio) ; 4. The broad, as in all (tutto). It is not difficult to avoid the first or long, and the fourth or broad sound ; but the second or short sound, as in^, is very frequently given to the Italian a in all syllables in which such a sound would be heard in English, as fat-to (fact), mat-to (mad), cat-two (bad), &c. 41. The Italian language has only seven vowel sounds, the English twelve; the transition from the a to the u is less marked therefore in the latter. The student should be very careful to pronounce well the e and the i r so as not to confound the two sounds. 42. When two or more words are read together, which is very frequently the case, the pronunciation is exactly the same as when reading one word, and the accent is then heard only on the last. Conjunctions and preposi- tions are generally read with the words that follow ; articles and adjectives with their nouns, adverbs with their verbs, &c. 43. All vowels may be said to have three sounds, ac- cording to the manner in which they are pronounced : 1. The principal or common sound, as a in amico (friend) ; 2. A prolonged sound when h follows the vowels, as in the interjections ah! eh ! oh! 3. A forcible sound, as in dalla (from the), bella (beautiful), stella, (star). This sound is heard when the vowel is followed by a double consonant, and when a monosyllable ending with a vowel or a word ending with an accent is followed by a consonant, and the two words are pronounced together, as Bite questo a me f (Do you say this to me ?) pronounce a me as amine. 44. It may be noticed also, that e and o have three SYLLABLES. 23 different sounds of their own, being pronounced either close or open (see section 25) when accented, and having a middle sound when not. SYLLABLES, AND THE RULES FOR ARRANGING THEM. 45. The elementary sounds, in their smallest com- bination, produce a syllable ; syllables properly combined produce a word, 46. A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and con- stituting a word or part of a word, as a (to), a-mi-co (friend). 47. Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper let- ters. The following are the general rules for the division of words into syllables. 48. (I.) A single consonant between two vowels must be joined to the latter syllable, &&fio~re (flower). 49. (II.) Two or three consonants proper to begin a word must not be separated, as co-sta-re (to cost), di- strug-gere (to destroy). 50. (III.) When two or more consonants which are not proper to begin a word meet between two vowels, such of them as can begin a word belong to the latter, the rest to the former syllable, as com-ple-to (complete), tut-to (all). 51. (IV.) Two vowels not being a diphthong must be divided into separate syllables, as Di-o (God). 52. "We may mention here, that a line should never end with a word contracted, a3 gran for grande (great), or having an apostrophe, as delV (of the). 24 APOSTROPHE. 53. The Apostrophe shows that a vowel is cut off either at the end or at the beginning of a word. 54. The two vowels i and u seldom suffer elision before a word beginning with a vowel. 55. When the apostrophe is found at the end of a word, before a consonant at the beginning of the next word, it always stands for the vowel t, 56. Words which terminate in ce, ci, ge, and gi, suffer elision only before the vowels e and /, to preserve the soft sound of these syllables. 57. Gli is elided only when followed by z, otherwise it would lose its natural sound, and be pronounced hard. 58. If il be preceded by a vowel, we may drop the i, as tutto 'I mondo for tutto il mondo (all the world). 59. No accented vowels suffer elision, because the ac- cent supposes the elision already made. 60. Elisions, though frequent in poetry, should rather be avoided in prose. They represent a rapid manner of pronunciation, by which words are joined together, and they should be used only where the connexion between words is close, as that of the article lo with its noun in V amove (the love), &c. 61. Obscurity should always be avoided if possible. The elision consequently does not take place in the plural articles, to distinguish them from the singular. We write and pronounce Vanima (the soul) in the singular, and le anime (the souls) in the plural. 25 CONTRACTION. 62. By Contraction is meant the suppression of a vowel or syllable at the end of a word, followed by another be- ginning with a consonant. 63. All words ending in e or o, after Z, m, n, r, may drop the final vowel before a word beginning with a single consonant. Thus vuol for vuole, he wishes ; siam for siamo, we are ; — the adjectives chiaro (clear), raro (rare), nero (black), oscuro (obscure), and a few others, being excepted. 64. When two words come together, the latter begin- ning with s followed by a consonant, the contraction very rarely takes place. Thus we must write, uomo stii- pido, sono stupefatto, and not uom stupido, &c. 65. The adverb or a and its compounds are the only words ending in a that admit of contraction. 66. The final syllable of the adjectives santo, grande, quello, hello, &c, may be dropped, unless the succeeding word begin with s and another consonant. In the plural we may drop the 11, and write either lei or be\ quei or que\ as the harmony of the sentence may require. Be- fore words beginning with a vowel, or s and another con- sonant, we should write quegli, legli. These rules do not apply if the adjective be placed after the noun it qualifies. 67. The following are a few of the words which un- dergo the greatest alteration : vo' for voglio, I wish ; me 1 for mezzo, middle, or for meglio, better ; e' for egli, he ; ma 1 for mali, bad ; qua! for quali, which ; re' for rege, king ; te' for tieni, take hold ; amaro, amar, for amdrano, &c. 26 USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 68. It is proper to begin with a capital — 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing. 2. The first word after a period ; and if the two sen- tences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 3. The appellations of the Deity. 4. Proper names. 5. Adjectives derived from proper nouns if used as nouns ; as, the French, / Francesi. 6. Other words may begin with capitals when they are remarkably emphatical. PUNCTUATION. 69. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written compo- sition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 70. The comma represents the shortest pause ; the semi- colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, double that of the semicolon : and the period, double that of the colon. TONES. 71. Tones differ both from emphasis and pauses; con- sisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or variations of sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. PAUSES. 72. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time. 27 EMPHASIS. 73. By emphasis is meant a strong and full sound, by which we distinguish a word or words on which we wish to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimes these words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice as well as by an emphatic enunciation. THE DASH. 74. Where a significant pause is required, a dash is used in Italian as in English; but where a sentence breaks off abruptly, the Italians use points of suspension ; thus, .... EUPHONY. 75. For the sake of producing a combination of letters agreeable to the ear, the two following rules should be observed : — 1. Where a word ending with a consonant is succeeded by another beginning with an s followed by a consonant,* an i is prefixed to it ; as, Siamo in Iscozia (We are in Scotland). Scozia, for the sake of euphony, is here changed into Iscozia.f 2. D is added to the preposition a, and to the conjunc- tions e and o followed by a vowel, whenever it facilitates the pronunciation. * Words beginning with s followed by a consonant sometimes take the i also at the beginning of a sentence ; thus, L' Iscozia e un bel paese (Scotland is a beautiful country). t The s followed by a consonant at the beginning of words is called s impura. 2S EXEECISES ON PBONUNCIATIO& EXERCISE I. TABLE OF THE MOST REMARKABLE SOUNDS IN THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. Italian Sounds. ca, co close, co open, cu, ce close, ce open, ci, che close, che open, chi, cia, tie close, tie open, tio close, cio open, tiu, see close, see open, sd, scia, scio close, scio open, schia, schie close, £c/iie open, schio close, §c^io open* Value in English, cart, colon, cot, cuckoo, Chichester, chest, Chichester, cape, kettle, chimerical^ charm, chain, check, chose, chocolate^ choose, shame, share, she, shard, shown, short, shoe, ske-ah, ske-a (a in paint) , ske-e (e in met), ske-o (o in no), ske-o ( o in not) % Examples. casa, a house. coda, a tail. eoma,the hair (in poetry). cura, care. cena, supper. Cesare, Csesar. cibo, food. cherubino, cherub. cheppia, shad. chimera, chimera. ciabattino, cohhler. ciecamente, blindly. cielo, heaven. cioccolata, chocolate. tiottolo, flint. ciurma, boat's crew* scemo, silly. scempio, simple. scimunito, stupid. sciagura, misfortune. scioglieva, I loosed. sciolto, loosed. sciupare, to waste. schiavo, slave. schierato, arranged for schiera, troop. [battle. schiomare,to pluck out the schioppo, gun. [hairs* EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 29 Italian Sounds. Value in English. Examples. schiu, ske-u (w in. prudence), schiuma, foam. fh garden, gar a, strife. ge close, regent, generoso, generous. ge open, jest, genere, kind. 9h g^, giro, turn. ghe close, game, ghermire, to seize. ghe open, get, gheppio, kestrel. ghi, gild, ghiaccio, ice. gia, jaunt, giarda, mockery. gio close, joke, giova, it is useful. gio open, joy, giostra, tilting-match. giu, jurist, giudice, judge. gli, million, egli 3 he. gle open, neglect, negletto, neglected. yna, onion, gnao, mewing of a cat. gne close, do. regnerd, he will reign. gne open, do. vegnente, coming (inpoetry) gni, do. regni, kingdoms. gno close, do. gnomone, gnomon. #7*0 open, do. gnocco, an Italian dish. go close, g°, gola, throat. ^0 open, got, gora, channel. £w, good, gufo, owl. ie, yell, jeri, yesterday. In the following words the u should be pronounced dis- tinctly, and not left out as in English : — Guardia, guard. Guerra (open), war. Guiderdone, reward (in poetry). Guar dare, to look. Guerire, to cure. Guercio, squinting. Guastare, to spoil. Guida, guide. 30 EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. EXERCISE IT. LIST OF WORDS THAT HAVE A DIFFERENT MEANING AC- CORDING AS THEIR ACCENTED e OR IS PRONOUNCED closely or openly. E close. Accetta, axe. Affetto, I slice. Bei, thou drinkest. Cera, wax. Colletto, hillock. Corresse, that he might run. Creta, chalk. Dessi, themselves. Desti, thou gavest. Detti, dette, said. E, and. Esca, tinder, bait. Fello, he did it. Fero, they did. (poet.) Feste, you did. (poet.) Lega, he binds. Legge, law. Lessi, lesse, boiled. Letto, bed. Mele, apples. Messe, masses. Mezzo, too ripe, rotten. Pera, pear. Pesca, fishing. Pesco, I fish. Peste, pounded. Sete, thirst. Tema,/ear. Temi, thou fear est. E open. Accetta, agreeable, he accepts. Affetto, affection, I affect. Bei, belli, beautiful. Cera or ciera, aspect. Colletto, collected. Corresse, he corrected. Creta, Creta. Dessi, he owes to himself. Desti, thou awakest. Detti, dette, I, he gave. E, he is. Esca, let him go out, &c. Fello, felon. Fero, fierce. Feste, feasts. Lega, a league. Legge, he reads. Lessi, lesse, I, he read. Letto_, read. Mele or miele, honey. Messe, harvest, reaping. Mezzo, middle. Pera, let him perish, &c. Pesca, peach. Pesco, peach tree. Peste, plague. Sete, you are. (poet.) Tema, theme. Temi, themes. EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 31 Veggi^that I may see. (poet.) Veggia, cask. Veglio, veglia, / watch, he Veglio, veglia, old. watches. Vena, vene, vein, veins. Vena, vene, oats. Venti, twenty. Venti, winds. (poet.) close. Accorre, he runs to. Accorsi, accorse, I, he ran to. Apporti, to guess or impute to thee. Botte, tub. Cola, he strains. Colto, cultivated. Corre, he runs. Corso, run, or a course. Corsi, / run. Corti, courts. Costa, it costs. Fora, it pierces. Foro, hole. Fosse, that he might be. Indotto, induced. Loto, mud. Noce, nut. Ora, hour or now. Orno, / adorn. Porci, to place us. Porsi, to place oneself. Pose, he put. Posi, I put. Posta, placed. Ricorre, he has recourse to. Riposi, / replaced. Rocca, distaff. Rodi, thou gnawest, Rosa, gnawed. open. Accorre, to receive. Accorsi, accorse, 7", heperceived. Apporti, thou bringest. Botte, blows. C6\a } thathemayhonour (poet.) Colto, gathered. Corre, to gather. Corso, Corsican. Corsi, infin., to gather for one- self Corsicans. Corti, to gather for thyself Costa, coast. Fora, it would be. (poet.) Foro, bar, forum. Fosse, ditches. Indotto, ignorant. Loto, a plant, Lotus. Noce or nuoce, it hurts. Ora, zephyr, he prays, (poet.) Orno, the ash. Porci, pigs. Porsi, / handed. Pose, pauses. Posi, that he may rest. Posta, post, station. Ricorre, to gather. Riposi, that he may rest. Rocca, fortress. Rodi, Rhodes. Rosa, rose. 32 EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. Rozza, rude. Scola, it drains. Scopo, I sweep. Scorsi, I overrun. Scorta, he abridges. Scorti, thou abridgest. Scorto, I abridge. Sole, sun, alone. Sollo, mellow. Solo, sola, alone. Sono, I am. Sonne., I am of it. Sorte, raised, risen. Stolto, foolish. Tocco, touch, I touch. Tomo, / tumble. Torre, tower. Torsi, stumps or trunks. Torta, tart. Torvi, fierce. Tosco, Tuscan. Volgo, mob. Volto, face. Voto, vow. Rozza, old horse. Scola or scuola, school. Scopo, aim. Scorsi, I perceived. Scorta, guide } perceived } he escorts. Scorti, perceived, thou escortest. Scorto, perceived, I escort. Sole for suole, he uses, (poet.) Sollo, I know it. Solo, sola, or suolo, suola, soil, Sono or suono, sound. [sole. Sonne, / know of it. Sorte, lot. Stolto or distolto, diverted. To ceo, morsel. To mo, volume. Torre, to take. Torsi, / twisted, or to take from oneself. Torta, twisted. Torvi, to take from you. Tosco, poison. Volgo, / turn. Volto, turned. Voto, empty. EXERCISE III. A LIST OF WORDS IN WHICH THE Z HAS THE SOUND OF Zafferano, saffron. Zaffiro, sapphire. Zaino, a wallet. Zanzara, a gnat. Zeffiro, zephyr. Zelo, zeal. Zenzero, ginger. Zerbino, a dandy. Zero, a cipher, nought. Zibibbo, raisins. Magazzino, a warehouse. Mezzo, half. Azzurro, blue. Gazzetta, a newspaper. Bizzarro, whimsical. Dozzina, dozen. EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 33 Orizonte, horizon. Caratterizzare, characterize. Gazza, a magpie. Dirozzare, to smooth. Rozzo, rough. Dimezzare, 1 :o halve. Battezzare, baptize. Ldzzaro, Lazarus. EXERCISE IV. ON THE ACCENT. Parole Trouche. Parole Piane. Parole Sdrucciole Parole Bisdruc- Capitb, Capito, Capito, Cdpitano, He arrived by- Understood. I arrive by They arrive by chance. chance. chance. Perdonb, Perdbn o, Perdono, Ditegliclo, He pardoned. I pardon. They lose. Tell it to him. Predicb, Predico, Predico, Predicano, He preached. I foretell. I preach. They preach. Schiavitu, Capitdno, Bisbetico, Manddtegliene, Slavery. Captain, Whimsical. Send him some. Esercitb, Esercitdre, Eserciio, Battetevela, He exercised. To exercise. Army. Save yourself. Sinceritd, Tenere, Tenere, Ordinano, Sincerity. To hold. Tender, f. pi. They order. Imperocche, Ancbra, Ancora, Godidmocela, Because. Again. Anchor. Let us enjoy ourselves. Consenti, Consenti, Consentono, Intbrbidano, He consented. Consent. They consent, , They trouble. Magnanimitd, Incrudelire, Fulmine, Fuggitevene, Magnanimity. To become cruel. Thunderbolt. Fly. Cercherb, Ingdnno, Riscdldano, Fulminano, I shall seek. Deceit. They warm. They dart thunderbolts. Schiaccerd, Campana, Avolo, Uitemelo, He will crush, , Bell. Grandfather. Tell it to me. 34 EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. EXERCISE V. The student who wishes to acquire a good pronun- ciation should commit to memory a few lines of poetry, by the frequent repetition of which he will acquire more facility than by the mere reading of many pages. This exercise of course would be unsuitable when he has no master to direct and correct him. I have selected for this purpose the celebrated passage of Dante in which he relates the death of Count Ugolino. The words in italics are either poetical or antiquated. I have added in foot-notes the words which should be used in con- versation. The introduction, the literal translation, and the explanatory notes, are taken from Mr Carlyle's ex- cellent translation of the Inferno. INTRODUCTION. Count Ugolino de' Gherardeschi, was chief of the Guelphs in Pisa, and Archbishop Ruggieri degli Ubaldini, of the Ghibellines. In the year 1284, Pisa was the only city of Tuscany that adhered to the Ghibelline party ; and Ugolino himself was of a Ghibelline fam- ily, but quite unscrupulous, and eager for power. In that same year, after the disastrous sea-fight with the Genoese, on Sunday, 6th August, in which the Pisans lost many of their galleys, and had 16,000 of their best men killed or taken prisoners, " the Florentines (in September) formed a league with the Lucchese, Sienese, &c. together with the Genoese, to make war on Pisa : the Florentines and other Tuscans by land, and the Genoese by sea." Ugolino, who had fled from the battle before it was fully decided, now by bribery and other unfair means induced the Florentines to with- draw secretly from the league ; and by their aid " expelled the Ghi- bellines from Pisa, and made himself master of it with the Guelphs." Vill vii. 92, 98. See also Annal. Genuens. p. 587 ; Cronica di Pisa, in Tartin. Supp. Rer. Ital. t. i. p. 564. Again, in July 1288, when three parties were competing for the mastery in Pisa, viz. Nino de' Visconti, Judge of Gallura, with EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 35 certain Guelphs ; Ugolino, with the rest of the Guelphs ; and, in opposition to both, " Archbishop Ruggieri degli Ubaldini, with the Lanfranchi, and Gualandi, and Sismondi and other Ghibelline houses : the said Count Ugolino, in order to make himself master, united with the Archbishop and his party, and betrayed Judge Nino, not considering that he was his own grandson, son of his own daughter ; and they arranged that he should be expelled from Pisa with his followers, or seized in person. Nino hearing this, and not finding himself able to make defence, left the city and went to Calci, his castle ; and leagued with the Florentines and Lucchese, to make war on the Pisans. The Count, before Nino was gone, in order the better to conceal his treachery, when every thing was ar- ranged for the expulsion of the Judge, went out of Pisa to a manor of his called Settimo. As soon as he was informed of Nino's depar- ture, he returned to Pisa with great joy, and was made Lord of the city amid great rejoicing and festivity. But his lordliness was of brief duration. Fortune turned against him, as it pleased God, because of his treacheries and sins ; for with truth it was said he had caused Anselmo da Capraia, his sister's son, to be poisoned, out of envy and fear, lest Anselmo, who was much esteemed in Pisa, might take his place The force of the Guelphs being thus impaired, the Archbishop took means to betray Count Ugolino, and caused him to be suddenly attacked in his palace by the fury of the people, telling them that he had betrayed Pisa, and given up their Castles to the Florentines and Lucchese ; and the people having come upon him without any defence, he surrendered. And in this assault a son and a grandson of Count Ugolino's were killed; and he himself taken, with two of his sons and three (or two ? as below) of his grandchildren, sons of his son, and put in prison." Vill. vii. 121. " In the following March, the Pisans, who had imprisoned Count Ugolino with two of his sons, and two sons of his son Count Guelfo (as we have mentioned above), in a tower on the Piazza degli An- ziani, caused the door of that tower to be locked up, the keys to be thrown into the Arno, and all food withheld from the said prisoners, who died of hunger in a few days. But the Count had previously kept demanding penitence with loud cries, and yet they permitted no friar or priest to confess him. All the five, when dead, were dragged together from the tower and meanly interred ; and from thenceforward the said prison was called the Tower of Famine, and always will be. For this cruelty the Pisans throughout the whole world, wherever it became known, were greatly blamed ; not so 36 EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. much for the Count himself, who by reason of his crimes and treach- ery was perhaps worthy of such a death, but for his sons and grand- sons who were young boys and innocent, ch 9 erano giovani garzoni e innocenti." Vill. vii. 128. For further details see Cronica di Pisa, in Murat. Rer. Ital. t. xv. p. 979, &c. ; Annales Genuen. ibid. t. vi. p. 608, &c; Fragm. Hist. Pis. ibid. t. xxiv. p. 648, &c. ; and the other Cron. di Pisa, in Tartin. Supplem. Rer. Ital. t. i. p. 564, &c. La bocca sollevo dal fiero pasto Quel peccator, forbendola a' 1 capelli Del capo ch' egli avea 2 diretro 3 guasto. Poi comincio : Tu vuoi ch' io rinnovelli* Disperato dolor, che il cor 5 mi preme, Gia pur pensando, pria 6 ch' io nefavelliJ Ma se le mie parole esser den' 8 seme, Che frutti infamia al traditor ch' io rodo, Parlare e lagrimar vedrai insieme. Io non so chi tu sie, 9 ne per che modo Venuto sei quaggiu ; ma Fiorentino Mi sembri veramente, quand' io t' odo. Tu dei 10 saper ch' io fui il Conte Ugolino, E questi 1' Arcivescovo Ruggieri : Or ti diro perch' io son tal vicino. Che per 1' effetto de' suoi rnal 11 pensieri, Fidandomi di lui, io fossi preso IZposcia 12 mSrto 13 dir non e mestieri. u Pero quel che non puoi avere inteso, Cioe, come la morte mia fu cruda, Udirai ; e saprai se m' ha ofFeso. Breve pertugio 15 dentro dalla muda, 1G La qual per me ha il titol della fame, E in che 17 conviene ancor ch' altri si chiuda, ! ai, 6 prima. 10 deyi. 34 necessario. 2 aveva. 7 parli. n cattivi. 15 buco. 3 di dietro. 8 devono, 12 dopo. 16 oscura prigione. 4 rinnuovi. 9 sei. 13 ucciso. 17 cui. 5 cuore. EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 37 IP avea mostrato per lo suoforame 1 Piu lune gia, quand' io feci il mal 2 sonno, Che del futuro mi squarcio il velame. 3 Questi pareva a me maestro e donnof Cacciando il lupo e i lupicini al raonte, Per che 5 i Pisan veder Lucca non^6/z?20. 6 Con cague magre, studiose" 1 e eonte, 8 Gualandi con Sismondi, e con Lanfranchi S' avea messi dinanzi dalla fronte. In picciol corso mi pareano stanchi Lo 9 padre e i figli, e con 1* agute 10 scane 11 Mi parea lor veder fender li u fianchi. Quando fui desto innanzi la dimane, 13 Pianger senti' fra '1 sonno i miei figliuoli, Ch' erano meco, e dimandar del pane. Ben sei crudel, se tu gia non ti duoli, Pensando cio ch' il mio cor u s' annunziava ; E se non piangi, di che pianger suoli I Gia eran desti, e 1' ora s' appressava Che il cibo ne soleva essere addotto, 15 E per suo 16 sogDO ciascun dubitava, Ed io sentii chiavar 17 V uscio di sotto All' orribile tone : ond' io guardai Nel viso a' niiei^ft woi 18 senza/ar motto. 19 Io non piangeva, si dentro impietrai : Piangevan elli ;-" e Anselmuccio mio Disse : Tu guardi si ! Padre, che hai \ Pero non lagrimai, ne rispos' io Tutto quel giorno, ne la notte appresso, Infin che V altro Sol nel mondo uscio, 21 Come un poco di raggio si fu messo xsel doloroso carcere, ed io scorsi Per quattro visi il mio aspetto stesso, apertura. 7 sollecite, ar- 12 i. 17 chiudere a chiave cattivo. denti. 13 il giorno. 18 figliuoli. yelo. 8 destre. 14 cuore. 19 parlare. signore. 9 il. 15 portato. 20 eglino. cui. 10 acute. 16 il suo. 21 usci. possono. 11 denti. 38 EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. Arnbo 1 le mani per dolor mi morsi ; E quei, 2 pensando ch' io ilfessi 3 per voglia Di manicarf di subito levorsi, 5 E disser : Padre, assai ci fia 6 men doglia 7 Se tu mangi di noi : tu ne vestisti Queste misere carni, e tu le spoglia. Quetaimi 8 allor, per non farli piu tristi : Quel di, e 1' altro stemmo tutti muti : Ahi dura terra, perche non t' apristi I Poscia 9 die fummo al quarto di venuti, Gaddo mi si gitto disteso a' piedi, Dicendo : Padre mio, che 10 non m' aiuti I Q,uivi mori ; e come tu mi vedi, Vid' io cascar li tre ad uno ad uno, Tra il quinto di e il sesto, ond' io mi diedi Gia cieco a brancolar sovra 11 ciascuno ; E tre di li chiamai, poi ch' ei 12 fur 13 morti : Poscia, u piu che il dolor, pote il digiunc. Quand' ebbe detto cio, con gli occhi torti Riprese il teschio misero co' denti, Che furo 15 all' osso, come d' un can, forti. Ahi Pisa, vituperio delle genti Del bel paese la dove il s) suona ; Poi che i vicini a te punir son lenti, Muovasi la Capraia e la Gorgona, E faccian siepe ad Arno in su la foce, Si ch' egli 16 annieghi in te ogni persona. Che se il Conte Ugolino aveva voce 17 D' aver tradita te delle castella, 18 Non dovei 19 tu ifigliuoi 20 porre a tal croce. Innocenti facea 1' eta novella, Novella Tebe 1 Uguccione e il Brigata, E gli altri duo 21 che il canto suso 22 appellee, 23 1 tutte e due. 7 dolore. 13 furono. 18 castelli. 2 quelli. 8 mi calmah 14 poi. 19 dove vi. 3 facessi. 9 poi. 15 furono. 20 figliuoli. 4 mangiar. 10 perche. 16 egli is an ex- 21 due. 5 si levarono* 11 sopra. pletive. 22 di sopra. 6 sara. 12 eglino. 17 nome. 23 nomina. EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 39 TRANSLATION. From the fell repast that sinner raised his mouth, wiping it upon the hair of the head he had laid waste behind. Then he began : " Thou wiliest that I renew desperate grief, which wrings nry heart, even at the very thought, before I tell thereof. But if my words are to be a seed, that may bear fruit of infamy to the traitor whom I gnaw, thou shalt see me speak and weep at the same time. I know not who thou mayst be, nor by what mode thou hast come down here ; but, when I hear thee, in truth thou seemest to me a Florentine. Thou hast to know that I was Count Ugolino, and this the Archbishop Ruggieri : now I will tell thee why I am such a neighbour to Mm, That by the effect of his ill devices I, confiding in him, was taken and thereafter put to death, it is not necessary to say : but that which thou canst not have learnt, that is, how cruel was my death, thou shalt hear — and know if he has offended me. " A narrow hole within the mew, which from me has the title of Famine, and in which others yet must be shut up, had through its opening already shown me several moons, 1 when I slept the evil sleep that rent for me the curtain of the future. This man seemed to me lord and master, chasing the wolf and his whelps, upon the mountain 2 for which the Pisans cannot see Lucca. With hounds meagre, keen, and dexterous, he had put in front of him Gualandi with Sismondi, and with Lanfranchi. 