SOUTH-WESTERN NORMAL SCHOOL, i Lebanon, Warren Co., O. ! The fourth year of the South- Western Normal School i has commenced with an increased number of students, and | with increased facilities. ; The number of different pupils in the Teachers' Classes during the last year was 335, an increase of more than a j hundred over the previous year. All the pupils of last year, save about twenty who remained to prosecute their studies, have been provided with good sit- uations as teachers. The pupils of the Normal School every- where secure the best places and highest wages for the | grade of school in which they engage. They are laboring | for wages varj'ing from thirty to one hundred dollars per j month, in every grade of school, from country district schools i to Superintendencies of City Public Schools; and without I excep^on giving such satisfaction that each teacher from the j Normal School makes a demand for more similarly trained^ j FACILITIES.— The Facilities, previously superior to any in the ! State for training Teachers, have recently been much increased and j improved. j These facilities have formerly consisted of a spacious and well ar- I ranged School Building worth $10. COO,, a Playground of three acres; a , sufficient number of Teachers to n.eet all the wants of the pupils, and i to make all the recitations and class drills an hour in lenuth; a well i selected promiscuous Library, to which all pupils have free access; a ; library of Text-books, from which the pupils can rent text-books at a merely nominal charge; an extensive and complete collection of Ap- paratus for Elementary and Analytical Chemistiy, and for Natural i Philosophy; an excellent French Manikin and Skeleton for Physiol- ogy; a full set of Instruments for Survej'ing and Railroad Engineering, including a theodolite, transit and leveling instrumeJUs, and survey- or's compass; also, a valuable and extensive collection of Minerals, arranged with special reference to the science of Geology. To such facilities, others have been added; among which are, addi- tional teachers, (the whole number now being sixj to meet the wants of the increased number of pupils; aldo a complete Gymnastic Avp.v- RATUS, for physical trailing. Facilities for obtaining good situations fur ])upils, as teachers are continually increasing. EXPENSES.— Board can be had in respectable families for $2,50 per week, including fiirnished room and fuel. Abundant accommodations are furnished for Self-boarding, by which many of the students reduce their expenses nearly one-half. Rooms furnished with tables, chairs, bed, bedding, cooking stove, cooking utensils, bucket and wash basin, are rented to two pupils for f 1.50 each per month. \ The Tuition is eight dollars and a third per session of eleven weeks. I Books are rented at five cents a volume for a session. When it is con- sidered that an outlay of several dollars is required every session for the purchase of books, at other iiistiiutions, it will be seen that the ex- Ijenses are less at the Normal School than at any other school in the State. Catalogues will be sent to any who desire them. Lebanon may be reached by Little Miama Railroad from Deerfield Station, by omnibuses meeting the trails; or from Great Miami Rail- road from Dayton by stage. A. HOLBROOK, Principal. CIIAS. S. ROYCE, Agent. THE NORMA-L, A Professional Work, devoted to Metliods of Teaching. ALFRED HOLBROOK, Author and Publisher. This volume is devoted to the methods of teaching the common branches, including Orthoepy, Spelling, Grammar, Geography, Arithrat tic and Elocution. The (Jlassincations, Definitions, Demonstrations, and Ex- planations of these branches, to some extent, as used in the COURSE OF TRAINING in the South-Western Normal School, form the principal material of the work. The Methods OF Teaching, and of Training Teachers in the management of Classes, hold the most prominent place, in connection with every branch. The work, as a whole, is new in conception and execution. Nothing of the kind has ever been attempted before. All previous books for Teachers, claiming to be professional, have been so general as to give little definite aid in any particular branch; while the Normal contains specific directions and ample exemplifications, for the management of the several grades of classes in each of the common branches. CONTENTS.— Part T. General Classification of Knowlortge, with Definitions. 32 pages, price 15cts; stitched in paper cover. Part II. Orthoepy and Orthography, with the means and methods of teaching them; including the classifications, definitions, charts, and the plans of teaching spelling to all grades of scholars. 64 pages, in paper cover, price 27cts. Part III. Grammar, including classifications and definitions; also new aid improved methods of teaching Eiijmology, Syntax and Jln- ali/sis, to primary and advanced classes. 80 pages, price 27cts. Part IV. Geography, including the best methods of teaching pri- mary, secondary, and advanced classes ; also, full instructions fi)r map drawing; also, a more extensive and complete arrangemeiit of classifications, than has ever before been published. b8 pages, price 27cts. Part Y. Arithmetic, including the best methods of teaching Men- tal, Written, and Theoretical Arithmetic; also, an entire sj'stem of classifications; also, new methods of demonstration for many Arith- metical Principles. SO pa^es. price 27ct3. Pakt VI. Elocution, or the art of Yocal Delivery; including Read- ing, Speaking and Gesticulation. This number is designed to be used as a text-book in schools, in connection with the second, which gives the means and metiiods of training the voice in the Articulate Sounds. It is also designed to j^recede or accompany an> reading book already introduced into any school. 112 pages, price 40cts. TEllMS. — The Normal will be furnished, single, at one dollar and fifty cents, for the volume of 4.16 pages, bound in cloth. Four copies for five dollars, twenty copies for twenty dollars, and one copy addi- tional to any person sending a club of twenty. The volumes will be mailed, postage paid, to the individuals at the above prices. Teach- ers will be able to get up clubs at Teachers' Institutes or Normal Schools. The second and fifth parts are bound together and will be sent, postage paid, for63cts; also 20 or more copies for introduction as a reading book, for 42 cts each. Lebanon, Warren Co., 0.. Jan. 1, 1859. ^J c^V/^i^i^^Zt^ L^^/^ //-/^ -^ THE NORMAL METHODS OF TEACHING THE COMMON BKANOHES, ORTHOEPY, ORTHOGRAPHY, GRAMMAR, GEOGRA- PHY, ARITHMETIC AND ELOCUTION; INCLUDING THE OUTLINES, TECHNICALITIES, EXPLANATIONS, DEM- ONSTRATIONS, DEFINITIONS AND METHODS, INTRODUCTORY AND PECULIAH TO EACH BRANCH. J' By ALFRED HOLBROOK. LEBANON, OHIO: PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 1859. •: 1 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, By ALFRED HOLBROOK, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of Ohio. g^^- For Retail and Club Prices, see advertisement at the end of the book. PREFACE. Multitudes of growing teachers spend money by tens or hundreds every year, in visiting schools, in order, that by witnessing the operations of teachers of acknowledged ability, they may im- prove or remodel their own systems. This volume is designed to take a working school on a visit to teachers. It presents to its readers in succession, classes in the several grades of the common branches in actual operation, and the teachers pur- suing such methods as have proved abundantly successful with large numbers who have tried them. The Normal has been undertaken as a matter of necessity for training classes of Teachers. All books hitherto written for teachers, being designed Ciii) IV PREFACE. only as reference books, are too general to be used as text books. If Teaching is a science, it can be taught as a science ; and text books can be used with as much advantage as in other sciences. As the work has progressed, the different Parts have been brought to the test in Classes of Teachers, and have been found greatly to facilitate the pecu- liar duties and labors of the Normal School. The different Parts, as they have appeared from time to time, have been used by many hundreds of teachers as Guide-books in their school-room du- ties, being consulted, more or less, daily, for hints and aids in the management of the several classes. From many such teachers, in the different grades of schools, both public and private, the author has received encouraging assurances of the utility, the necessity of the work. In numerous instances teachers, aided by its directions and suggestions, have remodeled their entire operations, and from very indifferent materials, as they had supposed, have been able to reconstruct and build up an effi- cient and successful system. The Parts on Geography, Grammar, and Arith- metic, are used by pupils as well as teachers, for PREFACE. V reference books in the preparation of their lessons ; the classifications and demonstrations affording aid in the thorough investigation of each of these branches. The Second and Sixth Parts are designed to be used as text books in Reading and Speaking; though prepared for Teachers' Classes in the Nor- mal School, they will be found none the less suita- ble for classes in Reading and Speaking in any Echool. Though the special methods of only the branch- es mentioned on the title page are given in this volume, the General Method described in connec- tion with teaching advanced classes in Grammar in Part III, is equally applicable to the Higher Branches. Fellow Teachers, should any one of you make a panorama of the school under your special charge, or the system of schools under your general super- vision, painted on successive pages in word pic- tures, as I have endeavored to do, please let me know ; I shall wish to obtain a sight of it. I have already been amply compensated for the labor and expense bestowed in the preparation and VI PREFACE. publication of the Normal ; and should the bound volume meet with the same cordial reception from my brethren, which has greeted the several Parts as they have successively appeared, I shall surely have abundant reason to feel that " my labor has not been in vain." a. h. South- We STERN Normal School, Lebanon, 0., Jan. 1859. P A RT I. CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: OR, SCIENCE, INTRODUCTION. Knowledge is that wliich is already known by the individual,^ or which he may certainly know by study. In a mor.e general sense, it is that which is already known by any one of the human species ; and henee may be known by many others. All else is mystery. The limits of knowledge are constantly enlarging, but mystery, instead of dimin- ishing becomes still more enlarged. Mysterious, unanswerable problems rise on every side. For every new"^fact that is acquired by accident or investigation, many new mysteries present them- selves to the inquirer. This will be found to be true in every direction. The man of few thoughts has few difficulties or doubts ; the idiot, none. But as the boundary of thought increases by its own activity, innumerable queries spring up on every side, some of which are generalized with previous queries and their answers, and are thus solved or explained ; others, however, are retained for general- ization and solution when a sufficient number of other truths of similar kind are clustered or classi- fied together to form a law or general principle. He who is most successful in classifying isolated facts, in perceiving identities, similarities, and relations in truths, will most speedily arrive at a satisfactory knowledge of things. Again he who has the most truth already classified has every advantage over him MTRODUCTION. whose knowledge, such as it, lies in chaos : in bare, isolated, unconnected fac-ts, or semblances of facts, retained in the memory on the principle of locality or association. Again, it is not a^N^ays borne in mind that truth generalized or systematized is just as mysterious after all. The reference of a new fact to a general principle is commonly taken for a satis- factory solution of the why and wherefore connected with it ; while to the thinlier, the mystery remains just as much unsolved as before ; nay, much enhan- ced by the consideration. Take for example the great Newtonian theory, of the law of gravitation. "Why," said Newton, as thousands had said before, "does this apple fall to the ground ? " The thousands had generalized the fact by saying, 'All bodies fall to the earth.' Newton asked again, 'Why do all bodies fall to the earth V The matter remained just as much a mystery after that generalization as before. In solving the mystery he discovered and demonstrated the wider generali- zation, "All matter attracts all other, directly as the weight of the masses and indirectly as the square of the distance." Thinkers are now left in more profound mystery than before Newton. For,, why does matter ex- ert this power in this manner? Non -thinker re- plies, " God has imparted this property to matter ;" just as non-thinker before the days of Newton, said, " God has established this law, 'All thino-s fall towards the earth.' " Who will then explain the law of gravitation ? that INTRODUCTION. i) is, generalize it with other facts known or unknown, and, perhaps, subvert this law, as Newton dissipated the notion that bodies fall because the direction is downward. It has been well remarked, that there is but one idea in the mind of God, i. e., all facts are general- ized or comprehended under one law, universal and eternal. Is that law simply his will ? or is it the inevitable relation of things over which a God of truth exerts no control, but with which all his acts harmonize, and with which he would have the acts of all his creatures coincide ? Who will answer ? That which is unknown, we call Mystery. But that which is known and not generalized may take different names according to circumstances. It may be called inforr)iation, intelligence, or crude undigested knowledge, which is but a slight remove from ignor- ance. A man possessing much knowledge in this unsystematized state, may be said, possibly, to be intelligent, but surely no one would call him scientific. Whereas, another, whose general knowledge was incomparably less, who had mastered the principles of one subject, as of chemistry or botany, might justly be called a man of science. In systematizing knowledge as it now exists, in other words, converting it into science ; it will be found that there are no very well defined lines of division. Ideas may be grouped, facts gathered in clusters and crystallized into sub-systems, but we shall discover before any group is complete and well arrano^ed in itself, that we have numerous truths that 10 INTRODUCTION. are required just as necessarily to complete the ar- rangement in another group. We may find, indeed, that some sciences, as generally received, may be entirely absorbed by others, either in a mass or by being divided, according to the respective claims of the several others. In a General Classification of Knowledge, then, like the one presented, there will arise numerous difficulties, from the first division, down through the location of the various branches, according to their natural relations. No two persons, even though equally Avell disciplined, would probably agree in the details of an arrangement of this kind. With regard to the first division of Knowledge ; viz. Literature, the Sciences, and the Arts ; it is that generally recognized. The nature of things demands this division, and general assent corrobo- rates it. The division of the Ancients was Physics, Metaphysics, and the Arts, The division of the Moderns is. Mind ; Matter, and its inseparable con- comitants, power and quantity ; lastly, the Arts. The difficulty, then, is not in the grand division as aforesaid, but in locating the several departments ; much more in locating the various branches. One might claim, for instance, that Ethics belongs more properly in Phrenics, another would place it in Epistatics, as connected inseparably with human governments. We have placed it in Theotics, as being more closely associated with relations to the Deity : the moral nature being the image of God implanted in the soul. CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: (Literature. 4 The .Sciences. OR, SCIENCE ( The Arts. DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF LITERATURE. ' Psychology, Phrenology. Grammar, Phrenics, Elocution, Rhetoric, Logic, Didactics, 'Theism, Deism, 'Theology, Pantheism, Polytheism, ^ Atheism. Theotics, . ' Christianity, Judaism, [ism Religion, Mohammedan- Infidelity, Paganism, Ethics. ' History, (Fictitious. Chronology, CTrue. Chronics, Biograpliy, Travels, (False — ^Novels. r Poems, < Epic. , ArchiBology, I 'Natural, Law, International, Epistatics, . ^ Ecclesiastical. ^ Patriarchal, [ Government, < Monarehieal, |tSet' Demoeratie, l^^^^^^.enftive. ClASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: (Literature. ^ _ •< The Sciences. OR, SCIEKCE. I The Arts. DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF THE SCIENCES. f Geography, 1 Geology, ol^^S^rf: 1 Botany, I Zoology. ' Arithmetic, Geometry, f Abstract, Analysis, Algebra, An. Geometry, Mathematics, Calculus. ' Book-Keeping, Mensuration,^ •^ Applied, Surveying, Navigation, _ Astronomy. ( Anatomy, 1 Physiology, Therapeutics, ^ Pathology, ^ Physopathy, 1 Hygiene, Allopathy, I Medicine, Homoeopathy, Hydropathy, ^ Electropathy. Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Physics, ^ Acoustics, Pyronomics, 0:)tics, Electrics, Physical As- t [tronomy. 1 CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE OR, SCIENCE. Literature. The Sciences. The Arts. DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF THE ARTS. Technics, Graphics, POLEMIGS, COSMICS, ( Agriculture) I Horticulture, ■{ Pomology, I Manufactures, I Printing. r Drafting, I Architecture, j Navitecture, Civil Engin- '- eering. f Strategy, j Tactics. I Military En- >- [gineering. f Painting, I Sculpture, *! Music, I Poetiy, I Dancinor. Linear, Mathematical, Perspective, Isometrieal, Shades & Sha- dows. f Infantry, j Cavalry, j Artillery, t Naval. (Pencilling, ■(Photography. (Engraving. DEFINITIONS PRELIMINARY TERMS. 1. Knowledge. That which is known. Mystery. That which is not known. 2. Science. Knowledge systematized and explained. Empiricism. Knowledge not systematized or explained. Dogmatism. Opinions asserted as knowledge. .3. Conjecture. A supposition assumed without sat- isfactory data. HyiootKesis. A supposition assumed to account for a fact. Theory. A supposition sustained by several facts, which it generalizes and explains. 4. Theory. The systematic arrangement of laws and principles. Practice. The application of such laws and prin- ciples to useful purposes. 5. Discovery. The act of finding out that which previously existed. Invention. The act of contriving and producing that which did not previously exist. DEFINITIONS. 1 5 6. GRAND DIVISIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. Literature. That grand division of knowledge which comprises all those branches, treating of the mind, its nature and communications"; also, the Responsibilities, History and Government of Man. The Sciences. That grand division of knowledge which comprises all those branches, which treat of Matter and Quantity. The Arts. That grand division of knowledge which comprises all those branches, which treat of the improvement or embellishment of matter. 7. DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE. Phrenics. That department of knowledge which comprises all those branches, which treat of the na- ture of mind, and the communication of thought. Theotics. That department of knowledge Avhich comprises alUhose branches, which treat of God, and the obligations of man to the Deity and to each other. Chronics. That department of knowledge which comprises all those branches which involve the lapse of time as a necessary element. Epistatics. That departmentof knowledge which comprises all those branches which treat of human laws and government. 8. DEPARTMENTS OF THE SCIENCES. Geotics. That department of the Sciences which comprises all those branches which treat of the ma- terial world, its surface, structure, materials and inhabitants. 1 6 DEFINITIONS^ Therapeutics. That department of the Sciences which comprises all those branches necessary to the preservation and restoration of health. Physics. That department of Science which com- prises all those branches which treat of matter in the mass ; also, of force and motion. Mathematics. That department of the Sciences which Comprises all those branches which treat of quantity, and its applications to substance, time and space. 9. DEPARTMENTS OF THE AETS. Technics. That department of the Arts which comprises all those branches which contribute to the necessities and comfort of man and beast. Graphics. That department of the Arts which comprises all those useful branches in which Math- ematical Drafting is a necessary element. Polemics. That Department of the Arts which comprises all those branches which treat of War and Fortification. CosMics. That Department of the Arts which comprises all those branches which contribute to the pleasures of the taste and imagination ; usually call- ed the Fine Arts. 10. BRANCHES OF PHRENICS. Psychology. That branch of knowledge which treats of the mind, its nature, powers and relations. Phrenology. Tliat branch which treats of the mind, as manifested by the form of the skull. DEFINITIONS. 17 Grammar. That branch which treats of language, and its correct use, in the communication of thouo-ht. Elocution. That branch which treats of vocal delivery, in reading and speaking. Rhetoric. That branch which treats of clearness, force, and elegance, in the use of language ; also, of the invention, development, and arrangement of ideas. Logic. That branch which treats of thinkino- and reasoning correctly. Didactics. That branch which treats of the means and methods of imparting instruction : also, of school arrangements and school discipline, 11. DIVISIONS OF THEOTICS. Theology. That division of knowledge which treats of the existence, nature, and attributes of God. Religion. That division of knowledge which treats of the obligations of men to God, and to each other, 12. BRANCHES OF THEOLOGY. Theism. That branch which treats of God, as having given a revelation of his will to man. Deism. That branch which treats of God as ex- isting, but denies a- revelation. Pantheism. That branch which treats of God as being all things, and of all things as being God. Polytheism. That branch which treats of many gods, with distinct and conflicting natures. 2 18 DEFINITIONS. Atheism. That branch which treats of natural law as controlling all things, and denies the existence of a Supreme Intelligence. 13. BRANCHES OF RELIGION. CHRTSTiANiTr. That branch which treats of the religion of Jesus Christ, which recognizes the Old and New Testaments as a divine revelation. Judaism. That branch which treats of the reli- gion of the Jews, which recognizes only the Old Testament as a divine revelation. Mohammedanism. That branch which treats of the religion established by Mahomet, and which recognizes the Koran as a divide revelation. Paganism. That branch which treats of the various beliefs of the heathen, or polytheists. IxFiDELTTY. That braucli which treats of the doc- trine of sceptics, or those who do not believe in a divine revelation. Ethics. That branch which treats of morality, or the obligations of men to each other ; us ually called Moral Philosophy. 14. BRANCHES OF CHRONICS. History. That branch which treats of the rise and progress of nations and communities ; giving a narration of events pertaining to each, in order of their occurrence, with their causes and consequen- ces. Sacred History. That given by the writers of the Old and New Testaments. DEFINITIONS. 19 Profane Historij. That derived from any other source than the Bible. Chronology. That branch which treats of the various divisions and periods of time, and the meth- ods of reckoning the dates of past events. Biography. That branch which treats of the lives and characters of individuals. Archaeology. That branch which treats of the Ancients, their knowledge, manners, customs, etc. Travels. That branch which treats of adven- tures in journeys ; also of the manners, customs, curiosities, and productions of foreign countries or states. 15. BRANCHES OF EPISTATICS. Law — A rule of action. Natural Law. That branch which treats of law as existing in the social relations, prior to any posi- tive precept or enactment. Civil Law. That branch which treats of law established in society, by general usage or positive enactment. Statute Law. That form of civil law established by legislative power ; also, recorded and published as law. Common Law. That form of civil law estab- lished by general usage, and recognized by the deci- sions of courts. International Law. That branch which treats of the regulation of the intercourse of nations. Ecclesiastical Law. That branch which treats 20 DEFINITIONS. of the laws established for the government of a church. Government — A method of administering law. Patriarchal Government. That in which the law is administered by the head of the family or tribe, called a Patriarch, Chief, Shiek, etc. Absolute Monarchy. That form of government in which the will of the sovereign is unrestrained by legislative enactment. Limited Monarchy. That form of government in which the power of the sovereign is restrained by a constitution and laws. Democracy. That form of government in which the people choose their own rulers, and make their own laws. Republic. That form of government in which the people choose their own rulers ; also, repre- sentatives to make their laws. It is also called a Representative Democracy. 16. BRANCHES OF GEOTICS. Geography. That branch which treats of the earth's surface ; also, of the phenomena of land, water, and atmosphere. Geology. That branch which treats of the struc- ture of the earth and the causes of the existing arrangement of the mineral masses in the earth's crust. Mineralogy. That branch which treats of the inorganic materials of the earth ; their composition, properties, relations and classification ; also, of the means of determining them. DEFINITIONS. 21 Chemistry. That branch which treats of the elements of matter; their nature and properties; their laws of combination and decomposition ; also, of the means of combining and separating them. Botany. That branch which treats of plants ; their habits, habitations, uses, and classification ; also, of the means of determining them. ZooLOOY. That branch which treats of animals; their structure, habits, habitations and classification ; also, of the succession and distribution of the various classes, orders, genera, and species on the Earth. 17. BRANCHES OF THERAPEUTICS. Anatomy. That branch which treats of the dif- ferent parts of organized bodies. Physiology. That branch which treats of the functions and properties of the different parts of organized bodies ; also, of vital phenomena, their causes, methods, and aims. Pathology. That branch which treats of dis- eases, their nature, symptoms and causes. Hygiene. That branch which treats of the pre- servation of health. Medicine. That branch which treats of the cure or alleviation of disease. Physopathy. The cure of disease by attending to the demands of the system, as indicated to the patient himself by his feelings and desires. Allopathy. The cure of disease by inducing a condition of the system opposite to, or incompatible with that essential to the disease. "2,% DEFINITIONS. HoMCEOPATHY. The cure of disease by inducing in the patient affections similar to the disease. It is accomplished chiefly by minute doses of medicine. Hydropathy. The cure of disease by the inter- nal or external application of water. Electropathy. The cure of disease by the application of electrical currents to the system, or part affected. MoTORPATHY. The cure of disease by rubbing or kneading the parts affected. 18. DIVISIONS OF MATHEMATICS. Pure, or Abstract Mathematics. That division of the subject which considers quantity, apart from any particular substance, time or space. Mixed, or Applied Mathematics. That division of the subject which considers magnitude or number, as applied to some definite substance, time or space. 19. BRANCHES OF PURE MATHEMATICS. Arithmetic. That branch which treats of Num- bers ; their properties, laws, proportions ; also, of the processes involved in their applications. Geometry. That branch which treats of space, in all its varied forms, portions, and relations ; also, of the processes involved in determining magnitudes in known units. Analysis. That branch which treats of Quantity, and makes use of letters of the alphabet to express numbers, and of signs to express operations. Algebra. The application of Analysis to Arith- metic. DEFINITIONS. 23 Analytical Geometry. The application of An- alysis to Geometry. Calculus — Differential and Integral. That branch of Mathematics, in which inlinitessimal dif- ferences are used as a means of investigation and calculation. BRANCHES OF MIXED MATHEMATICS. - Book- Keeping, or Commercial Arithmetic. — That branch which treats of the application of Arith- metic, to all transactions of trade ; and of such a record of transactions, as enables a person to ascer- tain the true state of his business, at a-ny time. Mensuration. That branch which treats of the means of ascertaining tlie exact quantity of surface or solidity, contained on or in the different forms and portions of matter. SuJiVEYiNG. That division of Mensuration which treats of determining the limits, and -area of land ; also, of dividing lands proportionally. Navigation. That branch which treats of the means of directino; and measurincr the course of ships, by the application of geometrical principles, or by astronomical obsei^ations. Astronomy. That branch which treats of the celestial bodies ; their magnitudes, motions, dis- tances, periods of revolution, and eclipses. 21. BRANCHES OF PHYSICS. Mechanics. That branch which treats of force and motion ; their properties, laws and applications, either directly or through machinery. 24 DEFINITIONS. Hydrostatics. That division of Mechanics which treat of the equillibrium and pressure of flu- ids at rest, and of their properties and laws. Hydraulics. That division of Mechanics which treats of the motions, and forces of elastic fluids, as air and steam. Acoustics. That branch which treats of sound ; its cause, nature, laws, and phenomena. Pyronomics. That branch which treats of heat ; its causes, nature, laws, phenomena, and applica- tions. Optics. That branch which treats of Wg-ht, and vision ; their causes, nature, laws, and phenomena ; also, of the construction and use of instruments, designed to modify light, or aid vision. Such in- struments are always constructed on mathematical principles. Electrics. That branch which treats of Elec- tricity ; its development, nature, laws, phenomena, and applications ; also, of the construction and use of the various instruments designed for the devel- opment and application of the agent, or the eluci- dation of the principles involved. Physical Astronomy. That branch w^liich treats of the celestial bodies ; their nature, their phenom- ena, the laws by which their motions are governed, the forces by which their motions are maintained, and their influence on each other, 22. BRANCHES OF TECHNICS. Agriculture. That branch which treats of the cultivation of fields for the purpose of producing DEFINITIONS. 25 vegetables, fruits, and grain, for the use of man and beast ; also, the raising and feeding of animals, useful for food or labor. Horticulture. That branch which treats of the cultivation of gardens, for the purpose of producino- vegetables and fruits, for immediate home con- sumption ; also, ornamental and medicinal plants. Pomology. That branch which treats of the cul- tivation of fruits ; also, of their preservation, and preparation for market. Manufactures. That branch which treats of working, by hand or machinery, any raw material, as obtained from the earth, the agriculturist, or the miner, into any form more suitable for use. 33. BRANCHES OF GRAPHICS. Drafting. That branch which treats of repre- senting objects by lines, with mathematical preci- sion ; such representations being used as guides by mechanics in construction. Architecture. That branch which treats of the construction of houses, and other buildings, for pur- poses of civil life. Navitecture. That branch which treats of the construction of ships, other vessels, and boats, for navigation, or home purposes. Civil Engineering. That branch which treats of the construction of railroads, canals, docks, bridges, roads, and other public works. It is dis- tinguished from Military Engineering, which treats of matters pertaining to war. 26 DEFINITIONS. 24. BRANCHES OF POLEMICS. Strategy. That branch which treats of the man- agement of an army, in such a manner as to dimin- i sh or destroy an enemy's forces. Tactics. That branch which treats of the man- agement and drill of different portions of an army — as tlie fleet, artillery, cavalry, and infantry. Military Engineering. That branch which treats of the construction of camps and fortifications ; also, of the means of conducting a siege or blockade. Gunnery. That branch which treats of the management of ordnance, and other fire-arms. Fencing. That branch which treats of the sword, its use in attack or defence. 25. BRANCHES OF COSMICS ; OR THE FINE ARTS. Painting. That branch which treats of repre- senting objects on surfaces, by the proper applica- tion and arrangement of light, shade, and colors. Photography. That branch which treats of rep- resenting objects on surfaces by the chemical action of light, on various substances. It is divided into various sub-branches ; as daguerreotyping, ambro- typing, petroleotyping, etc., depending on the material of the surface on which the picture is taken. Engraving, That branch which treats of pro- ducing letters, figures, designs, or pictures, on some hard substance, for the purpose of being subse- quently printed on paper. GENERAL OUTLINE. 27 Sculpture. That branch which treats of carving, cutting, or hewing wood, stone, or metal, into images, to represent real or imaginary objects. Music. That branch which treats of the produc- tion and combination of agreeable sounds, in such a manner as to constitute melody or harmony; also, of the properties of sounds, and their relation to each other. Poetry. ** The music of the soul." That branch which treats of the production of such thought, and the use of such metrical language, as will excite the imagination, and gratify the taste. Dancing. " The poetry of motion." That branch which treats of the motion of the human form, in measured and graceful steps, curves, gyrations, and figures, usually in harmony with music, and regu- lated by it. METHOD Of Using the General Classification of Knowlege in Teaching. This Classification is an introduction to every brancli taught in every grade of school ; District School, Seminary, or College. No teacher should commence any subject, at least, with scholars who are able to read fluently, and intel- ligently, without pointing out the relations of that branch to other branches, and its location in the circle of the Sciences. Knowledge exists too much in eddies, and detached parcels, in most minds, even of our better class of teachers. The relations, scope, and symmetry of the various branches, are almost entirely neglected, and they are studied as they are taught, as having no connection with each other ; and not unfrequently, without teacher_or scholar perceiving any 28 GENERAL OUTLINE. relations existing between his subject, and any existing object in heaven, or earth, save the text-book, and an exam- ination day. The true Teacher may lay a broad foundation for every subject, outside of his text-book, in the presentation of this, or some similar outline of his subject with its related sub- jects. In opening a school, or in commencing a term, when scholars have no lessons prepared to recite, this General Classification of Knowledge, in part, or entire, forms a very appropriate, and interesting introduction, to all the branch- es to be taught in the school. Scholars, especitilly the younger classes, should not be required to cojiy it all, but only such parts as are more directly connected with the branches they are designing to pursue. The student of Grammar, for instance, when somewhat ad- vanced in the study, will find new light and interest, in dis- covering its relations with the other branches of Phrenic s, and the other departments of Literature. The grand divi- sion. Literature, with its four Departments, and the Brandies of Phrenics, might be copied into his Note Book or Copy Book. The definitions should also be copied, unless schol- ars supply themselves with the printed classification, and committed to memory. Again ; the student of Arithmetic, especially if reviewing, should acquaint himself with the various divisions of Math- ematics; and should take a comprehensive view of the whole field, by means of that Department of the general classifica- tion and the definitions, given in The Normal ; and tlie expla- nations which any competent teacher could add. So in other branches. Teachers and students should in the commencement, and in the reviews, bring up the Department in which the Branch is located, and give on the blackboard, all the sister branches, with their definitions. Should any branch be taken up, which is not found in the General Classification, it will probably find its place as a division of one of the branches given. Conchology, for SCHEMES OF MENTAL TRAINING. 29 instance, is a division of Zoology ; Meteorology is a subdi- vision of Geography ; Uranegraphy is a division of Phy- sical Astronomy. SCHEMES OF MENTAL TRAINING. There are at least four distinct methods of training the mind ; all of which should be combined, in order to make a well-stored, systematic, independent, and ready scholar. Acquisition. The first of these is Acquisition. Many teachers seem to suppose this is all. They urge their pupils, by every incen- tive in their power, to acquire large quantities of words from books. Grammar, Geography, " Arithmetic rules," can be recited by whole classes, from one end of the book to the other. Yet scholars may be less logical, less inclined to investigate for themselves, less able to express their own thoughts in their own language, than before the stuffing process commenced. Acquisition is essential to the full development of the mind, undoubtedly. But let it be the acquisition of ideas, rather than words ; of principles, rather tlian rules ; the power to retain truth, and its relations, ratlier than book enunciations of formulas and dogmas. Generalization. The second method of mental training, is Generalization^ Books are, for the most part, systematically arranged, as the author supposes ; though many are wretchedly botched in this particular. The student, however, is not led to see, and appreciate, this system, or want of system, as the case may be, in the general arrangement of the work, and in the more minute details of the several subjects embraced. His atten- tion is seldom called to the fact, that there is any system in science, any where ; and much less, even by good teachers, generally so called, is the pupil required to systematize a subject for himself. The teacher does not generalize, or sys- tematize ; he takes books as he finds them, knowing no mon^ 33 SCHEMES OF MENTAL TRAINING. of his advancement in the subject than is indicated by the number of pages he has passed over. Hence the necessity of book-marks for such a teacher. But will he train his pupils any better than himself ? Let such a teacher set himself to work, and make out Outlines, of all tlie branches in which he is engaged, and fill up those outlines as he proceeds with the subjects, carrying out a logical and symraetrioal arrangement to the most minute particular. After having thus systematized the ideas of his Text Book, and the kindred ideas of other books pertaining to the sub- ject, let him generalize the results of his own observation and experience. Thus, he learns to make the necessary connection between his books and his life, between dogmas and facts, between verbal images and material objects. He will then have such a Geography, Grammar, Natural Philosophy, Cliemistry, as he can obtain from no book-store, and to him, as I conceive, immensely more valuable. But 4t the teacher ceases to be a parrot, and begins to use his rea- son, by pursuing such a course, why not train his pupils in the same manner. Such a teacher, such a scholar, thus trained, has a place for every fact, phenomena, experiment and theory. His knowledge, so cared foi*, is ready for use — comes when called for: he knows, indeed, where to call for it, and when ; and how to apply it when it comes. He now acquires with vastly more ease, and incomparably greater profit. Having Knowledge generalized, one truth is a representative for innumerable other truths. Identities, simi- larities, differences, and contrasts, the mind loves to seek af- ter, and easily retains. Thes.e afford increasing satisfaction, and diminish, or dissipate the burden, which otherwise clogs the memory, and paralyzes thought. Investigation. The third metliod of mental training, is Investigation. A teacher or scholar who has been trained in generalizing, will almo.st necessarily become an original and independent observer, investigator, and thinker. He ceases to answer, when called upon for a reason, 'a proof, or demonstration SCHEMES OF MENTAL TRAINING. 31 — " It is 80 in the book." The ipse dixit of a book, so far from satisfying^ him, wakes up in his soul the desire to know, rather than to remember. He seeks to satisfy that desire by consulting other books, observing nature ; or studying the objects themselves, instead of the books which describe tliem. He observes, he experiments, he reasons, he THIIS'KS. He learns to apply his knowledge to the common, and un- common affairs of life ; to see the truths of science at every turn, in every object, in every association with other minds, in every operation of his own. Truth is thus purified as well as increased ; dross is separated in the furnace of observation and experience ; it shines with new and increased brilliancy from the polish acquired by application and use. Communication. The fourth method of Mental Training is Communication. The scholar may have acquired vast stores of knowledge, and indeed accustomed his mind to systematic activity in acquiring, classifying, and investigating ; yet from want of suitable and sufficient training in the communication of his knowledge to others, be utterly inefficient as a teaaher, pub- lic speaker or writer. Communication then should commence with early train- ing. The use of the pen for the expression of thought should be its first use, with all children. The ready and accurate enunciation of one's own thoughts should surel}^ form an indispensable element in the training of Teachers, Lawyers and Clergymen. The plans of training scholars in the art and power of communicating their own thoughts in a coherent and im- pressive manner, are numerous. All these plans should aim at clear and logical thinking. There is no evidence of systematic and correct thouglit, aside from its form of ex- pression in being communicated to others. Nowhere in all the range of the mental and moral, is the saying of our blessed Lord, " It is more blessed to give than to receive," more pertinent than in this particular of communicating, rather than in being satisfied with acquiring, alone. Of 32 SCHEMES OF MENTAL TRAINING. the many plans adopted for securing logical thinking, and impressive writing and speaking, I shall notice but a few. 1. Questions and Answers. They should never be relied on, to any great extent ; but may be used in connection with other plans, with judgment and skill, as an efficient means of arousing and directing thought, and stimulating its correct and forcible expression. Too often the question-and-answer method prevents any improvement in communicating, and exhibits a teacher as poorly trained as his scholars. 2. Topic - System. The plan of assigning topics to scholars in recitations for them to discuss, requiring prepa- ration on the whole lesson for such discussion, has been adopted with favorable results. It may commence with young scholars, they being prompted and guided in part by questions. 3. Reporting by means of Outlines. Aside from the general lesson, a special subject may be assigned to[an indi- vidual, who is expected to report to the class, Avith or ^^-ithout the outline on the blackboard. The outline is first furnished by tlie teacher, to the class, who copy it into their note- books in systematic order, with other outlines. Any scholar to whom a subject is assigned, is expected to give his report " without notes," and to deliver it in as connected and interesting a manner, as is possible for him. At the conclu- sion of his report, brief criticism follows, on the spelling, pronunciation, definitions, arrangement, demonstrations, etc., by the scholars; the teacher closing with any additional corrections and remarks, desirable. 4. Declamation of Original Compositions. Such com- positions should be written according to some well defined plan, and elaborated with all tlie knowledge and skill that the scholar may possess ; then memorized according to such system. The delivery, by continuous training in the prin- ciples of elocution, in connection with this method, will be- come in tlie majority of pupils as easy and natural to the speaker, as it is entertaining and instructive to his hearers. PAKT II ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. The Editor takes pleasure in acknowledging the important aid afforded by Mr. C. S, Royce, Agent of the Ohio State Phonetic Association, in the preparation of this double number of the Normal. It is confidently believed that through him the most approved views of Phoneticians have been made subservient to a more systematic and useful presentation of the principles involved in the connection of the written and spoken ele- ments of our language than in any work that has hitherto appeared. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, By ALFRED HOLBROOK, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of Ohio. (34) INTRODUCTION. LOCATION AND BEARINGS. In commencing every subject of instruction, it is the first business of the Teacher to direct his own attention to the place that subject holds in the Grand Circle of the Sciences. He may aid himself, by consulting the General Classification of knowledge, contained in Part I. If his pupils are sufiiciently advanced, they should be required to copy his presentation of so much of that classifi- cation as he may think desirable, on the black- board ; and having learned the definitions, they should reproduce it from memory on the board, and give the definitions. In this manner, both teacher and scholar will discover the true location and bearing of whatever subject they undertake. Primary and secondary scholars, however, in reading and spelling, would hardly be profited by a consideration of the General Classification ; but all scholars more advanced would do well to ascer- tain what Branch they are studying while they are learning to spell. A presentation of Phrenics and the definitions of the branches it includes, place this matter in its proper light. (35) 36 INTRODUCTION. THE NATURAL ORDER OF THE BRANCHES. The first study of the child is the voice of its mother. Almost instinctively it recognizes it, and gathers much meaning from its varied tones and accents. At a very early period the child is able to distinguish, also, many articulate sounds, and their signification. No sooner does it do this, than it endeavors to reproduce these sounds in the expression of its desires and feelings. Orthoepy, then, being the first study by nature ; it is proper that art should fall in with the plan. There is no advantage, however, in beginning any course of instruction till children are able to com- municate and receive ideas readily by means of spoken language. When instruction does com- mence, let it be so much in accordance with nature, with the child's nature, that he shall not conceive a repugnance for knowledge, that years will not eradicate. Orthoepy is but an introduction to Orthography. Then, Orthography serves as an introduction to Reading and Composition ; and these are indis- pensable in the pursuit of all other branches. METHODS OF TEACHING THE ALPHABET. The common or a-b-c method of teaching the alphabet is as serious an obstacle as can well be devised, in the way of the child, to hinder his progress, and render instruction repulsive ; yet millions have lived through it, in spite of all the horrors of the passage. It is not to be wondered, however, that so many ever after hate their books and persist in ignorance and vice. INTRODUCTION. 37 To show the absurdity of the plan : the child is compelled to call twenty-six shapeless charac- ters by their meaningless names, until he learns them. After he has learned them, he is worse off than before, so far as their use is concerned. These names only mislead the child as to the true power of the letters, and are constantly in his way in finding out the sound of any of them in any of their combinations. Take, for instance, a in hat, or hall ; e in met, or hate. What idea of the sound of these letters in these words is obtained from their names? If any, a false idea, which the teacher has to correct by long drilling. The sounds or powers of letters unincumbered with these delusive names, can be obtained with great rapidity, if letters are so used as to be reli- able. The Phonotypic alphabet presents letters of a reliable character to children; and when they learn a letter, it has not to be unlearned or learne 1 over again from two to five times, involving every word in which it occurs in almost impenetrable obscurity. But the objector says, " The child has to learn the common alphabet after all, even after he has learned the Phonotypic with its forty-three charac- ters. " I answer, that is true, but he learns it without effort on the part of the teacher. Having got the scent of ideas in words of Phonotypic let- ters, he will search them out in the Romanic, and will thread their mazes with an avidity so keen that he will compel his mother to aid him, rather 38 INTRODUCTION. tlian be himself compelled by his teacher, against a repugnance that is continually increasing. The use of the Romanic Alphabet may be learned by means of the Phonotypic, in one-tenth of the time, and with one-fiftieth of the labor be- stowed by the teacher in the common method. TEACHING SPELLING. The charge is brought against our modern schools, that "children do not learn to spell. " It is further urged that they are crowded through the higher branches, while they cannot write a friendly letter without misspelling half of the words. Our teachers should be so trained, as to leave no ground for this charge; hence^ much space is given in this number to the various meth- ods of teaching Spelling or Orthography. ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. The subject of Orthography is beginning to as- sume its proper place in our County Examinations of teachers. Many Boards are adopting the prac- tice of testing the knowledge of candidates by some plan of orthographic parsing. A complete system is developed in this work, which reaches all that is desirable to be known in the analysis of spoken and written words. Not only is a form given for the purpose, with explan- ations, but a great variety of words is analyzed by the form. So that if a teacher carefully study these examples, he never can be at loss for the proper method of disposing of any class of words or combinations of sounds, or letters. GENERAL OUTLINE. OF GRAMMAR. •2 >:>>>-^ a o &o bo iT g ^ O O o3 o .2 o o g o o o o .;; -kj •« .ie >> ^ ^0 a '^ o ^ ,■3-5 ^-Sx a"! S oowOMai<5cu, o o 3 o o Q H •jBcnraBJO (39) LANGUAGE. HISTORY. 1 ORIGIN OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE. Language was a divine gift. Spoken Lan- guage was used undoubtedly by our first parents. Adam gave names to all cattle, and to fowls of the air, and to every beast of the field, before there was a helpmeet for him ; so says the Bible. He is also represented as talking directly with that Being, from whom he derived the faculty of speech, and who trained him in its use. Let us. Teachers, remember who was the first of our profession; and not only so, but that no profession has been more highly honored. 2 ORIGIN OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The first account we have of Written Language, is the writing of the decalogue on the tablets of stone. It is remarked that all the Hebrew char- acters except one or two unimportant marks, which have since been added to the language, are found in the Ten Commandments. Before Written Language, Pictures, Monu- ments, and Medals were used to commemorate events, and to some slight extent to commu- nicate ideas between those of the same age. These forms, however, represented things, and not (40) Part II. — 3. LANGUAGE. 41 sounds used in words. The Romanic letters, which we use, are evidently derived from the Greek letters ; while the Grreek letters, according to their historians, were brought by Cadmus from Phenicia, B. C, 1493. The Phenician alphabet is similar, in some respects, to the Hebrew, as is also the Greek. Mr. Pitman, in forming his Phonographic Alphabet, seems to have imitated the Hebrew more nearly than any other, especially in his vowel system. Thus we have in the latest and most improved form of Written Language, a restoration of the original characters to some extent, as taught to Moses on Mount Sinai. 3 DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES. Profane History assigns no reason for the mul- tiplicity of languages. Sacred History gives us an account of the " confusion of tongues," at the Tower of Babel, and the consequent dispersion of mankind. This may account for the existing number and variety of languages ; or, if, as many commentators suppose, the "confusion of tongues" refers to a disagreement of the builders in their plans, and the consequent irreconcilable quarrels, which drove these early inhabitants into diverse parts of the earth, then the changes which take place in the pronunciation and signification of many words in a few years in modern society, even though language is fixed by written charac- ters, and the diversity of pronunciation in difi'er- ent localities in the same country, where there is 42 LANGUAGE. Part II. — 4 mucli and frequent intercourse, will show that when tribes have wandered far from each other, with no written language, with no intercourse, their language, though originally the same, will, in a few generations, become so changed as to become entirely unintelligible to others than the tribe or tribes in more immediate proximity. The great diversity of languagSfe ceases to be a won- der, then, even though men were originally of one blood, used one language, and no miracle inter- posed to confound their language. 4 TLAIE OF HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT. Both Greece and Rome, at the time of their highest political power, enjoyed the greatest refine- ment in the arts and sciences. Lan^ifuase is no exception to the rule. Gradual improvement may be traced in the style of their authors from the earliest historical dawn of those nations to the period of their highest glory respectively. This improvement may be noticed in all the qualities which constitute excellence of language ; some of which are precision, euphony, flexibility, and sus- ceptibility of nice shades of diflFerence in expres- sing thought or feeling. At the present time, the several spoken langua- ges have attained a higher degree of polish and power than at any previous period. Among these modern languages, the German is highly cultivated for the expression of thought, and the Italian for the exhibition of the emotions ; while the Ens- lish yields to no other in its strength, flexibility, Part II. — 6. LANGUAGE. 43 and delicacy of expression for both thought and feeling. 5 CHIEF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANCIENT AND MODERN LANGUAGES. This lies in the more highly mechanical struc- ture of their verbs and nouns ; the nouns of the ancient languages having more methods of de- clension, and each declension more terminations than any of the modern nouns. This variety of termination gives equal precision, with much greater latitude of arrangement. The cases of modern nouns are determined to some extent by their position with relation to the verb. The cases of ancient nouns depend entirely on their termination, and not in the least on their position in the sentence. Hence the ancient languages give a better opportunity for securing harmony in the arrangement than the modern. The verbs of the ancient languages are much more complete in their terminations, and of course make use of less auxiliary verbs. None are nec- essary save that denoting being, which is used only in the passive voice. 6 DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 1. Language. Any method of communicating thought or feeling. 2. Natural Language. Instinctive methods of communicating thought or feeling. Remark. Brute animals possess their own instinctive forms of language; many of which forms are understood by other species than those which use them. 44 LANGUAGE. Part II. — 7. Artificial Language. That which must be learned before it can be used. Vocal Language. That produced by the organs of speech. 7 Written Language. Any method of commu- nicating thought by visible characters, depicted on a surftice. Symbolic Language. That form of written lano:ua<2;e in which the characters are desisrned to represent ideas and not sounds. Phonetic Language. That form of written language in which the characters are designed to represent sounds. Pictorial Language. That form of symbolic language in which the ideas are plainly repre- sented. Hieroglyphic Language. That form of symbolic language in which the ideas are so obscurely represented as to need an interpreter. Syllabic Language. That form of phonetic language in which the characters represent syl- lables. Alphabetic Language. That form of pho- netic language in which the characters represent separate articulate soui\ds. Equivocal Alphabetic Languages. Those in which a letter represents more than one sound, and in which a sound is represented by more than one letter. The Unequivocal Alphabetic Languages, are those in which the number of letters equals the number of separate articulate sounds — giving Part II. — 9. LANGUAGE. 45 but one sound to each letter, and but one letter for each sound. Gesticulate Language. Any method of communicating or impressing thought or feeling, by motions, postures, or appearances of the animal form, not producing or representing articulated sounds or written characters. 8 G-ENERAL OR UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. That form of grammar which treats of all those princi- ples and usages which are common to all lan- guages. Particular Grammar. That form of gram- mar which treats of all those principles, usages, characters, and sounds, comprised in any particular language. English Grammar. That branch which treats of the English language. 9 Orthoepy. That division of grammar which treats of articulate sounds, and of their correct use in pronunciation. Orthography. That division of grammar which treats of letters, words, and spelling. Etymology. That division of grammar which treats of the derivation and formation of words. Orthogeny. That division of grammar which treats of the classification of words according to their uses. Lexicography. That division of grammar which treats of the signification of words. Syntax. That division of grammar which treats of the arrano-ement of words in sentences. 46 LANGUAGE. Part IL—9. Analysis. That division of grammar, which treats of the separation of sentences into their elements. Prosody. That division of grammar, which treats of versification and punctuation. General Remark. The definitions of Cognate Branches in Phrenics, including Grammar, will be found in Part I, pages 16 and 17, Section 10. ORTHOEPY. ( Nature, Sound. < Limit of Vibration, ( Rate of progress. Organs Articulatory, VocaL Respiratory. Articulate sounds. See Chart No, 1. Pronunciation. Divisions. Rules. Articulation, Accent. 1st., 2nd. r Common, Discriminative, Emphatic, Poetic. Methods of Teaching. 1. Drill in articulate sounds. 2. Drill in notation of Dictionaries. 3. Spell -words Phonetically. 4. Parse words Orthographically. ORTHOEPY. 10 DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. Orthoepy. That division of grammar, which treats of articulate sounds, and their correct use in pronunciation. Sound. A sensation produced on the auditory nerve by the rapid vibratory motion of air or other elastic substance. Remark 1. The vibration that produces the sound is often called sound, as, we say "sound travels," &c. Remarh 2. Limit of Vibrations. The least number of vibrations in a second, that can yield a sound to human ear, is 32. The highest num- ber is 30,000 ; though other animals may perceive vibrations more or less rapid than these limits. Remark 3. Rate of Progress. Sound travels through air at the rate of seven hundred sixty- three miles per hour, or eleven hundred twenty feet per second ; through liquids and solids at a rate many times greater. 11 Organs of Speech. All those distinct parts of the human system, which are necessarily used in producing the sounds of languai^e. (47) 48 ORTHOEPY. Part II. — 12. Articulatory Organs. Those organs of speecli which are used in modifying or obstructing sound as produced by the other organs. They are labia, (lips,) dentes, (teeth,) palatum, (hard palate,) uvula, (soft palate,) nasal fossae, (cavities of the nose,) larynx, with its cartilages and muscles. YocAL Organs. Chordae Yocales, (vocal chords.) These are two pair of membranes, extending back- wards and forwards, opposite to each other, through the larynx. They are attached by their two ends and one side, to the walls of the larynx, leaving an open space between them, through which air is drawn in and forced out by the respiratory organs Voice or Vocal Sound. That sound produced by the vocal chords. Remarh. The vibration of these chords during the emission of vocal sound, may be perceived by placing the fingers on the larynx, externally, at the projection of Adam's apple. The vibration can be detected at no other time. Kespiratory Organs. Those organs of speech used in forcing air through the other organs. They aro trachea, (windpipe,) bronchi, (bronchial tubes,) pulmo, (lungs,) diaphragm, and the inter- costal, dorsal, and abdominal muscles. 12 Articulate Sound. That made by the organs of speech, and used in language. Voiced Sound, or Voice. A sound made by the vibration of the vocal chords. Vocal Sound, or Vocal. A voiced sound, Part II. — 14 ORTHOEPY. 49 modified but not obstructed by tbe articulatory organs. Simple Vocal. A vocal, made without a ctange in tbe position of tbe articulatory organs during its emission. Compound Vocal. A vocal, made by a change in the position of the articulatory organs, from that required by one simple vocal to that required by another, during its emission. Remark. This change commences with the emission of the sound, and continues until the close ; hence the elements of the compounds are not heard in their purity. CoALEscENT. An articulatc sound, that always precedes, and unites with, a vocal. 13 SuBVOCAL Sound, or Subvocal. A voiced sound modified and obstructed by the articulatory organs. Aspirated Sound or Aspirate. An artic- ulate sound made without the vibration of the vocal chords. Pure Aspirate. An aspirate, modified but not obstructed by the articulatory organs. Obstructed Aspirate. An aspirate, modified and obstructed by the articulatory organs. 14 Labial. An articulate sound, modified or obstructed at the lips. Remark. The vocals and pure aspirates are modified only, while the subvocals and the other aspirates are obstructed also. Dental. An articulate sound modified or obstructed at the teeth or gums. 50 ORTHOEPY. Part II. — 16 Palatal. An articulate sound, modified or obstructed at the hard palate. GrUTTURAL. Au articulate sound, modified or obstructed at the soft palate. Remark 1st. Sounds are obstructed at the lips by the lips alone, or by the teeth and lips. Remark 2d. Sounds are obstructed at the teeth, gums, or hard palate, by the tip of the tongue ; and at the soft palate, by the root of the tongue. 15 Abrupt, (also called Explodentand Mute.) An articulate sound, made by such a perfect contact of the organs as entirely prevents the escape of air externally. Continuant, (also called Subvocal.) An artic- ulate sound, made by such partial contact of the organs, as to admit of escape of air externally. Liquid. A continuant, susceptible of simulta- neous combination with other obstructed sounds. The liquids are I and r. Nasal. A continuant, made by the escape of air through the cavities of the nose only. Cognate Sounds. Those sounds made by the articulatory organs, in the same positions, and dif- fering only in the vibrations of the vocal chords. 16 Pronunciation. The enunciation of the sounds of a word with correct articulation and accent. Articulation, (joining.) The distinct enun- ciation of the sounds in words. Accent. The greater stress given to one sylla- ble of a word than to others; also, the greater force given to long syllables in poetry. Part 11. — 17* ORTHOEPY. 51 Common Accent. That given in the ordinary pronunciation of a word, without reference to any other word. Discriminative Accent. That given to words of the same articulation to distinguish different parts of speech. EXAMPLES. 1. Noum from Verbs. Ac'cent, accent'j con'cert, concert'; in'sult, insult', etc. 2. Adjectives frora Verbs. AVsent absent'; com'- pound, compound'; fre'quent, frequent', etc. Emphatic Accent. That in which the stress is transferred from the ordinary syllable to another, for the purpose of giving antithetic emphasis more distinctly. Poetic Accent. That which is placed on long syllables of a poetic foot; even though those syl- lables should be monosyllabic words. 17 METHODS OF TEACHING PRONUNCIATION. DRILL IN ARTICULATE SOUNDS. Commence with vocals as given in Chart No. 1. 1. Repeat each long sound twice in order. 2. Direct the class to do the same in concert with yourself. 3. Direct the class to do the same without your aid. Continue this process until the large major- ity make the sounds correctly, and in the order of the chart. 4. Drill individuals failing, before the class, in groups, or singly, till each pupil masters all the difficulties. ' [11 i: « 1C8 o 050 * 11 .l-MM Ip4 :3 S=i< •«l3 / i: 5. i« •oJ o ©XB •1 fi p (*• o :o •■■1} <» a 1 p I i; c tf4 •IH >M P'O'S ►>>»r a S 1 fri 'S ^ r <3 •o •O Ci" i-^ j tf H 1e )' ]- IS- ► ^> bJO feB (:o" ( 3. P4 « a 5 a a o IcS *« in O o (3 "V •73 o a> •-C3 •s cd ii:> t^ 1 a 1^ rt 1^ *5b ^o -—4 rg OJ >-» .2 S ^ «i ^ >, -g -s ]«!« («^ N-^ » -a !2 ^ a fl a aaa « o 5-2 Ei O (jj o O o o <5 :3 coC5 J): a . 5-»a ■»3 o 13 - — -,_A.^ ontac IS rupts. n fe sj c — s <^ rt J2 « t,.. a 1 11 g ® C d =^ ^°2 >--c„ 3 eq &. P3 c-a >g e'j'Binoi^jjY COGiNATES. Chart No. 2. ^ m ^ ® o # M bJO^ ^^ d m CO* «5 Palata a * :3 "-S CP fcO«— . Jl* I § .g I (54) "1 'a "S T Part II. — 18. ORTHOEPY. 55 5. Pursue the same course with the short vocals. 6. Alternate the cognate vocals on Chart No. 2, and in case a cognate is wanting, say " wanting." 7. Repeat and vary these drills until every scholar can go through the vocals long and short, and name the organ at which the sound is modi- fied. 9. Pursue a similar course with the obstructed sounds beginning with the aspirates and follow- ing with the subvocals on Chart No. 1 ; then with cognate sounds, on Chart No. 2. 18 DRILL IN THE NOTATION OF DICTIONARIES. Take Chart No. 3, and go over in concert, the names of sounds as given, with the sounds follow- ing, and the notation of any dictionary used in school. Thus : Long a — a, notation a, with a short horizontal mark over it. Short a — a, notation a, with a curved line over it. Broad a — o, notation a, with a circumflex over it. Italian a — q, notation a, with a diaeresis over it. Medial a — ^, wanting in Webster's dictionary. This will be sufficient to show the drill on the notations. It need be followed no further in this form. 2. Require the scholars to look out words in their dictionary, and describe the marks to signify the irregular sounds of the consonants, as city, cane, off, of, church, chaise, etc. 56 ORTHOEPY. Part II. — 20 19 SPELLING WORDS PHONETICAIiLY. 1. This should be practiced more or less in con- nection with every exercise, in concert, the Teach- er accompanying; next, the class in concert without his aid, lastly, individual scholars, always giving opportunity for the members of the class to criti- cise the spelling of the individuals, — they first raising their hands for permission to do so. 2. Let the Teacher select such phonotypic char- acters in order, from Chart No. 1 or No. 2, as shall form words. The class will pronounce each sound, as its representative is touched with the pointer, until the elements of a word are thus separately pronunced, then, a signal given, they are expected to pronounce the word together. This exercise should begin with monosyllables, and from these proceed to the most complicated and difiicult words. 20 CRITICISM ON PRONUNCIATION. In recitation of all studies, opportunity should be given the classes for mutual criticism on pronun- ciation, as well as in other particulars. This matter of criticism is managed thus : The teacher asks, " Are there any errors in pro- nunciation?" Pupils who have noticed errors, raise their hands. The teacher calls upon such a scholar as is least in the habit of criticism, to mention the error. Part II. — 20. ORTHOEPY. 57 The scholar does it in this form : ''Mr. A. B. pronounced 'heard' ' heerd.' He should have given the close sound of e rather than the long." The scholar continues, "he pronounced 'demon- strate' ' demonstrate,' accenting the first syllable instead of the second." In case of doubt in the mind of any one, either pupil or teacher, a scholar is requested to examine the authorities, Worcester's or Webster's diction- ary, which should always be on the teacher's table, and in the pupil's desk. w < W o o p. a o O CO d I? 5" l;5 •«

