Lfl 797 .5 .M35 Copy 2 ^1 srles Bulletin No. i THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION IN ITALY Kenneth McKenzie, Ph.D. Cavaliere della Corona d' Italia Professor of Romance Languages and Literature in the University of Illinois NEW YORK MARCH I, I92I The Institute of International Education 419 West 1 17th Street, New York Stephen P. Duggan, Ph.D. DIRECTOR Mary L. Waite EXECUTIVE SECRETARY Telephone: Morningside 7419 Cable Address: "Intered' ADMINISTRATIVE BOARD Herman V. Ames L. H. Baekeland William Lowe Bryan Nicholas Murray Butler Stephen Pierce Duggan Dr. Walter B. James Alice Duer Miller Paul Monroe John Bassett Moore Henry Morgenthau Dwight W. Morrow E. H. Outerbridge Henry S. Pritchett Mary E. Woolley bureau divisions Europe Stephen P. Duggan Far East Paul Monroe Latin America Peter H. Goldsmith Scholarships and Fellowships Virginia Newcomb International Relations Clubs Margaret C. Alexander REPRESENTATIVE IN ITALY Dr. H. Blakiston Wilkins American Academy in Rome Porta San Pancrazio, Rome THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION IN ITALY By Kenneth McKenzie, Ph.D. Cavaliere della Corona d' Italia Professor of Romance Languages and Literature in the University of Illinois NEW YORK MARCH I, I92I am TjiBtitutlor I\t,^ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page General Statement 9 1. Primary and Secondary Schools 12 2. Higher Education; Organization of the Universities . 14 3. Requirements for Admission 21 4. Fees 22 5. Requirements for Graduation ; Examinations .... 23 6. Courses of Study under the Several Faculties .... 25 Faculty of Law 25 Faculty of Medicine and Surgery 26 Faculty of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences 27 Faculty of Letters and Philosophy 28 Engineering School 30 School of Pharmacy 3 1 Veterinary School 32 Higher Commercial School 32 7. The New Doctorate 34 8. Choosing a University 36 9. Universities and Professional Schools 39 Turin 39 The University The Royal Polytechnic Veterinary School Commercial School Genoa 40 The University Naval School Commercial School Milan 41 Academy of Science and Literature Higher Technical Institute Milan — Continued Page Post-graduate Clinics Veterinary School Agricultural School Academy of Fine Arts Conservatory of Music Bocconi Commercial University Pavia 45 The University Padua 45 The University Venice 47 Institute of Fine Arts Higher Commercial School Bologna 47 The University Ferrara 48 The University M6dena 48 The University Parma 49 The University Florence 49 Institute of Higher Studies Institute of Social Sciences Higher Normal School for Women Institut Frangais de Florence Pisa 51 The University Siena 51 The University Pags Macerata 52 The University Camerino 52 The University Urbino 52 The University Libera Perugia 53 The University Rome 53 The University The Engineering School Higher Commercial School Higher Normal School for Women School of Fine Arts School of Music Pontifical Gregorian University International Institute of Agriculture The American Academy in Rome Naples 57 The University Polytechnic Veterinary School Oriental Institute Bari 58 Higher Commercial School Palermo 58 The University Catania 59 The University Messina 59 The University Page Cagliari 60 The University Sassari 60 The University 10. Learned Societies 60 PREFACE Many Americans think of Italy as a country of splendid history and interesting ruins. They are unaware of its remarkable progress in the activities that characterize the most advanced nations of today. They do not know of the great work done in its technical schools in the field of applied as well as of pure science which is so largely responsible for its industrial development. Nor do they know of the reputation of its distinguished scholars in the various humanistic subjects. This little guide to the Italian universities, other institutions of higher learning, technical schools, and higher institutions of education for girls, is intended for the American student who desires to study in Italy. It does not attempt to be exhaustive, but aims to provide prospective students with such information as will enable them to choose intelligently their place as well as their course of study. The Institute is most fortunate In securing the services of Professor McKenzie to write this booklet. One of America's foremost authorities on Italian culture, highly regarded in Italian University circles, formerly Director of the Rome branch of the American University Union in Europe, he is particularly well qualified to inform Americans concerning things educational in Italy. Stephen P. Duggan Director THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Opportunities for Higher Education in Italy GENERAL STATEMENT The educational system of Italy is centralized under the control of the State. Professors in the Universities are state officials, who are appointed, and supervised by the government under the direction of the Ministry of Public Instruction. Determination of the courses of study and of the requirements for the degrees, as well as of the preroga- tives attached to the holding of the degrees, is likewise the exclusive province of the State. The Universities and other institutions of higher learning have for their double pur- pose to train for official and professional occupations, and to maintain and develop the literary and scientific culture of the nation. In spite of their having been until the second half of the nineteenth century free from any sort of centralized control, the organization of the Faculties is now, with a few minor exceptions, uniform throughout Italy. Some institutions have greater resources and offer a wider range of subjects for study than others; some lack the full number of Faculties; but the requirements for the degrees, including the prescribed studies, are identical in all the Universities; the standard is assumed to be iden- tical ; and in their legal value the degrees, wherever ob- tained, are equivalent. This educational system is based on the so-called Legge Casati, a law approved by the King of Sardinia on Nov. I3» 1859, which provided uniform regulations for all insti- tutions of primary, secondary and higher grades. The law has been modified and extended by subsequent 10 Institute of International Education enactments ; all the provisions relating to higher education were codified in the Testo Unico delle Leggi sull' Istru- zione Superiore, approved by Royal Decree on August 9, 1910. This body of law is elaborated by the Regolamento Generale Universitario, also approved in 1910; since that time few changes have been adopted. The law of 1859 applied only to the Kingdom of Sardinia, which included beside the island of that name, Piedmont, Lombardy, Genoa, and Savoy. The Universities concerned were those of Turin, the capital of Piedmont; Genoa; Pavia, in Lombardy, joined to Piedmont earlier in the same year; and Cagliari and Sassari on the island of Sardinia. Provi- sion was made for establishing institutions of University grade in Milan and also in Chamb^ry, the capital of Savoy. Within the next two years, the Kingdom of Italy was formed by the union of Central and Southern Italy, including Sicily but excluding Rome, with the regions named. Savoy, however, was annexed to France. Thus the number of Universities in the kingdom was increased by Bologna and Macerata, as well as the four "free" Uni- versities of Ferrara, Urbino, Camerino and Perugia, in the former States of the Church; by Parma and Modena in the former Duchies ; by Pisa and Siena in Tuscany, as well as the Institute of Higher Studies established in Florence in i860; and by Naples, Palermo, Messina, and Catania in the former Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1866, Venetia, with the University of Padua, joined Italy; and in 1870, the city of Rome with its University. From 1870, until Italy declared war on Austria in 191 5, her boundaries remained unchanged. Thus there are seventeen Royal Universities (Regie Universita) in Italy, beside the four "free" Universities. The latter are supported not by the State, but by local or provincial bodies; and they have a certain autonomy. Their courses and degrees are accepted, however, as Higher Education ifi Italy 1 1 equivalent in legal effect to those of the Royal Univer- sities. Furthermore, there are a number of other institu- tions of University grade. The Faculties of the Institute in Florence and the Academy in Milan are University Faculties in all but name, and in fact are among the most important in the Kingdom. In some cases the Engineer- ing schools are affiliated with the Scientific Faculty of a University (Rome, Bologna, Pisa), and the technical engineering studies are taken up after two preparatory years under that Faculty; in Turin and Milan, however, there are separate Polytechnic Institutes giving the complete five year course for the degree in Engineering. There are also Higher Veterinary Schools in Milan, Turin, and Naples; a Naval School in Genoa; four Observator- ies; and an organization for advanced clinical work in Medicine and Surgery, in Milan. These are all, as already stated, under the control of the Ministry of Public Instruc- tion. The Higher Commercial Schools of Turin, Genoa, Milan, Venice, Rome, and Bari are under the control of the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Labor; the Higher Agricultural Schools are under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture. Theology, once the chief study in many of the Universities, is since 1873, excluded from them all, and is taught in Church Schools, of which the most important are in Rome. Some of the institutions mentioned owe their existence to the fact that until the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, the territory now occupied by it consisted of sepa- rate and often antagonistic units, some of them controlled by foreign nations, and all of them tenacious of their tradi- tions and prestige. After Rome became the capital of the united Kingdom, the local and regional feelings continued, and it was found inexpedient to abolish any of the Uni- versities which had arisen In the separate states, and which formed cultural centers of greater or less importance. 12 Institute of International Education Thus Parma and Modena, formerly independent duchies, have preserved their Universities in spite of the nearness of Milan, Pavia and Padua on the north and of Bologna on the south. Since 1870, new technical schools of University grade have been established, but no new Universities. In 1824, the Bull Quod Divina Sapientia, issued by Leo XII, classified the Universities of Rome and Bologna as of the first grade, the others in the States of the Church (Ferrara, Perugia, Macerata, Camerino and Fermo) as of the second grade. Urbino, suppressed in 1808, was revived in 1826, and classified as second grade ; Fermo was suppressed. The Legge Matteucci in 1862, classified as of second grade Genoa, Parma, Modena, Macerata, Siena, Messina, and Cagliari. Sassari attained second grade in 1877. These all, between 1876 and 1902, were raised to the first grade (pareggiati) . The "free" Universities also are now accepted as of first grade ; they conform to the pro- grams of study laid down for the Royal Universities. Before describing in more detail in the following pages the separate Universities and the other institutions of particular interest to foreign students, it will be well to state the features which are common to all, and the gen- eral rules and principles which govern higher education. I. Primary and Secondary Schools. Italian education is based on a system of schools beginning with Elementary, continuing with Secondary, and ending with Higher Insti- tutions. The entire system is controlled by the Ministry of Public Instruction (Ministero della Pubblica Istruzi- one), having at its head the Minister (Ministro della Pubblica Istruzione), and a Council (Consiglio Superiore) . This Council, presided over by the Minister, is composed of six Senators elected by the Senate, six Deputies elected by the Chamber, and of other persons appointed by the Higher Education in Italy 13 Minister, some of them nominated by University faculties. It possesses important but not exclusive functions in the determination of educational policy, and in recommending the appointment or removal of professors. The Elemen- tary Schools (Scuole Elementari) have a course of six years, which pupils finish between the ages of 12 and 14. After the fourth year, however, they may transfer to the Secondary Schools (Scuole Medie) ; these have a course of eight years, divided between the Ginnasio (five years) and the Liceo (three years), and are called Classical or Mod- ern, according to the subjects taught. Graduating from the Liceo at about the age of eighteen, the student receives the Licenza Liceale, which admits him to the University. There are also Technical Schools of Secondary grade — the Scuola Tecnica with a course of three years, followed by the Istituto Tecnico with a course of four years ; these do not give the right to enter the University, except that the Physics- Mathematics course admits to the Faculty of Sciences and to the Engineering Schools, and the Agricul- tural course admits to the School of Pharmacy. The course of the Ginnasio and Liceo includes Italian, Latin, History and Geography, and Mathematics throughout the eight years ; the Liceo has Physics and Chemistry for three years. The Ginnasi and Licei Classici have Greek for five years, French for three. Philosophy for three, while the Ginnasi and Licei Modemi have English or German in place of Greek, four years of French, two years of Philoso- phy. Finally, there are Normal Schools (Scuole Normali) of Secondary grade for boys and for girls, which do not admit to candidacy for University degrees ; the girls who graduate from them are, however, admitted to the Higher Normal Schools of Rome and Florence (Istituto Superioie di Magistero Femminile), and special courses for the graduates of the Normal Schools are given in many Uni- versities. 