3 After a short course, the father and his sons seemed to me weary ; and methought I saw their flanks torn by the sharp teeth. When I awoke before the dawn, I heard my sons who were with me, weeping amid their sleep, and asking for bread. Thoi^'art right cruel, if thou dost not grieve already at the thought of what my heart foreboded ; and if thou weepest not, at what art thou 1 From July to March. 2 Monte St Giuliano, between Pisa and Lucca, which are some twelve miles apart, 3 Ruggieri, Lord and Master of the chase ; the Ghibelline nobles, leaders of the keen hounds or populace ; Ugolino, the father Wolf with sons. 40 EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. used to weep ? They were now awake, and the hour ap- proaching at which our food used to he brought us, and each was anxious from his dream, and below I heard the outlet of the horrible tower locked up : whereat I looked into the faces of my sons, without uttering a word. I did not weep : so stony grew I within. They wept ; and my little Anselm said : c Thou lookest so ! Father, what ails thee I ' But I shed no tear, nor answered all that day, nor the next night, till another sun came forth upon the world. When a small ray was sent into the doleful prison, and I discerned in their four faces the aspect of my own, I bit on both my hands for grief ; and they, thinking that I did it from desire of eating, of a sudden rose up and said : ( Father, it will give us much less pain, if thou wilt eat of us : thou didst put upon us this miserable flesh, and do thou strip it off.' Then I calmed myself, in order not to make them more unhappy. That day and the next we all were mute. Ah, hard earth ! why didst thou not open l When we had come to the fourth day, Gaddo threw himself stretched out at my feet, saying : ' My father ! why don't you help me V There he died ; and even as thou seest me, saw I the three fall one by one, be- tween the fifth day and the sixth, whence I betook me, already blind, to groping over each ; and for three days called them, after they were dead. Then fasting had more power than grief." 1 When he had spoken this, with eyes distorted he seized the miserable skull again with his teeth, which as a dog's were strong upon the bone. Ah, Pisa ! scandal to the people of the beauteous land where " Si " is heard ! 2 Since thy 1 So that Ugolino died on the ninth day : and the old Pisan com- mentator, Buti, says the tower was opeced after eight days, "dopo li otto giorni." Many volumes have been written about verse 75. Does the piu pott (" was more powerful ") indicate only that hunger killed Ugolino ? Or that fasting overcame his senses, and made him die eating as his poor children had invited % The words admit of either meaning. 2 Italy, where Si is the word for yes. Dante (Vulg. Eloq. i. 8) gives Jo or ja as characteristic of the Germans, Saxons, &c. ; Oc EXERCISES ON PRONUNCIATION. 41 neighbours are slow to punish thee, let the Capraia and Gor- gona 1 move, and hedge up the Arno at its mouth, that it may drown in thee every living soul. For if Count Ugolino had the fame of having betrayed thee in thy castles, thou ought est not to have put his sons into such torture. Their youthful age, thou modern Thebes ! made innocent Uguc- cione and Brigata, and the other two whom my song above has named. 2 of the " Spaniards " (the Langue d'Cc, used at the Court of Castile ; as well as in Provence, to part of which it gave name) ; Oil or out of the French, and Si of the Italians. 1 Small islands, not far from the mouth of the Arno. 2 Troya in his Veltro Allegorico (Flor. 1826, p. 28, &c.) asserts, in opposition to Villani and other contemporary historians, that Ugo- lino's sons and grandsons were not innocent, the Archbishop not guilty, &c. ; but the Veltro still seems much more like a romance than a piece of sober history. One is led to suspect speedy proofs of many hazardous assertions in it. Such books darken every part of the subjects on which they treat, and are inexcusable among serious men. PAET III. PRINCIPAL RULES OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. PAET III. PRINCIPAL RULES OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. GENDER. 1. There is no neuter gender in Italian. All nouns are either masculine or feminine. 2. All nouns are feminine except those that end in o, me, re, nte. 3. Nouns ending in a are feminine. The exceptions are a few nouns derived from the Greek, the most common of which are — Clima, climate. Programma, programme. Sistema, system. Stratagemma, stratagem. Terna, theme. Diadema, diadem. Pianeta, planet. Poeta, poet. Poema, poem. 4. All nouns ending in o are masculine except mano (hand). 5. Nouns ending in e may be either masculine or feminine. No certain rule can be given on the subject. Nouns ending in me, re, nte, are generally masculine. 6. Nouns ending in i and u are few, and they are gen- erally feminine. Dl and its compounds are masculine, as Lunedl (Monday), MartedX (Tuesday). Peru and Corfu are also masculine. 7. The names of fruit-trees are masculine, and of the 46 NUMBER. fruit, feminine, except fico (fig), porno (apple), arancia (orange), cedro (cedar). These names are applied both to the tree and the fruit. 8. Some words have two terminations in the singular ; as, cavaliere or cavaliero (a knight), barbiere or barbiero (a barber), straniere or straniero (a stranger), sentiere or sentiero (a path). Cavaliere, barbiere, straniero, and sen- tiero, are more used. Both terminations are masculine. NUMBER. 9. Feminine nouns ending in a change for the plural the a into e. All other nouns change the last vowel into i. 10. Nouns ending with io drop the o for the plural if the i is not accented. 11. Some nouns ending in io in the singular have for their plural ii or j. This is seldom done now, except for the sake of distinguishing one noun from another. Thus, tempio (atemple), becomes tempii or tempj in the plural, to distinguish it from the plural of tempo (time), which would otherwise be the same. 12. Dissyllables ending in co and go change them into chi and ghi; except porco (pig), Greco (Greek), mago (magician). 13. Some words, as mendico (a beggar), may be written either with an h in the plural or without it (rnendichi or mendici). 14. Words of more than two syllables, ending in co and go, preceded by a consonant, have their plurals in chi and ghi; as, albergo (inn), alberghi (inns). 15. Nouns ending in ca and ga change these termina- tions into die and ghe in the plural. NUMBER. 47 16. Nouns ending in ie have no variation in their plural ; as, specie (species), requie (rest), superficie (sur- face), barbarie (cruelty), progenie (progeny) serie (series), effigie (effigy). 17. Nouns accented on the last vowel do not change. 18. The few nouns that end in i do not change. 19. The plural of Dio (God) is Dei ; of uorno (man), udmini ; of bue (ox), buoi. 20. Collective nouns, such as popolo (people), esercito (army), assembled (assembly), are generally used in the singular. 21. The masculine nouns migliajo (a thousand), cen- tinajo (a hundred), novo (an egg), miglio (a mile), pajo (a pair), staio (a bushel), moggio (a sort of measure), have for their plural migliaia, centinaja, uova, miglia, paja, staja, mdggia. All these plurals are feminine. 22. The following nouns have two plurals ; the first, regular and masculine, ending in i ; the second, irregular and feminine, ending in a : — Anello, ring. Braccio, arm. Calcagno, heel. Castello, castle. Ciglio, eyelid. Cor no, horn. Dito, finger. Filo, thread. Fondamento, foundation. Frutto, fruit. Fuso, spindle. Gesto, gesture. GinocchiOy knee. Gomito, elbow. Grido, cry. Labbro, lip. Legno, wood. Lenzuolo, sheet. Membro, member. MurOy wall. Osso, bone. Porno, apple. Quadrello, arrow, (poet.) Riso 9 laughter. Sacco, sad. Strido, scream, (poet.) 23. The feminine plural is used in preference. Coma means horns ; corni is the plural of corno (horn), a musi- 48 ARTICLE. cal instrument ; lefrutta means the dessert ; gesta means deeds ; gomiti is the plural of gomito, a sort of measure ; legna means firewood ; merribri means members of an as- sembly ; membra, limbs ; muri means walls, but mura is used only for the walls of a town. ARTICLE. 24. The definite article for the feminine is la (plural fe). 25. The definite articles for the masculine are lo (plural gli), and il (plural i). 26. Lo is placed before a vowel, or an s followed by a consonant. 27. Before z we may use either il or lo. 28. La and lo take an apostrophe before a word be- ginning with a vowel. In the plural the elision is avoided unless the two vowels are the same. 29. Gli never takes an apostrophe except when fol- lowed by i. 30. Di (of), a (to), da (from), in (in), con (with), su (on), are joined to the articles when followed by them, so as to form one word. 31. Di, in, and con, when they are joined to the ar- ticles, are changed into de, ne, and co. 32. The prepositions con and su are joined to il and /, but may be joined or not to the other articles. 33. i7is joined to the prepositions by adding I to them ; thus, del, at, dal, nel, col, suL 34. Lo, la, and le, when joined to the prepositions, double the I ; thus, dello, delta, delle ; alio, alia, alle, &c. 35. I and gli are joined to the prepositions without any change. ARTICLE. 49 36. Per is sometimes joined to ?7, as pel mezzo (through the middle). This combination is not much used in con- versation. 37. Per is sometimes followed by to. We say, per to piu (for the most), per to meno (at least). 38. Signore and signora are preceded by an article, except when addressing a person by these words. 39. Infinitives of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, when used as substantives, take an article. 40. An article is often placed before the names of cele- brated persons ; as, il Tasso, la Jenny Lind. It is used also before familiar names in the feminine ; as, la Ca- ter ina. 41. Dei is preceded by gli. 42. Some is translated by di with an article where quantity is expressed. When we speak of number, alcuni or alcune is used. Datemi del pane (Give me some bread), Datemi alcuni libri (Give me some books). Di with an article meaning some may be called the Partitive article. 43. II is sometimes used to make the following words emphatical. Thus to denote a particular Friday, as, I was arrested on Friday the 13th of October, we say, Fui arrestato il Venerdi 13 Ottobre. 44. The definitive article is used instead of on in phrases like this : He comes on Tuesdays and Fridays ( Viene il Martedl ed il Venerdi). But I shall come on Tuesday is translated by Verro Venerdi. 45. The English say, The father and sons ; the Ital- ians, 11 padre ed ifigli. 46. The indefinite article an, a, or an, is used before a word that does not begin with an s followed by a con- sonant. 47. A is not translated before hundred and thousand 50 AET1CLE. if cento and mille are used. He had a hundred soldiers (Aveva cento soldati). We may say, however, Un centinajo di soldati, un migliajo di navi. The reason is, that cento and mille are adjectives, and centinajo and migliajo nouns. 48. The English make use of a or an before nouns of measure or weight, but the Italians use the definite ar- ticle. He sells wine at two shillings a bottle (Vende il vino due scellini la bottiglia) ; I have bought corn for six pauls a bushel (Ho comprato il grano a sei paoli lo staio). 49. When speaking of time, a is translated by the de- finite article. I pay two guineas a-week (Pago due ghinee la settimana). We may say also per settimana. 50. The indefinite article is not expressed in Italian after the verb to be, and before a noun denoting country, profession, or dignity. He is an Irishman (e Irlandese) ; You will be an advocate (sarete avvocato) ; He is a min- ister of state (e ministro di stato). 51. A is suppressed before the title of a book. An English Grammar (Grammatica Inglese). 52. In exclamatory sentences the a is not translated. What a fine picture ! (Che bel quadro!) CASE. 53. In order to understand the rules on the personal pronouns, it will be useful to explain the names of the Latin Cases. See Part I. section 57. 54. The Cases in Latin were six, and were called Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 55. The noun which formed the subject of the propo- sition was called the Nominative. CASE. 51 56. The noun which expressed the object of the action of a transitive verb was called the Accusative. 57. When we speak to any person, we often use some words, as, Sir, my sister, &c, for the name of a person or of his rank, &c, to call his attention to us. Such nouns were said to be in the Vocative case. 58. The other three cases — the Genitive, Dative, and Ablative — expressed the same relation as the preposition di (of), a (to), da (from), do in Italian. These preposi- tions are therefore called Segnacasi, prepositions marking cases. 59. The nominative case is called in Italian Caso retto, to distinguish it from the other cases called Casi obliqui. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 60. The personal pronouns are, Egli for the masculine, Ella for the feminine. Their plurals are, Eglino and Elleno. 61. There is also another personal pronoun, Esso for the masculine, and Essa for the feminine. Their plurals are, Essi and Esse. 62. Egli and Ella are used for persons only ; Esso and Essa are used both for persons and things. 63. Egli and Eglino are used in the nominative only ; in the other cases we use lux for the singular, and loro for the plural. 64. In the same way, Ella and Elleno are the nomi- natives, and Lei and Loro are the other cases. 65. Esso, Essa, Essi, and Esse, are the same in all cases. 66. After Essere (to be), and Parere (to appear), desso, 52 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. dessi, &c, are used instead of esso, essi, &c, for the sake of euphony. 67. The reflective pronoun is se ; it has no nominative, and is the same whether it be masculine or feminine, singular or plural. 68. Egli is often an expletive, Egli e vero che, &c. It is true that. We may say also, E vero che, &c. 69. The pronouns in the nominative are often omitted before a verb. We may say either Io pranzero alle sette (I shall dine at seven), or simply Pranzerd alle sette. When the omission creates an obscurity it should be avoided. 70. It is I, It is you, &c, are translated by Sono io, Sei tu, &c. 71. Con me, con te, con se (with me, with thee, with him or with her), may be expressed by meco, teco, seco. 72. If I were he, If I were she, are translated by S'io fossi lux, S'io fossi lei. Happy is he, Happy am I, by Lui beato, me felice. 73. All the pronouns become emphatical when coming after the verb. Parlero io means I shall speak myself. 74. I stood before him is translated by Io stava dinanzi a lui, but also by Io gli stava dinanzi. (See Sect. 35.) 75. Esso is an expletive affixed to lungo (along), sovra (upon) ; lunghesso il flume ; sovresso il ponte. These ex- pressions are poetical. We meet also in classical writers con esso lui, con esso voi ; but we should avoid these ex- pressions in conversation. General rule : — Prefer sim- plicity when you can. 76. In addressing any person in Italian, the third per- son feminine is used for strangers as a mark of respect. 77. The use of the third person feminine in addressing a person was introduced from the custom, once very fre- PRONOMINAL PARTICLES. 53 quent, of using Vostra Signoria or Vossignoria (often writ- ten V. S.), meaning your lordship. This expression is seldom heard now, but the pronoun in the third person feminine seems to imply it. 78. Voi (you) is used towards inferiors, and also as showing a certain degree of familiarity between equals. 79. Tu (thou) is used between intimate friends or relations, and is the mark not only of equality but of the greatest familiarity. 80. Voi is also used as a mark of great respect in ad- dressing sovereigns ; and Tu, like Thou in English, is used as a mark of the highest respect in addressing the Deity. 81. Loro without a preposition is used instead of a loro before a verb. PRONOMINAL PARTICLES. 82. The words mi, ci, ti, vi, si, lo, la, gli, le, ne, which are used often instead of the pronouns, may be called Pronominal Particles. It is of the utmost importance that the proper use and signification of these particles should be thoroughly understood. TABLE OF THE PRONOMINAL PARTICLES. 6. Lo, him, it. 7. Gli, to him, to it, them. 8. La, her. 9. Le, to her, them, 10. Ne, of or from him, her, it, them. 1. Mi, to me, me. 2. Ci, to us, us, in it, to it, in them, to them. 3. Ti, to thee, thee. 4. Vi, to you, you, in it, to it, in them, to them. 5. Si, to himself, himself, to themselves, themselves.* Si is used for both genders and numbers. 54 PRONOMINAL PARTICLES. RULES ON THE PRONOMINAL PARTICLES. 83. I. The pronominal particles are either pronouns under a different form, or pronouns joined to a preposi- tion. 84. II. The pronominal particles are always placed before the verb, unless they are affixed to it. The pro- nouns that correspond to them are generally placed after the verb. 85. III. The pronominal particles are used in prefer- ence, — the pronouns only when emphasis is required. Io vi amo (I love you) ; Io amo voi come voi amate me (I love you as you love me) ; Mi date un libro (You give me a book) ; Date un libro a met (Is it to me that you give a book ?) 86. IV. The pronominal particles are affixed to the verb in the infinitive, present and past participle, and the imperative, except when the imperative is negative, or in the third person singular or plural. 87. V. The last vowel of the infinitive is always cut off when a pronominal particle is affixed to it ; and when the infinitive ends, like condurre (to conduct), with an r before the last syllable, the latter is cut off entirely. Voglio condurvi io (I wish to conduct you myself). 88. VI. The pronominal particles are also affixed to the interjection ecco (behold) ; eccomi (behold me, or here I am). 89. VII. When ci and vi are used with mi, ti, or si, they come after them. 90. VIII. Mi, ti, ci, vi, si, are changed into me, te, ce, ve, se, when used with lo, gli, la, le, ne ; and the two words are joined together, Egli melo da. PRONOMINAL PARTICLES, 00 91. IX. Gli loses the g when affixed to mi, ci, ti, vi, si, or gli meaning themselves. 92. X. Gli is changed into glie, and prefixed to lo, K, /a, ?e, ne, when these particles are used with it. 93. XI. Gli, before lo, li, ?a, le, ne, means not only to him, but also to her. Glieli da means he gives them to him, and he gives them to Jier. 94. XII. Li is sometimes used for gli, and often when we speak of the days of the month, li due, li tre, &c. (the second, the third), &c. 95. XIII. Lo (him or it) and non (not) may be joined and form nol. I do not deny it, is translated either by lo non lo nego, or lo nol nego. 96. XIV. II is sometimes used as a pronominal par- ticle, and instead of lo. I saluted him is translated by . il salutai, or lo salutai. Lo, however, is more commonly used, and is more agreeable to the ear. 97. XV. It is a general rule, that when to a mono- syllable, or to a word accented on the last vowel, is affixed a termination or a word beginning with a con- sonant, this consonant should be doubled. Thus, if to da (give) is joined mi (to me), we say dammi, and not dami. 98. XVI. So is very often translated by lo (it) ; I think so (lo credo) ; do so (fatelo), &c. 99. XVII. Ne signifies also a noi and not (to us and us). Ne danno molte cose (they give to us many things). 100. XVIII. Gli never doubles the g when affixed to a verb. We say dirotti* (I shall say to thee), but dirogli (I shall say to him). 101. XIX. Si before an active verb often gives to it * The pronominal particles are sometimes affixed to other parts of the verb besides those mentioned in Section 86. 56 PRONOMINAL PARTICLES. a passive signification. Coine si chiama means not only how does he call himself, but also how is he called. 102. XX. Si sometimes seems to have the signifi- cation of an indefinite nominative, equivalent to the English one, man, they. Come si chiama may thus be translated by How do they call him. At home, one does as one pleases (a casa, si fa quel die si vuole) ;* People may say what they like [si pud dire quel che si vuole). 103. XXI. Sometimes an entire sentence forms the subject of the proposition when si is used. Si dice che verrd la regina ad Edimburgo (it is said that the queen will come to Edinburgh). Here the nominative of si dice is che verra la regina ad Edimburgo. 104. XXII. When the verb is reflective, si cannot be used as an indefinite nominative, but, as in English, we may use uno (one), noi (we),&c, as Uno si lusinga in- vano (one flatters himself in vain), or Noi ci lusinghiamo in vano (we flatter ourselves in vain), or Si lusingano invano (they flatter themselves in vain). 105. The possessive pronoun is often translated by the pronominal particles, when we speak of any thing referred principally or belonging to the person spoken of. I have hurt my finger is translated by Mi sono fatto male al dito. ADJECTIVES. 106. Adjectives end either in o or in e. Those that end in o are masculine, the o being changed into a for the feminine. Those that end in e are both masculine and feminine. * As the student must accustom himself to remember the open sound of e and o, the circumflex accent hitherto used to distinguish it will now be seldom used. When preceded by u y o is always open, and therefore need not be marked. ADJECTIVES. 57 107. Adjectives follow the same rules as nouns for the plural. The plural of a is e ; o and e take *. 108. Tanto and cotanto (so much), quanto (how much), troppo (too much), altrettanto (as much), molto (much), poco (little), being adjectives, are changed into a for the feminine, as tanta, quanta. Their plural is tanti, tante ; quanii, quante, &c. 109. Piii, meno, assai (more, less, and many), are un- changeable in their termination. 110. A little , in the phrase give me a little wine, being a substantive, and signifying a small quantity of, is trans- lated by un poco di. Datemi un poco di vino (give me a little wine). 111. The adjective alquanto may be used instead of un poco di ; as, datemi alquanto vino, or un poco di vino. 112. Cosifatto is the same as tale (such). Non dite <:osi fatie cose (do not say such things). 113. Parecchio in the singular means such or similar, in the plural it means several. Ho parecchi libri (I have several books) ; Come avete potuto fare una cosa parec- chia (how could you do such a thing ?) 114. Piii may be used instead of parecchi and par ec- chie. Ho piii libri, ho piii case (I have several books, I have several houses). 115. Mezzo (half) agrees with a substantive when placed before it, but assumes the meaning of the sub- stantive meta when placed after it. Una mezza hot tiglia (half a bottle) ; Una bottiglia e mezzo (a bottle and a half). 116. Bello (beautiful), quello (that), santo (saint), lose the last syllable before masculine nouns beginning with a consonant, except it be an s followed by a consonant. 58 ADJECTIVES. 117. Bel and quel become bei and quei, or be! and que*. in the plural. San has only santi for the plural. 118. Grande is changed into gran before nouns both masculine and feminine, if they do not begin with a vowel, or 5 followed by a consonant. 119. Buono loses the o before masculine nouns, ex- cept they begin with s followed by a consonant. 120. Adjectives expressing figure, form, colour, taste, or derived from the name of a nation or from a verb, generally follow the noun. Una tavola rotonda (a round table) ; un vestito nero (a black dress), &c. 121. It is often desirable to place the adjective after the noun when the former is composed of a greater num- ber of syllables, as, un libro eccellentissimo ; also when two or more adjectives qualify the noun ; but in such cases we must be guided entirely by the rules of euphony. 122. Benedetto is sometimes an expression of impa- tience. If a man keep us waiting, we say in Italian, Quel benedetto uomo non viene (literally, that blessed man does not come). COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 123. When in comparisons of equality the first term of the comparison is indicated by the word cost or si (so), the second term is always indicated by the word come (as). Siete cost buona or si buona come bella ; you are so (as) good as you are beautiful. 124. Tanto is always followed by quanto. Avete tanto danaro quanto ilfratel vdstro (you have as much money as your brother). 125. Tale (such) is always followed by quale (as). Tali dobbiamo essere quali vogliamo comparire (we ought to be such as we wish to appear). COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 59 126. Cost, tanto, and tale, may be understood, and we may say, Siete buona come bella ; Avete danaro quanto il fratel vostro ; Dobbiamo essere quali vogliamo com- parire. 127. Tanto, quanto, tale, quale, are used as adjectives when followed by a substantive. Ho tanti servitori quanti ne avete voi (I have as many servants as you). 128. More... than, less ...than, are translated by piu . . . di, meno . . . di, if the comparison is between substan- tives, personal pronouns, or two infinitives ; and by piu . . . che, meno . . . che, in all other cases. Sono piu grande di voi (I am taller than you are) ; E piu prudente che dotto (he is more prudent than learned). 129. Than followed by a verb not in the infinitive mood is rendered by che non. Essi hanno meno danaro che non credete (they have less money than you think). 130. When the comparison is between verbs, we may say piu che (more than), or piu di quello che ; meno che non, or meno di quello che non. Spende piu che non guadagna, or Spende piu di quello che guadagna (he spends more than he gains). 131. The following words are comparatives derived from the Latin :—^ 1. Maggiore, greater. 2. Minore, less. 3. Peggiore, worse. 4. Migliore, better. 5. Meglio, better, (adv.) 6. Peggio, worse, (adv.) 132. It must be observed that migliore and peggiore are adjectives ; meglio and peggio adverbs. 133. The superlative absolute is formed by adding issimo to the adjective. ElV era bellissima (she was most beautiful) ; or by placing molto before it, ElV era molto bella. 