o 2 ® o 03 e3 &.2 S 02 o o - §11 o tao5c:r'd*d®»®<3> 'i-*-^ o 6 J3 0:00 CI O fl ^ ^ (U bcti bets a o a o o ^ bc-S a o 03 w o ^ '«3 3^ -03 :c8 c8 ^ O >0 <0 <;3 •SpA^O^ ^ o a 5 o 'I I ^ •a i'=s.spi.sfi3|i3i i ill ii i| liil 1.1° I CM b0.p-,r£3 .r-jfi«l ^ S fl ftriai moa4»>^r3SDts!g <^^ «;=«-, N» qi f^JZj rj ^ Jll '^ ^ b ew bo W)^ .^M ^SptP4O^^^0Q^>^«MH wj-o -rg :S '5 '^ fl' 1 a © 9 Is J o g pj 03 t> .^ a ^ •a ^ i-T Q Ph ^ M "o o to , . |i bjD rd .^^ ^0flAD^^oj43>^ H Cio:S •sija'Bnosuoo ^ ^ ^^ bc!>0 •sSuott^^Udy /RfLl. ORTHOGRAPHY. (2%. crcm I Italic. Typical. 2 c3 2^ to >> o^ TO "3 O .2 ^s 1 if rt => WS 1 '^ CS « -<^ lO i 2 a c' ^f-S^ £.2 -•^^ ^3 11 4i a il > 1 1 s 1 *^5 5 a O : 5 i II 2 rt a "^ TJ O -~r— ' rt 'iS =i -S a '-> O o -u §^ o so •Isfi %l II ■^^ -v- "^ ^ S a © la"^ .5 p^^i <^ -2 1 a' O a o _c3 t^-o ^ ^ V ' 4cS •3 ■^ 1 cc » 'StT a ,^-^ a > e*-l _jj tT -^ l- .2 hJ fc< O a © a <2 2 c2 13 fi § a " 1 1 .2 a 3 ^ § o a "a S s C3 O CO <1 ^ O s <1tJ S tf < m^ ^ < ^7^ ■^ V ^ ' "V — ' m a ^ 1 . a TO o s o g 'S ro is "S 5 ( o Q a. CO i 'i 1 o m (61) ORTHOGRAPIiY.— Coatinued. (62) •SuisjiTj oiqdtiaSoq'jJO JOJ mao^j OETHOGRAPHY. 21 Orthography. That division of wliich treats of letters, syllables, words, and spel- ling. Letter. A visible character, representing by itself, or with one or more besides, an articulate sound; also used to determine signification. Typical Forms. These are given in the names that distinguish them in the classification. There are many ornamental forms in use, not given. Grammatical Forms. These are used for em- emphasis or other rhetorical distinction. Power of a Letter. The sound which a letter represents in a word; also the influence which one letter exerts upon the representative character of another. 22 VoY/EL. A letter used to represent a vocal sound ; the basis of a syllable. Consonant. A letter used to represent a sub- vocal or aspirate sound, modifying the basis of a syllable. Remark. Phonographers write many syllables without a vowel as a basis, contending that a sub- vocal is often the basis of a syllable, e.g. apple, often. They claim that there is no vocal heard in (63) 64 ORTHOGRAPHY. Part 11. — 23. the second syllable, and that they should be writ- ten apl, offcn, or ofn. It seems to me, however, more in accordance with the principles of our orthography to consider a vocal, accented or unac- cented, plain or obscure, as the basis of every syl- lable. Aphthong, or Silent Letter. A letter which represents no sound, but is used either to modify the representative character of another, or merely to determine signification. Remarh, An aphthong may be a vowel or a consonant aphthong, according to the more com- mon use of the letter. Explanation. JE, in the word lade, changes the sound of a from short to long ; also g, in sign, changes the sound of i short to long; also lo in write, determines the signification of the word, and distinguishes it from that of rite ; also, h in dumb, determines signification, since dum has no signification. 23 DiPHTEONG. One or two vowels, representing a combination of two vocal sounds. Explanation. The diphthong i represents a combination of Italian a and long e. The diphthong long u represents a combination of long e and close o. The diphthong oi represents a combination of broad a and short i. The diphthong ou represents a combination of Italian a and close o. These are all the proper diphthongs in the English Language. Fart II. — 24. orthography. 65 24 A Vowel Digrafh, or improper diphthong, is a combination of two vowels, in which only one receives a sound, the other being a modifier. A Conjoin:ed Yowel Digraph is one in which the two vowels are not separated by a consonant. A Disjoined Vowel Digraph is one in which the two vowels are separated by one or more con- sonants. A Consonant Digraph is a combination of two consonants, one or both of which are required to represent a sound. Remark. A consonant not required to repre- sent a sound of the word, is an aphthong, whether modifying the representative character of a letter or not. Thus, in the consonant digraph ^/i, in the word condign, the g modifies the sound of i, but is not necessary for the representation of the final sound, and hence is an aphthong. A Combined Digraph is a combination of a consonant and a vowel to represent a subvocal or an aspirate sound. Explanation. The consonant t, and the vowel i are used in the terminal syllable tion^ to represent the aspirate sound of sh or ch. Ci, ce, and si, are used in a similar manner. Vowel Trigraph. A combination of three vowels, representing one or two sounds. Remark. Eau in heau, represents one sound; in heautij, it represents two combined. Disjoined Trigraph. One in which a conso- nant occurs between two of the vowels. 66 ORTHOGRAPHY. Part II. — 25. 25 Syllable. One^ or more sounds uttered at one impulse of tlie breath ; also, the letters represent- ing any sound or sounds so uttered. Ultimate Syllable. The last syllable in a word. Penultimate Syllable, or Penult. The last syllable but one in a word. AntepenuIiTimate Syllable. The last sylla- ble but two in a word. Preantepenultimate Syllable. The last syl- syllable but three in a word. Remark. The syllables of a word are also described in their numerical order, commencing at the left, as first, second, third, &c. Base of a Syllable. The vocal or vowel used in its formation. Modifier. Any sound preceding or succeed- ing the base of a syllable, or letter or digraph representing such sound. Antecedent. Any sound preceding the base of a syllable; or letter or digraph representing such sound. Consequent. Any sound succeeding the base of a syllable; or letter or digraph representing such sound. Remark. A letter representing a sound, pre- ceding another, is parsed as an antecedent, though the order of the letter should differ from that of the sounds represented by them. Part II. — 26, orthography. 67 26 WoKD. The received sign of an idea, expressed in one or more articulate sounds, or in visible characters representing such sounds. Simple Word. One which cannot be divided into separate words without radically altering the signification. Compound Word. One which can be divi- ded into separate words without radically alter- ing their signification. Primitive Word. One which cannot be re- duced to a simpler form, without radically altering its signification. Derivative Word. One which can be re- duced to a simpler form, without radically altering its signification. Remarh. A compound word is considered primitive, if all its parts are primitive, otherwise a derivative. A derivative is considered simple, unless it plainly comes under the definition of a compound. The Base of a Compound Word is that word representing the fundamental idea. The Modifier in a Compound Word is that word which describes the other. The Base of a Derivative Word is the prim- itive word from which it is derived. The Modifiers in a Derivative Word are the prefixes or suffixes, or both. Prefix. One or more syllables, not used as a word of similar meaning in the English language, but placed before words to modify their significa- tion. 68 ORTHOGRAPHY. Fart II. — 28. Suffix. One or more syllables, not used as a word of similar meaning in the English language, but placed after words to modify their significa- tion. 27 Monosyllable. A word of one syllable. Dissyllable. A word of two syllables. Trisyllable. A word of three syllables. Accented Syllable. One that is pronounced with more force than others in the same word. Remark 1. Accent may be primary when it is greater than that received by some other syllable in the same word; or secondary, when it is less than that received by some other syllable in the same word. Remark 2. In prosody, an accented syllable is long in quantity, an unaccented syllable, short in cjuantity, i. c. of time taken to pronounce it. 28 Spelling. A distinct expression of the letters or sounds of a word, in their proper order. Orthographic Spelling. The expression of the letters, of which a written word is composed, and in their propei* order, according to the received authority. Phonetic Spelling. The separate expression of the elementary sounds of which a word is com- posed, and in their proper order, according to es- tablished usage. GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its orthography and signification. Part II. — 28. orthography. 69 Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. Remark. The special rules for spelling are to be found in every good grammar, and spelling- book, and need special attention. All grades, except primary, should be thoroughly drilled in their use. It is not enough to memorize them. More than one-half the bad spelling found in school exercises, as well as in business operations, may be justly charged to ignorance of these special rules. TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 29 teacher's preparation. The preparation necessary for tlie successful teaching of Phonotypy, the all-important prepara- tion, I might say, is a thorough practical knowl- edge of the articulate sounds of our language: an ability to enunciate them distinctly, either sep- arately or in combinations, and to give such direc- tions to others as will, when followed, enable them to do the same. 30 PREPARATION OP PUPILS. The only preparation necessary for the pupils, is, that they should be of a proper school age, that the school should be properly organized, and that the teacher should so gain the confidence of his young pupils by a pleasant conversation, or other means, as to lead them to speak and act with the freedom of children in a well-regulated home. I very much prefer that they should know nothing of any alphabet. 31 TEACHING THE ARTICULATE SOUNDS. The first effort in imparting instruction should be to give them some knowledge of articulate sounds. In doing this, avoid the use of techni- calities. Select a few such words as saw, saij, so, (70) Part II. — 32. TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 71 see, and taking one of tliem, as saio^ call upon the pupils to speak it carefully a few times. The teacher should now resolve it into its elements; enunciating them at first, with a long pause, as, s e, then with less and less pause, as, s 0, s 0, s 0, s - - 0, s - 0, leading them, if possible, to perceive that those sounds, if enunciated by one impulse of the voice, would constitute the word sa?o, without his thus uttering them. But if this can not be done, the teacher may pronounce the word; after which, he should separate it into its elements, and proceed as before. Now he should take the elements of another word, as, say, without calling their attention to the word by pronouncing it, and enunciate their elements, as in the other case; asking after each enunciation, what the word would be if the sounds were spoken together. Generally, if this is skil- fully managed, there will be a correct response ; after which the sounds should be uttered more and more rapidly, to show them clearly that they were right. Now, take another word, as, see, using special care that they shall perceive from the separate elements, what word they constitute. 32 TEACHING TO READ. If we have succeeded thus far in cultivating our pupils' powers of observing sound, there will be little trouble in teaching them the letters that represent those sounds. 72 TEACHING THE ALPHABET. Part II. — 34 Calling their attention to the first sound in "see, " let us print upon the blackboard the letter "s" as the representative, the ^^ picture'' of that sound. We should now cultivate their powers of observation, by calling upon them to find a simi- lar letter on the charts ; of which there should be at least two suspended before the class: also, among the tablets. ( These are pieces of card-hoard with a letter upon each.') As each child finds the letter on a chart or on a tablet, he should enun- ciate the sound represented. The name of the letter should not be taught them. If any of them, already knowing the name, should call the letter " Es, " say " Yes, that is its name, but what sound does it represent? What sound are you to make when you see it ? 33 LESSON SECOND. Review the first lesson, calling their attention, as before, to the analysis of ^^saw, sai/, so, see, " and to "s" as the representative of the initial sound of those words. Now teach them "8 " as the rep- resentative of the final sound in " see. " 34 COMBINING LETTERS TO REPRESENT WORDS. The pupils have already discovered that sounds combined form spoken words ; and they now know the representatives of two sounds. The combining of these representatives may now be taught them. Print those letters on the black- board thus : Part II. — 36. teaching the alphabet. 73 s - - - - e s -- - 8 S8 Now call upon them to enunciate those sounds, as you point to the letters. Pass the index slowly from one letter to the other in the upper line, and more rapidly as you descend, until they blend the two sounds, and pronounce the word " see. " Printed cards, with the lessons on them, should also be used, but they should not supersede the use of the black-board. 35 SUBSEQUENT LESSONS. Proceed in a similar manner to teach them the letters a, e, m, and w; and they will read several words and a few sentences. They should now be taught to spell by sound all the words they can read ; after which they may learn other letters, always using each new letter in combination with familiar ones. The Phonetic Primer should be given to the children at this stage, and they should be permit- ted to read from it in connection with the black- board and charts. Some teachers succeed finely with the black-board and Primer, without charts or tablets. 36 WORDS OF THREE LETTERS. When they are to be taught words of three let- 74 TEACHING THE ALPHABET. Part II. — 36 ters, familiar words of two letters, followed by a third letter also familiar, may be presented on the black-board thus : h^ - - - s h^ - s The class should pronounce the word h^, and then enunciate the sound represented by s, as the teacher points from the one to the other, moving his index more and more rapidly, until uncon- sciously they find themselves pronouncing the word h^S. Other words, as mstj mat, tam, should be taught by similar means. Now take the tablets, and show them a similar word, as m8, and after they have pronounced it, drop the hand that holds the word, and with the other hand present a tablet having the letter t on it. The class will enunciate it ; when the other hand should be raised and the tablets held so as to form the word mst. Then, with the right hand, present the^ or^^y? and after the enunciation of the sound, remove that hand, and present the word st with the other. After they pronounce the word st, prefix the m to it, and they will pronounce the word mst. If they fail to pronounce the word at the first trial, make another efi'ort. By no means pronounce the word for them. Manage skilfully, and the pro- nunciation of the word will come from the class. Part II. — 37. teaching the alphabet. 75 37 Now take other words of three letters, and pro- ceed with them in the same manner: choosing such as will leave icords, after removing either the inital, or the final letter, as mat; which, by remov- ing the initial letter, leaves at, or the final leaves ma. After this, when a pupil, in reading, comes to a word of three letters, which he cannot pronounce, instead of pronouncing it for him, hide the initial or final letter from his view, and after the remain- der of the word has been pronounced, permit him to see the whole word, and, usually, he will pro- nounce it. Longer words may be taught them in a similar manner. After all the Phonetic letters are learned, the children should continue reading Phonotypy until they can read well in the Second Phonetic Reader ; after which they may make the transition to E-o- manic reading. TRANSITION TO ROMANIC READING. I must caution the young teacher against per- mitting his pupil to make the transition too soon. Children sometimes make the transition success- fully, after having barely read the Phonetic Prim- er, but sometimes they find it very difficult. But by waiting, as I have suggested, nothing is neces- sary but to permit them to read in the Second Fteader of any series, and it will be found that they will need much less instruction than children reading in the same book that were taught in the common way, and they need no special instruction. They may be taught as others are. 39 SPELLING. Without the direct aid of the teacher, they will now have learned the names of the Eoman letters, and they may be taught the common orthography as other children are ; and it will be found that they will by far excel children taught in the com- mon way, not only in articulation^ but in spelling also. 40 EMPLOYMENT FOR THE CHILDREN. What has been written refers only to class in- (76) Part II. — 42 primary teaching. 77 struction. For employment between recitations, the cliilclren should be permitted and encouraged^ not 7rqidred and coinpelled, to print on slates all the exercises they read, copying them from the exer- cises placed on the black-board by the teacher, or from cards suspended before them, or from their Primers. 41 TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY TO PRIMARY CLASSES. Many teachers use no other Spelling Book than the Reading Books ; thus teaching their pupils to spell the words they are daily using in their les- sons. In this way they have, or should have, a correct idea of the meaning of the words of their spelling lessons, though they may not, at this early age, be able to define them. 42 STUDYING SPELLING LESSONS. While making, and after having made, the tran- sition from the Phonetic print, children should be required to stueli/ spelling lessons. The best way to do this is to print them on their slates, until they learn the script form of letters ; when they should use that form, or write their lessons. The practice of requiring pupils to study their lessons a given number of times, only teaches them to hurry over their studi/, and not to study to any purpose. It is not the number of times a lesson has been studied that should be considered the mark of success, but the ability to spell every icord in the lesson. 78 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part 11. — 43 43 MANNER OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS IN SPELLING. We cannot vary the mode of conducting spelling recitations as much as with the more advanced classes. One very good method, and perhaps the best one, is to require them to read the lesson from their slates ; each one pronouncing a word, and then spelling it and again pronouncing it. Every pupil should give notice of any mistake observed, by raising the hand. In this way, the teacher can ascertain whether they have studied their lessons aright. The side of the slates, con- taining the lesson, should be held up to the teacher for criticisms : and the criticisms should embrace, not only the size and appearance of the letters, but the proper arrangement of the words in col- umns. The slate should now be laid down on the reci- tation seat or on the floor, with the side containing the lessons from the pupils, and the words pro- nounced for them once, and only once ; and a pu- pil should be permitted to try to spell the word once, and o?z(yo?ice. If he cannot spell it on the first trial, he has not learned his lesson ; and he is now on the floor to be examined in reference to that matter, and not to learn his lesson. It is a good plan, frequently, to call upon some pupil in the class to pronounce the words for the class, under the eye and ear of the teacher. If a word is misspelled, it should be made a part of the next lesson. Part II. — 45. primary teaching. 79 SECURING THE ATTENTION. Pronouncing a word but once, will go far to- wards securing the attention of every pupil; but in addition to this, when a word is misspelled, an- other pupil should be called upon to spell it with- out being spoken to. A movement of the eye, or hand, or some other sign, is all the notice that is necessary, if the pupils are giving their attention ; and a failure on the part of the pupil to receive this notice, should be considered as much a failure as the misspelling of a word. 45 KEEPING UP AN INTEREST. A variety of methods may be resorted to, though not as great a variety as with older pupils. The class may commence all standing, as each one spells he may sit down, until all are seated. The class may then rise in order as they spell, un- til all are up. The practice of having a head and foot to a class is often resorted to, and with good effect, if properly managed. If this practice is found to discourage any in the class, it should be abandoned. A better method is for the teacher to call on the scholars at the close of the recitation for the num- ber each one has missed, which should be recorded, and have a bearing on the grade of the tickets given them to take home weekly. The respelling of misspelled words by those who misspelled them, and then by the class in concert, is another method. 80 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part II. — 46 46 SPELLING WITH OTHER RECITATIONS. In reading exercises, if a word is mispronounced, attention sliould be called to its orthograjDhy. In their exercises in Mental Arithmetic, words that they use, and other words, should occasionally be spelled by the pupils, and so in other studies. TEACHING SPELLING TO SECONDARY CLASSES. 47 Remarhs. — I make use of no spelling book, but assign a definite part of a reading lesson as a spel- ling lesson. The advantage of this is, that schol- ars learn the forms of words in connection with their use in sentences, and associate their forms rather with their signification than with their pla- ces on the page of the spelling book. What teacher has not seen instances, in which a scholar could spell every word in the Spelling book, perhaps, without any one to "put out the words; " while, if called upon to write an essay, or a letter, that same scholar would misspell the most common words? Such words, as, there their^ are air, two too to, plain plane, are almost cer- tainly misspelled in writing by spelling book spel- lers. 48 ORAL METHOD. Let the class stand in a line, in order of their numbers as determined at the close of the last spelling exercise ; save that No. 1 takes his place at the foot of the class. Pronounce a word for No. 2, who now stands at the head. He spells it. All in the class who (81) 82 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part II. — 48 think lie spelled it wrong, will raise the hand. If the word was spelled right, those who raised their hands go below those who did not: all the schol- ars of each kind keeping their relative places with those of the same kind ; but all the scholars who were mistaken will take their places below all who were right in their opinion of the spelling as given by scholar No. 2. If the scholar misspelled the word, then the first scholar in order who raised his hand is called upon to spell the word, then the next, and so on till all who thought the word mispelled are tested. Those who are thus tested and fail, then take their places below with those who indicated that they thought the word spelled correctly, by not raising their hands. This method never fails to secure the attention of all in the class, and involves no confusion or disorder, if the teacher follow the direction of keeping every scholar of each kind in his place relatively with others of his own kind. The two kinds being : first, those who spell correctly or in- dicate correctly by raising their hands or not rais- ing them ; and second, those who spell incorrectly or indicate incorrectly, it being understood that all who show that they were mistaken take their places below all who show that they were right. Successive scholars are called upon to spell words, and the same indications taken and the same course pursued, till the time allotted for the exercise is exhausted. Part 11. — 49. secondary teaching. 83 At the close of the exercise, the teacher calls upon each member of the class, as he has him en- rolled in his class book, for the number of times he was mistaken in his opinion of the spelling, and he is graded accordingly. The class is then dismissed in order, No. 1 speaking his number and going to his seat; No. 2 following in the same manner. So of all the rest. Short sentences, or phrases, containing as many words as the class can well recollect, may be pro- nounced at once, instead of single words. This method has the advantage of more distinctly im- pressing the meaning of words in connection with their spelling 49 TEACHING SPELLING TO SECONDARY CLASSES BY USE OF SLATES. Words or sentences, which have been studied, are dictated to a class of scholars sitting on a rec- itation seat or at their desks, till perhaps they have written twenty words, each, on their slates. Slates are then exchanged. Some scholar is then called upon to give orally the spelling of the first word written on the slates. Teacher says, " How many agree? " All who think his spelling right, raise the hand. Teacher says, " How many disa- gree?" All such raise the hand. Teacher notes those who are wrong. Teacher then says, "How many slates are wrong?" All who have slates with the word incorrectly spelled, raise their slates to a vertical position on their knees, or on their 84 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part JI. — 50. desks. They are then called on in order, to give the correct spelling ; or, to save time, the teacher says, after one has given an incorrect spelling, " How many slates have that spelling? " He thus continues with the word till he gets all the false spellings and determines also the bad spellers. The next word is then taken up and treated in a similar manner. It takes much time to describe this method, but it is really the most expeditious and thorough method of getting at the knowledge of a class, and makes a more durable impression, perhaps, of the correct spelling and of the evil of bad spelling than any other method that has ever been devised for secondary scholars. 50 ANOTHER 3IETH0.D WITH SLATES. Let the teacher write one or more sentences, which the scholars have studied, on the black- board, -with many of the words misspelled, involv- ing such errors as the class would be most likely to fall into. The scholars sitting at their desks are required to copy the matter on the black-board, and to cor- rect the errors in spelling and capitals. The teacher afterwards examines their slates or papers, and grades them according to the accuracy, or want of it. OETHOGRAPHY TO ADVANCED CLASSES. 51 1. Criticism of Reports Written on the Black-board. — The criticism of spelling comes next in order after the criticism of pronunciation. It is done by the class in the usual way by raising the hand at the instance of the teacher. Ulustration. — A scholar in an advanced class in Grammar has had the subject of the noun assigned to him, on which to give a report before the class. Having had a day for preparation, he writes out the classification of his subject on the black-board from memory^ without referring to notes or book. He then gives, in the order of his classification, all necessary explanations, definitions, and illus- trations of the subject, orally. When the pupil has gone through with his report, the teacher calls on the class for criticisms ; first, in pronunciation; second, in spelling ; and so proceeds with the other items till the subject is thoroughly sifted. 52 2. Criticism of Compositions. — The teacher notes words misspelled in compositions, by draw- ing a lead mark under them. The scholar is re- quired to go to his dictionary and obtain the correct spelling of these words, and to make arec- (85) 86 TEACHING HIGHER CLASSES. Part II. 52 ord of them in the two forms in a blank book, which he keeps for this purpose, called The Spel- ing Book. Every advanced scholar, who is not an accurate speller, should have such a book. These spelling books are arranged with two columns on each page, one headed with the name of the pupil, the other with the name of the au- thor of the Dictionary which he consults. In the column under his own name, he writes his bad spelling. In the other column, he writes the cor- rect spelling according to his authority. Scarcely will a scholar fall into a second blunder with regard to the spelling of a word, after having made such a record of his error. Teachers must, of course, have a regular and definite time for examining these spelling books, or they will soon fall into neglect. Without them, the criticisms on bad spelling in compositions, will not amount to much. ADVANCED METHODS OF TEACHING. 53 TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY BY CHARTS. The methods of using the charts are explained in articles 21 to 28, These charts can be copied in an enlarged form by the teacher, or by scholars, on to one or more large sheets of printing paper, with a crayon. Charts of orthography are sold frequently for two dollars. Such a chart would cost the teacher not over a half dime, induding paper and crayon, and will serve as good a purpose as the most expensive. If scholars are permitted to make such charts, they have the advantage of learning them by the process, and of cultivating their taste in drawing and writing. 54 TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY BY DERIVATIVES. It is an excellent practice to give spelling les- sons in the derivatives. Let the teacher propose two or three roots for a lesson : as, press, act, etc. The scholars, at the recitation, are required to write as many derivatives as they have been able to obtain ; either on their slates, or on the black- board. They should, of course, be provided with dictionaries in the preparation of such a lesson. They can also make use of tables of prefixes and (87) 88 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part II. — 55. suffixes. They will also bring into use tlie spec- ial RULES for spelling derivatives. The definitions of the derivatives should be re- quired as a part of the exercise. Many teachers make use of Mc Elligott's or Town's analysis. The exercise can be made very profitable without them, with the use of a dictionary and the tables of prefixes and suffixes defined. These tables can be copied from Mc Elligott on to large sheets of paper and into the "spelling books" of the pupils, as described in article 52. 55 Examples in formation of derivatives, with the rules for spelling, according to Goold Brown. WITH SUFFIXES. Act. a primitive word, signifying to do or to make. Actor. The person who acts. Actress. The female who acts. Action-. The result or process of acting. Acts. Does act. Actest. Dost act. Acteth. Does act. Acted. Did act. Acting. Continuing to act. Actionable. Admitting of an action. Actionably. By admitting an action. AcTioNARY. I A person who has a share in an AcTioNisT. 3 action. Active. Inclined to act. Part 11.— hb. ADVANCED TEACHING. 89 Activity. | Rule YI. | j The state or qual- AcTivENEss. j Kule VII. J ( ity of being active. Actively. Rule VII. In an active manner. Actual. Real in acting or being. Actuality. ) mi. . . r> i • . ^ Ine state oi beino; actual. Actualness. j ° Actually. In an actual manner. Actuate. To cause to act. with prefixes and suffixes. CoACT. To act together with force. CoACTiox. The process of coacting. CoACTivE. Inclining to coact. Counteract. To act against. Counteraction. The process of acting against. Enact. To act in making a law. Enactment. The process or result of enactino-. Inactive. Without action. Inaction. An inactive state. Inactively. Rule VII. In an inactive man- ner. Inactivity. Rule VI. An inactive state. Exact. — Verb. To act in forcing out of. Exacting. Continuing to exact. Exaction. The process or result of exacting. Exactor. The person who exacts. Exact. — Adjective. Acting from rule. Accurate. Exactly. In an exact manner. Exactness. ) m ^ ^ o i. • ^ y Ihe state ot being exact. Exactitude. ) "^ React. To act again. To act back. Reacting. Continuing to react. Reaction. The process of reacting. 90 ADVANCED TEACHING. Fart II. — 58 Reactive. Inclining to react. Reactively. Rule \^II. In a reactive manner. SuBACTioN. The process of acting to place under. 56 Pel. An inseparable radical word, signifying to drive or force. From Fdlo^ Pulsus. With the only suffix — Pulsion. The act of driving. With prefixes and suffixes — Compel. Compelled, Rule III. Cojtpelling, Rule III. Compulsion. Compulsive. Compul- sively, Rule VII. Compulsivexess, Rule VII. Compulsory, etc. 57 From the root Press, nearly two hundred deriv- atives can be obtained. From the inseparable root Grcss, a long list can be formed. These two examples, Act and Pel, will be suffi- cient to illustrate the method of spelling by the use of prefixes and suffixes in forming derivatives from separable and inseparable primitives. 58 DRILLING ON THE SPECIAL RULES FOR SPELLING. The class should be required to memorize these as they are given in the grammar used, with the exceptions and remarks. They should so memor- ize them, that they can give them as they are called for by the teacher promiscuously. They should then be required to write, or spell orally, words as Part II. — 58. advanced teaching. 91 they are dictated, or pronounced from the exam- ples contained in the grammar, under each rule, in order, until every scholar shows that he is able to apply the rules correctly. Sentences may then be dictated for writing, con- taining derivative words coming under the rules promiscuously. Sentences may be written on the board by the teacher in which these rules are violated. The scholars are expected to rewrite the sentences on slates or paper, with references by number to the rules which were violated. This course should be pursued day after day, for weeks, until the scholars have formed the habit of noticing the application of these rules in spel- ling. We find that the larger part of misspelling in the compositions of advanced scholars, is in viola- tion of these rules, until they have been thor- oughly drilled in them. OIITIIOGEAPHIC PAKSING. EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. The following lists of words are selected with the design of bringing in as large a variety of combinations both of syllables and letters as possible. It is presumed that the teacher, by care- fully examining the methods by which these words and the letters and sounds of which they are composed, are disposed of, under the FoRM OF Orthographic Parsing, given on page 62, will be able to parse any words, letters or sounds in the language. List of words analj^zed : — Pin, Called, Through, Ewe, Manlike, Inkstand, Condition. List of words whose letters and sounds are analyzed : — Sound, Chaise, Xenophon, Rough, Lough, Phthisic, Motion, Filial. List of words parsed orthographically in full : — Impossibility. In commencing to teach Orthographic Parsing, it is well to divide the subject, and, at first, drill the class on words, includ- ing spelling, afterward upon letters and sounds, and finally com- bine the two. DRILL ON WORDS INCLUDING SPELLING. Pi'/i is a simple, primitive, monosyllable, spelled orthographi- cally (naming the letters) p, i, n, and phonetically (enunciating the sounds) p, i, n. Called is a simple, derivative monosyllable, except in poetry, where it is sometimes a dissyllable, accented on the first. As a derivative, its base is call, modified by the simple suffix, ed, sig- nifying did. The signification of called is, did name, summons, invite, &c. Spelled orthographically, c, a, Il,e, d, phonetically, k, G, 1, d. Tkrougli is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled, ortho- graphically, t, h, r, o, n, g, h ; phonetically, t,r, CD. Ewe is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled, orthograph- icallv, e, w, e, phonetically, y,i|,. Manlike is a compound, primitive dissyllable, accented (slight- ly) on the first. Spelled, orthographically, m, a, n,l, i,k, e, pho- netically, m, a, n, 1, j, k. The base of the word is man ; which is modified by the word like, signifying resembling in manner, or appearance. The signification of the word is, resembling a man. Inkstand is a compound, primitive dissyllable, accented on the first. Spelled, orthographically, 1, n, k, s, t, a, n,d, phonetically, i, ij, k, s, t, a, n, d. The base of the word is stand, modified by (92) Part II. ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 93 the word inj:, signifying (here,) a fluid for writing. The word signifies a vessel for holding the fluid. Condition is a simple, primitive trisyllable, accented on the second ; spelled, orthographically, c,o, n,d, i, t, i,o,n, phonetically, k, 0, n, d, i, J, 0, n. DRILL ON LETTERS AND SOUNDS. Sound. S is a consonant, antecedent to the base of the sylla- ble, ou, and represents its own proper sound, s ; {enunciate the sound,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the gums by a partial contact of the organs : producing a dental and a continuant. Ou, the base of the syllable, is a diphthong, representing its own proper sound, ■» ; (enunciate,) which is an open, compound vooal, modified (in the commencement of the sound,,) at the soft palate, and at the conclusion at the lips. N is a consonant, and the immediate consequent of the base of the syllable, representing its own proper sound, n; {eiiunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a contact made perfect there, but with an opening of the nasal cavities, through which there is an escape of air externally, and, hence, obstructed by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a pala- tal, a continuant, and a nasal. D is a consonant, and the remote consequent of the base of the syllable, representing its own proper sound, d; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the teeth or gums, (at the teeth by some, and at the gums by others,) by a perfect contact of the organs, producing an abrupt, and a dental. Chaise. Ch is a consonant digraph, the antecedent of the base of the syllable, ai, final e, and represents the sound of sh, J; {emmciate,) which is an aspirate, obstruclod at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a palatal and a continuant. Ai — e, the base of the syllable, is a disjoined trigraph, repre- senting the long sound of a, a; {enunciate,) which is a long, simple vocal, modified at the hard palate. S is a consonant, having its position between the parts of the disjoined trigraph, which forms the base of the syllable, and rep- resents the sound of z, z; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, ob- structed at the gums by a partial contact of the organs; produc- ing a dental and a continuant. XenopJion. X is a consonant, antecedent to the base of the first syllable, e, and represents the sound of z, z; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the gams, by a partial contact of the organs; producing a dental and a continuant. E, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing the short sound of e, e; {enunciate^) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the hard palate. N is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the first sylla- ble, and represents its own proper sound, n: {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a partial contact of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. 0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its 94 ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. Part II. own long sound, o; {enunciate,') which is' a long, simple vocal, modified at the lips, Ph is a consonant digraph, antecedent to the base of the third syllable, o, and represents the sound of f, f ; {^enunciate,') which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the organs, producing a labial and a continuant. 0, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, o; {enunciate,') which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the short palate. N is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the third sylla- ble, and represents its own proper sound, n; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, and is obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. Rough. R is a consonant and is antecedent to the base of the syllable, ou: representing its own proper sound, r : {enwiciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs, producing a palatal, a continuant and a liquid. Ou, the base of the syllable, is a conjoined vowel digraph, rep- resenting the short sound of u, u; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the hard palate. Gh is a consonant digraph, and the consequent of the base of the syllable, representing the sound of f, f ; {enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips- by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a labial and a continuant. Lough. L is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the syllable, ou ; representing its own proper sound, 1 ; (e««/icj- ate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs, producing a palatal, a continuant and a liquid. Ou, the base of the syllable, is a vowel digraph, representing the sound of short o, o; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the soft palate. Gh is a consonant digraph, and the consequent of the base of the syllable, representing the sound of k, k; {enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the soft palate, by a perfect contact of the organs ; producing a guttural and an abrupt. Phthisic. Ph are two aphthongs and remote antecedents of the base of the first syllable, i, and are used to modify the repre- sentative character of the digraph th, and to determine the sig- nification of the word. Th is a consonant digraph, and the immediate antecedent of i, the base of the first syllable, representing the sound of t, t ; {enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth or gums, by a perfect contact of the organs, producing an abrupt and a dental. 1, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel representing its own fchort sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modi- fied at the teeth. S is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the syllable, and represents the sound of z, z ; {enunciate,) which is a subvo- cal, obstructed at tlie gums, by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a dental and a continuant. Part II. ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 95 I, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. C is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the sylla- ble; representing the sound of k, k; {enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the soft palate, by a perfect contact of the organs ; producing a guttural and an abrupt. Motion. M is a consonant, and the antecedent of o, the base of the first syllable ; representing its own proper sound, m ; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the lips, by a par- tial contact of the organs ; producing a labial, a continuant, and a nasal. 0, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing its own long sound, (S; {enunciate,) which is a long, simple vocal, modified at the lips. Ti is a combined digraph, and the antecedent of o, the base of the second syllable ; representing the sound of sb, J : {enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a palatal and a continuant. 0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing the sound of short u,u; {enur,oiate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the hard palate. N is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the sylla- ble, representing its own proper sound, n; {enunciate,') which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. Filial. F is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the first syllable, representing its own proper sound, C; {enxin- ciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a labial and a continuant. 1, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, i; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. L is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the first syllable ; representing its own proper sound, 1 ; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a partial contact of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. I is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the second syllable, representing the sound of y, y ; {enunciate,) which is a vocal and a coalescent, modified at the teeth. A, the bass of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, a; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. L is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the second syllable, representing its own proper sound, 1; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. DRILL IN FULL ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. ImpossiMlity is a simple, derivative polysyllable, accented on the fourth and second syllables. Possible, the base of the word, is iDodified by the prefix im, signifying not, and the suffix ity, signifying the state or condition. The word signifies, "that which can not be." 96 ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. Part 11. It is spelled, orthographically, i, m, p, o, s, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t,y, and, phonetically, i, m, p, o, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t, i. I is a vowel, the base of the first syllable, representing its own short sound, i ; {^enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. M is a consonant and the consequent of the base of the first syllable, representing its own sound, m; {enunciate,') which is a subvocal, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the organs; producing a labial, a continuant and a nasal. Pisa consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the second syllable, representing its own sound, p; {eiiunciate^) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a perfect contact of the organs; producing a labial and an abrupt, 0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, o; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. S is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the second syllable, representing its own proper sound, s; {eniinciate.) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the gums, by a partial contact of the organs; producing a dental and a continuant. 1, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, \; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. B is a consonant, and the antecedent bf the 'base of the fourth syllabic, representing its own proper sound, b; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the lips by a perfect contact of the organs ; producing a labial and an abrupt. I, the base of the fourth syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. L is a consonant, and the subsequent of the base of the fourth syllable, representing its own proper sound, 1 ; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a palatal, a continuant and a liquid. I, the base of the fifth syllable, is a vowel, representing its own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. T is a consonant and the antecedent of the base of the sixth syllable ; representing its own proper sound, t ; {enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth or gums, by a perfect con- tact of the organs ; producing a dental and an abrupt. Y, the base of the sixth syllable, is a vowel, representing the short sound of i, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modified at the teeth. PART III. GRAMMAR. METHODS OF TEACHING ORTHOGENY, SYNTAX, AND ANALYSIS. INTRODUCTION. PROPER AGE FOR COMMEN'CING THE STUDY OF GRAM- MAR. There is no subject of school study about which there is a greater disparity of opinion prevailing among teachers than that of the age at which chil- dren may commence the study of Grammar, Some teachers would have children commence Grammar as the first Htudy in books afte;r they have learned to read well, or even before; others of our best educators would defer it till the faculties of the mind are all measurably developed; a third class would not have Grammar studied at all, as a distinct science. I conceive, that by an adaptation, of which the subject is susceptible, chil- dren may commence Grammar as soon as they can read fluently and intelligibly. Geography may be introduced before children can read fluently as a means of securing study in reading lessryns, aad of training the hand and eye in drawing maps. We should, therefore, introduce Geography at this point, in this volume, were it not for breaking in upon a systematic arrangement of the branches. Object lessons in common things, and Xatural History; and experiments in Chemistry and Natural 100 INTRODUCTION. Philosophy, may well precede the study of Gi"am- mar also. ORAL INSTRUCTION BEFORE THE BOOK. 'No lesson should be required of a young pupil in the text book, till he has had a preliminary drill; and the teacher is satisfied that he comprehends the subject so far as his lesson in the text book extends. Should the teacher fail in making the class, or any member of a class, understand any particular part of the subject, by the preliminary drill, it would be worse than in vain to i-equire such a class, or in- dividual, to memorize it from the text book. Such a pupil or class must lay aside that subject for awhile, and take up some other more simple; or, lay aside the study of Grammar till the mind is more matured. THE METHODS OF PRELIMINARY DRILL. The main object of the following pages given to PRIMARY TEACHING is to illustrate and exemplify the method of preliminary drill, preparatory to lessons to be memorized from the text book. A similar course has been pursued with numer- ous classes in the Model Department of the Normal School, and Grammar has never failed to be a treat for the children. THE ORDER OF LESSONS. The order pursued in the following pages, in tak- ing up the different subjects for lessons, is that of simplicity; commencing with the most simple and obvious of subjects, viz: the noun, and proceeding with its modifications and classes, as the child can boar them, and so advancing to other parts of speech INTRODUCTION. 101 and their modifications and classes till the whole ground shall have been passed over in its lolainest form. All exceptions, idioms, and irregularities, save such as are obviously violations of rules, are studiously avoided in this method of primary teach- ing, as tending to confuse the mind by too great a degree of complexity and obscurity. METHOD OF INTRODUCING RULES. No rule should be introduced till the necessity for it is understood by the class. There is, then, no difficulty in their memorizing it even in the oral drill. Children will thus obtain the great funda- mental principles of construction, of syntax, while they are learning to distinguish the parts of speech, their classes and modifications. WRITING EXERCISES. There are many advantages in the plan of written exercises proposed in parsing; some of which are: 1st. It secures study in the preparation of 3.parsing lesson, which otherwise might be evaded under vari- ous pretexts. 2d. It affords a means of teaching spelling, as explained in article 52, page 85. 3d. Rapid improvement in penmanship can be secured by close attention to this matter on the part of the teacher. 4th. It paves the way to composition, by the scholars' taking a part of the difficulties, before entering upon them in combimation. 5th. It effects the more equal advancement of a class, by securing more equal amounts of application outside of the recitation. Remark. — The ordinary writing book maybe used 102 INTRODUCTION. for this exercise, and the time otherwise given to writing from copies. GENERAL PLAN OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. The method of conducting a recitation in Gram- mar, as explained in the subsequent pages, illus- trates the general method of conducting recitations in all branches. It assumes, that the class is an or- ganized assembly, with the teacher for Chairman. Ko scholar has a right to the floor (using parliamen- tary language) till he is recognized by the teacher. The raising of the hand signifies, that he wishes to obtain the floor, but does not give him a right to it without the assent of the Chaii'man. The teacher should be particularly watchful on this point; otlier- w4se scholars conceive, that whenever they raise the hand, they may speak. Thus the object of raising the hand is defeated, and disorder is the result. MUTUAL CRITICISM OF SCHOLARS. Scholars are required, in the recitations, to criti- cise each other. Without special care, on the part of the teacher, he will deprive the scholars of this privilege by doing too much of it himself. Schol- ars will learn vastly more by criticising, than by being criticised. *'Itis more blessed to give than receive." They should also be encouraged to criticise each other out of school hours — of course, in a kindly manner. METHOD OF USING PART in. For Primary classes in Grammar, it is not suppo- sed that the Teacher consulting this work will be INTRODUCTION. 103 governed meclianically by my divisions of the gen- eral subject into Lessons, or that he will follow im- plicitly my arrangement of the parts of speech, and their classes and modifications, in his Steps. With the exception of the adjective and the particles, which are provided for, I conceive the arrangement adopted the best; though other teachers may prefer to follow the arrangement of their text books. The main object in view in the preparation of these primary lessons will be to exhibit as clearly as possi- ble the combination of oral instruction with memor- iter lessons from text books; and it is believed that if a teacher will consult these successive Lessons and Steps in his own preparation for the successive recitations and exercises, he will obtain some hints which may serve as guide boards or beacon lights in his course. The methods of usino- the Outlines and Defini- tions, etc., under the head of Advanced Teaching, xvill appear sufficiently in connection with them. METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR TO PRIMARY CLASSES. I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS . The class should be able to reasd fiuentlj and intelligently. They should be provided with books, grammars of some kind, and all of the same kind. It is not necessary or desirable that they should have j.>rmary grammars. The larger and fuller grammar has to be purchased, after the primary has been used one session. We make use of Goold Brown's Grammar in the Normal School, and my references will be to that work, though any teacher can pursue the plan in connection with any other. 2 LESSON I. First Step — Nouns. Let the Teacher define a Noun in the simplest possible manner, i, e., as a name. Teacher. A Noun is a name. Every noun is a name, and every name is a noun. Your names are nouns, and my name is a noun. Can you think of any other nouns ? Part III. 3. PRIMARY TEACHING. 106 Scholars raise their hands. Teacher says to one — "John, you may mention some noun." John mentions some name, as '* house," " stone," **boy." Teacher. Why is house a noun, John ? John. Because it is a name. So the Teacher should proceed "svith every mem- ber of the class until all can not only give nouns ; but can define them correctly. 3. Second Step — Nouns, Immaterial Objects. As scholars will in the first place select the names of material substances, the teacher will secondly bring to their notice the names of immaterial sub- stances and abstract qualities, thus : Teacher. Is mind a noun ? As many as think it is may raise the hand. Several do not raise their hands, perhaps ; among whom is Samuel. Teacher. Samuel, why is'nt mind a noun ? Samuel. I never saw a mind. Teacher. But then you have a mind, I suppose ; or are you all body and clothes ? There are many things which you cannot see, which still must have names, as we have to talk about them. Did you, any of you, ever see the wind ? or did you ever see a love or a friendship ? Yet you don't doubt that you possess and enjoy these things. Each one of the class may give such a noun. The Teacher will then call on the pupils individually 106 PRIMARY TEACHING. PdH III. 3. by name, when such nouns as sound, health, good- ness, breath, life, death, weight, lightness, smell, etc., may be brought out by the class ; possibly some adjective, as new, or soft, or sweet, by Jane. Teacher. Jane, why is sweet a noun ? Did you ever see a sweet ? Jane. No, sir; but I have tasted of a sweet apple. Teacher. True, you have tasted of an apple, and the apple was sweet. But what sort of a thing is the sweet without the apple ? Now, how many of the class can tell me the name of that quality of the apple which makes it taste sweet ? Hands are raised. Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. Sugar. Teacher. Sugar is a substance, not a quality. James. Juice. Teacher. Juice is also a substance, not a quality. If I were speaking of the quality which makes the apple sweet, I should not call it the sweet of the apple. What would I call it ? All hands come up, and eyes glisten. Teacher. Mary. Mary. Sweetness. Teacher. ^ Yes, that is the name of the quality. Can you give me any other quality of apples ? Each scholar may think of some quality of an apple and give it, when called on. James, what quality do you think of? James. Hardness. Part III. 4. PRIMARY TEACHING. 107 Teacher. Susan. Susan. Softness, The teacher should pursue this course, till the class are familiar with the names of qualities taken abstractly. 4. Third Step. Drill in the Grammar. Direct the scholars to turn to page 55 of Brown's Grammar, Lesson 1. Teacher. You may tell me all the nouns you see in the second line : ''A large ship traversing the ocean by the force of the w^ind." James. Ship — ocean — wind. Teacher. Why are these words nouns ? James. Because they are names. Teacher. Are there no other names in that line ? James, perhaps, hesitates. Teacher. Class. [Several hands rise.] Remark. It will be noticed that when the Teach- er uses the word "Class," that no pupil speaks; but all who are able to respond, raise their hands. The Teacher then calls on some one to give the answer. Teacher. Mary, you may give me the other nouns in that line. Mary. Large, and force. Teacher. Why is force a noun? Mary. Mary. It is the name of something. Teacher. Very well. Why is large a noun? Mary. It is a name. Teacher. Name of what ? Did you ever see a laro-e ? 108 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III—^. Mary. I never saw a force either. Teacher. What property of the wind drives the ship ? Is it not the power of the wind ? What other name is there for power ? Class. [Hands rise.] Susan. Susan. Force. Teacher. Is not force then the name of that which drives the ship ? Could the wind drive the ship, if it had no force ? Let us now see about large. Is large the name of anything, Mary? Mary. Yes, sir ; a large house is a name. Teacher. House is a name of that in which peo- ple live ; but what sort of a thing is large ? How many think large is the name of anything, now? In a similar way, each member of the class may be called on to give the nouns in a line. The Teacher will select such lines from Brown's Gram- mar, or any other, as may be best adapted to the particular scholar with whom he is dealing. Children Avill most easily and certainly select the names of material objects. The lesson assigned for the scholar to learn from the book, is in this case, nothing more than the definition of a noun. And the Teacher will be careful in these primary exercises to require the class to learn nothing from the book which he has not made plain, and pleasant, in the preliminary drill. Part III. 6. PRIMARY TEACHING. 109 5. LESSON II. First Step — Recitation of Lesson assigned. Teacher. How many can define a noun ? Hands rise ; and the teacher calls upon those who were the dullest in the previous exercise, to give the definition. Having thus satisfied himself as to the amount of study bestowed, he proceeds to another preliminary drill, on the modifications of nouns, taking them in the order of their simplicity, taking those modifications first, always, which are the most obvious to the child. 6. Second Step — Number. Teacher. I will tell you something more about nouns. They are singular or plural. If a noun means one of that thing which it is the name of, it is singular ; if it means more than one, it is plural. For instance, horse is a singular noun, because it means a single horse ; but horses is a plural noun, because it means more than one horse. Teacher. The class, all together. Is bird sin- gular or plural ? The class answer in concert without raising hands when the words "all together" are used. Teacher. Is birds singular or plural ? Class. Plural. Teacher. How is it with boy? Class. Singular. Teacher. Give me the plural of boy. Class. Boys. 110 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 7. Teacher. Is girls singular or plural ? Class. Plural. Teacher. Give me the singular of girls. Class. Girl. Teacher. Yery well ; now the plural of fox. Class. Foxes. Teacher. Box. Class. Boxes. Teacher. Ox. Class. Oxes — oh no, oxen. Teacher. Very well ; try again. Mouse. Class. Mice. Teacher. Louse. Class. Lice. Teacher. House. Class. Hice — no, no, houses. Teacher. You are right now. Again ; Moose. Class. Mooses. Tex -her. P.ip^ass. Class. Papooses. Teacher. Goose. Class. Gooses; ha, ha, geese. 7. Third Step — Gender. Teacher. Now, chil- dren, I wish to tell you about gender. The name of a male is a noun of the masculine gender. The name of a female is a noun of the feminine gender. For instance; boy is a noun of the masculine gender, girl is a noun of feminine gender. Floor is a noun of the neuter gender. Teacher. What gender is man? All together. Class. Masculine. Teacher. How many can tell me why man is masculine? [Hands rise. ] Teacher. Samuel. Samuel. It is the name of a m.an. Teacher. Jane. Jane. It is the name of a female. Teacher. What gender is lady? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Mary. Mary. Feminine. Part III. 8. PRIMARY TEACHING. HI Teacher. What gender is desk? [No hands rise.] What gender did I tell you those nouns were which were neither masculine nor feminine? — [Hands rise.] Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. Neuter. Teacher. Very well. What gender is desk, then? [All hands up.] Teacher. All together. Class. Neuter. 8. Fourth Step — Parsing. The class are now pre- pared to commence the process of parsing. The teacher will lead the way by giving an example thus. Teacher. You may all look at the first noun, in the first line of Lesson I, page bb, of Brown's Gram- mar, and I will parse it for you. Science is a noun, sino^ular number, neuter ^en- der. Do you think you can parse a word now? — [Some hands rise.] Teacher. Jane, you may parse mind, in the same line. Jane. Mind is a noun. Teacher. What number? Jane. Singular. Teacher. What gender? Jane. Neuter. Teacher. Now, you may parse it again. Jane. Mind is a noun, singular number, neuter gender. Teacher. Very well. You may all parse it in concert. Class. Mind is a noun, singular number, neuter Teacher. Very well. Sarah, you may now parse ship. 112 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 9. Sarah. Ship is a noun, neuter gender, singular number. Teacher. You may all parse ship. Class. Ship is a noun, ( in confusion ) singular number, neuter gender, neuter gender, singular number. Teacher. You may give the number before the gender. Takethenoun, John, in the line: **I, John, saw these things." James, you may parse it. James. John is a noun. Teacher. Why? James. It is a name. Teacher. Gq on. James. Singular number. Teacher. Why? James. It means only one. Teacher. What gender? James. Masculine. Teacher. Very well. You may all parse John. Class. John is a noun, singular number, mascu- line gender. 