14 Institute of International Education 2. Higher Education; Organization of the Universities. Higher education is controlled by a bureau of the Minis- try of Public Instruction, the Direzione Generale per I'ls- truzione Superiore, under a Direttore Generale. Each University consists of Faculties, together with Institutes, Schools, Libraries, Laboratories, Clinics, and other similar organizations, either forming an integral part of the University or affiliated with it. The administration of the University is carried on, under the direction of the Minis- ter, by the Rector, the Deans of Faculties and Directors of Schools, the Academic Council, the Faculty Councils, and the Assembly of all the Professors. The Rector (Ret- tore) is one of the Professors chosen by the Crown from a list of three candidates proposed by the Assembly of Pro- fessors; the appointment is annual, but is frequently renewed. In Naples, however, the Rector is elected directly by the Professors for a term of two years. The Rector is the responsible administrative officer of the University; he confers the degrees in the name of the King, presides over the meetings of the Academic Council and the Assembly of Professors, maintains discipline, and makes an annual report to the Minister. It may be said that his position carries with it less authority and influ- ence than that of a University President in America. Each Faculty has as Dean or Presiding Officer (Preside) and each School as Director (Direttore), one of its own members, either chosen by the Faculty itself, appointed by the Crown, or serving in rotation. The Academic Coun- cil (Consiglio Accademico) consists of the Rector, Deans and Directors, together with their immediate predecessors in the same offices; its duties are largely advisory, but it has certain definite powers — for instance, in regard to passing upon the credentials of foreign students. The Council of each Faculty (Consiglio di Facolt^) consists of all the Professors in that Faculty; it arranges the pro- Higher Education in Italy 15 gram of study and the general educational policy, in con- formity with the law. The Assembly of all the Professors in the University (Assemblea Generale dei Professori) may be convoked by the Minister or on the initiative of the Professors themselves, for purposes of discussion, and for the nomination of candidates for the Rectorship. Certain subjects of study under each Faculty are regarded as fundamental (materie costitutive) ; they are not necessarily taken by every student, but they must always be offered. Other subjects (materie complemen- tari) are offered, particularly by the Faculties of Letters and Philosophy, varying in number and character accord- ing to the size and the resources of the University. Every Faculty must have one professorship, and only one, for each of the fundamental subjects. If a professorship is vacant, a Professor of an allied subject, or of the same subject in another Faculty, or some other qualified person is put in charge of it temporarily as Acting Professor (Professore Incaricato). In this case he may do double duty for the time being. At present there are an unusually large number of Incaricati, since during the War, in fair- ness to the younger candidates who were absent on military service, the usual competitions for regular appointment were suspended. Professorships in the complementary subjects are established by special decree. The Professors are of two grades, Ordinario and Straordi- nario, corresponding in a general way to Professors and Assistant- Professors in America. The total number in all the Royal Universities and Institutes of Higher Education is fixed by law: 905 Professori Ordinari, 242 Professori Straordinari. These figures do not include the free Univer- sities, The basis of appointment is a competition (con- corso). The Minister announces what professorships are vacant, and within four months after the announcement the candidates for these positions send to the Minister a 1 6 Institute of International Education statement of their qualifications and copies of their pub- lications. They are sometimes required to deliver a speci- men lecture. The Minister appoints a Commission of five Professors nominated by the University faculties, to examine the applications and propose in order of merit the best three of the candidates; from this list of three (terna) the appointment is made by Royal Decree, with the advice of the Consiglio Superiore. This is the usual method in the case of appointing a Professore Ordinario; excep- tionally, however, in the case of a man of great distinction, the Minister recommends the candidate to the King with- out any competition, on the basis of his scientific reputa- tion. The Professore Straordinario is appointed by the Minister after a similar competition, for the term of one year, at the end of which he is regularly reappointed. After three years of continuous service he becomes permanent (stabile), and is then eligible for promotion to the rank of Ordinario. Four-fifths of the Professors begin as Straor- dinario and are promoted on the basis of their continued scientific activity and achievement. The Professors of both grades are termed Official Instruc- tors (Insegnanti Ufficiali). In addition, a considerable amount of instruction, especially in the larger Universities, is given on an unofficial basis by teachers who receive no fixed salary, but who in other respects correspond to the Instructors in an American University. They are of two classes — Dottori Aggregati and Liberi Docenti. The Dottori Aggregati are at present found only in the Univer- sities which in 1859 were regulated by the Casati Law (Tu- rin, Genoa, Pavia, Cagliari, and Sassari), and in the Free University of Perugia. They are selected by competition among candidates who have had the doctor's degree for at least two years ; they are authorized to substitute for the official Professors, to conduct examinations, and to offer courses. They receive payment for the work which they Higher Education in Italy 17 actually do. The Liberi Docenti are found in all the Universities, sometimes far outnumbering the official Pro- fessors. They are authorized by the Minister on the basis of an examination, which consists in presenting a disserta- tion and delivering a specimen lecture, or on the basis of their scientific preparation. They may offer courses in the same subjects as the official Professors, and receive a portion of the tuition fees paid by the students who regis- ter in their courses. In most cases these courses are accepted for credit toward the degree (pareggiati). The Liberi Docenti are frequently scholars of maturity and distinction, who thus maintain connection with the Universities and give such instruction as they desire, without being held to the often onerous duties of the offi- cial Professors. Their courses greatly enrich the offerings of the Faculties. For instance, a University has but one Professor of Italian Literature; but a considerable number of courses in Italian Literature may be given by Liberi Docenti, each treating a separate portion of the subject. Particularly in the Medical Faculties, owing to the necessi- ties of clinical instruction, there are immense numbers of Liberi Docenti. In the Medical Faculty at Rome, for example, there were, in 1918-1919, twenty Professori Ordinari, three Professori Straordinari, eight Professori Incaricati, and about two hundred and twenty-five Liberi Docenti. The four regular Faculties which are found in the com- plete Universities are those of Law; Medicine and Sur- gery; Physical, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences; Letters and Philosophy. The course is of four years in the case of Law, Sciences, and Letters; of six years in the case of Medicine. These courses lead to the degree (laurea) of Doctor (Dottore). The full course of the Engineering School, whether or not it is connected with a University, is of five years, and leads to the degrees of Engineer (Ingeg- Institute of International Education nere) or of Architect (Architetto). Since the degrees con- fer legal rights in connection with practising the profes- sions, the courses are regarded as professional rather than cultural. It is obvious, then, that in Italy there is no institution corresponding to the typical American Col- lege, in which the purpose is to develop the general intel- lectual equipment of the student by forcing him, after he has finished his secondary studies and before he begins his professional training, to study a wide variety of subjects, including some that are remote from his main interest. Even the typical American College Faculty, that of Arts and Sciences, becomes two; in Italy, Latin and Mathe- matics are not taught by the same Faculty. On leaving the Liceo and entering the University, the Italian student enrolls under one of the Faculties for his strictly professional work. This explains why the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy is frequently absent, and attracts fewer students than the other Faculties ; it gives professional training like the others, but the professions for which it prepares offer fewer opportunities. In kind therefore, though not necessarily in grade of advance- ment, the work corresponds to that of the Graduate School or one of the Professional Schools of an American Univer- sity. The Italian student in his first year in the Univer- sity has already covered ground which is equivalent to the preparatory course and a substantial part of the college course of an American student; although of about the same age as an American freshman, he is on the average at least two years more mature. He is thrown entirely upon his own responsibility, not only in regard to his conduct outside the precincts of the University, but in regard to his studies. The most ample opportunities for learning are open to him, but he is allowed to make such use of them as he chooses. For instance, he is required to regis- ter in a certain number of courses, but after registering he Higher Education in Italy 19 is not obliged to attend the lectures. The whole stress is laid on his passing the final examination in each course (esame speciale) , and at graduation a general examination (esame di laurea, esame di diploma), the chief feature of which is the presentation of his dissertation. In fact, the students do as a rule attend the lectures with considerable regularity, but they are at liberty to prepare for the exam- inations in other ways if they prefer. The lectures are open freely to the public, and others beside the enrolled students often are present ; no attempt is made to record the attendance, to adapt the instruction to individuals, or to test the progress of the students. Many of the Profes- sors, however, give seminar courses and training courses to small classes, in which the recitation method is used; they give such courses, if they wish, in addition to their regular lectures, and receive no extra compensation for so doing. The advanced courses (corsi di perfezionamento) are sometimes reserved for graduates (laureati). In most Universities there are courses offered by the Faculty of Letters for graduates of the Normal Schools who are not candidates for the doctorate (Corso di perfezionamento per i Licenziati dalle Scuole Normali) ; and under the Faculties of Letters and of Sciences there is usually a series of courses in methods of teaching (Scuola di Magistero) for those among the regular University students who are fitting themselves to teach. These special courses are conducted by the regular Professors of the Faculties, and in them the instruction is more in the way of training and guidance of individuals than in the case of the official lec- ture courses. In order to be eligible to teach modem foreign languages in the Secondary Schools of Italy, the candidate must be a graduate (licenziato) of a Liceo, Istituto tecnico, or Scuola Normale; and must then pass a strict examination, given at stated times in several of the Universities. These exan: - 20 Institute of International Education inations, which are open to foreigners who have equivalent preparation, consist of written and oral tests in Italian and in the foreign language, with questions on the literature, and in a demonstration lecture on a subject assigned sev- eral hours beforehand. Candidates for these examinations prepare in any way they wish — by private lessons, travel abroad, study in Italian institutions where language-train- ing is ofTered — and usually take two or three years for the preparation. They can take the examination for only one language at a time, but can take others later. The lan- guages provided for are French, German, English, and Span- ish. Of these, French is the most important because taught in practically every secondary school; it may be studied, for instance, in the Institut Frangais at Florence. English and German also are taught in the Licei Moderni and Istituti Tecnici; Spanish, with the other three languages, in the Higher Commercial Schools. The Academy in Milan has a special School of Modem Languages, and the larger Universities have courses in modem languages and literatures. This system of examinations is regulated by a Royal Decree of April i6, 1908. While intended for students of about the same age as American undergraduates, the regular courses in the Ital- ian Universities are frequently so specialized and advanced as to be fully up to the requirements and the capacity of our graduate students. The Professors often vary the subject of their lectures from year to year, and embody in them the results of their latest researches. They are readily accessible to serious advanced students, and are generous with advice and assistance — for example, in connection with the writing of theses. The language of instruction, of examinations, and of the dissertation is Italian; except that in courses in foreign language and literature, the language in question may be used. For- eigners coming to Italy for any purpose will naturally Higher Education in Italy 21 find a knowledge of Italian advantageous; in particular, those entering the University must be able to read it and to understand it when spoken. Fortunately it is not diffi- cult to acquire sufficient command of the language for these purposes. Anyone coming to Italy during the sum- mer and spending the months preceding the opening of the University year in studying the language, should be able to understand the lectures, as well as ordinary conversa- tion. Those who have studied Italian in school or college in Ameiica will of course find their progress after reaching Italy greatly facilitated. 