60 COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 134. Sciocco and scioeca (foolish) make the superlative schiocchereUo and scidccherella. The h is here added to the terminations erello and erella, to preserve the hard sound of the a in sciocco and scioeca. 135. The superlative absolute may become an adverb ; thus from grandissimo we may form grandissimamente. 136. A superlative absolute may be expressed by placing tutto before the adjective, or by the repetition of the adjective : E tutto chiuso, or e chiuso chiuso (it is all shut up). This last form is rather familiar. 137. The superlative of relation is indicated by placing an article before piu and meno : il piu forte di tutti gli uomini. 138. The following superlatives are derived from the Latin : — 1. Ottimo, best. 2. Pessimo, worst. 3. Minimo, least. 4. Iwfimo, lowest. 5. Supremo, highest. 6. Acerrimo, most harsh or cruel. 7. Celeberrimo, most famous. 139. The definite article before a comparative is not translated into Italian. The more difficult a thing is, the more honourable it is [piu una cosa e difficile piu essa e onorevole). 140. Sometimes tanto e quanto are placed before piu and meno. Tanto piu uno e ignorante, tanto piu egli e pronto net giudicare (the more ignorant a man is, the more ready he is to judge). The tanto , like the article the in English, serves to give force to the sentence. 141. Come and quanto may be changed into al pari di (equally). Lo conosco al pari di voi (I know him as well as you do). 61 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 142. Augmentatives and diminutives are words whose signification is modified by the addition of one or more syllables. 143. The termination one added to a word conveys the idea of greatness. All feminine nouns that receive this termination become masculine. Example : La tavola (the table) ; II tavolone (the large table). 144. Feminine adjectives do not change their gender when one is affixed to them. She is very silly, is trans- lated by Ella e una scioccona. 145. The termination ino 1 which adds to the noun the idea of little, sometimes renders it masculine. Thus from tavola (table) we form tavolino (small table). 146. The termination accio expresses contempt ; as, dmaccio (a contemptible man); donnaccia (a contemptible woman). 147. Uomo (man) always loses the vowel u when any termination is affixed to it. 148. The terminations azzo and astro, like actio, express contempt, but are less used : Popolazzo (mob) ; giovanastro (a despicable youth). 149. Otto means rather, as grassotto [rather fat). 150. The termination ino expresses not only littleness, but a certain affection towards the object ; etto conveys the same idea, but it may also mark contempt. Exam- ples : Fanciullino, fanciulletto (little child). 151. The termination uzzo (omuzzo, little man, dwarf) expresses littleness, the effect of extraordinary leanness in a person of very small stature. 152. Erello (vecchierello, little old man) may indicate 02 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. smallness alone, and also levity and want of dignity in the object so qualified ; as when we speak of a vain and affected man (vanarello) ; of a foolish girl [pazzarella) y &c. 153. Icciuola (dmicciuolo, worthless little man) may denote physical defect in size, and the little importance of the individual or object to which it is attributed. 154. Icciattolo and icciatto [omicciattolo omicciatto r contemptible man) expresses a very great degree of con- tempt. 155. Some words are susceptible of one termination rather than another, 156. Adjectives and some adverbs can be thus modi- fied : caro (dear), carino, carina ; hello (fine), bellino, bellina ; and bene (well), benino f benone. 157. There are double augmentatives and diminu- tives : ladro (thief), ladrone (great thief), ladronaccio (great ugly thief) ; cosa (thing), cosetta (little thing), cosettina (very little thing). 158. Each termination expresses a different idea or shade. There is a variation of meaning, which we can learn only by experience and practice, in the changes of which some words are susceptible; as, vecchio, vecchie- rellino, vecchiettinOj vecchietto, vecchierelIo f vecchiotto, vec- chiuzzo. 159. The use of augmentatives and diminutives is most frequently admitted in the familiar style. 63 NUMERALS. 160. The numeral adjectives are divided into Cardinal and Ordinal. CARDINAL NUMBERS. DiciassHte, seventeen. Diciotto, eighteen. Diciannove, nineteen. Uno, Due, Tre, Quattro, Cinque, Sei, Sette, Otto, Nove, Dieci, Undici, Dbdici, Tredici, Quattbrdici, Quindici, Sedici, one. two. three. four. five. six. seven. eight. nine. ten. eleven. twelve. thirteen. fourteen. fifteen. sixteen. Venti, Ventuno, Trenta, Quaranta, Cinquanta, Sessanta, Sfttanta, Ottanta, Novanta, Cento, Due cento, } Dugento, J" Mille, ORDINAL NUMBERS. Primo, first. \ Decimo sesto, Secondo, second. Decimo settimo, Terzo, third. Decimo ottavo, Quarto, fourth. Decimo nono, Quinto, fifth. Ventesimo, Sesto, sixth. Ventesimo primo, Settimo, seventh. vigesin to primo, Ottavo, eighth. Trentesimo, Nono, ninth. Quarantesimo, Decimo, 'tenth. Cinquantesimo, Undecimo* de- 1 , ., Sessantesimo* .' y- eleventh. ~ .. ... cimo primo, j bettantesimo, Duodecimo* de-^ , ,«, Ottantesimo, ' y twelfth. A . ,, . cimo secondo, v A ovantesimo, Decimv terzo, thirteenth. Centesimo, Decimo quarto, fourteenth. Millesimo, Decimo quinto, fifteenth. twenty, twenty- one. thirty, forty. fifty. sixty. seventy. eighty. ninety. hundred. two hundred. thousand. sixteenth. seventeenth. eighteenth. nineteenth. twentieth. twenty-first. I thirtieth, fortieth, fiftieth, sixtieth, seventieth, eightieth, ninetieth, hundredth, thousandth. 64 NUMERALS. 161. Mille has the plural mila. 162. We cannot say in Italian, undid cento, dodici cento , &c. ; but mille e cento, mille e due cento, &c. 163. The ordinal number placed after the name of so- vereigns to indicate the order of succession has no article before it as in English ; Leone decimo (Leo the Tenth). 164. After 21, 31, 41, 51, &c, the substantive qual- ified by these numbers is singular ; Vent 1 un franco, trentf un franco, &c. It seems in such cases that the plurality of twenty is unnoticed, and that the substantive is made to agree with the singular number uno. 165. In multiplication we may say quattro volte quattro fanno sedici, or quattro via quattro sedici (four times four make sixteen). 166. Li is used very frequently instead of the article gli before the cardinal number indicating the day of the month; Partiremo li died (we shall set out on the tenth). Observe that on is not translated into Italian. 167. Both is translated by tatli due, or tutti e due, as I wish them both (li voglio tutti e due), when it is re- ferred to two nouns, but by e...e when referred to two sentences ; I shall go there both to-morrow and next day (vi andro e domani e Valtro). 168. By twos, by threes, by fours, are translated by a due, a tre, a quattro. Two by two, three by three (a due a due, a tre a tre), 169. The adjective same is often elegantly translated by uno (one). All lead to the same end (tutti tirano ad unfine). 170. When we speak of the hour of the day, we say e la una (it is one o'clock), sono le due (it is two o'clock), sono le tre (it is three o'clock), &c. 171. It is immaterial whether the substantive be placed NUMERALS. 65 after or before the Cardinal number ; as, anni venti cinque, or venti cinque anni (twenty-five years). 172. We cannot say two and thirty, three and thirty, &c. ; but only thirty-two, thirty-three [trenta due, trenta tre), &c. 173. In early times, the Italians began to count the hours from one sunset to another. One o'clock was the first hour after the setting of the sun, and the twenty- fourth hour the one immediately before. It is still cus- tomary in some parts of Italy to say, le ventitre, le venti- quattro, as a convenient way to express one or two hours before dusk. 174. Una decina, una dozzina, una quindicina, una ventina, una trentina, una quarantina, un centinajo, un migliajo, are collective substantives derived from the nu- merical adjectives. 175. This day week, this day fortnight, are translated by oggi a otto, oggi a quindici. 176. Per uno means for each person. II pranzo ci e costato cinque franchi per uno (the dinner cost us five francs a-piece). 177. In speaking of the different centuries of our liter- ature, the thirteenth century is called il dugento, the four- teenth il trecento, the fifteenth il quattrocento, and so on. 178. And is not used in notation, as in the following and similar phrases : In the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-one (iielV anno mille ottocento cinquan- tuno). PRONOUNS. 179. The definition generally given of a pronoun is correct, namely, that it is a word used instead of a noun ; but the application of this definition is confined to 66 PRONOUNS. the class of Personal pronouns. These have already been spoken of. 180. There are two other kinds of pronouns, viz. Relative and the Adjective pronouns, which are, properly speaking, either adjectives or articles, though some of them are nouns. 181. Relative pronouns are such as relate in general to some word or phrase going before, thence called the Antecedent. They are, who, which, and what. Example : "The man is happy who lives virtuously " [Vuomo il quale vive virtuosamente e felice)* 182. What is a kind of compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which : as, " This is what I wanted," that is to say, " the thing which I wanted." It is translated in Italian by Quel che or cid die, or la cosa che ; Questo e quel che voglio, or cio che voglio ; or Questa e la c6sa che voglio. 183. Who is applied to persons, which to things and irrational animals. This distinction is not found in the Italian language. 184. That as a relative is often used to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied to both persons and things, and is translated by Che. He that acts wisely, &c. [colui che agisce saviamente). 185. Who, which, and what, are called Interrogatives when they are used in asking questions, and are trans- lated respectively by chi, quale, and che. 186. The word that is sometimes a relative, sometimes * The relative pronouns may be called Conjunctive Adjectives, as they fulfil the office of a conjunction in joining one proposition to another, and in a certain manner make the proposition which follows them equivalent to an adjective, as when we say, the king who is just {il re che e giusto), which is the same as the just king {il re giusto). PRONOUNS. 67 a conjunction, and sometimes a demonstrative pronoun. When it is a demonstrative pronoun, it is translated by quello? 187. The adjective pronouns are subdivided into four kinds : namely, possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite, 188. The possessive pronouns are those which relate to possession or property. In English they are seven in number : my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. In Italian there are only six : mio, iuo, suo, nostro, vostro, loro. 189. The possessive pronouns, being adjectives, agree in gender and number with the substantive ; but mio, tuo, and suo, are irregular in their masculine plural, which is miei, tuoi, suoi. 190. Loro is unchangeable, being alike in the mas- culine and feminine, singular and plural. 191. The distributive pronouns are those which, taken separately, denote the persons or things that make up a number. They are, each (ciascuno), every (ogni), either (l'uno o 1'altro). 192. The demonstrative pronouns are those which point out precisely the subjects to which they relate : in Eng- lish there are two, tjiis and that. This refers to the nearer person or thing, that to the more distant.-}- * The student will observe that the word that is a relative pro- noun when it can be turned into who or which, a demonstrative pronoun when it is immediately followed by a noun to which it refers or is joined, and a conjunction in all other cases. f The demonstrative pronouns perform the same office as the article, namely, they limit the extension of the noun ; as, i" like books, I like this book, I like the book. In the first example, I mean books in general; in the second and third, one particular book. Hence the correct denomination of these words should be that of demonstrative articles. 68 PRONOUNS. 193. This is translated by questo, and that by quello. But when the person or thing is near, or belongs or re- fers" to the person spoken to, cotesto is used; as, What coat is that which you have on ? (che abito e cotesto che avete indosso ?) What words are these that you say ? (che parole sono coteste che dite f) 194. The indefinite pronouns are those which express subjects in an indefinite or general manner; as, some (qualche), other (altro), any (alcuno), one (uno), all {tut- to), &c. These are either adjectives or nouns. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE ITALIAN PRONOUNS. CHE. 195. Che after a semicolon, colon, or period, always means because. It is sometimes accented "when used in this manner: Placati: che altrimenti, &c. (be appeased: because otherwise). 196. Che is used in some exclamatory expressions with the imperative, and seems to add force to such sen- tences : Che benedetta sia Vora (blessed be the hour) ; che sifaccia (let it be done). The verb voglio (I wish) is un- derstood before such phrases. 197. Non che is elegantly used instead of non solo (not only). Petrarch says, Spero trovar pietd, non cue per- dono (I hope to find pity, not pardon only). 198. Che as a conjunction may be understood : Voglio mi diciate (I wish that you would tell me). 199. Che is used as a substantive, and means ivhich thing ; II che non e vero (which thing is not true).* 200. The books you bought, should be translated by I libri che compraste. A most important rule in render- * Alcun che is the same as alcuna cosa (something). PRONOUNS. 69 ing English into Italian is to supply all the words under- stood in English, unless we know that such words may also be omitted in the Italian. 201. Che used with non means but or only, Non hanno che un libro (they have but one book). 202. Che is used for since. E molto tempo che son qui (I have been here a long time). 203. Che means so that. Chi lo legherd che non si sciolga f (who will tie him so that he may not release himself?) 204. Che may be used for affinche (in order to). Guardava cVintorno dove si potesse porre che non si bagnasse (he looked round where he might place him- self in order that he might not become wet). 205. Non ho che fare means I have nothing to do. 206. Che che means whatever. Che che avvenga (what- ever may happen). 207. Lest is translated by che non. Do not give him so much money lest he abuse it {non gli date tanto danaro che non ne abusi). 208. Che is used with piu and meno. Piu che (more than) ; meno che (less than). (See Section 128). 209. Che is often used as an expletive after an inter- jection; AMI che sono per duto (Alas! I am lost). 210. In exclamatory sentences, What a man! ichat a woman! the indefinite article a is omitted. What a man ! {che uomo !) what a woman ! {che donna !) 211. What? in interrogative sentences is translated by che t or che cosa t (what thing ?) or cosa alone. Che dite t or che cosa dite f or cosa dite f (what do you say?) 212. Che is used for quel che (that which or what) Non so che dite (I do not know what you say). 70 PRONOUNS. CHI. 213. Chi is always singular. It means, 1 . Who is the person that ? 2. The person who. 3. Some persons. 1. Chi parlaf (who speaks?) 2. Chi lo dice ha ragione (he who says so is right). 3. In questo mondo chi piange e chi ride (in this world some weep and some laugh). cui. 214. Speaking of persons, cui is used in the genitive, dative, or ablative case more commonly than che. L'uomo di cui parlate (the man of whom you speak). Speaking of things, che may be used in all cases. 215. Cui should always be used for che when the latter might create obscurity. The man whom my father loved, is better translated by Vuomo cuiamava mio padre than by Vuomo che, &c. Owing to the nominative coming so fre- quently after the verb in Italian, the second example might be understood to signify The man who loved my father. 216. Cui is sometimes used between the article and its substantive, and then means di cui ; as, II cui valore (the valour of whom, or whose valour). 217. Quale means come in comparison, and is followed by tale. Dante says, Quale i fioretti dal notturno gelo chinati e chiusi, poiche il sol gVimbianca, si drizzan tutti aperti in loro stelo ; tal mi fec'io di mia virtute stanca. [As flowerets, by the nightly chilness bended down and closed, erect themselves all open on their stems when the sun whitens them, thus I did with my fainting courage). — Dr Carlyle 1 s Translation. 218. Quale means whoever, whatever, or whichsoever. PKONOUNS. 71 Qual di lassie discende (whoever descends from above) ; Qual si sia la cagione (whatever may be the cause) ; Qual volete di questi due libri f (which of these two books do you wish ?) 219. Quale in the above signification is often joined to si sia or si voglia, as qualsisia or qualsivoglia ; plural, qualsisiano and qualsivogliano. 220. Quale is used in the singular in the sense of some persons. Quale se ne ando in campagna, e qual quel e qual la (Some persons went into the country, and some here and some there). 221. Quale is used as well as che in expressions of doubt. Non so qual cosa, or che, mi tenga dal, &c. (I do not know what keeps me from, &c.) 222. Quale is used in the,«ame way in interjections. Quale amove, qual ricchezza, qual parentela ! or Che amove, che richezza, che parentela ! (What love, what wealth, what parentage !) 223. Tale e quale means "exactly such." 224. Cotale is the same as tale (such). How can you say such a thing ? (Come potete dire una tal cosa, or una cotal cosa ?) 225. I. Onde means "of whom or which." L'uomo onde si p aria (the man of whom one speaks). 226. II. Onde expresses also the things with which. Conmene che mi guadagni con fatica onde vivo onde vesto (I must gain with difficulty the means by which I live and dress). 227. III. Onde means " so that." Comincia a piovere onde e meglio che torni a casa (It begins to rain, so that I had better return home). 228. IV. Onde has also the signification of in that E 72 PRONOUNS. place, whither : Ld onde to vado non c'e (it is not in the place to which I am going). 229. V. Onde and donde mean whence. Non so onde or donde veniate (I do not know whence you come).* POSSESSIYE PRONOUNS. 230. The possessive pronouns are, — SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masculine and Feminine. Masculine and Feminine. Mio, mia, my, mine. Miei, mie, my, mine. Tuo, tua, thy, thine. Tuoi, tue, thy, thine. Suo, sua, his, her. Suoi, sue, his, her. Nostro, nostra, our. Nostri, nostre, our. Vostro, vostra, your. Vostri, vdstre, your. Loro, their. Loro, their. 231. The possessive pronoun agrees with the thing possessed, and not with the possessor. Mary sold her ring (Maria ha venduto il suo anello). 232. The possessive pronoun is preceded by an article when agreeing with a substantive expressed or under- stood. II mio panno (my cloth) ; Questo panno e il mio (this cloth is mine). 233. It must be observed that there is a difference be- tween questo panno e mio, and questo panno e il mio, cor- responding to the difference between this cloth is mine and this is my cloth. 234. The article is omitted before possessive pronouns agreeing with a substantive expressing relationship or * It will be observed that this word has very different significa- tions, according to which it forms a different part of speech. It has been thought more convenient to state all that was essential to be known about such words when they first occur, than to introduce the observations under various heads. PRONOUNS. 73 dignity, but never if a word comes between them, or if the possessive pronouns are in the plural or before loro. Ecco mio fratello (here is my brother). Ecco il mio caro fratello (here is my dear brother). Ecco il loro fratello (here is their brother). Ecco i miei fratelli (here are my brothers). 235. Though mio before fratello has no article, as in the first of the above examples, the article may be used to add force, and we may sometimes say emphatically ecco il mio fratello. 236. Some familiar expressions for relations, such as mamma and its diminutives, require an article before the possessive. La mia mamma (my mamma) ; La mia sorel- lina (my little sister). 237. They are sisters of mine, they are friends of his, should be translated by sono mie sorelle, so?io suoi amici ; but these are my sisters, these are my friends, are trans- lated by queste sono le mie sorelle, questi sono i miei amici. 238. When the meaning of what we say is perfectly clear, the possessive is often omitted. E partito colla moglie, coi figli, e con tutta la famiglia (He went away with his wife, his children, and all his family). 239. The possessive pronouns are used also as sub- stantives. The sense supplies the meaning. Ha per- duto il suo (he has lost his fortune) ; rivedrb i miei (I shall again see my relations) ; II capitano si ritirb co 1 suoi (the captain retired with his men). 240. The personal noun in the dative is very often substituted for the possessive pronoun. Thus, instead of saying he is not my father {egli non e mio padre), the Italians prefer saying egli non mi e padre. This is par- ticularly the case in speaking of the various parts of 74 PRONOUNS. the body or of dress. Eccovi il fazzotetto (here is your handkerchief) ; Se lo pose sulle ginocchia (he put it upon his knees). 241. It is immaterial whether we say un mio amico (a friend of mine), or uno dei miei amici (one of my friends). 242. Sometimes we use the personal pronoun instead of the possessive, to prevent obscurity : as, Csesar loves his brother and his sons (Cesare ama suo fratello ed i figli di lui). 243. When own is added to the possessive pronoun, it may be omitted, or translated by proprio. She wrote that letter with her own hand (Scrisse quella lettera di STiopugno, or di suo proprio pugno, or di proprio pugno), 244. One's own is translated by proprio when used generally. To confess one's own sins is a mark, &c. (11 confessare i propri peccati e segno, &c.) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 245. The Italians have three demonstrative pronouns : questo (this), quello (that), and cotesto, the meaning of which cannot be expressed by a single word in English. It is used when we speak of any person or thing refer- ring, belonging, or near to the person spoken to. Cotesto vestito vi va bene (that coat fits you well) ; Che parole sono coteste ? (what words are those of yours ?) 246. Questo is often employed as an expletive with oggi (to-day). Thus we say oggi or quest 7 oggi non esco (I do not go out to-day). 247. Mane and mattina (morning), sera (evening), notte (night), are joined to questa, and form the adverbs stamane, stamattina, stasera, stanotte. PRONOUNS. 75 248. Codesto, codesti, may be used instead of cotesto, cotesti. 249. From cotesto we have derived the adverbs costd and costly meaning the place where the person addressed is. 250. Costi is used for a definite spot ; costa is a more general expression. This distinction is also found be- tween qui and qua (here), li and la (there). 251. In questo, in questa, in quello, in quella, mean on this or on that time or occasion. Tempo is under- stood with questo and quello, and ora with questa and quella. In quella arrivarono due soldaii (at that mo- ment two soldiers arrived). 252. Costui, costei, costoro, mean this man, this woman ; these men, these women. Colui, colei, color v, . mean that man, that woman ; those men, those women. 253. Questi, cotesti, and quegli, signify this or that man, and are used only in the nominative singular. Questi and quegli correspond to costui and colui ; Cotesti, like cotesto, applied to an individual near the person spoken to. 254. Cio has the same signification as questa, cotesta, or quella cosa. Che vuol dir cio ? (what does this mean ?) 255. From cio are derived cioe (this is), ciocche (that which), acciocche (in order that), &c. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. OGNI, QUALUNQUE, CHIUNQUE, CIASCUNO, CIASCHEDl NO. 256. Ogni signifies every, and is used for the singu- lar of both genders. The plural may be expressed by 76 PRONOUNS. tutti i or tutte le. Ogni giorno, ogni noite ; or tutti i giorni or tutte le notti. 257. From ogni we form ognuno (every one), and ognora (always). Ognora is rather poetical. 258. Every other day, every third day, every fort- night, are rendered by ogni due giorni, ogni tre giorni, ogni quindici giorni. 259. Qualunque persona is the same as ogni persona cite (every person that). 260. Chiunque is the same as qualunque uomo, or ogni uomo che (every man that, or whoever). 261. Ciascuno and ciascheduno are the same as ognuno (every one). The feminine is ciascuna, ciascheduna. 262. Each is translated by per uno in such phrases as this : He gives each of us two apples (ci da due mele per uno). ALCUNO, QUALCHE, NESSUNO, NIUNO, VERUNO, NIENTE. 263. Alcuno signifies some, any. Avete alcuna difft- coltd ? (have you some or any difficulty?) Give me some books (datemi alcuni libri) ; I see some ladies (vedo alcune signore). 264. The partitive article del, dei, della, delle, &c, should be used for some when, instead of number, we speak of quantity. (See Section 42). Give me some sugar {datemi del zucchero). 265. Alcuno with non after it is the same as nessuno. Alcuno non vifu, or nessuno vifu (there was no one). 266. Qualche may be substituted for alcuno, but it is always singular. Give me some agples (datemi alcune mele, or qualche meld). 267. Nessuno, niuno, and veruno, signify no and no one, being either adjectives or substantives. No one PRONOUNS. 77 knows it (nessuno, niuno, or veruno lo sa) ; Nothing is certain (nessuna cosa e certa). 268. When nessuno, niuno, veruno, and niente (nothing) follow a verb, non (not) is always placed before it. Non ho niente (I have nothing). 269. Nessuno, niuno, veruno, may signify alcuno. Piu veloce che nessun cavallo (swifter than any horse). 270. Niente and nulla are sometimes used for some- thing. Se io posso far nulla per voi, commandatemi (if I can do any thing for you, command me). 271. Niente and nulla may sometimes be expressed by che. Chi e innocente non ha niente da temere ; or Chi e innocente non ha che temere (he who is innocent has no- thing to fear). 272. Nullo means null or void, and is then an adjec- tive. Those laws were rendered null {quelle leggi furdno rese nulle). TUTTO. 