9. Fifth Step — Person. Teacher. I will now tell you something else about nouns. If a noun is the name of the speaker or writer, it is in the first per- son. If it is the name of a person spoken to, it is in the second person; and if it is the name of a per- son or things spoken of, it is in the third person. For instance: John, in the sentence we have just had, is in the first person, because John was the name of the writer. If I should say, '' George, shut that door," George would be in the second per- son, because it would be the name of the person spoken to. But door would be in the third person, because it is spoken of. Part IIL — 9. primary teaching. 113 What person is Daniel, in the expression used by the King: **0, Daniel! servant of the living God?" All togeth^. Class. Second person. Teacher. Why? Class. Daniel is spoken to. Teacher. Now, we will parse a few words. 1 will parse John for you first. John is a noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender. You may follow the same order in parsing that I did in giving person, number, and gender. Teacher. Eliza, you may parse Esther in the second sentence, in Lesson II. Eliza parses as directed in this manner: Esther is a noun, third person, singular number, feminine gender. Teacher. You may all parse it in concert. The Class parse in concert. They can be kept together by the teacher's beating with his hand, or pointer. It will be noticed, that no definitions are called for, while parsing, as is practiced by most teachers and recommended in most grammars, since the days of Kirkham. However, if the scholar is wrong, or hesitates, showing doubt or ignorance of any point, the teacher at once calls for the definition necessary to set the scholar right. If the scholar parsing can- not give the required definition, the teacher says, "Class:" when all who can give it raise their hands; and the teacher calls on the scholar most unlikely to give it. If he fails, then on another, and so on till the definition is correctly given. 8 114 PRIMARY TEACHING. PaH III. 10 10. Sixth Step — Classes of Nouns. Teacher. Nouns are divided into two classes, for the purpose of showing us where to use capital letters. General names, or such as apply to many person or things, are called common nouns; for the reason, that they belong in common to many objects. The noun man is common; it belongs in common to many persons. James Buchanan is called a proper noun; it belongs, properly, or peculiarly, to one person. I will give you several common nouns, and you may give proper names that belong to the same class of things. For instance: under the common noun, girl, we find the proper nouns, Susan, Mary, Eliza, etc. What proper noun comes under the common noun boy? Class raise their hands. Teacher. William, William. Samuel. This course may be pursued with each of the scholars, until they are all able to distinguish the classes of nouns. Then the teacher calls on them to parse; giving the class of the noun first in order after the noun, then the modifications as before. The exercise is closed by assigning to the class, for a lesson to be learned from the book, the defini- tions of the two classes of nouns, as well as the defi- nitions of person, number, and gender. These defi- nitions are pointed out in the grammar by the teach- er; and some one of the duller scholars is asked to show, in his own book, what the lesson is, in order Part in. 12. PRIMARY TEACHING. 115 that the teacher may be sure that the class understand what they are to learn for the next recitation. 11. LESSON III. First Step. The recitation of the lesson assicrn- o ed, and the grading of the scholars accordinof to their merits, in the teacher's register. 12. Second Step — Case. Yerb. Teacher. Nouns have one more property, or modification; that of case. In order that you may understand this property, I shall introduce you to another kind of word; or, as the grammarians call it, another part of speech. A verb is a word that denotes action, or being, or state of being. "When I say, "The bird flies," the word flies, de- notes the action of the bird, or tells what the bird does; hence, it is a verb. In the sentence, **Mary reads;" reads is a verb for a similar reason. In the sentence, "The stone lies on the ground," the word lies does not express action., but simply state of being. Now, you may give me the verbs in these senten- ces; all together: "The horse runs." Class. (In concert.) Runs. Teacher. Why? Class. It tells what the horse does. Teacher. Does it denote action or being? Class. Action. Teacher. "The boy chops wood." In this sen- tence, what is the verb, John? John. Chops. Teacher. Why? John. It de- notes action. Teacher. Very well. 116 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III— \ A. 13. The Third Step — Drill in Verbs. Teacher, You may now open your grammars to the 103d page and find some of the verbs in Lesson I. James, in the first sentence, what is the verb, and why? James. Repent, because it denotes action. Teacher. Sarah, in the next sentence. Sarah. Studiest; it denotes action. This course may be pursued till the class have all been reached, and can give the verbs in these simple sentences, and the reason for such words be- ing verbs. It will be noticed, that approves and seems are verbs, because they denote being, or state of being. 14. Fourth Step — Subject and Object. Teacher. If I say, *'The boy drives a team;" what is the subject of the remark, what is the principal thing talked about? Class raise their hands. Teacher. Susan. Susan. Boy. Teacher. Right. The subject of a sentence is that word in a sentence about which the verb asserts something. Now, the verb drives asserts an action of the subject, boy; and the noun, boy, is in the con- dition of a subject. Grammars call this condition the "nominative case." They might better call it the * 'subjective case," or condition. But, since nearly all grammars agree in this matter, we will call it so too. Part III. 14. PRIMARY TEACHING. 117 Teacher. Let us take the same sentence again. What object does the boy drive? Class raise hands. Teacher. John. John. Team. Teacher. Yes. Then team is in the condition of an object, and we will say, that it is in the objective condition or case. We can now parse these nouns boy, and team, in full. I Avill parse boy for you, but will first write the form by which I parse it, on the board. [The teach- er writes.] Species? Class? Person? Nur}iber? Gender? Case? Construction? Rule? Now, I will parse it by this form; then, you may all parse it by the same form, in concert. The teacher usingr the pointer, as he proceeds, parses thus: Boy is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, nominative, because it is subject of the verb, drives. He then calls on the class to parse the same word, guiding them by pointing at the successive questions in the form, on the board. The same course is pursued with team, the teacher giving, as its ''construction," "being the object of the verb drives." The teacher assigns for the next lesson, those definitions which he has brought out and exemplified in this exercise. This lesson is to be studied and prepared for the next exercise. The definitions to be assigned, are these, viz: of the noun, common noun, proper noun, gender, masculine, feminine, per- son, first person, second person, third person, num- ber, singular number, plural number, case, nomina- tive case, objective case. 118 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 16. 15. LESSON IV. First Step — Recitation. The manner of con- ducting this recitation is this: The scholars#t)eing seated on the recitation bench, the teacher calls one most likely to fail, by name. He or she rises. The scholar rises for several rea- sons. 1st. He feels more responsibility in the reci- tation, when thus made more prominently the object of observation. 2d. The rest of the class can hear what he says more plainly. 3d. Other scholars, who are sitting, cannot so easily prompt him without being heard by the teacher. The teacher then pro- poses one word for definition, not the first, necessa- rily; perhaps the most difficult. If the scholar fails in this, the teacher proposes it to the class, for the purpose of keeping their attention, by saying, ** Class." All who are able to answer, raise their hands; and the teacher calls upon those least likely to do so, to give the definition or answer the ques- tion. This course is pursued, till every member of the class is reached, and his merit or demerit ascer- tained and recorded in the class register. 16. Second Step — Parsing. The teacher directs the class to turn to page 55, of Brown's Grammar, or to any similar collection of sentences, in any other grammar. He writes out the forrti for parsing a noun on the board, as given before, in section 14, page 117. Then some one of the more apt scholars is called on to parse Science by the form — stand- Part III. 16. PRIMARY TEACHING. 119 ing while lie parses; the rest of the class signifying any error by raising their hands; when th-e teacher calls on some one, so signifying, to correct the er- ror, or the supposed error. A scholar having pars- ed a word, is excused, and the class parse in concert; the teacher keeping time for them by pointing in succession to the several questions in the form. I will parse the words Science and Mind, in the manner they should be parsed in this exercise. Sci- ence is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, nominative, being the subject of strengthens and en- larges, according to the rule; A noun or pronoun, which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. Mind is a noun common, third, singular, neuter, objective, being the object of the verbs strengthens and enlarges. The teacher will be careful to give only such nouns to parse, as ares ubjectsor objects of verbs; introduc- ing or requiring nothing in the parsing exercise, which has not been fully understood by previous ex- planation and drill. If the book does not furnish a sufficient number of appropriate examples, sentences may be written on the blackboard. In parsing, the words person, number, gender, and case, are omitted; because they are given in the form on the blackboard, and because they are just as plainly signified, when omitted, as when expressed. No definitions ar« required, we repeat, when parsing, unless the pupil, in his parsing, makes an error, or hesitates; when he is -corrected or prompted by the teacher's calling for the appropriate definition: the 120 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 18. forgetting or neglecting of which was the cause of the piipil's error or hesitancy. The hour, or half hour, for the recitation, is thus occupied in parsing, by individuals, and by the class in concert, leaving only time enough to assign anoth- er lesson. 17. Third Step — Assigning a Lesson in Writing. The next lesson is the parsing of the words in writ- ing, which have been parsed orally in the class. — Teacher. Scholars, you will hand me, at the next recitation, a written parsing lesson. You may write, on paper, with iuk, very neatly, and with correct spelling, the parsings of the same words which have been parsing in this recitation. Now, _ you will be careful to^ have paper, ink, and pens, all ready at the regular hour in which you study this lesson, and I will help you a little then, if necessary. — I would like to have you fold your papers- neatly, as merchants and lawyers fold their papers for filing, and write your name across one end, on the outside. The teacher will then show the manner of folding by taking a half sheet and folding it before the class. He-will write his name, on the folded pa- per, as he wishes the scholars to write theirs., 18. LESSON Y. First Step — Criticising Written Exercises. The written exercises are collected by one of the scholars; and the teacher reads one of them aloud for the class to criticise. They are directed to watch for errors and to raise their hands if they notice any. Part III. 19. PRIMARY TEACHING. 121 Should any hands rise, the teacher calls on some one who raises his hand to mention the error, and cor- rect it. If he should fail, then the teacher calls on others, till the error is corrected. The pupil who made the error is required to give the definition or rule which he neglected or violated in making the error. The same course is pursued till this paper and the others, are disposed of. The teacher will be careful to bestow any praise, that is deserved, for neatness in the execution of the mechanical part of the exercise, and he will grade the pupils in his reg- ister according to their accuracy in parsing and spell- ing; and according to the neatness evinced in writing and folding, and superscribing their own names on the papers. Time should be reserved for another drill in oral parsing, even though all the vf ritten exercises are not criticised before the class. They may be criticised by the teacher out of school hours, and the errors corrected with a lead pencil or red ink, on the paper, so that the scholar will understand them, and the pa- per returned to him at the next recitation. 19. Second Step — Drill in Oral Parsing. This drill may consist of parsings of the same class of words as before, provided the class are found quite deficient in their written exercises; and the same course may be pursued through several lessons until the majority of the class are able to parse the words assigned, according to their stage of advancement, correctly. 122 PRIMARY TEACHING. PilH III. 21. 20. LESSON VI. First Step — Criticising Written Parsings. Second Step — Possessive Case. The possessive case may be introduced, and the declension of nouns; and, after being explained, the definition of the^pos- sessive case and other cases, also, the declensions of nouns may be assigned for study, in connection with some nouns to be parsed in writing, which have not been parsed orally, and which are in the construc- tions already explained, viz: the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, and in the possessive case, denoting possession, origin, design, etc. 21. LESSON VII. First Step — Recitation of definitions of cases, and the declension of nouns. Second Step. The Examination of the paper of one of the scholars, while the other scholars, having their papers in their hands, give their agreement or disagreement with the paper read. Third Step — Introduction of the Pronoun. — Teacher. If I should say : " Jane studies with all Jane's might?" how could you better express that idea? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Susan. Susan. "Jane studies with all her might," would sound better to me. Teacher. Right. What word do you use instead of Jane's? Class. [Hands rise.] Teacher. Mary. Mari/. Her. Teacher. Then her is a pronoun, because a pronoun is a word used Part III. — 22. primary teaching. 123 instead of a noun. Now, you may all open to page 67, and see if you can tell me which are the pro- nouns. How many of you see a pronoun in the first line: "When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced." [Hands rise.] Teacher. Henry. Hen- ry. They. Teacher. What does they stand in place of? Henry. Saxons. Teacher. Right. Samuel, what pronoun in the second line? Sam- uel. Their. Teacher. Why is their a pronoun? Samuel. Because it stands in the place of Saxons. Teacher. Eight. Do any of you see another pro- noun in the same sentence? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Ellen. Ellen. Which. Teacher. What does which stand in place of? Ellen. Ellen. It stands in the place of language. Teacher. Right. The same course may be pursued till the majority of the class can distinguish pronouns. The next lesson assigned for study, will include the definition of the pronoun, and a new parsing lesson of nouns; the teacher being careful to assign no nouns in differ- ent constructions from those he has already ex- plained. 22. LESSON VIII. First Step — Recitation of the definition of pro- nouns. Second Step — Classes and Cases of Pronouns. Teacher. There are three classes of pronouns. I will endeavor to describe them, so that you can tell them apart. Let me have your attention very closely. 124 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 22. A personal- pronoun is one that always stands for the same grammatical person. A relative pronoun is one that may stand for any grammatical person, and connects clauses. An interrogative pronoun is one that is used for asking a question. Tlie pronoun, he, always stands for the third per- son or some person spoken of. The pronoun I al- way s stands for the speaker or for the first person. Thou, always stands for the second person. He, I and thou, are, therefore, personal pronouns. The pronoun who may stand for any one of the three persons; for the first person, second person or third person. In the expression, "I, who teach," what person does who stand for? Class. [Hands rise.] Teacher. Susan. Susan. First person. Teacher. In the expressions, "You, who study;" 'Our Father which art in Heaven," what person do who and which stand for?" [Hands rise.] John. John. The third person. Teacher. What does who stand for? John. John. It stands for you. Teacher. Right. What does you stand for, when I say, "You, who study?" Does it stand for the person spoken of, or the per- son spoken to? John. It stands for the person spoken to. Teacher. Then who stands for the person spoken to, for it stands for the same that you does. In the expression, "Thou who runnest," what person does who stand for? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Jane. Jane. Second person. Teacher. Very well. Then you see that who does not always Part III. — 23. primary teaching. 125 stand for the same grammatical person, as the pro- noun I, does. In the question, "Who comes there?" who stands for the answer of the question and for that reason is a pronoun. It is also used for asking that question, and is for that reason an interrogative pronoun. — Now, you may turn to page %Q. How many can tell the pronouns in the line, "I, Avho was present know the particulars." [Hands rise.] Teacher. Julia. Julia. I and who are pro- nouns. Teacher. Yes. Now I will write those defi- nitions that I gave you, of the different kinds of pro- nouns on the board, and you may copy them on to your papers and recite them as your next recitation. You may also learn the declensions of the personal pronouns, on pages 63 and 64. I do not wish you to learn the definitions of Jihe different classes of pro- nouns in the grammar; they will only perplex you. 2.3. LESSON IX. First Step — Recitation of the Definitions given on the blackboard and copied the day previons; also of the Declensions of personal pronouns. Second Step — Form of Parsing Pronouns. — This may be written on blackboard thus: Sioecies? Class? {Sub-class?) Agreement? Person? Xum- her? Gender? Rule? Case? Construction? Rule? Teacher. I will now parse a pronoun for you by the form. Turn to page 67. In the sentence, VWhen the Saxons subdued the Britons, they intro- duced their own language," they is a pronoun, per- sonal, and agrees with Saxons in the third, plural. 126 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 24. masculine, according to the rule; A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number and gender. They is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb introduced, according to, the rule; A noun or pronoun, which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. Now, you may parse the same word in concert, as I point to the form. The class then parse this word in concert. Their, in the same sentence, is parsed by some one of the pupils, following the form, and the teacher asking for definitions when the pupil errs or hesitates. — Then the class parse the same word in concert, fol- lowing the form as the teacher points to the several questions in it. This exercise is continued with other pronouns, on the same page, till the time expires; when the teacher assigns the same pronouns for a parsing les- son in writino-, for the next recitation. 24. .LESSON .X First Step — Criticism of one of the written exer- cises, with the comparison of the other exercise by the scholars. The teacher then collects the papers, for criticism out of school hours. Second Step — Relative Pronouns. Teacher. — I wish you to attend now more particularly to the relative pTonouns. How many can give me the defi- nition of a relative pronoun? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Sarah. Sarah repeats the definition. If she fails Pari III. — 24. primary teaching. 127 or errs, some other pupil is called on for it. Then the class is called on to repeat it, in concert, several times, till all can give it correctly. Teacher. A rel- ative pronoun is one that connects clauses or senten- ces. Turn to page %^ and see who can tell me what sentences, who connects? [No hands rise.] Teacher. I will tell you; "I know the particulars," is one sen- tence, and "Who was present" is another, since they both have verbs in them, as eA^ery sentence must have a verb in it. Now, try the next sentence. — What is said about he? Samuel. Samuel. "He who has not virtue." Teacher. No. "He is not truly wise," is one sentence; what is the other? — Samuel. "Who has not virtue?" Teacher. And what connects the two sentences? Samuel. Who, I guess. Teacher. You guess right. Then what kind of a pronoun is who? Class. [Hands rise.] Teacher. James. Jajnes. Relative. Teacher. — Why? James. It connects those sentences. Teach- er. Very well. Who can tell me the relative pro- noun in the next sentence? [No hands rise.] Teach- er. "An enemy is worse," is one sentence; what other sentence is there included in it? Hands rise. Teaxher. Susan. Susan. "That disgraces him- self." Teacher. Right, and what stands for enemy, and connects the clauses? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Mary. Mary. That. Teacher. Very well. Now, Mary, you may parse that by the form. Mary parses that; any corrections, signified by the class, or otherwise necessary, are made by the teaclier, by calling on Mary for the appropriate def- 128 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 25. iiiitions. The class then parse it m concert, till they all are able to harmonize. The parsing lesson now assigned for writing, is these same relative pronouns, Avhich have been pars^ ed by the class orally. 25. LESSON XI. Second Step — The Verb — Tenses. — Teacher. We will resume the study of the verb. How many can give me the definition of the verb? Hands rise. Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. A verb is R word that signifies action, or being, or state -of be-ing. Teacher. Right. The class may give the defini- tion in concert. The class repeat the definition until all can give it correctly. The course to be pursued with the verb is similar to that pursued with the noun, viz: taking the most obvious feature first, and others in order, as they become more complex. The distinction of tense appears to me the simplest and easiest of any in connection with the verb. Teacher. There are three kinds of time; present, past and future. All actions are performed in pres- ent time, or past time, or future time. Each kind of time has two tenses; the first and second. The first tense of each kind is called the present, past, future. The second of each kind is called the present per- fect, past perfect, and future perfect. I will give you the form of these tenses with the verb learn: Po.rt III. 25. PRIMARY TEACHING. 129 Present, I learn; Past, I learned; Future, I shall or will learn. The class may give the forms in con- cert as I call for them. Teacher. Present. Class. I learn. Teacher. Past. Class. I learned. — Teacher. Future. Class. I shall or will learn. Teacher. I would like to have you give the same tenses of some other verbs. Take Study, and go through with it in the same way. The class may all follow the teacher in inflecting the present tense, with the persons and numbers, giving them the proper pronouns. Teacher. You will be able to get the forms of the tenses more easily by means of these signs; Xow, being the sign or test of the present; Yester- day, the sign or test of the past; and, shall or will, the signs of the future. You will not find the signs, now and yesterday, of- ten in connection with verbs, in books; but you can always apply them to their respective tenses and make sense. They are applied in this way. Pj^es- ent, I learn now; Past, I learned yesterday; Future, I shall or will learn. Now, you may give, in concert, the verb write in these three tenses, with the signs. I will beat time and you may give them. Class. Present. I write now; Past, I wrote yesterday; Future, I shall or will write. Teacher. Pretty well. You may give them again. The drill is continued with tenses in a variety of verbs until all are able to give the tenses correctly. If any scholar is slow and careless in the concert 9 130 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 26. exercise, lie is called on to give the tenses separately, till his attention is secured. 26. Second Step — Perfect Tenses. Teacher. The perfect tenses have these signs. The present per- fect, have, liadstov has; ^^^stiperfeGi, had or hadst; fu- ture perfect, shall or will have; I will apply them to the verb learn. Present Perfect, I have learned; Past Perfect, I had learned; Future Perfect, I shall or will learn. Now, you may give them as I call for them. Teacher. Present perfect. Class. I have learn- ed. Teacher. Past perfect. Class. I had learn- ed. Teacher. Future Perfect. Class. I shall or will have learned. Teacher. Future Perfect. Class. I shall or will have learned. Teacher. Very well. Now take the verb write and give the names of the perfect tenses and their forms as I beat time with the pointer. It may be well in any more difficult concert ex- ercise, in which many of the class hang behind or fail of getting the exercise, to require the class to give each form twice. The laggards will then be able to catch the forms. Teacher. You may now give all the six tenses, with their signs, as I call for them, and you may all give each form twice. All together. Present. Class. I learn now, I learn now. Teacher. Pres- ent Perfect. Class. I have learned, I have learned. Teacher. Past. Class. I learned yesterday, I learned yesterday. Teacher. Past perfect. Class. Part ML. — 27. primary teaching. 131 I had learned, I had learned. Teacher. Future. Class. I shall or will learn, I shall or will learn. Teacher. Future perfect. Class. I shall or will have learned, I shall or will have learned. Teacher. You may now copy these signs from the board as I write them, and they will be your lesson for the next recitation. [The form of writing them will be found in Sec. 59.] The teacher writes on the board: ''Signs of the tenses." Indicative mood. Present, (now.) Present Perfect, have, hast, or has. Past, (yesterday.) Past Perfect, had, or hadst. Future, shall or will. Future Per- fect, shall or will have. You may learn the names of the tenses, and their signs, for your next lesson, so that you can all write them on the black board, at the next recitation, with- out looking on your papers. You may also learn the definitions of these tenses as given on page 70, of Brown's Grammar. 27. LESSON XII. FiE^T Step — Recitation of definitions of tenses, and writing out the tenses, and their signs on the board or on slates. Second Step — Moods. Teacher. There are sev- eral different manners of expressing actions or states of being. These different manners, grammarians call moods. The indicative mood, that which you have been learning thus far, simply indicates a fact or asks a question, as. He learned, Did you study? The potential mood expresses power, possibility, lib- 132 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III. 27. erty or necessity, and always uses these auxiliary or helping verbs, may, can, or must; and might, could, would or should. I will give you the four tenses in this mood; then you may see if you can give them in concert. JPresent. I may, can, or must learn; Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have learned; Past, I might, could, would, or should learn; Past Perfect, I might, could, would, or should have learn- ed. Now, you may see if you can give the present tense, with its different persons and numbers. Give each twice, all together. First person. Class. I may, can or must learn, I may, can, or must learn. Teacher. Second person. Class. Thou may est, canst, or must learn. Thou, etc. Teacher. Third person, etc. This drill may be continued in this form, till the class are all familiar with the variations of these signs, as applied to the diti'erent persons and numbers. Then the other tenses of the poten- tial may be taken up in the same manner. Teacher. I have told you the signs of the four tenses in the potential mood. I will repeat these signs, once more; and you will notice that they are taken in pairs; and that the perfect tenses differ from the others by taking, after them, the word have. The teacher repeats these tenses; then calls on the class, thus: Teacher. You may give me these tenses of the potential mood, in concert, each twice. Present. Class. I may, can or must learn, etc. Teacher. Present perfect. Class. I may, can or must have learned, etc. Teacher. Past. Class. I might, could, would, or should learn, etc. Teacher. Past Part III. — 28. prim art teaching. 133 perfect. Class. I might, could, would, or should have learned, etc. The concert exercise must be continued till all the class can join in promptly and correctly. In case any pupil fails, he should be tak- en, separately, and drilled, till he oFercomes the diffi- culty. 28. Third Step — Parsing Verbs. • Teacher. You may now turn to page 104. I will take a verb and parse it for you, as far as you will be able to under- stand me. In the first line, have been, is a verb, in the indicative mood, present perfect tense, first per- son, singular number, to agree with its subject, I, according to rule, on page 126; A finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative, in person and number. I will now write the partial form, for parsing the verb on the board, by which I parsed this verb, thus: Sjjecles? Mood? Tense? Person? Num- ber? Construction? Rule? You may now parse the same verb, by this form, and give each particular called for, by the form, twice, as I point. The class now follow the form, as directed, and parse the verb, have been; then other verbs: the teacher callino- on individuals to select the succes- o sive verbs as they occur, and to parse them. Then, after a verb has been parsed correctly, by an individ- ual; or, after he has been corrected by the class and teacher, in the manner before described, the class, in each instance, are called on to parse the same verb. 134 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III, 31. in concert; giving the entire parsing, twice only, re- peating each particular once, in each parsing. 29. Fourth Step. The teacher prescribes for the next lesson, the definitions of the words; verb, mood, indicative mood, potential mood, tense, present tense, present perfect tense, past tense, past perfect tense, future tense, future perfect tense; also, for a pars- ing lesson, in writing, the same verbs as have alrea- dy been parsed, orally, in this exercise. 30. LESSON xin. First Step — Recitation of lesson prescribed, and examination of the written exercises, and the hearty approval of every point in every scholar that admits of it; especially, the neatness in folding pa- pers, and superscribing their names; neatness in the arrangement of the writing on the page; freedom from blots and blurs, etc. 31. Second Step — Imperative Mood. Teacher. — There are three other moods beside the indicative and potential. You will know them by these pecu- liarities, which I shall give you. The imperative mood is used for commanding, entreating, exhort- ing and permitting. It has no subject expressed. — Take, for* example: ** George, shut the door." — Shut, is a verb in the imperative mood, because it is used for commanding, etc. The teacher should give examples of all the different particulars embraced in the definition of the imperative mood, and then pro- Part III. — 33. primary teaching, 13-5 ceed to parse a verb in this mood by the form ah-eady given. The class should also parse, individually, and, in concert, other examples, in preparation for writing. 32. Third Step — Infinitive Mood. A similar course may be pursued with the infinitive mood, and em- bracing th« signs of two tenses; To, being the sign of the present tense; to have, the sign of the perfect tense. Fourth Step. A lesson should be prescribed, embracing the definitions pertaining to the verb, as far as the class have advanced; also, a parsing les- son, to be prepared, in writing, embracing verbs in the imperative and infinitive moods. 33. LESSOI!^ XIY. First Step — Recitation, and Examination of w ritten exercises. Second Step — Voice. Teacher. I wish now to explain the most difficult thing to understand, that you will find in the whole subject of Grammar. It is Voice. Voice shows tlie relation of action' expressed by the verb, to its subject. If the verb shows, that the subject acts, it is in the active voice. If the verb shows, that th« subject is act^d upon, it is said to be in the passive voice; because, passive means, receiv- ing or suffering an action or iniiuence. For exam- ple: ''George runs." In this sentence, the verb shows, that the subject, George, acts; also, in the 136 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part III- — 33. sentences, ''The boy drives the horse;" "The stove warnasthe room;" the verbs show, that the subjects act. But, in this sentence, "The horse is driven by the boy," the subject is acted upon, or receives the action, or is passive to it. The verb is said to be in the passive voice, because the subject is acted upon, or is passive to the action. Now, you may look at some verbs in the gram- mar, and tell me, if you can, whether they are in the active or passive voice. Turn to page 104, and take the verbs as they oc- cur in Lesson II, and tell me whether they are ac- tive or passive, and why? John, you may select the first verb, and tell me which voice it is in, John. Have been sick. — [Hands rise.] Teacher. Susan. Susan. I don't think sick is a verb. Have been, is a verb. Teach- er. Right, Susan. John, can you tell me what voice have been is in? John. I don't know. — [Hands rise.] Teacher. How many think have been is in the active voice? [Several hands rise.] Teacher. How many think have been is in the pas- sive voice? [Several other pupils raise their hands.] Teacher. How many don't know any thing about it? [All raise their hands, with a smile.] Teacher. I see you don't understand it. I told you, that voice was a difficult matter to get hold of. The truth is, that verb has no voice, according- to my def- inition, as it does not denote action. What was my definition of the active voice? [Hands rise] Teach- er. Mary. Mary. The active voice shows, that the subject acts. Teacher. Very well. How many Part III. — 33. primary teaching. 137 can give me tlie definition of the passive voice? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Sarali. Sarah. The pas- sive voice shows, that the subject of the verb is act- ed upon. Teacher. Very welh Have been, or the verb to be, and other verbs which do not denote action, are said to be in the active or passive voice, accord- ing- to their form. If such verbs have the form of verbs, whose subjects acfc, we will say they are in the active voice; or, if they have the form of verbs whose subjects are acted upon, we will say, they are in the passive voice. Now, William, take the next verb, and give its voice. William. Hast been taught, is a verb in the passive voice. Teacher. Why? William. — Because the subject is acted upon. Teacher. Right. Samuel, the next verb. Samuel. Had not found, is neither active nor passive, as I see. It don't de- note action, but that there was'nt any action. He did'nt find them. Teacher. Not, is no part of the verb. You may omit not. Now, tell me what voice had found is in, Samuel. Samuel. The active voice. Teacher. Why? Samuel. Because it shows, that the subject acted, if 3^ou leave out not. Teacher. Very well, Samuel. So the class are all called on, individually, to give the voice of one or more verbs. Third Step — Parsing by the form. Fourth Step — Prescribing a Lesson. This should include a review of definitions, for the verb and its modifications, also definitions written out on the blackboard, for voice, active voice and passive voice. These definitions should be co- 138 PRIMARY TEACiiiXG. Part III. ^. pied by the scholars on to their slates, or on to paper, so that thay may have no excuse for not learning them. These definitions are not found in Brown's Grammar. 34 LESSON XV. First Step — Recitation. Second Step — Classes. It will hardly be necessary to go through with the method of drill for the classification of verbs. The classification, which we adopt, does not agree with Brown's; consequently, if that Grammar is used, definitions must be written out on the board. Such definitions may be found in this volume, Part III, Section 60. .S5. Third Step — Parsing. The complete form for parsing verbs may now be given; and the class will need drilling on this form, in connection with the form, for pronouns and nouns, for many days — perhaps weeks — in connection with written lessons. 36. GENERx^L DIRECTION'S. The remaining parts of speech. The Adjective, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection, may be made subjects of lessons, occasionally, to give variety to the driUs in parsing Verbs, Pronouns, and Nouns. The adjective would have been introduced more Part III. — 38. primary teaching. 139 properly, immediately after the nouns, in this course of lessons; but, from its greater simplicity, it was thought preferable to give all the space to the more complex forms and facts involved in the noun, pro- noun and verb. 37. THE RULES OF SYNTAX. The most important of these rules will be learned in connection with the drills already given, without as- signing special lessons for learning them.. Such lessons should, however, be given, sooner or later, and the scholars should be required to give them, hy number, as they are called for, promiscuously, by the teacher. The advantage of this is, that they can afterwards refer to them by number; thus saving much time and labor in the parsing lessons, both oral and written. The more difficult rules for con- struction, as, for example, that for the predicate nom- inative, should have special drills, and entire lessons devoted to them; otherwise, they never will be well understood. 38. It is an excellent plan to give parsing lessons in the examples of false syntax, furnished for correc- tion in the grammar used, confining the attention of the class chiefly to the words which violate the rules; requiring, that a pupil, before parsing the word assigned him, correct it, and give the reason for his correction; then that he parse it in full. 140 PRIMARY TEACHING. PciH III. 39. 39. HORIZONTAL PARSING. Much more progress may be made, in a given time, after a class shall have become tolerably fami- liar with all the parts of speech, by pursuing the hor- izontal method of parsing. The First Step, in this method, is to call on the class for the parts of speech, only, as they occur in any given passage. The Second Step is to give the CLASS only to which each word belongs; for ex- ample, (see Brown's Grammar, page 133, Lesson I.) Let the scholars, in succession, as they sit, give the classes of the words as they occur, thus: A, in- definite; man, common; of, not classified; a, indefi- nite; lively, common or qualifying; imagination, common; has, irregular, transitive, etc. Third Step. The cases only, of nouns and pro- nouns. Fourth Step. The constructions only, of the nouns and pronouns. Fifth Step. The rules only, which apply to the cases of nouns, pronouns and verbs. Sixth Step. The construction and rules of all the words, as they occur, in succession. Much time maybe saved, by adopting any one of these steps, as the class may seem most to need. — Thus, those points on Avhich the class are well post- ed, may be laid aside, for the time, and their atten- tion directed, exclusively, to those in which they are found most defective. Part III, 40. PRIMARY TEACHING. 141 40. GENERAL CAUTIONS. Tliis entire plan, demands the exercise of the closest watchfulness, on the part of the teacher, that no material points are omitted; that nothing, which has once been passed over, should be so long neglect- ed, in the drills, as to be forgotten. The FORMS OF PARSING, for all the parts of speech, should be well memorized, and so frequent practice should be given, in the use of them all, that no one can be forgotten. Care should be taken, that only ONte^ coNSTRtJCTioN be given to ea6h word, except to double relatives, which, from supplying two cases, are in two con- structions. Nouns and pronouns, in apposition, are too frequently parsed as if also in the same con- struction, as the word with which they are in appo- sition. The fact of their being in apposition, is suf- ficient to determine their case, and any other con- struction would be superfluous. The Predicate Nominative, is not unfrequently parsed by teachers, who enjoy some reputation, as being in the objec- tive case, and governed by an intransitive or passive verb. The scholar should be drilled long, and thor- oughly, on this point, till he accustoms himself to ascertain, that an intransitive or passive verb, is used; and, that the noun after it, means the same thing, as the noun before it. In the distinction of personal and relative pro- nouns, there is generally more obscurity and error than in any other part of Grammar. It arises, in 142 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part HI. 40. part, from their inappropriate names; but ^chiefly, from the erroneous or obscure definitions used for them. A personal pronoun is too frequently defined as one which relates to persons, and a relative pro- noun as one which relates to an antecedent. Both of these definitions are abominable in themselves, and lamentable in their results. In all the parsing exercises, constant care should be exercised in selecting such sentences and words, for drill, as will best exemplify the principles pre- sented. From a want of such care, spring confu- sion, embarrassment, disgust and discouragement. Again; scholars should neither be required, nor permitted, to parse a word any farther than the class have been taken along together, and a form has been given. I i METHOD OF TEACHING ADVANCED CLASSES. 41. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. When, by the method described in the foregoing pages, or by any other, a class can distinguish all the parts of speech and parse them in the more obvious constructions, a review of the entire subject should be commenced, with the use of outlines. Some teachers decry outlines altogether, and con- fuse themselves and their scholars to the order and substance of the text book, or what is worse, to no order or substance, except to such as appears in gas and vanishes in forgetfulness. My experience is, that classes making use of out- lines as o-uides to investin^ation, are much more inde- CD O ' pendent, thorough and critical, in their study; and, that they obtain more correct, liberal and compre- hensive views from such investigation, than without outlines. Outlines, used properly, will never limit investigation; but every well trained pupil under- stands, that any facts, or principles, or items not pro- vided for in the outlines, must be incorporated into it by himself; and he^thus enjoys the satisfaction of I an original discoverer. (143) 144 ADVANCED TEACHING. Pavt III. 42. Xot only so, but it is an excellent plan to require a class, having used outlines enough to appreciate the logic of their arrangement, to make out outlines, each pupil for himself, and to present them, on pa- per, to the teacher, for examination. Then the teacher may select, some one or more of these, for presentation to the class. The pupil will copy his own work on to the board. 42. METHODS OF USIJJO OUTLINES. First Method. Instead of assigning a given num- ber of pages, in the text book, for scholars to study, for recitation, an outline of a subject may be copied on to the blackboard, by one of the pupils, from a manuscript prepared by the teacher. The class will all copy the outline on to slates or loose paper. It is then expected, that at the next recitation, ev- ery pupil will be prepared to give the whole of the outline on the board, entirely from memory; al- so, any definitions, explanations and applications, that the outline or the subject may call for. The teacher does not, ordinarily, call on one individual to write out the whole outline, but distributes it in such portions, as may be convenient, to different pu- pils. These portions, so assigned, they may write, immediately, on the board; and describe them, when they are again called on, by the teacher. After hav- ing assigned the different topics of the outline, to the class, (and each of the topics, if the class is large, may be given to several different scholars,) the teacher may occupy any time, before scholars Avho have had topics assigned them are ready to Part III. — 43. advanced teaching. 145 report, in examining^others, who Kave had no topics assigned them, orally, by questions; or, by propos- ing topics for them to discuss, without having writ*- ten any portion of the outline on the board. Such a course would be necessary, with a large class and a small black board. Teachers using outlines, should not lay aside the or- dinary methods of assigning lessons, and of recita- tions, entirely. They may adopt this method of reporting, occasionally, in advance lessons; always in review lessons; or, as the nature of the subject, and the aptitude and discipline of the pupils may require. 43. Second Method. An outline may be assigned to only one pupil, for him to use in investigating and mastering a subject. He will be expected to give his report, on that subject, at the next recitation, either without the written outline before him, in any form, or with the outline written on the blackboard, from memory, in presence of the class. In the lat- ter case, the pupil, in giving his report, takes his place, at the board, with the pointer, and directs the attention of the class to the several topics, sub- topics, and distinct items, as he amplifies them with definitions, explanations, exemplifications, illustra- tions and applications. These may be drawn from books, or from the pupil's own experience and ob- servation. It is perceived, that the scholar thus obtains the power, almost unconsciously, of speaking system- atically, and, at length, on any subject that he may 10 146 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 44. have properly and thoroughly investigated. To such pupils as are the best disciplined, advance sub- jects may be assigned, without outlines. It is then expected, that they will prepare their own outlines, and present them, as their own, on the blackboard, at the time of giving their report. A definite time should be appointed, for giving the report; also, a definite amount of time, in which to give it; as five minutes, ten minutes, or fifteen min- utes, according to the age of the pupil, the time oc- cupied by the whole recitation, and the demands of the subject assigned for investigation. The most interesting public examinations, that I have ever attended, have been conducted on this plan. Special subjects were assigned to individual pupils, on which to report or deliver lectures, before the public audience. The audience, of course, are informed of the plan adopted, in the preparation for the examination; and, that it is not designed so much to exhibit the scholars' knowledge of the branches generally, as to test their mental power, in grasping a subject, and in communicating their views, under embarrassing circumstances. The audience should be urged to criticise the pu- pil, during the delivery of his lecture. Other pu- pils also, especially members of the same class, should consider themselves free to criticise, to cor- rect misstatements, or to fill up omissions.. # 44., METHOD OF CRTTIOISING REPORTS. The scholars should do most of the eriticising. — They will learn much more by criticising, than by beino- criticised. Part III. — 45. ADVANCED TEACHING. 147 But system should be secured in these criticisms; or nothing definite, or satisfactory, will be accom- plished. The order to be followed, may be this: at the con- clusion of^a report, before the pupil reporting, has taken his seat, the teacher may call on the class for criticisms, on — 1st, Pronunciation; 2d, Spelling; 3d, Arrangement of the Outline, including also , omissions or repetitions; 4th, Definitions; 5th, Pro- miscuous matters. Lastly, the teacher makes any additional criticisms, remarks, or explanations required. The pupil, hav- ing a special subject assigned him, is, of course, ex- cused from preparing the lesson assigned to the class. By giving the subjects, in order, to different pu- pils, on successive days, reviews will be accom- plished, in a manner more interesting and impressive than in that generally pursued. The subjects having been passed over,, once in review, as far as the class have advanced, the same order may be pursued by other pupils, as by those who first had them for special study and reporting. 45. Ordinary Method of conducting a recitation, with an advanced Grammar Class. The teacher has a register for this class, as for all others. He calls the names of the pupil's, as he finds them in his register; some4;imes in the direct order, sometimes in the inverse order; sometimes in the di- rect order, omitting alternate names; then in the inverse order. By this method of calling on the 148 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part Ill—^b. members of a class, he secures uncertainty, on the part of a pupil, as to when he may be called on; and, certainty, on his own part, that no pupil is neglected, in the recitation. He grades each pupil, as he recites; which grading shows, who has been called on. A scholar's name being called, he rises, and the subject of a section is proposed for him to discuss. If he should fail to reach all the matter of the sec- tion, the teacher will reach his knowledge or ignor- ance of those points, by questions. In the case of parsing, or correction of false syn- tax, the pupil, when called on, rises and parses the word, or corrects the sentence,' without interruption from the class; but when he concludes, the teacher calls on the class for criticism, by pronouncing the word ** Class." Other pupils, who have criticisms to offer, raise their hands, and are called on, by name, separately, to give them. The teacher will call on those first, who are generally the least inclined to offer criticisms. He will also call on any pupil, for criticisms, or corrections, who is seen to have re- mitted his attention,^ or interest in the recitation. Such criticisms are given, by the pupil, sitting. No pupil, when standing, resumes his seat, without per- mission from the teacher. It is well, in case a pupil fails, in a topic or question proposed to him, to pass it to the next pupil, and if he fails, to call on the class. That being disposed of, a second topic or question is proposed to the scholar first having fail- ed; and so on, till the teacher is satisfied, as to his grade, for the recitation. Part III. — 48. advanced teaching. 149 46. OUTLINES. Remark. The following outlines are accompanied only by the definitions of such words, as, I con- ceive, are inadequately, or incorrectly defined, in most Grammars. It is not supposed, that this num- ber of The Normal is to be used as a text book. But, it is hoped, that both teachers and scholars, will find it serviceable, as a reference book, in their daily preparation, for recitations. 47. GENERAL OUTLINE OP GRAMMAR. Remarlc. This outline was introduced, in Part II, page 49, and the definitions and explanations given, in connection with it, for the purpose of keeping the chain of Outlines unbroken from the General Out- lines of Knowledge, in Part I, to those of Ortheopy and Orthography, in Part II. OUTLINE OF ORTHOGENY. I^oun, extended on page 150, Verb, «' « 157. Pronoun, " 162 Orthogent, { ^<3Jective, ' Jrarticiple, Adverb, Conjunction, Interjection. 48. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANA,TI0NS AND REMARKS. Orthogeny. For definition, see Part II, page 45, section 9. For definitions of the parts of speech, see any text book, in general use. i - 49. OUTLINE OF THE NOUN, •. v^ fl uM 2 o .13 o d •'3 +3 OJ o "S 03 t- t< 5 K^o^ S •> fe "■^""^^ rrT ^ n3 1, inutive. S Regular, Irregular, Foreign, another wor change of te prefix. d 6 « idua al, ete, -dimi 1 d q3 ctive and indiv al and non-verb ract and concr nutive and non- ( Singular, \ Plural, forming the Plural, Masculine, Feminine Common, Neute . \ Byi of Feminine, { By < (By nd, 3rd. d on next page. • iss,) Person, N ule. 1 s Colle Verb; Abst Dimi Ist, 2 tende ^ d" d o a. V ^ PI « o .2 — - ^ e'^ © t3 t> ^ 03 . > •2 C3 1 to •J* 1Z5 fS cT cfi «3 (151) - 152 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 52. 50. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Noun — A name. Remark. Terms, include all those technical words necessary to an understanding of the subject, and not elsewhere introduced into the outline. They should all be defined, by the pupil, in giving a re- port. Classes. Results of an arrangement of similar things, according to some definite plan. Remark. The sub-classes of common nouns, are only noticed in parsing, when the noun falls into one of the sub-classes in the first vertical column. Modification. Any form or condition of words, used for grammatical distinction. 51. CONSTRUCTIONS. Construction. The method of framing a word into a sentence or phrase, by which it acquires any given modification. Remark. Examples of nouns, in some of the more difficult constructions of the several cases, will be given, with explanations and methods of parsing. 52. Nominative in the Predicate. Explanation. Every sentence is divided into two parts; the Subject and Predicate. The subject, is that of which something is asserted: the predicate, is that which is asserted of the subject, and always includes the verb of the sentence. The noun Part III. — 53, ADVANCED teaching. 153 which follows an intransitive or passive verb, and denates the same thing as its subject, is said to be a predicate noun, and is always in the same case as the subject. The subject of a finite verb (i. e., a verb not in the infinitive mood,) is in the nomina- tive case; consequently, a noun in the predicate, with a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. Example First. ''Gold is a metal.'' Metal is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, nominative, being in the predicate with the intransi- tive verb, is, and denoting the same thing as the subject, gold: Rule 21, Brown's Grammar. RemarJc. Words, in this construction, are too frequently parsed, in the objective case, and are said to be governed by the intransitive verb, which can have no government. Exainple Second. "He was named John.'* Johnis a noun, proper, third, singular, masculine, nominative, being in the predicate with the passive verb, was named,^and denoting: the same thino- as he, the subject of the verb; Rule 21, Brown's Grammar. 53. APPOSITION WITH A SENTENCE. Example. "He asked me to visit him in the coun- try; 2i privilege, of which I gladly availed myself." Privilege is a noun, common, third, singular, neu- ter, nominative, in apposition with the sentence, "He asked me to visit him in the country;" accord- ing to Obs. 7, under Rule 3, Brown's Grammar, page 153. 154 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 55. 54. NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. These constructions are exemplified and explained, in Brown's Grammar, under Rule 25, page 211. 55. SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. Remark. Strangely enough, this construction is overlooked by Brown, and many other excellent grammarians. Explanation. In the abridgement of a subordi- nate sentence, used as the object of a transitive verb, the finite verb of the sentence is changed into the infinitive, and its subject into the objective case, pro- vided it differs from the subject of the principal sen- tence. Example. * 'Susan desires, that Samuel may go away." This sentence, abridged, takes this form: Susan desires Samuel to go away. Brown, and many other grammarians, would parse Samuel as the object of desire. This, is plainly not the sense. Susan does not desire Samuel, but de- sires the action, implied in the subordinate sen- tence. Thea the subordinate sentence is the object of the verb, desire, and not Samuel. The usage of all languages, puts the subject of the infinitive, in this construction, in the objective form. We see this, more ^plainly, in English, by the use of the pro- noun, in a similar sentence. Unabridged, "John understood that he said, "etc.; abridged, ''John un- derstood him to say," etc. Part III. — b^. ADVANCED TEACHING. 155 Rule, for subject of the infinitive. The subject of the infinitive must be in the objective case. 56. OBJECTIVE IN THE PREDICATE. Explanation. By Rule 21, of Brown, intransitive and passive verbs take the same case, after them as before them, when both words refer to the same thing. In the last construction, the subject of the infini- tive is put in the objective. If, then, this infinitive is an intransitive or passive verb, and has a noun in the predicate, denoting the same thing as its subject, it will be in the same case, viz: the objective. Example First. "I thought him to be a scholar. ^^ Scholar is in the objective, in the predicate; or, as we say more briefly, is a predicate objective. Example Second. **Zachariah wished him to be called John.'' ■iTohn is parsed thus: John is a noun, proper, third, singular, masculine, objective in the predicate, with the passive verb, to be called; according to Rule 21, Brown; him, being the objective subject before it. OBJECTIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. Nouns expressing distance, tim-e, weight, and measure, are often put in the objective case, without a governing word. Explanation. In such examples as the following, "He walked a mile," '"She studied an hour," "It weighed a pound," etc., there is no preposition, which, being supplied, will make good sense, or eu- 156 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 57. phony. Usage does not warrant us in supplying any preposition, to govern these objectives; hence, we say, they are in the objective independent. 57. DRILL ON THiC PRECEDING CONSTRUCTIONS. The teacher will do well to assign for a lesson, to an advanced class, perhaps for several lessons, the several constructions of nouns; requiring each schol- ar to bring in sentences, written on pap«r, exempli- fying each construction, with the exemplifying word underscored. These sentences should not be copied from any Grammar. The time of the recitation may be taken up, by each scholar's parsing a word, in one of his own sentences, he having first written the sentence on the blackboard. The order of proceeding, should be this: the teacher calls on one pupil to write a sen- tence, exemplifying the predicate nominative, and so on till each scholar has been called on, and till each construction has been thus exemplified, one or more times, on the blackboard. Then each scholar may be called on, the second time, to parse the word, in his own sentence, in the required construction. If one pupil should fail, in giving a correct exam- ple, for any required construction, another should be called on to give it. Part III. — 58. advanced teaching. 167 58. OUTLINE OP THE VERB. Terms : Subject, Object, Preterit, Finite. r As to Form, Classes, ^ Verb, \ 1^ As to Use, Regular, Irregular, Detective, Redundant. Transitive, Intransitive. Form, Voice, Mood, I Tense, I Person, N'umber, 53 l^ames, Oh I ? -! •g I PLH [ Tests, C Ordinary, ^ Emphatic, l^ Progressive, J Active, \ Passive. J Ind., Sub., Poten., ( Imp., inf.. Part. ( Present, Present Perfect, \ Past, Past Perfect, 1^ Future, Future Perfect. j 1st, 2nd, 3rd. j Singular, \ Plural. r Present Indicative, ' Past Indicative, ] Imperfect Participle, (^ Perfect Participle. ( (now,) (yesterday,) ) (-ing,) (having.) Signs, { ^ j- Pres., (now,) Past, (yesterday.) > I Future, (shall, or will.) ^ )unctive, ^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^tc. I#l>erative — Its uses are its Signs. f Present, To ; I Perfect, To have. Infinite, 158 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 59. OUTLINE OF THE VEBB CONCLUDED. {Species, Classes, (Principal Ports,) (Form,) Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number, Construction, Rule. Form of Parsing I Species Classes, Nr • ' p ,. . 1 S I Voice, J rarticiples, ^ Derivation, Construction, Rule. 59. Remark. The greater part of the definitions re- quired in giving a report on the outline of the verb, can be obtained from all grammars. I shall only give such definitions as, I conceive, are generally given erroneously. Yerb. a word used to assert action, being, or state of being. Explanation. The word assert, is used here, with the meanings of affirm, deny, ask a question, com- mand, exhort, intreat, permit, suppose, grant, or state a condition. Regular Verb. One that makes its preterit or past tense, and perfect participle, by, adding ed to the present, according to Rule VI, of Orthography; Brown's Grammar. Transitive Verb. One that requires an object to complete its meaning. Remark First. A common definition of a transi- tive verb, is: "One that has an object after it.'' — This last expression, ''after it," is constantly mis- leading the pupil; for, in the case^ of relative and interrogative pronouns, the object is always before the verb. In the passive voice,^lso, the object be- ing used as the subject, is, necessarily, before the verb. Part III. — 60. ADVANCED TEACHING. 159 Remark Second. Some- contend, that passive verbs are intransitive. B j the faulty definition, giv- en above, they are right. In truth, however, they are entirely wrong, or all our dictionaries are wrong. For the dictionaries give all verbs, whi«r/'^(vj!?/f5, have the construction of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. . In parsing infinites and participles, the pupils should give their consruction in this manner: ''With the construction of a noun, being the subject of," etc. 62. EXAMPLES OF PARSING INFINITIVES. To shoAv this more plainly, I will give several examples. "To steal is base." To steed is a verb, irregular, transitive; steal, stole, stealing, stolen, active, infinitive, present, with the construction of a noun, being the subject of the verb, is, according to Rule 23. "He desired to go." Togo, is a verb, irregular, intransitive, go, went, going, gone, active, infinitive, present, with the con- PaYt III. — 63. ADVANCED TEACHING, 161 strttction of a noun, being the object of the verb, desired, according to Rule 23. *'He was unwilling to be called a shirk." To he called, is a verb, regular, transitive, passive, infinitive, present with the construction of an ad- verb, limiting th-e adjective, unwilling, according to Rule 23. **This is the time to study." To study, is a verb, regular, transitive, active, in- finitive, present, with construction of an adjective, relating to the noun, time, according to Rule 23. 63. EXAMPLES OF PARSING PARTICIPLES. **I saw the sun rising.'^ Rising is a participle, imperfect, active, from rise, rose, rising, risen, with the construction of an adjec- tive, relating to the noun, sun, according to Rules 23 and 14. '*By being rejected, his fortune was made." Being rejected, is a participle, imperfect, passive, from reject, etc., with the construction of a noun, being the object of the preposition, by, according to Rules 23 and 14. 11 162 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — &b. 64. OUTLINE OF THE PRONOUN. f Terms : Represent, Antecedent, Consequent. [ I [simple, liy'Clt. [I"9^«""-• (^ ^ Peculiar uses of we, you, and it. ^ f^ [Simple, |£;:nit:[l"««t'-- § ! /-I ,1 \ whoever, Eela««,^9 r°'"P'^' 1 whichever, ete. i I Double, \ what= [ "''"f ^^'^''f.'. \^-^ y ' \ ) or, that winch. 1^ Peculiar uses of who, which, that, as. which, what, °' ' ^Represent the answer of the question. Modifications — t)-ve same as no\ins. I' Species, Class, (sub-class,) Form of Parsing, \ ^gi^eernent, ^^ (^^^^^^.^ ^^^^^ ! Case, 1^ Construction, Rule. 65. DEFINITIONS, EXLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Represent. To stand in the place of, with sim- ilar properties. Antecedent. A word going before a pronoun, and represented by it. Consequent. A word coming after a pronoun, and represented by it. Remark. An interrogative pronoun always rep- Part III. — 65. advanced teaching, 163 resents a consequent found in the answer of the question. Personal Pronoun. One that is always used for the same grammatical person. Remarlc First. Brown's definition, **A personal pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its form, what person it is," appears to me only to apply to the pronoun I; the letter I, being used for the number one. But, I see nothing in the form of the other personal pronouns to indicate their person, whether first, second or third. Remark Second. The common definition given for a personal pronoun, by the great majority of scholars and teachers, viz: "One that stands for persons," should be hunted and hooted out of every school room. Relative Pronoun. One that is not always used for the same grammatical person; and connects clauses. Remark First. Brown's definition, for a relative pronoun, is a good one, but I have framed mine as antithetic to that for the personal pronoun. Remark Second. The common definition for a relative pronoun, viz: "One that relates to an ante- cedent," is worse, if possible, than that for a personal pronoun. If any other teacher finds it neces- sary to use as much labor, as I do, in smoking out these vermin, from their lurking places, he has my most heartfelt sympathy and commiseration. Interrogative Pronoun. One that is used for asking questions. 164 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 67. 66. EXAMPLES IN PARSING SIMPLE PRONOUNS. "I, who was present, know the particulars." /is a pronoun personal, representing the name of the speaker, and agreeing with it in the first, singu- lar, common, according to Rule 5, Brown. It is in the nominative, being the subject of know, according to Rule 2. Who is a pronoun, relative, representing its ante- cedent, I, and ao-reeino- with it, in the first, sinfru- lar, common, according to Rule 5. It is in the nom- inative, being the subject of was, according to Rule 2. *'He pursues just such studies as he likes." ■ As is a pronoun, relative, representing its antece- dent, studies, and agreeing with it, in the third, plural, neuter, according to Rule 5. It is in the ob- jective, being the object of the verb, likes, and gov- erned by it, according to Rule 20. "What will become of us without Religion." What is a pronoun, interrogative, representing the answer of the question, in person, number and gen- der unknown; according to Rule 5. It is in the nominative, being the subject of will become, ac- cording to Rule 2. 67. EXAMPLES IN PARSING DOUBLE RELATIVES. ''Shall I hide from Abraham ichat I do?" What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent to thing which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, objective, beino- the object of hide, and governed by it, according to Part HI. — 68. ADVANCED TEACHING. 