3. Requirements for Admission. For admission to the University, graduation from a Liceo (licenza liceale) is required ; or, in the case of the Faculty of Sciences or Engi- neering School, graduation from an Istituto Tecnico is also accepted. But foreigners who have completed the entrance requirements of an approved University in their own coun- try are thereby qualified to enter the Italian Universities. If they have received credit for University studies, they may without examination receive corresponding credit in an Italian University, and be admitted to advanced stand- ing. In each case, the credentials must be approved by the Academic Council. If they have received a degree from a University of approved standing, and can prove that they have studied all the subjects required for one of the regular degrees in Italy, they are not obliged to study in residence or to take the examinations in the separate subjects, but may present themselves directly for the final examination for the degree which they desire. In any case they should bring from the institutions where they have previously studied, certificates showing clearly and in detail the nature and extent of the courses for which they have credit. Failure to be provided with such certifi- cates, properly authenticated with the seal of the institu- 22 Institute of International Education tion, may cause delay and embarrassment ; although they can begin at once J;o attend lectures. It should be added that although for foreign students who have had in their own country courses corresponding to the Italian require- ments, attendance at the University is not legally neces- sary, practically they will have little chance of passing the general examination successfully unless they spend at least a year in the institution in order to become familiar with the system, to fulfil the necessary formalities, and get acquainted with the Professors. If they come without having a dissertation partly completed, it will probably take two years to prepare one which will be approved. On the other hand, they may be sure of having the great- est consideration showTi them; and the formalities, once clearly understood, will trouble them very little; the authorities exercise no jurisdiction except in matters relat- ing to examinations. 4. Fees. The regular University lectures are open freely to visitors; but in order to receive academic credit and become candidates for a degree, students must matric- ulate and pay certain fees (unless these are remitted). First it is necessary to pay the matriculation fee (tassa d'immatricolazione: lire 75) and at least half of the first annual tuition fee (tassa d'iscrizione; lire 125 for the Faculties of Sciences and of Letters; lire 155 for Medi- cine; lire 220 for Law ; and lire 165 for Engineering). The candidate then presents to the Rector a request for enroll- ment under one of the Faculties, stating his name and the names of his parents, birthplace, home address, and address in the city; he must send also his birth-certificate (which in the case of a foreigner should be countersigned by an Italian consul), a receipt for the fee paid, and a certificate showing the completion of the course of study in the Secondary School, or in the case of foreign students, Higher Education in Italy 23 certificates of their academic standing, credits, degrees, etc., in their own country. With documents not in ItaHan a certified translation is sometimes required. This request is ordinarily presented between August i and November 5, but may be presented at other times. After favorable action has been taken, the candidate receives from the Secretary of the University a course-book (libretto d'iscri- zione), in which he enters his name, and secures the signa- ture of the instructor in each of the courses that he wishes to take. The list of courses must be approved on behalf of the Faculty, by the Secretary. At the end of the year the instructors sign the course-book again, and the Secretary enters in it the result of the examinations. The student also has an identification card (tessera diriconoscimento), with a portrait (which he must furnish) attached to it. Before taking the special examinations he pays each year an examination fee (lire 20) ; and before taking his degree he pays fees for the final examination (sopratassa per I'esame di laurea; lire 50) and for the diploma (lire 100). Those who do not wish to matriculate as candidates for a degree may register as listeners (uditori) . In this case they are not obliged to have any specified academic prepara- tion. They pay a tuition fee for each course taken, amounting to one-fifth of the regular tuition fee. They may if they desire take the regular examinations, paying a fee of lire 5 for each one; and on request they receive a certificate of attendance and for such examinations as they have passed. Couises taken under these conditions give no credit toward an Italian degree, but the certificate is useful as an evidence of having studied in Italy. 5. Requirements for Graduation; Examinations. Unless the student is admitted to advanced standing, the require- ments for graduation include: (i) study in residence for 24 Institute of International Education four, five or six years, according to the Faculty ; (2) enroll- ment in a specified number of courses, some required, some elective; (3) passing an examination in each subject (esame speciale) ; and (4), after all the special examinations are passed, passing a final or general examination (esame di laurea) . This last consists of the presentation of a writ- ten dissertation on an approved subject, a public discus- sion of the dissertation before a committee of the Faculty, and an oral defense of either two or three theses (tesi or tesine). In some lines of work a practical laboratory test is also required. On presenting his dissertation, four copies of it being usually required, the candidate submits an application on stamped paper (carta bollata), addressed to the Rector, and requesting admission to the general examination; the subjects of the dissertation and theses being stated, and receipts being added to show that all fees have been paid (except the diploma fee, paid after the examination has been passed) . At the hour appointed the candidate appears before the Committee, which consists of the Preside of the Faculty and ten other members. The public is allowed to be present. The Professors who approved the dissertation and the theses are members of the Committee, and they question the candidate for an hour, after which he retires with the public (if any) behind him. When the Commit- tee has voted, he is called in to hear the verdict. Each member of the Committee can give him from i to 10 points, so that the maximum is no; this is called "a pieni voti assoluti," while a score of nine-tenths of the maximum is called "a pieni voti legali ;" six-tenths of the maximum is the passing mark. In case of failure, the candidate can present himself again after an interval of at least three months, and a third and last time after a further interval of six months. The "special" examinations are given in two periods of Higher Education in Italy 25 the year, beginning respectively June 16 and October 16. They are less formal than the general examination, and are conducted by Committees containing three members. These examinations are based on subjects rather than on specific courses, and are not confined to the topics treated in the lectures. Thus the student may select from various possible courses those which he thinks will best prepare him for the examination, but he will also find it necessary to become familiar with other aspects of the subject. The general examinations are given during the academic year, at times fixed by the Faculty Council. In addition to the regular professional degrees, a new degree with less rigid requirements and without the legal prerogatives of the regular degrees is now offered. It will be well to state in some detail the requirements for the regular degrees, and then those of the new degree. 6. Courses of Study under the Several Faculties. I. Faculty of Law {F3iCo\th.d\GmrisT^Y\idQ.nz2i). Length of course for the degree of Doctor of Laws, four years. Eighteen subjects are prescribed (fondamentali). Except when one subject is prerequisite for another, the courses may be taken in any order; at least two must be taken each year. In the following list, Nos. 3, 4, 6, 9, 14 are continued through two years (biennali) ; the others are one-year courses (annuali). (i) Introduction to Juridical Science; (2) Institutes of Roman Law; (3) Civil Law; (4) Roman Law ; (5) Canon Law ; (6) Criminal Law and Procedure; (7) Commercial Law; (8) Constitutional Law; (9) Administrative Law; (10) Financial Law and Science of Finance; (11) International Law; (12) Civil Procedure; (13) History of Roman Law; (14) History of Italian Law; (15) Philosophy of Law; (16) Political Economy; (17) Statistics; (18) Legal Medicine. There is a Faculty of Law in every University in the 26 . Institute of International Education Kingdom. The emphasis on Roman Law is natural in a country whose legal system is based on it. II. Faculty of Medicine and Surgery (Facolta di Medi- cina e Chirurgia). Length of course, six years. Twenty subjects, all of which must be taken for the degree of Doctor of Medicine: (i) Experimental Physics; (2) Chemistry, inorganic and organic; (3) Botany; (4) Zool- ogy and Comparative Anatomy; (5) Normal Human Anatomy; (6) Physiology; (7) General Pathology; (8) Pharmacology and Toxicology ; (9) Pathological Anatomy and Histology; (10) Special Demonstrative Medical Pathology; (11) Special Demonstrative Surgical Pathol- ogy; (12) General Medical Clinic; (13) Pediatric Clinic; (14) General Surgical Clinic; (15) Obstetric and Gyne- cological Clinic; (16) Clinic for Opthalmology ; (17) Clinic for Nervous and Mental Diseases; (18) Hygiene and Public Health; (19) Legal Medicine; (20) Clinic of Dermosyphilitic Diseases. These courses are of one year each, except Nos. 5, 12, 13, which are of three years, and Nos. 6, 9, which are of two years. In addition to these required courses, instruc- tion in other allied subjects (insegnamenti complementari) may be offered. All instruction, in both required and extra subjects, is demonstrative, and is combined with practical exercises in which the students take part. The order of studies is optional, except that Nos. 1-8 must be taken before Nos. 9-20. The various subjects of instruction are frequently grouped, according to their natural relation- ship, to form what are called Institutes (istituti) or Schools (scuole) ; to these the graduates of the Faculty of Medicine are admitted for special advanced study and investigation. In certain of the Universities situated in the smaller cities, only a poition (4 years) of the prescribed course is given by the Faculty of Medicine, the course being con- Higher Education in Italy 27 tinued at one of the larger Universities in the cities where the clinical facilities are greater. Universities which give the complete six-year course for the Doctor's degree also offer advanced instruction. Dentistry is treated as a spe- cial branch of Medicine, and in some Universities is offered among the extra subjects. In Milan the Istituti Clinici form a Post-graduate School of Medicine, to which only those who have the degree of Doctor of Medicine are admitted; these Istituti include a well-developed School of Dentistry. Every University in the Kingdom except Macerata and Urbino has a Medical Faculty giving either the partial or the complete course, and there is also one at Florence. Connected with every Medical Faculty is a School of Pharmacy (see below) and usually a Training School of Obstetrics (not considered in this handbook). III. Faculty of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences (Facolta di Scienze Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali). (In Naples, divided into two faculties.) Length of course, 4 years. The fundamental courses are the following: (i) Experimental Physics; (2) Inorganic Chemistry; (3) Organic Chemistry; (4) Mineralogy; (5) Botany; (6) Geology; (7) Zoology; (8) Comparative Anatomy and Physiology; (9) Algebraic Analysis; (10) Infinitesimal Analysis; (11) Analytic Geometiy; (12) Projective Geometry; (13) Descriptive Geometry; (14) Ornamental and Elementary Architectural Design; (15) Rational Mechanics; (16) Theoretic Geodesy; (17) Math- ematical Physics; (18) Higher Analysis; (19) Higher Geometry; (20) Higher Mechanics. In Universities where they exist, courses in Histology and Physiology and in Astronomy are also fundamental. For admission, students presenting the llcenza liceale must have passed in Mathematics. The licenza of the physical-mathemati- cal section of the Istituti Tecnici is also accepted. For 28 Institute of International Education graduation with the doctorate in Science, not only the special and final examinations are required, but also prac- tical experimental or graphic tests (esami pratici). This Faculty confers the doctorate in (i) Mathematics, (2) Phy- sics, (3) Chemistry, and (4) Natural Sciences. In each case certain studies are required, and others elective. (i) For the degree in Mathematics, the following are required : Experimental Physics for two years. Chemistry, Algebraic Analysis, Infinitesimal Analysis, Analytic Geom- etry, Projective and Descriptive Geometry, Rational Mechanics; and four other courses chosen