273. Tutto (all) as a substantive, is generally without an article. Tutto e finito (all is over) . II may be used for greater emphasis. 274. Tutto che and con tutto che signify although. 275. All of us is translated by not tutti or tutti noi. 276. Con tutto cib, tuttavia, con tutto questo, signify nevertheless. Al tutto, del tutto, al tutto e per tutto (en- tirely) ; Per tutto, da per tutto (every where) ; Tutt 1 altro (in a quite different manner) ; Tutt 1 or a (always) ; E tutt 1 uno (it is all one, the same). 277. Tutto quanto is more emphatical than tutto. Oggi vi aspetto tutti quanti (to-day I expect you all) ; Tremava tutta quanta (she trembled all over). 78 PRONOUNS. ALTRO, ALTRUI. 278. Altro means any thing else ; Avete altro t (have you any thing else ?) 279. Non e altro che means nothing else ; Non fa altro che cica 7 are (she does nothing else but chatter). 280. Altro is often used for much more. C'e altro ! (there is a great deal more !) 281. Per altro is used for however. Per altro e molto avaro (however, he is very avaricious). 282. Otherwise is sometimes translated by altro. Thafc cannot be otherwise than useful to you {Non pub esservi a 7 tro che utile). 283. Dotto quanto qualunque altro (as learned as any other). Uomo (man) is understood after altro. 284. We say Chi altrit (who besides?) Nessun altro (no one else). 285. Altri sometimes signifies some men. Altri cangia il pelo prima che i costumi ; some men change their hair (become old) sooner than their customs. Altri is sin- gular. 286. Altri in the plural is often an expletive. Noi altri, voi altri, quelli altri (we, you, those). These ex- pressions are very frequent. 287. Words derived from altro, altri: — 1. Altramente, altramenti, altrimenti (otherwise). 2. Altresi (also). 3. Altretale or altrettale (the same). 4. Altrettanto (as much). 5. Altronde (from another part). 6. AJtrove (elsewhere). 288. Altrui is used in every case except the nominative instead of altri. Pensoso piu d'altrui che di se (more PRONOUNS. 79 anxious about others than about himself) ; Uccide dltrui (he kills others). 289. Ualtrui cose is the same as the cose degli altri (the things of others). Ualtrui is also a substantive, meaning the property of others. 290. Altrui is used by itself instead of of others, Beato Vuomo che impara a spese altrui (happy is the man who learns at the expense of others). PREPOSITIONS. 291. Prepositions, with the cases they govern, > Near by, at the side of, about On, upon one's back, about, at Opposite, over against llike Accanto Allato Addosso A f route A guisa A rnodo Anzi Appetto Apple Appresso Avanti Circa Contra Contro Dentro Dietro Di Id Di qua Ducosto Dopo Eccetto Entro Dat. Gen. Dat. Dat. Gen. Before Opposite, in comparison with At the foot With, near, by, next Before, in the presence of About, concerning > Against, over against Within Behind On that side ) On this side j Far After Except, but Within, in Gen. Ace. Dat. Gen. Gen. Ace. Gen. Dat. Dat.Acc.Abl. Ace. Dat. Gen. Gen. Act. Dat. Dat. Ace. Dat.Acc.G.Abl. Abl. Abl. Dat. Ace. Gen. Dat. Ace. Ace. Dat. * The case first specified is the one most generally in use. 80 PREPOSITIONS. Fino, Sino Till, until, as far as, to Dat. Ace. Fra y Tra Within ? between,besides, among Ace. Fuori Beside, besides, out, outside Gen. Ace. Fuorche Except Ace. In mezzo In the middle Dat. Gen. Act. Infuori Except, but, excepted Abl. Intorno About, round about Dat. Lungi Lontano Far Abl. Dat. Lunqhesso 1 A1 A r * > Along, near Ace. Lungo j ° Mediante Through, by means of, for Ace. Oltre, oltra Beyond, besides Dat. Ace. Prima Before Gen. Presso Near, almost Dat. Gen. Ace. ^ ' > As far, as to, as Dat. quanto J Rasente Close to Ace. Dat. imp* t Over against, opposite Dat. Dirvmpetto j Salvo Except, but, save Ace. Secondo According to Ace. Senza Without Ace. Gen. Sopra, sovra On, upon, by Ace. Gen. Dat. Sotto Under Acc.Gen.D.Abl. Su, Su per Upon, on Ace. Verso Towards, to Ace. Gen. Vicino Near Dat. Gen. 292. Infuori is placed after the case it governs : as, Da voi infuori (except you). 293. Salvo and vicino may be, declined. Examples : Perdemmo tutto salvo, or salva, la vita (we lost every thing but life). PREPOSITIONS. 81 294. Di (of) is the sign of the genitive. It expresses principally possession and derivation. U nome di Maria (Mary's name) ; Ilfiglio di Carlo (Charles' son). 295. When the preposition is a mere sign to indicate relation between other words, and without any distinct meaning attached to it, di should be used. Temo di perdere (I fear to lose). 296. With after an adjective or participle is translated by di. Armed with swords (armati di spada). 297. Di is often used with an adjective, forming an adverb. Di subito or subitamente (suddenly) ; di certo (certainly) ; di soverchio (excessively) ; di nascosto (se- cretly). 298. Di tempo in tempo means from time to time. Di venti in trenta anni (from twenty to thirty years). 299. Di is often an expletive ; as, Dir di si (to say yes). Dir di no (to say no). Credo di si (I think so). Credo di no (I think not). Prima di voi (before you). Dopo di voi (after you). Andar mfuori (to go outside). Andar di dentro (to go within). Andar di sopra (to go above). Andar di sotto (to go below). Andar di su (to go up stairs). Andar di giu (to go down stairs). 300. Di su, di giu, &c, may become nouns with an article before them. II di su (the upper part) ; 27 di giu (the lower part). 82 PKEPOSITIONS. 301. We say often quel birbante di Calandrino (that rogue Calandrini) ; Quello sciocco di Giovanni (that foolish man, John), &c. 302. Di has often the sense of the partitive article. Give me some of that wine (dammi di quel vino)* 303. Various English prepositions are sometimes trans- lated by di. 304. I. In. — Be is the greatest man in London [e il piil grand 1 uomo di Londra). 305. II. As, or in regard to. — Gid vecchio d'anni, ma giovanissimo di senno (alread}^ old as to years, but very young as to wisdom). 306. III. For. — Pianse di dolcezza (she wept for joy). 307. IV. From. — Divenuto principe di richissimo ne~ goziante (from being a very rich merchant having become a prince). 308. V. From (da,).—Silevo di capo la corona (he took the crown from his head) ; Parti di Palermo (he departed from Palermo). 309. VI. About. — Parleremo di questo (we shall speak about this). 310. VII. To.— She is sister to Lord D. ; which is the way to London? [E sorella di Lord D.; quale e la strada di Londra f) 311. VIII. During. — Andar di giorno (to go during the day). A. 312. A is used exactly as the two English prepositions to, at, and shows the point to which an action is directed. * Tin poco (a little) is always understood before a partitive ar- ticle. Dammi di quel vino, dammi del zucchero, is used for the sake of brevity, instead of dammi un poco di quel vino, dammi un poco del zucchero (give me a little of that wine, a small quantity of sugar). PREPOSITIONS. 83 Andiamo a pranzo (let us go to dinner). Look at me (guar date a me). A is followed by d before a vowel. Andiamo ad Anversa (let us go to Antwerp). 313. A is often used instead of con (with), as, rimase a occhi bassi, A bocca aperta (be remained with bis eyes cast down, with his mouth open) ; Parlare a stento (to speak with difficulty). 314. I am going home is translated by vado a casa ; he is not at home (non e in casa). 315. To take from every one is translated by togliere A ciascuno. 316. Observe the translation of in by a in such phrases as. If you come to the theatre you will find me in the first tier (Se venite al teatro mi trover ete at primo or dine ;) I reside in London (dimoro a Londra). . 317. In English, a noun may be qualified by another noun prefixed to it, in the same manner as by an adjec- tive. In Italian, the qualifying noun preceded by a (to), di (of), or da (from), is placed after the noun qualified. 1. A windmill; un molino a vento (a mill moved by the wind). 2. A gold ring; an anello d'oro (material). 3. A bedroom ; camera da letto (use). da {from or by). 318. This preposition, besides the signification of from or by, has several others, some of which could with diffi- culty be expressed by other words. The student should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the following examples, which illustrate the various uses of this pre- position, and commit them to memory. 319. I. Da=before(avanti). Vho veduto spesso passare da casa mia (I saw him often pass before my house). 84 PREPOSITIONS. 320. II. Da — (about) circa ; Uscirono da dodici sol- dati (there came out about twelve soldiers). 321. III. Da= (since). Da queltempo sono sempre stato disgraziato (since that time I have always been unhappy). 322. IV. Da = becoming, fit for (conveniente, appro- priate a). Sono gioje da donne (these are jewels for women) ; Non sono cose da lui (these are not things fit for him). 323. V. Da, before a town, means born in. E da Firenze (he was born in Florence). Speaking of countries di is used ; e di Toscana (he was born in Tuscany). 324. VI. Da followed by a means between. Voglio parlargli da solo a solo (I wish to speak to him pri- vately, i. e. between ourselves) . We say also a quattro occhi. 325. VII. Da = to (a), or at the house of (a casa). Venite da me (come to me, or to my house). 326. VIII. Da = as, come. Ti giuro, da galantuomo (I swear to you as an honest man). 327. IX. Da = to be used for. Andiamo nella sola da mangiare, nella camera da letto (let us go into the dining-room, into the bedroom). 328. X. Da = something for. Datemi da mangiare (give me something to eat, or for eating) ; Datemi da scrivere (give me something for writing, or writing ma- terials). 329. XI. Da = through, (per). Passer emo da Milano (we shall pass through Milan). 330. XII. Da = having, or who has. In this case the article is always affixed to it. L'uomo dal nero vestito (the man who has the black dress). This construction, however, is borrowed from the Greek, and is little used except in poetry. We should rather say vestito di nero (dressed in black). PREPOSITIONS. 85 331. XIII. Da = towards, on. Andate da quella parte (go on that side). 332. XIV. Da often serves to form adverbial ex- pressions. Dite dawero ? (do you speak seriously ?) 333. XV. Da also forms a kind of adjective when followed by the noun bene. Un uomo da bene or dabbene is the same as un buon uomo. 334. XVI. Da may signify alone. Vi andrb da me I shall go there alone). 335. XVII. By is translated by da in all cases in which it does not signify by the means of. It is then translated by con. 336. Per means not only for, but also through. Sono andato vagando per lo mondo sette anni (I went wandering through the world seven years). 337. Per means during [durante). Vi starb per un mese (I will stay there during a month). 338. To, meaning in order to, is translated by per. I came to speak to you [sono venuto per parlarvi). 339. Per is often followed by lo instead of il. Per lo mondo (through the world). 340. Per giorno, per uomo, signify every day, for every man. Bevo un bicckiere di vino per giorno (I drink a glass of wine a- day or each day) ; Ho dato due scudi per uomo (I have given two crowns to every man). A testa is the same as per uomo. 341. Per tempo means early. Other adverbs are formed with per, as per accidente (accidentally, &c.) 342. Per grande eke fosse, per quanto faccia, signify however great he might be, whatever he might do. 343. Per mare e per terra means by sea and by land ; 86 PREPOSITIONS. Per Dio, for the sake of God ; Essere per qffbgare means to be near, on the point of being drowned ; Nonfa per te (it is not becoming, it is not for thee). 344. In is the same as in English. Sometimes it is used for su. Mettetevi il cappello in capo (put your hat on your head). The preposition into is wanting in Italian. II Tamigi mettefoce, or sbocca, in mare (the Thames flows into the sea). su. 345. Su means sometimes towards, near (verso, vicino). Sulfar del giorno {towards or near the break of day). FRA 01' TRA. 346. Fra or tra (between). Fra poco, fra un ora i signify in a little, in an hour ; fra noi (among ourselves). 347. We meet sometimes fra and tra joined to the articles, as tral, among the. ADVERBS. 348. Adverbs may be formed from all adjectives, by adding the substantive mente to them. Viparlo chiara- mente (I speak to you clearly). 349. The substantive mente is feminine. The adjective must agree with it. If it ends in o, it is changed into a [chiaramenle) ; if in e, it is not changed. Scrive elegante* menfe (he writes elegantly). If in le or re, the e is cut off. Fedelmente (faithfully; ) superiormente (in a superior manner). 350. Many adjectives are used as adverbs without any change. Viparlo chiaro (I speak to you clearly). There is no rule for pointing out those that may be so used. 87 OBSERVATIONS ON SOME ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 351. Pure (yet) is often used after an imperative to express concession. Posso andarmene? andate pure. (may I go? you may go). 352. Pure sometimes means also. Verrete voi pure (you will come also). 353. Neppure {ne pure) means not even. Neppure una volta (not even once). 354. Pure means also solamente (only). Grid pur pen- sando, &c. (already in thinking only, &c.) 355. Pure is joined to other words. Neppure (not even) ; eppure (and yet) ; oppure (or yet) ; purche (pro- vided, &c.) 356. Pur troppo means "but too much so." E pur troppo vero (it is but too true). 357. Pure is often an expletive. Ed e pur vero! (and it is indeed true !) 358. Vie or via are used before piu and meno instead of molto or assai. . E vie piu bella, or via piu bella di voi (she is much more beautiful than you). 359. Assai means either enough or much. The stu- dent should rather, use abbastanza for enough, and molto for much. 360. Or ora means, like " just now" in English, either a very short time before or after the present moment. Verrb or ora, Uho veduto or ora (I shall corns just now, I have seen him just now). 361. Di la means in the next room. C'e di la ilsarto (the tailor is in the next room) ; Chi e di la? (who is there ?) Al di la means beyond ; E riuscito al di la delle sue speranze (he succeeded beyond his hopes). 362. Time, meaning the repetition of any action, is F 88 ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. rendered by volta, not tempo. Once, twice, three times [una volta, due volte, tre volte), 363. Ago is translated either by fa, which is unchange- able, or by essere, which agrees with the noun. A year ago, two years ago, three years ago (e un anno, sono due anni, or due anni sono, sono tre anni, or tre anni sono ; and also un anno fa, due anni fa, tre anni fa, &c.) 364. Ci and Vi are employed for here and there when the place spoken of has been previously mentioned ; but strictly speaking they still preserve their original signi- fication of in it, to it, in them, to them. 365. Non che means not only ; anzi means nay, on the contrary. Mica punto gid are used to give more force to a negation : Non credo mica, non credo punto, non credo gid (I do not believe indeed). 366. Gid gid is more forcible than gid alone. E gid gid mezzo finito (it is already half finished). From gid we derive giacche (since). Forseforse is used as gid gid, as more expressive than forse ; so also punto punto and a few other words. 367. Gid signifies already or formerly ; it is some- times an expletive ; it may also stand for of course. Vho GiKfatto (I have done it already). Ehbi gia un amico (I had formerly a friend). Non e gia un codardo (he is not certainly a coward). Lof arete? GriA (will you do it? Of course). 368. How is translated by quanto when there is an exclamation. How cruel he was ! [quanto erafiero!) 369. Then is differently translated according to its different meanings. 1. At that time (Allora). 2. Afterwards (Poi). 3. Therefore (Quindi). ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 89 370. Rather may be translated by anzi che no. They are rather beautiful (sono belle anzi che no). 371. Quando and ove are used for se with a verb in the subjunctive mood. Quando vogliate, ove vogliate (if you wished). 372. Quando, quand'anche, quando ancora, quando pure, benche, sebbene, quantunque. All mean although, and require the verb in the subjunctive mood. 373. Per che has various significations. 1. Perche andate via t [why do you go away ?) 2. Perche ho voglia di andar via {because I wish to go away). 3. Non vi ho dato il danaro perche lo spendiate subito (I did not give you the money in order that you should spend it immediately). 4. Non lasciavamo d'andare, perche parlasse (we did not cease to go, though he spoke). This use of perche is not so common as the others. 5. La finestra era molto alta da terra, perche come la donna cadde subitamente mori (the window was very high from the ground, so that when the woman fell she died suddenly). 374. Perche as a substantive signifies the reason. Ditemi il perche (tell me the reason). 375. Nothing but is translated by se non, altro che, or altra cosa che. My master does nothing but scold [il mio maestro non fa altro che sgridare). 90 MOODS AND TENSES. 376. The passive verbs in Italian, as in English, are always expressed by the verb essere (to be), followed by the past participle of the active verbs. Amare (to love), essere amato (to be loved). 377. The principal moods are the Infinitive, Indicative, Conditional, Imperative, and Subjunctive. 378. The following tenses have particular terminations by which they are easily known : — * 1. Fresent indicative. 2. Past imperfect indicative. 3. Past perfect indicative. 4. Future indicative. 5. Future conditional* 6. Present imperative. 7. Present subjunctive. 8. Past imperfect. 379. The past imperfect indicates a past action in an imperfect manner ; that is, without stating precisely the point or time of its cessation. This is done in two ways : 1. Without any reference to another past action. When I was a boy I was (or used to be) thought very clever (quando ero ragazzo ero stimato molto ingegnoso). 2. Showing its continuation after the cessation of another action. When she came into my room, I was reading (quando entrb nella mia camera io leggeva, or stava leg- gendo). My action of reading might h<*ve continued after the other action of entering the room was finished. 380. The use of the imperfect is very difficult to Eng- lish students, both in the study of French and Italian. The French and the Italians have acquired such a facility in distinguishing the perfect and imperfect tenses, that * For the sake of brevity, the future of the conditional will be called Conditional, and the present of the imperative the Imperative. MOODS AND TENSES. 91 even without thinking they are sure to be correct. The English student can only hope to succeed by great atten- tion and long practice. The following practical rules may be useful to him : 1. Use rather the perfect than the imperfect when you are uncertain. 2. Never use the imperfect unless you can express the past tense in English by " I used to," " I was." I used tobe thought (ero stimato) ; I was reading (io leggeva, or stava leggendo). 381. The Italians give to the past imperfect the name of Pendente, from pendere (to hang, to be in suspense). 382. When an action is considered as entirely past, it may have finished either lately, or for some time, or for a time not specified. When the action has taken place lately, the tense is called Past determinate, and is ex- pressed by the present of the compound tenses. Sono stato al teatro ed ho veduto V opera nuova (I went lately to the theatre and have seen (saw) the new opera). 383. When the action has happened for some time, or for a time not specified, the past is called {Indeterminate. Io fid in Parigi e vi conobbi molti volenti uomini (I was in Paris and knew there many worthy men). The preterite expresses such an action. 384. There are two other past tenses which denote an action past for a long time, and differing from each other in the same way as the imperfect does from the perfect. The first is called Trapassato Imperfetto, and the second, Trapassato Perfetto. Trapassato means past for a long time. Example of the first : Io aveva veduto in Milano, &c. (I had seen in Milan, &c.) ; second, Come io ebbi udito ilfatto I (as I had heard the fact). 385. The future tense is either imperfect or perfect. The imperfect merely expresses the future in a general way. Amero (I shall love). The second future, the per- 92 MOODS AND TENSES. feet, expresses the future action in a more certain manner ; as, Avro amato (I shall have loved). This future is used in reference to another action. Quando tornerb in Italia, sard gid invecchiato (when I shall return to Italy, I shall have already grown old). 386. The imperative has two tenses, the present and the future. Present, va su (go up) ; future, prenderai domani il mio cappello e lo porterai dal cappelliere (to- morrow you will take my hat, and you will carry it to the hatmaker). A third tense of the imperative expresses an action which we wished to be finished (past) at a certain time. Domani aboiate imparata quella lezione (to-morrow you must have learnt that lesson). 387. It may be noticed here, that when the imperative is negative, and in the second person singular, the infini- tive is used instead of the usual form. Non hatter e quel fanciullo (do not strike that child). Here there is an ellipsis of devi. Non devi battere, &c. (you ought not to strike, &c.) 388. The optative mood expresses desire. It is used either absolutely or conditionally. Example of the first : Possa questo fanciullo amare lo studio (may this child love study). Of the second : OA, sefossi da tanto vedresti cosafarei (oh, if I were able, you would see what I would do). In both these examples, the optative mood is in the present tense. 389. The future and past tenses of the optative mood have the same division in the optative as in the indicative mood. Example of a future imperfect, Dio voglia che io ami ; of a future perfect, Dio voglia che io dbbia ad amare (God grant that I may love; God grant that / may have to love). 390. The forms of the optative and subjunctive are the MOODS AND TENSES. 93 same in Italian. It must be noticed, however, that the future of one mood has the same form as the present of the other. Dio voglia che io aini (God grant that I may love), here ami is future. Benche io ami (though I may love), here ami is present. 391. The terminations of the present perfect in the optative become in the subjunctive those of the past im- perfect. Example : Dio volesse che io amassi (would to God that I might love) ; Benche io amassi (though I might have loved). 392. The infinitive mood can have no tense, yet Italian tenses may be expressed by this mood in a general way. Ex. : Amare (to love), avere amato (past) ; avere ad amare (future imperfect) ; avere avuto ad amare (fu- ture perfect). Essere per amare (to be on the point of loving) ; Essere stato per amare (to have been on the point) ; Essere amato , avere ad essere amato, &c. (to be loved, that shall be loved, &c.) 393. The participle is either past or present. The present participle is called also Gerondio (gerund).* 394. We have only two future participles ; futuro (1 rat shall be), and ventuko (that shall come). Old writers had more. / * From the present participle or gerund we form an adjective by changing do into te. Amare, amando, amante (to love), loving (par- ticiple), loving (adjective). Amante is also a noun {lover). Gram- marians call this adjective present participle, and the present participle is called only gerund. 94 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR TENSES. 395. All verbs end either in are, ere, or ire, in the infinitive. If a verb like condurre (to conduct), ends in a different way, it is contracted from the regular infinitive. Condurre is contracted from conducere. 396. Some verbs have an i before the termination of the infinitive, to give to the c or g that precedes a soft sound. This i is not necessary if the termination of the tense begin with e or t. Mangiare (to eat), makes mangi-o, mang-i, mangi-a, 397. Fare (to do), dire (to say), and here (to drink), are constructed from facere, dicere, and bevere. Facere and dicere are not used ; bevere is more used than bere, which is rather poetical. 398. When an infinitive is contracted, the future and conditional are generally formed from it. Thus, the fu- ture of condurre is condurro, condurrai, &c. ; the condi- tional, condurrei, condurresti, &c. 399. Of the eight tenses of the Italian verbs, four are regular and four irregular. 400. The regular tenses are the imperfect and the fu- ture of the indicative, the conditional, and the imperfect subjunctive. 401. The irregular are the three present tenses, indi- cative, imperative, and subjunctive, and the past perfect or preterite. The past participle is often irregular also. 402. The most important conjugation is the second, or that of the verbs ending in ere* Credere should be * All verbs are divided into three conjugations, called 1st, 2d, and 3d, not according to their importance, but because in the al- phabet the order of vowels is a, e, and i. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR TENSES. 95 studied as the model verb, or the verb to which all others should be compared. 403. All those terminations in which the greatest number of verbs agree, or are the same, are regular. All others are irregular. 404. Credere (to believe) is regular in all its parts except the past participle. As the past participle of am-are is am-ato, of sent-ire sent-ito, the past participle of cred-ere should be cred-eto. It is not so, but cred-vto. 405. As in all tenses the third person plural is formed by adding either no or ro to the third person singular, the formation of the third person plural of the present, indicative from the first, as, cred-o (I believe), cred-o-no (they believe), may be considered irregular. 406. The first person of the imperfect indicative is either cred-evA or cred-evo. The first form is preferred by the best writers ; the second by the inhabitants of Tuscany, whose spoken language Manzoni has followed in his " Promessi Sposi."* 407. It is a peculiarity of regular verbs that the root is invariable, the terminations only being changed. Thus, am in amare, cred in credere, sent in sentire, is found in every person. Irregular verbs sometimes have the root and the terminations blended together, so that the in- finitive could not be known from them. Thus the pre- terite of correre (to run) is corsi ; the present of avere is ho, &c. * It is fortunate for the student of the Italian language that he ha3 such an excellent guide as the " Promessi Sposi,"— a work which cannot be too highly recommended. It combines genius and a high tone of morality with all the interest of one of the best novels, and is written in a style of the greatest purity. 