165 Rule 20. Which, the relative part, is a pronoun, relative, representing its antecedent, thing; and agreeing with it in the third, singular, neuter, accord- ing to Rule 5. It is in the objective, being the ob- ject of do, and governed by it, according to Rule 20. "Let the lad become what you wish him to be." What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent to, thing which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, objective, in the predicate, after the intransitive verb, become, according to Rule 21; lad, being the subject objec- tive, before the same verb. Which, the relative part, is a pronoun, relative, representing thing, and agreeing with it, in the third, singular, neuter, ac- cording to Rule 5. It is in the objective in the predicate, with the intransitive verb, to be; accord- ing to Rule 21: him, being the subject objective be- fore the same verb. 68. OUTLINE OF BROWN'S RULES OF SYNTAX. 'S r Nouns with Nouns; Rules III, XXI. I I Pronouns with Nouns; Rules V, VI, VII, VIII. gi Verbs with subjects; Rule IX, X, XI, XII. * bi) I Verbs with verbs; Rule XIII; I' Adjectives to nouns and pronouns; Rule I, IV. • I Participles to nouiis and pronouns; Rule XIV. .o I Advel-bs to verbs, etc.; Rule XV, ^ \ Conjunction to words and sentences; Rule XVI. ^ I Preposition to words; Rule XVII. ^ t Interjections, no relation; Rule XVIII. C Subject of finite verb; RulelJ, -^ I Subject of infinitive verb; no rule given. I Object of verbs; Rule XX. 1 j Object of prepositions; Rule XXIL ^ I Possessive case; Rule XIX. % Infinitives; Rule XXIII, XXIV. O I Participles; Rule XIV. I Case absolute; Rule XXV. 166 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 69. 69. REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. Remark First. This outline differs from Brown's arrangement but in a few particulars, viz: 1st. Agreement and relation are separated. 2^. Rule 2, which he includes in agreement, I place in govern- ment, as I conceive a verb governs or controls the case of its subject, just as much as the case of its object. 3d. Rule 21, is placed under the head of agreement, for the reason, that it is a plain case of agreement. Remark Second. The subject of the infinitive is provided for, in Part III, Section 55. Remark Third. This outline should be assigned for a lesson to the whole class, for review, as direct- ed in Part III, Section 42; and to individuals, for re- porting, as explained in Section 43. The teacher will require the class, or the pupil, to give a sentence, containing a word, exemplifying the construction to which each rule relates. Part IIL^^-IO. ADVANCED TEACHING. 167 76. OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. r [ j Simple^ As to Form, ■{ Complex, j Compound, ( Complete, I Abridged. \ Principal, } Subordinate. ^Leading, ^Go-ordinate. I As to NTature of Proposition. r ubject, Fredicate, Declarative, Imperative, Interrogative. i Simple, Complex, Compound. \ Attribute, 1 Copula, ^1 f Simple, V \ Complex, j [ Compound ^ Co-ordinate. ( Subordinate. Expletives, ^ , n ^ V J Exclamatives, Independent Forms, -^ Compellatives, 1^ Circumstances. Connectives, Adjective, Adverbial, Objective. f Simple, \ Complex, 1^ Compound. fist Class, ' 2nd Class, [3rd Class. \ o ^, .^ , ^ ( as to form, f L Classify the sentence, J ^s to proposition. 2. Give complex subject. 3. Give simple subject. 4. Describe modifiers of subject, in order, by giving structure, nature, and class. 5. Give base of the modifier, and describe its mod- ifiers, in order, as before. 6. Give complex predicate. 7. Give aimple predicate. 8. Give attribute and -copula. 9. Give modifiers, and describe them, as before. Remarlc. Elements of the third class are first described as elements, then as sentences, accord- ing to this form. 168 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 71. OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS — CONCLUDED. ( { ( Substantive, I As to Nature, { Adjective, Ab'idffed ' (^Adverbial. Sentences. \ f ^'{^^ijljf ' &^ I As to Constniction, ^ j^Siye', I L Participial N'oiin. Method of Abridgment, Remove the conjiective, etc. See Section 82. ' r\ J TAT- ^ Ist, in the abridged form, L Order of Analysis, ^ ^nd, in the expanded form. 71. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Analysis; see Part II, page 46, section 9. Sentence. An enunciation of a thought, includ- ing a verb and its subject. Simple Sentence. One that contains but one proposition, or one assertion and its subject. Complete Sentence. One whose verb is finite. Abridged Sentence. One whose verb is in the infinitive or participial mood. Compound Sentence. One that contains two or more simple or complex sentences, of equal rank. Leading Sentence. The first simple or com- plex sentence, comprised in a compound sentence. Coordinate Sentence. Any other sentence than the first, and of equal rank with it, in a compound sentence. Complex Sentence. One that contains a com- plete subordinate sentence as a constituent part. Principal Sentence. The entire complex sen- tence, including all its subordinate sentenc-es. Subordinate Sentence. One that is used to mod- ify some word or phrase in another sentence. Part III. — 72. ADVANCED TEACHING. 169 72. Element. Any part of a sentence; including words, phrases and subordinate sentences. Principal Elements. Those without which a sentence cannot exist. They are the subject and predicate. Subject. That of which something is asserted. See Part III, Sectioif 59, Verb. Predicate. The assertion made of the subject. Attribute. That property, quality, characteris- tic, name or circumstance, asserted of the subject. Copula. That which joins the attribute to the subject and makes the assertion. Remark. The verb, to be, with its various modi- fications, is commonly used as the copula; and any other verb can be resolved into the verb, be, and the peculiar attribute which it expresses. Subordinate Elements. All elements, other than the principal elements. They are adjective, adverb- ial and objective. Adjective Element. One that modifies a noun. Adverbial Element. One that modifies any thing else than a noun. Explanation. The word noun, in these last two definitions, is understood to include any word, phrase or sentence, which assumes the functions of a noun. Objective Element. One which is used as the object of a transitive verb or participle. 170 ADVANCED TEACHING. ^Part III. — 75. 73. Simple Element. One without its modifiers. Complex Element. A simple element, with its modifiers. The simple element is also called the base of a complex element. Compound Element. One comprising two or more simple or complex elements of equal rank, con- nected by coordinate conjunctions, expressed or un- derstood. Element of First Class. One whose base is a single word. Element of Second Class. One whose base consists of a preposition and its object, including infinitives. Element of Third Class. One whose base is a subordinate sentence. 74. Connective. Any word that connects words, phrases, or sentences. Coordinate Connective. One that connects sentences or elements of equal rank. Subordinate Connectives. One that connects elements of unequal rank. 75. Independent Forms. Those which have no gram- matical construction in a sentence. Expletives. Those iutroductoiy words that are superfluous in the construction of a sentence. Examples. 1st. ''It is plain, that he can do it." 2d. ''John, he is a fine fellow." 3d. "There is a a reason for that." It, John and there, in these sen- Part III. — 76. advanced teaching. 171 tences, form no part of the construction, and are hence called expletives. CoMPELLATivES. -Namcs of persons addressed. Circumstances. Phrases containing the case ab- solute, with a participle. See Brown's Grammar, page 211, Obs. l.landObs.2. ExcLAMATivES. Words, expressing emotions, in- cluding interjections, and case absolute by exclama- tion. See Brown's Grammar, page 211, Obs. 1.4. 76. 'EXAMPLES OF ORAL ANALYSIS BY THE FORM. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 1. I repent, is a simple declarative sentence, of which I is the simple subject unmodified; and repent, the simple predicate, unmodified. 2. Both parties disgraced themselves, is a simple declarative sentence, of which both parties is the complex subject; of which parties is the simple subject, modified by Botlt, a sim- ple adjective element of the first class. Disgraced themsehes, is the complex predicate, of which disgraced is the simple predicate, modified by themselves, a simple objective element of the first class. 3. Spirits less vigorous would have shrunk from such dangers, is a simple declarative sentence, of which, spirits less vigor- ous, is the complex sulyect, of which spirits is the biniple sub- ject, modified by less rigorous, a complex adjective element of the first class, of Avhich vigorous , tha base, is modified by less, a simple adverbial element of the first class. Would have shrunk from such dangers, is the complex pred- icate, of wliich, would have shrunk, is the simple predicate, modified by, from such dangers, a complex adverbial element of the second class, of vrhich dangers, the noun of the base, is modified by such, a simple adjective element of the first class. 4. Did his natural intrepidity forsake him ai the approach of death? is a simple interrogative sentence, of \\\\\c\\, his natu- ral intrepidity is the comf>lex subject, of which intrepidity is the simple subject, modified by his and natural, two simj)le adjective elements of the first class. Did forsake him, at the approach of death, is the complex predicate, of which did for- sake is the simple predicate, modified by him, a simple objec- tive element of the first class; also by, at the approach of death, 172 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 77. a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which approach, the noun of the base, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first class; also by, of death, a simple adjective element of the second class. 77. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 5. The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to vices and follies which we have committed, is a complex de- clarative sentence, of which, the chief misfortunes that befall us in life, is the complex subject, of which, misfortunes, is the simple subject, modified by the and chief, two simple adjec- tive elements of the first class; also, by that befall us in life, a simple adjective element of the third class. It is also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which that is the connection and the simple subject, unmodified. Befall us in life, is the com]ilex predicate, of wliich befall is the sim- ple predicate, modified by us, a simple objective element of the first class; also, hj in life, a simple adverbial element of the second class. Can be traced, and all that follows, is the complex predicate, of which, can be traced, is the simple predicate, modified by, to vices, and all that follows it; a com- pound adverbial element of the second chiss, of which vic-es or follies, the nouns of the base reamodified by, which we have committed, a simple adjective element of the third class. It is also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which we is the simple subject, unmodified. Have committed which, is the complex predicate, of which, have committed, is the simple predicate, modified by which, a simple objective ele- ment of the first class; also, the connective of the subordi- nate sentence. 6. That he is dishonest is manifest, is a complex declarative sentence, of which, that he is dishonest, is the simple subject, an element of the third class; also, a simple declarative sub- ordinate sentence, of which that is an expletive, and he the simple subject, unmodified; is dishonest, is the simple predi- cate, unmodified, dishonest, being the attribute, and is, the copula. 7. My desire is, that you may improve, is a complex declarative sentence, of wliich, my desire, is the comj^ex subject; of which, desire, is the simple suVyect, modified by my, a simple adjective element of the first class. Is that you may improve, is the simple ]iredrcate, of which, is, is the copula, and, thai you may improve, is the attribute; also, a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which, that, is the connective subordinate, and, you, the simple subject, unmodified. May improve, is the simple predicate, unmodi- fied. Part III. — 79. advanced teaching. 173 78. COMPOUND SENTENCE. 8. / expect, that she will come, but I intend to return, is a com- pound declarative sentence, of ■tt'hich, / expect that she will come, is the leading complex declarative sentence, of which, /, is tin? simple subject, unmodified, and, expect that she will come, is the complex predicate, of yfhich, expect, is the simple predicate, modified by, that she will come, a simple objective element of the third class; also, a simple declarative subordi- nate sentence, of which she is the simple subject, unmodified and, loill come, the simple predicate, unmodified. But, I in- tend to return, is the coordinate simple declarative sentence, of "which, hut, is the coordinate connective, and, I, the simple subject, unmodified; and, intend to return, is the complex predicate, of which, intend, is the simple predicate, modified by, to return, a simple adverbial element of the second class. 79. WRITTEN ANALYSIS. Remarh First. Much time can be o-ained, in re- citations, 'by adopting the following plan of exhibit- ing the analysis of sentences on the blackboard. Remark Second. Many scholars can be engaged, at once, on as many different sentences assigned them, provided there is sufficient blackboard. If not, those who cannot be accommodated, at the board, can write their sentence in the analyzed form, on their slates, or on paper, which the teacher can examine, in order, as he passes around, the class. Remark Third. After having given a written analysis of a sentence, on the board, the pupil should analyze it, orally, and receive the criticism of the class and teacher. I have found the discipline of analysis, much more vigorous and satisfactory, when the written and oral methods are combined, than ^hen either is used alone. Remark Fourth. Besides, there is so much beauty 174 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III—QO. in the logical arrangement of a sentence, as pre- sented to the mind, through the eye, that it would well repay the labor, even if it took moie time; but it does not. A class will accomplish more, in ex- tent and thorouofhness, in the same leno-th of time, by first analyzing their sentences, on the board. Remark Fifth. I shall present the written analy- sis of the sentences, as analysed orally, on page 171, et seq. 80. EXAMPLES OF WRITTJEN ANALYSIS. SIMPLE SENTENCES. . , T [parties I Both 1 i 2 ^ " ■ f disgraced ] . themselves. Spirits I vigorous ] less 1 would have shrunk | from dangers | such. ^ jintrepiaity ] ^^^^.^^j * 1 T 1 r 1 ( I'im ( the I '^''^ ^^^^"^^^^^ I at approach { of death. COMPLEX SENTENCES. f r The I chief misfortunes \ ^ IP-'^^ jlnlife, {to vices ^ f we (and) \ ■{ [to] follies J I have committed j which ( r(That) f desire | my J Ue ^ \ f(that) ] lis dishonest ' I is ^ you [ is manifest ^ [ may improve. COMPOUND SENTENCE. r r (that) 8. <( , ( she ,. , . ( I 1 ^-^^i^^^^ -Uillcome (^'^^) ) intend | to return Part III, — 82. advanced teaching. 175 81. EXPLANATIONS. 1 . Sentences and elements of the same rank, stand in the same vertical column. Hence, in the analy- sis of a sentence, the principal elements stand in the first column; subordinate elements, of the first de- gree, stand in the second, and so on. 2. To prevent a subordinate sentence from ap- pearing like two elements, it is preceded by a brace. 3. Words supplied, to make out a construction, are enclosed in brackets. 4. Words not forming a part of the construction, although expressed in the sentence, are enclosed in a parenthesis. Such words are conjunctions, and independent forms. 5. Words having a double use, have a line drawn under them. Such words are relative pronouns, since they are used as connectives and pronouns; also, conjunctive adverbs, since they are used both as connectives and modifiers. 6. Double relatives must be separated into their two parts, in written analysis; since the antecedent part belongs in the principal sentence, and the rela- live part, in the subordinate. 82. ABRIDGMENT. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Abridgment. That part of analysis, which treats of contracting sentences, by rejecting connectives, suppressing subjects of verbs, and changuig the verbs from the finite moods to infinitives and parti- ciples. 176 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part III. — 82. Abridged Sentence. One whose verb is an in- finitive or iparticiple. Substantive Abridged Sentence. One that is used as the subject or object of a verb. Adjective Abridged Sentence. One^thatis us- ed to modify a noun, pronoun or substantive clause. Participial Abridged Sentence. One whose leading- word of construction is a participle. Infinitive Abridged Sentence. One whose lead- ing word of construction is an infinitive. Absolute Abridged Sentence. One whose lead- ing word of construction is the nominative case ab- solute. Method of Abridgment. Remove the connec- tive, change the finite verb to an infinitive or parti- ciple, and suppress the subject, provided it is the same as that of the verb, in the principal sentence. order of analysis. 1st. Analyze in the abridged form. 2d. Expand the sentence by supplying the connective and sub- ject, and changing the mood of the verb to a finite mood. 3. Analyze in the complete form. Remark. In written analysis, these two forms of the subordinate sentence, may be connected by a curving sign of equality. PART IV. METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGKAPHY. INTRODUCTION. PROPER AGE FOR COMMENCING THE STUDY OF GEOG- RAPHY. As soon as the child is able to read well enough to obtain ideas from what he reads, in as difficult a class of sentences as those found in the primary- Geography, proposed to be used, it is desirable that he have the advantages af the variety which the Geography will give to his reading lessons. It would be folly, of course, to set such a child to study- ing a book designed for higher classes. It is a great mistake to keep a child confined to one book, whether Speller, Reader or Geography; or to keep him confined to books entirely; a slate and pencil are indispensable concomitants of books, frona the first. ORAL INSTRUCTION BEFORE THE BOOK. I may repeat here, what I said in reference to Grammar. No lesson should be required of a young- pupil, in the text book, till he has had a preliminary drill, and the teacher is satisfied, that he can com- prehend the subject, so far as the lesson in the t«xt book extends. 180 INTUODUCTION. NECESSITY OF APPARATUS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. Some toachors suppose, that apparatus is only ne- cessary iu High Schot)ls and Colleges; others, that it does not belong to them to purchase it; and multitudes of others do not know what it is, and would not know what to do with it, if it wore placed iu their hands. This is obvious, from the manner in which the apparatus, furnished by the State of Ohio, has been abused, neglected and de- stroyed, in the large majority of schools, where it has been placed. "It is of no account," says one. "I don't know what to do with it," says another. — "Take away your fly-traps," says a third. "Them things will do for play things; I don't know what other use to make on 'em," says the fourth; and so on through every variety of ignorance and stupidity. Of the twenty thousand dollars' worth of appa- ratus supplied to schools by the State of Ohio, if at this time, all that remains in our countiy schools, were put up at auction, to be bid for by the teachers who have used tlie apparatus, I doubt whether one hundred dollars would be offered for it. Such is the lamentable ignorance prevalent among teachers in this direction, that Normal Institutes should be established in every county, to be in session long enough to instruct every teacher, at least, in the use of the blackboard and globe; and then no certificate should be granted to any one who could not show a good degree of facility in applying the illustrations. I say, then, that a Globe is indispensable to the correct teaching of primary classes in Geography. INTRODUCTION. 181 I know of a child who had learned Parley's little Geography, "by heart," at school, and could repeat it from one end to the other, who, when she saw a small globe, in her father's hand, as he brought it home, addressed him thus; **Pa, what is that round thing in your hand?" The father replied: "It is a Globe, Fannie." "A Globe? What is that?" "Why it shows what shape the world is." "Why, Pa, is the world round like that?" "Hav'nt you repeated a hundred times, the world Is round and like a ball flies swinging in the air?" "Oh, yes. Pa, but I never knew it before." If that girl's teacher had had a globe, she would'nt, probably, have known what use to make of it. A globe of the most convenient size only costs a dollar. If the teacher has'nt a dollar to buy a globe, and cannot borrow it, he ought to make one, or make use of an orange or an apple, or, if he can not spare those, for such a purpose, he might use a piece of chalk, a potato, or his fist. OBJECTS TO BE AIMED AT IN TEACHING PRIMARY GEOGRAPIir. 1st. Learning to Study. Study is necessary to any desirable progress in learning to read; for if the scholar only reads while he is engaged in his class, he can only be familiarizing his eye with the forms of words, some fiftf^en or twenty minutes, at most, during the day; while the scholar, who studlefi, may be engaged in the same operation several hours each day. The progress of the latter will be more than proportionally rapid and satisfactory. 182 INTRODUCTION. 2d. Learning to Draw. The use of the hand and eye, in drawing, is conceded by all intelligent Educators, to be an important aim in the education of every person. The drawing of Maps, on the slate, blackboard, or paper, is an easy and excellent intro- duction to the art. Map Drawing also imprints the local geography on the mind, more correctly and permanently than any other method; it also affords the necessary va- riety to school exercises, to make them healthful and pleasant, 3d. Learning to Read, The consideration of this object has been forestalled in discussing the others. I will, however, add, that since Geography may be made more interesting than any reading lesson, it will more thoroughly arouse the pupil to voluntary effort in the preparation of his lessons, which, of course, will secure more rapid advancement in intel- ligent and intelligible reading. 4th. Learning Geography. This is a worthy object, but less in importance, in my estimation, than any other mentioned, at the age at which a scholar should commence the study. METHODS OF PRELIMINARY DRILL. Many of the following pages will be given to the various plans to be adopted in preliminary drills, in- volving the use of the globe, of the blackboard, of the neighborhood and township, and of any travel that the scholars may have enjoyed, for illustration; also, of maps, both small and large. INTRODUCTION. 1 83 METHODS OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. The methods of conducting recitations have been SO fully explained and exemplified, in the preceding branches, that comparatively little attention will be given to them in Part IV. METHOD OF USING PART IV. The teacher will consult it, in his daily preparation for his classes. TEXT BOOKS ITSED. Cornell's Oeographies are esteemed the best, all things considered, of any in use, hence have been adopted in the Normal School; and I shall re- fer to them continually, in the following pages, for the material of illustration and exemplification in the methods described. OBJECT LESSONS, In connection w4th the lessons in Geography, it is well for a teacher to make use of various objects, not only for illustration, such as globe and maps, but of common things, such as corn, wheat, apples, woods of various kinds, etc.; also, to bring before the class, the productions of foreign countries, or to induce the scholars to do so. Such objects serve, by suitable conversation, to arouse thought, to train children to observe, and to connect booJc lessons, with EXISTING THINGS, METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY TO PRIMARY CLASSES. I. PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. Remark First. The class should be able to read the simple style of the Primary Geography used, intelligently; not necessarily, fluently. They should all be provided with some Primary Geograpliy, and all with the same kind. Remark Second. The teacher should be provided with a five inch globe, at least. Such a globe, mounted on a stand, can be purchased for one dol- lar. It would be well for the teacher to provida himself also with maps of the town, township, coun- ty, and state, in which his school is situated. Remark Third. It is understood that Geography is the first branch of science, to which the pupil is introduced; that it comes in connection with a Sec- ond or Third Reader, but does not displace it. LESSON I. First Step— How to secure Books. The teacher having called a reading class to the recitation seat, as- certains how many have Geographies, and how ma- ny have the right kind. He finds the children wide Part IV. 3. PRIMARY TEACHING. 185 awake with the idea of taking up a new study, in a new book. It is only necessary for him to say, that those who can obtain the book, used by the class, can study Geography, and that it will be impossible for others to join the class. He will then inquire how many there are who think they cannot get the book. If any, he should visit the parents, or write a note and send it by the hand of the pupil, who will use all a child's eloquence in connection with the note, to obtain the desired book. The child will not fail, unless the parent is absolutely too poor or too drunken to purchase it; in which case, the teach- er should supply the book himself, or apply to the Directors, or other benevolent individuals, to do it. No child will be permitted to remain behind his class, from poverty, by the True Teacher. 3. Second Step — Exciting an Interest. Teacher. You have new Geographies, some of you; by to- morrow, I hope you will all have them. You see it is full of pictures and maps; and reading that tells all about the pictures, and explains the maps. Geography is a very interesting study. — Why, see; here is a picture of the Natural Bridge, which is ten times as hig^h as this house, and is all one solid rock. A boy once climbed to the top of it, by cutting steps, with his jack-knife, into the rock. When he got up so high that he could' nt jump down, he tried to go down by his steps, and could'nt do it, without falling; then all that he could do, was to try to cut his way to the top of the bridge, several hundred feet. Do you sup- 186 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part IV. 4. pose lie ever reached the top? He did, and all the people, for miles, had collected on the bridge to see him. Then, here is a picture of Bunker Hill Monu- ment, where the British soldiers were mowed down by the bullets of American farmers and mechanics, when the British wanted to make slaves of them. Here also, are beautiful pictures of a great many- fine buildings and large cities. By studying Geog- raphy, you will find out all about them. Is not Geography an interesting study? 4. Third Step — Explanation of Maps. Teacher. Now, I want to show you about these maps, that are painted so prettily. See, here is a map of the Western Hemisphere. How many can tell me what a map is for? [Hands rise.] Well, John, what do you think a map is for? John. (Hesitat- ingly.) Maps show how the countries look. [Sev- eral hands spring up.] Teacher. Isaac. Isaac. I don't think the countries look that way, all red and yellow. Teacher. No; the country is gen- erally green in summer. Maps are not designed to show the color of countries, but their shape on the surface of the earth. Here, I'll draw a map of our school yard for you, on the blackboard. — [Teacher draws.] See, here is where the front fence runs; here are the side fences. Now, where shall I put the school house? Here? Where the wood house? Here? And, here the pump stands; and here the out house, and here the walk to the gate, etc., etc. In the same way, I could draw a map of the town, and could show you, on the map, where Part IV. 6. PRIMARY TEACHING. 187 each one of you lives. How many would like to learn to draw maps? [All hands come up.] Well; I will show you to-morrow. 5, Fourth Step — The Globe. Here is a Globe. It is designed to show the shape of the Earth, in which we live. You see it has maps on it. Now, I can show you where the country is, in this globe, on which you live. See, here is ISTorth America, and here are the Great Lakes, and just about there, [stick- ing a pin,] is where you are now. This globe is five inches in diameter, or through it; and fifteen inches, or a little more than a foot, in circumference, or around it. Hoav large do you suppose this great ball is, on which we stand? {Stamping.) Why, it is eight thousand miles through it, and twenty-five thousand miles around it, and it takes a whole year to travel round it. Perhaps, some one of you knows some person that has sailed round the world. 6. Fifth Step — Assigning a Lesson. Teacher. — You may now open your books, those of you that have books, to this picture of the Earth, and we will see if we can read Lesson I. I will read the fine print, and you may read the coarse print. All look on, now, and see if I read right. [Teach- er reads.] "What is the planet, on which we live, called?" John, you may read the coarse print. \Jolin reads?\^ "It is called the Earth." Teacher. Very well. You see that the coarse print answers the question in fine print. I will read the next 188 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part IV. 7. question. [Reads.] "What is the shape of the Earth?" Mary, you may read the answer. Mary reads. "It is very nearly round." Teacher. Now, Samuel, you may read the next question. Samuel reads i "Do we live on the outside or inside of the Earth?" Teacher. Susan, you may read the an- swer. Susan reads. "On the outside." Teacher. Very well. Now, you all see how to read this. I wish you to read over the questions and answers, so many times to yourselves, when you go to your seats, that you can give me the answers without looking on the book, when you come to me, to re- cite to-morrow. How many of you think that you will be able to answer all the questions in Lesson I, by to-morrow morning? [AH hands rise.] Very well. You may take your books home to-night, if you have a mind to, and study your lesson at home; I shall not be surprised if you get two lessons, but I shall only hear you recite one. You may go to your seats now, in order. 7. LESSON IL First Step — Have all Books? Teacher. — HoAv many have books to-day? [Books rise.] If any have not yet got the books, the teacher decides, in his own mind, how they may be provided, and informs the scholars deficient, how it can be done. 8. Second Step — Recitation. The teacher havino- o enrolled the names of the pupils in his register, calls from the register the name of one pupil, say Aman- Part IV. 7. PRIMARY TEACHING. 1 89 da. [Amanda rises.] Teacher. [With Globe in his hand.] "What is the planet, on which we live, called?" Amanda. "It is called the Earth." — Teacher. Very well. Amanda is excused. James, [James rises.] "What is the shape of the Earth?" James. "It is round." [Hands rise.] Teacher. — Sarah. Sarah. "It is very nearly round;" Teach- er. Right, Sarah. James is excused. Remark. Scholars, when offering criticisms or corrections, do i5 sitting; but never without per- mission from the teacher; Teacher. 1 will ask you all a question not in the book, is the earth round, like a plate, or like the stove pipe, or like this ball. How many can tell? [Hands rise.] Maria. Maria. It is round like a ball. Teacher. Then it is a ball, is'nt it? How deep must a hole be, to go ^through this globe, right through the centre. [No hands rise.] Teacher. Five inches. But how deep would a well have to be to go down through the Earth, right through the centre? [No hands rise.] How far through did I say the Earth was, yesterday? [Some hands rise.] Henry. Henry. Eight hundred miles. Teacher. ' Eight thousand miles; and how long would it take to go through such a well or tunnel, if you could go in a railroad car, with the speed of thirty miles an hour? Well, it would take more than twenty days, travelling twelve hours a day. That would be a long journey, in a tunnel, would'nt it? Thus the lesson is pursued, by proposing the questions, in the book, till all the scholars have been 190 PRIMARY TEACHING. Part IV.-^\0. reached, one or more times. If any scholar fail on one question, he is tried on another; and then on another, till the teacher satisfies himself as to the amount of study the scholar has bestoAved on his lesson. He is then graded, accordingly, in the reg- ister? 9. Third Step — Drawing on Slates. Teacher. I wish you to draw this map of the Western Hem- isphere, on your slates, for a part of your next les- son; and bring your slates when you come to recite. I will draw it for you, on the black-board. The teach- er first draws the circle by taking a string as a radi- us, holding one end, in one hand, stationary, on the board; the other end, with a piece of chalk, in the other hand, he carries around on the board, forming the circle. He then draws the continent, points out the names, and makes a dot, in a small figure, repre- senting his own State, in the map. The children are thus encouraged to do what they see done, and, perhaps, will even try to excel the master, in drawing a map. He requires them only to draw the outline, for the first lesson. 10. Fourth Step — Dismissustg the Class. The next lesson being assigned, and the grades of the class being read aloud for their encouragement or incite- ment, they are dismissed from the recitation seat, in order, by calling their numbers, as written in the class register. Part IV. 12. PRIMARY TEACHING. 191 11. LESSON III. First Step. The teacher examines the slates, points out the excellencies and errors of each draw- ing; gives his attention to the evenness of the curve; the shape and position of the countries; the size and regularity of the letters in the printing. He finds several of the class, who could not make a circle, and so failed of doing anything. Instead of scold- ing them, or making any discouraging comparisons, he takes a slate and makes a circle; then tells all the scholars to make one. He then proceeds to draw the map, on the slate, requesting them all to follow him, on their own slates, as he draws, holding his slate before the class. Thus by encouragement, by aid judiciously given, map-drawing is fairly commenced, and will not be laid aside, till the study of Greography is abandoned. It will be well to include the consideration of map- drawing, in the grading. Second Step — Recitation. Third Step — Assigning the next Lesson, in- cluding the drawing of the same map, with the gulfs and lakes, in addition to the outline of the con- tinent. 12. LESSON IV. First Step — Examination of Drawings. Second Step — Recitation. This recitation should be conducted, with the globe in the hand of the teacher; and the scholars should be called upon to 192 PRIMARY I'EACHING. Part IV. 13. decide which is land and which is water, on the globe; also, which is the Western and which is the Eastern Hemisphere, and the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere, on the globe. In fact, the globe should be constantly in use, in every recitation, to give correct ideas of the relative size of countries; their true direction from each other, which never can be obtained from maps. Third Step — Assigning next Lesson, including another drawing lesson. It may be th« same map, with the lakes, seas, islands, and all the details, as far as given. LESSON V. First Step — Examination of Maps. Second Step — Recitation. Third Step — Points of Compass. The teacher should be careful, that the scholar gets clear and correct ideas of direction, not only on the map, but on the Earth itself. He should begin with the school room, and have the class understand, definitely, the four cardinal points of the compass, in the school i room. The pupils should obtain them, from the rising and setting sun. He should also use the globe, in this connection, and show how these direc- tions lie on the globe. Having explained the eight most important points of compass, in connection with the globe, the teach- er proceeds, somewhat thus, in questioning the class. Part IV. 13. PRIMARY TEACHING. 193 Teacher. {Holding the Globe in his hand.) — Which way is North America from South America, oh this globe? You may al] answer together. How many of you can point towards South Amer- ica, on the Earth? As many as can, may do it. Which way is Europe from North America, on the globe? Now, if you were about to start for Europe, which way would you travel? Which way is Asia from North America? The scholars give various answers. One says. East; another. West; another, it is on the other side, etc. Teacher. You may point now, if you can, to- wards Asia, The class have the same difficulty in pointing as in telling the direction. Teacher. If a fly were walking on this globe, which way would it go from North America to reach Asia. All together. Class. East, West, [in confusion.) Teacher. Would it not reach Asia, if it should walk, continuously, in any direction? East, West, North or South? Then, which way would you go on the Earth's surface, to reach Asia? But, you may now point directly towards Asia, without reference to traveling. Most of the scholars point downwards, Teacher. Most of you are right; Asia is on the opposite side of the Earth. If a hole were dug, right down through the Earth, j^-here would it come out? 15 194 PRIMARY TEACIIIKG. PortlV. J 4. Class. In Asia. Teacher. Right. Do you think a person, in go- ing througli such a hole or tunnel, would come out head foremost or feet foremost, in Asia? Such a hole will never be made, but the people, in Asia, stand with their heads pointing in the same direc- tion that ou.r feet do. Thus no pains should be spared to connect the words of the hooh with the ideas of existing things. The great and crying evil of teaching, is, that 5ooI" knowledge is kept isolated from real knowledge; and the evil, generally, begins with the first lessons of the child, and ends with the last lessons of the colleo-iate f:»-raduate. o o 14. LESSON YI. Conclusion of Primary Teaching, I shall conclude these explanations of Primary Teaching, by a few general remarks. Remark First. The most common phenomena, as the rising and setting of the sun, should be ex- plained to a primary class, from time to time, in or- der to give interest and variety, to the study. Remark Second. The globe should be kept con- stantly in hand, that no erroneous impressions may b3 derived from maps, with regard to the true posi- tion of places. Remark Third. The same map should be as- signed to the class, for drawing lessons, several days in succession. They should only be required to draw the outline, on the first day. Then, in suc- cessive davs, they should make new drawings, em- Part IV. 14. PRIMARY TEACHING. 195 bracing all the work of the previous days; and should add, in order, first the larger bodies of water, and islands, if any; secondly, rivers and mountains; thirdly, boundaries of political divisions; and, lastly, localities of cities and towns. The printing of names should keep pace with the other work. Remark Fourth. The drawings may be made, on paper, after a sufficient practice on slates. Drawing, of course, will not be confined to maps; though every map in the book should be so learned, that the schol- ars can go to the blackboard and draw it, without looking on the book, at all, while drawing it. Bemark Fifth. The teacher should instruct the class to look out the pronunciation of the geograph- ical names in the vocabulary, at the "end of the book. RemarJc SLvth. Frequent reviews should be ta- ken; sometimes, by the maps; sometimes, by out- lines, prepared by the teacher; sometimes, by asking promiscuous questions on the matter passed over in one week. Scholars should have opportunity to prepare themselves for reviews, as well as for ad- vanced lessons. A wide awake teacher will excite more interest in the review lesson than in the ad- vance lessons. ! i 15. METHOD OF TEACHING INTEEMEDL ATE CLASSES. PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. Remark First. The class should be able to read the style of the Intermediate Geography, intelligent- ly and fluently. They should be able to write a legi- ble hand, with facility; and should be trained, in the use of the dictionary, in ascertaining the pronuncia- tion, spelling and meaning of words. They should, of course, all be provided with dictionaries, either Webster's Academic, or Worcester's Comprehen- sive. Remark Second. The teacher should be provided with a five inch globe, and a set of Outline Maps. Instead of Outline Maps, the teacher can make use of any maps whatever, of large size, situated so far from the class, that the names cannot be recoo-nized. The large maps, accompanying Cornell's High School Geography, are well adapted to this use. An Atlas may be taken apart, and the maps tacked, sep- arately, to the blackboard, or wall, as they are need- ed. When the maps are no longer required, for class exercises, they can be stitched into the atlas aofain. Part IV. 17. SECONDARY TEACHING. 197 16. RemarJc Third. It is supposed, that those who study Intermediate Geography, are also studying Arithmetic, Reading and Spelling. Remark Fourth. In graded schools, a half hour should be devoted to this recitation. In ungraded district schools, not less than fifteen minutes are re- quired to arouse any degree of interest that will be profitable in the least. Remark Fifth. Some teachers require their pu- pils to purchase "Topic Books," at an expense nearly half as great as that of the Geography. — I think all the advantages of Topic Books can be secured without them, and more. Instead of the pupil's using a Topic Book, when he is learning his lesson, and reciting; he will do better to write on paper, or on his slate, the topics of his lesson, when he is studying; and use them in the recitation, in the manner described below. All speculations in books, and, especially, in those which are not indispensa- ble, are likely to raise complaints from parents, and to impair a teacher's influence. Should a teacher introduce any books whatever, he will find it a mat- ter of economy to furnish them to his scholars, at cost. 17. LESSON I. First Step — Topic Lists. Teacher, My young friends, we commence, to-day, in a new Geography. You will pursue a very different course, in this work, from what you did, in studying the Primary Geog- raphy. I was accustomed to ask you the questions. 198 SECONDARY TEACHING. Fart IV.— 19. in that book, and you to answer them, in the very words of the book. I shall not ask the questions, in this book, but wish you to prepare Topic Lists, when you study your lessons, and to recite your lessons from them. I will write the first one for you, on the board. [He writes.] Geography? EartM Earth's Surface? Land? Water? Natural Di- visions? Artificial Divisions? Political Divisions? Mathematical Divisions? Physical Geography? — tncludes %vhat? Political Geography? Includes what? Mathematical Geography? Includes what? Divisions of Geography? I will let this Topic List remain on the board, and you may copy it, on to loose paper, or into your writing books, in a very neat style, and study your lesson by it. Some of the topics you will find discussed or explained, in the coarse print, in the answers, of the book; and, some of them, in the fine print, in the questions. ]8.- Second Step — Explanation of the Method of Reciting. Children, when you come to recite, I shall ask you no questions. But, I wish each one to bring his Topic List, and to recite from that. I shall give, each of you, an equal amount of time, to recite in; and we will see who can go over the most ground, and in the most correct manner. 19. Third Step — Concert Exercise on Map and Globe. We will now take a short exercise on an Outline Map. The teacher places a Map of the World, in a con- spicuous position, aud calls on the class to go over Part IV. — 20, secondary teaching. 199 with him, in a concert exercise, the principal bodies of land and water; also, the Hemispheres, Eastern and Western, ISTorthern and Southern. In the con- cert exercise, the class give each name twice, as they proceed; that, at the second pronunciation of the Word, all may join in. When it shall be found, that all can harmonize, in the concert exercise, as the teacher only points to the different localities; a scholar may be called on to give the localities, pointing for himself. Then the class may go over the same concert exercise, while a pupil points. I'hen the globe may be used, instead of" the map, for the same concert exercises; the teacher holding- it in his hand. Thus, the time allotted, maybe oc- cupied. The teacher, having designated the extent of the lesson again, dismisses the class, in order. 20. LESSON 11. First Step — Division of Time. The teacher needs, at least, a half hour, for this recitation. If his school is well classified, he can allow this amount of time, possibly more. According to the number of scholars, in the class, and the time of the recita- tion, he should assign, not less than one, nor more than two minutes, for each scholar, to recite in. — There is a great advantage in giving a definite time to each scholar. It excites the schokr to a more thorough preparation; to a more rapid utterance; to greater activity of thought; to a greater accuracy of Expression; all this from the fact, that he is graded 200 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 22. on what he accomplishes, in the time assigned him, and on the manner in which he accomphshes it. 21. Second Step — The Recitation by Topics. — The teacher having the names of his class enrolled, calls on a pupil, from his register, to commence the recitation. He commences with the Topic List, and goes as far, and as well as he is able, till his time expires; when the class are called on for criticism. All scholars, having criticisms to offer, raise their hands. The teacher gives permission to some one, who is least inclined to offer criticism, to do so. — Then, on others, till all errors, of the pupil recit- ing, shall have been reached. The pupil, having re- cited, is then graded. The teacher calls on another scholar to go on with the recitation, commencing with the topics where the first scholar left off; and so on, with other pupils, over and over the topic list, till all of the scholars are called on; or until the time is spent. The grading shows, which scholars are called on. If any are omitted, thej should, of course, be first, in order, at the next recitation. 22. Third Step — Concert Exercise, on Map and Globe. If time should remain, after the recitation, from the topics assigned, it may always be employ- ed, to good advantage, in concert exercise, as before described. Indeed, it will be well to reserve a part of the time, after a few of the first recitations, by top- ics, for this purpose, even though all the scholars are not called on to recite, at each recitation. Part /F.— 23. secondary teaching. 201 Remark. Scholars will be inclined to mention every topic, before amplifying it. This is awkward. They should proceed with the subject matter, with- out mentioning the topics, unless especially request- ed to do so. In this way, they soon become able to pursue a continued and systematic course of thought, orally; improving, from day to day, in rapidity of utter- ance, precision of language, and clearness of ex- pression. 23. Fourth Step — Assigning a Lesson. The teach- er will do well, for a few of the first lessons, to write down the topics, on the board, which the class can copy, after they take their seats, provided they sit in the recitation room; if not, the teacher should write the topics, on the board, before the re- citation commences, that the scholars may copy them, during the recitation. The topics, thus used from day to day, should, each of them, be written neat- ly, in a blank book, procured for the purpose. Scholars will thus form, for themselves, a To2nc Booky which will be used also in reviews. In doing it, particular attention should be given to spelling, capital letters, neatness of arrangement, and economy in the use of paper. The teacher should have regular times for examining the Topic Books. If other books cannot be obtained by the pupil, a part of the writing book may be set apart for this purpose; though a few sheets of paper, folded twice, and prop- erly covered and stitched, make a more convenient book. 202 SECONDARY TEACHING. PaH IV. 26. 24. LESSON III. First Step— Recitation by Topics. Second Step — Explanation of Terms, in Math- ematical Geography. The globe should be used, for this purpose. The diurnal and annual revolu- tions can be shown as going on, simultaneously, by suspending the globe by a string, from the hand; or better, from a nail driven into the ceiling. 25. LESSON lY. First Step— Recitation by Topics. Second Step — Explanation of Points of Com- pass. The points of compass, should be explained by the rising and setting sun, by the use of the globe; also, by pi'actice on the surface of the Earth itself, by requiring scholars to point in the direction of various countries, as ascertained from the globe. 26. LESSON V. First Step — Recitation of Topics. Second Step — Explanation of Terms, used in next lesson, by the use of the globe. Third Step — Concert Exercise on the globe, of mathematical points, (poles,) lines, and divisions. The teacher conducts this, by holding the globe in his hand, and pointing with his pencil to the sever- al localities of such points, lines, and divisions, while the class proceed, in concert,- to name them. The class may also add, in the concert exercise, the lengths of diameter and circumference in miles. Part IV. — 27. secondary teaching. 203 27. LESSON VI. First Step — Recitation by Topics. Second Step — Explanation of Zones, by tlie globe. Remarl:. Zones can hardly be well explained, or understood, from the map alone; the same is true of meridians and parallels of latitude. Teacher. I wish to show you about the Zones; w^hy they are marked, as you find them on the map, here. You notice, that this globe is supported by an inclined wire, representing its axis. It is inclin- ed 23|- degrees to the plane of this table. So the Earth is inclined 23^ degrees to an extended plane, passing through its own centre as it goes on in its orbit, and the center of the sun. If the Earth's axis stood upright, there would be neither zones nor seasons — -no summer nor winter here, nor any where else, on the Earth. I will now suppose my hat to be the Sun, as it stands here on the table. This globe represents the Earth, in its orbit or path, as it passes around the Sun. I will place the axis so that it shall incline to- wards the north, and place the globe in the eastern part of its orbit. [The teacher takes his place east of the table, with the globe in his hand, inclined to- wards the north.] Now, you will see, that the Sun, my hat there, would shine equally, on both poles; but as the Earth passes on towards the northern part of its orbit, keeping its axis always inclined towards the north, the Sun does not shine both on the north and the south pole. When it arrives at the 204 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 27. northern part of its orbit, the axis inclines directly away from the Sun, and since the Sun shines only on half the globe at once, it cannot reach the north pole with its rays of light and heat, but they fall short of it, 231 degrees; just as much as the axis is inclined. They also pass over beyond the south pole, 23^ degrees. By varying the inclination, you can see this more plainly. If the axis lies down flat, the Sun shines on the Southern Hemisphere only, and its Y^js do not strike north of the equator; that is, they do not come within 90 degrees of the north pole, because the axis is now inclined away from the Sun, 90 degrees. Again; if the axis stands up- right, you can see, that the Sun's rays would reach the north pole; that is, since there is no inclination, the rays do not fall short of either pole or go over either pole. You will then perceive, that just as much as the Earth's axis is inclined, just so much will the sun fail of reaching one pole, while it shines just as much over the other. You will notice, too, that this pin, [The teacher should insert the pin in the direc- tion of a radius of the globe,] inserted into the globe, at the southern tropic, 23|- degrees from the equa- tor, will have the Sun directly over its head, when the Earth is at the northern part of its orbit. I will now carry the globe around to the western part of its orbit, and will stick another pin into the globe, at the equator. You now see, that the Sun is overhead, at the equator, but as the Earth passes on towards the south, the pin will be inclined away from the Sun. The Earth is now at the southern point of its orbit, and I will stick a pin in at the northern Part IV. — 28. secondary teaching. 205 tropic; and you see that its head points directly to- wards the Sun. Now, these two piris inserted at the tropics are at the greatest distance, north and south, where the Sun can be over the heads of the people, on the Earth. If the Earth's axis were more or less inclined, this would nOt be so. All that part of the Earth's surface, then, between the tropics, has the Sun directly overhead, some- time during the year, and hence, is the hottest part of the Earth, and is called the torrid, or burning zone. Those parts around the poles, within a circle, 23^ degrees from the poles, since the rays of the Sun do not reach them, at all, during some part of the year, are very cold, and are called frigid or fro- zen zones; while these larger belts, between the torrid and frigid zones, are called temperate zones. Third Step — Assigning the Lesson. LESSON VII. First Step — Recitation by Topics. Second Step — Questions on the Explanation of the iZones, as given yesterday. teacher. Class, how much is the Earth's axis inclined? How many can tell? All who can, may raise their hands. [Hands rise.] Teacher. Jane. Jane. Twenty-three and a half degrees. Teacher. How many think Jane is right. [Nearly all hands rise.] HoAv many think she is wrong? [No hands rise.] Well, Isaac, don't you know any thing about it. Isaac. No, sir; I forgot. Teacher. I hope you will try to remember, now. Isaac. 1 don't know what degrees mean. Teacher. That was ex- 206 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 28. plained, some time ago; but I will show you again. [He draws a circle, on the board, and divides its circumference into four parts.] Each one of these parts is divided into ninety parts, which are called degrees; so any circle, here on the globe, or off from it, is divided into four time 90 degrees, or 360 degrees. Now^, how many of the class can tell me what a degree is? [Hands rise.] Teacher. John. John. A degree is a 360th part of a circle. — Teacher. Very well. Isaac, can you tell me now, what degrees are? Isaac. Yes, sir; deo-rees are 360th parts of a circle. Teacher. And, how many of these degrees is the Earth inclined? Isaac— Twenty-three and a half. Teacher. [Turning the globe so that its axis is horizontal.] Can any of you tell me how much the Earth's axis is inclined now? [No hands rise.] Teacher. I will show you. [Taking the globe from the stand.] Now the axis is not inclined at all; now it stands upright. Now it is inclined 23^ dea^rees; now 45 deo-rees. Now it is turned down, one quarter of the w^ay around, or 90 degrees. If it is turned entirely round, it n^kes the circuit of 360 degrees, thus. Teacher. How many can tell me, how wide the torrid zones are? [All hands rise.] Teacher. — Sarah. Sarah. Twenty-three and a half degrees. Teacher. How many agree with Sarah? [Some hands rise.] Look at the globe, and see if the tor- rid zones do not extend 23^ degrees north, and 23^ degrees south of the equator. Thus, the teacher will reach the scholars' mistaken notions, and chase them away, one after another; Part IV. — 29. secondary teaching. 207 and, he will find it necessary, to repeat the process, all along-, or he inculcates more error than truth, even though he understands his subjects well, and ex- plains them with clearness and accuracy. Third Step — Assigning a Lesson for Review, BY Topics. This review should extend over all the ground thus far passed over. 29. LESSON VIII. First Step — ^Recitation of Review Lesson. Second Step — Assigning an Advance Lesson, in divisions of laud and w^ater. Teacher. I have written out the topic lists, by which you can study and recite your next lesson. topic list for natural divisions of land. Contineut, Island, Peninsula, Istlimus, Cape, Mountain, ^ How situated ? ( How suiTounded? How situated? How surrounded? ^ How situated? ( How siuTOUTided? ^ Connects wliat? ( Lies between wliat? ^ Projects from what? / Projects into what? \ Wliere situated? I Extending in what di- frection? Tolc.no, ISt'-' ' /Materi- [als thrown out? Hill, Valley, Desert, Sliox-e, or Coast? Teacher. In studying your lesson, by the topic list, you will leai-n the definitions of all the natural divisions, as continents, islands, etc.; then you may look out three such divisions, on your map, and de- scribe them as the topic list requires. For instance, when you come to Isthmus, you will learn the definition a? you find it in the book. Then you will find an isthmus on the map of the 208 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 30. world, or any other map, and describe it, by telling what two bodies of land it connects, and what two bodies of water it lies between. Then find two more, and prepare yourselves to describe them, in the same way; and so, of all the natural divisions of land. You may also, each one, prepare yourselves to draw, on the board, without any map before you, some continent, island, peninsula and cape; so that the rest of the class can tell what division you have drawn. You will practice, in drawing these on your slate. 30. LESSON IX. First Step. The teacher will assign some kind of natural division of laud, to each pupil, for draw- ing on the board. If the board is not large enough, seme of the pupils may use slates. Second Step. While the class are thus engaged, in drawing, the teacher will call on individuals, in succession, from his register, to recite their lesson from the topic list, the scholar having the topic list in hand, but lisihg it as little as possible. ThiAd Step. When all have thus recited, return- ing to their drawings, as they are excused, from the topic list, each drawing may be examined thus: Taking, for instance, the drawing of some one, who was required to draw an Island, the teacher says: How many can tell what island? As many as can, may raise the hand. [Hands rise.] Teacher. Mary. Mary. Madagascar. Teacher. How ma- Fart IV. — 31. secondary teaching. 209 ny agree with Mary? [Hands rise.] How many disagree? [Hands rise.] Susan, what do you think it is? Susan. I don't know; I don't think it is Madagascar. It runs East and West; Madagascar runs North and South. Teacher. Well, Henry, you drew this: what did you design it for? Henry. Cuba. Teacher. It is quite similar to Cuba, both in direction and shape. In this way, each drawing may be examined and criticised. .3L Fifth Step. Writing Topic List, S.S g 1^ -2 a> x: ^ o ^ «= P a; J- o ^ o 45 «3 O . 13 -I I DO (? JS cp o a> S 1 o^ 14 210 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 33. You will pursue the same course, in preparing this lesson, with these topics, as with those of yes- terday; also', in drawing. 32; LESSON X. First Step — Assigning Divisions of Water for Drawing. Second Step — Recitation. Third Step — Assigning a Lesson. You will next take a lesson on the Map of North America. I wish you to practice, in drawing North America, so that you can draw the boundaries of all the coun- tries in it, and locate the capitals. You need not draw the bodies of water any farther than they form boundaries. You may also prepare yourselves to give the boun- daries of the countries, from the outline map, either before you have drawn them, or after you have drawn them; also, to give the name of the capital of each country. 33. LESSON XI. First Step — Drawing the Map of North Amer- ica, either on the board or on slates. Second Step — Recitation. "While the class are generally engaged in drawing, individuals are called on, successively, to give the boundaries of North America, and each of the countries; also, the capi- tal of each. Part IV. — 34. secondary teaching. 211 Third Step — Assigning a Lesson. Teacher. — For your next lesson, you may practice, in drawing the outline of North America, and the principal islands, peninsulas, capes and mountains; also pre- pare yourselves to describe them by the topic lists, I gave you, a few days since. How many have the topic lists? [Hands rise.] John, you have the topic lists ; you may write, on the board, the topic list for natural divisions of land. Susan, you may write the topic list, for natural divisions of water, on the board. ISToAv, those who have lost them, 'can copy them, and then, I hope, they will copy them into their Topic Books. GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE STUDT OF COUNTRIES, EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, AND STATES. jRcmark. I do not deem it advisable to confine scholars, for any lesson, exclusiveltj to map studies, as is proposed in CornelPs Intermediate Geography. I would make map-studies a part of every lesson, in connection with every country, empire, kingdom, or state. 34. Direction I — -Map Drawing. The practice of map-drawing, should be kept up, without intermis- sion. Besides drawing on slates, and on blackboard, pupils should be required, in order, one or more every day, to bring in a finished map, drawn on pa- per, not always, necessarily, of the country assigned for study of the class. These may be drawn, math- 212 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 35. ematically, and proportionally, larger or smaller than tlie map in the atlas or book, by drawing* the mar- ginal lines first, in proportion to the marginal lines of the printed map, taking them one half, two thirds, or twice' as large, or in any other proportion. Then the scholar will use dividers, and divide the marginal lines into as many equal parts as those of the printed map; then draw the lines of latitude and longitude. If these lines are curved, he can bend a piece of whalebone or hickory, prepared for the purpose, by extending a string from end to end, to keep it bent in the proper curve. By loosening or tightening the string, the curve can be varied to meet the de- mands of any line, on any map. The lines having thus been drawn and numbered, "vvith the degree of latitude or longitude, the paper is ready for com- mencing the map. By the use of these squares, thus formed by the lines of latitude and longitude, noticiNg the position of each point, and direction of each line, as to which square it is in, and which part of the square, and the proportional distance, in each corresponding square, a map can be drawn with correctness and beauty. The lines of latitude and longitude, should be drawn in ink; the boundaries, rivers, etc., should first be drawn with a pencil, afterwards with ink. 35. Direction II — Preparation and use of Topics. Scholars should, in the main, ^prepare their own top- ics, as they have only to copy them from the bold faced type, as Boundaries, Situation, etc. Such nat- Part IV. — 36. secondary teaching. 213 ural divisions of land and water, may be added as oc- cur in the country assigned for a lesson. These may be proposed, or written on the blackboard, when the lesson is assigned, at first, by the teacher. Soon, however, the scholar will be able to ha^ing in these topics, without any direction from the teacher. I think the writing of such topic lists, a valuable ex- ercise for the pupil, and that he ought not to be de- prived of it by using printed topics. The method of recitation, by topics, has already been fully de- scribed, and I will merely add, that scholars should be encouraged to recite, without looking at the topic list, and without any prompting or questioning from the teacher. As has before been stated, a definite length of time should be assigned, for each pupil to use in reciting; and the more he can accomplish, in this time, and the better he can do it, the higher should his grade be, on the class register, for each recita- tion. Strict attention should be given to penmanship, in preparing topics and copying them into the Topic Book, for review lessons. Much care should be be- stowed, on precision and propriety of language, in the recitations. Such attention and care, are gener- ally the most effectual, when given in the form of encouragement, rather than in the form of fault- finding. 36. Direction III — Review Lessons. Review les- sons should be assigned frequently. I prefer to give 214 SECONDARY TEACHING. Part IV. 37. them, in connection with the divisions of the sub- ject matter, rather than to assign them periodically, as many teachers do. In completing the study of the states, on any map, for instance, I would propose a review of those states; so, in completing the study of the Grand Divisions, I would have the whole re- viewed, even if it should take several lessons to ac- complish it. 37. Direction IV — Pronunciation. Scholars should be required to consult the pronouncing vocabulary, before they come to the recitation. If there should be none, in the Geography used, they should have access to some dictionary that contains one; or, if this is not practicable, the teacher, at least, should have such a dictionary, or gazetteer, on his table: and no geographical name, should be permitted to pass, without a dej&nite and certain knowledge of its pronunciation. The teacher will do well, in case any doubt arises, to require some scholar to look out the word, during the time of recitation. METHOD OF TEACHING ADVANCED CLASSES, 3B, INTRODUCTORY LESSOR- In commencing a term of school, it is desirable for the teacher to define the position that Geography holds in Science, in relation to other branches. This can be done by referring to Part I. The teach- er should make an introductory exercise, as the scholars are not prepared for recitation, by present- ino- so much of the General Outline as is neces- o sary for the purpose. It may be given thus: f Mathematical, f^e^P'^P^y'i Phemmienal, ^Literature ■ ■ SeTa^ ^ ^--^P^^^' -^ f?rn^'* .