from a limited list. (2) For the degree in Physics: the seven courses above mentioned, and also Higher Analysis, Mathematical Physics, Theoretic Geodesy, and an advanced course in Physics. The candidate must also work for two years in the Physical Laboratory, and for a semester in the Chemical Laboratory. (3) For the degree in Chemistry: Mineralogy, a special course in Mathematics, Physics for two years, three or four couises in Chemistry, with work in the Chemical Laboratory for two years, and other courses approved by the Faculty, the total number of subjects being nine. (4) For the degree in Natural Sciences: Physics (one year). Chemistry, Botany, Comparative Zoology, Anatomy and Physiology, Histology (if offered). Geology, Mineralogy, a special course in Mathematics, and two other courses chosen from an approved list; laboratory work in three sciences, followed by practical tests, is also required. IV. Faculty of Letters and Philosophy (Facolta di Let- tere e Filosofia). Length of course leading to the Doctor- ate in Letters or to that in Philosophy, four years. The following are the fundamental subjects (insegnamenti costitutivi) taught by this Faculty: (i) Theoretic Philosophy; (2) Moral Philosophy; (3) Pedagogy; (4) History of Philosophy ; (5) Italian Litera- Higher Education in Italy 29 ture; (6) Latin Literature; (7) Greek Literature; (8) Greek and Latin Grammar; (9) Archeology; (10) Com- parative History of the Classic and Neo-Latin Languages ; (11) Comparative History of the Neo-Latin Literatures; (12) Ancient History; (13) Modem History; (14) Geog- raphy; (15) Experimental Psychology (when ofifered). In many Universities a considerable number of other subjects (materie complementari) are offered under this faculty; and special departments (scuole) provide for training in modern languages and literatures, the history of art, Oriental languages, etc. But, as already noted, Political Economy is taught by the Faculty of Law; and the sciences, including Mathematics, by the Faculty of Sciences — some of them also by the Faculty of Medi- cine. Candidates for the degree in Letters or in Philosophy frequently take courses under one of the other faculties. For the degree in Philosophy, twelve courses are re- quired, of which seven must be the following: (i) Theo- retic Philosophy (3 years) ; (2) Pedagogy (2 years) ; (3) Moral Philosophy (2 years) ; (4) History of Philoso- phy (3 years) ; (5) Experimental Psychology, if offered, otherwise some other scientific subject (i year) ; (6) Ital- ian Literature (2 years) ; (7) Latin Literature (2 years) ; (8) either Greek or some modern Literature, or Ancient or Modem History (2 years). The four other courses (i year each) may be freely chosen among the fundamental or complementary subjects offered by any of the faculties. These courses are the equivalent, in the length of time required, to 21 one-year courses. It is noted that the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is not a general degree, as is the Ph.D. in America, but one which requires a special- ized study of Philosophy. For the degree in Letters, twelve subjects must be taken. Four are required of all candidates, and are called common subjects (materie comuni) : (i) Italian Literature; (2) 30 Institute oj International Education Latin Literatuie; (3) Greek Literature; (4) History of Philosophy or Theoretical Philosophy. Four more must be taken in one of three groups, according to the field in which the student specializes (materie specifiche). If the field is Classical Philology : (5) Greek and Latin Grammar or Paleography; (6) Comparative History of the Classical and Neo-Latin Languages, or Sanskrit; (7) Ancient History ; (8) Archeology. If the field is Modem Philology : (5) Comparative History of the Neo-Latin Literatures; (6) Comparative History of the Classical and Neo-Latin Languages; (7) Modern History; (8) History of Medi- eval and Modern Art, or a Modern Literature. If the field is History and Geography: (5) Ancient History; (6) Modern History; (7) Geography; (8) Archeology, Epig- raphy, History of Art, or a similar subject. Finally, four more courses are to be elected (materie libere), subject to the approval of the Faculty at the beginning of each year, among those offered by any of the faculties. These elec- tive courses and one of the specific courses are of one year each (annuali) ; five of the required courses are of two years each (biennali), and two in the field chosen are of three years each (triennali). Thus the total requirement of twelve subjects is equivalent to twenty-one year-courses. V. Engineering School (Politecnico, or Scuola di Appli- cazione per gli Ingegneri). The complete course of study for the degree of Engineer (Ingegnere) or of Architect (Ar- chitetto) is five years in length ; the first two years being preparatory (chiefly devoted to Mathematics, with courses in Chemistry, Elementary Architecture, and Ornamental Design), and the other three being devoted to applied stud- ies (Corso di Applicazione). All five years may be passed in the Polytechnic at Turin, the Higher Technical Insti- tute at Milan, the Engineering School at Padua, or the Naval School at Genoa. Or the two preparatory years may be passed under the Faculty of Sciences in any Higher Education in Italy 31 University, and the three years of applied study in one of the technical schools above mentioned, or in the Engi- neering School (Scuola di Applicazione) in Bologna, Pisa, Rome, Naples or Palermo. The Engineering School is usually autonomous, but has some sort of afhliation with the University in the same city; it is administered by a Director, who reports directly to the Ministry of Public Instruction. A special code of rules for the Engineering Schools was adopted by Royal Decree, September 6, 19 13. The Professors are appointed in the same way as in the Universities. The applied studies are arranged in groups, according to the particular line of Engineering or Architec- ture chosen by the student; the studies in each group being prescribed, and any elective studies being in addition. Before entering the triennium of applied studies, the student must have a certificate stating that he has passed the preparatory studies. There is a special examination in each course; the final examination, one hour in length, and oral, consists of questions on the work done in the applied studies. Post-graduate courses (corsi di perfeziona- mento), leading to a special diploma, are offered in Turin and Milan. In all the schools, graduates can continue their studies by offering their services as voluntary assis- tants. Foreigners are admitted to the Engineering Schools as freely as Italians, provided they have had the necessary preparation in Mathematics and other scientific prerequi- sites; and to advanced standing if their credentials war- rant it. VI. School of Pharmacy (Scuola di Farmacia). In connection with every medical faculty there is a School of Pharmacy, administered by a Director (Direttore) ap- pointed by the Crown from among the Professors giving instruction in the School. The Professors are members of the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Sciences. The School confers (i) a diploma giving the right to practise 32 Institute of International Education the profession of Pharmacy (course of four years), and (2) the degree (laurea) of Doctor of Chemistry and Pharmacy (course of five years). The fundamental subjects are (i) Chemistry; (2) Experimental Physics; (3) Mineralogy; (4) Botany; (5) Zoology; (6) Pharmaceutical and Toxi- cological Chemistry; (7) Materia Medica; (8) Hygiene; (9) Bromatological Chemistry. In addition, laboratory work and in the last year of the course practical work in a Pharmacy are required. For the doctorate, the final examination (esame di laurea) is divided into two parts: at the end of the fourth year, presentation of a disserta- tion (of an experimental character if possible) and defence of two theses orally, together with laboratory tests in qualitative, quantitative and toxicologlcal analysis; at the end of the fifth year, practical and professional tests. Or if the dissertation is based on original research, the whole final examination may take place at the end of the fifth year. VII. Veterinary School (Scuola Superiore di Medicina Veterinaria) . Course of four years, leading to the degree of Doctor (Dottore in Zooiatria). In Turin, Milan, and Naples the Veterinary School Is autonomous; in Bologna, Modena, Parma, Pisa, Camerino, and Perugia, it forms a part of the University, and many of the Professors are also members of the Medical faculty. Entrance require- ment, graduation from LIceo or Istltuto Tecnico. VIII. Higher Commercial School (Istltuto Superiore di StudI Commerclali). These schools depend on the Minis- try of Industry, Commerce and Labor, and are regulated by the Law of March 20, 1913; they are found in Turin, Genoa, Venice, Rome, and Barl (see these cities, below). The Bocconi Commercial University in Milan gives a diploma equivalent in grade to that of the Royal Commer- cial Schools. The course of study includes International, Commercial and Industrial Law, Economic and Commer- Higher Education in Italy 33 cial Geography, Political Economy, Finance, Banking, Bookkeeping, and Modem Languages (French, English, German, and Spanish; sometimes other languages, as Russian, Arabic, Japanese, Albanian). From what has been said, and from the descriptions of the several institutions which follow, it will be evident that there is abundant opportunity in Italy for advanced work in many lines. At present no degree of higher grade than the regular laurea is conferred ; and it is obvious that the requirements for this degree are less in amount than the requirements for the doctorate in Graduate Schools of good standing in America. It must be borne in mind, however, that for Americans the successful following of a course of University study in Italyimplies residence abroad and mastery of the Italian language. Furthermore, many Italian students continue to attend the Universities after receiving the laurea, whether for private research or in order to fit themselves to enter the competitions for University appointments. Since appointment and promo- tion depend largely on the scientific work of the candidate as shown in his research and publication, it is natural that the advanced students are men with whom it is intellec- tually stimulating to be associated. It is not uncommon for students to take a second laurea in a subject different from that of the first; in order to do so, they spend an additional year or more in residence, make up such of the requirements for the second laurea as they have not already completed, and present themselves for the exam- inations as in the case of the first laurea. The same condi- tions obtain for students who have received a degree in a foreign University. Many Americans, after studying for a year or more in an Italian University, will choose to receive a certificate for the work done, and apply the credit so earned toward obtaining a higher degree in America; others, especially if they have completed before 34 Institute of International Education coming to Italy a large part of the requirements, may well become candidates for the regular Italian doctorate. 7. The New Doctorate. In order to meet the needs of foreign students who do not wish to conform to the requirements for the regular professional degrees, a new doctorate degree was established on October 28, 19 17, equivalent in grade and in the amount of work required to the old four years' degrees, but not demanding their rigid selection of courses. This new degree is not profes- sional in the sense of giving legal rights in connection with the practise of the professions in Italy, but is intended to encourage scientific attainment for the purpose of advanc- ing knowledge and increasing the personal culture of the individual ; for this reason it is sometimes referred to as a scientific degree (as opposed to professional). It was destined at first exclusively for foreigners, but on Febi uary 3, 1 91 8, it was opened to Italians as well. Foreigners are admitted to candidacy, and are given credit for work done elsewhere, on the same basis as in the case of the other degrees. The requirements for the new degree are four years of study in residence and at least twelve courses; the courses are chosen freely by the student from those offered by one Faculty or by several Faculties. Courses in the same subject may be separately counted if taken under different instructors, or in different years under the same instructor, provided the specific matters treated are distinct ; in the case of the old degrees, such courses are not counted separately. The only restriction on the choice of courses is that, not later than the third year of study, they must be approved by the Faculty, or by a special Committee of several Faculties, as sufficient for the degree in the subject selected by the student. If, however, a student has already received an academic degree from an Italian, or from an approved foreign University (for in- Higher Education in Italy 35 stance, a Bachelor's or a higher degree in the United States), he need spend but one year in residence, taking at least three separate courses. The final examination con- sists of (i) the presentation of a dissertation, which must be in print; (2) an oral discussion of the dissertation; (3) a discussion on the major subject of the candidate, involv- ing the methods of research in that subject; (4) a prac- tical test, if the subject is experimental. The fees to be paid by candidates for this special degree are those paid by listeners, which are materially less than those paid by regular candidates for the other degrees. Only the Royal Universities are authorized to confer the special degrees, which are legally known as "lauree speciali rilasciate a titolo di particolare cultura scientifica." It results from the establishment of this new degree that students can now make up a course of study suited to their particular needs