96 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR TENSES* 408. The present of the Verb cred-ere is — \Cred-o. Cred-iamo. Cred-i. Cred-ete. Cred-e. \Cred-o-no. 409. The present of the Imperative is — Cred-iamo. Cre-di. \ Cred-a. Cred-ete. f Cred-a-no. 410. The present of the Subjunctive is — Che \cred-a. Che \cred-a. Che \ cred-a. Che cred-iamo. Che cred-iate. \Che cred-ano. RULES FOR THE PRESENT. 411. I. The first person plural [iamo) is invariable in all the Italian verbs. 412. II. The second person plural is always ete in the indicative and imperative ;» and in the subjunctive mood it is formed from the first plural by changing mo into te. Che cred-iamo, che cred-iate. 413. III. In the auxiliary verbs, essere (to be), avere (to have), and sapere (to know), which is conjugated like avere, the second person plural of the imperative is like the second person plural of the subjunctive. 414. IV. The second person singular in the present, as well as in all other tenses, ends always in i. In the present subjunctive, however, it may either end in i, or be like the Jlrst and third. 415. V. The third person plural of the present indica- tive is formed by adding no to the first person singular. 416. VI. The third person singular of the imperative Irregular. etti emrno. esti este. ette ettero. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR TENSES. 97 is formed from the first person singular of the present indicative : from credo we form credx. 417. VII. The three persons singular of the present of the subjunctive are like the third person singular of the imperative. 418. VIII. The third person plural of the imperative and of the subjunctive are alike, and are formed by add- ing no to the third person singular : creda, creda-no, che creda, che creda-no. RULES FOR THE PRETERITE. 419. The preterite of credere is either regular or irre- gular. Regular. ei emmo. esti este. e erono. 420. All irregular preterites are alike. One person being known, the other two irregular persons are known also. The difference is this : — The first always end in i. The second is formed from the first, by changing i into e. The third plural is formed from the third singular, by adding ro to it. 421. Though the first person of every irregular pre- terite always ends in i, the rest of the termination, or ra- ther of the person, is different in the various irregular verbs. 422. The terminations etti, ette, ettero, are irregular because they differ from each other like all irregular ter- minations of the preterite ; but they are regular because they belong to all regular verbs in ere, and to them alone, excepting the preterite of dare (to give) and stare (to re- main). 98 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR TENSES. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 423. I. There are some verbs in which the first per- son singular of the indicative may be used as a past par- ticiple. Thus, instead of lo ho guastato (I have spoiled), we may say lo ho guasto, from guasto (I spoil). Prac- tice only can teach in what verbs this may be done. 424. II. In the verbs ending in care or gave like cer- care (to seek), negare (to deny), the c and g before the termination are always pronounced hard. An h must therefore be added before the terminations if they begin with e or i. lo cerco, tu cherchi, &c. (I seek, thou seekest, &c.) ; lo nego, tu neghi, &c. (I deny, thou deniest, &c). 425. III. In the verb sentire the past participle is irregular. Cantare makes cantAndo ; credere. credEndo ; but sentire makes sentEndo, not sentmdo. In all other parts it is regular like credere. 426. IV. Except the present indicative of credere and sentire, the third person plural is formed from the third person singular by adding to it either ro, no, or both. 427. V. The third person plural of the imperfect in- dicative, future imperative, and present subjunctive, ends in no. 428. VI. The third person singular of the future being accented, the third person plural ends in anno credera crederanno. 429. VII. The third person plural of the conditional and of the imperfect subjunctive ends in ro. 430. VIII. The third person plural of the preterite ends in ro-no crede, crede ro-no. 431. IX. The future and conditional of the verbs in are are irregular ; it is not cantA.ro cantArai, but cantEro cantErai. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR TENSES. 99 432. X. The third person singular of the indicative in am-are is am-A ; in cred-ere, cred-E ; and in sent-ire, sent-E. 433. XI. The third person singular of the preterite in the three conjugations is thus cant-o, cred-E, sent-E. 434. XII. The imperative singular in credere and sen- tire has for terminations i in the second person, and a in the third. In cantare, on the contrary, a is the termi- nation of the second, and i-of the third. 435. XIII. The compound tenses of all the verbs are formed by adding their past participle to either avere or essere, 436. XIV. Transitive verbs form their compound tenses with the transitive verb avere ; intransitives, with the intransitive essere. 437. XV. All verbs conjugated with avere may also be conjugated with essere ; but then the verb becomes passive. Io ho battuto (I have struck) ; * b Io sono battuto (I am struck). 438. XVI. After essere the past participle always agrees with the nominative ; noi siamo andaii in Italia (we went to Italy). After avere it almost always agrees with the accusative ; noi dbbiamo scriila una lettera. 439. XVII. A correct distinction would be to make the past participle invariable after avere, unless it is properly an adjective. Ho avuezzo Vanima alle pene, would signify, I have accustomed my mind to sufferings, and Ho avvezzA Vanima alle pene, I have my mind ac- customed to sufferings ; but this distinction is seldom used by the best writers, and the preceding rule is gen- erally followed. 100 PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE VERBS. 440. I. As, in the sense of because, is very frequently used in English. " I cannot see him, as I am engaged." The proper translation of " as I am" is essendo (being). Non posso vederlo essendo impegnato. 441. II. The present participle in English followed by a past participle is omitted in Italian. u Having seen every thing, he went away " (veduta ogni cosa, se ne ando). 442. III. In English both the present participle and the infinitive may be used as substantives. In Italian the infinitive only can be a substantive. " Reading is useful," or "it is useful to read" (il leggere e utile). 443. IV. The present participle is sometimes changed into the infinitive with the preposition a before. " One is never wrong in being silent, or to be silent " (tacendo non si f alia mai, or a tacere non si f alia mai. 444. Y . A present participle preceded by a preposition is a substantive, and can only be translated by the infi- nitive. " Without looking at me " [senza guardarmd). 445. VI. It is easy to distinguish a present participle used as a verb from a present participle used as a sub- stantive. When it has the meaning of the verb, it may be put in the same tense as the preceding verb. " She laughs crying, or she laughs and she cries at the same time." The perfect participle only can be used in such a case ; ride piangendo. 446. VII. u Go and see him," signifies go in order to see him. The Italian for this and similar expressions is andate a vederlo. " Come and walk with me " {venite a passeggiare con me). 447. VIII. Verbs expressing an action of the mind, PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE VERBS. 101 and dire (to say), generally govern the subjunctive. " I do not believe be will come," "tell hini to come" (non credo che venga, ditegli che venga). 448. IX. Verbs expressing fear or doubt are often accompanied by non (not) as an expletive. Temo che nonfaccia molti errori (I fear be may commit many mis- takes). 449. X. The prepositions a or da come often between avere and an infinitive. Ho A sperare, or ho da sperare. The assertion is stronger when da is used. The first ex- ample means only " I may hope ;" the second, " I have reason, or strong reasons, to hope." 450. XL After essere a is placed between an adjective and an infinitive, and da between a noun and an infinitive. E bella a riguardare, e nomo da temere (she is beautiful to look at, he is a man to be feared). Da temere has here the passive signification as da essere temuto. 451. XII. The student must be cautious not to use English idioms (anglicismi) in speaking or writing Ita- lian. / am going to speak is an idiom, as the word to go is not used in its literal meaning. The translation is Ora parlerd. 452. XIII. Venire (to come) is used, and not andare (to go), when we say that we are going to the house of the persons to whom we speak or write. Verro da vol (I shall go to your house). 453. XIV. Venire is also used idiomatically instead of essere. Mi venne detto, instead of Mi fit detto (I was told). 454. XV. To express the continuation of an action for a certain time, an active verb is used in the present par- ticiple either with stare or andare. Sta leggendo (he is reading) ; Va passeggiando (he is walking). The verb 102 PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE VERBS. expressing an action that requires a change of place takes andare ; and verbs expressing an action that can happen without change of place, stare. 455. XVI. The phrases dategli da mangiare, dategli da bere, dategli da scrivere, &c, signify Give him what is necessary for eating, drinking, writing, &c. 456. XVII. It is I, it is you, it is he, it is we, &c, are translated by Sono io, sei tu e desso, siamo noi, &c. 457. XVIII. This book belongs to Peter, should be translated by Questo lihro e di Pietro, better than literally Questo libro appartiene a Pietro. 458. XIX. It belongs to you to do it, or it is for you to do it, or it is your turn to do it, are rendered thus, A voi tocca, or a voi sta ilfarlo, or difarlo, or afarlo. 459. XX. Stare or essere per fare una cosa, signify " to be on the point of doing a thing." 460. XXI. Darsi is sometimes used for accadere or essere. Si danno casi (accidents sometimes happen) ; Pud darsi (it may be). 461. XXII. Volere is often used for " to be necessary." Ci vuolfortuna (fortune is necessary). 462. XXIII. There is no verb in Italian to translate literally to like. " Do you like apples," must be rendered by, a Do apples please you?" (vi piacciono le melef) 463. XXIV. To want is rendered by mancare when it means "to be wanting," and by aver bisogno when it means " to have need of." Mi mancano due libri (two books are wanting to me) ; Ho bisogno di due libri (I require, I have need of two books). 464. XXV. To be hungry, to be thirsty, to be right, to be wrong, are rendered by aver fame, aver sete, aver ragione, aver torto. 465. XXVI. I think so, I did so, I hope so, are ren- PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE VERBS. 103 dered by lo credo, i!hofatto, lo spero. We say also credo di si, credo di no ; (I think so, I think not). 466. XXVII. Fidarsi (to trust), is followed by di Non mifido di voi (I do not trust you). 467. XXVIII. "To play upon an instrument/' is translated by suonare ; and "to play, to amuse oneself," by giuocare. 468. XXIX. " I must go, I must read," are rendered by bisogna che or devo, bisogna che vada or devo andare, &e. 469. XXX. " I cannot help it," is translated by non pOSSO FARE A MENO. 470. XXXI. The nominative is elegantly placed after the verb, but more so in books than in conversation. "Many thought," &c. (Credevano molti, &c.) 471. XXXII. Per essere means sometimes "if it is." " A jest, if it is made at an improper time, may become an offence " [una burla per essere detta fuori di tempo, pud diventare una offesa). 472. XXXIII, Egli la mandb pregando is the same as Egli la mandb a pregare (he sent to beg her). 473. XXXIV. Collo studiare simpara, s'annegb in traversare un fiume (by studying one learns, he was drowned in crossing a river). Observe, con expresses the means by which a thing is done, in the manner, the time of an action. 474. XXXV. Andare may be used for essere ; thus, Andate cauti nel giudicare (be cautious in judging). 475. XXXVI. Andare is used for essere in such sen- tences as these : " He is subject to the gout" (va soggetto alia podagra). 476. XXXVII. Parlato che ebbe is better and more elegant than quando e6be parlato, or dopo che ebbe parlato (when he had spoken, or after he had spoken). 104 PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE VERBS. 477. XXXVIII. " I heard him singing," should be translated by Vho sentito cantare. 478. XXXIX. " If he thinks that it is necessary for him to go there, I cannot help it." The literal transla- tion is, se crede che sia necessario per lui di andarvi, non so che farci ; but Italian writers would prefer saying, se crede essere necessario (to be necessary), &c, a con- struction imitated from the Latin. 479. XL. When a verb is followed by a subjunctive which governs a pronominal particle, the latter may either be joined to the infinitive or placed before the first verb, " I do not wish to see him," may be translated by non lo voglio vedere, or nol voglio vedere, or non voglio vederlo. 480. XLI. Where of two verbs the student is uncer- tain to which he ought to apply the pronominal particle, it will be safer to apply it to the first. 481. XLII. Lasciare takes no preposition when it means " to allow." "Allow me to speak" (lasciatemi par- lare). It takes di when it means to cease. " She did not leave off laughing all that day" (non lascib di ridere tutto quel giomo). 482. XLIII. Some of the verbs that govern an infinitive without a preposition are, dovere (to be incumbent), fare (to do), potere (to be able), bisognare (to need), volere (to be willing), vedere (to see), udire (to hear), sentire (to feel), mirare (to behold), guardare (to look), ascoltare (to listen), intendere (to understand), &c. 483. XLIY. Verrb, verrai, verrd, &c, is the future of venire (to come), not of vedere (to see). 484. XLY. Accostare means "to approach," not "to accost." 485. XLVI. Though sortire is' used even by Italians instead of uscire (go out), it should be avoided. Sortire means to draw out, or to come out by lot or chance. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE VERBS. 105 486. XLVII. " Will you have" is translated by volete. " Will you have a knife?" (volete un coltello ?) 487. XL VIII. A preposition in Italian is always fol- lowed by an infinitive, never by a present participle. u I am afraid of losing" (temo di perdere). 488. XLIX. Verbs having a preposition prefixed to them, as addurre (to convey), congratidarsi (to congratu- late), incorrere (to run into), frammettersi (to interpose), are generally followed by the same preposition. Mi con- gratulo con voi (I congratulate you). 489. L, Pensare (to think), followed by a noun or pronoun, takes after it the preposition a. "I think of her ' ' (penso a lei)] when followed by an infinitive it takes di. f I think of going there " (penso di andarvi). 490. LI. " To think " is very frequently used in Eng- lish, but sometimes it may be entirely omitted in Italian, as the phrase may be perfectly clear without it. 491. LII. "To think" is only translated by pensare when used in its literal meaning ; when it means " to be- lieve," we should employ credere. 492. LIIL It will be better in many cases not to translate "to think" by credere, but by sperare (to hope), or temere (to fear), according as the sense may suggest. 493. LIV. " See that man holding a knife " should be translated by vedete quelV uomo che tiene un coltello, and not tenendo un coltello. 494. LV. The imperfect of the verbs in ere and ire often lose the v in poetry, as credea, credeano ; sentia, sentiano ; instead oicredeva, credevano; sentiva, sentivano. 495. LVI. The conditional of amerebbe, crederebbe, sentirebbe, is changed in poetry into ameria, crederia, sentiria. PART IV. ON THE ITALIAN VERBS. PABT IV. ON THE ITALIAN VERBS. Conjugation of the verbs Essere, to be ; Avere, to have. INFINITIVE. Essere, to be. Avere, to have. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Essendo, being. Ave ?ido, having. PAST PARTICIPLE. Stato, been. Avuto, had. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Sono, I am. Ho, I have. Sei, Hai, E, Ha, Siamo, Abbiamo, Siete, Avete, So no, Hanno, IMPERFECT. Era, I was. Aveva, I had Eri, Avevi, Era, Aveva, Eravamo, Avevamo, Eravate, Avevate, Erano, Avevano, 110 VERBS. PERFECT. . Fui, I was. Ebbi, I had. Fosti, Avestiy Fu. Ebbe, Fummo, Avemmo, Foste, A vest e, Furono, Ebbero, FUTURE. Sard, I shall or will be. Avrb, I shall or will have Sarai, Avrai, Sard, Avrd, Saremo, Avremo, Sarete, Avrete, Saranno, Avranno, CONDITIONAL MOOD* Sarei, I should or would be. Avrei, I should or would have* Saresti, Avresti, Sarebbe, Avrebbe, Saremrno, Avremmo, Sareste, Avreste, Sar ebbero, Avr ebbero, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sii, be. Abbi, have. Sia, Abbia, Siamo, Abbiamo, Siate, Abbiate, Siano* Abbiano, CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Che sia, that I may be. Che abbia, that I may have Che sia, Che abbia or abbi, Che sia, Che abbia, Che siamo, Che abbiamo, Che siate, Che abbiate. Ghe sianOz Che abbiano^ VERBS, 111 IMPERFECT. Chefossi, that I might be. Chefossi, Che fosse, Chefbssimo, Chefoste, Che fbssero, Che avessi, that I might have. Che avessi, Che avesse, Che avessimo, Che aveste, Che avessero, Compounds of the verb Essere. Compounds of the verb Avere-. Essere stato, to have been. Es- sendo stato, having been, &c. Sono stato, &c, I have been, &c. Era stato, &e. ? I had been, &c. Fui stato. &c., I had been, &c. Sard stato, &c, I shall or will have been, &c. Sarei stato, &c, I might have been, &c. Sii stato, &c, have been, &c. Che sia stato, &c, that I may have been, &c. Che fossi stato, &c, that I might have been, &c. Avere avuto, to have had. A- vendo avuto, having had. Ho avuto, &c, I have had, &c. Aver a avuto, &c, I had had, &c. Ebbi avuto, &e., I had had, &c. Avro avuto, &c, I shall or will have had, &c. Avrei avuto, &c, I might have had, &c. Abbi avuto, &c, have had, &c. Che dbbia avuto, &c, that I may have had, &c. Che avesti avuto, &c, that I might have had, &c. CONJUGATIONS. OF REGULAR VERBS. INFINITIVE. Cantare, to sing. Credere, to believe. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Sentire, to feel. Cantando, singing. Credendo, believing. Sentendo, feeling. 112 VERBS. PAST PARTICIPLE. Cantato, Creduto, Sentito, sung. believed. INDICATIVE MOOD PRESENT. felt. Canto, Credo, Sento, I sing. I believe. I feel. Canti, Credi, Senti, Canta, Crede, Sente, Cantiamo, Crediamo, Sentiamo, Cant ate, Credete, Sentite, Cdntano, Credono, IMPERFECT. Sentono, Cantava, I sung or Credeva, I believed Sentiva, I fe was singing. or was believing. was feeling Cantavi, Credevi, Sentivi, Cantava, Credeva, Sentiva, Cantavamo, Credevamo, Sentivamo, Cantavate, Credevate, Sentivate, Cantavano, Credevano, PERFECT. Sentwano, Cantai, Credei, Sentii, I sung. I believed. I felt. Cantasti, Credesti, Sentisti, Canto, Crede, Sentt, Cantammo, Credemmo, Sentimmo, Cantaste, Credeste, Sentiste, Cantdrono, Crederono, FUTURE. Sentirono, Canterb, Crederb, Sentirb, I shall sing. I shall believe. I shall feel. Canterai, Crederai, Sentirai, Canter a, Crederd Sentiva, Canteremo, Crederemo, Sentiremo, Canterete, Crederete, Sentirete, Canteranno, Crederanno, Sentiranno, felt or VERBS. 113 Canterei, I should sing. Canteresti, Canterebbe, Canteremmo, Cantereste, Canter ebbero, CONDITIONAL MOOD. Crederei, I should believe. Crederesti, Crederebbe, Crederemmo, Credereste, Crederebbero, Sentirei, I should feel. Seniiresti, Sentirebbe, Sentiremmo, Sentireste, Sentirebbero, IMPERATIVE MOOD. Canta, sing. Credi, believe. Senti, feel. Canti, Creda, Senta, Cantiamo, Crediamo, Sentiamo, Cantate, Credete, Sentite, Cdntino, Credano, Sentano, CONJUNCTIVE MOOD. Che canti, that I may sing. Che canti, Che canti, Che cantiamo, Che cantiate, Che cdntino. Che cantassi, that I sung. Che cantassi, Che cantasse, Che cantdssimo, Che cantaste, Che cantassero. Che creda, that I may believe. Che creda, Che creda, Che crediamo, Che crediate, Che credano, IMPERFECT. Che credessi, that I believed. Che credessi, Che credesse, Che credessimo, Che credeste, Che credessero, Che senta, that I may feel. Che senta, Che senta, Che sentiamo, Che sentiate, Che sentano, Che sentissi, that I felt. Che sentissi, Che sentisse, Che sentissimo, Che sentiste, Che sentissero, 114 IRREGULAR VERBS. COMPOUNDS OF THESE VERBS. Avere cantato, creduto, sentito, to have sung, believed, felt. Ho cantato, creduto, sentito, I have sung, believed, felt, &c. All the other tenses are composed in the same manner. IRREGULAR VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION. These are four only : — Andare, dare, fare, stare. Andare, to go. Andando, going. Andato, gone. Vo or vado, I go ; vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno. Andava, I was going, &c. Andai, I went, &c. Andrb, I shall go, &c. Andrei, I should go, &c. Va, go, vada, andiamo, andate, vddano. Che vada, that I may go, &c. Che andassi, that I might go, &c. Bare, to give. Dando, giving. Dato, given. Do, I give ; dai, da, diamo, date, danno. Dava, I was giving, &c. Diede or detti, I gave ; desti, diede or dette, demmo, deste, diedero or dettero. Darb, I shall give, &c. Darei, I should give, &c. Da, give ; dia, diamo, date, diano. Che dia, that I may give, &c. Che dessi, that I might give, &c. Fare, to do. Facendo, doing. Fatto, done. Fo, I do ; fai, fa, facciamo, fate, fanno. Faceva, I was doing, &c. Feci, I did; facesti,fece,facemmo,faceste,fecero. Faro, I shall do, &c. Farei, I should do, &c. Fa, do ; fdccia, facciamo, fate, facciano. Che faccia, that I may do, &c. Chefacessi, that I might do, &c. Stare, to stand. Stando, standing. Stato, stood. Sto, I stand ; stai, sta, stiamo, state, stanno. Stava. Stetti, I stood; stesti, stette, stemmo, steste, stettero. Starb. Starei. Sta, stia, stiamo, state, stiano, Che stia. Che stessi. IRREGULAR VERBS. 115 SECOND CONJUGATION. Here are two classes of verbs, those which have the accent on the antepenultimate, and those on the penultimate vowel. The first have only the perfect and past participle irreg- ular, and sometimes only the one j 1 whilst the others have various irregularities, except persuadere and solere, which have only these irregular forms, per 'suasi, per 'suaso, sblito. VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS. Tor cere, to twist. tor si tor to. Ucci dere, to kill. ucci si ucciso. 2 Accor Fri Co Distin M gere y ggere, gliere, guere, ettere, to perceive, to fry. to gather. to distinguish, to put. accor fri CO distin m si ssi Isi si isi accorto? fritto. colto. distinto. rnesso. A Pr emere, to press. pr essi presso. Espr Acce tmere, ndere, to express, to kindle. espr acce essi si espresso. 5 acceso. 6 Ass ohere, to absolve. ass olsi assoltoJ Corr bmpere, to corrupt. corr uppi corrotto. Cor rere, to run. cor si corso. Cono scere, to know. cono bbi conosciuto. Discu tere, to discuss. discu ssi discusso. Pres C umere, ubcere, to presume, to cook. pres c unsi ossi presunto. cotto. 8 Perc Comm ubtere, ubvere, to strike, to shake. perc comm ossi ossi percosso. commosso. Vi vere, to live. vi ssi vissuto. Nascere, to be born, makes ndcqui, nato ; and piovere, to rain, piovve. 1 These verbs and their compounds are excepted :—Battere, capere, credere, emjnere, esigere,fendere,fr emere, gemere, mietere, mescere, pascere, pendere, perdere, prescindere, ricevere, reslstere, riflettere^ ripetere, scernere, solvere, spandere, splendere, spremere, strldere, succombere, suggere, fonder e, vendere. 2 Cedere : cessi or cedetti ; cesso or ceduto. 3 Dirigere: essi, etto. Esigere : ei, esatto. Cingere : nsi, into. Negligere : essi, etto. 4 Flettere : flessi,Jlesso. 5 Espellere : ulsi. ulso. 6 Fonder e: fusi,fuso. 7 Also assoluto. Solvere : ei etti ; uto. Involvero, involto. 8 Nucocere : ndcqui, nociuto. 116 IRREGULAR VERBS. I. — Condurre for Conducere, to lead. Pres. part. Conducendo, leading. Past part. Condotto, led. Conduco, I lead. Conduceva, I was leading. Condussi, I led. Gondurrhy I shall lead. Condurrei, I should lead. Con- duciy lead, conduca, &c. * Che conducessi, that I might lead. II. — Bevere, or contracted, Bere, to drink. This verb is regular, except that we may say bevo or beo ; beveva or beeva, &c. Of the three forms of the perfect the first is in greatest use : bevvi, bevei, or bevetti. III. — Cadere, to fall. * * * Caddi, I fell. Caderb or cadrb, I shall fall. Caderei or cadrei, I should fall. * * * IV. — Chiedere, to ask. Past part. Chiesto, asked. Chiedo or chieggo, I ask, &c. ; chiedono or chieggono, they ask. * Chiesi, I asked. * * Chieda or chiegga, let him ask ; chiedano or chieggano, let them ask. V. — Dire, for Dicer e, to say. Pres. part. Dicendo, saying. Past part. Detto, said. Dico, I say ; diet (or di') dice, diciamo, dite, dicono. Diceva, I was saying. Dissi, I said. Dirb, I shall say. Direi, I 1 The irregular forms alone are given. The second person singular in the Subjunctive has two forms : che creda or credi. The asterisk (*) denotes the regular tenses, or those which the pupil should form according to the above rules. IRREGULAR VERBS. 117 should say. Di\ say ; dica, &c. * Che dicessi, that I might say. VI. — Dolere (si), to complain. * Mi dolgo or doglio, I complain ; ti duoli, si duole, ci do- gliamo, vi dolete, &c. * Mi dolsi, I complained. Mi dorrb, I shall complain. Mi dorm, I should complain. Dubliti, complain ; dolgasi or dogliasi, &c. * * VII. — Dovere, to owe. Debbo or deggio, I owe ; dei, dee, or debbe, dobbiamo, &c. * * Dovrb, I shall owe. Dovrei, I should owe. Che debba, that I may owe, &c. ; dobbiamo, dobbiate, debbano. * VIII. — Nuocere, to hurt. Part. pres. Nocendo, hurting. Part, past, Nociuto, hurt. Nuoco or noccio, I hurt. ; nuoci, nuoce, nocciamo, nocete, &c. Noceva, I was hurting. Nbequi, I hurt. Nocerb, I shall hurt. Nocerei, I should hurt. Nuoci, hurt ; nubccia or noccia, &c. IX. — Par ere, to appear. Past part. Paruto or par so, appeared. Paio, I appear ; pan, pare, paiamo, parete, paiono. Parvi, I appeared. Parrb, I shall appear. Parrei, I should appear. Pari, appear ; paia, paiano, parete, paiano, X. — Piacere, to please. Past part. Piaciuto, pleased. Pidccio, I please ; piaci, &c. Piacqui, I pleased. * Piaci, please ; piaccia, &c. * * So also the verb Giacere. 