• 1 Chemistry, ^ J Sciences, J Mathematics, ^ I I Uherapeutic8,l^2oologj. fl I (^Physics- ^ ^-^ W ^Arts, Having written so much of the General Outline, he should present the definition of every term used, beginning with Knowledge. These definitions are found in Part I. ■ But the Teacher should not con- fine himself to bare definitions; he should occupy the whole time, allotted to this recitation, in such illustrations and exemplifications of these definitions, as will make them intelligible and interesting to his pupils. He will thus have delivered a systematic 216 ADVANCED TEACHING. Fart IV. 38. introductory lecture, and will have given his pupils an earnest of his ability, to manage the class in a novel and interesting manner. The scholars should be requested to copy the out- line so presented, in order that they may be able to report on it from time to time, and that each may have an entire course of outlines, embracing the whole subject of Geography. The teacher will also assign a lesson for the next exercise; state, if possi- ble, at what time the class may expect to be called on for a recitation. As it is supposed, that the class are already familiar %vith Geography, to a consider- able extent, it is not desirable perhaps, to follow the course of any text-book that may be used in the class, but to follow the course marked out in the Outline of Geography, as presented below. The teacher will give as much of it, for successive les- sons, as his class can well manage. It will be seen, however, that a variety of text-books, in an advanced class, is no bar to its progress, but, deci- dedly a means of greater interest and improvement. There is no objection, however, to all the class bav- in o- a book of the same kind; but all the class should be in possession of one or more besides the common text book. They should all have access to some Physical Geography, as Colton and Fitch's, or War- ren's; also, to some good system of Histories, as Wilson's School Histories, Before proceeding further with the method of teaching advanced classes, it will be necessary to present the Outline of Geography. Fart IV. — 39. advanced teaching. 217 39. I. Mathematical Geography. rSun, 96 million miles, Pm Distance j Moon, 240 thousand miles, from, 1 Other planets, variable, [Nearest fixed star, 40 trillion miles. Inclination of axis — 23^ 28 min. Direction (towards North Star. of axis, y parallel with itself. f major axis, Ellipse, \ minor axis, [ eccentricity. 1. Circumnavigation, 2. Appearance of ship at sea, .3. Shadow on the Moon, 4. Appearance of Polar Star, 5. Appearance of Clouds in Horizon, 6. Suspended weights, 7. Force of Gravity, 8. Analogy, 9. Actual Measurement 1. Varying vibration of pendulum, 2. Centrifugal Force, 3. Analogy, 4. Measurement of degrees of latitude Form of / Orbit, ', Proofs that the ") Earth f- is globular. J Proofs that the ^ Earth is an ob- \ late spheroid, j Diameter. Equatorial, 7924 miles, Polar, 7898 " Mean, 79l2 '^ ^difference /26 miles. ^ Circumference, 25,000 miles. Area, 197,000,000 square miles. Velocity at Equator lOOOiniles per hour, f Table turns under pendulum, i Falling body strikes east of vertical line, Necessary assumption in all astronomical calculations. Velocity, 68,000 miles per hour in orbit, f Aberration of light, i Chanffe of Seasons, Diurnal, Annual, In com'n ^ ( with so- 1 j lar sys- ( ] tern. J [ rroots, Inorganic, Rocks, ) Mineral'gy J f Primary, Aqueous Rocks-Organic, ]|;Xr;:''' 1 Quaternary. Chemistry. 2. Temperature. f At the surface variable. Temperature, -1 Depth of invariable temperature, [increase of temperature downwards. 3. Land. Extent, Proportion, Distribution, Analogies of Continents. f 1. Continent, 2. Island, 3. Peninsula, Divisions, -l 4. Isthmus, 5. Cape, 6. Promontory, [7. Shore or Coast, 9. Banks, 10. Shoals. Part IV. — 40. advanced teaching. 219 Physical Geography — Continued. r f - T3 -X f Directions, \ SvSj Distribution, 4. Peaks. J [ Counter-Slope. . Mountain, ■ f Active, 5. Volcanoes, <{ Intermittent, f t Extinct. «2 "^ Hill, „. , (Table Land, ^^g^' {Plateau, m Valley, < Plain, r Prairie, [steppe, fSandy, ) ^Causes Barren, \ Salt, > < and t Alkaline. ) ^ Uses. 4. Water. 1 CO ' ^^r^c..\. S Soft, ^^^^^' Hard, „ , \ Ocean, ^^^*' ^ Lake, 'Acidulous, ■\yr;^««ni J Chalybeate, Mineral, .j gulphurous, ■ . 'Localities, Composition, Weight, T)^- ^.^ r.t S ebullition. Points of 1 congelation. L Saline. J ' Oceans ( T color, saltness, temperature. and \ Characteristics, \ depth, quantity, level. M Seas. [_ I extent, taste, motions. o 1. with Inlets and Outlets, •S « f Fresh,-] Lake, J \ - iSalt, J 1. with Inlets and no Outlets, *> 3. with Outlets and no Inlets, ft 4. with neither Inlets nor Outlets, 5. Subterranean, . ^ 6. Periodical. 220 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part IV. 40. Physical Geography — Continued. ^ r f in Moimtains, Gulf, , T^ ^ ^ { Source, { in Lakes, 1. Extent, 1 Mouth, \ in Springs. Bay, r stagnant, ^ gentle. Strait, 2.Vd„cltyof^'j,"rKU_ Channel, Cataracts, [ Cascades, \ Soimd, f length, 3. Magnitude <{ breadth, ! i [ depth. .2 (extent, "m • River, 4. Drainage, -J Water Shed, . , , (Basins or Bottoms. } ^^^^ > Estuary, f Fluvial, 5. Delta, -{ Lacustrine, 1^ Maritime, 6. Direction, T Ordinary, Canal, „ T ... Subterranean, /.Locality, ^ ^^ elevations of their [ own forming. f ffor what ves- 8. Uses, { ISravig'ble<' sels. Well, I 1^ [to what extent i 5. Atmosphere. Ccnposition, | --^tl. Color, Height, 1 how determined. f Torrid Zone, Temperature, | Limits on surface, in -> Temperate Zone, [Frigid Zone. f at surface, Weight, " -| at height of three miles. [ratio of diminution upward. Fluidity. Elasticity. ^ . , ( Limits of ratio to the atmosphere. Moisture, ^ j^^^^ p^^^^ Clouds, Rain, Hail, Snow, Frost. 1 ' ... ... • Part IV. — 40. advanced teaching. 221 Physical Geography — Continued. Classes, Climate, • rcumstances) nodifying, ) Isothermal Zones, Salubrity, ^Continental or excessive, (•Insxilar, ■^ Latitude, Height above the Sea, Proximity to bodies of water, Slope of country, Position and direction of Mountain Chains, Nature of soil. Degree of cultivation. Prevalent winds, ^ Annual quantity of rain, f Torrid, Boundaries. Fses, ^ J^atural, ( Artificial, Hot, Warm, Temperate, Cold, Frigid. Causes 1 modifying. [ed. How determin- Produetions. f Temperature J Soil, I Moisture, [ Cultivation. 6. Productions. f Air, I Water, I Building mater'ls, Statuary " Ornamental " Drug " Chemical " C Anthracite, •^Bituminous, (Cannel. ;:; .. Naptha, 'g Petroleum. ^ / Sulphur, [ Amber. Non-combusti ble. :3 Coal. "] Distribution, Abundance, Localitj', ^Liquids. Uses. 222 ADVANCED TEACHING. Paft IV. 40. Physical Geography — Continued. ' Manner of deposition, rGold, Distribution, ■vr , , Platina, ^^^^^> j Silver, Abundance, '■ Localities, ^ Mercury, Comparative value, Uses. _o Inte^od. |Alu,ninu..( l^XttslaeS: n< '^ ' firon, ^ ^ Copper, Lead 'Manner of deposi'n. Tin,' Zinc, Cobalt, Arsenium, Antimony, Distribution, - Base^ '< Abundance, Localities, Comparative value, ^Uses.. L ^ Bismuth, ^ ' Mosses, Lichens,. Cryptogamous, « Fungi, Ferns, Sea weed. ■ f r Palms, Grasses, i Endogens \ Cereals, 1 Lilies, ^' (^ Canes,etc. 00 f Apple, ci Pear, 6 Puenogamous, ■' Fruits, Peach, Orange, Exogens, < Grape, n etc. l^ Forest Trees, % Banian, etc. > ' ^ 5 '8 < 3 <== J Torrid Flora, Temper- ate Flora, ' ^Description. most important ^ plants. "^Description, Most important plants. 'Food plants. Spices, ■ ■{ Narcotics, Dyes, [ Ornamental "C w Frigid Flora, L ^Description, i C Trees, Most importantV ^ Mosses, plants. ) 1 Lichens. . '^ ( ' Arrangement of C Plants of plants on ^ the several 1 \ ertical, <^ i I 1 Mountains. ( Zones. I Part IV. — 40. advanced teaching. 223 Physical Geography — Concluded. « \ N'orthers, localities, explanations, I' Simoom, I Rhamsin, Local, \ Harmattan, ' I Sirocco, I Pamperos., (^Bora. localities, Constant or Trade. Period'al, < Variable, - [periods, localities, explanations, extent, periods. "Whirlwinds Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Typhoons ■■\\ , explanation, '. 'i chief periods, C locality, 3, < explanation. "Water Spouts, ( attending phenomena. Former ignorance in relation to. Late improvements. [erica, IS'avigation,^-^ Tfrom Europe to Am- Gen'l principles, .{ I JJ" ^- Jo Europe, i i ' ] « isr. Y. to Francisco, I I " U. S. to China. ADVANCED TEACHING. Part IV.— 41. Phenomenal Geography — Continued. f proofs, Evaporation, ] ave'^^e annual { Temperate Zone, l^ from sq. rod, ( Torrid " 'explanation, jy I Dew at mid-day — " pitcher sweats," ' circumstances favoring, > ( , circumstances preventing,^ ( explanation, Frozen ■ — frost, iises? f explanation, Mists, or I condition of moisture. Fogs, ] localities of dense fogs^ [periods of fogs. ^ explanation — how differ, height, Clouds ^ Rain, Snow, Glaciers, Classes, f Cirrus, 1 I J description of each. Gen'l princ'ls, 1 Cumulus, Stratus, JSTimbus. (^uses. f explanation, ' from equator to poles, from sea to interior, on east and west shT)res, ] in Tropics, I in Temperate Zone, [ in Frigid Zone. C Rainless, 'i Regions, < Periodical rains, > where. ( Frequent rains, ) explanation, snow crystals, extent superficially, C in Torrid Zone, Snow line, •? in Temperate Zone, L (in Frigid Zone, r explanation, j character and apj^earance of ice, J localities, extent, motions, effects. Part IV. — 42. advanced teaching. 229 Phenomenal Geography — Concluded. C explanations. Avalanches, < localities, ( effects, 'explanation, dimensions, proportion above water, localities, ^cool southern climate, [sea, •^distribute rocks over bottom of (boulders on present eont'nts. Icebergs, Hail, extent, effects, f explanation J dimensions, 1 localities, {_ effects. 42. ly. Political Geography. 2. Absolute Monarchy, 3. Limited Monarchy, Government, r Political divisions, 1. Patriarchal, < Chief oflficer, ) Subord'te officers,^ 'Political Divisions, Chief Officer, Subord. Officers, Branches of Gov- ernment, Political Divisions Chief Officer, ; Coordinate bran- i ches of Governm'tji Political divisions! Chief Officer, Coordinate bran- ches of Gov'ment, f Political Divisions ' Chief Officer, Subordinate Offi- -l cers. Coordinate bran- ches of Gov'ment 4. Aristocracy 5. Republic, Cterm of service, •|how appointed, (extent of power. Empire, Kingdom, (time of service. number of volumes. Private, ) conditions of use. 234 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part IV. 42. Political Geography — Concluded. Public, or Free, Private or P-ay. 'Universities, Normal Schools, High Schools, Common (classified, Schools, /unclassified. Number of Teachers, Universities, Formal Schools, High Schools, Grammar Schl's. endow'd Number of Pu- pils. 'Chairs, amounts, charges. Number of Teachers, Number of Pupils. Literature, Sciences, and Arts. "^ Historical? ■what form the most gener'lly cultivated? 1 Periodical? what form the most highly cultivated? j Poetical? _ J Metaphorical? most noted works? | ^,Xfs? what the most generally understood ? what the most highly cultivated ? i chai*acter ? most noted discoveries ? < discoveries ? ( consequences ? what the most generally cultivated ? what the most highly cultivated ? most noted inventions ?) i character ? most noted works? [ ] 1^^^,^^'' ' , ) ( consequences ? Miscellaneous. Natural Curiosities, Artificial Curiosities, Places and ob- jects of Interest, Distinguished Persons, Manners and Cus^ toms. Languages, Traveling Facilities, etc., etc. Part IV. — 43. advanced teaching. 235 43. V. Descriptive Geography. 1. Boundaries, 2. Latitude and Longtitude, 3. Surface, 4. Mountains, 5. Volcanoes, 6. Plains, 7. Islands, 8. Peninsula, 9. Capes, 10. Isthmus, 11. Bodies of Water, 12. Rivers, 13. Noted Springs, 14. Climate, 15. Isothermal Line, 16-. Soil, 17. Natural Currents, 18. Natural Productions, 19. Square Miles, 20. Population, 21. Race, 22. State of Society, 23. Capital, 24. Chief Towns, 25. Employments, 26. Facilities for Traveling, 27. Agricultural Productions, 28. Manufactured Productions, r Slaves, 29. Miscellaneous Productions, < Fish Tar,' etc. 30. Religion, 31. Education, 32. Morality, * 33. Manners and Customs, 34. Languages, 35. History, 36. Literature, Arts and Sciences. 236 ADVANCED TEACHING. Part IV. 44. 44. SUCCEEDING LESSONS. The class will pursue this course of Outlines, in successive lessons, with frequent reviews, till it shall have been mastered. Then they will take up Descriptive Geography, taking one or two Political divisions for a lesson, using the Topic List on page 235, in the preparation and recitation of their lessons. The Teacher of an ungraded or country school, can make a division of the class, according to the ability of the scholars, by assigning the whole Topic List, as a guide for the lesson of the most advanced scholars, and only such topics as are found in the text book used, to scholars less advanced. These two divisions may recite as one class. The general plan of managing the recitation of an advanced class, is the same as for a secondary class, the difference being in the greater range of Topics examined, and in the greater amount of time allow- ed each scholar for recitation. USE OF APPARATUS. 45. The remaining pages of Part lY. will be given to the description and use of the Globe and Tellurian, and their use in the explanation of Astronomical Phenomena. The matter was originally written by me, several years since, for a Text Book, to accom- pany Holb rook's School Apparatus. Most of it was transferred to the^ Teacher's Guide to illustration, a work prepared by F. C. Brownell, for a similar pur- pose, and published in Hartford, Ct., 1857. This is a valuable work, and should be in the hands of every teacher. TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. 238 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 46. 46. A Globe should invariably precede the use of maps, to avoid the erroneous impression, with chil- dren, that the earth is flat; and the Hemisphere Globe may be used in connection with the Hem- isphere Map. For several reasons, a five inch Globe is prefera- ble, in a common school, to one of any other size. While it shows the spherical form as well as any other, and is large enough to give a distinct view of the principal divisions of land and water to all the members of any ordinary class in Geography, it is not so large but that it can be held in the hand con- veniently for familiar illustration; nor is it so large but that it can be made of solid, firm material, with- out too much increase of weight, which secures it against destruction in case of a fall. Again, anything that is desirable to be taught by the use of a globe to an ordinary geography class, can be taught better with a small globe, elevated on a simple pedestal, or suspended by a cord, than by a large globe, costing ten or twenty times as much, surrounded and encumbered by a frame work, hori- zon and meridian, as such globes usually are. The fact, that where both a large and small globe are in possession of teachers, the former is showed to visitors, and the latter used to instruct scholars, is a sufficient indication of the comparative utility of the two. But an outline globe is preferable in primary in- struction to one so much crowded with names as to render the forms of seas and continents obscure and Fart IV. — 47. use or apparatus. 239 incorrect. The details of particular countries are studied better on maps than on globes. If the minutiae of Geography should be studied on globes, then ought globes to be large enough to embrace the details of countries and towns, which, of course, is impossible with any ordinary limits of expense. 47. APPLICATIONS. I. THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH. That the Earth is spherical, appears from the fol- lowing proofs and illustrations: Proof 1st. The Earth has been traveled around. Illustration. As a fty crawling around the globe, in any continuous direction, comes back to the starting point, so travelers have passed around the earth, in nearly all directions, and returned to their homes. Proof 2d. The shadow of the Earth on the Moon is always circular. Illustration. The globe always casts a circular shadow, whereas no other body, in all positions, will do so. Try a cylinder, a cone, oblate and prolate spheroids, and then the globe. Proof 3d. The upper part of an approaching object is seen first, as a ship at sea. Illustration. Insert a pin into the globe, and turn the globe. The outer extremity is first seen, when approaching, and disappears last when receding. Proof 4th. A horizontal line diverges from any horizontal plane surface. The divergence is eight inches for the first mile, thirty-two for two miles, six feet for three miles, etc. 240 USE OF APPARATUS. PcU't IV. 47. Illustration. Apply a straight edge to the globe, and it is seen to coincide with it but a short dis- tance. Proof 5th. Vertical lines, at any considerable distance from each other, are not parallel, but diverge toward different parts of the heavens. Illustration. Insert two or more pins, perpen- dicularly to the surface of the globe, at some dis- tance from each other, and they are seen to diverge outward and to converoe toward the center, i. e., are not parrallel to each other, as they would be if in- serted perpendicularly into a plane surface. Proof Ml. The North Star rises as we travel north, and declines as we go south till we reach the equator, when it disappears. Ilustration. The globe being on a stand, let the north pole be directed toward any small object, as a nail in the ceiling. If that nail represent the north star, and a short pin a traveler, and the pin be mov- ed from the pole toward the equator and across it, then will it appear that the globe will intercept the line of vision from the traveler to the star soon after crossing the equator. Proof 1th. Analogy. Remark. As all other bodies in the heavens are spherical, except Comets and Saturn's rings, it is reasonable to conclude, that the earth is likewise a sphere. Proof Sth. Were the earth ever a fluid, (and there is sufficient evidence to show this to be a fact,) the force of gravity would have compelled it to take the form of a sphere. Part IV. — 48. use of apparatus. 241 48. THE EARTH A SPHEROID. That the earth is not a perfect sphere, but a sphe- roid, having the polar diameter shorter than ihe equatorial, appears from the following proofs: Proof 1st. A pendulum vibrates more rapidly as it is carried from the equator toward either pole. Remark. The frequency of the vibrations of a pendulum depends upon the force of gravity, and gravity varies as the squares of the distances from the center of the Earth vary inversely. Since, then, a pendulum vibrates more rapidly near the pole than near the equator, it is inferred that the surface at the pole is nearer the Earth's center than at the equator. Proof M. A degree of latitude, on the earth's surface, as indicated by the stars, is longer near the poles than near the equator, showing that the surface is there flattened. Remarlc. By accurate measurement of degrees in the torrid and frigid zones, the polar diameter is found to be twenty-six miles shorter than the equa- torial diameter, or as 301 to 302. Proof Sd. Were the Earth ever in a fluid state, the centrifugal force, arising from its revolution on its axis, would compel it to assume the form of an oblate spheroid. 16 242 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 49. 49. II. MATHEMATICAL LINES AND DIVISIONS. " 1 . Diameter. Any straight line extending through the center of the earth from surface to surface. 2. Circumference. Greatest distance around the earth. 3. Axis. Tliat diameter about which the eai'th revolves. {Poles. The extremities of the axis.) 4. Great Circles. Any circle which divides the earth's surface into two equal parts. 5. Small Circle. Any circle which divides the earth's surface into two unequal parts. 6. Equator. The ctreat circle, at equal distance from the poles. 7. Trojjics. Two small circles, 2'^ degrees from the equator. 8. Polar Circles. Two small circles, 23^ degrees from the poles, 9. Meridians. Great circles passing through the poles and the equator. 10. Parallels of Latitude. Small circles parallel to the equator, either north or south of it. 11. Zone. A belt or girdle, surrounding the earth. Torrid Zone. That portion of the earth's surface between the tropics. Temperate Zones. The two belts between the tropics and polar circles. Frigid Zones. Those portions of the earth '"s sur- face included by the two polar circles. Part IV. — 51. USE of apparatus, 243 Hemispheres. Any two equal divisions of the earth; as, northern and southern, eastern and wes- tern. Remark. All mathematical lines and divisions are imaginary. Illustration, ^y the use of the globe, on which the imaginary circles are drawn, the other lines and divisions can be clearly pointed out and explained. 50. III. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. The two most important motions of the Earth, are the Diurnal Motion, or that around its axis; and the Annual Motion, or that in its orbit around the Sun. Illustration, 1. With the Globe on the stand, make it revolve on the inclination wire or axis. This will represent the diurnal motion. If at the same time, the globe is carried around any object represent- ing the Sun, it will illustrate the annual motion. Illustration, 2. The better method of combining these motions is to suspend the Globe by a cord at- tached to a nail in the ceiling. By this means, the eliptical form of the orbit may be shown, as well as the two motions combined. 51. IV. THE RELATIVE POSITION OF PLACES. The true relative position of places is not shown on maps, except in comparatively small areas; and the globe should be in the hand of the teacher of geography at every recitation, in order that the scholars may obtain the true direction and approxi- 244 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 52. mate distance of every County, State, or Town, from their place of residence and from each other. Remark. It will be seen by the globe that any place, as San Francisco, may be said to be in three directions from any other place, as London. San Francisco can be reached by traveling in a continu- ous line on the earth's surface, either S. W. or IST. E., or by electricity, in a straight line through the earth. Asia is both East and West of America, likewise, on the opposite side of the earth. From the relative position of places on the earth's surface, the inhabitants receive different relative appellations. Antipodes are those living diametrically opposite. They have opposite seasons, and oi:)posite days and iiio-hts. o Antoeci are those livino^ under the same meridian, but on opposite parallels of latitude. They have opposite seasons, but the same days and nights, though the days of one are equal always to the nights of the other, (disregarding atmospheric re- fraction of light.) Perioeci are those living on the same parallel of latitude, but under opposite meridians. They have the same seasons, but opposite days and nights; i. e., when it is noon with one, it is midnight with the other. 52. V. NO ABSOLUTE UP AND DOWN. Remark. Up and doion are merely relative terms, used in connection with direction to or from the earth's center. With respect to the stars or space Part IV. — 53. use of apparatus. 245 at large, that direction which we call up at midday- is down at midnight. And at any time, that direc- tion which is up to any person on one side of the earth, is down to any person on the other side. Illustration, 1, Insert a pin into the globe and turn the globe on its axis. It will be seen that the direction which would be called up by a person sim- ilarly situated on the earth is constantly changing. Illustration, 2. Insert two pins at antipodes, as in America and Asia. It will be seen that the heads point in opposite directions, viz: the direction which is up) to one is doivn to the other. 53. VI. PHENOMENA. SUCCESSION OF DAY AND NIGHT. Day and night are caused by the revolution of the earth on its axis, bringing any place between the two polar circles once in the light of the Sun at each revolution. Illustration, 1st, In a darkened room, having in it only one lighted caudle, it will be seen that one- half the surface of the globe is illuminated and the other half is in shade. Insert a pin at your place of residence, and turn the globe on its axis. It will come round alternatel}^ into light and shade, or into day and night. Illustratio7i, 2d. By daylight, a window or any other object may be taken for the Sun, and the imagination can picture the illumined hemisphere on the side toward the Sun; or the large ball of a lunarian can be used in connection with the globe. 246 USE OF APPARATUS, Part IV. — 54. THE CHANGE OP SEASONS. The change of seasons is produced by the incli- nation of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, as shown by the inclination of the axis of the globe. Illustration. The change of the seasons may be shown by carrying the globe, with the axis continu- ally directed toward the north, about any object as- sumed as a Sun. 54. TRADE WINDS. The trade winds are caused by the revolution of the earth on its axis from west to east, in connection with the current of air flowing toward the equito- rial region, to supply those portions of space from which the air rises by the action of the Sun's heat. Illustration. (With the globe in hand.) It is supposed that the Sun is shining directly on the equator. Those parts of the earth's surface about the equator, being much heated, rarify the air in contact with them. The air thus rarefied rises; oth- er air from the north and south, within and beyond the tropics, flows in to supply the place of the air so elevated. But as the atmosphere partakes of the motion of that part of the earth's surface with which it is in contact, and as the surface at the tropics and beyond them docs not move as rapidly from west to east as at the equator, since those circles are smaller than the equator, it is plain that if air, with the eastward motion of the tropics, say 900 miles an hour, were instantaneously transported to the equa- tor, where the eastward motion of the earth's sur- Part IV. — 55. use of apparatus. 247 face is 1000 miles an hour, the air so transported would have a relative backward or westward motion of 100 miles an hour. But as it is not transported instantaneously, but flows with a moderate velocity, its westward motion, though considerable, is not so great. It must be remembered, that the motion to- ward the equator is combined with the backward or westward motion, giving the trade winds a south- westerly direction north of the Sun, and a north- westerly direction south of the Sun. Where the two currents would meet, which is always a few degrees behind the Sun, in its course from one tropic to the other, the equatorial zone of calms is found. 55. VII. ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TIME. It is considered 12 o'clock, M., at any place on the earth's surface when the sun is on the meridian of that place. But as the sun has an apparent motion from east to west of 15 degrees an hour, or 360 degrees in 24 hours, evidently, it cannot be 12 o'clock at the same time, at am^ two places not on the same meri- dian. Then at any place, as Boston, lying on a meridian east of any other place, as New Orleans, it must be 12 o'clock, or noon, before it is noon at the latter place, because the sun will reach the meridian of Boston sooner, in its westward course, than it will the meridian of Kew Orleans. Hence, if it is noon at Boston, it will be forenoon at New Orleans, and if it is noon at New Orleans it 248 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 6Q. will be afternoon at Boston. While then absolute time is the same in all places, relative time is later at places lying east of us, and earlier at places lying west of us. Illustration. Insert a pin at Boston, another at New Orleans, assuming any object on a horizontal line with the globe for a sun. Turn the globe on its axis, from west to east, it is seen that the pin at Bos- ton comes under the assumed sun before the pin at jSTew Orleans. 56. VIII. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES. Take a narrow tape, and make it the same length of the equator on the globe. Divide by folding into 5 equal parts. Mark with pencil or pen these divis- ions. In the same manner subdivide these divisions into 5 other equal parts. Call each 1000 miles. Again divide these as many times as convenient. A scale is now made by which distances, from place to place, may be ascertained, the comparative length of different routes and voyages known, etc. These, as fast as ascertained, should be committed to memory, or written down for future reference. This is found to be an amusing and instructive exercise, valuable in family or school, to keep children out of mischief, and to imprint on their minds some'of the most important geographical knowledge. Part IV. — 57. use of apparatus. 249 57. This instrument is designed to illustrate all the phenomena resulting from the relations of the Sun, Moon and Earth, to each other. The most impor- tant of tjliese phenomena are the succession of day and night; the change of seasons; the change of the sun's declination; the different lengths of day and night; the rising of the sun north of east in sum- mer; the changes of the moon; solar and lunar eclipses; spring and neap tides; the later daily re- currence of the tides; the length of days on the 250 USE OF APPARATUS. Fcu't IV. 58. moon; the appearance of the earth to observers on the moon; the harvest moon; the difference of a sy- nodical and sidereal revolution of the moon; the precession of the equinoxes and the difference of a solar and sidereal year. All these phenomena may be explained by the Tellurian, Avith a simplicity that bring them within the comprehension of a child. — Before passing to an explanation of the manner in which they may be illustrated, I shall describe the construction of the instrument, and give directions for its adjustment. 58. CONSTRUCTION. The Tellurian, as seen by the cut, consists of the stand; the arm; the three fixed pulleys; the handle; the three movable pulleys; the inclination wire; the moon's orbit plane; the extension screw, and the three balls representing the Sun, Earth, and Moon. Of these three balls, the globe is three inches in diameter; the small ball, seven-eigths of an inch, giving nearly the true proportionate size of the moon; and the large ball five inches, the true pro- portionate size of which Avould be nearly twenty- eight feet. The proportionate distance of the moon from the earth would be seven and a half feet; while the earth should be placed at the distance of two thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine feet from the sun. It is perceived, that an instrument, giving the true proportionate sizes and distances, could not well be constructed; and were it constructed, would require either a telescope or microscope to examine it. Notwithstanding the proportions are not pre- Part IV. — 59. use of apparatus. 251 served in the Tellurian, the causes of the various phenomena appear much more clearly than if they were. Of the three fixed pulleys, only the upper and larger one is seen in the figure. There are three corresponding movable pulleys on the end of the arm, each moving independently of the other. The upper pair of pulleys, one movable and one fixed, being connected with a cord passing around both, serve to give motion to the moon around the earth. The middle pair, connected by a cord in a similar manner, give a slow motion to the moon's orbit plane. The lower pair, being both of the same size and connected by a cord, preserve the parallelism of the inclination wire or axis of the earth. The extension screw is for the purpose of tighten- ing the cords when they become slack by use. 59. ADJUSTMENT. In setting up the instrument, screw the upright standard, to which the arm and fixed pulleys are at- tached, into the circular base; place the movable pulley, with the orbit plane, on the wire at the end of the arm; arrange the cords around the respec- tive pairs of pulleys, crossing the cord which goes around the upper pair, (this is the longest cord of the three;) place the globe on the inclination wire and the sun or laro-e ball on the wire in the handle; then turn the stand so that the dividing line, between Aries and Pisces, on the horizontal circle on the large fixed pulley, shall be on the east side of the 252 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 60. center; again, by applying the thumb and finger to the lower movable pulley, turn the inclination wire and globe on it, so that the north pole of the globe shall be directed toward the north star. The instru- ment is now adjusted. If by means of the handle the arm is turned around, it will be observed, that the sun and earth revolve around a common centre of gravity; that the sun revolves on its axis by coming in contact with the large pulley; that the moon revolves around the earth thirteen times while the earth goes around the sun once; that the parallelism of the earth's axis is maintained, always pointing toward the north. The revolution of the earth, on its axis, is effected by striking the globe lightly with the finger. The motion of all the balls should be from west to east, in the southern part of their orbits. 60. DAY AND NIGHT. The succession of day and night is best represent- ed by placing a short lighted candle on the center of the large fixed pulley, in a darkened room. Half of the globe will then be seen to be in light and half in shade. Insert a small pin at your place of residence on the globe, as nearly as may be, and turn the globe on its axis v/iih the finger, from west to east on the south side. It will be noticed, that the place, thus designated, is alternately in light and shade, or in day and night. And, if the pin is sup- posed to be an observer, it will see the sun coming into view, or rising over countries or seas at the east, Part IV. — 61. USE of apparatus. 253 and passing around over its meridian, disappearing or setting behind countries and seas lying in the west. 61. VARIATION IN LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT. If the arm of the Tellurian, adjusted as already explained, be turned so as to bring the globe direct- ly west of the yellow ball or sun,"^ both poles will be illuminated by the light of the candle, as if pro- ceeding from the Sun, and all parts of the globe, excepting the poles, will come successively and equally into light and shade, when it is made to re- volve equally on its axis. At this point then in the earth's orbit, as well as at the opposite point, the days and nights will be equal all over its surface. Hence, the east and west points of the Earth's orbit are called by astronomers equinoctial points or equi- noxes, from equns, equal, and nox, noctis, night. But as the earth passes on in its orbit from the western equinox toward the south, since the axis continues directed toward the north, the light will gradually extend over the north pole and recede from the south pole. The northern hemisphere will thus become more than half illuminated, and the southern proportionally less. Now, it will be per- ceived that any place north of the equator will re- *'VMienthe words Sun, Earth, and Moon, begin with capi- tals, they refer to the bodies in the heavens; but when they begin with small letters, they refer to the balls which repre- sent them on the Tellurian. 254 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 62. main longer and longer in light at each diurnal revo- lution as the earth advances, until it arrives at the southern point of its orbit. Here the light will ex- tend over the north pole twenty-three and a half de- grees, and fall as far short of the south pole, giving the longest possible day to the northern hemisphere, and the shortest possible night. Notice, too, that all places north of the Arctic Circle will make more than one entire revolution in light, and thus have a day of more than twenty- four hours in length. Again, turn the arm and carry the globe through the northern part of its orbit, it will readily appear why the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere have nights longer than days in that part of the earth's orbit. That both poles must have days and nights of six months each, is also apparent. 62. THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. The inclination of the earth's axis, together with its parallelism, influences more or less all terrestrial phenomena. The attentive pupil must have already seen, that the variation in the length of day and night is the result of this cause. If so, he is pre- pared to understand in what manner the change of seasons is brought about by the same means. Let the arm of the Tellurian be directed toward the south, then the earth's axis will be inclined toward the sun, and a line extending from the earth's center to the sun's center, will pass through the tropic of Part IV. — 62. use of apparatus. 255 Cancer. Hence, an observer on that tropic would, at noon, see the sun directly overhead when the Sun and Karth are in this position with regard to each other, and all the inhabitants of the northern tem- perate and frigid zones would see the sun at its greatest altitude. This must be midsummer, or as it is termed by astronomers, the summer solstice. Observe that the longest day occurs at this time in the northern hemisphere, and that the sun is more nearly vertical when on the meridian at all places north of the tropic of Cancer than at any other time of the year; i. e., the sun shines a larger portion of the twenty-four hours on this part of the earth's surface, and emits a larger amount of rays on any given space than at any other time. Now, move the arm around toward the east, as the inclination of the axis continues toward the north, it becomes less and less inclined toward the sun as the earth moves on to the eastern part of its orbit. Being at the eastern point, it is neither in- clined to nor from the sun, but the extremities or poles are equally illuminated. As before shown, this is one of the equinoxes, and as it succeeds sum- mer, it must be the autumnal equinox. The sun is now vertical at the equator; in other words, "is crossing the line." Again, turn the arm toward the north — observe that the north pole is carried into darkness, while the south pole is brought more and more into light. If the earth has reached the north point of its orbit, the axis is inclined away from the sun, and the south- 256 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 62. ern hemisphere is more directly under its influence. The sun will now be vertical at the tropic of Capri- corn, and shine a longer portion of the twenty-four hours on the southern hemisphere, and with greater intensity, while the days are shorter, and the rays more oblique on the northern hemisphere than at any other time of the year. Here, then, must be the winter solstice to the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere. Carry the arm around toward the west, at the same time make the globe revolve on its axis ; ob- serve that the days become longer and longer in the northern hemisphei'e, while the earth is prosecuting this part of its annual journey. The globe having arrived at the west point of its orbit, occupies the same relative position with regard to the Light as the Earth with regard to the Sun, at the vernal equi- nox. The sun is now visible at both poles, and is ao-ain crossino- the line. Thus having followed the round of the seasons, w^e can not but admire the simplicity of the me- chanism which produces such varied and beautiful results. Were the axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, there could be no change of seasons, but unvarying arid heat Avould prevail in the equa- torial regions ; while perpetual frosts would reign over a much larger portion of the Earth's surface than under the existing arrangement. The tropics, so called, because at these lines the sun turns back toAvard the equator, depend for their locality upon the axial inclination, being necessarily as many degrees from the equator as the axis Part IV. — 63. use of apparatus. 257 is inclined from the perpendicular. Were the axis to lie down on the plane of the orbit, the tropics would be in the poles, and the polar circles at the equator. 63. RISING AND SETTING OF THE SUN NORTH OF THE EAST AND WEST POINTS OF THE EQUATOR. Since the sun never comes further north than the tropic of Cancer, how is it, that morning and eve- ning, even in our latilude, it casts its rays on the north side of our dwellings and other objects during the summer months ? In order to understand this the more readily, let us consider the appearance of the sun at the poles. — About the 20th of March it begins to make its ap- pearance, gradually rising into view as it makes the entire circuit of the horizon every twenty-four hours. Higher and higher it rises, passing around the heavens, almost entirely parallel with the horizon, until, at midday, corresponding to our midsummer, it reaches the altitude of twenty -three and a half degrees, and from that time winds downward, and in three months is lost again behind the continent of ice. At any place within the Arctic Circle, once in the year at least, the sun will be seen directly over the north pole, as can be shown by the globe of the Tel- lurian. Below the Arctic Circle and near it, the sun will be seen just dipping below the horizon, a few degrees west of the meridian, and soon emerging as many degrees east of it. The farther south the observer is situated, the longer will the sun continue 17 258 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — G5. below the horizon, and the nearer will it rise and set in the east and west points of the heavens ; in other words, the further north he is situated, the nearer will it rise and set to the north point of the horizon. 64. SIDEREAL AND SOLAR DAY. While the earth is revolving on its axis, it is like- wise revolving* around the sun; hence, an entire di- urnal revolution which brings any locality under the same star, will not bring it into the same relation to the Sun. Let the arm of the Tellurian be directed toward the north; insert a pin at any point on the equator of the globe; let the pin be directed toward the sun, (yellow ball,) which will be exactly south. N'ow turn the globe once on its axis, at the same time mov- ing the arm forward a short distance toward the west. When the pin is brought around again toward the south, it is not directed toward the sun as be- fore, but must make a part of another revolution to come round in the direction of the sun. The first is the sidereal; the second, the solar revolution or day. There will, of course, be one more sidereal revolution than solar in a year, however few or many there may be of either, unless the revolutions are in opposite directions, when there will be one less. 65. REVOLUTIONS OF THE MOON. The Moon has at least three revolutions: the first on its axis, the second around the Earth, the third around the Sun. Part IV. — QQ. use of apparatus. 259 The Tellurian represents the Moon as presenting always the same side to the Earth. This is true to nature, and it gives the moon one revolution on its axis for each revolution around the Earth, as, obvi- ously, all sides of the moon will be brought succes- sively under the eye of an observer situated beyond the moon's orbit. The fact of one side being pre- sented always to the Earth, has been attributed to the greater specific gravity of that side, making it hang down toward the Earth. '^ 66. CHANGES OF THE MOOlf. The changes of the moon are the result of its opacity and its revolution about the Earth. We have new and full moon once in twenty-nine and a half days, from the fact that its revolution around the Earth once in twenty-eight days, in connection with the common motion of these bodies around the Sun, bring them all into the same relation with re- gard to each other in that period of time. This pe- riod is called a lunation or lunar month. Placing a strong light on the Tellurian, as before, turn the arm so as to bring the moon between the sun and earth. Evidently the dark side of the moon is now toward the Earth, and this is the position of the three bodies at new moon. Thus situated, the Sun and Moon are said to be in conjunction. Turn the arm ao-ain, and brino; the moon around ^XoTE. — The difference of a siderial and a synodical rev- olution can be shown in a manner similar to that of illus- trating the difference of a sidereal and solar day. 260 USE OF APPARATUS. PciH IV. 67. on the side of tlie Earth opposite the sun. The il- luminated side of the moon is now presented to the Earth. This is full moon, and the Sun and Moon, in this position, are said to be in opposition. As the Moon's orbit is not on the same plane with the Earth's orbit, the Moon is sometimes above and sometimes belov the plane of the Earth's orbit or ecrqjtic at new f^rA full. Hence we do not always see exactly the £..me hemisphere at full moon, or the crescent pointing in the sam'^ direction at new moon. The horns of the crescent will, however, always point away from the sun, whether above or below; or, as we say the moon runs high or runs loiv; all of which, can be clearly shown by the Tellurian. The intermediate phases, as the quadrants and oc- tants, are also seen by the Tellurian, but perhaps more clearly by the use of the Lunarian. 67. ECLIPSES. An eclipse is nothing more than an obscuration of the Sun or Moon by the obscuration of the Sun's rays. An eclipse of the Sun, or a solar eclipse, is shown by turning the Tellurian arm until the moon casts a shadow on the earth's surface. An eye, situated at the place of the shadow, could not, of course, see the luminous part'.'f the candle. So, on the earth's surface, wherever the shadow of the Moon falls, the Sun can not be se':n, as it is in an eclipse. A solar eclipse commonly happens at new moon, and can be total when the Moon's center is in, or very near, the Part IV. — 68. use of apparatus. 261 ecliptic, or when the moon is at one of its nodes. — Since, as shown by the Tellurian, the Moon is some- times above and sometimes below the ecliptic, at this period, it is obvious that an eclipse cannot hap- pen at every new moon. A partial eclipse will occur wherever a part of the Sun's disk is obscured by the intervention of the Moon. A lunar eclipse is shown by turning the Tellurian arm until the moon comes into the shadow of the earth, either partially or entirely; giving a partial or total eclipse. Neither of these can happen at every full moon, in consequence of the obliquity of the Moon's orbit to the ecliptic. The construction of the instrument is such, that the moon's orbit plane will come into the same relation to the earth's plane once in eio'hteen revolutions of the earth around the sun. This arrangement corresponds to the Chaldaic period in nature, which gives the recurrence of nearly the same order of eclipses once in eighteen years and ten days. By means of this period, the ancients were enabled to foretell eclipses, but with no great degree of precision. G8. TIDES. Tides are the result of the unequal attraction of the Moon on the water on the Earth's surface, and on the inflexible mass of the Earth itself. They are influenced likewise by the Sun, and by the form and position of coasts and harbors. Since the water under the Moon is 4,000 miles 262 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 69. nearer to it than the centre of the Earth, it will be attracted by as much greater force than the Earth as the square of 240,000 is greater than the square of 336,000. Hence the water is heaped up under the Moon, and this elevated mass of water will pass around the earth as far as continents will permit, once in twenty-four hours, or as often as the Earth revolves under the moon. This will account for a tide once a day. But there are two tides daily. How is this? Since the water on the side of the Earth opposite the Moon is as much more distant from the Moon than the center of the' Earth, as the center of the Earth is than the water on the same side with the Moon, it must be attracted by a force as much less than is that by which the Earth is attracted, as the Earth is, than the water on the same side with the Moon. And as the water under the Moon is drawn away from the Earth, so the Earth is as much drawn away from the water on the side opposite the Moon. Hence, there will be a tide opposite the Moon as well as under it, and the two tides will be equal, or nearly so. This will give any place within the reach of tide water two tides in a day. ^69. LATER DAILY RECURRENCE OF TIDES. Tides happen about fifty minutes later every day, in consequence of the motion of the Moon in its orbit around the Earth. This may be shown by giving motion to the Tel- lurian arm, and the globe on its axis at the same Part IV. — 71. USE of apparatus. 263 time. Observe that any place on the Earth must make more than an entire revolution to come around the second time under the moon, whereas if the moon were stationary, then a complete revolution would bring the same meridian again under it. 70. SPRING AND NEAP TIDES. It is found by observation, that the influence of the Sun on the tides is about one -fourth as great as that of the Moon. By the Tellurian, it is shown, that when the Sun and Moon are either in opposition or in conjunction, their influences combine to produce a tide equal to the sum of the tides they would produce separately. This is called a spring tide, and will happen either at new or full moon. Again, it is shown, that when the Moon is at its quadratures, the tide will be equal to the difference of the Sun's and Moon's tides separately. This is called the neap tide. The highest tide possible, at any given place, will happen under the concurrence of the following cir- cumstances, viz. : The Earth in its perihelion, the Moon in its perigee, at one of its egzegris, and in the zenith or nadir. 71. PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. The precession of the Equinoxes is the recur- rence of the Equinoxes or any other period of the year before the Earth has made an entire revolution around the Sun. 264 USE OF APPARATUS. Part IV. — 71. It is found that a year is twenty minutes and sev- enteen seconds less tlian the time required for an entire revohition. This is occasioned by a change, not on the inclination of the Earth's axis, but on the direction of that inclination. To show this clearly, take hold of the lower movable pulley with the thumb and finger and turn that pulley half the way round. In so doing, j^ou will cause the axis of the Earth to point south instead of north, but with the same inclination still. In nature, it requires 12,934 years to make the change, and 25,868 years to bring the axis back again into its present position. Now, if you start the arm from the east, where the globe will be in the position of the autumnal equinox, and while you turn the arm, you at the same time turn the axis so that it shall incline easterly, you have only to carry the arm around to the south to bring the globe into the position of the autumnal equinox again; i. e., a quarter of a revolution of the axis produces a precession of the equinox — equal to a quarter of the Earth's orbit. The precession, then, we see, is equal to the part of a revolution that the axis makes. It really makes a chano-e of 50 1-10 in a year, and the precession is the same, and it requires twenty minutes and seventeen seconds for the earth to pass that part of its orbit. Hence, as before stated, the year is so much less than the time required for an entire revolution. PART V . METHODS OF TEACHING MENTAL, PRACTICAL, AND THEORET- ICAL ARITHMETIC. INTRODUCTION MENTAL ARITHMETIC. The objects aimed at by the true teaclier for his class in Mental Arithmetic, are — • 1st. Distinct mental conceptions. Some teachers make use of numeral frames, and a variety of other expedients, to aid their pupils in realizing the powers of numbers. 1 am of the opinion that such aids may be relied on too far; so far as to retard the operation of the mind in forming its own con- ceptions. The large majority of pupils will ad- vance more rapidly and self-relyingly. without any visible representations whatever, and should they be needed, marks on the blackboard answer every purpose. 2d. Clear views of cause and effect. From the very first exercise in Arithmetic, the relation of cause and effect is ever before the mind ; equally as much in answering the question. One and one are how many? as in the most complex problems^ requiring a long continued course of analysis and synthesis for solution. In fact, every operation is (267) 268 INTRODUCTION. but an application, in some form, of the law of cause and efi'ect. Hence Arithmetic, and especially Mental Arithmetic, affords a fine field for the cul- tivation of the reasoning faculties. There is no better, if properly managed. 3d. Certainty in the courses of reasoning. This should be aimed at just as much, in the simpler steps, in the first lessons, as in the higher walks of more advanced stages. For if entire certainty is not secured in the preliminary steps, what else may be .expected of the more advanced exercises than conjecture, doubt and uncertainty in the processes and results? 4th. Precision in language. This implies not only a clear distinction of abstract and concrete quantities, and the use of the necessary language to make such distinction without tautology, if pos- sible; but it does not admit of any forms of false or doubtful syntax in the enunciation or solution of questions. 5th. A thorough understanding of Fractions. — There is no aspect in which a Mental Arithmetic class can appear to so good advantage before an examining committee, as in the ready and success- ful management of fractional numbers. A knowl- edge of powers and multiples is indispensable to free use of fractional quantities. 6th. Rajpidity in the solution of questions. Cer- tainty should be aimed at from the very first, but as the class advances emulation should be brought into play in exciting the minds of the ivhole class to rapid combinations and evolutions. Most INTRODUCTION. 269 astonishing results may be attained, even with sluggish minds, in this direction. 7th. Artifices for abridging labor. These should never be introduced till the scholar is well drilled in the full and logical forms of procedure, but then they may be used with great interest and effect. 8th. Cultivation of Memory. To this end no book should be used by the class, during recita- tion ; and at every lesson more or less impromptu and '• random questions" should be given. Ex- amples of these will appear in the following pages. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. The objects to be aimed at in Written Arith- metic, are — 1st. Correctness in operation. Written Arith- metic looks more particularly to operations in dollars and cents, in the counting room, workshop, or market; and the teacher who should tolerate any want of accuracy in the operations of the pupil would be false to his interests. 2d. Rapidity in operation. When it is known, that by practice, two or three long columns of fig- ures can be added with as much rapidity as one is, ordinarily, it is seen that there is abundant room for improvement, not only in scholars but in most teachers. Multiplication and division are ecjually susceptible of condensed operations, yielding re- mote results in "less than no time" to the expert calculator. 270 INTRODUCTION. 3d. Artifices for abHdging lahor. Every possi- bility of* cancellation should be familiar, every contraction in tbe fundamental rules, every use of aliquot parts, and factors, should be so frequently and so long dwelt upon by a class, tliattbe "short- est method" will always afterward present itself, in business life, as if by intuition. 4th. Ready and rellahle means of proof As there are no "answers" to real business transac- tions, except such as the business man obtains for himself, it seems to me altogether preferable to accustom scholars in practical arithmetic, to prove their work from the first. Of course the " best methods" should be sought by the teacher, and practiced by the pupil, till he has little occasion for " the answer in the book." Books without answers are desirable for this end ; but the teacher should be the more watchful and exacting in the matter of proofs, if the text book is furnished with answers. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. The objects to be aimed at in Theoretical Arithmetic, are — 1st. A thorough understanding of all the peculiar ajid coynmon properties of numbers as high as twelve. The demonstration and use of these properties are equally useful and interesting. 2d. Development of reasoning faculties. Geom- etry is frequently resorted to for this purpose and for no other. Theoretical Arithmetic is no less effectual, if pursued with as much rigor as the sub- INTRODUCTION. 271 ject demands. The definitions and axioms should be as clearly stated, and the propositions as well connected, and as logically proved as those of Geometry; while for the great majority of pupils there is immeasurably a greater demand for the use of the principles of Arithmetic than for those of Geometry. 3d. Cultivation of the jpoicer of accurate expres- sion of thought. There is no department of science where we find so much looseness in definitions and rules, as in Arithmetic, notwithstanding the multi- tude of text books on this subject, and the higher claims of each successive author, in this particular. This very looseness in authors aff'ords the critical teacher a fine field, if not for display of his own acumen; yet for arousing the energies of his pupils to excel their text book. 4th. A knowledge of the curiosities of the science. 5th. An acquaintance with the works of various authors. It will be found a very desirable prac- tice, in pursuing a course of Theoretical Arith- metic, to consult the various authors who have written on the subject. A more liberal and sym- metrical view of the science is thus obtained than from any one author. Respect for authors is thus diminished, while the love for the truth is en- hanced. METHOD OF TEACHING MENTAL AKITH- METIC TO PEIMARY CLASSES. LESSON I . 1. First Step — How to secure Books. A course similar to tliat described on page 184, Sec. 2, may be pursued. Second Step — Counting. Teacher. — Children, how many of you can count a hundred? [A ma- jority raise their hands.] As many as can count ten may raise the hand. [Nearly all hands rise.] Now we will see. I will make some marks on the blackboard and you may all count them as I make them. The teacher makes the marks, (circles.) on the board, and the children count in concert. He soon learns the ability of the class in counting; and drills those unable to count ten in counting marks, buttons, fingers, desks, windows, panes of glass, etc., till they can tell the number of objects as high as ten. They may then be required to make as many marks on the board as the teacher designates. (272) Part V. 2. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 273 2. Third Step — Preliminary Drill on Lesson I. Ray's Mental Arithmetic. Teacher. — Children, you may now open your books to Lesson I., on page 8, as many as have books. Those who have no books may look over others' books to-day, but all who remain in the class must have books to-morrow. We can have no looking over after to-day. Have you all found it? Charles, you may read the first question, beginning " James had an ap- ple." Charles reads the question. Teacher. — How many can answer it? As many as can may raise the hand. [All hands rise.] Sarah, you may answer it. Sarah. — Two. Teacher. Susan, you may read the next question. Susan reads. Teacher. — How many can answer this ques- tion? The teacher will be careful to call on those pupils who are the most backward or inattentive. In a similar manner, this lesson, or so much of it as the class can bear, is passed over in prepara- tion for studying it. Teacher. — Now I wish you to study this lesson which you have been reading, so that you can answer all the questions without the book, when you come again to recite. I will read the ques- tions and you may answer them without looking on the book at all. How many will study this lesson and learn it well? [All hands rise.] The class is now dismissed in order, and notes written to parents for the necessary books. 274 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 3. L ES S ON II. 3. First Step — Recitation. The teacher reads the question to the whole class, and calls on one pupil by name for an answer. He will be careful not to omit any, but he should not pursue the order in which they sit. He may follow the order of his register for this class, forwards or backwards, taking all the names as they stand, or taking them alternately, backwards or forwards : or he may depart from this order, when he sees any scholar inattentive, by giving him a question. Making Figures. As each scholar answers his question, he may go to the blackboard, and make the figures corresponding to the numbers used in the question and answer, and perform the opera- tion by adding the figures as in Written Arithmetic. Of course, the mental operation comes first and the answer by this means. With a primary class it is much better thus to combine Written with Mental Arithmetic as they proceed. Second Step — Preliminary Drill for next les- son. Remark. The class will pursue the course de- scribed in Lesson II, for many days, until they acquire a knowledge of counting, of the use of figures, and the power of making them correctly on the slate or blackboard, till they can perform the operation of addition and subtraction by either the mental or written process ; but when multipli- cation is reached the regular steps of a solution should be taught, which are as follows : — Part V. — 5. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 275 4. ADVANCED LESSON. Recitation. Teacher reads a question for tlie "whole class: " At 7 cents apiece what will 3 mel- ons cost?" After waiting till most of the class have raised their hands as each has obtained the result, he speaks the word " class." Then all who have obtained the result raise their hands together. He calls on one pupil by name to give the result; then on all who agree with this result to raise their hands; then on all who have another result, to raise their hands; then on some individual, from his register, in order, by name, to give a solution of the question, which is done in the manner de- scribed in the following section. 5. SOLUTIONS. First Step — Scholar rises and repeats the Question. If he fails, the teacher says, "Class, who can give him the question?" Hands rise. The teacher then calls on some one to repeat the question. He repeats it without rising. First scholar, still standing, also repeats it. Second Step — Scholar gives the Analysis, or explains the method of solving the question. If he fails, pursue the same course to correct him as in the first step. Third Step — Scholar performs the Operations, and obtains the result. Fourth Step — Scholar gives the Conclusion, as nearly as possible in the language of the ques- tion. 276 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 7. Remarh. After tlie teacher has drilled the class in solutions, in multiplication, they may return to addition for a few solutions. FIRST EXAMPLE. — ADDITION. Teacher reads, James had five cents, and he found seven more; how many had he then? When it is seen by hands rising that nearly all the class have obtained the result, he says " Class." Then all who have solved the question raise their hands together. Teacher. — Henry, what is the result? Henry. — Twelve. Teacher. — How many agree? [Hands rise.] How many have a different result? [Hands rise.] Mary. Mary. — Twelve cents. Teacher. — Very well. Sarah, you may give the solution. Sarah, rising, repeats (not reads) the question. First Step. James had five cents, and he found seven more, how many had he then? Second Step. He had as many as the sum of five cents and seven cents. Third Step. Five cents plus seven cents are twelve cents. Fourth Step. Therefore, if James had five cents, and found seven more, he then had twelve cents. 7. SECOND EXAMPLE. — SUBTRACTION. The teacher having read the question — Maria, rising, gives the solution thus : Part V. 9. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 277 First Step. A boy having eight marbles, lost five of them, how many had he left? Second Step. He had as many as the differ- ence between five marbles and eight marbles. Third Step. Eight minus five are three. Fourth Step. Therefore, if James, having eight marbles, lost five of them, he had three mar- bles left. 8. THIRD EXAMPLE — ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. Peter, rising, repeats the question. First Step. A lady bought a comb for twenty five cents, some pins for ten cents, and some tape for six cents; she gave the shopkeeper seventy-five cents ; how much change ought she to receive? Second Step. She ought to receive as many as the difference between sevent37"-five cents and the sum of twenty-five cents, and ten cents, and six cents. Third Step. Twenty-five plus ten, plus six, are forty one. Seventy-five minus forty-one are thirty-four. Fourth Step. Therefore if a lady bought a comb for twenty-five cents, some pins for ten cents, and some tape for six cents, and gave the shop- keeper seventy-five cents, she ought to receive forty-one cents in change. 9. FOURTH EXAMPLE — MULTIPLICATION. Samuel, rising, gives the solution thus : First Step. At four dollars a pair, what will five pairs of boots cost? 278 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 11 Second Step. If one pair cost four dollars, five pairs will cost five times four dollars, Third Step. Wliicli are twenty dollars. Fourth Step. Therefore, at four dollars a pair, five pairs of boots cost twenty dollars. 10. FIFTH EXAMPLE. DIVISION. Susan^ rising, gives the solution thus: First Step. If a man laid out one hundred dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars for each cow he bought, how many cows did he buy? Second Step. If one cow cost twenty dollars, he bought as many cows for one hundred dollars as twenty is contained times in one hundred. Third Step. Which are five times. Fourth Step. Therefore, if a man laid out one hundred dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars for each cow that he bought he bought five cows. 11. sixth EXAMPLE. — DIVISION. William, rising, gives the solution thus : First Step. If you should buy six oranges for twenty-four cents, how much would you pay for each orange? Second Step. To pay one cent for each orange would require six cents ; then you would pay as many cents for. each orange as six cents is con- tained times in twenty-four cents, Third Step. Which are four times. Fourth Step. Therefore, if you should buy six oranges for twenty-four cents, you would pay four cents for each orano;e. Part V. 12. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 279 Remarh. In examples of this kind the pupil is inclined to take it for granted that one kind of concrete quantity is contained in another kind of concrete quantity. Hence his analysis is likely to be thus: " Since you buy six oranges for twenty- four cents, each orange will cost as many cents as six is contained times in twenty-four." Six what is contained times in twenty-four what? should be asked by the critical teacher. For further examples and solutions I refer the teacher to Ray's Mental Arithmetic. 