or desires, and at the same time receive academic recognition for it. The advantages are obvious in the case of foreigners wishing to prepare them- selves as teachers or investigators in specific fields of knowledge; and the provisions of the law offer every opportunity for meeting individual needs. As an instance, a student wishing to take Geography as his major subject, will naturally elect under the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy the courses in Geography, in Ancient and Modern History, and, if offered, in Ethnology or Anthro- pology; under the Faculty of Law, Political Economy and Statistics; under the Faculty of Sciences, Geology, Botany, Zoology; and the remainder of the required twelve courses can be made up by continuing some of these subjects for a second or third year, and by adding courses in Language, Literature, History of Art, etc. At the same time, subjects required for the old degree in History and Geography — Greek and Latin Literature, for instance — need not be included. In addition to the 36 Institute of International Education old degree in History and Geography, it is now possible to make a new group of History and Political Science ; it is possible also to make a combination of pure and applied science, by selecting courses offered by the Faculty of Sciences and by the Engineering School. In compara- tively narrow fields, particularly under the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, the larger Universities offer a great variety of courses, for instance in History and in Literature, affording abundant opportunity for speciali- zation. It is to be noted that persons w^ho have an academic degree from a recognized foreign University, can become candidates for this new Italian degree by taking three courses in residence and presenting themselves for the final examination (which includes a printed dissertation). On the other hand, if the course of study which they pur- sued in attaining the foreign degree coincides with that required for one of the regular degrees in Italy, they may become candidates for the latter without taking further courses in residence, merely presenting themselves for the final examination (in which case the dissertation is not necessarily printed). It should be remembered, how- ever, that a candidate has little chance of success unless he spends at least a year in residence. 8. Choosing a University. In choosing the School or University at which they wish to study in Italy, Ameri- cans will be guided partly by the fame of the institution and of its professors, and partly by the advantages of its location. Eminent teachers and excellent facilities for study and research are found not only in the Universities of the large centres, but in some of the smaller cities as well. The professors, who are as a rule familiar with the literature of their subjects in all languages, combine technical accuracy of method with breadth of view and Higher Education in Italy 37 charm of style. The more important Universities have libraries well supplied with technical works; while the public libraries in many cities, with collections of manu- scripts and rare books which afiford unlimited material for research, also make available current publications. Many of the laboratories are good; but in general the work in both pure and applied science tends to be theo- retical rather than experimental. Very thorough training is given in Engineering, especially in the Politecnico. Admirable clinics are available in the larger cities for students of Medicine. An advanced student can readily ascertain where are located the men best known as authorities in any particular subject. Concise descrip- tions of all the Universities and other higher institutions in Italy, including libraries and learned societies, with lists of the professors and other officials, will be found in the Annuario degli Istituti Scientifici Italiani, compiled by Professor Silvio Pivano for the Associazione Italiana per rintesa Intellettuale fra i Paesi Alleati ed Amici (Rome, 1918; new edition in preparation). The annual catalogue (Annuario) issued by each University is usually a bulky volume containing the annual report of the Rector and the formal address given by one of the Pro- fessors at the opening of the academic year, with lists of the Faculty and students and a general description of the courses ; it fails to give much of the practical information needed by a prospective student, especially a foreigner. It is hoped that the information here presented will be both interesting and useful, and will bring to the atten- tion of Americans the opportunities in Italy for studying not only art, music, archeology and literature, but also such subjects as philology (both classical and modem), history, law, medicine, engineering, and the natural and mathematical sciences. The regulations, as has been shown, are most liberal for foreign students, and the 38 Institute of International Education Italian educational authorities are eager to do everything in their power to attract foreign students and to facilitate their work. A student going with a definite purpose or wishing to study with a particular teacher will have little difficulty in making arrangements for work. Others who go with a more general purpose should put themselves in touch with someone on the ground who can advise them. The representative of the Institute in Italy is Dr. H. Blakiston Wilkins, American Academy in Rome, Porta San Pancrazio, Rome, and from him as well as from the Institute of International Education, 419 West 1 1 7th Street, New York City, information can be obtained. An organization has been formed in Italy (present ad- dress: Segretariato Assistenza Studenti Stranieri in Italia, Via Silvio Pellico 6, Milan; correspondence in Italian, French, English, etc.) for the purpose of aiding foreign students in establishing themselves in suitable living-quarters and in enrolling in the institutions where they desire to study. It must be remembered that the Italian Universities have no dormitories, so that students live where and as they choose. Those who are accus- tomed to college life in America should also remember that in Italy they are not likely to find opportunities of earning money. They may be able to exchange lessons in English for lessons in Italian, but should be provided with the necessary financial resources to get through the period which they expect to spend abroad. It is difficult to form an estimate of the expense of living. Prices have risen materially in Italy, as everywhere else, in comparison with the pre-war scale ; but on the other hand, the prevailing rate of exchange is very favorable to Americans. In general it may be said that living ex- penses in Rome, Milan, Turin and Genoa are higher than in Naples, Bologna, Florence, or most of the smaller cities. Higher Education in Italy 39 UNIVERSITIES AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS In the following pages will be found a brief statement about each one of the seventeen Royal Universities (Regie Universita) and the four Free Universities (Libere Universita), the Polytechnics, and other institutions of University grade which might be of particular interest to foreigners coming to Italy to study. The Higher Com- mercial Schools and a few of the more important Libraries, etc., have been included; with a few words about the cities where these ^institutions are located. The order of arrangement is geographical, in general from north to south, following the order in the Annuario degli Istituti Scientifici Italiani, already cited. Some institutions have been included to which foreigners would not be likely to resort for study, in order to give relative completeness to the list, and afford for purposes of reference a more adequate account of Higher Education in Italy than has heretofore been available in English. The Annuario just cited has been invaluable in compiling this informa- tion ; use has also been made of a large number of official documents obtained in most cases through the courtesy of Dr. G. Filippi, Director of Higher Education in the Ministry of Public Instruction. Many friends on the Faculties of the Universities have also furnished valuable information. Turin (Torino) A flourishing modern city of 452,000 inhabitants, formerly the capital of Piedmont, a center of manufacturing and com- merce as well as of culture, with important museums, libra- ries and educational institutions. A Studium Generale was founded in 1404, but was at times suspended or transferred elsewhere. Since the eighteenth century, the present Univer- sity has steadily progressed; in 1859 it was the chief institu- tion regulated by the Casati Law, the basis of the present educational system of Italy. The National University Li- 40 Institute of International Education brary, in spite of having lost valuable manuscripts by fire in 1904, is one of the important libraries of Italy, and now con- tains over 400,000 volumes and 1,500 manuscripts. 1. The Regia UniversitcL degli Studi has the four Faculties of Law, Medicine, Sciences and Letters, with their respective Institutes, Schools, Clinics and Libraries. Noteworthy is the Institute of Legal Medicine and Anthropology, founded by Lombroso in 1876, in connection with which advanced courses in Criminology are given. Special attention is given to Peda- gogy and the training of teachers. Under the Faculty of Let- ters, instruction is given in Sanskrit, in French and English Literature, in Egyptology, and in the History of Art. Number of students in 1914-1915: 2,310; in 1917-1918: 2,438. 2. The Royal Polytechnic (R. Politecnico) was founded in 1906 by the union of the Engineering School (1859) and the Industrial Museum (1879). It offers complete five-year courses in Civil, Mechanical, Chemical and Electrical Engineering, and in Architecture. There are also special advanced courses in Mining Engineering and other technical branches. This is one of the most complete technical schools in Europe. Num- ber of students in 1915-1916: 1,672. 3. Veterinary School (R.ScuolaSuperiore di Medicina Veter- inaria). Of University grade, giving the Doctor's degree. Average number of students: 200. 4. Commercial School (R. Istituto Superiore di Studi Com- merciali). Founded in 1906. Genoa (G^nova) The chief sea-port of Italy, and an important center of commerce and manufacturing, with 300,000 inhabitants. For centuries a republic, Genoa was joined to Piedmont in 1815. Colleges of Law, Medicine and Theology flourished here from the fourteenth century. I. The University (R. University degli Studi) was reor- ganized in 1885 and brought up to the first grade. It has the four regular Faculties, with their Institutes, Schools and Clinics; also an Engineering School which gives only one year's work after the two preparatory years taken under the Faculty Higher Education in Italy 41 of Sciences. Especially noteworthy are the Botanic Garden and Botanic Institute, founded in 1897. Under the Faculty of Medicine is a School of Dentistry. The University Library has 160,000 volumes and 1,600 manuscripts. Number of students in 1914-1915: 1,427; in 1918-1919; 1,059. 2. Naval School (R. Scuola Superiore Navale), of University grade, founded in 1871. Gives the full five years' course in Naval Engineering, with the degree of Ingegnere Navale e Meccanico. The entrance requirements are the same as for the Engineering Schools. Students are admitted to the triennium of applied studies after passing the preparatory biennium either here, or under a Faculty of Sciences in a University, or in an Engineering School. Average number of students, about 200. 3. Commercial School (R. Istituto Superiore di Studi Com- merciali). Founded in 1884. Milan (Mildno) The largest city of Northern Italy (663,000 inhabitants in 1915), a progressive commercial and industrial center. Milan was formerly the capital of Lombardy, and in the first half of the nineteenth century it was the literary center of Italy. Its museums, libraries and schools are now among the most important in the kingdom. The institutions of higher instruc- tion have been since 1875 organized in an association called Consorzio degli Istituti d'Istruzione Superiore, with the purpose of effectively developing their resources. At present the vari- ous institutions are housed in buildings all over the city, some of which are inadequate ; a magnificent group of new buildings, at a distance from the business districts, is now under construc- tion. In many lines of study and investigation, and especially for advanced work in Medicine and Surgery, Milan offers very exceptional advantages. While the city has no institution called "University," its Accademia functions as a University Faculty, and the Istituto Tecnico Superiore supplies in part the work of a Faculty of Sciences. The Istituti Clinici are open only to graduates of a Medical School ; for the course of study under a Faculty of Medicine leading to the degree of Doctor, and for the study of Law, students residing in Milan usually 42 Institute of International Education frequent the neighboring University of Pavia. Its advantages for advanced study, and the ease with which other places of scholarly and artistic interest may be reached, should make Milan one of the most favorable locations in Italy for foreign students. 1. Academy of Science and Literature (R. Accademia Scientifico-letteraria). This institution, founded by the Casati Law in 1859, and actually inaugurated in 1861, is equivalent in scope and functions to the Faculty of Letters and Philosophy in a University. Special attention is paid to ancient and modern literature in various languages, as was contemplated in the Law of 1859; there are professorships of English, French, Spanish, German, Arabic and Sanskrit, as well as the usual fundamental subjects, and a special school (Scuola Papirologica), which publishes a quarterly review of Papirology and Egyptology, entitled "Aegyptus." Connected with the Academy is a training School for Teachers (Scuola di Magis- tero), with a special section for Modern Languages and Liter- atures (R. Scuola di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne) ; this offers a three-year course leading to a diploma for the teaching of English, French, Spanish or German. The course includes, besides the principal language chosen, also Latin, Italian, Modern History, and Philosophy; it is open to stu- dents and graduates of the Faculty of Letters, and also, upon examination, to graduates of a Liceo, Istituto Tecnico, or Scuola Normale. In 1914-1915 the number of students in the regular course was 269, the number in the teachers' course, 477. In 191 7- 191 8 the figures were 280 and 681. 