118 IRREGULAR VERBS. XI. — Porre for Ponere, to put. Part, present, Ponendo, putting. Part, past, Posto, put. Pongo, I put ; poni, pone, poniamo, ponete, pbngono. Po- neva, I was putting. Posi, I put. Porrb, I shall put. Porrei, I should put. Poni, put ; ponga, &c. * * XII. — Potere, to be able. Posso, I can ; puoi, pub, possiamo, potete, possono. * * Potrb, I shall be able. Potrei, I should be able. Che possa, that I might be able, &c. XIII. — Rimanere, to stay. Past part. Rimaso or rimasto, stayed. Rimango, I stay ; rimani, rimane, &c. * Rimasi, I stayed. Rimarrb, I shall stay. Rimarrei, I should stay. Rimani, stay ; rimanga, &c. XIV. — Sapere, to know. So, I know ; sai, sa, sappiamo, sapete, sanno. * Seppi, I knew. Saprb, I shall know. Saprei, I should know. Sappi, know ; sappia, sappiamo, sappiate, sappiano, &c. XV. — Scegliere or Scerre, to choose. Past part. sce/fo, chosen. Scelgo or sceglio, I choose. * Scelsi, I chose. * * Scegli, choose ; sc%a or sceglia, &c. XVI. — Sedere, to sit. $« * * •«■ * siedi, sit ; sMa or segga, &c. IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 XVII. — Svellere, to tear away. Past part. Svelto, torn away. Svelgo or svello, 1 tear ; svelli, svelte or sveglie, &c. * Svelsi, I tore. * * * Svelli, tear ; svella or svelga, &c. * * XVIII. — Tacere, to be silent. Past part. Taciuto, silent. Tacio, I am silent ; taci> &c. * Tdcqui, I was silent. * * Taci, be silent ; taccia, &c. XIX.— Tenere, to hold. Tengo, I hold ; ft'em, tfewe, &c. * Tenrri, I held. Terro, I shall hold. Terrei, I should hold. Tiewi, hold ; tenga, &c. XX. — Togliere or Torre, to take away. Past part. To/ft), taken away. Toglio or ft>4/o, I take away ; togli, toglie, &c. * Tolsi, I took away. Toglierb or fowd, I shall take away. Toglierei or torrei, I should take away. Togli, take away ; to##a or tolga, &c. XXI. — Traere or Trarre, to draw. Part, present, Traendo, drawing. Part, past, Tratto, drawn. Traggo, I draw ; trai, trae, traiamo, or traggiamo, &c. * Trassi, I drew. Trarrb, I shall draw. Trarrei, I should draw.- SVat, draw ; tragga, &c. XXII. — Valere, to be worth. Fa/gro or vdglio, I am worth ; va/i, *;a/e, vagliamo, &c. * Pa&t, I was worth. Varrb, I shall be worth. Varrei, I should be worth. Pa/t ; be worth ; valga or vaglia, &c. 120 IRREGULAR VERBS. XXIII. — Vedere, to see. Vedo or veggo or veggio, I see, &c. ; vediamo or veggiamo, &c. * Fitfi, I saw. Vedrb, I shall see. Vedrei, I should see. Fedi, see ; veda or ve##a or veggia, &c. XXIV. — Volere, to be willing. Voglio or wo', I am willing ; vuoi, vuole or wwo', vogliamo, volete, vogliono. * Fo/Zi, I was willing. Vorrb, I shall be willing. Vorrei, I should be willing. Che voglia, that I may be willing. IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. All these verbs are conjugated like Unire, which is irregular only in the present of the Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive, except the first and second persons plural. Pres. Ind. — Unisco, unisci, unisce, unzscono, I unite, &c. Imperat. — Urizsci, unisca, uniscano. Subj. — Che unisca^ unisca or unischi, unisca, uni- scano. The verb Apparire has the two forms, apparisce or appare, appariscono or appaiono ; so also have Aprire, Coprire, and Scoprire, as aprii, and apersi, &c. Some of these verbs in the present Indicative, Impera- tive, or Subjunctive, have two forms; thus, Abborrire makes abborrisco or abborro, &c. Their use can be learned only by practice. The following verbs of this conjugation have some peculiar irregularities. I. — Morire, to die. Past part. Morto, dead. Muoio, I die ; muori, muore, moiamo, morite, muoiono. * * IRREGULAR VERBS. 121 Morrb, I shall die. Morrei, I should die. Muori, die ; muoia, &c. II. — Salire, to ascend. Salgo, I ascend, &c. ; sagliamo, &e. * * * * Sali, ascend ; saiga, sagliamo, &c. III. — Seguire, to follow. Seguo or sieguo, I follow ; segui or siegui, segue or siegue, &c. * * * Segui, follow; segua,8zc. Che segua or siegua, that I may follow ; seguano. IV. — Udire, to hear. Odo, I hear ; odi, ode, &c. * * * * Cdi, hear ; 6da, &c. V. — V r scire, to go out. A A Esco, I go out ; esci, esce, &c. * * * * Esci, go out ; esca, &c. VI. — Venire, to come. Vengo, I come ; vtem, viene, &c. * Fe7Z7?i, I came. Verro, I shall come. Verrei, I should come. Vieni, come ; venga, let him come, &c. DEFECTIVE VERBS. I. Inf. Gire, to go. Past part. Gito, gone. Pres. ind. Gite, you go Imp erf. Giua or gia, givi, giva or gia; givamo,givate, givano, or giano. Perfect. — Gisti, g\ or g\o; gimmo, giste, girono. Future. Giro, — gird; giremo, girete, giranno, Condit. Girei, I should go, &c. Imperat. Gite, go, &c. Imperf. subj. Gissi, that I might go, &c. H 122 DEFECTIVE VERBS. II. — Inf. Ire> to go. Past part. Ito, gone. Pres. Ite, you go. Imperf. Iva, he was going ; ivano, they were going. Fut. Iremo, we shall go ; irete, iranno. Imperat. Ite, go. III. — Riedere, to return. Pres. Riedi, thou returnest ; riede, he returns. Imperat. Riedano, let them return. IV. — Olire, to smell good. Imperf. Oliva, olivi, oliva, &c, olivano. V. — Calere, to care for, or mind. Past part. Caluto, cared for. { Pres. Mi cale, I care for. Imperf. Mi caleva, I was caring for. Perf. Mi calse, I cared for, &c. VI. — Solere, to he wont, to he accustomed. Part. pres. Solendo, heing accustomed. Past part. Solito, accustomed. Pres. Soglio, suoli or suo% suole ; sogliamo, solete, sogliono. Comp. perf. Fui solito, I had been accustomed, &c. Imperf. Soleva, I was accustomed. Pres. suhj. Che soglia, that I may he accustomed, &c. Imp. suhj. Che solessi, that I might be accustomed, &c. 123 LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Unire* Abbellire, to embellish. abbonire, to render good. abbronzire, to become dark. abbrostire, to toast. abbrostolire, to toast. abbruttire, to become ugly. abolh'e, to abolish. accalori?-e, to heat. accolorire, to colour. accudire, to attend. acetire, to become sour. addolcire, to sweeten. aderire, to adhere. affievolire, to weaken. affortire* to strengthen. affralire, to become frail. aggentilire, to become noble or gentle. aggradire, to please or be pleased. aggrandire, to become great. agguerrire, to become war- like or fit for war. alleggerire, to lighten. allenire, to soften, to allay. allcstire, to get ready. amarire, to embitter. ambire, to aspire. ammanire, to get ready. ammansire, to tame. ammattire, to go distracted. ammollire, to mollify. ammonire, to admonish. ammorbidire^ to soften. ammortire, to quench. ammutire, to become dumb. ammutolire, to become dumb. anneghittire, to grow lazy. annei'ire, to blacken. annichilire, to annihilate. appassire, to wither. appetire, to covet. appiccinire, to diminish. appigrire, to become lazy. arricchire, to grow rich. arrossire, to blush, become red. j arrostire, to roast. I arrozzire, to make rough. ; arruginire, to grow rusty. i asserire, to assert. | assordire, to deafen. | assortire, to sort. j assoggettire, to subject. after rive, to frighten. attribuire, to attribute. attristire, to grieve. attutire, to blunt. avvilire, to vilify. awizzire. to fade away. bandire, to proclaim. blatidire, to flatter. * The student before using any verbs in ire should consult this table to see if they be not conjugated like unire. 124 LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE UYlire. brandire, to brandish. brunire, to burnish. candire, to preserve, as in conserves. chiarire, to clear up. circuire, to go round. colorire, to colour. colpire, to strike. concepire, to conceive. condire, to season. conferire, to confer. construire, to construct. contribuire, to contribute. contrive, to make penitent. costituire, to constitute. costruire, to construct. custodire, to guard. defer ire, to defer. definire, to define. demolire, to demolish. differire, to defer. diffinire, to define. digerire, to digest. disasprire, to allay. diseppellire, to unbury. disfavorire, to be against one. disfinire, to cease. disfornire, to unfurnish. disghiottire, to sob. disgradire, to slight. disimpedire, not to hinder. dispartire, to part. disruvidire, to smooth. distribuire, to distribute. disubbidire, to disobey. disvigorire, to weaken. disunire, to disunite. erudire, to instruct esaurire, to exhaust. eribire, to exhibit. esinanire, to annihilate. espedire, to dispatch. fallire, to fail. fastidire, to loathe. favorire, to favour. finire, to finish. fiorire, to flower. fluire, to flow. fornire, to furnish. garantire, to warrant. gestire, to gesticulate. ghermire, to lay hold of. gioire, to rejoice. gradire, to accept with plea- sure. grancire, to hook. granire, to seed. gremire 9 to seize with violence. grugnire, to grunt. guaire, to wail. gualcire, to handle. guarire, to recover one's health. guarnire, to trim. illardire, to lard. illanguidire, to languish. illiquidire, to turn liquid. imbaldanzire, to embolden. imbaldire, to embolden. imbandire, to get a great din- ner ready. imbarberire, to grow cruel. iynbarbogire, to dote through old age. imbastardire, to degenerate. imbastire, to baste. LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE unire. 125 imbellire, to embellish. imbestialire, to grow mad or cruel. imbianchire, to whiten. imbiondire, to grow fair. imbizzarrire, to fall into a violent passion. imbolsire, to grow pursy. imbonire, to appease. imbottire, to quilt. imbozzacchire, not to thrive. imbricconire, to grow knavish. imbrunire, to grow brown. imbruschire, to grow sour. imbruttire, to become ugly. immagrire, to become lean. immakagire, to become wicked. immarcire, to rot. impadronire, to become mas- ter of. impallidire, to turn pale. impaurire, to frighten. impazientire, to be impatient. impedire, to hinder. impervertire, to prevent. impiccolire, to become small. impigrire, to become lazy. impoltronire, to become lazy. imporrire, to rotten. impostemire, to posthumate. impoverire, to grow poor. improsperire, to grow pros- perous. imputridire, to putrefy. inacerbire, to grow cruel. inacetire, to grow sour. inacutire, to make sharp. inalidire, to become dry. inanimire, to encourage. inaridire, to dry or become dry. inasinire, to become stupid, like an ass. inasprire, to exasperate. inavarire, to become a miser. incagnire, to become surly, like a dog. incallire, to grow callous. incalvire, to become bald. incanutire, to become white, to grow old. incaparbire, to be obstinate. incapocchire, to cover with a hood. incaponire y to become stub- born. incapriccire, to become de- sirous of any thing. incatarrarire, to catch a cold. incatoTzolire, spoil by a blast. incattivire, to become wicked. incenerire, to reduce to ashes. incerconire, to turn sour as wine does. inciprignire, to grow angry. incivilire, to grow civil. incollorire, to colour. incrudelire, to become cruel. incrudire, to irritate. indebolire, to weaken. indolcire, to sweeten. indolentire, to benumb. indolenzire, to benumb. indrudire, to become a lover. infarcire, to stuff. 126 LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE UUire. infastidire, to trouble. infellonire, to grow cruel. infemminire, to become ef- feminate. inferire y to infer. inferocire, to become fierce. infervorire, to animate. infiacchire, to weaken. infievolire, to weaken. infingardire, to grow lazy. infollire, to grow mad. infortire, to strengthen. infracidire, to rot. infralire, to become weak. infrigidire, to become cold. ingagliardire, to strengthen. ingelosire, to become jealous. ingentilire, to become noble. inge?'i?-e, to meddle. ingiallire, to become yellow. ingiovanire, to become young. ingrandire, to increase. immalinconire, to grow mel- ancholy. immarcire, to putrefy. innacerbire, to exasperate. innagrestire, to become sour. innanimire, to animate. innaridire, to dry. innaspri?*e, to exasperate. innuzzolire, to awake an ea- gerness. innorgoglire, to become proud of any thing. inorridire, to tremble w T ith horror. inquisire, to accuse. irretire, to catch with a net. irrigidire, to grow stiff. irruginire, to rust. insalvatichire>tQ become wild or savage. insanire, to grow mad. inschiavire, to enslave. inserire, to insert. insignire, to decorate. insignorire, to become mas- ter of. insipidire, to become insipid. insolentire,io become insolent. insollire, to become soft. insordire, to become deaf. insospettire, to become sus- picious. insozzire, to dirty. isterilire, to become barren. istituire, to institute. instruire, to instruct. instupidire, to be surprised. insuperbire, to become proud. intenebrire, to become dark. intenerire, to move often. in#e/?«d«>e,togrowlukewarm. intimidire, to intimidate. intimorire, to frighten. intirizzire, to grow stiff with cold. intisichi?'e, to become con- sumptive. intorbidire, to grow muddy. intormentire, to benumb. intorpidire, to become sad. intristire, to become dull. invaghire, to charm. invanire, to become vain. inveire, to inveigh. LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE Unite. 127 invelenire,to become irritated. inverminire, to grow full of worms. invigorire, to invigorate. invilire, to dishearten. invincidire, to grow soft. inviperire, to rage. inviscidire, to become viscid. invizzire, to wither. inumidire, to moisten. involpire, to grow crafty. inuzzolire, to awake a desire of any thing. inzotichire, to become rude. irretire, to catch with a net. irricchire, to become rich. irrigidire, to become stiff. irritrosire, to become shy. irruginire, to become rusty. istituire, to institute. itstruire, to instruct. largire, to give liberally. lenire, to soften. nitrire, to neigh. obbedire, to obey. o/ire, to smell. ostruire, to obstruct. patire, to vilify again. pattuire, to suffer. piatire, to bargain. polire, to plead. poltrire, to polish. preferire, to be idle. presagire, to prefer. preterire, to presage. proferire, to prefer. progredire, to utter. proibire, to progress. rabbellire, to prohibit. rabbonire> to beautify again. raddolcire, to pacify again. raggentilire, to sweeten again. rammollire y to make noble again. rammorbidire, to soften again. rapire, to soften again. rattepidire, to snatch away. ravvilire, to cool again. ravvincidire, to become soft again. redarguing to argue against. referire, to refer. restituire, to restore. reverire, to revere. riabbcllire, to embellish again. riagire, to react. riarricchire, to enrich again. ribadire, to rivet. ribandire, to banish again. richiarire, to clear again. ricolorire, to colour again. riconcepire, to conceive again. ricondire, to season again. ricostituire, to constitute again. riferire, to refer again. rifiorire, to flourish again. rinfronzire, to bring forth new leaves. ringentilire, to become noble again. ringioire, to rejoice. ringiovanire,to become young again. 7-ingiovialire, to become j o vial again. 128 LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE UUire. ringrandire, to become great or large again. rinsavire, to become wise again. rinserenire, to become severe again. rinsignori?*e, to become mas- ter again. rintenerire,to be moved again. rintiepidire, to become cool again. rinverzire, to become green again. rinvigorire, to invigorate again. rinvilire, to vilify again. ripulire, to clean again. rwarcire, to make good any loss. risbaldire, to rejoice. risquittire, to adjust again the feathers to a bird. ristecchire, to dry up. ristituire, to restore. ritribuire, to retribute. ritrosire, to become shy. riunire, to unite again. sbaldanzire, to lose courage. sbalordire, to be astonished or to astonish. sbandire, to banish. sbigottire, to despond. sbizzarrire, to satisfy our whims. scalfire, to scarify. scarnwe, to love flesh. scaturire, to spring. schermire, to parry. schernire, to ridicule. schiarire, to clear. schiattire, to yelp. schiencire, to avoid. sciapidire, to become insipid. scipidire, to become insipid. scipire, to become insipid. scolorire, to discolour. semenzire, to grow up in seed. seppellire, to bury. sfavorire, to disfavour. sfornire, to unfurnish. sgarire, to get the better in a dispute. sghermire, to let loose. sgomentire, to discourage. sgradire, to displease. smaltire, to digest. smarrire, to lose. sminuire, to diminish. smunire, to reinstate in an office. sopire, to quiet. sostitnire, to substitute. spaurire, to frighten. spervertire, to pervert. spessire, to thicken. srugginire, to clean from rust. stabilire, to establish. starnutire, to sneeze. statuire, to resolve. stecchire, to become dry. sterilire, to become barren. stizzire, to be angry. s tor dire, to stun. stormire, to make a noise. stramortire, to swoon. LIST OF VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE UmVC. 129 stremenzire, to reduce with difficulty. stupidire, to wonder. stupire, to wonder. svanire, to vanish. sveleni?*e, to lose one's ferocity svilire, to become vile. supplire, to supply. > tradire, to betray. traferire, to wound. tramortire, to swoon. trasferire, to transfer. trasgredire, to transgress. trasricchire, to become very rich. vagii*e, to cry as infants. ubbidire, to obey. usucapire, to acquire the pro- perty of any thing by the right of use. PAET Y. EXERCISES. PAET V. EXERCISES. EXERCISE I.f ON THE ARTICLES. 1. 7 have always been curious to learn new things. sono sempre stato cwioso [295^ Mender nuova cosa. 2. || Gold, pearls, tnd rich dresses, showed truly oro, perla, — ricco vestimento mostravan veramente that she was a lady of distinction. che donna * grand'' affare. 3. Remove from the your mind this sad thought of Levatevi da [26] animo questo tristo pensiero * death. morte. 2 4. / have a very great fear of the illusions of the magic i Ho grandissima paura [26] inganno [26] magica art. arte. 5. These wicked witches sometimes are birds, sometimes Questa mahagie strega[15'] ora — uccello, — dogs, and a little after mice and flies. cane, — poco poi topo — mosca [15]. 6. His limbs were torn by (the) wild beasts. Le sue membra^ — straziate da [24] fiera\jf\. + The pupil must form for himself the plural of the nouns, whose singular alone is given. He should also learn to conjugate the re- gular verbs from the infinitives given in the text. X The numbers within brackets refer to the sections of the Third Part. || The definite article should always be placed before a noun in the nominative case. IT Membra is plural. The English words in italics are not to be translated. Words under which a dash ( — ) is placed must be rendered into Italian either by the help of a dictionary or by what the pupil has already learnt. The words or phrases under which an asterisk (*) is placed show the application of the rules. 134 EXERCISES. 7. What dost thou want I Thou hast servants, thou hast Che timanca? — — faniiglio, — ■ — maids, thou hast gowns of silk of every colour, rings, and serva, — — vesta * seta — ogni colore, anello — chains of gold, in fact (all) that which thou desirest. catena — — in fine cib che vuoi. 8. The Egyptians wishing to represent a man of deep — Egizio volere figurare un uomo * alti thought, and given up to the contemplation of (the) pensieri — volto [34] contemplazione * 2 1 heavenly things, formed an elephant with the trunk turned cosa celaste fecevano — elefante [33] grugno rivolto upwards; and wishing to signify (the) prudence in the insu; — — significar — prudenza [34] things of the world, they made a serpent. — [33] mondo, Afigurare un serpente. 9. It is the nature of man to have compassion of (on) Umano cosa e aver compassione [35] di the afflicted. afflitto. 10. Sorrow is placed at the extremity of (the) pleasure. Dolore occupare — estremita * [33] piacere* 11. The sick were abandoned by (the) neighbours, — infermo abbandonare da [35] vicino, by (the) relations, and by (the) friends. da [35] parente, — da [35] amico. 12. On the top of this little mountain was a palace with Sul colmo — quella wontagnetta un palazzo con a fine and large court-yard in the middle, with small fields bella — gran corte [33] mezzo — pratello 2 1 around, and with wonderful gardens with wells of water intorno, — — maraviglioso giardino — pozzo — acqua exceedingly fresh, and with cellars full of very precious wine. freschzssima, — — volta plena — vino preziosissimo, + The Italian words are a complete translation here, and in all similar cases, of all the English words above them which have no mark under. THE ARTICLES. 135 13. / have the corn in the granary, and the horse in — — grano * granaio — — cavallo — the stable. * stalla, 3 1 2 14. Most (of the) men have (the) pleasure for their aim. I piii * uomof — * — per fine. 15. (The sole) obedience to (the) magistrates governs — [106] obbedienza * — magistrato regge the world. — mondo. 16. He builds castles in the air. Fa castello in aria. 2 1 17. The beauty of the person is really a vain thing. — bellezza corporate — veramente vana cosa. 18. The weakness of the body is very often a proof * debolezza * corpo — le piu volte argomento of the strength of the mind. forza sp\rito. 19. Abstinence is the mother of health. Astinenza — madre — sanita. 20. The abundance of (the) dishes corrupts the body — larghezza * vicanda corrbmpere — — and the soul. — — anima. 21. God and truth will fight for me. Iddio — — prendere Varme 22. They died not as men but as beasts. §Morire — — 23. The countenance is the mirror of the soul, and the — faccia — [26] specchio * — — — — eyes declare the secrets of the heart. occhio [10] mostrare — segreto * cuore. + The plural of uomo is uomini. § Infinitives having this sign should be put in the imperfect in- dicative. 136 EXERCISES. 24. The study of Dante excites the heart to (the) virtue. — studio di Dante accendere — — — — 2 3 1 25. It is the property of a great and good mind not Questo e prbprio — grande e buono dnimo * to seek for the reward of (the) benefits, but to seek to [39] cercare — frutto * oenefizio, ma [39] confer them. di farli. EXERCISE II. ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 1. J thank you for your offer. ringraziare [85] della vostra offerta. 2. I assure you that I will not depart (myself) from — promettere [85] — — partire * the truth. — veritd, 3. Let us quit (the) jokes ; tell me, I beg of you, Lasciamo andar — ciancia; dite[86~] pregarevene[%5~\ who you are, and where you live. chi — — — dove state a casa. 4. Thou shalt not ruin thyself alone, but me with thee. — — ruinare [85] sola, ma [85] con — 2 1 5. I do not understand their language, and / do not care — — intendere illoro parlar, — — curare (myself) about it. [90] ne. 6. Tell me the cause for which thou art so angry. Di [97] — cagione per die — — s\ in cotter a, 7. Is it to me that thou hast given the gown with the other A me hai dato — — — — altra things \ cosa ? PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 137 2 1 8. You will not restore it to me. volete — rendere — [90] 9. I am not anxious (of) to know thee. — non mi euro di conoscere [87]. 10. It is the first time that you have seen me. prima volta die — — vedere — 11. Command me freely in all your necessities. Comandate[8&] liber amente — tutta lavostraoccorrenza. 12. I parted from you very discontented, and lamenting Partire da voi molto scontento, — dolere[S&] (myself) also my fate. * ancora delta mia surte. 13. J give thee (the) permission to do it. Dare * — licenza ne. 14. Do to me that which thou desirest. Fare [97] quel che — vuoi. 15. Thou canst believe thyself one of us. Puoi credere — uno — — 16. You ought to please (to) everyone, although few please — dovete piacere * ognuno, sebben pochi piacciano (to) you. * [85] 17. Beware (yourselves) (from the) of flatterers. Guardare — adulatore, 18. Let us see that as you know how to conquer (the) Fare * vedere — come sapere vincere * others, so you know how to conquer yourself. altro, cost — — — [85] medesimo. 19. Believe what pleases you (you please), as for me I say Credere che piacere, — io per me dico it for good. — per bene. 138 EXERCISES. 20. / tell you that I am not acquainted with you, and 1 Dico — — — conbscere — — know not who you are. so — chi — siate. 21. If you loved me as I love you, you would not re- Se amaste * com? — — re- fuse it me. gave [424] — * 22. Help me, I pray you (of it). Aiutare * — * pregare — ne. 23. I come (for) to entreat you, (in order) that you would Vengo per pregare * affinche mode- restrain yourself in the passion that transports you. rare — — - — passione che trasportare. — 24. Here I am, what do you command me 1 [88] * [211] comandare — f EXERCISE IH.f ON ST, &c. 1. In compensation of [for) so troublesome an affair, they Per guider done — cost faticosa faccenda [102] 2 1 never give more than the worth of six crowns. mai J dare piu che — valor e — sei scudi, 2. One can only lose. [102] pud se non perdere. 3. What are they doing I Where are they going \ Che [102] — Dove * va 4t, I wish to go and see what they do there. Vbglio andare a vedere quel che [102] — [364] f For the rules on si, &c, see pronominal particles, pages 54 & 55. X When a negative follows the verb, the word non is always placed before the verb. ON THE USE OF SI AND SE. 139 5. It is here that we have made the acquisition of the Qui — — acquisto — — ■ picture which is sent you. quadro — [101] mandare * 6. Men do not talk of any thing (men talk of nothing} but * parlare oValtro che of peace. I pace. 2 1 7. They have spoken so much of you, that all the hill [102] * parlare tanto — — — tutto — poggio re-echoed with it. risonare§ ne. 3 1 2 4 5 6 8. There the birds are heard to sing, there the hills and Quivi — wcce//o[lOl]6efo??0ca?ifare,[364] — collina — 7 8 12 3 the meadows are seen blooming, and the fields full of — pianura veggono verdeggiare, — — campo pieno — corn to wave not otherwise than (like) the sea. biada ondeggiare — — — — mare. 9. Passions, said Galen, are like the stones which passione, dice Galeno, — — * sasso che from the top of a mountain roll towards the foot ; * sommo — ■— — rotolare alio ingiu ; as soon as a man has taken a direction towards evil, he is no come uno — preso la corsa — — — more able to stop himself. piu pud fermare * 10. Throughout (all the) life, one should learn to live In tutta — — [102] debbe imparare and to die. morire. 11. We unlearn with difficulty that which we have [102] disimparare malagevolmente quel che * — learned in our tender years. — — la eta tenera. I 140 EXERCISES. 12. We should keep our promise. * dee osservare la promessa. 3 4 5 2 i 13. One can refuse thee nothing. — pud disdire — niente. 14. They do them no injustice if they are treated (so) * fa loro alcuna ingiuria se — trattare si as they have treated the others. come essi hanno trattato * altro. 