12. VARIATIONS m THE MANAGEMENT OF CLASSES. 1st. If a class is large, it will be better for each pupil, as his name is called from the register, to take but one step in a solution. Thus more of the class will be reached in a given time, and more general attention secured with less difficulty. 2d. It may be well occasionally to combine the second and third steps in one, i. e., let the pupil give the process and result of each operation pro- posed in the method of solution ; thus^ Henry^ rising, gives the solution. First Step. If three tuns of hay cost twenty- one dollars, what will five tuns cost? Second and Third Steps. If three tuns of hay cost twenty-one dollars, one tun will cost one-third of twenty-one dollars, which is seven dollars; and if one tun cost seven dollars, five tuns \vill cost five times seven dollars, which are thirty-five dollars. Fourth Step. Therefore, if three tuns of hay 280 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. 14. cost twenty-one dollars, five tuns will cost thirty- five dollars. 13. RANDOM EXERCISES. A random exercise is such as is engaged in by the class without previous study, the teacher leading. These should be commenced with small integral numbers; and the teacher should proceed slowly in his lead, at first bringing in only addi- tion and subtraction. As a class improves under the exercise, the operations of multiplication and division may be introduced ; also, involution and evolution; also, fractional quantities. I will give a few examples. 14. Example 1st. Teacher. Class, take seven, add five, add eight, add five, subtract nine, subtract eight. How many have the result? The pupils, as many as have followed the teacher and have obtained the final result, are expected to raise their hands. Teacher. — James. James. — Twelve. Teacher. How many agree? [No hands rise.] How many have a diff"erent result. [Hand rises.] Sarah. Sarah. — Eight. Teacher. — How many agree with Sarah? [Hands rise.] Very well. How many can give the operations aloud? [Hands rise.] Susan. Sman. Take seven, add five, which gives twelve; add eight, which gives twenty; add five, which gives twenty-five; subtract nine, which gives sixteen ; subtract eight, which gives eight, the final result. Teacher. — Very well, Susan. Part V. — 19. MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 281 15. Example 2d. Teacher. — Class, take fourteen, divide by seven, multiply by twelve, multiply by two, add two, divide by twenty-five ; how many have the result? The same course is pursued in bringing out all the scholars, in ascertaining how many have fol- lowed the question, and how many have not, as before. 16. Example 3d. Teacher. — Class, take nine, square it, subtract seventeen, take square root, double it, take the square root, take the square root ; how many have the result? 17. Example 4th. Take one hundred, multiply by nine-tenths, multiply by eight-ninths, multiply by seven-eighths, multiply by six-sevenths, multiply by five-sixths, multiply by four-fifths; how many have the result? 18. Example 5th. Take eight, divide by four-fifths, divide by five-sixths, divide by six-sevenths, divide by seven-eighths. How many have the result? 1 19. Example 6th. A monkey started up a mast sixty feet high ; he ran up twenty feet, down eight feet, up fifteen feet, up seventeen feet, up six feet, jumped up five feet, and where was he? 19 282 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 21. 20. The variations of random exercises are, of course, endless. They serve for variety, and if properly managed will arouse any desirable amount of e-n- thusiasm in a class. They should not, however, be relied on, to any great extent, as a means of suitable training, in Mental Arithmetic. I will give one more example, involving a few contractions, which may be reached by the class in the appropriate successive drills on each contrac- tion. 21. EXAMPLE IN CONTRACTIONS. Take eighteen, multiply by five, multiply by twenty-five, multiply by ten, take the square root, add ten, multiply by twelve and a half, divide by thirty-three and a third, multiply by ten, divide by sixteen and two-thirds, and what is the result? Explanation. 18x5=18x^=90, 90x25=90 X'r=2250. 160 X 121=160 x*r=2000, 2000-^ 331=2000 XTflo^eO,"^ 60x10=600. 600^16f =600xT^ff=36. METHODS OF TEACHING WEITTEN ARITHMETIC. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 22. Remark 1st. Written Arithmetic should be commenced with Mental Arithmetic. Scholars in Mental Arithmetic should be provided with slates, and they should be permitted to work out the examples, loliile studying them, on the slate. They should also be required to work them on the slate or blackboard after having solved them mentally. 23. Remark 2d. In the management of a large class in Written Arithmetic, the principal difficulty to be overcome is that of reaching all the schol- ars at every recitation. Unless this is done schol- ars are liable to remit their efforts, especially on such days as they may think the chances are against their being called on to recite. This difficulty must be met, if possible, and every scholar must know that he will be held re- sponsible at every recitation, for a thorough prepa- ration of all the lesson. If in the division of time (283) 284 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 25. among the several classes it shall be found impos- sible to give time enq^gh to Arithmetic, to reach every scholar, in each recitation, it will be better to have the recitation every other day, and the Grammar recitation every alternate day. Thus double the amount of time could be had for each recitation in these two leading subjects, by having them occur only half as often. By proper management in the use of blackboards and slates, every scholar in the largest class may be reached. 24. Remarh "^d. The blackboard should be suffi- ciently capacious, if possible, to accommodate all the class at once. To this end all the space on the walls of the room not taken up by windows and doors, to the height of six or seven feet, should be occupied by blackboard. It is sufficient to paint a hard firm wall that is laid on brick. If laid on lath, it should first be covered with the thickest, firmest wall paper that can be had, and then paint- ed black. If, then, there is not room enough to accommodate all the scholars at the same time, those who cannot find room on the board for working examples, can work them on their slates as they sit on the recitation seats ; and the teacher can pass around and look over the work of each scholar as often as a new example has been as- signed and wrought. 25. Remarh 4:th. In the earlier steps, especially, it is better to give the same example to all the class, Part V. — 27. written arithmetic. 285 to work simultaneously. But in review lessons, and in a more advanced class, it is better to assign diflferent examples to each pupil, unless some ex- amples more difficult than others should be as- signed to several different pupils, or to all of them. 26. Remark bfh. Some teachers think it necessary that scholars should understand the reasons of every rule, before they are permitted to use it in working out examples. This is plausible, but will be found to work badly. It is better, gener- ally, for scholars to learn the practical working of a rule first, and thus have their curiosity excited to inquire why they have to do so and so, as the rule directs, to obtain the result; rather than to force the reasons upon them before they have any desire to know them. With a few of the quicker scholars, the latter plan will work well enough ; but with the majority of most classes the former course is decidedly preferable. There is no trouble in feeding a hungry child, but the same food only disgusts him when he has no appetite. First ex- cite the desire to know; then administer to the mind's cravings. 27. RemarJc 6f7i. It hardly seems desirable to me to require scholars to give arithmetical rules pre- cisely in the language of the book. I prefer that they should describe the processes in their own lan- guage ; a rule in Arithmetic being " a description of a process for obtaining a required result." It 286 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. Part V. 30. is more necessary, perhaps, to require the rules verbatim from beginners. 28. Remarh 7th. Books without answers are pref- erable, for the reason that a strong temptation is removed to copy the answers from the book with- out solving the questions; for the reason also that scholars are more self-relying, and are made, by this means, better practical reckoners and account- ants. If answers are not desirable in Mental Arithmetic, why in Written? 29. Remark StJi. I would, if possible, avoid any text book in Arithmetic or Algebra which has a printed key in market. Keys are paralyzers, nuisances, and the teacher should be particularly watchful that keys are not resorted to by pupils in any of his classes. 30. Remarlc 9(li. The skilful teacher will always prepare his class for any difficulty which may meet them in the advance lesson. He may explain the difficulty orally; he may solve an example, not in the book, which shall meet the difficulty ; he may give the class a preliminary drill on a rule, or on a series of more difficult examples under any rule, or in miscellaneous examples under a number of rules. Such preparation, judiciously given, more than anything else, is calculated to keep up the ambition of all a class, by removing all excuses for laziness and discourao;ement. Part V. — 33. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 287 31. Remarh 10th. Small scholars should be re- quired to bring their examples, wrought on slates or on paper, to the recitation, which the teacher will examine, as the First Step in every recitation. This will not prevent their working them again during the recitation. 32. Remarh Wfh. The manner of conducting dif- erent recitations in Written Arithmetic are so similar that I shall give but two Lessons — as ex- amples. 33. PRIMARY LESSON. First Step — The Teacher examines the Slate or paper of each pupil, to determine how much of the lesson assigned has been prepared, and how well the work has been executed. He points out the errors as he proceeds, giving as much encour- agement in every case as possible, and as little censure. Second Step — Kecitation of Pvules or Tables assigned for the lesson. Third Step — Working the Examples on the slates or blackboard. As in few schools there is blackboard enough to accommodate all the schol- ars, they will be called up in sections to the board without books, and will follow the orders of the teacher. 288 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 34. 34. Order 1st. — Prepare the hoard. This is done by erasing any former work, and dividing the board by vertical lines into equal spaces for each scholar. Each scholar draws a line at his right. Order 2d. — Write the example. The teacher then dictates the example and all write it, both those at the board, on the board; and those on the recitation seat, on their slates. Order Zd. — Perform the example. The teacher now has opportunity to note the readiness and correctness of each pupil in his work as he pro ceeds, whether at the board, or on the seat; or the failure or errors of any, or their inclination to copy from others' work. Order 4:fh. James, you may explain your work. James proceeds to explain the example as he has solved it; and the teacher, at any error, either in the work or in the explanation, looks for the rais- ing of hands by other members of the class, and if no pupil notices the error, he calls attention to it by the question. Why do you thus? or by any other that the case may require. When James has concluded his explanation, the class is called on for criticisms. After these are settled, the teacher may inquire, "How many understand James' explanation?" Hands rise. '• How many do not understand the example?" If hands rise he may call on James again to explain the exam- ple, or on some other pupil, or he may explain it himself. * , Order 6th. — Be seated. Part V. 37. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 289 35. The teacher then calls up another section, and proceeds in a similar manner with them in the working of another example; and so on till the time has expired, or so far expired that he can only have time for the fourth step. Fourth Step — Preliminary explanation and DRILL for the next lesson. 36. ADVANCED LESSON. Remark. The same course may be pursued with an advanced class as that described for a pri- mary class, or the following method may be used. First Step. Teacher. — Any who have reports to give may prepare their work on the board. Scholars, then, to whom any classification, de- monstration, or explanation was assigned at any previous recitation, for this recitation, take their places at the board and make any necessary prepa- ration, as writing out the classification or work necessary for a demonstration. Second Step — Recitation of Eules or Tables by the rest of the class. Third Step — Scholars at the board give the demonstration; and the same order of criticism from the class and from the teacher, as was de- scribed in the Primary Lesson, is pursued. 37. Fourth Step — Working the examples. The course to be pursued is the same as described in the Primary Lesson, except that it will be found 290 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. Part V. 37. necessary to give eacli pupil a different example. These may be assigned by number to each pupil, he having the book in hand from which to take his data. Fifth Step — The explanation of examples. It is supposed that the teacher, in a preliminary drill has himself explained the working of the rule; and demonstrated the principles on which its different points are based. In this stage of the recitation, one pupil is called for the demonstration of one principle in connection with his example; and another for the demonstration of the same principle or another in connection with the ex- planation of his example. All under the same course of criticism, from other scholars and teach- er, as has been before described. Sixth Step — Preliminary explanation and DRILL for next recitation. THEORETICAL AEITHMETIC. 38. Remark. Instead of presenting tlie metliod of teaching Theoretical Arithmetic, I shall give a condensed view of the subject itself; leaving it for the teacher to apply the methods before described for G-rammar and Geography. I. ARITHMETIC. f (Euclid, B. C. 300, Greek Notation. I Ancient, -(Archiinides, B. C. 250, Greek Notation. 1 iDiophiinte?, A. D. 250, " " History, \ { Lucca de Borga, A. D. 1484, Arabic Notation. Mndprn J Nicholas Pike, A. D. 1776, " « Modern, <| ^^^^^.^^ ^^^^^^'^ ^ ^ _^g^^. ^^ [ [ Warren Culburn, A. D. 1825, Mental Arith'c. r Definition, Solution, Rule, Demonstration, 3'^"'^^'^ Terms, ' Proposition Hypotheses, 1 indirect. Problem, Corollary, Scholium, Lemma. Theorem. Unit, Axiom, Discussion. n„,r,f;f„ S Magnitude. Quantity, J j^j J^^^^^^ \ Integral, ) \ Abstract, } ' Fractional, S \ Concrete, 1 , Cardinal, \ \ Prime, \ ' Ordinal, \ \ Composite, 1 iAs to uses: — Abstract, Applied. As to characters: — Particular, General. As to operation : — Mental, Written, Theoretical. rPreliminariesjJ5«^^t*«"' ( JNumeration. r Addition, Fundamental] Multiplication, Operations, ) Subtraction, [Division, f 1 Comp. Numbers, 2 Cora. Fractions, i 3 Decimals, 4 Ratio and Proportion, Applications, \ ^ P^'-^^"^"?,^' J Partnership, 7 AUe- ^^ ' 1 gation, 8 Lxchange, 9 Partnership, I 10 Involution, 11 Evolution, 12 Men- (.suration, 13 Analysis. (291) Even, ) \ Simple, Odd, ) \ Comp'nd. Rational. \ Surd. i Incre£ Diminution. 292 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 39. 39. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Arithmetic. The Science of Numbers History. Notice of the most prominent wri- ters, and of the progress of the Science of Arith- metic. Ancient History. That which applies to time previous to A. D. 1400'. Modern History. That whicli applies to time subsequent to A. D., 1400. Euclid was the first writer on Mathematics whose works have come down to us. He wrote on Geometry and Optics, as well as on Arithmetic. He established a school for Mathematics at Alex- andria in Egypt, which Ptolemy Lagus, the Egyp- tian Monarch, attended. When the pupil inquired of Euclid, if there was no easier method of learn- ing Mathematics, Euclid replied, " There is no royal road to Geometry." Although he was the first writer on Mathemat- ics, he was indebted to Thales and Pythagoras, celebrated teachers, for much contained in his works. Archimides flourished in Syracuse. He made many discoveries in Mathematics, and inventions in Mechanics. One of the former was the ratio of the cylinder to the inscribed sphere ; one of the latter was an arrangement of mirrors by whicli he set the Roman fleet on fire. He also discovered the means of obtaining the specific gravity of bodies. Several fragments of his writings are extant, but nothing on Arithmetic. Part V. — 40. theoretical arithmetic. 293 DioPHANTUs flourislied at Alexandria. The time at which he wrote is not dej&nitely known. But his works remain, both on Arithmetic and Alge- bra. He was the first writer on Algebra. Lucca de Borga is worthy of note, as being the first European writer who made use of the Arabic Notation. 40. Defixitiox. Such a description of an object as includes everything of the kind, and excludes everything else. Solution. A process by which a required re- sult is obtained. Rule. A description of a general process for obtaining a required result. Demoxstratiox. a course of reasoning by which the propriety of a Rule is made obvious ; also a course of reasoning by which a proposed truth is established. Direct Demoxstratiox. One that commences with known truths ; and by a course of reasoning establishes the proposed truth. Ixdirect Demoxstratiox. One which assumes the proposed truth to be false, and then proves that an absurdity will result from the assumption. This is also called a Reductio ad aesurdum. Propositiox. That which requires a solution, or a demonstration. Problem. A question proposed for solution. Theorem. A truth requiring a demonstration to establish it. 294 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 41. Corollary. A truth deduced from a preceding proposition. Scholium. A remark on a preceding proposi- tion, stowing its application, restriction, or exten- sion. Lemma. A subsidiary proposition. Hypothesis. A supposition made either in the statement or demonstration of a proposition. Axiom. A self-evident truth. Discussion. A course of investigation by which the properties, relations, and applications of any number, proposition, or rule, are demonstrated. 41. Quantity. That which can be increased, dimin- ished, or measured. Magnitude. Undivided Quantity ; also that form of quantity which answers the question. How much? Multitude. Quantity made up of distinct parts; also that form of quantity which answers the ques- tion. How many? Unit. A single thing, either a whole or a part. Number. One, or more, or less; also an expres- sion for Quantity. Integral Number. An expression for one or more whole or entire units. Fractional Number. An expression for one part of a unit, or more than one equal parts of a unit. Abstract Number. A number taken without reference to substance, time, space, or their prop- erties. Part V. — 41. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 295 Concrete Number. A number applied to sub- stance, time, space, or their properties. Even Number. One wliich can be divided by two without a fractional quotient. Odd Number. One which cannot be divided by two without a fractional quotient. Simple Number. One in which the units ex- pressed, are all of the same value. Compound Number. One in which the units expressed are of different values. Cardinal Number. One used to denote multi- tude, or how many. Ordinal Number. One used to denote the order or rank of an object. Prime Number. An integral number which can be divided by no other integral number than itself and unity without a fractional quotient. Remark. There is no term in Mathematics which has had so many bungling, worthless defini- tions, as this. Ray's definition: ''A prime number is one tbat can only be exactly divided by itself and unity." Since every number can be exactlj' divided by every other, with eithe/ an integral or fraetional quotient, there is no prime number according to this definition. Again, in Ray's Higher Arithmetic, we find this : "A prime number is one that can be exactly divided by no other whole number but itself and unity," Since every whole number will exactly divide every other number whether fractional or integr;)l, there can be no prime number according to this definition; moreover, the grammatical sequence of tut to other, is, to say the least, inharmonious. Again, Thompson's definition is still worse : '•' A prime num- ber is one which cannot be produced by multiplying any two or more numbers together, or which cannot be exactly divided by any whole number except a unit and itself." Since every num- ber can be produced by multiplying itself by unity, or some in- tegral number by some fractional number, there is no prime number according to Thompson, Loomis' definition involves the same absurdity. Leach & Swan's definition is passable. 296 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 43. Rational Number. One whose exact root can be expressed by figures. Surd Number. One whose exact root cannot be expressed by figures. 42. Classes. Results of arrangement according to a given plan. Abstract Arithmetic. That form of Arith- metic which makes use of abstract numbers. Applied Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic which makes use of eoncreto numbers. Remark. Book-keeping and Mensuration may be mentioned as examples of Applied Arithmetic. Particular Arithmetic. That form of Arith- metic which makes use of figures to express par- ticular values. General Arithmetic. That form of Arithme- tic which makes use of letters to express general values. It is also called Algebra. Mental Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic in which the operations are carried on entirely in the mind, without the use of visible characters. Written Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic in which the operations are carried on by the aid of visible characters. Theoretical Arithmetic. That form of Arith- metic which investigates principles, and demon- strates rules; also, that gives a clear, connected, and systematized arrangement of all the principles and rules involved in the subject. 43. Preliminaries. Preparatory processes. Part V. — 45. theoretical arithmetic. 297 Fundamental Operations. Processes on which all others are based ; or those without which no others can be performed. Applications. All other processes than the preUminary and fundamental. II.- 44. -notation. fen *• / Increase -f, X, ab () of Operation -^ .... . ^. ' ' ^' a^ ^ s, , „ I Diminution ^b, a)b(, -^ Signs,^fI;eMion=,:, ::, > , <. I of Deduction /. , [ of Aggregation , (),[], j j. f History, I Forms, I, V, X, L, C, D, M, " Roman) | Origin of each. Characters, - Literal! 1 Ratios of increase, i? (o Arabic ) or > . Figural,) [Laws of arrangement, -{2 .3 History, Forms, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. {Significant, or digits. Zero, cypher, or naught. Separatrix. Origin of each, Radix, Fundamental Law. ^^l-^iEicaf' 45. definitions, explanations and remarks. Notation. Any visible method of indicating operations or relations ; also of expressing quan- tity. Sign. A mark or combination of marks to in- dicate an operation or relation, deduction or ag- gregation. Operation. Process involved in a solution. 298 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. 46. Increase. Augmentation. The act or result of making larger. Diminution. Decrease. The act or result of making less. Relation. Bearing. 46. The sign -j- signifies add to; and is read, p??/", or the radical sign, signifies that the square root of the quantity to which it is pre- fixed, is to be taken. If a figure is placed before the sign, then such a root is to be taken as is indi- cated by the figure, which is called the index. 47. The sign = signifies eqimUfj/, and is read, is eqiial to. Its origin is found in the fact that it is the simplest method of expressing to the eye the idea of equality. The signs ^<^ signify inequality, and are read is greater than, and is less than; the greater quantity being placed at the opening, and the less at the apex of the angle. The sign of ratio : is an abridged form of the si^n of division. In the French form of writinsr the ratio, however, the divisor is placed before the sign, and the dividend after it. It is read, as, as, in the first couplet and to in the second. The sign of proportion : : is an abridged form of the sign of equality ; the extremities only of the line being used. It is read so is. The sign of deduction . '. seems to have its ori- gin in the fact that there are three terms in a syl- 300 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 50. logism ; the two first being true the third must follow. It is read therefore. 48. The signs of aggregation are the bar , which signifies that the numbers over which it is placed are to be taken together as one number ; also, the parenthesis, (); the brackets, []; and the braces, j I , which signify that the quantities enclosed by them respectively are to be taken together, as one quantity. Remark. The use of technicalities not hitherto defined in this work, for the explanation of the signs, is not strictly philosophical; but as thig classification is only used in reviews, and as the signs are an inseparable part of Notation, the de- mands of the case seem to warrant this departure from rigid philosophical usage, in the arrange- ment. 49. Characters. Any written or visible forms used to express numbers. Verbal Characters, or Verbal Notation. Visible words used to express numbers. Roman Notation. That notation which makes use of seven Capital Letters, to express numbers. Arabic Notation. That which makes use of ten figures to express numbers ; also a separatrix. 50. History of the Eoman Notation. Notwith- standing the Roman alphabet seems to be but a modification of the Greek alphabet, the Romans adopted an entirely difi"erent notation for numbers. Part V, — 50. theoretical arithmetic. 301 While the Greek notation makes use of the letters in their original order and number to express numbers, the Roman notation, in part, seems to have been in use before the Roman people adopt- ed the Greek letters or formed an alphabet at all, as their origin will show. The several capital let- ters, which more nearly corresponded to the origi- nal marks of the notation, were subsequently- adopted. Origin of the Roman Characters. In count- ing, or in keeping an account, it is obvious that one or more vertical lines is as simple a method as could be adopted for the first few units. The let- ter I was afterwards used as most nearly resem- bling such a vertical line. "When the number equal to the fingers and thumbs on both hands had been reached, it was natural and easy to cross the vertical lines signi- fying ten. In transferring this method of tally- ing, or of keeping accounts, it was after a while discovered that a simple cross would answer as well as all the marks of the original tally. Hence a cross was adopted for ten, and afterwards an X for the cross. Either half of the cross was used for five, but the letter Y, corresponding to the upper half, wag finally adopted. The initial of Centum, which signifies one hun- dred, was adopted, after the introduction of the alphabet, to save the trouble of writing ten crosses or X's. Either half of the letter C in its angular form C 302 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Port V. — 51. was used to represent fifty ; but since the letter L corresponds to the lower half it was finally adopted. The initial of Mille, which signifies one thou- sand, was also used to represent one thousand. Following the law of taking halves, a half of this letter was taken for five hundred. It was finally supplanted by the letter D, the letter which seemed most nearly to correspond to it. Katio of Increase. From the origin of these characters it is seen that they increase in the alternating ratio of five and two. Laws op Arrangement. 1st. A letter, not of greater value, being placed after another gives the sum of the values represented by the letters sepa- rately. 2d. A letter of less value being placed before another, gives the difi"erence of the values repre- sented by the two letters standing separately. 3d. A horizontal line drawn over any letter or letters increases their value one thousand times. 51. History of the Arabic Notation. The Ara- bic figures were introduced into Europe during the tenth century, by the Crusaders. From the Arabic these figures have been traced to the sacred books of the Brahmins in India. The Brahmins claim that they are a gift of the god Brahma. They are probably the invention of some inge- nious priest of that heathen deity. Origin of the Figures. In keeping accounts, one mark would naturally represent one. Two horizontal marks with a connecting line would Part- V. 51. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 303 stand for two, thus : '^. Three horizontal marks with connecting lines would stand for three, thus : 3 J and four marks, either arranged in the form of a square or triangle,, would stand for four, thus : Q, 4". Five marks in this form ^ was the original figure five of this notation. Six marks, thus : ^, the original figure six. The figure eight was made by placing two squares near each other, thus : g ; and seven, by omitting one of these marks, thus: 3; nine by adding one more mark to the figure eight, thus : Bj. Tha zero was originally a circle^ and seems to have been suggested from counting around the fingers and thumbs, as held in a circu- lar position. Hence once around was denoted by the figure 1, and 0. Twice around by 2 and 0, and so on. From this last arrangement seems to have been suggested the law of the notation, in which its superior utility consists. For, by placing any other figure in the place of the zero to make the numbers between ten and twenty, we have the law established. Separatrix. a mark used in the Arabic nota- tion to separate units from tenths, in other words, integers from decimal fractions. Remark. The separatrix is always written, or supposed to be written, at the right of the unit's place. Though not called a figure, it is still the most important character in the notation. Radix of the Arabic Notation. The number expressing the number of times the value of any fio-ure is increased or diminished as it is removed o 304 THEORETICAL ARITH3IETIC. Part V. 52. one place to the left or riglit, to or from the sepa- ratrix. It is ten. Fundamental Law of the Arabic Notation. Every significant figure has its value multiplied by ten every time it is removed to the left, towards or away from the separatrix; and divided by ten every time it is removed one place to the right, towards or away from the separatrix. 52. Remai'h 1st. Figures at the right of the sepa- ratrix express, obviously, by the law of the nota- tion, fractional quantities; as tenths, hundredths, etc. Such figures are called decimal figures, and the quantities expressed by them are called deci- mals, or decimal fractions. Remark 2d. The removal of figures is often accomplished relatively by changing the place of the separatrix. This can also be done in whole numbers, by annexing cyphers or other figures; and in the fractional figures by interposing cyphers or other figures between the separatrix and the given figures. Simple value of a Figure. Its worth when standing in the first place at the left of the sepa- ratrix. Local Value of a Figure. Its simple value multiplied or divided by such a power of ten as is indicated by the order of the place that the figure occupies at the left or right of the place of unity. Part V. — 54. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 305 53. III. NUMERATION. Orders. — Units, Tens, Hundreds, Thousands, etc. Periods. — [Juits, Thousands, Millions, Billions, etc. f National, ]^-ch.^ Method J Practical, j P'«Pf' '"''■■y- ' \ ' ( r 1 n a I . L>erived, j ^^ Hundreds, etc. 54. EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Numeration. Any method of expressing the values of figures in words. Orders. Places occupied by the several figures being counted towards the left and right from the separatrix. Units. The first order, at the left of the separ- atrix ; also, the first order of integral numbers or integers. Tens. The second order of integers. Hundreds. The third order of integers. Tenths. The first order at the right of the separatrix; also the first order of decimal fractions. Hundredths. The second order of decimal fractions. Periods. Groups of orders, named and used to facilitate numeration. French Method. That method of numeration in which three orders constitute a period. English Method. That in which six orders constitute a period. Remark. The names of the orders in both methods are the same as far as the ninth, or hun- dreds of millions ; after which they take different 306 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part Y. — 56. names, tlie tenth being called in the French meth- od, billions, and in the English method, thousands of millions. 55. Names of the Pekiods. — 1st, Units, 2d, Thousands. 3d, Jlillioiis. 4th, Billions. 5th, Trillions, 6th, Quadrillions. 7th, Quintillions, 8th, Sextillions, l)th, Septillions. lOlh. Octil- lions, lltli, Nonillions. 12th, Decillions. 13th, Undeeillions. 11-th, Diiodecillions. 15th, Trideciliions. Kith, Quadrodecil- lions. 17ih, Quindecillions. 18th, Soxdecillions. I'Jth, Septo- docillions. 20th, Octodecillions. 21st, Xonodecillions. 22d, Vingintillions. 23d, Unvingintillions, 21th, Diio-vingintil- lions, etc. 32d, Trigintilliuns. 42d, Qiiadro.iciiitiUions. ' 52d, Quingintillions. 62d, Sexagintillions. 72d, Septungintilliuns. 82d, Octcgintillions. 92d, Ninogintillions. 102d, Centillions. 103d, Uncentillions. 104th, Duocentillions, etc. 202d, Duo- centillions, etc. 1002d, Millillions, eto. Derived Methods of Reading Numbers. These are readings with the assumption of some other order than units as the base. Example, — 304,0G may be read as tens, thus : thirty tens, and four hundred and six thousandths of a ten. The same number may be read as tenths, thus : three thousand and forty tenths^ and six tenths of a tenth. 56. TOPIC LIST FOR DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTAL OPERATION. 1. Definition. 2. Terms, and definitions. 3. Signs^form, signification, reading. 4. Rules, Demonstrations. 5. Proofs, Demonstrations. 6. Comparison with other operations 7. Contractions, Demonstrations. 8. Use of negative quantities. Part V. — 57. theoretical arithmetic. 307 Remarh, The four fundamental operations may each be discussed very thoroughly by following this Topic List as a guide in the investigation. I shall omit many of the most obvious considera- tions in my discussion, as these can be obtained from all Arithmetics. Pupils, however, should be required in these discussions to reach every point, whether obvious or obscure. 57. DISCUSSION OF ADDITION. 5. Proof 1st. Add the columns downwards. Proof 2d. Reject the Nixes from each quan- tity, also from these excesses so obtained, also from the sum of the quantities; then, if the ex- cess of the excesses of the several quantities i^ equal to the excess of the sum of the several quantities, the work is supposed to be right. Demonstration. Since by the sixth Theorem — Bay's Algebras — the difference of the same powers of any two numbers is divisible without a fraction- al quotient, by the difference of the numbers, any power often, minus any power of one, is divisible by ten minus one. In other words, any power of ten is one greater than a multiple of nine. This may be expressed thus : (10)''— (l)'^ is divisible by 10—1 without a fractional quotient, or (10)° — 1 is divisible by 9, without a fractional quotient. But if a unit of any integral order gives one for a remainder, when divided by nine, then any fig- ure in any order will give itself for a remainder when its local value is divided by nine. Hence 308 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 58. the figures expressing any integral quantity will express so many remainders, when the quantity is separated into the parts expressed by the local values of the several figures used to express it, and each part is divided by nine. Now if the sum of these figures, or remainders, be divided by nine, the true remainder for the whole quantity will be obtained. Thus, 7896, separated into parts as described, gives 7000 and 7 remainder, 800 and 8 " 90 and 9 " 6 and 6 " The true remainder from the given quantity is thus obtained by rejecting the nines from these figures, either as they stand in the vertical column or in the given quantity. 58. One example will suffice to show the process of Kejecting Nines, and of proving addition by this process. EXAMPLE FOR PROVING ADDITION BY REJECTING NINES. 3 4 S- Excesses 3 r7896 Quantities, \ 4567 (3864 S^ ipoo^r 1 c^^y ^ ^^„„ I from the excesses, um, 1632 ^ 1 final excess, j ^^.^^ ^^^ ^^^^ Process. First quantity. 6-|-8=14, which gives 5 as an excess, 5-[-7=:^12, which gives 3 as an excess. 3 is placed in the column of excesses. It will be noticed that no attention is paid to the figure 9. Part V. — 58. theoretical arithmetic. 309 Second quantity. 7-|-6=13; 4, excess. It will be noticed that no attention is given to 4 and 5, as they are equal to nine. Third quantity. 4-(-6=10 ; 1, excess. l-{-8 =9, hence 3 is the excess of the third quantity. Rejecting nine from these excesses, we have 1 for a final excess. Rejecting nine from the sum of the quantities, which is done by simply noticing that 7-|-2=9 and 3-|-6=9, 1 remains as the excess of the sum of the quantities. This being equal to the final excess of the quantities as before obtained, the work is supposed to be right. The concluding link in the chain of demonstra- tion is this : Since we have found the remainders of the several quantities, when divided by nine, to give a final remainder equal to the remainder from the sum of the several quantities, the sum is sup- posed to be correct. Remark 1st. Any other figure would answer as well as 9 for this form of proof, save that 9 gives us itS' remainder more readily by this meth- od of rejection^ than other figures would their re- mainder, by the process of divisiok. Remarlx. 2d. This property of nine, viz.: that it will divide any numher ivith the same remainder^ as that which the sum of the figures, expressing the nnmher gives, when divided hy nine, results obvi- ously from its being one less than the radix of the notation. If the radix were eight, seven would have the same property. 310 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. 59. 59. Proof 3d. Reject the Elevens from differ- ence of the sums of the alternate figures in the several quantities ; also from the difference of the sums of the alternate figures in the sum of the several quantities ; then if the excess of the , ex- cesses, from the several quantities, is equal to the excess of the sum of the quantities, the work is supposed to be right. Demonstration. By theorem 8th, Ray's Alge- bras, the sum of the same odd powers of two quantities is divisible without a fractional quotient by the sum of the quantities. Hence (10)''-|-1^ is divisible by 10-|-1, or 11. when n is an odd number. Then 10-f 1, 1000-f 1, 100,0004-1, etc., are divisible by 11 ; in other words, the odd pow- ers of ten lack one of being divisible by 11, or give ■ — 1 for a remainder. If the figure 1 in all the odd places taken in its local values gives — 1 for re- mainders, then any other figure will give itself with the minus sign for a remainder, — i. e., as 10, 1000, 100,000, or any other odd power of 10 gives -^1 for remainders. 20, 2000, 200,000, etc., will give — 2 for remainders, when divided by 11. Hence every figure in any odd place may be taken with the minus sign, for the remainder, when its own local value is divided by 11. In a similar manner, by Theorem 7th, Ray's Algebras, it may be proved that each figure in the even places will give itself with the plus sign for a remainder, when its local value is divided by 11. Part Y. — 60. theoretical arithmetic. 311 Now if the sums of these two series of remain- ders are equal to each other, they will cancel each other, and there will be no remainder when the quantity which the figures express is divided by 11 ; or if these sums are not ecjual, their differ- ence gives the same remainder as the c^uantity which they express gives when divided by 11. If there should be an excess of the negative figures, the true remainder will be obtained by subtracting that excess from 11. Such being the case, we can add the two sums of alternate figures, and find the difference of the two sums, remembering that the series of figures in the odd places give minus re- mainders. This process is much abridged, by subtracting the left hand figure of each quantity from the next, and the resulting remainder, from the next figure, and so on. The final remainder will always be the remainder with the proper signs. 60. EXAMPLE FOR PROVING ADDITION REJECTION OF ELEVENS. Quantities. . 7896 ) 58731 j 206 ^ 41 Sum, 66874 Excesses. BY THE ^ final pvpp«« \ from excesses o nnai excebs, | ^^.^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ Taking the first quantity: 8 — 7=1, 9 — li=8, 6 — 8= — 2 the excess. Taking the second quantity. 8 — 5=3, 7 — 3=4, 3— 4=— 1, 1— (— l)z:=2. 312 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 61. Taking the third quantity: 0—2=:— 2, 6— (—2) ==4-8. Taking the fourth quantity: 1 — 4:= — 3. Then the sum of these excesses, arranged at the right of their respective quantities, is +5. Taking the sum of the quantities: 6 — 6=:0, 8— 0=: + 8, 7— 8=r— 1, 4— (— 1)=: + 5. 61. Demonstratloii of this method of finding the difference of the sums of alternate digits. Let a, b, c, dr=four figures expressing any quan- tity, including four orders. Then b — a, c — (a — b), d — [c — (b — a)] will represent the several steps of the subtraction. The last quantity, being reduced, so that each letter shall have its essential sign, and then ar- ranged, the result will be d — c-f-b — a, which cor- responds to the demands of the case. Again, take an odd number of letters repre- senting the figures standing in the several orders, perform a similar operation, and the result will also correspond with that obtained by subtracting the sum of the figures in the even places from the sum of the figures in the odd places. Sclwlumi. It will be noticed that in those quantities expressed by an even number of figures, that the process of subtraction must commence at the left, or the excess obtained will be affected with the wrong sign. Part V. — 64. theoretical arithmetic. 313 62. Comparison of addition with other fundamental operations. 1st. It is similar to multiplication ; both being operations of increase. 2d. It is the opposite of subtraction. 3d. It is the indirect opposite of division. 63. Contractions. 1st. The addition of two or more columns at once. 2d. Multiplication is but a contraction of addi- tion, in the case in which the quantities to be added are alike. 64. Use of Negative Quantities. Remark \sf. The Teacher will do well to give his classes practice in the negative quantities un- der all the fundamental rules. Remark 2d. My limits will not permit the discussion of the other fundamental operations ; but the discussion becomes more interesting as the class proceeds, from one to the other, in order. Remark ScZ. The contractions in multiplication and division are worthy of close study; and de- mand thorough demonstration, each of them. Leach & Swan have given a better variety of such contractions than other authors. 21 314 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 65, 65. COMPOUND NUMBERS. Terms, — Simple Numbers, Denominate Numbers. i National,) f Tables, [taining. State, >- • Unity. Less than J Comparison of Fraction i rNumerator=Dividend, Terms, Classes, Value. with Division, < Denomiuator=Divisor t Value=Quotient. Propositions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Demonstrations. OPERATIONS. f Integers or mixed numbers to fractions, Reduction of Fractions of Simple Numbers, Fractions to integers or mixed numbers, I Fractions to lower or higher terms, { Compound Fractions to Simple, I Complex Fractions to Simple, I Fractions to equivalent fractions, with CD. [ Fractions to eq. Frac. with L. C. D. 316 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 67. f Addition, — Subtraction. Increase "\ I vr„T.- i;„„f- „ -> ,- Integers by fractions, and I \ Multiplication ^1 /Fractions by integers and Diminution, J I t\-„v », f j Fractions by fractions, 'J [ Division, J I Mixed No. by Mixed No. of Compound Numbers. f Fract. of one denomination to frac. of another, Tj , , . I Integers of different denominations to fraction Keauction . I of higher denominations, rac lona \ , pj-j^gfjo^s of higher denomination to integers of lower denomination, Quantity of several denominations to fraction of another quantity. 67. A Common Fraction. A Fraction -whose nu- merator and denominator are both expressed. Preliminaries. Preparatory steps. Terms. Words not otherwise introduced in the classification. Unit. One, either integral or fractional. Integer. A whole number, or a number con- sisting only of entire units. Factor of a Number. A divisor which gives an integral quotient. Remarh. Factors are more generally considered integers, unless otherwise designated. Peciprocal of a Number. The result of divid- ing unity by that number. This result is said to be the reciprocal of the given number. Remarh. The reciprocal of a number may be obtained by changing it to the fractional form, if it be a mixed or integral number, and then invert- ing the fraction. Root of a Number. Any factor, whether frac- tional or integral, which being multiplied by itself Fart V. — 67. theoretical arithmetic. 317 shall produce a given number. Explanation. Such a factor of a number is called, if multiplied inta itself once, its square root ; twice, its cube root; thrice, its fourth root; and so on. Classes. Results of arrangement according to some given plan. Prime Number. Any integer which can only be divided by itself and unity without a fractional quotient. Absolute Prime. The same as a prime. Relative Primes. Integers which have no common integral factor, save unity. Composite Number. Any integer resulting from the product of other integers than itself and unity. Multiple of a Number. Any product, which results from taking a given number, either frac- tional or integral, an integral number of times. Such product is called a multiple of the given number. Power of a Number. The result of taking a number a given number of times as a factor. Explanation. A number taken once as a factor, is the number itself, and is, the first power. A number taken twice as a factor, is multiplied, or is to be multiplied into itself once, and is the second power. A number taken three times as a factor is the third power, and so on. The nought power of every number is unity, or the result of dividing a number by itself. Mcmark. Pupils should be well drilled in primes and their powers before commencing the study of 318 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 68. tlie Least Common Multiple. It is a good plan for tlie teacher to call for the primes, in concert, from the class, and to notice which of the class can go the farthest in giving them. It is well for the class to give each prime twice in the concert exercise, that the slower pupils may learn them. The powers of the smaller primes should be learned hy a similar method. No pupil should be per- mitted to do anything with Least Common Multi- ples till he thoroughly understands the nature of primes and powers. 68. PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS. 1 is the nought power of every number. 1 is any power of itself. 1 is any root of itself. 1, used as a multiplier, does not increase the multiplicand. 1, used as a divisor, does not diminish the divi- dend. 2 is a factor of any integral number whose unit figure is divisible by 2, without a fractional quotient. Demonstration. Every integral number ex- pressed by more than one figure is made up of tens and units. The tens are divisible by 2 ; if the unit figure is also divisible by two without a fractional quotient, then the whole number is divisible by 2. 3 will divide any number without a fractional quotient, the sum of whose figures it will divide in the same manner. Part V. — 69. theoretical arithmetic. 319 Explanation. The figures of any number are the figures used in writing the number. Remarh. This property of three depends on its being a factor of 9. Remarh. The properties of the other numbers are discussed in most Arithmetics, and my limits forbid my pursuing them further. The properties of nine and eleven, however, are discussed in section 58, page 310. Factoring. The process of separating numbers into their prime factors. Remarh. Long and numerous drills must be given in factoring before commencing the study of the Greatest Common Divisor, and Least Common Multiple. The teacher will commence such drills by giving small numbers, and requiring the class to separate them by the mental process, and to give what power of each prime factor is contained in each given number. 69. Demonsteation of Scholium. Since every di- visor smaller than the square root of a number, must give a quotient larger than the square root, and every divisor larger than the square root must give a quotient smaller ; if every prime number smaller than the square root proves not to be a factor, no prime number larger can be, for the reason, as before stated, that it must give as a quotient one of the primes less than the root, which is impossible; as they have already been tried, and found not to be factors. i i ' 320 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 70. I I 70. i I Demonstration of Rule by division for finding I the Greatest Common Divisor. I The Gr. C. D. of two numbers must be the same i as that of the smaller number and the remainder I after the smaller number has been taken out of j the larger number as many times as possible. I Illustration. Take the two lines A B j C I I? D, apply the shorter to the longer; I it is evident that after the shorter shall have been applied to the longer as many times as possible, j that the greatest common divisor or measure of I the two lines A B, and C D, must also divide or ] measure the difference E T>, after it has exactly [ measured the line C E, which is but the line A B, repeated on the line C D. Since then the Gr. C. D. of the remainder after division of the larger number by the smaller, is ! the same as that of the two given numbers, if this I remainder is not itself the G. C. B., it may be j taken out of the smaller as many times as possible, I and then the G. C. D. of what remains after this second division will be the G. C. B. of the less of ; the given numbers and the remainder, and if so, i then of the two given numbers. This process of dividing the last divisor by the last remainder must evidently be continued till there is no re- mainder, then the last remainder, which is also the last divisor, is the G. C. B. of the two given numbers. Part V. — 71. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 321 71. RULES FOR OBTAINING L. C. M. BY PRIMES. 1st. Multiply together the liighest powers of each of the prime factors contained in any of the given quantities. Demonstration. The L. C. M. is the product of the highest powers of each of the prime factors, found in any of the given quantities ; for it must contain as many of each kind of prime factor as any number contains, or it would be impossible to divide by that number. No more factors of any one kind can be taken out the L. C. M. than it contains; but if any given number should contain more of such factors than the L. C. M., in attempt- ing to divide the L. C. M. by such a number it would be attempting to take out more of one kind of prime factor than the L. C. M. contains, which would be impossible. Nor should the L. C. M. contain more of any one kind of prime factor than the largest number of such prime factor contained in any one of the given quantities, as such would obviously be superfluous. 2d. Take the largest of the given numbers, mul- tiply it by such factors contained in the other numbers as are not provided for in the largest number, or by factors already taken from other numbers. Example. 12, 18, 20, 24, 50. By the first rule, 8 is the highest power of 2 contained in any of the given numbers, nine is the highest power of three, 25 the highest power of 5, and there are no other prime factors in the 322 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. 71. numbers, save 1, which does not aiFect the L.C. M. Hence 8x9x25 = 1800, =L. C. M., for it con- tains all the 2's in all the numbers, since it con- tains as many as there are in 24, which contains more than any other. So also 1800 contains all the 3's since it contains as many as 18, which has more than any other. So also of the 5's in 50. By the second rule I take 50, which contains one 2 and two 5's, but 24 contains three 2's as factors, hence two of them are not provided for in 50, but must be by multiplying 50 by 4. Again, the 3 in 24 is not yet provided for; this must also be mul- tiplied into the former product of 50 and 4. All the factors of 20 are provided for, but 18 has two 3's, and as only one 3 has as yet been put into the L. C. M., another must be multiplied into it. Hence we now have for the L. C. M., 50x4x3x 3 = 1800. 2nd Example. 20, 30, 40, 50, 60. By the first rule we have 8x3x25 = G00 = L. C. M. By the second rule we have 60x5x2=600=L. C. M. 3d Example. 24, 34, 44, 54. By the first rule we have 8x27xllxl7 = L. C. M. By the second rule we have 54x2x11x17x2 = L. C. M. 4th Example. 23, 33, 43, 53. By the first rule we have 3x11x23x43x53= L. C. M. Part V. — 72. theoretical arithmetic. 323 By the second rule we have 53x43x3x11x23 = L. C. M. 72. DemonstraAion of the rule for obtaining the L. C. M. by division. Take the numbers 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18, 20, 24, 25 ; divide these by 2, and we shall obtain the quotients and undivided numbers, 3, 4, 9, 6, 15, 9, 10, 12, 25. Now this divisor 2 will answer for all the first powers of 2 contained in any of the given numbers; consequently those first powers of 2 are all rejected, and this divisor 2 is retained for them in the L. C. M. Dividing again by 2 we shall obtain the quo- tients and undivided numbers, 3, 2, 9, 3, 15, 9, 5, 6, 25. This second divisor 2 will answer for all the second factors of 2 in any of the given num- bers. It is therefore retained, as a factor of the L. C. M. Dividing again by 2 we obtain 3, 1, 9, 3, 15, 9, 5, 3, 25. This third divisor 2 answers for all the third factors of 2 contained in any given numbers. Hence it is obvious that dividing by the several prime factors as long as two or more of the given numbers can be divided without a frac- tional quotient, is merely for the purpose of re- jecting superfluous factors, and retaining the necessary factors, for the L. C. M. Remark. How much easier and shorter is the process of selecting the necessary factors according to Rules 1st or 2nd than to reject the unnecessary factors, according to the Rule, by division. Ac- cording to Rule 1st the necessary factors are 8x9 324 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 74. X 25=1 800. According to Rule 2d they are 25x8x9=1800. The L. C. M. is thus obtained at a glance, with scarcely any efifort. Bemark. The skillful teacher will not permit his pupils to learn the Rule by division at all ; or, if they have already learned it, he will drill them on the other rules till they will be glad to let it alone. 73. ESSENTIALS. Terms of a Fraction. The numbers used to express it. Numerator. That term of a fraction which is written above the line, and expresses the number of parts taken, by the fraction. Denominator. That term of a fraction which is written under the line, and shows the number of parts into which the unit of which the fraction expresses a part, is taken. It also names the parts taken. 74. PROPOSITIONS. 1. Multiplying the numerator multiplies the fraction. 2. Multiplying the denominator divides the fraction. 3. Multiplying both terms by the same num- ber, does not alter the value of the fraction. 4. Dividing the numerator divides the fraction. 5. Dividing the denominator multiplies the fraction. Part V. — ^75. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 325 6. Dividing both terms by the same number does not alter the value of the fraction. DEMONSTRATIONS. Prop. 1. Because it increases 4he number of parts while their size remains the same. Prop. 2. Because it diminishes the size of the parts while their number remains the same ; and it diminishes the parts, because the unit is thus divided into a greater number of parts, and of course each part becomes as many times less, as the divisor is times greater. Prop. 3. Because it increases the number of parts, as many times as it diminishes their size. Prop. 4. Because it diminishes the number of parts while their size remains the same. Prop. 5. Because it increases the size of the parts while the number remains the same ; and it increases the size of the parts because the unit is thus divided into a less number of parts ; each part being as many times greater as the divisor is times less. Prop. 6. Because it diminishes the number of the parts as many times as it increases their size. 75. Reduction. Change of form without changing the value. Remarh. From want of room I shall only dis- cuss a few of the operations of fractions; and those, to show the application of the propositione in their demonstrations. 326 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 76. REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS TO LOWER TERMS. Demonstration, Prop. 6. REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS TO HIGHER TERMS. Demonstration, Prop. 3. REDUCTION OF COMPOUND FRACTIONS TO SIMPLE. Demonstration. Take |- of |. Since multiplication is taking one number as many times as there are units or parts of a unit in another, taking f of | is a case of multiplica- tion; hence may be expressed thus: f X|. Then 3 times | (Prop. 1,) is V, but since the multiplier is J of 3, this product is four times too large, and must be divided by 4. But (Prop. 2,) ^-f- 4=|J. By observing the two operations it is seen that the numerators have been multiplied together for a new numerator, and the denominators for a new denominator. Hence the ordinary rule is demon- strated. 76 Remarh 1. Reduction of Complex Fractions to Simple is demonstrated in a similar manner, after having first shown that it is a case of division. Remark 2d. In examining classes this may be considered a test question, " Why does dividing the denominator multiply the fraction?" Such an answer as this is often given, " Because it shows that the fraction is divided into a less number of parts;" or this, " Because it increases the parts :' or this, " Because the number of the parts is less, therefore they must be greater." All these an- swers are worthless, the latter, which is more fre- Part V. — 77. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 327 quently given, is absurd. This answer may be given, Because by dividing the denominator we divide the miit of wbich tbe fraction expresses a part, into a less number of parts : consequently, each one of the parts is of greater value. Remark. The analytical method of demonstrat- ing the operations of fractions should not be neg- lected. I will give one example of this method in division. Divide J by |. |-f-|=:VH-5 = j;^%=if. By noticing the last steps of this process it is seen that they correspond to the ordinary rule for the division of one fraction by another; viz: Invert the divisor and proceed as in multiplication. 77. Remark ScZ. The division of a mixed number by a mixed number without reducing them to im- proper fractions gives an excellent drill, and should not be omitted. Such an example as this for instance, 19|)3994f(, involves a difficulty that few scholars will surmount without help; for, in performing the division it is found that the divisor is not contained twice in 39, and if it is assumed that it is contained once the second partial quo- tient is 10. The difficulty may be overcome in two ways ; first assume that the divisor is contained twice in 39-f-yo, which assumption holds, as the second nine is \q of a unit standing in the place of the first nine. Secondly, assume that it is con- tained once in 39, thus making the first quotient 328 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 77. figure 1, then the second partial quotient will be 10; the first figure of which being added to the former figure makes the first figure of the quotient 2j as before. The second quotient figure will be 0. It is not claimed that this method of dividing one mixed number by another, is of any practical value in business operations; only, that it gives a clearer view of the theory of the Arabic Notation ; and that it affords the means for an excellent drill in a class of apt scholars. Remark 4:th. In reducing a fraction of a larger denomination to integers of lower denominations, a course is too often pursued which involves ab- surdity in the notation. For instance, if ^ of a mile is to be reduced to integers, the work is gen- erally performed thus, |mx8='V'ftir.=3y fur. X 40=^?" rods=17^ vodsxl6l=:^^^ h.=2f ft.xl2 :=^/ inchesz=4^ inches. This is plainly a string of absurdities ; for 8 times ^ of a mile is -,* of a mile, and not --^ of a furlong. Again, 3 f fur. X 40 is not equal to '4*^ rods, but is equal to 120-j-^§'* furlongs. A better method is this: ^m='V^ fur.r=:3^ fur,, f f\ir.= ^' rod=17^ rods, 4 rod=:i6t ft.r=22i ft., 2i ft,= '7" inch=4^ inches ; then ^ mile=3 fur- longs, 17 rods, 2 feet, 4f inches. Remark b(h. Nearly every operation in frac- tions admits of several different methods ; that of dividing one fraction by another admits of at least twenty different methods. It is an excellent plan to propose to a class to bring out all the dif- ferent methods which they can discover or invent Part V. — 79. theoretical arithmetic. 329 for each operation ; also the demonstrations for the several methods. 78. DECIMAL FRACTIONS. Terms— Separatrix, Price, Cost, Quantity, Unity. ■p..z.i:nr,;v,r.,.;a^ i Notation — Rule, x^reliminarie?, ■{ ^-r .. „ , ' I JNumeration — Rule. r Terminal, -I ?/''='" V ,u a c a . • • ml ' I JSo. of figures — method of detenmning. S Notation, Rule, ^ I Circulating, | Numeration, Rule, ^ Value: how determined, I r Pure, ) ( Single, 1, Classes, < Mixed, J \ Double, etc. f Imperfect, ^ Repetends, j u . of higher, um eis, J [One quantity to decimal of another. 79. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. Decimal Fraction. A Fraction whose denom- inator is not expressed ; but is understood to be such a power of ten as is indicated by the number of figures at the right of the separatrix. Gnticism. In consulting Ray's Higher Arithmetic, I find this definition of a decimal fraction : *^A Decimal Fraction is one which derives its name from the Latin word decern, meaning ten ; and is so called, because its denominator is always 1 with cyphers annexed ; being either 10 or the product of several lO's." This definition is worthless because it includes a large class of common fractions Several other arithmetics have a similaic definition. 23 330 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 79. Remarh. The separatrix is tlie most important character used in decimals, and no pains should be spared to impress this on the minds of pupils. Rule for Notation. 1st. Write the separatrix. 2d. Determine the place of the given denomina- tion. 3d. Assume this place, so determined, as the place of units, and write the given quantity, as if whole numbers. Remark 1st. The difficulty in most rules for writing decimals is that the pupil is compelled to write them twice ; once, to obtain the correct num- ber and arrangement of figures, and again, to place them in proper relation to other decimals with which he may wish to combine them. By this rule he will write them where he wants them in the first instance. Remarh 2d. In large classes of Teachers I have seldom found more than two or three individuals (frequently none) who were able to write decimals correctly. Take examples of these kinds, for in- stance : One hundred million ten-thousandths. Fifteen million fifteen thousand and fifteen hundred ten-millionths. Forty-five million forty-five thousand and forty- five hundred thousandths. Forty-five million forty-five thousand and forty- five hundred-thousandths. Remarh 3fZ. Such common fractions as -iwus and roooffj having denominators of many more figures than the numerator are the proper examples to THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 81. 331 test a class in reducing common fractions to deci- mals. It is not an uncommon thing for a class to obtain almost as many different results as it contains pupils, in consequence of the misplace- ment of the separatrix. A thorough teacher will pay particular attention to this matter. 80. Demonstration of the rule for multiplication of decimals. Rule. Multiply as in entire numbers and point off as many figures from the right of the product as there are in both of the factors. Demonstration. Assume that both factors are entire numbers, then since removing the separatrix towards the left divides either of the factors, as many times by ten, as there are figures thus placed at the right of the separatrix ; and since the pro- duct must be as many times divided by ten as both the factors, it follows that the rule is correct. 81. Demonstration of the rule for the division of decimals. Rule. Divide as in whole numbers, and point off as many figures, at the right of the quotient, for decimals, as the decimal figures in the dividend exceed those in the divisor. Demonstration. Assume first that both dividend and divisor are whole numbers, then of course the quotient is also a whole number: but since divid- ing the dividend divides the quotient, and dividing the divisor multiplies the quotient, and since re- 332 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 82. moving the separatrix towards the left divides either quantity as many times by ten as there are figures thus placed at the right of the separatrix, in each of the numbers, it follows then as many more times as the dividend has thus been divided than the divisor, so many times must the quotient be divided by ten; in other words, so many figures must be cut oJ0F from the right of the quotient as the dividend has been divided more times by ten than the divisor has been thus divided. 