2. Higher Technical Institute, or Polytechnic (R. Istituto Tecnico Superiore). Also provided for in the Casati Law of 1859, this institution was inaugurated in 1862. It offers the complete five-year course in various lines of Engineering and Architecture; the preparatory biennium and the three years of applied studies for the degrees of Civil Engineer, Industrial Engineer, and Architect. The Institute includes a technical library and collections of models, as well as laboratories of General, Analytic and Technological Chemistry, of Mechanics, Higher Education in Italy 43 of Resistance of Materials, of the Paper-industry, of Electro- technics and Electro-chemistry; and has the use of the Botanic Garden, the Academy of Fine Arts, and the Astro- nomical Observatory. Number of students in 1915-1916, 1,075; in 1917-1918, 1,520. 3. Post-graduate Clinics (RR. Istituti Clinici di Perfeziona- mento). These institutions, with their hospitals, laboratories and other facilities, are devoted to advanced instruction and scientific research in certain specific lines ot Medicine and Surgery. The degree of Doctor of Medicine is requisite for admission as a student. The buildings and equipment, which are of the most modern character, were especially provided for the purpose, and not, as in the case with many scientific estab- lishments in Italy, adapted from other uses. In 1902 the City and the Province of Milan approved the foundation of these clinics, to the expenses of which they contribute together with the State and the Ospedale Maggiore; important gifts have also been received from private benefactors. Three of the clinics (A, B and C) are in the immediate vicinity of the large municipal Hospital (Ospedale Maggiore), and are adminis- tered together under a Dean who is one of the leaders in the development of scientific work in Milan. The others (D,E,F and G), separately administered, cooperate for instruction and research. An arrangement has also been made for cooperation with the Medical Faculty of the University of Pavia. (A) Institute of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Istituto Ostetri- coginecologico). Inaugurated in 1906. With a hospital of over 125 beds. (B) Clinic for Occupational Diseases (Clinica per le Ma- lattie del Lavoro, or Professionali). This clinic, the first of its kind in the world, was inaugurated in 1910, and has since been imitated by hospitals in America. Its purposes are indi- cated by the inscription on a tablet in its entrance-hall, which states them as follows: "To study scientifically the causes of occupational diseases, to spread the clinical knowledge of them among physicians, to receive for diagnosis and treatment workmen suspected of or suffering from occupational diseases, 44 Institute of International Education to inspect the condition of health of industrial workers in general, and of those engaged in unhealthy occupations in particular." The hospital has about lOO beds. (C) Clinic for Diseases of Children (Clinica Pediatrica). Founded in 1910 by a private donor in memory of G. and D. De Marchi, and generously endowed, this hospital is devoted to the care and study of children's diseases, and the training of physicians in the hygiene and pathology of infancy. (D) Orthopedic Clinic (Clinica Ortopedica del Pio Istituto dei Rachitici). Founded in 1874. (E) Clinic for Epidemic and Contagious Diseases (Clinica delle Malattie Epidemicocontagiose). The hospital was established in 1896. (F) Institute of the Pathology and Therapy of Infectious Diseases (Istituto di Fisiopatologia e Terapia delle Malattie infettive all' Istituto Sieroterapico) . Founded in 1894; new building 1905. Has bacteriological and other laboratories. (G) Dental School (Scuola di Odontoiatria e Protesi dell'Is- tituto Stomatologico Italiano). Inaugurated 1908, and ad- mitted to the Istituti Clinici in 1909, this School confers a diploma in Dentistry. It is the most important school in Italy devoted to specialized study of Dentistry and Oral Surgery, elsewhere treated as one of the minor subjects under the Medical Faculty. Its standard is equal to that of any Dental School in Europe. 4. Veterinary School (R. Scuola Superiore di Medicina Veterinaria) . Founded in 1791, made "superiore" in i860. Number of students in 1914-1915: 36; in 1917-1918: 32. 5. Agricultural School^(R. Scuola Superiore di Agricultura) . Inaugurated in 1870. 6. Academy of Fine Arts (R. Accademia di Belle Arti). Founded in 1776. 7. Conservatory of Music (R. Conservatorio di Musica "Giuseppe Verdi"). Founded in 1808. 8. Bocconi Commercial University (Universitci Commer- cial Luigi Bocconi). A private institution, giving the degree of Doctor of Economic and Commercial Sciences after a four years' course. Prerequisite for entrance : graduation from the Higher Education in Italy 45 Liceo or Istituto Tecnico, or (for foreigners) the entrance requirements of an approved University. The course of study includes Commercial Geography, Finance, Statistics, PoUtical Economy, History of Commerce, Civil and Commercial Law, Accountancy, and Modern Languages (English, French, Span- ish, German). 9. Libraries: (A) Biblioteca Nazionale Braidense, in the Palazzo di Brera (which contains also the famous Brera Pic- ture Gallery, the Cabinet of Coins, etc.). Has about 400,000 volumes, 130,000 pamphlets, 2,000 incunabula, 2,000 manu- scripts; special collections, including manuscripts and editions of Manzoni's works, theatrical works, Aldine editions, etc. (B) Ambrosian Library ( Ambrosiana) , with 220,000 volumes, 1,750 incunabula, 21,000 manuscripts. (C) Trivulzian Library (Trivulziana) , with over 100,000 volumes, 4,000 manuscripts. (D) A number of private libraries, open to students. Pavia An ancient city of about 40,000 inhabitants, 22 miles from Milan, A famous school of Law existed here from the eleventh century. The University (R. University degli Studi) was founded in 1361. The present main building dates from 1490, with considerable later additions; its most striking feature is the series of five courts surrounded by colonnades in two stories, upon which the lecture-rooms open. It has the regular four Faculties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters, to- gether with a School of Pharmacy and courses for the training of teachers. Number of students in 1914-1915: 1,365; in 1917- 1918: 1,153. Connected with the University are two "col- leges" dating from the sixteenth century, which maintain stu- dents of needy circumstances — Collegio Borromeo (1564) with thirty students, Collegio Ghislieri (1569) with eighty students. Padua (Pddova) A city of 105,000 inhabitants, of great antiquarian interest and also important commercially. For centuries it was a 46 Institute of International Education center of culture, and its University, founded in 1222, rivaled that of Bologna in attracting students from all parts of Europe. The Studio or Archiginnasio at first consisted only of a Law School (Universitas Juristarum), but a school for the study of the Arts — Medicine, Philosophy, Theology — was added later (Universitas Artistarum). These two "Universi- ties" were each divided into "Nations" according to the origin of the students, and governed by officers chosen by the students of each nationality. Since 1493 the University (R. Universita degli Studi) has occupied a building in the center of the city, previously used as an inn with the sign of an ox — and hence called even today "il B6." Three adjacent buildings have been joined to this to form the seat of the Faculties of Law, Letters and Sciences. The Medical Faculty, the Engi- neering School, and the University Library occupy buildings in other parts of the city. The court of the main building is sur- rounded by a colonnade in two stories, all the ceilings and walls of which are decorated with the coats-of-arms of former students. The Aula Magna contains a bust of Galileo, who taught here 1592-1610. The anatomical theatre, an eliptical room with narrow galleries on which the students stood, is the oldest of its kind. The University contains the four regular Faculties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters, with their Normal Courses and Institutes; also the School of Pharmacy, and a Botanic Garden, founded in 1545 and said to have been the first in the world used for purposes of instruction. The Uni- versity Library, now containing over 200,000 volumes, was founded in 1629 by the Republic of Venice, to which Padua belonged. Forming a part of the University is the Engineering School (R. Scuola di Applicazione per gli Ingegneri), which gives the complete five-year course. In the fifth year of the course the students may specialize in Hydraulics, Drainage, Rural Economy, or Electric Engineering; while the students of Architecture pursue a portion of their studies at the Institute of Fine Arts in Venice. Number of students in 1914-1915: 1,878. Higher Education in Italy 47 Venice (Venezia) A city of 168,000 inhabitants in 1915, famous for its situa- tion, its remarkable history, and its art. Twenty- three miles from Padua. 1. Institute of Fine Arts (R. Istituto di Belle Arti), a school connected with the Accademia, one of the finest collections of pictures in Italy. 2. Higher Commercial School (R. Istituto Superiore di Studi Commercial!). Founded in 1868. Has besides the usual commercial subjects, a course of training for the consular service. In addition to the usual modern languages, Arabic and Japanese are taught. Confers the doctorate (laurea). 3. National Library of St. Mark (R. Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana). One of the great libraries of Europe, with over 600,000 volumes and 12,000 manuscripts. Bologna One of the most ancient and important cities of Italy, with 190,000 inhabitants; capital of the Emilia (which consists of Romagna, in which Bologna is situated, together with the former Duchies of Parma and Modena). The University, re- puted to be the oldest in Europe, dates from the end of the nth century; it quickly attained a commanding position in the study of Law, both Civil and Canon, and soon schools for Medicine and the Liberal Arts were added. At one time it had as many as 10,000 students, who were organized in "Nations" and governed the University. Many famous jurists of the Middle Ages taught here. The instruction in Medicine was for a time inferior to that at Salerno, but later became pre- eminent; it is said that in Bologna dissection of the human body was first practiced. From the i6th century until the 19th, the University was under Church control. It is now, under the general regulations for Higher Education, one of the best equipped in Italy. For over forty years the great poet Carducci held the professorship of Italian literature here. The University (R. University degli Studi) has the four Faculties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters; a School 48 Institute of International Education of Pharmacy; Higher Veterinary and Agricultural Schools; and a Library with over 200,000 printed volumes and 5,000 manuscripts, and a special collection of books and documents concerning the late war. Under the Faculty of Letters, special courses are offered in comparative Philology, Dialectology, Anthropology and Psychology. Connected with the University is the Engineering School (Scuola di Applicazione per gli Ingegneri), giving the three years of applied studies leading to the degrees of Civil Engineer and of Architect. Total number of students in the University in 1914-1915: 2,513. Ferrara This city, now containing about 102,000 inhabitants, was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, under the Este family, a renowned center of culture and political influence. Its Uni- versity (Libera University degli Studi) was founded in 1391 by Boniface IX; after the union of Ferrara with the Kingdom of Italy in 1859, it became by the Farini Law of i860, a Free University ; its degrees and certificates are accepted as equiva- lent to those of the Royal Universities. It is supported by its own funds and by an annual subsidy from the city. It has a Faculty of Law, giving the full four-year course; a Faculty of Sciences, giving a two-year course; a Faculty of Medicine, giving a three-year course (the remaining years of these courses to be taken elsewhere) ; and a School of Pharmacy. Although not supported by the State, this University is governed by a Statuto Organico approved by the State in 191 7. An unusual feature is that the Consiglio Universitario, which appoints the Professors and elects the Rector, includes three student representatives. Average number of students, about 500. MODENA A city of 27,000 inhabitants, formerly the capital of a Duchy. Its University (R. Universita degli Studi) was established in the twelfth century, and attained prominence in the eighteenth. Its Faculty of Theology was suppressed in 1859, that of Letters, in i860. It was made of the first grade Higher Education in Italy 49 in 1876, and now has Faculties of Law, Medicine, and Sciences, Schools of Veterinary Medicine and of Pharmacy, and an Agricultural Experiment Station. The University Library contains the collection of books which formerly belonged to the Este family in Ferrara. Number of students in 1914- 1915: 456; in 1917-1918: 627. Parma A city of 50,000 inhabitants, formerly the capital of a Duchy. A School of Arts is recorded as existing here in the eleventh century. In the thirteenth