15. There is no crime so hidden which is not discovered Non v 9 e reita si nascosta — * — scuopra and which is not known. Let the smallest cracks be closed, — — * — sappia. Chiudansi — minima fessura, let every light be taken away, the evil which thou doest at the tolgasi ogni lume, — — — — — first crowing of the cock is known before daylight by the primo cantar — gallo — sapere prima del di da — nearest publicans. piu prbssimo taverniere. 16. What can one say more ? Che pud '"* dire piu? 3 2 1 17. They work at it day and night. * lavorare * di — notte. 18. They cannot deny it. * — * negare * 19. What would people say of you if you did it \ Che [102] direbbe se — ilfaceste f 2 1 20. When an impossibility is asked, it is lawful Quando cosa impossibile domandare > — Ticito to refuse it. * la disdire. 21. They are called geese. [101] chiamare paper a. ADJECTIVES. 141 3 4 1 2 22. Many more of them were sung. Piu altre [82] cantare. 2 3 23. It is not three days since the words and the music Non sono tre giorno che * parola — — suono l were composed. fecero. 2 1 24. We should not (have) fear (of) that which is not yet [102] vuole * — paura — quel che ancora arrived. intervenuto. 25. It is a thing which has never been seen. — una cosa — [101] mai veduta. EXERCISE IV, THE ADJECTIVES. 1. Hear what she did in presence of many persons. TJ dire quel cK — fece — cospetto — molto persona. 2 1 2. Thinkest thou that I ought to suffer so great an Pensare — ebb io debba patire tanto [108] affront 2 villania ? 3. He gave me so many blows, that he was near Dare — tanto bastonata, che fu presso killing me. che per ammazzare — 2 1 4. Seest thou not with how much arrogance and Vedere — con [108] arroganza — pride she behaves towards us I superbia portarsi con — 142 EXERCISES. 5. If thou hast a little patience, I will show thee Se avrai * * * pazienza — fare vedere — all. tutto. 6. It is not surprising that we hear so much noise. Non e maraviglia che — sentire * romore. 7. How many times have I not told you to do it in * volta — — non detto — chefacciate a this manner I modo suo? 8. You give him too many caresses. fare gli carezza, 9. Pray, have a little patience and let me finish. Di grazia, — [110]* *pazienza, — lasciare * finire. 10. / have heen greeted on your part many times, and — — salutare da parte vostra * — — by many of your friends. da * [332] vostro amico. 11.7 make little account of it. Fare * stirna [82]. 12. They had little hope in peace. § * speranza — la pace, 13. A good conscience is always tranquil. La coscienza buono — sempre sicuro. 14. Glory makes many envious. Gloria fare * invidioso. 15. Slanderers are hateful to God and to men. Detrattore — odioso 16. She is beautiful, rich, good, and witty. — bello, ricco, savio, — spi?'itoso. 17. He found there a respectable woman, very aged. Trovare quivi uno buono — moltof attempato. f Molto followed by an adjective is always an adverb, and is therefore unchangeable in its termination. ADJECTIVES. 14S 2 1 18. I see in your bright eyes a sweet calm which Vedere nei vostri lucente bechio — dolce serenitd che ought to be an image of that which the blessed enjoy in debbe immdgine — quella die — beato godere — ■ (the) heaven. cielo. 2 1 % 3 4 19. She had (the) lively eyes, (the) a fair and calm § vivace — candido — sereno 1 2 1 2 1 forehead, (the) rosy cheeks, (the) a ruddy mouth, and — di rose guancia, vermiglio — — (the) teeth white as ivory. — bianco £107] come avbrio. 20. Oh ! how many times I laugh at it to myself. — fiata risi ne fra — stesso. 2 21. In the midst of that field was a fountain of very white — mezzo del qual prato fonte — bianclussimo 1 2 marble, and with extraordinary carved work. marmoy — — maraviglioso intaglio. 22. If thou desirest to avenge thyself, be silent, and thou — vuoi vendicare — taei, — hai givest a mortal wound to thine enemy. dato — piagu mor'tale at nemico. 23. Your sister is polite, good, and also generous as you. Vostro sorella — cortese, buon'o, — cost liber ak come — 2 1 24. Do you prefer the flaxen hair of Lauretta, or the Piaccionvi piil — biondo capello — — r- black of Lisetta 1 nero — — 2o. Poor girl, who has beaten you I Pbvero figliuohychi — dare — 144 EXERCISE V. ON THE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 1. In good faith, if thou dost not change, I shall burn Inbuonafe^ se — — mutare verso, — bruciar thee alive. — viva viva [13G]. 2. There is not a woman in the world who is happier than Non e — — — che siafelice [128] she. lei. 3. This time I have been more cunning than thee. Questa — io n' ho saputo piu [128] — 4. Now / deny it more than ever. Ora lonegare — [128] mai. 5. / wish to be able to love thee as much as thou lovest me. Vorrei potere amar . * [124] * — — * 6. i" went immediately to visit him, and he gave (made) me — subito a visitarlOy — — — a very agreeable reception. lieta [133] accoglienza. 7. He could not do any thing which deserved more Potere§ — — cosa che meritasse [109] blame, and less excuse ; and the excuses which he makes biasimo, — [109] scuse ; — — — che allegare are more unworthy than the fact itself. — — brutto [128] — — stesso. 8. / will do willingly as much as you set me. — volentieri [1 24] * imponete — 9. 1 have never wished/or any thing so much as to study — — desiderare cosaalcuna — * [3&]studiare two years in my own manner. due anno a mio modo. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 145 10. If it were so, I should fear greatly for your safety, Se cid fosse — dubitare forte della vostra salute, and so much the more as the relapse would be much more dangerous than the malady itself. pericoloso — — malattia stesso. 2 1 11. The splendour of beauty is more fugitive than are (not) — splendor e — bellezza fuggevole * [129] the flowers, which appear in the spring. — fiore, ch? appdiono a primavera. 12. Learning makes (the) men better. Dottrina fare — — [132]. 13. What (thing) is sweeter than this law l To abstain Quale — — soave * questolegge? Astenersi from (the) wickedness, to wish for what is good (the good), not malvagitd volere — bene — to wish for (the) evil, (not) to hate no one, not to be willing — — — odiare nessuno, — volere (to be unwilling) to do to others that which you would not fare — altro quello ch 9 uno — wish for yourself. % vorrebbe a se. 14. It is more difficult to know how to be silent, than — — nialagevole * saper tacere 9 how to speak well. parlare — 2 15. Nothing charms (the) man so much as (the) faithful Niunacosa dilettare — — * — 3 1 and sweet friendship. — — amistd. 16. It is easier to reply to abuse than not to reply to — agevole — — ingiurie * — rispbndere — it. quelle 146 EXERCISES* 17. The love of the money increases as much as amove — — danaro crescere — the money increases. 1 8. Who is more exalted than he who despises (the) Chi — — eccellente * coluiche disprezzare — money \ 2 1 19. Hidden pleasures are worth as much as (the) Nascoso diletto vagliono — * — treasures buried in the earth. tesoro occultato sotto — 20. The tie of (the) friendship binds much more than — legame amicizia stringer e — — * that of blood or of (the) relationship. quel — — — parentado, 21. Is it not a degradation of a, son to wish to raise a — — un abbassare ilfigliuolo voter alzare (the) slave almost higher than him I Certainly it is. — schiavo quasi su * lui ? Certo che s\ 3 l 2 22. We bear (the) hatred more easily than the Si sostiene — bdio — leggiermente * — society of the wicked and (of the) foolish. compagnia * reo — — matto, 2 1 23. The wicked man does more evil than the brute. — rio — fa — — * — hestia. 24. Perhaps he did not love me so much as he declared. Forse § — amare — cosi * § mostrare, 25. Who is he that can know it better than I ! Chi - — quegli — lo conosca — * — 26. The woman, so feeble as she was, could not save herself. — — [\2%~\debole* — potere — fuggire. 147 EXERCISE VI. ON THE AUGMENT ATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 1. He has a nasty livid colour, and is so thin that one — un [146] colore livido, — — si magro che — 2 1 can only see his skin and (his) bones. se non gli vedere la — — — osso. 3 4 2. Why do you sell these little fish so dear I Perche vendere questo (etto) pesce si caro ? 3. She was a charming young girl of the age of * una leggiadra (etto) gibvane d'eta * fifteen years. — anno, 2 1 4. The other was a little child, who was not yet — altro * un (ino) fanciullo, che aveva — ancora a year (old). o. She is naturally very agreeable. Ella — naturalmente piacevolina, 6. For how long shall we endure this vile animal I Insino a quanto sosterremo questo * animate? 7. Be still, foolish chatterer! what nonsense thou art saying Sta cheto, accio cicala ! che pazzia diet tu, 8. i" am well persuaded (myself) that this is a little — — avvisto — che costei — una(erelk) foolish girl. sciocca.f 9. What sweet little words did she say to me I Che dolce (ino) parola disse — f The diminutive of sciocca is schioccherella. 148 ' EXERCISES. 10. /am determined to ridicule this great fool. — deliberare dar la baia a questo [one) sciocco. 11. They see here a frightful comet ; but it does not — vedere qui una accio cometa; ma — non appear to me that it can signify any thing of consequence. pare — che possa significar cosa — - momento. 2 1 12. They found nothing else to eat, save a few * trovare non altro da mangiare, die alcuna 2 i wild little apples. salvatico [uzzo) mela. 13. He went away near to the little tower. Sene andb vicino a — [icello) torre. 14. (Not) having but one small chamber, and one single Non — che — [eita) camera, — — — little bed, I cannot lodge you. [icello) letto, posso — alloggiare — 15. This great dunce wishes me to learn (the) Questo {one) [_l43~\pecora vuol * fare conbscere — things, as if I was born yesterday. — come s* iofossi nata ieri, 16. Thou hast so fascinated me by thy sparkling — — in modo abbagliare ■ — co' tuoi sfavillante little eyes, that I am become thy slave. (etto) occhio, che sonofatto tuo schtavo. 17. A good little fellow was gardener of their Un buono (icciolo) uomo — ortolano del loro garden. [147] giardino. 18. When he opens his great eyes, he appears Quando spalancare quegli * bcchio pare {like) one possessed. uno spiritato. AUGMENTATIYES AND DIMINUTIVES. 149 19. He drew from one pocket a little letter, and gave Si trasse — una tasca una (ino) lettera — rese it me on your part. da vostra parte. 20. This place was on a little hill. II dettoluogo — sopra una {etta) montagna. 21. She went to a little country-house near there. — andarsene {etta) villa vicino ivi 22. My child, thou art now old enough, it is Figliuol mio, — se 9 oggimaigrande (icello\ egli — right that thou shouldst begin thyself to see the state benfatto — — incominei — medesimo — vedere of thy affairs. de' tuoi fatti. 23. She saw on the shore a little fishing - boat, Vide alia — riva una (icelld) nave dipescatori, without oars and without sail. senza remo — — vela. 24. I shall consider thee as a great fool. — avere — peruno {one) sciocco. 25. He slept in a poor little bed. Dormire§ pbvero {icciaolo) letto* EXERCISE VII. ON THE NUMBERS. 1. Return in three or four hours. Tornarefra — — — or a. 2. He has given me a pretty gown, a chain which ought — — — vesta, — — che dee to cost {must have cost) forty crowns, a ruby which is worth valere — scudo, che vale 150 EXERCISES. ten (of them), and a wreath which ought to be worth — ne, — che — valere (is worth) as much. altrettanto. 3. / have written (wrote) to him from Paris the 1 5th of — scritto gli * Parigi [166] - (the) last month. 4. Three times three make nine. _ [362] — fan — 5. The first odd number is (the) three ; the first even — — caffo — — — — — pari number is (the) two. 6. The city (inhabitants) of Florence were the (one) same - - - - [169] people with the Romans. pbpolo co 9 Romani. 7. I give you two thousand florins of gold (gold florins) — — — [161] fiorino — — for it. n e. 8. They have seated themselves all five on the grass, — posti a sedere — — sopra — — - near (to) the fountain. presso a — fontana. 9. She scattered all the walnuts in the hall, then she Fare versare noce per — sala, poi made them pick them up one by one. — gliele ricbgliere * [168] — 2 1 10. They made in the burial-grounds very large trenches, — * cimitero — grandefossa, 2 1 in (the) which the dead were put by hundreds. — — quale — morto — metier e [168] centindia. NUMBERS. 151 11. None of them had exceeded twenty-eight years, nor — — loro — passato il ventottesimo anno, ne was less than eighteen. era minor — . — 12. He held firmly with (the) his two hands the edges Tenere\ forte — — — — — orlo of the chest. cassa. 13. The first punishment of (the) crime is to have — — pena — — delitto — — committed it ; the second, always to fear ; the third, the commesso — — — — temere ; — — — disgrace ; the fourth, to lose the sight of God. infamia ; — — perdere il veder Dio. 14. When Jupiter created the first men, he made them Quando Giove creare — — — egli — li with four legs and two heads. — — gamba — — testa. 15. William the Second, king of Sicily, had two children, Guglielmo [163] — — Sicilia, — — figliuolo, the one called Roger, the other called Constance. — — chiamare Ruggieri, — — — Costanza. 16. Let the ladies take each other by the hand two and — donna tengano — per — * — two. 17. If he gives you two hundred francs for each, you Se — — — * — — uno, ought to be more than satisfied. dovere — — — contento. 18. He loved them all three alike. amare — — — parimente. 19. I shall live with him as a wife ought to live with Dimorare — lui — mbglie dee — — her husband. 152 EXERCISES. 20. The other is a stone, which we (other) lapidaries — — pietra, — — — lapidario call heliotrope. appellare elitrbpia. 21. Although I have not a thousand (florins), I had a Perche — abbia — mille — — § good hundred, and even two hundred to give you. ben — anche — * da dare — 22. He had a brother of (the) age of twenty-five years. fratello d'eta — — — — 23. Bet five thousand florins of gold against a thousand. Mettere — * fiorino — oro contra a — 24. I shall depart the tenth' of this month. Partire * — — questo — 25. Walk four and four. Andare [168] EXERCISE VIII. ON THE PRONOUNS. 1. /should have recognised him another time at a distance ; — conbscere — altra voltada lungi; however, I stopped then a little time in doubt, thinking if pure stare — un pezzo sopra di me, pensare se it were he himself. fosse * [m~\ 2. This, my sister, is my beloved [253] — — — * diletto. 3. Lucy, take the bag of this gentleman, and lock Lucia, pigliare — vahgia — [245] — — serrare it in that little chamber. [245] * camera. PRONOUNS. 1 53 4. My host desires that I be (wishes me to be) with him, * bspite vuole seco, and I have promised it to him. [92] 5. He no more appears himself. — — pare \3§~\ 6. When have you known this man 1 Dove — — [252] 7. Have pity on her who dies for your sake. — pieta di [252] muore per vostra cagione, 8. I do not give her to him. — dare * [92] 9. If you wish to know it, I will tell it you. Se — volere sapere * — dirb — [90] 10. This man is not whom he appeared to be. [253] [213] parere 11. J love her exceedingly, and / am beloved by her. — [85] sommamente, — — — 12. I do not wish to importune you any more. — vbglio importunare [87] altrimenti. 13. Let us go to meet them. incontro a [83] 3 l 2 14. What shall we do with this man, said one to the other. [211'] farem — di [252] dicevafuno — 15. Nobody would desire to live without friends, although — vorrebbe mvere — amico, anche possessing all (the) other advantages. avendo — — — bene. 16. Am I not as handsome as she I [123] — * * 17. You cannot refuse it to him. — potere negare * [92] 154 EXERCISES. 18. If / was her, / would not do it. Se fosti 172] —fare [84] 19. You have deserved it as well as he. — — rneritare — [123] — * * 20. The wicked are never pleased with themselves. — reo mai godere di se stessi. 21. The hird called cuckoo sounds always its own name, — uccello detto cilculo cantare — [243] — but one does not listen to it with pleasure, and it is abused — * — ode * volentieri, — — beffare by the other birds : such is he who praises himself. da — — — cosi — colui — lodare se stesso. 22. The mouth of him who tells lies kills the soul. — bocca — colui [181] mente uccidere — — 23. This {woman) said that Emily was (is) not handsome, [252] diceva — Emilia — — — and I said that she was. diceva di si. 24. This woman, hearing that, said, — Well, how shall [252] * udire — disse, Or bene, — we act ! fare? 25. That (woman) merits thy love as much as every [252] rneritare [232] * qualunque other {woman) who pleases thee more — [131] piacque — mai. 155 EXERCISE IX. ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 2 1 1. Who will believe that he says probable things? (i.e. what [185] credere che dica verisimile — is probable). 2. What is it I hear I [185] sentire? 2 i 3. Of what dost thou complain ? What dost thou want ? — [185] — rammaricare? * ti manca? Speak. Parlare. 4. Some had been bitten by a dog, others wounded by a [213] — — morso da * ferire da — stone ; these had received a blow in one place, those in sasso ; chi § ricevere — — — — luogo, chi — another. 5. Here is the man by whom we are abused. Ecco — — -r da [214] — beffare. 6. The scholar who, at the beginningof the night, had hidden — scolare che, in sulfar della notte, — nascoso himself near to the tower, felt compassion for this woman. — pressoa — — sentire com passione — 7. What horse have you ever seen without a head \ [185] cavallo vedeste max — — 8. What do we here I * facciam — — 9. Now is arrived the time when thou canst have hisfriendship. Or a — venire — che puoi — * — K 156 EXERCISES. 2 1 10. The man who knows virtue least fears the less (of) — — * conbscere — — temere — — to do wrong. errare. 11. The man who perceives not (the) dangers runs — — — non iscorge — -— scbrrere 2 fearlessly everywhere ; and the man who can lose baldanzosamente — — — — — pub perdere l nothing is almost always at play. — — quasi sempre — giuoco. 12. We have no other aim than the usefulness of our — — — — fine — — utilitd * — disciples. discepolo. 2 l 13. Human life is a market ; some sell, others — — mercato; [213] * * buy ; some do one thing, some another ; some weary comprare; * * — — * — * affaticare themselves here, others vex themselves there. What does — qua, * affannare — — [185] fa the philosopher I He looks on and examines. — — Osservare — sta a vedere. 14. Madman ! What is (the) sleep if not the image of Stolto! [185] — — (the) death ! 15. Plato says that the words should be as the Platone dice — — — deono — secondo — things of which one speaks. [214] - - 16. What thing is more wondrous and (more) beautiful [211] — — maravigPioso — — hello than (the) truth ! RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 157 17. You do not know the danger in which you are. — — conbscere — — — [214] — 18. To what would that serve you? (Of what use would — [185] servire — that be to you ?) 19. Oh ! my dear friend, what words are those which thou Deh ! — — anima, * — — [245] — sayest ? d\? 20. What was the cause for which you were angry with * — — cagione — [214] — turbarsi — him ! lui? 21 . What is this thing which you have made me eat I * — questa — che — — fatta — mangiare? 22. You did that which a disloyal and wicked knight — fare quello — disleale — malvagio cavalier should do. dee — 23. Who could answer to thy wise words I [185] sapere rispbndere * [232] savio parola? 24. / shall reveal to thee as to a father that which palesare — come — — * [255] / have always concealed from every one. — — celare a tutti. 158 EXERCISE X. ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, 2 1 1. Thou hast made more account of a momentary pleasure — — — — conto momentaneo ■ — than of thy house and of thy children. * * [232] casa — * [232] figliuolo. 2. J went to the house of Laura {Laura's house) with — a casa di Laura — ■ two of my servants. — * — famiglio. 3. Tell me your name. Dite — * nome. 4. Will you that I (do you wish me to) tell you my Volere che — dica — * opinion. opinione. 5. If my sad fate has decreed that she shall not be to Se * trista sorte — disposto ch f ella — — sia me, it is however better that my friend have her. mia y egli e pur — che * — Vabbia. 6. My nephew is entirely yours (at your service). * nipote — tutto * 7. She is and always will be the queen of my soul. Ella — signora * — — 8. / have sent to call him by one of my servants. — mandare a chiamare — per — * [_24A~\servitore. 9. i" have heard say that the house is no more (longer) — sentire dire che — — — — — yours. [233] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 159 10. Shall we not deserve the affection of our children, — — meritare — affetto * — — for whom we do not hesitate to expose ourselves to death I per — dubitare mettere * — morte? 11. In all the time of his life (during his lifetime) he had but one (only) child. altro che un — figliulo. 12. A certain Momus, not being able in other things (re- Un certo Momo — potere — — — spects) to find fault with the beautiful Venus, blamed colpare — — Venere, biasimare one of her sandals. * * — pianella. 13. You have increased my desire and my courage. — — accresciuta la vbglia mia — Vanimo mio. 3 1 14. Do you know if he has taken my advice in good 2 Saperese dbbia pig Hare * configlio per bene or in bad part I —per male? 15. When she saw her son, she ran affectionately to Come vide * — corse affettuosamente ad embrace him. abbracciarlo. 16. Let the horse be yours and the woman mine. — — — * — — donna * 17. Your husband, how does he call himself] (What is — — chiamare — your husband's name ? 2 18. J have shown you my misery and my grief, do your mostrare — * — — * dolor e, — ilpiacer 3 § i pleasure of (^with) me. vostro — — 160 EXERCISES. 19. Let me do it, for certainly I will arrange Lnsciare fare a rne } che fermamente — acconciare your business and mine. * fatti — * 20. You ought to know that my father left me a rich — dovete sapere ~— * — lasciare — ricco man. uomo. 21. / had formerly one of my neighbours, who, with the — gia — — vicino, — al greatest injustice in the world, did nothing else but beat maggior torto del mondo § — altro che battere his wife. la mbglie. 22. If thou hast not that intention which thy words Se — — — quello animo — * parola declare, feed me not with vain hopes. dimostrare, pascere [387] — di vano speranza. 23. These things are (belong') to me, and J do not sell Le cosa — rnie> — — vendere them. 24. I know that you have honoured my mother, and So che — onorata * — — assisted my unfortunate father. 25. One of my neighbours {fern.) has told me that this — * — — — detto — che questo house belongs to you. 161 EXERCISE XI. ON THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. What means this? Che vuol dire cib ? $ 2. At that moment when I was listening what || that could In quello che — ascoltare quel die — potesse be, the house suddenly became filled with constables. —ad un tratto — empirsi di birro. 2 1 3. Cease these useless tears, and think on your safety Lasciare [245] — — — pensare alia — salute and (to) mine. 4. You do not know these rascals. — conbscere — ribaldo. 5. Go and put off these clothes. — a cavarvi * panni. 6. What is this parcel which you have under the arm ? Che fardello — sotto? 7. Have you need of me in this affair \ — bisogno — faccenda ? 8. Hast thou at last finished this dialogue without — — ancor finire * ragionamento seuza conclusion \ conclusione % 9. You will have at last that which you desire. — infine quel — desiderate, % Cio means this or that thing. I) What, meaning that which, should be translated by quel che. 162 EXERCISES. 10. I know that you are not her whom I desired. Conbscere che quella che — — 11. At the moment, as I was going to seal this letter, In quello, che — era per sigillar * — / received yours of the 20th current. ho ricevuta * — del corrente. 12. Where have you been this morning \ Dove — — — [247] 13. To-night it will be cooler, and thou wilt sleep better. — Jure fresco, — dor mire — 14. / should not have known what to do, if you had not — — sapere che cosa — se foste — come at that moment. venire in quella [251]. 15. Pray, do us this pleasure. Di grazia, — * — piacere. 16. / tell you that this (thing) does not belong to you. 17. At this moment your brother arrived with his wife. In quella * — giunse — la vnhglie* 18. Thou wilt lay up this distaff which I leave here. — riporre — rocca ch 9 io lasciare qui. 19. /went to Rome to see all those famous antiquities. Andare — Roma per vedere — ■ * — antichita. 20. Why are you come out so early this morning \ Perche — uscire s\ per tempo — — 21. J received your second letter, at the moment when I Avere * — — in quella ch' io was going out. era per uscire. 22. He complains of that woman, and murmurs against lamentarsi — — mormorare contro her. a lei. THE WORDS TUTTO AND OGNI. 163 23. Give me this book or that, it is immaterial. Bare * * — — * tanf e. 24. The ladies will remain in this garden, and we will go — donna restate — * — — into that thicket. — * boschetto. 25. May this traitor be taken. — — traditore — preso. EXERCISE XII. ON THE WORDS TUTTO AND OGNI. 1. There was no one in the house but this Non era altra persona — — casa che quella girl. fanciulla. 2. Thou must be some fool. — debbi — [266] sciocco. 3. /will give him all the caresses that I can. Fare gli — — carezza che potrb. 4. If you wish that I should write something to you, give Se volere che scrivere — — — me a subject to write to you. * materia da — — * 2 1 5. All men naturally desire knowledge. Tuttif gli uomini naturalmente desiderare sapere. 6. When I arrived here there was no one. Quando arrivare qui c'tra — [268] 7. Nobody is more unfortunate than he. — misero * lui. + Tutto is followed by an article. 164 EXERCISES. 8. He has more likeness to (with) the vilest animal, — — somiglianza — — vile — whatever it may be, than to (with) a man. [219] * — 9. There is nothing in the world that can please him. Non e — — che possa piacergli, 10. He has features formed in such a manner that one — un volto fat to a un modo che * can trace there neither shame, nor fear, nor any other passion conbscere * ne vergogna, — paura — affetto whatever. 11. No force can bend him. [2&]~\forza pub piegare lo. 12. No neighbour had {any) care of the other. 