century there were Colleges of Law and of Medicine. The activities of the University (R. University degli Studi) have at times been interrupted. Its Faculties of Theology and of Letters were suppressed in 1862. It was made of the first grade in 1887, and has Faculties of Law, Medicine, and Sciences, a Veterinary School and a School of Pharmacy. Number of students in 1914-1915: 629. The Library of the city (Biblioteca Palatina) is extremely rich; it contains 315,000 printed volumes, 50,000 pamphlets, about 4,000 manuscripts, and a large collection of engravings. Florence (Firenze) The capital of Tuscany (1865-1871 the capital of Italy), with 250,000 inhabitants. For centuries Florence has been a literary and artistic center of the first importance ; it has had famous Schools and Academies, but never an institution bear- ing the name University. However, the Institute of Higher Studies is a University in everything except the name, and is in fact one of the leading institutions of education and research in the Kingdom. On account of the importance of this Insti- tute, and the unsurpassed libraries and museums, Florence will naturally attract many foreign students, particularly those interested in Literature, History, and Medieval and Modern Art. I. Institute of Higher Studies (R. Istituto di Studi Superiori Pratici e di Perfezionamento). Founded by the government of Tuscany in 1859, and inaugurated in i860 with four "Sec- 50 Institute of International Education tions" (equivalent to the Faculties of a University): Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Philosophy and Philology. In 1872 the Section of Law was suppressed, and the development of the other sections was fostered by an agreement between the State, the Province, and the City, each of which contributes to their support. The Section of Philosophy and Philology has beside all the fundamental subjects of a Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, professorships in Oriental History, Medieval Law, Sanskrit, Paleography, French, German, and Hebrew; it confers doctorates in Letters and in Philosophy, and cer- tificates of post-graduate studies (di perfezionamento). The Section of Physical and Natural Sciences confers doctorates in Natural Sciences and in Chemistry, but not in Mathematics. The Section of Medicine and Surgery has the full six-year course leading to the doctorate, with various clinics and laboratories. The School of Pharmacy confers the doctorate in Chemistry and Pharmacy. The number of students in 1916-1917: 612. 2. Institute of Social Sciences (R. Istituto di Scienze Sociali "Cesare Alfieri"). Founded in 1874, it prepares for govern- mental offices and for public life. It offers courses in History, Political Economy, Statistics, and in certain branches of Law; so that to some extent it supplies the place of a Law Faculty, although it does not confer the doctorate. 3. Higher Norma^ School for Women (R. Istituto Superiore di Magistero Femminile). Founded in 1878. Gives courses in the Italian, English, French and German Languages and Literatures, in History, Pedagogy, Mathematics, Philosophy, etc. 4. Institut Frangais de Florence, Founded in 1908 by the University of Grenoble. Gives courses in French Language and Literature, and also trains French students to teach Italian. 5. National Library (R. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale). Extensive collection of manuscripts and rare books, and also of recent publications both Italian and foreign. Receives a copy of every book published in Italy, and issues a monthly Bulletin of new publications. The other libraries (Riccardiana, Higher Education in Italy 51 Mediceo-Laurenziana, Marucelliana, etc.) are extremely rich in manuscripts. All these libraries are readily accessible to properly qualified students. Pisa A city of about 30,000 inhabitants, independent in the Middle Ages, afterwards joined to Tuscany. Its University (R. University degli Studi) was known as early as the twelfth century, and was given the title of Studium Generale in 1346. It has passed through many vicissitudes, at times being one of the most important schools in Italy. It has the four Faculties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters; also Schools of Engineering (Scuola di Applicazione per gli Ingeg- neri). Agriculture (Scuola Superiore di Agraria), Veterinary Medicine (Scuola Superiore di Medicina Veterinaria) and Pharmacy. Among the Institutes, worthy of special note are those of Physics and Meteorology (Istituto di Fisica Sperimentale e Meteorologia) and of Pub'ic Hygiene. The University publishes the Annali delle Universitd Toscane. Number of students in 1914-1915: 1,164; in 1918-1919: 1,539- The Higher Normal School (R. Scuola Normale Superiore) is connected with the University, but administered indepen- dently. It was founded in 1813, and has the purpose of giving special training to students who are to become teachers in the secondary schools. To some thirty of the University students who are enrolled in its courses it gives board, lodging and a subsidy. Total number of students enrolled in 1917-1918: 61. It offers courses in Languages, Literature, Philosophy, Peda- gogy, History, Mathematics and the Sciences, which are complementary to the courses in the same subjects olTered by the University Faculties. This work may be combined with practice-teaching in the city schools. A series of Annali, containing noteworthy literary and scientific studies, is pub- lished by the Normal School. Siena A city of 26,000 inhabitants, in Tuscany. Long indepen- 52 Institute of International Education dent, Siena deve'oped its own institutions and culture. Its University (R. University degli Studi) is descended from the Studium of the thirteenth century. Under Napoleon it was combined with the University of Pisa, but later its autonomy was restored. It was raised to the first class in 1887. At present it has the Faculties of Law and of Medicine, each giving the complete course leading to the doctorate; and a School of Pharmacy. Number of students in 1917-1918: 311- The City Library (Biblioteca Comunale) has about 5,000 manuscripts and over 100,000 printed books. Macerata A small town of some 6,000 inhabitants, in the former States of the Church. The University (R. Universita) originated as a Law School in the thirteenth century; although at times it has had other Faculties, at present it has only the Faculty of Law. It was raised to the first grade in 1901. Number of students in 1914-1915: 368; 1916-1917: 359. Camerino An ancient town of about 6,000 inhabitants. Its Free Uni- versity (Libera University degli Studi) was founded by Pope Benedict XIII in 1727, with Faculties of Theology, Law, Philosophy, Mathematics, and Medicine. At present it has the Faculties of Law (conferring the doctorate) and Medicine (giving the first four years of the six-year course) ; also a School of Pharmacy, and a Veterinary School (two years). Its courses are recognized as equivalent to those of the Royal Universities. Number of students in 1917-1918: 329. Urbino A town which attained a position of great importance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries under the Montefeltro family; now with 7,000 inhabitants. A College of Doctors, created in 1506, received in 1564 the right to confer degrees. The real foundation of the University (University Libera Provinciale) dates from 1671, when Urbino formed a part of the States of Higher Education in Italy 53 the Church. At present it has the Faculty of Law (whose degrees are equivalent to those of the Royal Universities) and a School of Pharmacy. It has its own funds, and an annual subsidy from the Province. Number of students in 1916-1917 : 246. Perugia A city of 20,000 inhabitants, the capital of Umbria. Its Uni- versity was organized as Studium Generale in 1308, from schools dating from the previous century. During the suc- ceeding period its fame was international, and its students were organized into "Nations." After the union of Umbria with the Kingdom of Italy in i860, the University was classed as "Free" (Libera Universita degli Studi). Since 1886 it has been autonomous, supported by its own funds, with small sub- sidies from the Province and the City of Perugia. It appoints its own professors, with the advice of a commission which contains three members from other LTniversities. The Faculties are those of Law (full course leading to doctorate) and Medicine (four years of the six- year course), with a Veterinary School (full course) and a School of Pharmacy. The arrangement of courses and the fees paid are the same as in the Royal Univer- sities. Number of students in 1917-1918: 282. Rome (Roma) The capital of Italy since 1871, and before 1870 the capital of the States of the Church — 590,960 inhabitants in 191 5. On account of its historical, antiquarian and artistic interest, as well as its great University, its libraries, schools, academies of all sorts, Rome is a center of education and research of the greatest importance for foreigners as well as Italians. This im- portance as an intellectual center has developed largely since 1870. Previous to that time the only educational institutions were those controlled by the Church. I. University (R. Universita degli studi). Founded as Studium Urbis by Pope Boniface VIII in 1303, although higher studies had been cultivated in the previous century. At times it flourished, at other times it declined or was closed. In 1748 54 Institute of International Education the numerous "schools" were reduced to five Faculties: The- ology; Law; Medicine; Philosophy and the Arts; Languages. After 1870 the University was reorganized and developed. Theology was eliminated in 1873; the Faculty of Sciences was added, with many special schools. Since 1660 the University has occupied the building called la Sapienza, between the Corso and the Tiber; its colonnaded court in two stories, one of the finest in Rome, is similar to the courts in many Univer- sity buildings in Italy. Here, and in part of an adjoining palace, the Faculties of Law and of Letters are now housed. The buildings used by the Faculties of Medicine and of Sciences are scattered in various parts of the city. There is a plan to construct an entirely new group of buildings for the University outside the walls, near the great Clinical Hospital (Policlinico). Under the Faculty of Letters advanced or post-graduate courses are offered, and training courses for teachers (Scuola di Magistero). A large number of courses are given by Liberi Docenti, and there are special Schools of Archeology, of Oriental Languages (Semitic, Sanskrit, Chinese, etc.), of Medieval and Modern Art. Under the Faculty of Sciences, training courses for teachers are offered, and a course of Sciences Applied to Agriculture. The Mathematical Seminar is noteworthy. This faculty gives the doctorate in Physics, Chemistry, Natural Sciences, and Mathematics; it also provides the preparatory biennium in Engineering. Under the Faculty of Law is a School of Applied Criminology (Scuola d'Applicazione Giuridico-criminale), founded in 1912. The School of Pharmacy gives the doctorate in Chemistry and Pharmacy as well as the professional diploma in Pharmacy. The University Library, called Biblioteca Alessandrina after its founder, Pope Alexander VH (1667), is in the Sapienza; it contains over 180,000 volumes and 115,000 pamphlets (in- cluding 65,000 doctoral theses). Number of students in 1914-1915: 4,558; 1918-1919: 4,489 (besides several hundred listeners). Number of official Pro- fessors, 119; of Liberi Docenti, 492. Higher Education in Italy 55 2. The Engineering School (R. Scuola di Applicazione per gli Ingegneri), estabh'shed in 181 7, is separate from the Uni- versity, It provides the three years of appHed studies which lead to the degrees of Civil Engineer and of Architect. Num- ber of students in 1914-1915: 597. 3. Higher Commercial School (R. Istituto Superiore di Studi Commerciali). Established 1906. 4. Higher Normal School for Women (R. Istituto di Magis- tero Femminile). Established in 1878. 5. School of Fine Arts (R. Istituto Superiore di Belle Arti). Originally annexed to the Accademia di S. Luca. Gives training in Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Anatomy for Artists, etc. 6. School of Music (Liceo Musicale). Established 1876 as the educational division of the Accademia di S. Cecilia (which dates from 1584). Instruction in all branches of Music. Frequent concerts are given in the school and in the Augusteo (Matisoleum of Augustus, converted into a concert-hall). 7. Libraries. (A) Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele, organized in 1877 by the union of some 75 older libraries. Receives current publications. Has over 1,000,000 volumes, 1,500 incunabula, 6,200 manuscripts. (B) Biblioteca Casanatense, founded 1698. Strong in historical works. Has 130,000 volumes, 2,080 incunabula, 6,000 manuscripts. (C) Library of the Senate (Biblioteca del Senato), open to stu- dents on introduction by a Senator. About 100,000 volumes; especially strong in legal and economic works. (A, B and C are in the center of the city, near the University). (D) Vatican Library. The most important collection of manuscripts in the world (about 60,000). There are also more than 350,000 printed books, including 3,000 incunabula. Printed cata- logues available for certain sections of the library; for others, the manuscript catalogue must be consulted. (E) Library of the Accademia dei Lincei and Corsini Library (Corsiniana). These Libraries combined have about 100,000 volumes, over 2,000 incunabula, over 2,500 manuscripts. The most ex- tensive collection in Italy of the publications of Learned Societies and Academies of all countries, many of which are 56 Institute oj International Education obtained by exchange for the publications of the Accademia dei Lincei. (F) Library for American Studies in Italy, founded in 1918, opened in 1920, in Palazzo Salviati, 271 Corso Um- berto I, contains books about America, and a selection of Italian books for the use of Americans. 8. Pontifical Gregorian University (Pontificia University Gregoriana). Founded in the sixteenth century, and named for Pope Gregory XIII. Has three Faculties: Philosophy, Theology, Law. These Faculties confer the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after a course of three years; Doctor of Theology after four years; Doctor of Canon Law after three. This and other ecclesiastical schools, entirely independent of the State, provide for the training of priests. In addition, there are in Rome several national seminaries for candidates for the priesthood coming from foreign countries. 9. International Institute of Agriculture (Istituto Inter- nazionale d'Agricoltura). Organized in 1905 by forty states, and since joined by fifteen more, each represented by a dele- gate. The delegates form a permanent Commission, which proposes to gather and distribute information of every kind concerning Agriculture, and to promote the progress of Agri- cultural Science and the interests of agriculturists. The Institute has a Library of over 70,000 volumes, and receives some 3,000 journals. It issues Bulletins and other publica- tions in Italian, French, English and Spanish. 10. Many foreign nations maintain Schools or Academies in Rome. The one of most interest to Americans is The American Academy in Rome, which was formed in 1912 by the union of the School of Fine Arts and the School of Classical Studies, both of which were established in 1894. It occupies a fine building on the Janiculum Hill (via Angelo Masina), which contains, beside living-quarters for the Faculty and students, class-rooms, studios, a fine Library and a Museum of Antiquities. It is supported by its own funds and by con- tributions from Universities in America, and offers admirable opportunities for study to a limited number of advanced students. It publishes a series of Memoirs. Further infor- mation may be obtained by addressing the Secretary of the Higher Education in Italy 57 Academy, or its office in New York City (care of C. Grant La Farge, loi Park Ave.)- The Academy is the representative in Italy of the American University Union in Europe. Naples (Napoli) The largest city in Italy (697,917 inhabitants in 191 5), with the largest University, important Libraries and a unique Museum. After many years under Spanish influence, as capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, it was united to the Kingdom of Italy in i860. 1. The University (R. Universita degli Studi) was founded by Emperor Frederick II in 1224, as a rival to that of Bologna in the study of Law and Theology. In 1252 it was moved to Salerno, and joined to the Medical School which had existed there since the eleventh century. After a few years the entire University, including the Medical Faculty, was transferred to Naples, where it flourished intermittently, and did not become truly important until after the passage of a special law in 1861, providing for its development. It is unique among Italian Universities in having five Faculties in place of the usual four, there being two separate Faculties of Sci- ences, Mathematical and Natural, besides those of Law, Medi- cine, and Letters. Under the Faculty of Letters, beside the required subjects, courses are offered in English, German and Modern Greek Literatures, in Dante, in Sanskrit, in Pompeian Antiquities, in Experimental Psychology; also normal courses. Under the Faculty of Law is a school which prepares for diplomatic and consular service. Connected with the Faculty of Natural Sciences are an important Botanic Garden, an Astronomical Observatory, a Vesuvian Observatory, and the famous Zoological Station (R. Stazione Zoologica), founded in 1 87 1, the most important station in the world for the study of marine biology, with laboratories and the noted Aquarium. The Medical Faculty has an immense number of Liberi Docenti, and extraordinary clinical facilities. Number of students in 1914-1915: 4,580; in 1917-1918: 9,387. 2. Polytechnic (R. Scuola Superiore Politecnica). This is the oldest Engineering School in Italy, having been founded 58 Institute of International Education in 1811 as a school for engineers of roads and bridges. In 1863 it was put under the regulations governing the Engineer- ing School in Turin. In 1905 it was given its present name and organization. The two preparatory years are given in combination with the Mathematical Faculty of the Univer- sity. The three years of applied study lead to the degrees of Civil, Industrial, or Naval Engineer, and of Architect. The course in Industrial Engineering is divided into Chemical and Electromechanical sections. Number of students in 1917-1918: 1,688. 3. Veterinary School (R. Scuola Superiore di Medicina Veterinaria), founded in 1798. Course of four years, leading to degree of Dottore in Zooiatria. Number of students in 1916-1917: 70; in 1917-1918: 45. 4. Oriental Institute (R. Istituto Orientale). Founded as Chinese College in 1727, entirely reorganized in 1888, and again in 1913, being put under the Ministry of the Colonies. It has two sections: (i) Languages (Albanian, Arabic, Berber, Chinese, Japanese, Turkish, Serbian, Russian, Modern Greek, etc.); (2) Colonial Culture (Ethnology, Geography, Hygiene, Legislation, etc.). 5. Libraries. (A) Biblioteca Nazionale, with 400,000 vol- umes, 230,000 pamphlets, 4,220 incunabula, 8,000 manu- scripts. (B) Biblioteca Universitaria, with 300,000 volumes, 100,000 pamphlets. Bari A seaport on the Adriatic, with 109,000 inhabitants. The Higher Commercial School (R. Istituto Superiore di Studi Commerciali), inaugurated in 1876, has a commercial course and a consular course. Instruction is given in the ordinary commercial subjects, and in the French, English, German, Spanish and Albanian languages. Palermo The largest city in Sicily, with 346,000 inhabitants in 1915. Previous efforts to found a University having been unsuc- cessful, in 1 78 1 the Accademia di Scienze e Lettere obtained Higher Education in Italy 59 the right to confer degrees in Philosophy, Theology, Law and Medicine. This Academy was made into a University in 1805; and in 1841, under the new Regulations for the three Sicilian Universities, it was divided into five Faculties. After the Union of Sicily with the Kingdom of Italy in i860, the three Universities came under the laws governing those on the mainland. At present the University of Palermo (R. University degli Studi) has the Faculties of Law, Medi- cine, Sciences, and Letters, with Normal Courses, a School of Pharmacy, and a School of Engineering giving the three years of applied study in Engineering and in Architecture. The Botanic Garden has an important colonial section, with large experimental fields and greenhouses. The small Uni- versity Library supplements the Biblioteca Nazionale (with more than 200,000 volumes) and the Biblioteca Comunale (with more than 160,000 volumes), both particularly rich in Sicilian authors and editions. Number of students in 1914- 1915: 1,776; 1918-1919: 2,435. Catania An important seaport with 217,000 inhabitants. Its Uni- versity (R. University degli Studi) was founded in 1434 as a Studium Generale. It has the Faculties of Law, Medicine, Sciences, and Letters, with Normal Courses and a School of Pharmacy. Number of students in 1914-1915: 1,326; in 1917-1918: 1,629. Messina A city of about 150,000 inhabitants, whose development, with that of its University, was interrupted by the earthquake of December 28, 1908. The University (R. Universita degli Studi) was founded in 1548, later suppressed, and reestablished in 1838. It was made of the first grade in 1885. Having sur- vived the earthquake, it now contains the Faculties ot Law, Medicine (giving four years of the six-year course), Sciences, and Letters, with Normal Courses and a School of Phar- macy. Number of students in 1914-1915: 488; in 1918- 1919: 421. 6o Institute of International Education Cagliari The chief city of Sardinia, with 55,765 inhabitants. Previ- ous to the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, this island with Piedmont and Savoy made up the Kingdom of Sardinia. The University (R. University degli Studi), inaugurated in 1626, was in 1859 one of those governed by the Casati Law. It was made of the first grade in 1902. It has three Faculties: Law, Medicine, and Sciences, with a School of Pharmacy. Number of students in 1914-1915: 283; in 1918-1919: 437. Sassari The second city of Sardinia, with 36,000 inhabitants. The University (R. Universita degli Studi) was created in 161 7 from a Collegio existing since 1558. The Casati Law of 1859 provided for its suppression, but this provision was revoked; the University was made of the second grade in 1877, of the first grade in 1902. It has two Faculties: Law and Medicine, with a School of Pharmacy. Number of students in 1914- 1915; 153; in 1918-1919: 217. Learned Societies Nearly all the important cultural centers in Italy, including many small towns, have their Academies of Sciences and Letters, or other Societies of the kind. Historical Commissions, Archives, Libraries, etc. Many of these organizations issue publications, containing material which is frequently of great scholarly importance; but these publications, except a few of the better-known ones, are often difiicult to find outside of Italy, even in the largest libraries. In addition to the local organizations, there are several Associations of national scope, a few of which may well be mentioned here. I. Society for the Advancement of Science (Society Italiana per il Progresso delle Scienze), founded in 1907. This Society holds an annual Congress, at which papers in all lines of scientific activity are presented and discussed; the papers being afterwards published in volumes of "Atti." Headquarters Csede) in Rome. Higher Education in Italy 6i 2. Societies to promote the study of different Sciences: Societa Botanica Italiana (sede in Florence), Societa Chimica Italiana (sede in Milan), Societa Geografica Italiana (sede in Rome), Societa Geologica Italiana (sede in Rome), Society Zoologica Italiana (sede in Rome), and various others. v^ 3. Societa Dantesca Italiana (sede in Florence, branches in Milan, Padua, Venice, Rome). Publishes a quarterly Bullettino and critical editions of Dante's works; maintains readings and lectures (Lectura Dantis). Not to be confused with the Societa Nazionale Dante Alighieri ("La Dante"), whose objects are patriotic and general rather than scholarly (sede in Rome), y 4. Societa Nazionale per la Storia del Risorgimento Italiano (founded 1906; sede in Rome, branches elsewhere). Pub- lishes a Rivista Storica del Risorgimento and a Bollettino. J 5. Societa Italiana per la Diffusione e I'lncoraggiamento degli Studi Classici (founded 1897; has branches in various cities, sede in Florence; publishes monthly review Atene e Roma). 6. Istituto per la Propaganda della Cultura Italiana (sede in Rome, 5 via Campidoglio; publishes bibliographical guides i and monthly review Italia che Scrive). p ^ 7. Unione Generale degl' Insegnanti Italiani (sede in Rome, branches elsewhere; similar to "N. E. A." in America; mem- bership open to teachers of all grades, including University professors; various publications and activities. Founded during the war, and incorporated in 191 7). / 8. Touring Club Italiano (sede in Milan, 10 Corso Italia; founded 1894; publishes monthly Rivista, also maps and guide-books of Italy; membership open to foreigners; agencies in Rome, etc.). PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS 1919 Announcement of Founding of Institute. 1920 Bulletin No. i. First Annual Report of the Director. Bulletin No. 2. For Administrative Authorities of Universities and Colleges. Bulletin No. 3. Observations on Higher Education in Europe. Opportunities for Higher Education in France. Opportunities for Graduate Study in the British Isles. For the International Relations Cluhs Syllabus No. I. Outline of the Covenant of the League of Nations. Syllabus No. II. The Past, Present and Future of the Monroe Doctrine, Syllabus No. III. The History of Russia from Earliest Times. Syllabus No. IV. The Russian Revolution. Syllabus No. V. The Question of the Balkans. Syllabus No. VI. Modern Mexican History. I921 Bulletin No, i. Second Annual Report of the Director. ADVISORY COUNCIL Addams, Jane Alderman, President Edwin Ames, Dean Herman V. Andrews, Fanny Fern Biggs, Dr. Herman Blakeslee, Professor G. H. Brookings, Robert S. Bruere, Henry Bull, Dr. Carroll G. Burton, President M. L. Byrne, James Coolidge, Professor Archibald Cravath, Paul D. Cunliffe, Professor J. W. Davis, Katherine B. Downer, Professor Charles A. Ely, Professor Richard T. Filene, A. Lincoln Finley, Dr. John H. Fosdick, Dr. Harry E. Gilbert, Cass Gildersleeve, Dean V. C. Goodnow, President F. J. Hadley, Dr. A. T. Hale, Dr. George E. Harringron, Governor E. C. Hazen, Professor Charles D. Hibben, President J. G. Howe, Professor Henry M. Hughes, Hon. Charles E. Jenks, Professor Jeremiah Judson, President H. P. Keppel, Frederick P. Keyser, Professor C. J. Lovett, President Edgar Lowell, President A. L. MacCracken, President H. N. Mali, Pierre Main, President J. H. T. Mannes, David Marling, Alfred E. Meiklejohn, President A. Milliken, Professor R. A. Moore, Professor E. H. Morgan, William Fellowes Neilson, President W. A. Noyes, Professor Arthur A. Payne, President Bruce R. Pendleton, President Ellen T. Pupin, Professor Michael L Putnam, Herbert Richardson, Dr. E. C. Robinson, Dr. Edward Sachs, Professor Julius Salmon, Dr. Thomas W. Schwedtman, Ferdinand C. Severance, Mrs. C. A. Shanklin, President W. A. Shorey, Professor Paul Shotwell, Professor J. T. Showerman, Professor Grant Stimson, Henry L. Stokes, Dr. Anson Phelps Storey, Professor Thomas A. Suzzallo, President Henry Thomas, President M. Carey Todd, Professor Henry A. Townsend, Hon. John G. Vincent, Dr. George E. Wald, Lillian D. White, Professor Henry C. Wilkins, Professor Ernest H. Wilson, Professor George G. Woodbridge, Dean F. J. E. Woolley, President Mary E. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 022 134 706 7