13. This shows nothing. Questo montare — 14. It agrees with no man to do that which nature Conviene a — — * fare quello che — refuses him. negare glu 2 1 15. Every place is the country of the wise man. 1 6. He who follows every road, whatever it may be, never Colui che tiene * via, [219] — reaches (to) any place. perviene — — — 17. Take good care that no person touches my things. Guar dare bene che — — toccare le cose mie, 18. Allmenfeel naturally the desire of (the) knowledge, — — sentire — — desiderio — scienza, THE WORDS TUTTO AND OGNI. 165 because it is the ultimate perfection of our soul, and perch? essa ultimo, perfezione delV anima nostra, — it is in it that is placed our final happiness. in essa sta V ultima nostra felicitd, 19. God leaves not any evil unpunished, although it be — lasciare — — — impunito, sebbene — not punished when one (man*) desires it. — punito quando — desiderare * 20. The young man listened attentively, and answered — giovinetto ascoltare diligentemente, — rispose that he would do nothing. che ne volea — — 21. Each one entreated his father for himself. [257] pregare il — — se. 22. Every mother was the nurse of her children. — — — balia dei suoi figliuoh. 3 2 1 23. Some were of a more cruel opinion. [268] — crudele sentimento. 24. Every man of whatever age made rejoicings, and [256] — di qualunque eta fare * festa, — in like manner the ladies, by singing songs of love. similmente — donne, cantare verso — amore, 25. Nobody better than you knows the truth of that * — * — sa — vero — quello which they say. — [102]e. 166 EXERCISE XIII. ON THE PREPOSITIONS. 1. / went from home about the beginning of the night. Uscire di casa quasi in sulfarsi sera. 2. It appeared properly a robber's station. Parere§ prbprio — ladro * stanza [322]. 3. She did things beyond belief. * — da non credere. 4. What hast thou against me since this morning I — — con •— [321] — — 5. He is a man fit for nothing — he is stupidity itself. * — — dappocdgine stessa. 6. If my return is not in ten days, it will not take place — * ritornosard — [346] — — — avrdluogo for some time. per un pezzo. 7. They are men of a dull understanding. — — — grosso ingegno, 8. We have had so many blows that for many less an ass — — — * bussa — — assai — would go from hence to Rome. - [318] 9. He who desires not to be loved by you is not a man. 10. She had been brought up from her infancy in continual * — allevare * — — — fatigues. PREPOSITIONS. 167 11. Many maladies cure themselves without the help — * — guariscono da se — — opera of (the) doctors. — — medico. 12. / will lead you to her, and / am sure that she will condurre — [325] — certo — conb- recognise you. scere — 13. J swear to you as an honest man that J have not seen — — [326] — — — — vedere it. 14. He has given orders to one of his servants to give you — comandare * — — — (something) to eat. [328] * - 15. Whatever power she have she can not injure me. [342] — — — potere — nubcere — 16. Stand still, for the love of God. State cheto, [336] 1 7. ( The) gratitude, among the other virtues, is extremely — gratitudine y * — — — — sommamente praiseworthy. * lodare. 18. Diogenes the cynic used to say that the money of the Dibgene — cinico diceva — — danari — 2 1 covetous was like (to the) wild figs which grow on avaro — somigliante — salvatico fico — stare the tops of the mountainsand cannot be reached by honest men, su — — i — — cbgliere * — and are the food of the ravens and of the rooks. — — pasto — corvo — — cornacchione. 168 EXERCISES. 19. He who puts off an undertaking is like the villager who, — — differire — — — villano — wishing to pass a river, waits till it cease to flow, and the volere — aspeitareche scorra tutto 9 — — stream runs and shall run on always. — cbrrere — — — 2 1 20. What does reason demand at the (hands of) man ? — — addomandare — 2 3 1 a very easy thing : to live according to nature. facile — * — — * — 21. Dante teaches us that the path of virtue is difficult — insegnare — — — — — malegevole at the beginning, then easy, and at last very agreeable. nel principio, poi agevole, — — rnolto dilettevole, 22. Genius becomes enfeebled, if we do not recruit it — ingegno infievolisee, — * * ristorare * 2 1 by (a) constant study. con — continuo — 23. We must begin to learn from infancy. Bisogna — — imparare infino dafanciullo. 24. Among all the vices, we must first resist — — si conviene in prima contrastare gluttony. — gola. 25. By beauty, we direct the mind to contemplation ; * — dirizmre — animo — — 2 l and by contemplation to the ]ove of heavenly things : — * — — — desiderio — del cielo — thus it (viz. beauty) is sent among us as a specimen and onde — mandare — — per saggio — 2 1 (as) a pledge of heavenly things. — arra — * — 169 EXERCISE XTV. ON THE ADVERBS. 1. You know now how the things go on. Sapereora — — — passare, 4 3 12 2. How powerful is the force of love ! [368] poderoso sono — forze — — 3. We purchase a favour very dearly, when we ask for — — — assai caro, — * domandare it even a single time (once only). * pur — — — 4. He has advised me faithfully. — consigliare — fedels [349]. 2 1 5. J remember and shall always remember you, because Ricordarsi — — — di voi> — you deserve it. — valere — 6. Let us begin jo} T fully (to) this enterprise. Me tier si lieto — — — 7. Mad, no ; but in love, yes. Pazzo, — — innamorato, — 8. Now it is time to prove your fidelity. — — — * provare * fede. 2 l 9. It is the property of a great soul to despise deeply — propria grande animo* sprezzare alto injuries and insults. — — offesa, 10. Now is arrived the time when you can obtain his venuto — — che potere avere friendship which you have so much desired. — — — — desiderare. 170 EXERCISES. 11. I have rented a little villa near to this (place). — preso afitto — * — — di qui. 12. If thou art unwilling to do me this favour, at least — non volere — — — — almeno hring me a glass of water. far venire — — — 2 1 13. The bright day being come, and the tempest being — — — — venuto, — — — essendosi a little calmed, the woman raised her head. alquanto acchetare, — — alzare '* — 14. Since you cannot go elsewhere, I will lodge you Poiche — — — altrove — albergare — willingly (for) this night. 15. He began . to make an appearance of extending Cominciare — — sembiante — distendere one of his fingers, and afterwards the hand, and then the arm. — — appresso — — — poi — — 16. I found myself exactly opposite (to) the door of the trovare — appunto dirimpetto a — ilscio chamber whence the lady should come out. — donde — donna dovere uscire, 17. He ran a thousand times in the day, now to the Correre — — — — ora window, now to the door, and now into the court (for) — — — — — — — corte * to see this woman. — [252] 18. / saw you rise and seat yourself there vedere — levare — porre a seder e — where you are. dove — — 19. He began to look at him steadfastly. Cominciare — riguardare — fisso [350]. ADVERBS. 171 20. When it will be agreeable to you, you can freely — — a grado vi potrete libero depart. partire, 21.7 shall lament in vain for having lost my youth. Dolersi * di — perduta * giovanezza. 22. They began to say, who is there ! Cominciare — 23. My father, you are now old and you can — — — — oggimai vecchio — potere with difficulty support fatigue. male [350] durar fatica. 24. What are you doing yonder ! — — — laggiu? 25. I will tell a thing incredible, perhaps, but true. Dire non credibile, forse, — — ■ EXERCISE XV. ON THE CONJUNCTIONS. 1. If you reach Rome, you will have no more — arriverete sino a — — — — — — doubt about it. ~ ne 2. He could not deny it, even though he would. potrebbe — [372] — * 3. If at the beginning of an undertaking men thought (to) principio — * * — of the end they would never do anything. — — * — — — niente. 4. If / had known it, I should not have asked it of thee. [371] * sapere — — — domandare — L 172 EXERCISES. 5. If thou art wise, thou wilt be less curious to know — saraisavio, — — curioso — cercare the affairs of others. — fatto — — 6. If you come here, you shall be made welcome and — venire — accarezzare — assisted by each. x 7. Although she did not please me, and although she did not -* -K- appear to me beautiful, I wished {to have) her, to mi parere — — — — P38] enrage you. far arrabbiare — 8. If the desire (of it) came over me, I would have — — * * — mi darebbe the courage to do it. il cuore 9. My love will (not) end but with my death. * — — finire se non per — 10. If you go away, your mother will be very grieved at it. — partire, * — — dolente assai ne. 11. Although he wished it, he would not and he could not — — — sapere — tell it again. 12. Since it pleases you thus, I will do it. Poiche piacere — — — — — 13. Thus we may conclude that every thing is submitted Sicche * pub — — * — sia suggetta to his power. — * potenza. CONJUNCTIONS. 173 14. If thou answerest not to insults, thou wilt inflict a — — rispbndere — ingiuria, — fare — 2 1 mortal wound on him who has offended thee. — piaga a colui — — offeso — 1 5 . Man could not imagine that our blessedness, in con- Uuomovotere — immaginarsi — * beatitudine,nelcon- teni plating God, will be eternal and without any suspicion of templar — — — — — — sospetto — satiety, if he did not see that the contemplation of the charms of sazietd [371 1] * * — — — della vaghezza — 2 12 1 virtue is an incomprehensible pleasure, an ineffable delight, — incomprensibile — — ineffabilebeatitudine an attraction which, when it ends, he would wish to begin again, dolcezza — — finire, — — a contentment such that man forgets himself. — contento — — sene dimentica se medesimo. 2 l 16. How beautiful she is — how charming {she is) — how [368] — — * V aga — * graceful {she is) ! grazioso ! — 17. Although I should love thee (not) for no other cause, * * thy life is dear to me that / may live. * caro — acciocche — 18. His comrades dared not help him ; on the contrary, they * compagno ardire§ — anzi> cried out together with the others that he ought to be killed. gridare — — — — fosse§ morto, 1 9. If you had come earlier, you could have dined with us. — a miglior ora avreste — — — 20. To do that which you demand me, I wait only Afarquello ~ domandare — nonaspettarealtro for time. che — f A past tense after se, ove, quando, is also translated by the im- perfect subjunctive. 174 EXERCISES. 21. Sir, the cranes have {not) but one leg. Signor, — gru — senon — gamba. 22. Certainly if I denied that, I should deny the truth. CertOy * cib, negare [424] — vero. 23. In order that the high-horn girl should not fall into Acciocche — gentil gibvane — venisse a 2 1 the hands of a worthless man, we should believe that God, mano — vile — * dee — — Iddio, in his kindness, permitted that which happened. per * benignita, permettesse quello — avvenire. 24. If you had resisted {yourself) vigorously, all this — — * opporsi vigorosoy — — would not have happened. — avveniva. 25. Before (that) thou killest me, tell me in what I have Anzi — — uccidere — — * offended thee. offeso — EXERCISE XVI. ON THE USE OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 1. There was not a single man who did not laugh [364] * — — — ismascellasse immoderately. dalle visa. 2. Havel then to (must I) suffer all the time (days) of [369]*"* stentare — * my life \ la — 3. What is there of novelty I * * nniint'.n 9 AUXILIARY VERBS, 175 4. I have to speak to you about an affair of importance. — \_±4£f\parlare * per cosa che importa. 5. What is there I (i. e. What is the matter ?) What do * -55- you command ! commandare ? 6. These are things (this is enough) to make one mad. — — -— * — impazzare. 7. Who is there I It is I. * * [456] 8. Are you so little employed, that you trouble yourself — — tanto — occupare y — — diate impaccio with the affairs of others \ delle facenda altrui ? 2 1 9. Here is a certain rural tranquillity that one finds * * — — villereccio quiete — * — (we find) not in many other places. * — — * luogo. 10. If it belonged to me, / would make him see his own Se stesse [458] — fare ravvedere fault in spite of himself. suo malgrado, 11. The house which, two years ago, belonged (was) to my — — — * * [363] — di — sister, belongs (is) to me at present. — — mia — oggu 12. J refrained from writing to you through fear of Mi teiier e — — — per temenza — being troublesome to you. essere molesto * 13. These are things to make fools believe (Fools [450] * — * dar merlotti ai ad intbndere. only would believe such things). 176 EXERCISES. 14. In all (the) things, the mean is to be praised, and — — — mezzo — * lodare, — the extremes to be Warned. — estremita * biasimare. 15. Henceforth it is for me to speak, and I will do it Oramai toccare [458] — — — — — willingly. 16. There are some (of them) of all shapes. * * we - — — ognifatta, 1 7. You are (the) thoughtless if you have not understood — — " gli smemorati se — — inteso it. 18. Our conversations have been too long. * ragionamento * * — lungo. 19. Now you know that which is to do (what is to be Or a conbscere — — — * — done), and that which is to follow. — — — — * seguitare. 20. These fruits are better to look at than (good) to — — — — * riguardare — — * eat. mangiare. 21. Is it you, my father, who calls me I * — — — — chiamare — 22. Yes, it is I ; come down quickly. Sz * — men giu tosto. 23. It is for our master to reward us, and not for us Toccare * — — * premiare — — — * — to reward him. IRREGULAR VERBS. 177 24. If I had known that it belonged to me to do it Se avessi saputo — toccare§ 2 1 I would have done it already. — gia. 25. Having learned to whom it belonged, I would not — udire * chi — volli — accept it. accettare — EXERCISE XVII. ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 1. 7 am a merchant, and I go carrying here and there — mercante — * portare di qua e di la 2 1 Sicilian honey and cheese. Siciliano — — cacio. 2. Take the glass and give me something to drink. Pigliare — biechiere — — — [328] fore. 3. If you do (the) wrong, it will be for you to lament it. — f arete — male, toccare pidngere — 4. Upon my word, I wish to make him find that which he Allafe, vbglio — * — — — is seeking. andar cercando. 5. Why do you seek for that which you will perhaps Perche — — — — forse never find \ non mai trovare f 6. All flee that which we seek to flee. — andar fuggendo — — — cercare di — 7. Shall we suffer that an ignorant man play the philo- Patire noi — fare — filbso- sopher I fo? 178 EXERCISES. 8. It is for me to tell the last story of those of Toccare raccontare — — novella • — to-day. oggu 9. I wished to go to your house (to call on you) to wish Volere * da voi a dar- you a pleasant journey, but it was not possible. vi il buon — — — — — 10. Shall we stay here without doing any thing \ Stare — — — niente? 11. There are already eight years that I give him his ** — ——— — — da food. (J have already supported him eight years), mangiare. 12. He goes looking for his friend. 13. / promise you to go and see you in three or four promettere — * [446] — * fra — days. 14. Give me something to buy the dinner. — — * comprare — — 15. What shall we do at supper if our friends come ? — — da cena se gli — vengono ? 16. I shall not be able to call on you, but I shall call, — potrb venire da — — andare without fail, on your brother. senza f alio, da — — 17. / was going to your house to ask (to you) dinner * * per — — da desinare. (from you). IRREGULAR YERBS. 179 18. He was walking through the fields gathering some — per — campo cbgliere fragrant plants, and found this pretty little jewel. odorifere — — trovare — — (-ino) gioiello. 19. Since you have done that which I (had) told you, / Poiche — — — — — — detto — will give you something to buy you a pretty gown. — da — veste. 20. I wish to go and spend some weeks at my little Volere — a fare * — (~etta) country house. villa. 21. Irresolute of him-self, he went wanderinghere and there Incerto — se medesimo, — vagare or qua or Id through Tuscany. per Toscana, 22. What shall I go seeking through the world \ That — cercare [339] lo — Quel which / love and that which I desire is with me. — — — — — desiderare — meco. 23. Some go here, and others there, fleeing that which we Chi * qua, — * la, fuggire — — — desire to flee. cercare di — 24. / shall go and dine with you and with your party. ' — a desinar — — * compagnia. 25. He went dancing and singing so gaily, {that he almost • — saltare — — tanto lieto, jumped out of his sltin) that he could not contain himself — — capere in his skin. — il cuoio. 180 EXERCISE XVIII. ON THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 1. He thinks to have caused (in) me great fear in telling Credere — fare — — — * * me that he would not let me enter his house. * — — in cam sua. 2. Men err in speaking in many different ways, * peccare * * in — — modo. S. She said then almost laughing — You are too cruel with Dire — quasi ridere — — — me. 4. Oiten, in looking for one thing, we find another (of them) — * cercare — — * — — — which is not less valuable. — caro. 5. He gave force to his words by weeping, (by) crying, Aiutare le — * piangere, — gridare 7 2 3 1 and (by) striking his breast and his face with his hands. — — darsi nel petto e nel viso delle mani. 6. Plato, in exhorting Dionysius to remember some of his Platone * esortare Dionisio — ricor darsi * * — precepts, told him, in one of his letters, that the best way — disse — — ■ — — — — modo of calling them to mind was not to write them. rammentarsi — — 7. Cicero, seeing that his brother, who was small of Cicerone, vedere — * — piccolo di stature, had girded on a long sword, said : who has tied my statura, — cinto — disse : * — — * brother to that sword I PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 181 8. In coming before me the first time, he acted the deaf Xelvenirmi dinanzi — — — fece — — and the fool. ^ smemorato, 9. There will be no one, who in seeing us, will not make way, and (will not) let us pass. luogOy — — — andare, 10. Here, in this gentle current of air, we shall spend this Qui, a — ventolino passare — hot part of the day more agreeably than in walking calda parte — — — piacevole — * passeggiare through the garden. per — — 11. I never have so much pleasure as I have in praising — — — * ho * lodare the ladies. — donna. 12. Pardon me, if / vex you sometimes by asking — vi tolgo il capo — * domandare you questions. 13. 7 despaired on seeing myself watched by those who disperarsi * — — guardare * — — were near to us. — intorno a — 14. In looking around he saw nothing, but clouds and * guardare dattorno — - — [375] nilvolo — 2 1 15. Judging to have seen enough, he proposed to return Parendogli — — — proporre tornare to Paris. 182 EXERCISES, 16. The good woman, hearing that, had pity on him, - — — — udire — gliene venne pieta. 17. / wish thee to wait for me a year without remarrying, [447]— — — [444] Deginning from this day when / set out. cominciare * — — che mi parto. 18. He hoped for pardon hy making presents to the * §Sperare — [473] donare — most influential people, piil grosso, 19. Do not make a show of being astonished, nor lose * vista — maravigliare, ne perder time in denying it. tempo * — — 20. After supper they amused themselves in singing and Dopo cena trastullare — [473] cantare — in dancing in the usual manner. * ballare a — usato modo. 21. These doing one thing, and those another, the time Chi fare — — — * — — passing away, the hour of supper, scarcely expected, fuggirsiy — or a — — appena aspettare, arrived. soppravenire. 22. Become all red with shame, almost weeping, and Divenire — vernugliodi vergogna, quasi piangere, — 2 1 trembling all over, in broken words, she began to express tremante — conparola rotto, cominciare — dire herself thus. — cosu 23. The young girl, weeping, answered that she had lost — giovane, * — rispondere — § smarrita her* companions in the forest. * compagnia — selva. PAST PARTICIPLE. 183 24. He consumed, in looking for them, all the rest Consumare, * cercare — rimanente of that morning. mattina. 25. Thou injurest me, in thinking perhaps to serve me. — offendere — [445] credere forse giovare — EXERCISE XIX. ON THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 1. Having given me luncheon, dinner, and supper^e lodged [441] — da merendare, — — — — me like a prince. 2 l 2. Seeing the lonely place, they robbed him. Vedere — — — rubare — 3. All the places around were covered with bones. — dHntorno — coper to [296] ossame. 4. Each star has already disappeared from the east. — — era — faggire * — — 5. This noble lady having departed from this world, all — gentil donna dipartitasi — — — — the city remained almost bereaved and despoiled of all its — — rimanere — vedovo — spogliare * nobility. 6. When you shall have read, and re-read this letter, Come — — — — — — burn it. bruciare — 184 EXERCISES. 7. He who has betrayed his benefactor, can do that which — tradire il — pub — he desires without feeling the least remorse. vuole [444] averne — minimo — 8. / am ashamed of it, even to my soul. sono arrossito * sino nelV — 9. The answer which you have sent me by my brother, has not yet arrived. e — — comparire [438], 10. He wishes to die as he has lived. — — — e vivuto. 11. She had so much grace in smiling, that if she had — — — — * rider 'e , avesse always smiled, she would have always pleased. — — sarebbe — piaciuta. 12. She began to say the words given her by the scholar. 13. She had remained a long time in Sicily with the father Era dimorare — — — — — of this young man. gibvane, 14. Let not the men be vexed, we {women) are non V abbiano per male, — — more compassionate than they. 15. The women having got to the window, began to cry, thieves ! thieves ! alladro! alladro! 16. The affection of his son inthralled him so, that he — affezione — il — strinse — tanto, — paid no attention to the trick played by his servant. pose — mente ingannofare * il servo. PAST PARTICIPLE. 185 17. If it had pleased (to the) God, death would have been — fosse piacere — — era more agreeable to me than to live longer. — a grado — — * piu vivere. 18. The nurses of the infants tell them when they weep — — bdlia — fanciullo — — — — there is King Richard, because he was feared like death. — perciocche — temere — — 19. When they had heard this, there was no need of any Come — — — bisognb piu thing else. avanti* 20. My father, I do not believe it necessary that I tell Padre mio, — — [4471 — bisognare raccon- you the history of my misfortune, for I am sure that you tare — istbria * — sciagura P che — certa — — have heard it. — udire — 21. My eyes, deprived of their mirth, gave to my heart Gli — privare * — allegrezza, dare§ * cuore a sad subject of lamentation. noioso cagione — dolersi, 22. They were all crowned with oak-leaves. Esso § — inghirlandare — fronde di querela. 23. I am certain that they are come as far as this certo — — venire infino a questo luogo without meeting with any opposition. — trovare alcuno resistenza. 24. Having saluted them with a smiling countenance, she Salutare — viso lieto, made known to them their engagement. fe manifesta — * disposizione. 25. The Virtues having departed from below (this eartli) y — — dipartirsi di quaggiu have left wretched mortals in the dregs of the vices. — abbandonati — vivente — — feccia — vizio. 186 EXERCISES. 26. A great part of the night being already past, all Buonapezza — notte — gia passare, — - went to rest. — a riposarsi. EXERCISE XX. ON THE MOODS. 1. He trembled like a leaf, and knew not where he was. Tremare — verga y — [447] dove * 2. i" think that it is necessary to write to him all that Giudicare — * — — — — quelche passes. 3. Weep not, my child, and be quiet. [387] — — — sta zittino. 4. I have sent to him to say, by my servant, that he — rnandare — * — la serva, — should come and+ speak to me about a business of importance. — — — per cosa cheimporta. 2 5. / have just received a letter that / expected six months — aspettare^ — — 1 ago. da, 6. Listen to me — / am going to tell you frankly what / Udire — [451] * franco — think of you. 7. / think that thou art in love. [491] — — * innamorato. f When and between two verbs means in order to, it is translated by a 3 and the second verb is always in the infinitive. MOODS. 187 8. God grant that this be so. — volere — 9. / do not wish that this may frighten you (this to — — — — spaventare — frighten you). 10. I think that the best way to recruit yourself is to — — — migliormodo — riavere — — * live in the country. villa. 11. /do not know where he is going. — dove * 12. Do not make a show of being astonished, and lose no — [387] vista — maravigliarsi, — * — words in denying this act. le — — negare il fatto. 13. If there is any thing in this life which calms the mind, amid the troubles and storms of this world, / think that it is study. 14. It appears to me that those who remove friendship parere — — — — . tbgliere — 2 1 from this life, remove the sun from the world. 15. When she saw that he was gone, she began to think Come vide — — — — — — what she ought to do. * 16. After that, having conducted the noblemen to the Appresso — menare — — in — garden, she asked them politely who they were. — — * cortese — fossero. M 188 EXERCISES. 17. It appears to me that they have good reason. — — — * molta ragione. 2 i 18. She avoids me as if I were some strange thing. fuggire * qualche strano — 19. Attend well to what / am going to tell you. A tten dere bene — — [45 1 ] . ,20. Fear not that you will ever be blamed for this. Dubitar — — di questo ti seguire mai biasimo. 21. / do not know what wrong it would be to do it. — sapere che mal si * — fare — 22. We should be very contented that you went to pass — ci contenteremmo motto — — andare a stare some time in Paris. alquanto a — 23. I desired very much for many days to know who — desiderare sommo piu giorno — saper chi he was. 24. I pray (you) that you may not be so foolish as — pregare — — voi non state — sciocco che to wish to expose yourself to so great danger. vogliate voi sottopporre — si grave pericolo. 25. Not to lose time, / wish to go and begin. f 338] perder tempo, volere andare cominciare. 189 THE INTERJECTIONS. I Ah! ah! Ahi / oh ! V expression of pain, misfortune, or horror. Ahime ! alas ! J Deh ! ah ! entreatingly. Eh ! eh ! complaint or inquiry. Oh I or Oh, oh ! of surprise and astonishment. Oil or Ohi! oh! of pain and suffering. Oibb ! fie ! contempt or disapproval. Dime ! ohime ! alas ! of one in pain, &c. Buono ! good ! in approval. Bravo ! brava ! approval. The Italians employ the word as an adjective, and say of a man, bravo, bravissimo ; of a woman brava, bravissima. The English use bravo indis- criminately. Guai ! wo is me ! Old ! holla ! hark ye ! Su ! up ! get up ! Orsu ! come ! Via ! begone ! Animo ! cheer up ! Zitto ! hist ! silence ! used as an adjective. Printed by Oliver & Boyd, Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh. KOTO WiMS£^ J^tm ^=-rr /t^r> '7 «^C ccrce ex 3BE * ^Kt. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 003 121 025 2