82. RATIO. Terms — Antecedent, Consequent, Couplet, Value of Ratio. of subtraction — ^how much greater? — Difference. Relations -l *^^ division — how many times greater? — Quotient, ' ' of involution. Classes, of evolution. , as to arrangement, as to origin, as to combination, ^ as to value. fof I of ( English, ( French. I Direct, I Inverse. ( Simple, ( Compound, equality, greater inequality, less inequality. i Antecedent=Dividend. with Division, ^ Consequent=Divisor, ( Value=Quotient. i Antecedent=Numerator. Fractions, < Consequent=Denominator. ( Value=Value. ( Antecedent=Divisor, with Division, -< Consequent=Dividend. ( Value=Quotient. ( Antecedent=Denominator, with Fractions, ■! Consequent=Numerator, ( Value=Value. Scholium, — Ratio can only exist between quantities of the samo kind. Rule for finding value of Ratio. Comparison of English Ratio, Comparison of French Ratio, ^ f with J ^with Part Y. — 83. theoretical arithmetic. 333 rEnglisli ] ^ 1. Ant.— Con?.x"Valae of Ratio. ■J J Ratio, ) ( 2. Cons. — Ant.-f- Value of Ratio, i^aws, < French | | 1. Ant.-Cons.-i-Value of .Ratio. [ Ratio, S \ 2. Cons.— Ant.XV^alue of Ratio. Value. Geometric Series, Propositions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 83. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. Ratio. A combination of two or more terms in pairs, for the purpose of comparison by division. Remark, The result of such division is often called ratio; more correctly, it is the value of the ratio. Terms. The numbers between which the com- parison is instituted. Antecedent. The first or lefthand term of a pair comprised in a ratio. Consequent. The second or righthand term of the pair comprised in a ratio. } Couplet. A pair of terms including an ante- j cedent and consequent. | Value of Ratio. The quotient arising from j dividing one term of a ratio by the other. Relations. Bearings. Relation as detertniiied hy subtraction, answers to the question. How much greater is one number than another? It is the same as the diflference. i Relation as determined hy division, answers the question, How many times is one number greater than another? It is the same as the quotient. Relation as determined by involution or evolution answers the question, What power or root is one number of another? It is the same as the expo- 334 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. 84. nent or index of one number, when placed equal to another, as its power or root. English Ratio. That in which the antecedent is to be divided by the consequent. French Ratio. That in which the consequent is to be divided by the antecedent. Remay-k. It is not to be supposed that all Eng- lish mathematicians adopt what is called the Eng- lish Ratio, or that all French mathematicians use what is called the French Ratio. Davies seems first to have introduced the inverted or French ratio into American books. He did not follow the French author whose work he translated in this particular. Most works on Natural Science retain the old or English form, and in their ratios suppose that the first term is to be divided by the second. Several of the more recent Arithmetics have adopted the English Ratio, as Stoddard's, Dodd's, etc. 84. Direct Ratio. That in which more requires more ; or less requires less. Inverse Ratio. That in which more requires less ; or less requires more. Remark. Many arithmeticians reject this dis- tinction as useless. In my opinion, however, it afi*ords a fine means of drill, in the discussion of problems in compound proportion. Simple Ratio. That involving but one couplet. Part V. — 84. theoretical arithmetic. 335 Compound Ratio. That involving two or more simple ratios, combined with the sign of multipli- cation. Ratio of Equality. That in which the terms are equal; or that in which the value is unity. Ratio of Greater Inequality. That in which the value is greater than unity. Ratio of Less Inequality. That in which the value is less than unity. Eemark. It will be noticed that a French Ra- tio of greater inequality may be identical with an English Ratio of less inequality. Series. A succession of terms, each of which is derived from one or more preceding terms by some known law. Geometric Series. One in which each term is derived from the preceding term by a constant multiplier or divisor. It is sometimes called Con- tinued Proportion. Rema7'7c. This constant multiplier or divisor is equivalent to the value of any single ratio, or couplet comprised in the series. Propositions. The same as those for fractions, substituting the terms antecedent and consequent for numerator and denominator. 336 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. 86. 85. PROPORTION. Terms, — Proportional, Mean Proportional, Last Proportional, Third Proportional, Fourtii Proportional, Homologous, Analogous, Extremes, Means. q;«„<, . • . . • (. i Signification, Signs,-:, — ::,=,.. ,f ] Reading. as to origin, 1?'''««^' ° ' \ Inverse. Classes, "j (Simple, to combination, < Compound, ( Conjoined, f First term=First Antecedent=:First Extreme. Names of ) J Second term=First Consequent=First Mean. Single Terms, \ 1 Tliird term=Second Antecedent=Sec'd Mean. [ Fourth term=:Sec'd Consequent— 2d Extreme, r First and Second=First Couplet, f First and Third=Antecedents, Names of I First and Fourth=Extremes, Pairs of Terms, j Second and Third=Mean3, I Second and Fourth=Consequents, (Third and Fourth=Secoad Couplet. {Fandamental, Product of Extremes=Product of Means. { 1. Product of Extremes-^one mean=other Derived, ■{ mean. [treme. [ 2. Product of Means-^one extreme==other ex- T> 1 e *„t^™ (. \ f<^r Simple Proportion. Rules lor statement, c <^ j o ' / for Compound Proportion. il. by Fundamental Law, 2. by Ratio, 3. by Cancellation. 86. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. Proportion. A combination of two equal ra- tios, with tlie sign of equality. Proportional. Any one of the terms of a pro- portion. Mean Proportional. One of two equal means in a proportion. Third Proportional. The fourth term of a proportion in which the means are equal. Remark. Such a proportion is often written with only three terms ; thus: (4:8:16) = (.4:8::8:16). Part V. — 86. theoretical arithmetic. 337 Homologous Terms. Those occupying tlie same place in two or more couplets. Two or more consequents are homologous terms ; also two or more antecedents. Analagous Terms. Such as are found in the same couplet. Extremes. The first and last terms of a pro- portion. Means. The second and third terms of a pro- portion. Signs. Symbols indicating a relation, operation or sequence. Sign of Ratio. (:). It is an abridged sign of division, and is read as in this Example^ 4:6::8:12. Reading. — As 4 is to 6, so is 8 to 12. Sign of Equality, (::). It is an abridged. form of the ordinary sign of equality, being the extrem- ities of the lines. It is read as in the example above, "so is." Sign of Sequence or Deduction, (.•.). It is explained, section 47, page 299. Direct Proportion. That which involves di- rect ratios. Inverse Proportion. That which involves in- verse ratios. Simple Proportion. That which consists of simple ratios only. Compound Proportion. That which contains one or more compound ratios. Conjoined Proportion. That form -of a com- pound proportion, in which each antecedent is equal in value to its consequent. 338 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 86. Remark. Conjoined proportion is used in re- ducing coins of the two countries through the medium of other countries. It is often called the Chain Rule. Demonsfration of fundamental law: 1st. Take 6:8::12:16. Expressing each ratio fractionally l=|f. Multiplying each fraction by 6, we have 8=i|^6; for, multiplying equals by equals the products will be equal. Again, multi- plying the last two equal quantities by 12, we have 8x12 = 16x6, which gives the product of the means, 8 and 12, equals the product of the ex- tremes, 6 and 16. 2d. Take 6:8::12:16. Since every consequent is equal to its antecedent multiplied by the value of their ratio : 8 = 6x|; and 16 = 12x1. Hence we perceive that the extremes 6 and 16 contain the same factors as the means 8 and 12. 6.12 and i being the factors of the extremes ; 6, f , and 12, being the factors of the means. Since the products of equal factors are equals, and the means and extremes contain equal factors, the products of the extremes and means must be equal. Methods of Solution. By Ratio. Multiply the first term of the second couplet by the value of the ratio, obtained from the first couplet. By cancellation. Consider all antecedents, excepting the last, as denominators, all consequents and the last antecedent as numerators of a compound frac- tion. Then cancel as in the reduction of a com- pound fraction. Part V. 90. THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 339 87. PERCENTAGE. Terms, — Percent, Rate percent. Notation, — Rule, Consider hundredths as units, and write as in whole numbers. Sign ( %\ This sign has been recently introduced ; and is read percent, {1st, To find any given percent of a number, Rule. 2d, To find what percent one No. is of anuther, Rule. 3d, To find a No. when any percent of it is known, Rule. 4th, To find a No. when any percent greater or less ia given, Rule. 88. GAIN AND LOSS. Remark. 100 percent represents the No. on which any gain or loss accrues. o V=the same general cases in percentage. 89. COMMISSION. Eemarh. — 100 percent represents the No. on which commission is charged. m ( Agent, Commission-Merchant, Factor, Correspondent, erms, | pj-jngipai^ Rate of Commission. fl" i 2 Cases, -{ o y=the same general cases in percentage. Cases, ni BROKERAGE. ( Consigner, Consignee, Bill of Exchange, Check, Draft, Terms, < Bond, I Rate of Brokerage, Proceeds or cost. Cases, ^ o }-=the same general cases in percentage. {il 90. STOCKS. f Joint Stock Company, Stock, Share, Certificate, I Stockholders, Dividend, Rate of Dividend. I Par Value, Face, Nominal Value, Real Value, m J Market Value, Rise and Fall. lerms,-;^^^ par, Above par. Below par, At a premium. At a discount. Discount. I Stock Broker, Stock Jobber, Investment, Commission, t Rate of Commission, Cases,=Cases in Percentage. 340 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 92. 91. INSURANCE. m ( Policy, Premium, Underwriter, Out-Door, ' I Rate of Insurance, Take a Risk, Cover. fFire, I Marine, Classes, ■{ Life, Health, t Stock, etc. Cases,=Cases in Percentage. TAXES. rl>--^i Property, Classes, j (Customs) ( Ad valorem, ), ( J^**"^' ^Indirect, ^ or [ -^ Allowances, VN t^''^"' 1 Duties, j 1 Specific, f ] leakage Cases, Breakage. for specific duties, Rule, for ad valorem duties — Cases=Cases in percentage. 92. INTEREST. f Princip!il=P. Compound Interest=C. I. Tnterest=A. Compound Amountr=C. A. Quantities | Rate=R. Loe;a"rithmz=Log. and <{ ( Years— T. Symbols, Time ii [ Years-=T. in ■< Months=m. ( Day.^=d. Amount— A.=P4-I. f Simple, CKsse= J Compound, Classes, ^, ^,^„„^i^ [Mixed. (8, Ga., Ala., Mi., FI. 7, N. Y., S. Ca., Mi., Wis., lo. Legal Rates, •< 5, La. I 10, Texas. I 0, In all other States and in U. S. Courts. Remark. 100 percent represents the principal. ( General. PxTxR=I. Rules, \ Special, ) ((_m i _jj_ \y P_i, Part F. — 92. theoretical arithmetic. p. 3 a 2 Given, Required, R. Ralo j p^^^=R. P- ( I 3 Giyen, ■{ I. Required, T. Rule ,1 Given, \ T. Required, I. PXRxT=I. (R. ?• n, \ R. (T. Given, I R." Required, P. Rule | _-A__=p (A. iven, •{ R. (t. 4 Give 5 ^■6 Given Required, P. Rule I PxR I RXT T. --=P. Required, I. Rule A-— ^^^=1. 1 Given, \ R. Required C A. Rule Px(l+R)T=C A. a o S o a 2 Given, - 3 Given, 4 Given, 5 Given, 6 Given, - ( T. P. R. Required C I. Rule Px(l+R)T— P.=C I. T. ^^' C A R. Required P. Rule -—-;— ;=P. T. (1+R)^ CI. 01 =P. ^ R. Required P. Rule ^^_^y,_^ C A P. Required R. Rule "^V^^^— 1=R. T. ^ p. Required T. Kulo^^i^^-T. I K. Log. (1+R.) 342 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part V. — 93. 93 BANKING. of Issue, Banks, ■{ of Discount, Deposit. Directors, Ofncers.^^-^;^t, (of s, \ of (of Tellers. Negotiable, Classes. \ JJank''"'^'''^^'' j N( ^of Essentials, Persons, band. Signature, Date, Promise to pay, Value received. Maker, {Payee, Holder, Endorser. iFace, Protest, Payable on Demand, Payable on Time, Payable on Sight, Proceeds, Avails, Cost, Time to Run, Day of Maturity, Nominally Due, ^ Legally Due. i Remark. — Interest must not draw interest. , United States, Rules, < Connecticut, ^ Vermont. f Face of Note, A. I Avail or Cost, C. I Rate, R. , Quantities, ^ ( in Years — T. I Time, -< in Months — m. I ( in Days — d. I. Bank Discount — D. I rx- . ni ( True Discount,— I=PxRXT. ^Discount,^ Classes, j ^,^^^ r)iscount,-D=AxRxT. f 1. To find discount of a note. ! AxRxT=D. Cases of) J 2. To find proceeds of a note. Bank J- | A— AXRxT=C. Discount) 3. To find face of a note for given ^ proceeds, =A. ^ 1-RxT - Part V. — 96. theoretical arithmetic. 343 Classes, I Foreign, -^ Domestic, ( Circular. 94. EXCHANGE. ■n.,, ( Sight=Checks, ^'^^'' I Time. Endorsements, j f^^'j^J^I^'k. Acceptance.. Rate, Ji^f^^^-o'-^ ' ( against. Standard — Amount of pure gold or silver in coin. Reduction of ) ( direct, Currencies, \ \ circular=chaia rule. rE"glif>l fGold, I French, o., ' Foreign Coins, j German, \ j plj^^'^^^ i Russian! J ^ ^*''- 95. involution. {Degrees, Exponent, j Positive, ^ ' / negative. {Adding exponents multiplies the quantities. Subtractuig exponents divides the quantities Multiplying an exponent involves the quantity. Dividing an exponent evolves the quantity. Tof 1. Every power of 1 is 1. p,^^„^l;_„ j of numbers less than 1. Powers, higher than rroperties, < ,^^^ ^.^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ number. [of 0th power of numbers. Alvvays=l. ( Demonstration, ( Applications. 96. evolution. f Degrees, Rule, J Sign, I Index, I Fractio Root, Fractional Exponent. Propositions. The same as in Involution. of 1. Every root of 1 is 1. p Lj ^ of number less than 1. Every root higher than the first is greater than the number, of 0th root of numbers. Always=l. ^Geometrical, ^for Square root,) ^Demonstration, -< Arithmetical, Rules, -^for Cube root, V -^ (Algebraic, (for any root, ) (Applications. 344 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. Part F. — 98. 97. ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. Arithmetical Series, \ Ascending, ' i Descending, f First term=a. j Quantities \ \ La.-^t term=l, and >- ■{ Common difference=d. Symbols, ) j Number of terms=a. Sum of serie3=:S. Cases, 1 Given, -|n. Required 1. Rule, a-fd(n— I)=l. |d. n. 2 Given, ^1. Required a. Rule, 1— d(n— l)=a, (a! 3 Given, -{n. Requ (1. (a. i Given, \\. Id. U Given, ir.' ired d. Rule, — -=d. n— 1 Required n. Rule, -^+l=n. Required s. Rule, ^-?±ll"^s. GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION. Geometrical Series, i Ascending, ' ( Descending, f First term-a. Quantities | Last term=l. and ■{ Common Ratio=r. Symbols. | Number of terms=n. t Sum of series=s. (a. 1 Given, h. Required 1. Rule, aXr 51-1=1. quired a. Rule, =a. rn -1 I 2 Given, Jr. Re Cases, { 3 Given, -)a. Required r. Rule, ^~^J1 jn. ■■I 4 Given, -^a. Required s. Rule, ^><^?=S. ■•£ ""S Given, -^r. Required s. — =S. READING AND SPEAKING WITH GESTICULATION. INTEODUCTION It is universally conceded, that no branch is so much neglected in our common schools as reading. Kesulting from this abuse there is more, vastly more, disagreeable reading and speaking, even among professional men, whose habits, in this par- ticular, are for the most part fixed in their primary instruction, than illogical thinking or false reason- ing. Yet there is less being done by leading Educators, or by those guardians of our public schools, the School Examiners, either in the way of scrutiny or remonstrance, in this branch, than in any other of the common branches. It becomes the true Teacher, and especially such an one as may have the training of Teachers, to give his best efforts to this subject. I shall en- deavor to do so. Amid the avalanches of books for reading and declamation that overwhelm us, not one that I have examined presents a just and appropriate arrangement of the subject, and much less a systematic plan of teaching it, e. i., so simple as to be available in our common schools, and so thorough as to meet the demands of the subject. (S47) 348 INTRODUCTION. If I succeed no better than my numerous prede- cessors, it will not be for want of attention to the subject, or of experience in teaching it, or of a determination to accomplish what is required. The Objects to be aimed at in the study of Elocution, and of course in teaching it, are 1st. The Acquisition of General Knowledge. It may be said, that good vocal delivery is not necessary in this point of view. I answer, that he who can make others appreciate the sense and scope of an author, will surely be most likely, him- self, to comprehend the author, and that in the effort to impress others with ideas read or declaim- ed, he himself receives the deepest impression, 2d. The Acquisition of a Love for Reading. It is a complaint on the part of many parents that their children have no love for their books. Though the difficulty lies chiefly with the parents themselves, in not supplying their children with books and papers suitable for their age, and ad- vancement; yet the proper training of the voice, and with it the mind — for the former is impossible without the latter — is an efficient means for incit- ing children and youth to read for the pleasure it affords them. Show me a "good reader" and I will show you a person that has become so, not so much by class drill, or by self-training in vocal delivery, as by silent and intelligent reading in- cited by it. 3d. The IivirRovEMENT of the Memory, Judg- ment, AND Taste. Though these faculties of the mind are more INTRODUCTION. 349 particularly cultivated by proper training in vocal delivery, every other faculty is reached and im- proved. 4th. Improvement of the Social Faculties. Instead of that vacuity, frivolity, and tendency to gossip and flirtation, which too generally pre- vail in social gatherings, we might, as the result of proper vocal culture, have such occasions en- livened and enriched, or, at least, varied with read- ings, recitations, personations, or the telling of anecdotes, with such spontaneous criticism, re- marks, additional readings, recitations, speeches, stories, and fun as they would provoke, all of which cultivated vocal delivery is calculated to improve and embellish. 4th. Improvement op the Health. The person who learns to make correct use of the organs of speech, and with them of the entire system in finished vocal delivery, can hardly be affected with any serious disease of the chest or spine. At any rate, the exercise is better than all the poisons, under the various names of nostrums, cordials, tonics, expectorants, panaceas, and cod liver oils, that have ever been consumed. White- field could " drive off a fever by a good pulpit sweat." The bronchitis can never lay aside a per- son who cultivates a good vocal delivery. Such a person may, with reasonably correct habits other- wise, defy the consumption, and all its concomi- tant evils. 5th. A Graceful Carriage and Address. Many parents send their children to dancing 350 INTRODUCTION. schools, at a great hazard of their morals, to im- prove their manners. A proper training in elocu- tion will accomplish the same object more directly, without any such risk. 6th. A PREPARATION FOR PUBLIC LIFE. How many men of good abilities and superior culture otherwise, are comparatively inefficient and unsuccessful from improper training and use of their organs of speech. Audiences wearied, in- struction unimparted, justice unattained, real vir- tue and true benevolence unsustained, are some of the lamentably notorious effects of the pernicious and repulsive habits of a large class of public men in their elocution. 7th. The Prevention and Correction of the FOLLOWING LIST OF IMPROPRIETIES. IMPROPRIETIES IN PERSON AND COUNTENANCE. 1. Improper Walk to the Rostrum ; too much on the heel, too noisy, too stooping, too slow, too rapid. Improper attitude on floor or rostrum ; too nearly equal on both feet, too long on one foot, too frequently changing the position, too much bent over, shoulders too much drawn forward, chest too much contracted, too much wriggling and twisting, rocking, or weaving the body. 2. Improper Bow ; too much in the neck, too quick and snappish, too low, too familiar or disre- spectful, too much to one side, too stiif and formal. 4. Improper Manner of Holding the Book or Manuscript ; too much with both hands, too much before the face, too near the breast or abdomen, INTRODUCTION. 351 too stiffly, so as not to admit of the ready turning of leaves or of gesticulation. 5. Improper Position of the Head; too much forward, too much backward, too much on one side, too much throwing the hair back, too much nodding, too much shaking, too immovable. 6. Improper Use of the Eyes ; too much out of the window, too much at the pillars or walls, too much towards the floor, too much at one indi- vidual in the audience, too much at one part of the audience, too much closed, too wide open, with too little interest or confidence in the audience. 7. Improper Action of the Mouth ; too much closed, lips too near together, teeth too nearly shut, too much spitting. 8. Improper Expression of Countenance; too ''shame-faced," too stupid, too unvarying, too much lacking any expression, too little in accord- ance with the sentiment uttered. 9. Improper Use of Hands and Fingers; too stiff and straight, too much clinched, behind the back, in the pockets, in the arm-hole of the vest, too much on the hip, fingers playing with each other or with the dress, or with buttons, watch chain, or pencil or string, stroking the face or beard, running the fingers through the hair. 10. Improper Gesticulation ; too unfrequent, too frequent, too feeble, too violent, too periodical, too much with one hand, too much with both hands, too low, too much bending the arm at the elbow, gesticulating when looking on the book or manuscript, no gesticulation, unsuited to the senti- 352 INTRODUCTION. ment uttered, too soon or too late for the sentiment, too stiff, too angular, too much in straight lines out from the body, pointing to the ears, eyes, or other features, not being accompanied with the eyes. 11. Improper Recognition of Individuals in the Audience ; with smiles not called for by the sentiment of the piece. 12. Improper Manner of leaving the Rostrum, too hasty, too noisy, too impudent, too sneaking. IMPROrRIETIES OF BREATH AND VOICE. 1. Improper Times of taking Breath; in the midst of a syllable, in the midst of a word, where no pause is requiredj after a sentence rather than before. 2. Imj^roper Method of taking Breath; too lit- tle at a time, with too much noise. 3. Improper Use of Breath in producing Sound; too wasteful through harsh or impure tones. 4. Improper Articulation ; too hurried, too careless, too indistinct, too particular on unimpor- tant words and unaccented syllables. 5. Improper Pronunciation; wrong sound of vowels, wrong sound of consonants, accent placed on wrong syllables. 6. Improper Pitch; too high, too low, too mo- notonous. 7. Improper Force ; too feeble, too faltering, too feeble on unimportant words, too loud, too un- varying, too loud on unimportant words, diminu- INTRODUCTION. 353 tion of force from tlie beginning to the end of every sentence. 8. Improper Rate; too rapid, or too slow to suit the sentence or the piece. 9. Improper Inflection on any word, phrase or sentence. 10. Improper Emphasis ; on the wrong word or words, too little, too much, of the wrong kind, emphatic pause too short, emphatic pause too long, no emphatic pause. 11. Improper Quality of Voice; too husky and impure in tone, too nasal, too guttural, too tremu- lous, too boisterous, too shrill, too much mumbling, too apathetic, too affected, too sniffling, 12. Improper Ending of Sentences ; too ab- rupt, too drawling, with too much of a tone, too much alike. 13. Improper Transition ; from one key to an- other, from one degree of rapidity to another, from one sentiment to another, from one paragraph to another, from one personation to another. 14. Improper Style of Delivery ; unfitted to the sentiment, too grave, too comic, too stern, too trifling, too sad, too joyful, too earnest, too unfeel- ing, too sarcastic, too sneering, too contemptuous, too ridiculous, too much of a sing-song, too mo- notonous. 15. Improper Appearance ; too bold, too timid, too pompous, too effeminate, too theatrical, too ministerial, too tame, too vehement, too conceited, with too much affectation, too simpering, too silly, too much embarrassed, too much frightened at 354 INTRODUCTION. your friends, too much affected with the blind staggers. 16. Improper Personation ; too slight portrayal of character, character overdone, character not cor- rectly personated. 17. Improper conception of the subject matter. ELOCUTION. 1. Departments. F.LoniTTov J Manfigeraent of the Person. ELOCUTION, i y^^^^^ Culture. Gesticulation. 2. DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION. Elocution. The art of expressing tliouglit and feeling, by means of articulate and gesticulate language. Explanation. By referring to tte General Out- line of Grammar, page 39, it will be seen, tliat Natural Language is divided into Articulate and Gesticulate ; and that Artificial Language is divid- ed into Articulate and Written; Elocution com- prises both divisions of Natural Language ; but the first only, of Artificial Lano'uage. (355) 356 ELOCUTION. 3. DEPARTMENTS OF ELOCUTION. r, 1- ^ Silent, i Reading, ^^^.^^^^ Departmen*?, \ Declamation, < Speaking, Premeditated, I Oratory, | j^^tempore. 4. DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. Reading. The perusal or utterance of thought and feeling, as seen expressed in Written Lan- guage. Silent Reading. The perusal of Written Lan- guage without utterance. Audible Reading. The utterance of thought and feeling, as immediately obtained from Written Language. Remark 1st. No work on Elocution with which I am conversant attempts a definition of Reading. Rcmarh 2d. Silent Reading does not strictly come under the definition of Elocution, yet from its inseparable connection with the subject, it seems necessary to introduce it. SrEAKiNG. The utterance of thought and feel- ing, with the eyes free from Written Language. Declamation. The speaking of another's com- position. Oratory. The speaking of one's own composi- tion in an impressive manner. Premeditated Oratory. That in which the composition has been previously studied. Extempore Oratory. That in which the com- position is accomplished simultaneously with the delivery. ELOCUTION. 357 MANAGEMENT OF THE PERSON. f Manner of taking Position, I Manner of Bowing, Position of the body, | |f^,^^:°°' I Position of Upper Extremities, I Position of Lower Extremities, Management | Changes in Position, of the ■{ Cairiage of the Head, Person. Management of Mouth, ( Lips, I Teeth. " Lungs, Eyes, Expression of Countenance, I General Appearance, t^ Manner of leaving the Stage. 6. I Directions, Errors, Methods of Drill. DIRECTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS. Manner of taking Position. The pupil rises wlien liis name is called, and passes with a firm and elastic tread, to one side of the stage, and ascending in a quiet and graceful manner, takes his position where he can best be seen by all the audience; and with just a moment's respectful view of the audience he bows, to the ladies first, if the sexes are separated, then to the gentlemen; or if the sexes are intermingled he bows to the whole audience. 7. Manner of Bowing. In bowing, the whole frame should bend slightly, the neck somewhat more than other parts. The right hand may wave gracefully to the audience, especially to the ladies, or both hands may be thrown forward gracefully, greeting the whole audience. Remark 1. No explanation or plate can give a correct idea of this greeting;, any more than of ges- 358 ELOCUTION. ticulation. It can only be learned from a living example. Remark 2. It is not desirable tbat all tlie mem- bers of a class should give the same form of bow or of greeting, in commencing reading or speaking, but tbat a class sbould be trained in a variety of forms. 8. Position of the Body. Whether standing or sitting, the body should be erect, the shoulders thrown back, and the chest made protuberant. 9. Position of the Upper Extremities. The hands should hang as the force of gravity, only, will pkce them. No force should be applied to make them hang down or to project the fingers I downward, or to draw them together. Hanging I without thought in such a position they are ready when needed for gesticulation. The awkward and 1 disrespectful positions of the hands, as in the pock- I ets, or behind the back, should be carefully avoid- ed. The fingers should not be permitted to work or play with each other, or with the buttons or clothes. 10. Position of the Lower Extremities. The weight of the body should rest on one foot, rather than on both. The foot not sustaining the body should be thrown slightly forward or backward of the other, and should touch the floor with the ball rather than the heel. ELOCUTION. 359 11. Chaxge of Position. This may be accomplislied by throwing the weight on the foot at rest, and by those movements which animated delivery requires. No change should be made directly forward, or directly sideways; but in an oblique direction. Changes must not be too frequent; nor so unfre- quent as to tire the spectator. 12. Carriage of the Head. The head should be sustained respectfully erect, not stiffly so. Much grace is exhibited by a handsome carriage of the head. In animated delivery it must partake of the spirit of the piece in its motions, but all bobbings, noddings, and shakings not called for by the senti- ment of the piece, must be most scrupulously avoided. 13. Management of the Mouth. The almost uni- versal fault of keeping the mouth too much closed, the lips and teeth too near together, needs the par- ticular and continued attention of the trainer and the trained. Drills on the vowel sounds with the mouth as widely opened as possible, consistently with clear enunciation of the several sounds, have a good effect towards curing this bad habit. The difference of the same vowel sounds with the teeth closed and the teeth well apart, may be dwelt on by teacher and scholar. 360 ELOCUTION. 14. Management of the Lungs. The great evil in the use of the lungs is that they are permitted to remain too nearly in a collapsed condition. Full and deep respiration should be practised, and the habit established of commencing the delivery of a sentence, with full rather than with exhausted lungs. 15. Management of the Eyes. The eyes possess more expression, and magnetic power, than the entire man besides ; and the person who cannot use them for impressing, convincing, or persuading his audience, can accomplish nothing in the way of oratory, sacred or secular. A vacant stare at the audience, or at one place in the midst of the audience or out of it, should be carefully avoided. The eyes should meet, intelligently and feel- ingly meet, those of distinct individuals, whose sympathy with the speaker cannot fail to arouse him to higher effort, and more complete success. The magic influence of the eye in rousing the in- different, in suppressing opposition, in awakening sympathy, no speaker can afford to undervalue or neglect, 16. Expression of the Countenance. The ex- pression of the countenance depends so much on that of the eyes, that little need be said further about it; yet, if in addition to a want of a sympa- thy of the eye with the sentiment uttered, there shall be a stupid, impudent, or sneaking expression ELOCUTION. 3G1 of tlie countenance, the exhibition "becomes intol- erably repugnant. ]7. General ArrEARAXCE. The general appearance must be in keeping with the varying sentiment of the piece delivered. The entire system must par- ticipate in and exhibit the sentiment. It is this self-abandonment which distinguishes the eiFective speaker, this forge tfulness of self and the yielding of every faculty to the absorbing, overpowering- current of thought and feeling, which constitutes the finished actor, or orator. 18. Manner of Leaving the Stage. The stage or rostrum may be left without any demonstration, farther than a quiet, self-possessed retreat. But in case the audience have exhibited warm sympa- thy with the speaker, a low bow is a suitable acknowledgment ; and in case applause is contin- ued, a repetition of bows while the speaker retreats is desirable. In some cases a circular bow and a corresponding sweeping gesture with the hand is admissible. 19. METHOD OF DRILLING A CLASS. Remarh 1. Awkwardness and bashfulness are only exhibitions of self-consciousness. These evils can never be directly overcome in the scholar; but they will vanish as he becomes interested in his teacher, and in the exercises. 2 862 ELOCUTION. Remark 2. All exercises should be commenced ^s concert exercises, the teaclier first giving the example. By this means the teacher, perceiving who are the most successful, can excuse such by twos or threes, and thus reach, by degrees, those who need special attention. Remark 3. These drills must be introduced with prudence into schools, where they are new, and not much time given to them; a few minutes previous to each reading exercise. Otherwise the idea will get out that " the teacher spends so much time in his new-fangled notions that the scholars do n't learn anything." Reraark 4. These drills may commence with the most advanced reading class, after they shall have had a training in the articulate sounds for a few weeks. 20. teacher's directions to pupils. Direction 1 . The class will take their places on the floor at such distances that their hands will not interfere in gesticulation. Remark 1. It is desirable that as many as pos- sible stand where their feet can be seen by the teacher. Direction 2. You may all take the First Posi- tion as I take it, body on left foot, right foot for- ward, head erect, hands down, not stiffly. Second Position. Body forward on the right foot, the left foot touching the floor with the toe only. First "Position again. Third Position. Body on the right foot, the left in front. Fourth Position. ELOCUTION. 363 Body on the left foot, the right behind, resting on the toe. First Position again, hands on the hips, Trith fingers on the abdomen, thumbs back, elbows back, let them touch each other if possible, hands down. Direction 3. Bow forward with head and body. Bow to the right. Bow to the left. Bow forward and accompany the bow with the appropriate ges- ture of both hands. Bow to the right, with the accompaniment of the right hand. Bow to the left with the accompaniment of the left hand. Bow to each other and take your seats. Remark 1. In repeating this drill, as it may be necessary to repeat it several days in succession, the ingenious teacher will introduce new move- ments, and vary the order of the transitions from any one position to the others. He may also in- troduce a series of gesticulations as will be ex- plained under the head of Gesticulation. Remarh 2. The management of the mouth, ej^es, countenance, and general appearance, and leaving the stage, will come up in connection with the Individual Drills in Yocal Culture. VOCAL CULTURE. 21 I. — PRON UNCIATION. ( Errors. See introduction page 362. Breatbing. •< Objects to be attained. I Methods of drill. 'Sounds— see Part II. Chart No. 1. Page 52. .,.,,. j See Introduction Page, Articmation. 4 ^^.^^^^ ^^ ^,„ attained. ^ Methods of drill. , i Primary, , Common. ■< Secondary, | ( etc. J ( Nouns from Verbs. I Discriminative. -| Adjectives from Nouns. ( Adjectives from Verbs. Emphatic. ^ Poetical Follow the usage of the best Speakers. Rules. -^ 2. Consult the Dest Dictionaries any peculiarity that attracts attention. Accent. I ir ( 1. Follow f 3. ^ 2. Consult ( 3. Avoid ai Pitch. Force. II. — MODULATION. Terms: Key. Monotone. Classes— Medium, High, Very High, Low, Very Low. Errors. See Introduction Page 352. Objects to be attained. Methods of Drill. , o , . , ( Medium, Strong, Very Strong. Sustained, j ^^r^,^^ Very Weak. Varying. - Swell, Vanish, Wave, j Radical Expulsive Stress. 1 Radical Explosive Stress. ^ Vanishing Stress. Errors. See Introduction Page 352. Objects to be attained. ^ Methods of Drill. {Classes— Medium, Fast, Very Fast, Slow, Very Slow. Errors. See Introduction Page 353. Objects to be attained. Methods of Drill. (364) VOCAL CULTURE. 365 Simple. ^ I Classes. ■{ I ° ( [Falling, -j Rising Slido. Bend, Falling Slide. Partial Close. Perfect Close. f Double Slide. I Upper Giroamflex. Compound.^ Lower Circumflex, i Emphatic Sweep. Errors. See Introduction Page 353. Objects to be attained. Methods of Drill. Rules 1—8. Rise. Fall. Classes ^1 Emphasis. Common, Antithetic, Cumulative, Deferred, Conventional. By Elevation or Depression of Pitch B3' Increase or Diminution of Force. By Increase or Diminution of Rate. By Whisper. By Emphatic Sweep. By Rise or Fall of Emphatic Sweep. ^ Methods.^ By Uppsr Circumflex. 1 By Lower Circumflex. I By Emphatic Pause. 1 By Change of Tone. I By Gesticulation. By Change of Countenance. ^ By Change of Position. Errors. See Introduction Page 353. Objects to be attained. Methods of Drill. Tone. Classes. ( Pure, Orotund, Guttural, Nasal Aspirate, I Smooth, Harsh, Shrill, Huiky, Tremulous, Errors. See Introduction page 35?. I Objects to be :;ttained. i Methods of drill. Classes. ■< I Of Sense, in Parenthesis, 'roper posi- tion, and give in concert the sound of o, in the me- dium pitch and with medium force ; again, as the 374 S^OCAL CFLTURE. the teaclier says " louder," with increased force; and so on at the word " louder," with still increasing force, till vociferous tones are reached, at least by Bome of the class. Care must be taken that the medium pitch be preserved. Let those having the strongest voices sit down (calling them by name). Go through with the same drill with the remainder of the class, excus- ing two or thre-e at a time of those who are most distinctly heard till the feeblest voices are reached. Train these by themselves repeatedly, in a similar manner, giving the sounds of different letters, of different syllables and words. When some degree of force is developed on single words, short sen- tences may be read, by those timid, affected crea- tures till they can be heard in a remote corner of the room. After training several together, till this be accomplished, each such pupil may be taken separately and drilled till whatever force of voice or of character possessed shall be brought out and increased. The teacher may then pass into another room and shut the door, and require such pupils separately to read short sentences so that he can hear them; then longer ones. This exercise must be resumed every day, for many days, perhaps for weeks, till the difficulty be entirely removed. Exercise 2. Let the class give the sound of a vowel on a low pitch, and increase the force as before ;, again, on a very low pitch. Such pupils as succeed the best may be excused; while those whose VOCAL CULTURE. 375 voices are feeble uiiist b'e trained in proportion to their need, especially to acc^uire force in low pitch. Exercise 3. Reading in the monotone in very low pitch, with all possible force, serves to give great strength and compass to the voice. This exercise may be varied by concert reading on the monotone, in high pitch, and very high pitch, with increasing force ; and by alternating from reading in monotone in high pitch, to reading in monotone in low pitch ; from very high pitch, to very low, with different degrees of force as the teacher may direct, from medium to loud, very loud, vociferous; again from medium to soft, subdued, suppressed and whisper. Remark 1. Too much attention cannot be be- stowed in every drill on Pure Tone. Remarh 2. It is frequently necessary to drill the female voices separately, while the male voices rest. 31. Yaryixg Force. That which is increased or diminished, or both increased and diminished on the same syllable. Swell. The increase of force on one syllable. Yanish. The diminution of force on one sylla- ble. Stress. Force applied to one part of a syllable more than to another. Radical Stress. That applied at the com- mencement of a syllable. Yanishing Stress. That applied at the end of a syllable. It is seldom used. 376 VOCAL CULTURE. Expulsive Radical Stress. Tlie powerful ut- toraiicc of a syllable at its commencement, dimin- ishing somewliat to the end. Explosive Radical Stress. The violent burst- ing forth of sound at the commencement of a syl- lable, diminishing somewhat to the end. Remark 1. The superiority of accomplished speakers consists much in the appropiate use of Varying Force ; a matter which is almost entirely overlooked in the majority of books on elocution. Remarh 2. Unremitting attention must be given in (lie following exercises to PURE TONE. No slender, aspirated, husky, nasal, or guttural sounds should be tolerated unless required by the nature of the piece delivered. Nothing short of a ringing tone, as clear and as sweet as a bell, should satisfy the trainer or trained. 32. EXAMPLES FOU DRILL. IN SUSTAINED FORCE. Remark. Any of the following examples may be used for Exercises 1 or 3 in sustained force. LOUD. Look aloft. Watch, AYatch. To arms, to arms, the foe, they come, they come. Roll! on thou deep and dark-blue ocean, Roll! SOFT. Speak gently, she sleeps now. Come then; expressive silence, muse His praise. Ah ! few shall part where many meet. The snow shall be their winding sheet; And every turf beneath their feet Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. VOCAL CULTURE. 377 WHISPER. Hark! what is that noise? What can it be? Let lis go and find mother ! Hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 33. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN VARYING FORCE. 0! Ah ! Hold. Woe. Shoulder arms. For- ward march. Rear column, halt. Rouse, ye Romans ! Rouse, ye slaves ! Strike ! till the last armed foe expires, Strike, for your altars and your fires. Strike for the green graves of your sires, God — and your native land. Oh heaven ! she cried. Can you not save him I Oh ! save my husband. 34. LAUGHING EXERCISE. Remark. Exercise in concert laughing occa- sionally, is desirable, not only as a drill in varying force, but for its enlivening eff'ects on a class. Let the exercise commence on Ha ! ha ! ha! ha! and make a real laugh of it ; none of your dry, hollow, sham laughs — like this, Ha ! ha ! ha .! but a real, genuine, hearty, old-fashioned laugh all around — Ha ! ha ! ha ! ha ! The exercise may be stopped by a sudden elevation of the hand as a signal. EXAMPLE FOR THE LAUGHING EXERCISE. What a funny old fellow that is ! ha, ha, ha, ha. Did you ever see the like before? ha! ha! ha! ha! Just look at his nose once ! if it is n't enough to make a horse laugh, ha ! ha ! ha ! Oh my eyes I what a nose, ha! ha! ha! ha! 3 378 * VOCAL CULTURE. 35. RATE. Rate. Rapidity of utterance, ia the delivery of a sentence, or discourse. Remark 1. The proper rate of delivery in every passage will depend on the nature of the thought and feeling expressed, yet it should not be so slow as to become a continuous drawl, nor so fast in any instance as to prevent distinct articulation. Remark 2. " Reading too fast," is a common fault and much attention is demanded to correct it. In drilling a scholar, to correct too rapid reading, he will generally read slower by making pauses between all the words. This should not be tolera- ted, but he should be taught to prolong the vocals and sub-vocals, and to articulate the aspirates more distinctly. Remark 3. Concert exercises will aid much in correcting too rapid reading, the teacher controlling the rate with his voice in each example at first. Rut they must not be relied on entirely. 36. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN RATE, Remark. Any sentence whatever may be taken as material for drill in correcting too rapid reading; this, for instance, or the following sentences : SLOW AND DISTINCT. God, who at sundry times and in divers manners, spake in times past unto the fathers by the proph- ets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by His dear Son. ! Jerusalem ! Jerusalem ! thou that killest the prophets and stonest them that are sent unto thee^ VOCAL CULTURE. 379 How often would I have gathered thy children to- gether, even as a hen gathereth her chickens iin%r her wings, and ye would not ! EAPID AND DISTINCT. ^ How far wilt thou, ! Cataline, abuse our pa- tience ? How long shall thy madness outbrave our justice? To what extremities art thou resolved to push thy unbridled insolence of guilt ? 37. INFLECTIONS. Inflection. The continuous elevation or de- pression of the pitch in the delivery of a syllable, word, phrase or sentence. Explanation. By contimioiis elevation and de- pression is here understood that upward or down- ward sliding from one point to another, in the mu- sical scale by which the voice is heard at every in- termediate point. Simple Inflection. That which is entirely ri- sing or entirely falling. Rising Inflection. That in which the voice by a gradual tightening of the vocal chords and clo- sing of the articulatory organs, glides from a lower to a higher pitch. Falling Inflection. That in which the voice by a gradual relaxing of the vocal chords and opening of the articulatory organs, glides from a higher to a lower pitch. KisiNG Slide. The rising inflection continued through any single word standing independently, through several words, or through an entire sen- tence. 380 VOCAL CULTURE. Explanation. The rising slide may be applied t^such single words, as interjections, names of per- sons addressed, and equivalents for whole senten- ces; otherwise to several words in succession. Bend. The rising inflection applied to a single word standing at the end of a phrase, clause or sentence, to denote incomplete sense. 38. METHOD OF DRILL IN RISING INFLECTIONS. Let the teacher select definite questions from this bi;>ok, or any other, and read them with the rising slide ; then with the bend, or rising inflection on the last word only, for the purpose of showing the correct manner of delivering them ; also, for the purpose of showing the incorrect notation of such reading books as place the mark for the rising in- flection on the last word only of a definite ques- tion. Remark. If any mark is used, it ought to be placed at the beginning, rather than at the end of a question. The teacher having illustrated the nature of the rising slide, and the manner of using it, with his own voice, will call on the class to read short ques- tions in concert with himself; individuals in the class, to read the same, and other questions. In long questions, it will be well for the class all to take the pitch of the first word. This pitch should be much lower than the ordinary key, in order that the voice may have opportunity to rise through the whole question, without running so high, as to break. VOCAL CULTURE. 381 Remarh. In reading very long sentences, con- sisting of several clauses, or members, tlie yoke will necessarily fall back at the commencement of every new clause to a pitch but a little liiglier than at the commencement of the preceding clause or member of the question. The pitch will become more and more elevated in every succeeding clause, till it culminates at the close of the last word of the entire sentence. 39. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN RISING INFLECTIONS. RISING SLIDE, Do you deny that ? Is that the man whom you expected ? Did you arrive in town yesterday ? Should we not all, both teachers, and scholars, be scrupulously careful to comply with the school regulations which we have adopted ? What ? Might Rome then have been taken if these men who were at our gates had not wanted courage for the attempt ? Rome taken, whilst I was consul? Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of the world to call for all this accumulation of navies and armies ? No sir, she has none. Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance, by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot ? Do we never meet with charity which melts at suffering; with the honesty which disdains and is probably superior to falsehood ; with the active beneficence which gives to others its time and its labor ; with the modesty which shrinks from notice 382 VOCAL CULTURE. and gives all its sweetness to retirement ; witli the getitlencss which breathes peace to all, and throws a beautiful lustre over the walks of domestic life ? Was it not enough that sorrow robed the happy- home in mourning ; was it not enough that disap- pointment preyed on its loveliest prospects ; was it not enough that its little inmates cried in vain for bread, and heard no answer, but the poor father's sigh, and drank no sustenance, but the wretched mother's tears ; was this a time for passion, con- scienceless, licentious passion, with its eye of lust, its heart of stone, its hand of rapine, to rush into the mournful sanctuary of misfortune, casting crime into the cup of woe, and rob the parents of their only wealth, their child, and rob the child of her only charm, her innocence ? Do we intend to violate that most solemn obliga- tion ever entered into by men, that plighting be- fore God of our sacred honor to Washington, when, putting him forth to incur the dangers of war as well as the political hazards of the times, we prom- ised to adhere to him in every extremity, with our fortunes and our lives ? Remarl'. Other examples may be selected from almost any reading book in use in the school; though these few afford sufficient material and va- riety for drilling a class on this inflection, viz : the Rising Slide. 40. As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive. Where the carcass is, there v/ill the eagles be gathered together. VOCAL CULTURE. 383 Remark. Other examples for drill in tlie use of the Bend may be taken from any part of this book, or any other. 41. Falling Slide. The falling inflection continued through any single word standing independently, through several words, or through an entire sen- tence. Eocplanation. The falling slide may be applied to such single words as interjections, names of per- sons addressed, and equivalents for whole senten- ces ; otherwise to several words in succession. Partial Close. The falling inflection applied to a single word, commencing at a point above the key, and descending to it or slightly below it. Perfect Close. The falling inflection applied at the end of a sentence, commencing with the key and descending far below it. 42. METHOD OF DRILL IN THE FALLING INFLECTIONS. Let the teacher select indefinite questions from this book or any other, and read them with the fall- in^ slide ; and then with the perfect close, or fall- ing inflection on the last word, only, for the pur- pose of showing the correct manner of delivering them, also for the purpose of showing the incor- rect notation of such reading books as place the mark for the falling inflection on the last word, only, of an indefinite question. The teacher having illustrated the nature of the falling slide, and the manner of using it, with his own voice, will call on the class to read short in- 384 VOCAL CULTURE. definite questions in concert with himself; then in concert, without his accompaniment ; then on indi- viduals in the class to read the same or other ques- tions till they obtain the perfect control of the voice in this species of delivery. Remark. It is a good plan to require the read- ing of an indefinite question occasionally with the rising slide, then again with the falling, till the difi'erence is clearly discriminated, and till every voice in the class can give either, on any sentence that may be proposed. A similar course may be pursued with the closes, as with the falling slide, contrasting them with the bend, and requiring the class, and individuals who most need the drill, to give the bend when the sense demands the partial close, and vice versa. Remarh. In the following exercises, selected more particularly for drill in falling inflections; ri- sing inflections, particularly the bend, will neces- sarily occur, and suitable attention must be be- stowed on their appropriate delivery. 43. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN THE FALLING INFLECTION. FALLING SLIDE. Who is here so base that he would be a bond- man ? Where is the man whose moral courage is equal to the test of rising and pleading this cause against this host of the licentious and profane? How difi'erent would have been our lot this day had the revolution failed of success! VOCAL CULTURE. 385 What can carry less the appearance of a design to fight than a man entangled with a cloak, shut up in a chariot, and almost fettered by a wife ? Who could guess, If ever more should meet those mutual eyes, Since upon a night, so sweet, such awful morn should rise ? IZemarh. In very long indefinite questions con- sisting of several members, the voice takes a high pitch at the commencement of the first member and falls continuously to its end ; then commencing the second member in a pitch not quite so high as at first, it falls to its end, and so on through the suc- cessive members ; each member commencing and ending a little lower than the preceding member. What place would be drearer than the future mansions of Christ to one who should want sympa- thy with their inhabitants ; who could not under- stand their language ; who would feel himself an alien there ; who would be taught by those holy joys, of which he could not partake and for which he would have no relish, his own loneliness and desolation ? YHiy beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye ; or how wilt thou say to thy brother : Let me pull out the mote of thine eye, and behold a beam is in thine own eye ? To whom do we owe it, that the pure and pow- erful light of the gospel is now shed abroad over these countries, and rapidly gaining on the dark- ness of the western world; that the importance of religion to the temporal welfare, and to the perma- nence of wise institutions, is bere beginning to be felt in its just measure ; that the influence is not 386 V^OCAL CULTURE. here as in almost every otlier section of Christen- dom, wrested to purposes of worldly amhition ; that the holy Bible is not sealed from the eyes of those for whom it was intended ; and that the best char- ities and noblest powers of the soul are not degra- ded by the terrors of a dark and artful supersti- tion. 44. PARTIAL AND PERFECT CLOSES. Remark. The partial close is used to denote sense completed, but connected grammatically with that which follows ; the perfect close is used to de- note sense completed, but without grammatical con- neetioli with anything following. The closes are also both used, when given intensely, for emphasis, even when the sense is not complete, as will be shown under the head of Emphasis. The history of the world is full of testimony to prove how much depends upon industry; not an eminent orator has lived but is an example of it. Vv^ith trembling hands, and faltering steps, he departed from his mansion of sorrow : his eyes were dazzled with the splendor of the light ; and the face of nature presented to his view a perfect paradise. The jail in which he had been impris- oned stood at some distance from Pekin, and to that city he directed his course, impatient to enjoy the caresses of his wife, his children, and his fiJends. Be perfect, be of good comfort ; be of one mind, live in peace. 45. SERIES. Remark 1. In a succession of particulars, most reading books give directions to place the rising VOCAL CULTURE. 387 inflection on the last member of a commencing se- ries, and on tlie last but one of a concluding series. Though no speaker, while earnestly engaged in de- livering his own thoughts, ever conformed to these directions, it may be well, for the sake of the drill, to require a class to comply with these methods of delivery. COMMENCING SERIES. The poor, the sick, the aged and the wounded, were left to perish. To advise the ignorant, to relieve the needy, and to comfort the afflicted, are duties that fall in our way almost every day af our lives. CONCLUDING SERIES. I protest against this measure as cruel, oppres- sive, tyrannical, and vindictive. God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed on in the world, and received up into glory. Remark 2. In a long series, the bend may be used,, to avoid monotony, occasionally, but no defi- nite rule can be given in this matter. The judg- ment and taste of no two readers would agree; nor would any good reader be likely to deliver such a passage twice, precisely alike, in respect to the in- flections. Take the followino; exami)les, for in- stance, on which, the teacher and scholars can ex- ercise their voices and their taste : Neither blindness, nor gout, nor age, nor pen- ury, nor domestic afflictions, nor political disap- pointments, nor abuse, nor proscription, nor neg- lect, had power to disturb him. 388 VOCAL CULTURE. I We do not pray, to instruct or advise God ; not to tell Him news, or inform Him of our wants; nor do we pray, by dint of argument, to persuade God, ] and bring Him to our bent ; nor that by fair { speech we may cajole Him ; or move His afiection j toward us by pathetic orations ; not for any such j purpose are we obliged to pray ; but because it be- j Cometh and behooveth us to do so ; because it is a | proper means of bettering, ennobling, and perfect- i ing our souls ; because it breedeth most holy afiec- j tions, pure satisfactions, and worthy resolutions ; | because it fitteth us for the enjoyment of happi- i ness ; and leadeth us thither ; for such ends is de- ■ votion prescribed. | 46. I METHOD OF DRILL IN ALL THE SIMPLE INFLEC- TIONS COMBINED. ' Let the teacher select some piece in the reading book used, of rather simple grammatical construc- tions, and let the members of the class, each read one sentence, and describe his method of reading it, in respect to inflections. The remainder of the class will then be called on for criticisms ; first, in the inflections given ; secondly on the manner of describing them ; thirdly, on the words miscalled ; fourthly, on the words mispronounced, stating defi- nitely what sound was given, and what sound the correct pronunciation requires. This course must be pursued several successive days, perhaps for weeks; at least, until every scholar shall become en- tirely familiar with the different inflections, and the technical names applied to them. No teacher should be satisfied, with calling the bend, the rising VOCAL CULTURE. 389 inflection; or with calling the partial close, the fall- ing inflection, since there are other inflections of both kinds. 47 COMPOUND INFLECTIONS. Compound Inflection. A combination of both the rising and falling inflections on the sanfe word, phrase, clause, or sentence. Double Slide. The rising slide, or slides, on one member of an antithetic or conditional expres- sion; and the falling on the other. Upper Double Slide. That in which the rising slide, or slides, precede the falling. LowEP. Double Slide. That in which the fall- ing slidC; or slides, precede the rising. Note 1. The more emphatic member gen- erally takes the falling slide. Note 2. If the antithesis is between an affirmation or negation, the negation generally takes the rising slide. Note 3. It will be noticed that the rising slide terminates with a bend, when used in connection with the falling, to form the double slide. 48. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE DOUBLE SLIDES. Art thou he that should come, or do we look for another ? Has God forsaken the works of his own hands, or does he always graciously preserve, and keep, and guide them ? As it was then, so it is now. B90 VOCAL CULTURE. As in Adam all die, so in Christ are all made alive. It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorrup- tion. My son, if thou wilt receive my words, and hide my commandments with thee ; so that thou incline thine ear unto wisdom, and apply thine heart unto understanding ; yea, if thou cricst after knowledge, and liftest up thy voice after understanding ; if thou seekest her as silver, and searchest for her, as for hid treasure ; then shalt thou understand the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God. You were paid to fight against Alexander, not to rail at him. He declares Mr. Smith to be an honorable and trustworthy man, and not a hypocrite or knave, as you seem willing to insinuate. 49. Circumflex. A combination of the rising and fiiliing inflections on one syllable or word. Upper Circumflex. That in which the rising inflection is heard first, Lo^vER Circumflex. That in which the falling inflection is heard first. Bmnarh 1. In the upper circumflex the rising inflection is often heard slightly, after the falling, as well as before it. Remark 2. Mandcville calls the upper circum- flex the wave ; and the lower, the circumflex. McGuffey calls the upper circumflex, the falling circumflex, and the lower, the rising. Though the circumflexes may be VOCAL CULTURE. 391 placed in these two classes, their modifications and varieties are endless; no two being given precisely alike. 50. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE CIRCUMFLEXES. You loill bring your grammar to -morroio ? You will bring i/ottr grammar io-morroic? You will bring your grammar io-morroio f You will bring your grammar io-m,orroio '? Ship ahoi/I S)\nj> aJioi/ 9 If we have no regard for our own character, we ought to have some regard for the characters of others. Were there ten cleansed, but where are the nine f Should not children obey their parents in all things ? What will content you ? Talent ? No ! Enter- prise ? No ! Courage ? No ! Reputation ? No ! Virtue ? No ! The man whom you would select, should possess not one, but all of these. Rrmarh. The words No in this last example may be read with the lower circumflex, except the last, which should receive the upper circumflex, and perfect close, with considerable measure of force. Where grows f Where grows it not 7 What I Might Rome have been taken ? Kome taken when I was consul ? Banished from Rome ! Tried and convicted traitor ! Pr'i, ice Henry. What's the matter? Falslaf. What's the matter ? Here be four of us have taken a thousand pounds this morning. 392 VOCAL CULTURE. And this fellow calls himself a painter ? A Painter f He is not fit to daub the sign of a coun- try ale-house. And this man is called a Statesman ? A States- man! Why, he never invented a decent humbug. Remarh. The last six examples are taken from McGuffey's Fifth Reader, where the words in italics are marked with the rising inflection. The class may read them with the rising inflection ; also, with the upper circumflex and lower circumflex, and may then be called on to decide on the most appropriate delivery. If the upper circumflex be given to the words Painter and Statesman^ ridicule is thrown on the idea given in the preceding sen- tences. If the same words be read with the lower circumflex, contempt is expressed for the persons spoken of. A man who is in the daily use of ardent spirits, if he does not abuse his wife and children, will eventually ruin his health and character. A lady who suffers herself to use tobacco, if she does not ruin her health and character, makes her- self utterly repulsive and disgusting. The boy who plays truant occasionally, if he does not thereby lose all interest in his studieS;^ will become an unreliable and worthless citizen. Remarh. By the proper or improper use of the circumflexes in these last three examples, two en- tirely diiTerent sets of ideas will be given in read- ing them ; hence, they are very good examples for the discrimination of the circumflexes. YOCAL CULTURE. 393 51. Emphatic Sweep, Tlie combination of tte slides and circumflexes for tlie purpose of emphasis. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE EMPHATIC SWEEP. A cry of joyful surprise resounded througli the court-room. The prisoner charged with murder was declared innocent. If I would not consent to be searched, it was be- cause I was a stranger to every one present ; and because I had on my person a medal exactly simi- lar to the one supposed to be stolen. Remarlc, The above examples give the combi- nation of the rising slide, upper circumflex, and falling slide, in the same order as here mentioned. The poor girl paid him thanhfidhj, when she learned that her bill was onXj fifty cents. Remark. In this example, the first emphatic sweep consists of the rising slide and the upper circumflex, on the word thankfully; the second em- phatic sweep consists of the rising slide, slightly developed, and the lower circumflex on fifty cents. The man asked the Doctor whether he killed his wife. "No," said the Doctor. "Did you cure her?" "No." "Then you have no legal Je??ia7i(7, according to our contract,'' said the man. Remark. Let the pupil describe each of the em- phatic sweeps in the preceding passage — i. e.j tell what each one is made up of, which slides and which circumflex; also, in the following passage : " It amazes me that ministers don't write better sermons ; I am sick of the dull prosy aff"airs," said a woman in the presence of Dr. Nesbit. " But it is no easy matter, my good woman, to write good sermons," suggested the Doctor. 4 394 VOCAL CULTURE. " Yea," rejoined tlic lady, " hut you are so long ahoxitit; I could write one in half the time, if I only had the text." '' 0, if a text is all you want," said Dr. Ncsbit, " I will furnish tliat; take this one from Solomon : ' It is better to dNveil in a corner of a house top, than in a wide house with a brawling woman.' " " Do you mean me, sir?" inquired the woman quickly. "0, my good woman," was the response, " you will never make a sermonizer ; you are too quick in making your application." Remark. From these examples it will be seen that the emphatic sweep is the most complex form of inflection ; and that it is made up of every pos- sible combination of the slides and circumflexes ; also, that the emphasis concentrates itself in the circumflex, the slides being introductory, or con- cluding in their character. 52. RULES FOR INFLECTIONS. Remark 1. The classiiication of sentences is given on page 1G8, section 71. Remark 2. Interrogative sentences are divi- ded for purposes of delivery, into Definite, Indefi- nite, Indirect, and Double. Definite Interrogative Sentence. One which may be answered by yes or no. Indefinite Interrogative Sentence. One that requires some other answer than yes or no. Indirect Interrogative Sentence. One which has the grammatical form of a declarative sentence. Double Interrogative Sentence. One in which the disjunctive or occurs. VOCAL CULTURE. 395 Remark 3. Scarcely a rule can be given for the inflections which is not liable to be modified or vio- lated by emphasis or impassioned delivery. Some of the cases in which such modifications or viola- tions most frequently occur will be given as excep- tions. Remark 4. It may be said : '' If no rule is re- liable, why gire any rules?" I give them as in- dicative of the most common usage ; but more, for the advantage of the drill which the examples un- ! dcr them afford. 53. RULE I. Simple and complex declarative sentences, are i delivered with the bend, at the intermediate pau?:es; \ with the emphatic sweep, culminating on the em- 1 phatic words; and with the perfect close at the end. ' Remark. The substitute for this rule, as given j by authors who pay no attention to sentential | structure, is substantially this : " Incomplete sense | requires the rising inflection ; and complete sense, ! the falling inflection." i 54. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Simple Declaratives. j In thy sight, Lord, shall no man be justified. \ Many persons mistake the love, for the practice I of virtue. ' ! Complex Declaratives. I Lysimachus, the teacher of Alexander, being an austere man, and a near relation of Olympias, in- ured his pupil to hardy habits, which invigorated his constitution. VOCAL CULTURE. 396 There are but few who know how to be idle and innocent. As fame is but breath, as riches are transitory, and as life itself is uncertain, it becomes us to seek a better portion. Ye who listen with credulity to the whispers of fancy, and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of hope ; who expect that age will perform the prom- ises of youth, and that the deficiencies of the pres- ent day will be supplied by the morrow, attend to the history of Kasselas, prince of Abyssinia. 55. Exception 1. Earnest and sad delivery often re- quire the partial close at the intermediate pauses. 56. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Earnest Delivery. From thy throne in the sky, thou lookest ; and hurlest the bolt of death. To smile upon those we should censure, Lo- renzo, and to countenance such as are guilty of bad actions, is bringing guilt on ourselves. Ah ! me, the laureled wreath that murder rears, Blood-nursed and watered with a widow's tears, Seems not so foul, so tainted^ and so dread. As waves the nightshade round the sceptic's head. 57. Sad Delivery. The path of sorrow, and that path alone, Leads to the land where sorrow is unknown. Touch not those ancient elms that bend their shade O'er the patriots' graves, for 'neath their boughs There is a solemn darkness even at noon Suited to such as visit at the shrine VOCAL CULTURE, 397 Of serious liberty. No factious voice Called them unto the field of generous fame, But the pure consecrated love of home. 58. Exception 2. Negative sentences and clauses are generally delivered with the rising slide and with the lower circumflex on the emphatic word; hence they terminate with the bend, instead of the per- fect close. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Friends, it was not ovlX purpose to injure you. It was not an eclipse that caused the darkness at the crucifixion of our Lord ; for the sun and moon were not relatively in a position to produce an eclipse. Now it is hardly to be supposed that he could have acquitted himself very well, as ill as he was last Saturday evening. 59. Excejition 3. The members of a series may be delivered partly or entirely with the partial close, instead of the bend, at the intermediate pause, or pauses, of the sentence of which they form a part. Remark. Most writers on Elocution give defi- nite rules for the delivery of series, dividing them into commencing and concluding series ; but for the reason assigned on page 386, section 45, I con- sider such rules pernicious. Good taste, for the guidance of which no definite rule can be given in this case, must determine the proper a.nd peculiar delivery of every series that may occur. 398 VOCAL CULTURE. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Love, joy, peace, long suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance, are the fruits of the spirit. The science of Elocution is noble, elegant, pleas- ing, refining, useful, intricate, philosophical and wonderful ; neyertheless some of the rules given by Elocutionists are trifling, erroneous and pernicious. The fruits of the spirit are love, joy, peace, long suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance ; against these there is no law. For I am persuaded that neither life, nor death, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor hight, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to sep- arate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus, our Lord. 60. RULE II. Compound declarative sentences are delivered with the partial close at the termination of the leading, and of all the co-ordinate sentences, except the last, which takes the perfect close. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Beauty is but a vain, a fleeting good ; A shining gloss, that fadeth suddenly; A flower, that dies almost in the bud ; A brittle glass, that breaketh presently ; A fleeting good, a glass, a gloss, a flower, Lost, faded, broken, dead within the hour. And beside this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and to your virtue, knowledge ; and to your knowledge, temperance ; and to your tern- VOCAL CULTURE. 399 perarxce, patience ; and to your patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotlierly kindness ; and to broth- erly kindness, charity. I am crucified with Christ ; nevertheless I live ; yet not I, but Christ liveth in me ; and the life vzhich I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of Grod, who loved me and gave himself for me. Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain; Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue ; And e'en in penance, planning sins anew. 61. U-xcejpiion. If antithesis is expressed, one mem- ber will require the rising and the other the falling slide. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. I could honor thy courage, but I detest thy crimes. They slight my mean birth ; I despise their mean characters. You were paid to fight against Alexander ; not to rail at him. Let us retract when we can ; not when we must. It was by industry, perseverance and integrity that he obtained his political eminence ; not by partizan tricks, chicanery and fraud, as most men of the dominant party obtain and retain their po- sition and influence now. 62. RULE III. Definite Interrogative Sentences are delivered with the rising slide, commencing below the key and ascendino; above it. 400 VOCAL CULTURE. Note 1. If tlie sentence is long, consisting of sev- eral members, it sliouid be commenced witli the piteli far below the key, and ascending through the first member it may conclude with the bend ; the second member should commence with the pitch slightly higher than the first, and ascending- through this member, it terminates with a bend -somewhat higher than in the first member ; and so on through all the successive members to the end of the entire sentence. Note 2. Emphasis is generally given in definite questions by the lower circumflex. 63. EXAMPLES rOR DRILL. Did you say he walked to town yesterday ? Remark. Let successive scholars give the prece- ding sentence with the emphasis on each of the successive words, beginning with the first. Could not this man who opened the eyes of the blind, have caused that even this man should not have died ? Has not he himself, have not all the martyrs after him, poured forth their blood in the conflict ? Are despots alone, to be reproached for unfeel- ing indiff"erence, to the tears and blood of their sub- jects ; are not republican rulers equally respon- sible ? Have the principles on which you ground \\\q reproach on cabinets and kings, no practical influ- ence or binding force on cabinets and presidents ? Shall we acquire the means of eifectual resist- ance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot ? VOCAL CULTURE. 401 Can we ever hope to witness on cartli a pure and holy generation, while even parents utter their pol- luting levities in the hearing of their own children ; and vice and humor and gaiety are all indiscrimi- nately blended into one conversation ; and a loud laugh is ever ready to regale the man who can pros- titute his powers of entertainment to the lowest species of profligacy and lasciviousness ? 64. Note. If a circumstance follows an interrogative, the same slide is continued through the circum- stance. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Did you arrive in town this mornino; ? said the teacher to James. " Will you examine my work on Gymnastics? " shouted Mr. Smith to a group of boys — who seemed adepts in the science already. 65. Exception 1. A definite interrogative usea as an exclamation, may take the falling slide. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Was it not terrible ! Can it be possible ! Is it possible that my son should do such a thing as that ! Could he think of returning under such circumstances ! 66. _ Execptlon 2. If a definite interrogative is re- peated, for the sake of being more distinctly un- derstood, or for the sake of emphasis, it may take the falling slide. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. JoTin. Did you come from Cincinnati yesterday? Will Sir ? 402 VOCAL CULTURE. John.. Did you come from Cmclnnaii, yesterday? Has the gentleman done ? Has lie completely done f 67. Exception 3. In a series of definite interrogative sentences, tlie last may take the falling slide. Note. If the answers are given in a series of definite questions, they may be delivered with the rising slide, and lower circumflex on the emphatic word, except the last, which requires the perfect close. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Do you know me, sir? Am I Dromio ? Am I your man ? Am I myself ? Am I not an apostle ? Am I not free ? Have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord ? Are not ye my work in the Lordf Are they Hebrews ? So am I. Are they Is- raelites ? So am I. Are they the seed of Abra- ! ham? So am I. Are they the inini^ters of Christ? \ I am more. I Are you poor, and likely to want for necessary food ? The followers of Christ are, surely, more I liberal than mere worldlings. Are you exposed to I sickness and bodily pain ? True Christians have ever manifested their love to Christ by ministering to him in the persons of the afflicted and distressed. I Are you mourning over the sins and follies of a mis- 1 spent life? Jesus is ready to receive, even to the ut- I termost, all that come to him in penitence and faith. I Are you writhing under the anguish of blighted j affections, and disappointed hopes ? In Jesus you I find an object worthy of your heart's best affections, and in his promises you may entertain such hopes j as the wealth and power of this world can never I realize. Do you desire eternal life f He alone has i this boon to bestow. VOCAL CULTURE. 403 68. RULE IV. Iiid^nite inteiTogatiye sentences are delivered with tlie falling slide ; or witli the rising slide to the emphatic word, and this taking the upper cir- cumflex, with the falling slide to the end of the sentence. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. What stranger came into our school this morn- ing ? Where did he come from ? AVhen will he visit us again ? Why ! What evil hath he done ? Who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come ? 69. Note. When the indefinite interrogative is suc- ceeded by a circumstance in the same sentence, the latter is delivered with the continuation of the same slide with the former. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Who will come to our relief? said the terrified woman, as the flames approached the place where she stood with her babe in her arms. "When shall I be set free ? said the dying man, with hope lighting up his countenance, to the phy- sician who stood at his bedside. 70. Note. In a compound indefinite interrogative sentence, the successiA'-e simple or complex inter- rogatives are delivered each with a falling slide, commencing and ending somewhat lower than that of the preceding. 404 VOCAL CULTURE. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. By what title do you, Naso, sit on tliat chair and preside in judgment? by what right, -Attius, do you accuse, or I defend ? whence all this so- lemnity and pomp of judges, and clerks, and offi- cers, of which this house is full ? Who is this that darkeneth words without knowl- edge? Where wast thou when I laid the founda- tions of the earth? Who hath laid the measure thereof, if thou knowest? or who hath stretched the line upon it ? Whereupon are the foundations thereof fastened ? or who hath laid the corner stone thereof? How shall I attempt to follow them through the succession of great events, which a rare and kind Providence crowded into their lives ? how shall I attempt to count all the links of that bright chain which binds the perilous hour of their first efforts for freedom, with the rich enjoyment of its con- summation ? how shall I attempt to enumerate the posts they filled, and the trusts they discharged, at home and abroad ? 71. RULE V. Indirect interrogative sentences are delivered with the circumflex inflections on the emphatic words. Note 1. The circumflexes in this class of sentences require a greater flexibility of the voice than else- where. When two are given in one sentence, the first is generally the upper, and the second the lower, rising above the key. NoU 2. The same indirect interrogative may be correctly delivered in two or more different ways, by varying the application and use of the circumflexes. VOCAL CULTURE. 405 72. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL You came to town yeUerdayf did you not? Your hrother wrote that article in the Tribune respecting the eleventh commandment f Mr. Sw-itlis speculations in loestern lands have nearly ruined him, have they not? Surely, you will not think that I was guilty of such an indiscretion as that ? You will grant him that small favor, I hope ; even, though he has injured you? Only one hilcd of obtaining a first grade certifi- cate, eh ? Who was he ? John Turpin. John Turpin ? Wh}^, he was the best scholar in his class. He, surely, didn't fail on any of the questions proposed? Oh, no, but John has a mind of his own, you know, and the examiners were incapable of distin- guishing between independence and ignorance. Then John, jou think, could have given the ex- aminers some valuable instruction ? Oh, no, they are too wise for that; they say, they are there to examine the candidates ; and not to be examined or taught hy the candidates. 73. JVofe. Interrogative exclamations and words re- peated as an echo to the thought, are delivered with one or the other of the circumflexes, accordi]ig to the feeling designed to be expressed. Remar7t\ In many reading books, expressions of this class are marked for the rising inflection. This delivery does not agree with usage. 106 YOCAL CULTURE. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Frbicr^ IL-iri/. What's the matter ? Fahtaff. What 's the matter f Here be four of us have "taken a thousand pounds this morning. Prince H. Where is it, Jack ? Where is it ? FaU. WJicre is it ? Taken from us, it is. And you call that fellow a poet, do you? A poet ! He could never even make the rhymes jin- gle in his doggerel. A poet ! Ha ! ha ! ha ! that's the last thing I ever should think of calling him. 74. RULE VI. Double interrogative sentences are delivered with the rising slide to the disjunctive o/', and with the falling slide from it. Note. The word or is generally delivered in the same pitch as the commencement of the sentence. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Did you arrive last evening, or this morning ? Art thou he that should come, or do we look for another ? Is there nothing that whispers to that right hon- orable gentleman, that the crisis is too big, that the times are too gigantic, to be ruled by the little hackneyed and every-day means of ordinary cor- ruption ; or are we to believe that he has within I himself a conscious feeling, that disqualifies him for rebuking the ill-timed selfishness of his new I allies ? 75. RULE VII. Compellatives in familar discourse are delivered I with the rising slide, but in earnest or respectful I discourse, may be delivered with the falling slide. VOCAL CULTURE. 407 EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Jolin, what are you about there ? Sammy, my fine fellow, you are just the one I wanted to see. Mary, I sliouid hardly have thought that of you. Friends, countrymen and lovers, hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. Rcmo.rh. If the compellatives in the two last and similar examples are given with the foiling slide, and with the pitch much depressed on each suc- ceeding word, the delivery will be much more im- pressive than with the rising slide on each; or than with the rising slide on all but the last, and the falling slide on that. Mr. President, Ladies, Gentlemen, and Friends: This is surely no ordinary occasion. Ye hypocrites ! ye vipers ! who shall deliver you from the wrath to come ? 76. RULE viir. Parentheses are delivered with inflections accord- ing to preceding rules; but with increased rate, de- pressed pitch, and diminished force. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth ? She had managed this matter so well (oh ! she was the most artful of women !) that my father's heart was gone before I even suspected it was in danger. 408 VOCAL CULTURE. 77 RULE IX. Mixed sentences are delivered according to the rules applicable to each of tlieir parts. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. He kept repeating in an under tone: Gone? Gone ? is it possible that she has gone with some one else ? My friends often asked : "What are you going to do with yourself when you get an education? Are you going to come out a poet or a ninny ? 78. RULE X Poetry is delivered with the same inflections and emphasis as the same class of sentences requires in prose. Nota Bene. Let there be no recognition of the metrical construction in the delivery of poetry, un- less it is the design to sing it. Remark. Poetry, properly constructed, will yield, really, the most pleasure to the ear, when these directions are carefully complied with. METHOD OF DRILL FOR POETRY. Let the teacher select such easy, flowing, melo- j ; dious pieces as are most likely to be sung by schol- I ' ars, rather than read; and let him contrast the j faulty methods of delivery with the correct, before I he shall call on the scholars to read them. If still any pupil shall be governed by the measure more I than by the sense in his delivery, let the teacher deliver the same passage — and caricature the fault, saying when he has done: " You did not read half as badly a- that, but somewhat in that manner. I VOCAL CULTURE. 409 wish you to try and avoid it altogetlier. You may read that passage again, if you are willing." 79. EMPHASIS. Emphasis. Any means by which a word, phrase, or sentence, is rendered more impressive than the words, phrases, or sentences with which it stands connected. Ordinary Emphasis. That placed on a word or phrase, without relation to any other emphasized word, phrase, or sentence. Antithetic Emphasis. That placed on two or more related words or phrases in different members of a sentence, to exhibit the relation more clearly. Explanation. As antithesis is the most com- mon relation thus exhibited, it gives its name to this class of emphasis. Cumulative Emphasis. That placed on succes- sive words or phrases in the same member of a sen- tence, to make them increasingly impressive. Deferred Emphasis. That which is retained in the delivery of a succession of particulars of in- creasing importance, till the utterance of the last. Conventional Emphasis. That given in some common expressions by general usage, without re- gard to the sense. 80. methods of giving emphasis. Remarlx. These are so various and complicated, that it will require too much space to give a com- plete analysis of them. The more common meth- ods are given in the outline on page 365. It will ^ 410 VOCAL CULTURE. be my purpose, only, to give sucli examples here, as will illustrate, in as brief a space as possible, the different classes of Emphasis, and as will af- ford the teacher the means of drilling his class in most of the methods comprised in the outline, and in any other that may occur to him. 81. METHOD OF DRILL IN EMPHASIS. 1. Let the teacher select such passages from this book, or any other, as shall illustrate the different CLASSES of emphasis, and give the proper delivery of one example; then call on the class to give in con- cert the same passage ; then let him call on indi- viduals to give the same or other similar passages, till every one is able to distinguish the different classes of emphasis and to deliver them properly. 2. Let the teacher select such passages as shall illustrate the different methods of emphasis, and pursue a similar course as with the classes, and dwell on each method long enough, and with a suf- ficient variety of examples, so that its propriety and force shall be acknowledged and felt by the class, and the majority of the class shall be able to avail themselves of the different methods, in a measure, spontaneously, in the delivery of selected or origi- nal pieces. Remark. No department of vocal culture affords so appropriate a field for the cultivation of good taste, and judicious management of the voice and expression of the countenance, as that of emphasis. If never before, here is the place to remove all sing- song tones, to extinguish all boarding school affec- VOCAL CULTURE. 411 tation, to infuse so much vivacity, feeling and soul into the pupil, that all tendency to a mechanical delivery shall be lost, in his appreciation of his subject, and in his effort to arouse suitable sympa- thy in his audience. 82. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN CLASSES OF EMPHASIS. ORDINARY EMPHASIS. Did you say that I was not in school yesterday ? Remark. Ordinary Emphasis may, in different readings of this question, be placed on any word in it; and the drill requires that every scholar shall be able to read this or any similar sentence, and place the emphasis as he is directed by the trainer. No man may put off the Law of Grod. Evil com- munications corrupt good manners. Do you think you will walk to town to-day ? 83. ANTITHETIC EMPHASIS. Single Antithesis. It is better to mend our faults than to hide them. He who cannot hear a joke should never give one. I come to hitry Caesar, not to praise him. It is sown in weakness; it is raised in power. It is sown a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual body. Double Antithesis. It is sown in weakness ; it is raised in -power. It is sown a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual body. It is better to trust in the Lord than to ptit confix dencc in Princes. 412 VOCAL CULTURE. Altliougli the fig-tree shall not hlossom^ neither shall fruit be found on the vines^ the labor of the olive shall fail^ and the fields shall yield, no meat, the flock shall be cut off from the fold^ and there shall be no herd in the stalls ; yet 1 will rejoice in the Lord. I will joy in the God of my salvation. Remark. This passage admits of a great variety of emphasis. It may "be read with the ordinary rather than with the antithetic, or with the single antithesis rather than with the double. It may be read also with the triple antithesis. Triple Antithesis. She always called the misfortunes of others^ i"^^- ments; while she considered the calamities that be- fell herself afflictions. A friend cannot be known in prosperity, an en- cmy cannot be hidden in adversity. 84. CUMULATIVE EMPHASIS. I tell you, though t/om, though the Whole World, though an ANGEL FROM HEAVEN, were to declare the truth of it, I would not believe it. Were I an American, as I am an Englishman, while a single foreign troop remained in my coun- try, I would never lay down my arms. Never ! Never!! NEVEE ! ! ! We have petitioned, we have remonstrated., we have SUPPLICATED, we have PPtOSTRATED our- selves at the foot of the throne. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the declaration. DEFERRED EMPHASIS. The knowledge, power, wisdom, holiness, and goodness of God are all unbounded. VOCAL CULTURE. 413 Remark. Any of tlie examples given under cumulative, may be used as examples for deferred emphasis. CONYENTIONAL EMPHASIS. I Dry Groods, Groceries, Yankee Notions, and so j forth. I From day to day ; from man to man. I Remark. To show that the emphasis is conven- i tional^ and not ovdinary, in these examples, I will I give others in which the ordinary emphasis may | be given under similar circumstances. j Dry Goods, Groceries, Yankee Notions, and so | on to the end of the list. I From everlasting to everlasting. He is the same. | 87. j EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE METHODS OP ; EMPHASIS. I Remark. Almost any of the preceding examples I may be used for illustrating emphasis as effected by elevation of pitch, and increase of force. DEPRESSION OF PITCH AND DIMINUTION OF FORCE. You know that you are Brutus, that speak this. Or, hy the gods, this speech were else your last. ; Yet half I hear the parting spirit sigh, j " It is a dread and aiofid thing to die. " DEPRESSION OP PITCH AND INCREASE OP FORCE. I ! 1 scorn your proffered treaty ; the pale face I defy, i Revenge is stamped upon my spear, and blood my battle cry. I I If influenced by local pride, or gangrened by | State jealousy, I get up here to abate a tithe of a 414 VOCAL CULTURE. liair from his just character, and just fame — may my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth. 88/ WHISPER. And the deep thunder peal on peal afar, And near the beat of the alarming drum, Roused up the soldier, ere the morning star, While thronged the citizens with terror dumb, Or whispering, with white lips, " The foe, they come^ they comer INCREASE OR DIMINUTION OF RATE. Remarh. A sufficient variety of examples to il- lustrate these methods may be found in connection with other methods. CHANGE OF ACCENT. He shall i?2crease, but I shall (decrease. There is a difference between giving and for- giving. In this species of composition p?a«sibility is much more desirable than jprotability. 89. EMPHATIC SWEEP. Are not you, sir, who sit in that chair, is not he, our venerable colleague near you, are you not both the predestined objects of punishment and ven- geance ? Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, what are you, what can you be, while the power of England yet remains, but out-laws ? 90. EMPHATIC PAUSE. Yfoe, — woe, — woe, — to the inhabitants of the earth. Strike — till the last armed foe expires, Strike — for your altars and your fires, VOCAL CULTURE. 415 Strike — for tlie green graves of your sires, God — and your native land. 0, woman ! — in our hours of ease Uncertain, — coy, — and hard to please, And — variable — as the shade, By the light quivering aspen made ; When pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel — thou. The war that for a space did fail. Now trebly thundering, swelled the gale, And — Stanley — was the cry. I know there is not a man here, — who would not rather see a general conflagration — sv/eep over the land, — or an earthquake — sink it, — than one jot or tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. For myself, having twelve months ago, in this place, moved you, that George Washington be appointed commander of the forces raised, or to be raised, for the defense of American liberty; may my right hand forget her cunning — and my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth — if I hesitate — or waver — in the support I give him. 91. TONE. Tone. That quality of the voice which depends on the proper, or improper use of the articulatory and vocal organs ; also, on their healthy or dis- eased condition. Pure Tone. That clear, ringing, bell-like sound which can result only from a proper arrangement and healthy condition of the vocal and articulatory organs. Remarh 1. If the trainer has been competent and faithful thus far, his pupils will by this time 416 VOCAL CULTURE. not only understand the nature of pure tonr, but they will possess the ability and the desire to use it. Remark 2. The nasal, guttural, aspirated and husky tones should all be avoided — scrupulously avoided — in ordinary and protracted delivery ; but each may be used with good effect to give expres- sion to some passion or emotion, as will be illus- trated in the following examples. 92. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN IMPURE TONES. NASAL TONE. And this Ctcsar has become a god, and Cassius a wretched creature. How like a fawning publican he looks, I hate him, for he is a Christian. GUTTURAL TONE. Thou sla%'e ! thou wretch ! thou coward ! Thou little valiant, great in villainy ! Thou ever strong upon the stronger side ! ASPIRATED TONE. Oh ! mercy ! mercy on us ! What is that? Didn't you hear it? Don't you see it? Oh! Mercy! Mercy ! The Lord have mercy on us ! TREMULOUS TONE. Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span, Oh ! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store. 93. STYLES OF DELIVERY. Style of Delivery. That peculiar adaptation of Key, Force, Rate, Inflections, Emphasis, Tone and Personation, required to impress any given VOCAL CULTURE. 417 style of tlioiiglit and feeling; to awaken any partic- ular kind of emotion,, or to represent any passion, habit, or usage, whether individual, provincial, or national. Remark. Instead of definitions one or tv/o brief examples will be given for drill, under each style of delivery. It is expected here, as elsewhere, that each scholar will be drilled on each example given. It is found to serve a better purpose to drill all the pupils of a class on one or two appropriate exam- ples, than each one on a different example. It is well to require the whole class to memorize one or more of the examples every day, that they may give them without the book. METHOD OF DRILL. 1. Let the pupil who is called on, for reading or speaking, take his place in a proper manner on the rostrum. Let his ]30sition, bow, and manner of holding the book receive due attention. If he shall not succeed in complying with the directions given by the teacher, let him be excused, while the teacher gives an example on the rostrum of the manner in which he would have the pupil perform his part. If necessary, the teacher can caricature the errors of the pupil, and awkwardness in general, always encouraging the pupil, by assuring him that his errors are not as gross as those of the car- icature. 2. The class may be called on for criticism in the case of each pupil under drill, before the teacher shall ofier any corrections. 418 VOCAL CULTURE. 3. The exercise may be varied by concert read- ing, or concert speaking of any one of the exam pies given ; the teacher having first read or spoken the piece alone, then in concert with the class ; the class will then read or speak the piece without the teacher; while he gives his special attention to the most faulty. 4. Gesticulation may be introduced into these concert exercises w^ith good effect; the teacher al- ways leading the way by first giving the example with appropriate gestures, before he shall require them of the class. 94. EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. Narrative Style. The late Rev. Mr. W. relates the following cir- cumstance in one of his journals: Wednesday, 9th. I rode over to a neighboring town to wait on a Justice of the Peace, a man of candor and under- standing, before whom, I was informed, their an- gry neighbors had carried a whole load of these new heretics, (the Methodists.) But when he asked them what they had done, there was a deep silence, for that was a point the persecutors had forgot. At length, one said : " Why, they pretend to be better than other people ; and besides, they pray from morning to night." The Justice asked, " But have they done nothing else ? " " Yes sir," said an old man, " an't please your vforship, they have convarted my wife. Till she went among them, she had such a tongue ! and now she is as quiet as a lamb." " Carry them back ! carry them back ! " said the Justice, "and let them convert all the scolds in the town." VOCAL CULTURE. 419 95. Didactic Style. There is notliing more characteristic of a true Christian than humility. It is the first lesson that he learns in the school of Christ, and is the source of contentment and solid peace of mind. If he hears that any one has reviled him, he is ready to say, with the philosopher, "Had he known me bet- ter, he would have said worse things of me than that." The fiercest storms of adversity blow over him. Humility gives a pliancy to his mind, which saves it by yielding to the force it cannot resist ; like the weak and bending reed, that weathers out the tempest, which fells the tall and sturdy oak. In the evening of the day on which Sir Eadly Wilmot was appointed Chief Justice of England, one of his sons, a youth of seventeen, attended him to his bedside. " Now," said he, "my son, I will tell you a secret worth knowing, and remem- bering. The elevation I have met with in life, particularly the last instance of it, has not been owing to my superior merit or abilities, but to my huinilitt/, to my not having set myself up above others ; and to a uniform endeavor to pass through life void of offence toward God and man." i Thus humility is the way to honor. j 96. I Persuasive Style. < Whatever plans of liberality you may have before | you, it is well not to procrastinate, but to improve the first opportunity of executing them. How much more satisfaction does th?- truly beneficent man de- rive from his daily appropriation of his wealth than { did Stephen Girard in hoarding property for some other person to appropriate it. None can so well use property as he who earns it. Suppose Girard had himself established the Asylum for Orphans. How much satisfaction he must have derived from the 420 VOCAL CULTUHE. comfort, improvement, and promise of the thousands that his vast wealth might have rescued from penuiy and crime. Could he now witness the gross misap- plication in lavish expenditure of that which he gath- ered so carefully, and guarded so scrupulously, how keen and .continuous the pangs would be, that he had not given the money its just direction by his own administration while living. I repeat it, then, my ft-iends, enjoy your own means by applying them to such objects of charity and usefulness as may seem most worthy of them, and as will yield you the greater amount of x->leasure in the appropriate and economical disposition of them. 97. Argumentative Style. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give Ta.y hand and my heart to this vote. It is true, in- deed, that in the beginning, we aimed not at inde- pendence. But there is a divinity which shapes our ends. The injustice of England has driven us to arms; and blinded to her own interest, she has obsti- nately persisted, till independence is now within our grasp. We have but to reach forth to it, and it is ours. Why th(in should we defer the declaration? Is any man so weak, as now to hope for a reconcilia- tion with England, which shall leave either safety to the country and its liberties, or security to his own life, and his own honor? Are not you, sir, who sit in that chair, is not he, our venerable colleague, near you, are you not both, already the proscribed and predestined objects of punishment and of vengeance? Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, what are you, what oin you be, while the power of England re- mains, but outlaws') If we postpone independence, do we mean to carry on, or to give up the war? Do we mean to submit, and consent that we shall be ground to powder, and our country and its rights trodden down in the dust? I know we do not mean to submit. AVe Isever shall submit! Do we intend to violate that most solemn obligation ever entered into by men, that plighting, before (xod, of our sacred honor to Washington, when, putting him forth to incur tlie dangers of war, as well VOCAL CULTURE. 421 as the political hazards of the times, we promised to adhere to him in every extremity, with our fortunes and our lives? I know there is not a man here, who would not rather see a general conflagration sweep oyer the land, or an earthquake sink it, than one jot or tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. For myself, having twelve months ago, in this place, moved you, that Greorge Washington be appointed commander of the forces raised, or to be raised for the defense of American liberty, may my right hand forget her cunning, and my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth, if I hesitate or waver in the support I give him. 98. CoUoqukd Sfyle. [Scene. — Dr. Gregonj s Siudtj. Eater a plinap Glasgoio merchant.) Patient Good morning. Dr. Gregory! I'm just come into Edinburgh about some law business, and I thought when I was here, at any rate, I might just as weel take your advice, sir, about my trouble. Dr. Pray, sir, sit down. And now, my good sir, Avhat may your trouble be? Pa. Indeed, doctor, I'm not very sure; but I 'm thinking it 's a kind of weakness that makes me dizzy at times, and a kind of pinkling about my stomach ; — I 'm just na right. Dr. You are from the west-country, I should sup- pose, sir? Pa. Yes, sir, from Glasgow. Dr. Ay; pray, sir, are you a glutton? Pa. God forbid, sir; I 'm one of the plainest men living in all the west-country. D'\ Then, perhaps, you are a drunkard? Pa. No, Dr. Gregory: thank God, no one can ac- cuse me of that. I 'm of the dissenting persuasion, doctor, and an elder; so you may suppose I 'm na drunkard. Dr. I'll suppose no such thing till you tell me your mode of life. I 'm so much puzzled with your symptotns, sir, tha,t T should wish to hear in detail what you do eat and drink. When do yo'. • breakfast, and what do you take at it? 422 VOCAL CULTURE. Pd. I breakfast at nine o'clock; take a cup of coffee, and one or two cups of tea, a couple of eggs, antl a bit or ham or kippered salmon, or, may be, both, if they 're good, and two or three rolls and but- ter. Dr. Do you eat no honey, or jelly, or jam, at breakfast? Pa. Oh, yes, sir ! but I do n't count that as any- thing. L'r. Come, this is a very moderate breakfast. What kind of a dinner do you make? Pa. Oh, sir, I eat a very plain dinner indeed. Some soup, and some fish, and a little plain roast or boiled; for I dinna care for made dishes: I think, some way thej'' never satisfy the appetite. Dr. You take a little pudding then, and after- wards some cheese? Pa. Oh, yes! though I don't care much about them. Dr. You take a glass of ale or porter with your cheese? Pa. Yes, one or the other; but seldom both. Dr. You west-country people generally take a glass of Highland whisky after dinner? Pa. Yes, we do ; it 's good for digestion. Dr. Do you take any wine during dinner? Pa. Yes, a glass or two of sherry; but I 'm indif- ferent as to wine during dinner. I drink a good deal of beer. Dr. What quantity of port do you drink? Pa. Oh, very little; not above half a dozen glasses or so. Dr. In the west-country, it is impossible, I hear, to dine without punch? Pa. Yes, sir; indeed, 'tis punch we drink chiefly; but for myself, unless I happen to have a friend wdth me, I never take more than a couple of tumblers or so, and that 's moderate. Dr. Oh, exceedingly moderate indeed ! You then, after this slight repast, take some tea and bread and butter? Pa. Yes, before I go to the counting-house to read the evening letters. Dr. And on your return you take supper, I sui> VOCAL CULTURE. 423 Pa. No, sir, I canna be said to take supper; just something before going to bed ; — a I'izzered liaddock, or a bit of toasted cheese, or a half-hundred of oys- ters, or the like o' that, and may be, two-thirds of a bottle of ale; but I take no regular supper. 99. Remiirh 1. It will be well at this stage, in the progress of a class, to take up the reading and speaking of poetry. Suitable pieces in the various styles can be selected from almost any reading book in use. For want of room, such pieces can- not be given here. Remark 2. Scholars may be requested to select favorite pieces, in prose or verse, for class or indi- vidual drill. Humorous Style. Remark. The varieties of the humorous style are numerous. One of the most common, only, will be given. Remark. Almost any piece may be rendered humorous, or ludicrous, by assuming some style in its delivery, other than that adapted to it ; for ex- ample : apply the ministerial style, somev,diat ex- aggerated, to any of the preceding examples; again, apply the argumentative style of delivery to any narrative piece, or vice versa; the pathetic style to a denunciatory piece, or vice versa. Let it be tried. 100. Bah ! that 's the third umbrella gone since Clirist- mas. What were you to do ? Why, let him go home in the rain, to be sure. I am very certain there was nothing about him that could spoil. Take cold, in- deed ! He does n't look like one of the sort to take cold. Besides, he'd have better taken cold than ta- ken our umbrella. — Do you hear the rain, Mr. Caudle? 424 VOCAL CULTURE. I say, do you liear the rain ? And as 1 am alive, if it is n't St. Swithin's day ! Do you liear it against the windows ? Nonsense ; you don't impose upon me ; you can't be asleep with such a shower as that ! Do you hear it, I soy ? Oh ! you do hear it ! — Well, that's a pretty flood, I think, to last for six weeks ; and no stirring all the time out of the house. Pooh ! don't think me a fool, Mr. Caudle ; don't insult me ; he re- turn the umbrella ! Anybody would think you were born yesterday. As if anybody ever did return an umbrella! There; do you hear it? Worse and worse. Cats and dogs^ and for six weeks ; and no um- brella. I should like to know how the children are to go to school to-morrow. They sha n't go through such weather : I am determined. No ; they shall stop at home and never learn anything, (the blessed crea- tures!) sooner than go and get wet! And when they grow up, I wonder who they '11 have to thank for knowing nothing ; who, indeed, but their father. People who can't feel for their own children ought never to be fathers. 101. Plaintive. "Oh ! cease not yet to beat, thou vital urn! Wait, gushing life, oh, wait my love's return ! Hoarse barks the wolf, the vulture screams from far, The angel, pity, shuns the walks of war ; Oh ! spare, ye war hounds, sj^are tlieir tender age, On me, on me," she cried, " exhaust your rage." Then, with weak arms her weeping babes caressed, And, sighing, hid them in her blood-stained vest. 102. Denunciatory. I ask now, Verres, what thou hast to advance against this cliarge ? Will you pretend to deny it ? Will you pretend that anytliing false, that even any- thing exaggerated is alleged against you ? Had any prince, or any State committed the same outrage against the privileges of Poman citizens, should we not think we had reason for declaring immediate war against them ? What punishment, then, ought to bo VOCAL CULTURE. 425 inflicted on a tyrannical and wicked praetor, who dared, at no greater distance than Sicily, within sight of the Italian coast, to put to the infamous death of crucifixion that unfortunate and innocent citizen, Publius Gavins Cosanus, only for having asserted his privilege of citizenship ? The unhappy man, arrested as he was going to embark for his native country, is brought before the vacked prsetor. With eyes dart- ing fury, and a countenance distorted with cruelty, he orders the helpless victim of his rage to be stripped, and rods to be brought, and the infamous punish- ment to be inflicted. 103. Contemptuous. Banished from Rome ! What's banished but set free? " Tried and convicted traitor ! " Who says this ? Who '11 prove it at his peril on my head ? Banished ! I thank you for it. It breaks my chain I held some slack allegiance till this hour. But now my sword's my own. Smile on, my lords I I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, I have within my heart's core shut up, To leave you in your lazy dignities; But here I stand and scoff you ! Here I fling Hatred and full defiance in your face ! Your Consul's merciful — for this, all thanks ; He dares not touch one hair of Cataline. 10-4. Ironical. "But, Mr. Speaker, we have a right to tax Amer- ica." Oh, inestimable right ! Oh, wonderful, trans- cendent right! the assertion which has cost this country thirteen provinces, six islands, one hundred thousand lives, and seventy millions of money. Oh ! invaluable right I for the sake of which we have sacri- ficed our rank among nations, our importance abroad, and our happiness at home ! Oh, right, more dear to us than our existence ! which has already cost us so 6 426 VOCAL CULTURE. much, and which seems likely to cost us our all. In- fatuated man ! miserable and undone country ! not to know that the claim of right, without the power of enforcing it, is nugatory, idle. We have a right to tax America. This is the profound logic which com- prises the whole cliain of his reasoning. Not inferior to this was the wisdom of him who re- solved to shear the wolf What, shear a wolf ! have you considered the resistance, the difficulty, the dan- ger of the attempt ? No, says the mad man, I have considered nothing but the right. Man has a right of dominion over the beasts of the forest, and there- fore I will shear the wolf 105. Angry. i Ye dark, designing knaves ! ye murderers ! parri- i cides ! how dare you tread upon the earth, which has j drank the blood of slaughtered innocentys, shed by i your hands ; how dare you breathe the air which ! wafted to the ear of heaven the groans of those who 1 ff^ll a sacrifice to your accursed ambition ! But if the 1 laboring earth doth not expand her jaws, if the air you I breathe is not commissioned to be the minister of j death, yet hear it and tremble ! The eye of heaven i penetrates the darkest chambers of the soul ; traces the leading clue through all the labyrinths which j your industrious folly has devised ; and you, however you may have screened yourselves from human eyes, must be arraigned, must lift your hands, red with the blood of those whose death you have procured, at I the tremendous bar of God. j 106. J PERSONATING STYLE OF DELIVERY. I Remark. The personation of the passions is I somewhat diiFerent from the delivery of passages I when really under the influence of such passions, as has been supposed in the preceding sections. For instance, the personation of Love, presupposes that the individual is under no restraint from any VOCAL CULTURE. 427 observer; that he is alone, or only in the presence of the object of his affection. It is farther taken for granted by the audience, that every such per- sonation is someAvhat over-acted, whereas in the former styles of delivery, directed really to the audience, no such overaction is tolerated. The Personating Style, therefore, may, perhaps, more properly be called the Caricaturing style, though not designed, in all instances, to provoke humor by any means. 107. Love. Strange! that one lightly-whispered tone Is far, far sweeter unto me, Than all the sounds that kiss the earth Or breathe along the sea; But, lady, when thy voice I greet, Not heavenly music sounds so sweet. 108. Fear. Ah! what sound was that? — The trap-door fallen? and the spring-lock caught — Well, have I not the key? — Of course I have! 'Tis in this pocket— Xo. In this?— No. Then I left it at the bottom of the ladder — Hal 'tis not there. Where then? — Ah mercy, Heaven! 'T is in the lock outside? What 's to be done? Help, help ! Will no one hear? I would that I Had not discharged old Simeon! — but he begged Each week for wages — would not give me credit. I'll try my strength upon the door — Despair ! I might as soon root up the eternal rocks As force it open. Am I here a prisoner, And no one in the house? — Horrible fate ! I sink — I faint beneath the bare conception. 428 VOCAL CULTURE. 109. Hate. How like a fawning publican he looks ! I hate him, for he is a Christian; But more, for that, in low simplicity, He lends out money gratis, and brings down The rate of usance with us in Venice. If I can catch him once upon the hip, I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear himi He hates our sacred nation; and he rails, Even there where merchants most do congregate, On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift, Which he calls interest. — Cursed be my tribe, K I forgive him. 110. Anger. Thou slave ! thou wretch ! thou coward I Thou little valiant, great in villainy! Tliou ever strong upon the stronger side. Thou fortune's champion, thou dost never fight But when her humorous lady's hiss is by To teach thee safety! Thou art perjured too, And soothest up greatne:is! What a fool art thou, A ramping fool, to brag, and stamp, and sweat. Upon my party. Thou coldblooded slave. Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side? Been sworn my soldier? bidding me depend Upon my stars, thy fortune and thy strength? And dost thou now fall over to my foes? Thou wear a lion's hide? Doff it for shame, And hang a calfskin on those recreant limbs. 111. PERSONIFICATION OF NATIONAL PECULIARITIES. Irish. O Mulligan. 'Pon me sowl, if it's not yourself that I see. Sobersense. How now, Pat, what news? OM. News! it's meself that's afther telHng ye that! Ye see I 'm jist like a letther rite out of the mail, that's come by tiligraph, walking over the thrack like a staim taekittle; and sure as me name VOCAL CULTURE. 429 is Pat O'MuUigan, that owld boy of a sthudent has made a diskivery in chimistry that '11 make a great man of him all his days. And has not he been of- fered a dale of money for it, and a chance to be a teacher in the siminary? iSoh. Why surely, Pat, you must be dreaming, for he was here but a short time since, and he said noth- ing about it. O' 31. The divil a bit am I a dhraming. It 's like the likes o" him to say niver a word at all, at all. Did he iver till how he supported the poor mither of his all the time he was afther studying the books? Shure and was n't he the dacentest boy this side of the ould counthry? Sure and it 's meself that 's just from the post office with news. 112. Dutch. Mr. Foreman and Toder Jurymens: — Hans peen dried for Murder pefore you, and you must pring in te verdict; put it must pe 'cordin' to law. Der man he killed vash n't killed at all, as vash broved; he is in ter jail in Morristown, for sheep stealing. Put dat ish no matter; te law say ven ter ish a doubt you give him to ter brisoner; put here ter ish no doubt. Zo you see ter brisoner is guilty. Pesides, he is a great loafer. I have known him' fifty years, and he has not done any work in all dat times; and dere ish no one depending upon him for dere living, for he ish no use for nopody. I dinks, derefore, Mr. Foreman, he petter pe hung next Fourth of July, as der militia is going to drain in anoder county, and dere will pe noting going on here. 113. TRANSITION. Transition. A sudden change in the manner of delivery. Explanation. In commencing new paragraphs, or in personating several characters in the delivery of one piece, we find the most common and impor- 430 VOCAL CULTURE. taut use for Transition. There are many other forms of transition, however, some of which I shall exemplify. 114. TRANSITION IN PARAGRAPHS. Remarh. Most of our reading books being as absurdly divided into verses as is the Bible, this kind of transition is precluded. Appropriate ex- amples may be found on pages 419 — 20; others should be found by the teacher in some book, and all the pupils should be trained in this form of delivery. Rule. The transition from one paragraph to another, or from one topic of a discourse to anoth- er, generally requires a lower pitchy slower rate, and subdued force; also, a slight change in the po- sition on the stage. 115. TRANSITION IN STYLE. Remark. Dialogue and colloquy afford the best examples of this form of transition ; though narra- tive pieces, having conversations interspersed, are often more difficult to deliver, requiring also a fre- quent transition from the narrative to the colloquial style. Examples of both kinds will be given. 116. Transitions in Colloquial Style. \_Sir Robert Bramble and Humphrey Dobbins.'] Sir R. I'll tell you what, Humphrey Dobbins, there is not a syllable of sense in all you have been saying. But I suppose you will maintain there is. Hum. Yes. Sir R. Yes ! is that the way you talk to me, you old boor ? What's my name ? VOCAL CULTURE. 431 Hum. Robert Bramble. Sir R. An't I a baronet ? Sir Robert Bramble of Blackberry Hall, in the county of Kent ? ' Tis time you should know it, for you have been my clumsy, two-fisted valet these thirty years: can you deny that ? Hum. Hem ! ISir R. Hem ? what do you mean by hem ? Open that rusty door of your mouth, and make your ugly voice walk out of it. Why don't you answer my question ? Hum. Because, if I contradict you, I shall tell you a lie, and when I agree with you, you are sure to fall out. Sir R. Humphrey Dobbins, I have been so long endeavoring to beat a few brains into your pate, that all your hair has tumbled off before my point is carried. Hum. What then ? Our parson says my head is an emblem of both our honors. Sir R. Ay; because honors like your head are apt to be empty. Hum. No ; but if a servant has grown bald under his master's nose, it looks as if there was honesty on one side, and regard for it on the other. Sir R. Why, to be sure, old Humphrey, you are as honest as a — pshaw ! the parson means to palave? us ; but, to return to my position, I tell you, I don't like your flat contradiction. Him. Yes you do. ( Sir R. I tell you I don't. I only love to hear i men's arguments. I hate their flummery. } Hum. What do you call flummery ? I Sir R. Flattery," blockhead ! a dish too often I served up by paltry poor men to paltry rich ones. 117. Trandtion from Narrative to Colloquial. \_The Gouty Merchant and the Stranger. '\ In Broadstroet building, (on a winter night,) j Snug by his parlor-fire, a gouty wight j Sat all alone, with one hand rubbing I His feet, rolled up in fleecy hose, j With t'other\\Qd. beneath his nose i 432 VOCAL CULTURE. The Public Ledger, in whose columns grubbing, He noted all the sales of hops, Ships, shops, and slops; Gums, galls, and groceries ; ginger, gin, Tar, tallow, tumeric, turpentine, and tin ; When lo ! a decent personage in black, Entered and most politely said — " Your footman, sir, has gone his nightly track To the King's Head, And left your door ajar, which I Observed in passing by; And thought it neighborly to give you notice^'* " Ten thousand thanks ; how very few do get, In times of danger, Such kind attentions from a stranger I Assurdly that fellow's throat is Doomed to a final drop at Newgate : He knows, too, (the unconscionable elf,) That there's no soul at home except my self ^ '■'•Indeed,'' replied the stranger (looking grave), " Then he's a double knave. He knows that rogues and thieves by scores Nightly beset unguarded doors : And see, how easily might one Of the.se domestic foes, Even beneath your very nose, Perform his knavish tricks ; Enter your room as I have done. Blow out your candles — thus — and thus— Pocket your silver candlesticks, And — walk off- — thus," — So said, so done ; he made no more remark, Nor waited for replies. But marched off with his prize, Leaving the gouty merchant in the dark. 118. TRANSITION IN PARENTHESIS. Examples have before been given of ordinary parenthesis, — I shall here add one of rather extra- ordinary character. It affords the material for an excellent drill. ! I i I VOCAL CULTURS. 433 119. Example of Transition in Parenthesis. \_Ode to an Infant Son.~\ Thou happy, happy elf ! (But stop, first let me kiss away that tear,) Thou tiny image of myself ! (My love, he's poking peas into his ear,) Thou merry, laughing sprite, With spirits, feather light. Untouched by sorrow, and unsoiled by sin, (My dear, the child is swallowing a pin !) Thou little tricksy Pack ! j With antic toys so funnily bestruck. Light as the singing bird that wings the air, (The door! the doorl he'll tumble down the stair!) Thou darling of thy sire ! (Why, Jane, he'll set his pin-afore afire !) Thou imp of mirth and joy ! In love's dear chain so bright a link, Thou idol of thy parents; — (Hang the boy I There goes my ink !) 120. Transition from Male to Female Voice, Mister Socrates Snooks, a lord of creation, The second time entered the married relation ; Xantippe Caloric accepted his hand, And thought him the happiest man in the land. But scarce had the honeymoon passed o'er his head, When, one morning, to X;i.ntippe, Socrates said, "I think, for a man of my standing in life, This house is too small, as I now have a wife: So, as early as possible, carpenter Carey Shall be sent for to widen my house and my dairy. "Now, Socrates, dearest," Xantippe replied, " I hate to hear everything vulgarly mi/d; Now, whenever you speak of your chatties again, Say, ow/-co\v house, our barn yard, our pig pen." " By your leave, Mrs. Snooks, I will say what I please Of mu houses, mj lands, my gardens, vi^j trees." "Say Our^' Xantippe exclaimed in a rage. "I won't Mrs. Snooks, though you ask it an age ! " 434 VOCAL CULTURE. j I I Oh, woman! though only a prirt of man's rib, | If the story in Genesis don't tell a fib, 1 Should your naughty companion e'er quarrel with you, j You are certain to prove the best man of the two. I In the following case this was certainly true ; j For the lovely Xantippe just pulled off her shoe, j And laying about her, all sides at random, i The adage was verified — "A'il desperandum." ] Mister Socrates Snooks, after trj-ing in vain, j To ward off the blows which descended like rain,— I Concluding that valor's best part was discretion — j Crept under the bed like a terrified Hessian : j But the dauntless Xantippe, not one whit afraid, i Converted the siege into a blockade. | At last, after I'easoning the thing in his pate, _ i He concluded 't was useless to strive against fate ; i And so, like a tortoise protruding his head, j Said, "My dear, may we come out from under our bed?" I "Hall! hah!" she exclaimed, "Mr. Socrates Snooks, ; I perceive you agree to my terms, by your looks: I Now, Socrates, — hear me,~ from this happy hour. If you'll only obey me, I'll nev^er look sour." 'Tis said the next Sabbath, ere going to church, [ He chanced for a clean pair of trowsers to search : ! Having found them, he a.^ked, with a few nervous twitches, "My dear, may we put on our new Sunday breeches ? " ; [From Kidd's Elocution. \ GESTICULATION. CLASSES. As to Origin, Natural, Artificial. As to Stifle, Colloquial, Oratorical, Dramatic, As to Order, Principal, Subordinate. As to, Combijiaiion, Simple, Complex, Compound. As to Use, i^*r.,.A,^r,i^y.-cr i ^0 QH AudiencB, Introductory, j q^ ^ ^^^^^^^ ^ Paragraph, etc. na.v.^r,-f,.„f;,r« I of Places, Persons, Things, Extent, Demonstrative, j Limitation, of Aatithesil, etc. f Of Assent, Denial, I Approbation, Disapprobation, Significant, \ Request, Command, I Prohibition, Threatening, (_ Silencing, Directing, etc. Emphatic, \ I'^T^^ , '^ ' I Rhetorical. f Of Joy, Grief, Love, Hate, Contempt, j Fear, Horror, Despair, Surprise, Impassioned, ■<| Astonishment, Fright, Pride, Arrogance, 1 Humility. Servility, Shame, Bashfulness, [etc. (Of Personal Peculiarities. I Of X::tioual Peculiarities. Imitative, \ Of Feminine or Masculine Peculiarities. i Of Cockney Peculiarities, [Of Clownish Peculiarities. ^ 1 V « i Departure from Individual. Concluding, j j>^j;^^^ f^^^ ,^^^ g^^g^_ (435) 436' GESTICULATION. USE OF THE PARTS. Feet, Right. Left. Positions. Changes of Position. f 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th. I Contracted. \ Extended. I ParalleL t Introverted. ^Advancing. Retiring. Traversing. Starting. I Stamping. ^ Kicking. t Errors— 1, 2, 3. r Conditions. \ J'/'^.' ^JS^' ^^^'$^^> Trembling. I / straight, Bent, Kneeling. Lower Limbs, ■{ -^jQfjQjjg \ Bending, Kneeling, Shaking I ' ^' \ Staggering, t Errors— 1, 2, 3. f Conditions, i J^''^^*' .^^'S^'J' Stooping Leaning, I ' ( Reclining, Square. Oblique. Trunk, ^ Motions lending, Stooping, Turning, Strutting, I "^ ' ( Reclining, Swaggering, Quivering. I Errors, 1, 2, 3. Shoulders, {Positions \ Thrown back. Drawn forward '' i Elevated, Depressed, Contracted Motions, riirowing back, Drawing forward. Elevating, Depressing, Shrugging. f Positions, f Horizontal As to vertical ! IS'^^^^,^""^^ direction, As to Transverse direction. Armai, Positions in Combination As to Direc- tion, As to Force, Divisions, \ ■{ Upward, I Zenith, [ Rest. Forwards, Oblique, Across, Extended, Backwards. ( Folded, Kimbo, Reposed ( Arrogant, f Front, 1 I Cross, I I i Oblique, j- \ Extended, | | [Backward, J [ ( Violent, Medium, ( Moderate, Feeble. Preparatory, Commencing, Stroke, Conclusion. (Downward. -(Horizon (Upward ard.) tall f Direct, I Inwards, Outwards, Revolving, GESTICULATION. 437 f Position of the palm, Position of the finorers Hands < prone, supine, inwards, outwards, \ vertical, forwards, backwards. {natural, clinched, extended, index, collected, holding, hollow, thumb extended, grasping. Position of hands and ) i applied, clasped, crossed, fingers with regard to >• ■< folded, inclosed, wringing, each other, ) ( touching, enumerating. Positions with , f on the forehead, over the eyes, regard to other ( 1 over the chin, over the mouth, parts of the j 1 pinching the chin, on the breast, body, [ finger on the lips, on the nose. , pointing, noting, beckoning, repressing, Motions ( j advancing, springing, striking, pressing, of hands, ( 1 retracting, rejecting, bending, recoiling, ^ shaking, throwing, clinching^ collecting. Head ^ Positions, — erect, inclined, elevated, aside t Motions,— assenting, denying, shaking, tossing, aside. Eyes, j Direction \ forwards, averted, downwards, upwards, ' ( around, on vacancy, fixed. smiling, glistening, winking, frowning, Conditions, Mouth ( ^'^^^^^^o^' Mouth i and "I Lips, ( Actions, weeping, closing, distpnded, starting, staring, wild, phrensied, bloodshot, etc. i closed, gaping, grinning, pouting, ( down in the mouth, ( with stiff upper lip. laughing, hissing, yawning, sneering, flouting, hooting, ( chuckling, spitting, whistling. Magnificent, ■ Bold, Energetic, •• • Varied, Simple, QUALITIES. • Just, Constrained, • Appropriate, Tame, ■Forcible, Feeble, ■ Select, Monotonous, Adequate, Theatrical, Few, Sufficient, Excessive, Graceful, Suitable, Awkward, Precise, Well-timed, Ill-timed. METHODS OF DRILL. 1. In gestures alone, 2. In gestures with voice. }( Simple, ) ( Oratorio 4 Complex, [• ^ ( Compound. ) ( Drama ti Oratorical, tic. 438 GESTICULATION. DEFINITIONS, REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. Remark 1. Most of the text books oa Elocution, virtually ignore the subject of Gesticulation, by saying that it cannot be taught by pictures; or by referring it to teachers, who, for the most part, are unacquainted even with its nomenclature. Remark 2. Having given an outline of Gesticulation, em- bracing its nomenclature, I shall have room only for the defi- nitions of such terms and explanations of such parts of it as seem most to require them. Remark 3. Almost any teacher, by going over this classifi- cation and familiarizing himself with its terms and details, and by practicing them in his private room, will be able to in- troduce the following drills on Gesture into his school with good eifect. They can take the place of other gymnastic exercises during recesses or intermissions. Remark 4. An abridged notation may be secured by using capital initial letters for the positions and motions of the head, eyes, mouth, also for the lower extremeties; and small initial letters for the motions, positions, and conditions of all other parts. In case the initial letters are alike in two terms, the first two letters must be used ; and when the first two are .alike, the first three can be used. The letter added to an initial c.apital should be small. This notation is convenient in guid- ing drills ; also, for noting the errors or defects of pupils un- der drill in order for efficient criticism. Remark 5. All that has been gained by the drill in the Management of the Person, as treated of on pages 357 — 365, will be valuable- as introductory to Drills in Gesticulation. Gesticulation. See page 55, section 7. CLASSES. Natural Gesticulation. See page 43, section 6. Artificial Gesticulation. See page 44, section 6. Colloquial Gesture. That which occurs in ordinary con- versation. GESTICULATION. 439 Explanation. This often consists in motions of the head only ; not uufrequentlj, however, the motions of the hand and forearm are used; seldom the motions of the arm. ! Oratorical Gesture. That used in the pulpit, and in j legislative assemblies. I Explanation. This consists of the positions and motions I of all parts of the system, except such attitudes and highly I -wrought displays, as are necessary to exhibit the stronger I emotions, as of fright, horror, despair, etc. It forbids the i use of the forearm, by itself, entirely. I Dramatic Gesture. That which is suitable for the drama \ or theater. ! Explanation. It includes all oratorical gesture ; also, the i appropriate portrayal of the strongest passions and emotions j of the soul. I Simple Gesture. That made b} one member or equally by a pair of members, when designed to give expression to j only one gush of thought or feeling. i Complex Gesture. That which involves the motions of j two or more members, a part of which motions are subordi- j nate to others. \ Compound Gesture. Gesture continued from one thought I or feeling to another, with, or without change. j Principal Gesture. That which in a complex gesture is the most prominent. Introductory Gesture. That which is designed to accompany the introduction of a speaker to an audience, or 1 to prepare the minds of an audience for a new speech or a new paragraph. Explanation. The bow is commonly addressed to the audience, when a speaker is intrb laced both by the speaker and the person introducing him ; also, a downward obli^iue outward gesture with the right hand, by the latter. Remark. For want of room, I shall be compelled to omit the definitions and explanations of other classes oi' Gesture. They will, for the most part, explain themselves to Jiny intel- ligent teacher. I 440 GESTICULATION. POSITIONS AND MOTIONS OF THE FEET. 1 ST Position. Body on the left foot, right foot forward, head erect, hands down. '2d Position. Body forward on the right foot; the left foot behind, resting on the toe. 2d Position, Body on the right foot, the left in front. 4th Position. Body on the left foot, the right behind, resting on the toe. Contracted. Feet nearly touching. Extended. Feet for apart. Parallel. Both feet in the same direction. Introverted. Feet with toes turned inward. Remark. The motions op the feet will explain them- selves; and for want of room, I shall leave the Outline on the Trunk and Shoulders for the ingenuity of the teacher and pupil to master. POSITIONS OF THE ARM. Horizontal. Extended in a straight line from the shoul- der, neither elevated nor depressed. Downward. Depressed 45° from the horizontal position. Upward. Elevated 45° from the horizontal position. Zenith. Pointing vertically upward. Rest. Hanging by the force of gravity only. Forward. Extending in a straight line, neither inclining to right or left. Oblique. The right arm inclined 4.5° towards tlie left; the left arm extended 45° towards the right. Both arms are in the right oblique position, when inclined 45° towards the right; and in the left oblique position, when inclined 45° towards the left. Across. The right arm directed towards the left, or the left arm directed towards the right, in contact with the breast. Extended. Directed outward, 90° from fanoard. Backward. ^^laking an obtuse angle with forward. GESTICULATION. 441 Folded. "Wrapped across the breast, and enclosing each other. KiMBo. With the elbow extended, and the hand placed on the hip. Arrogant. The elbows in contact with the person, and the thumbs in the arm-holes of the vest. Reposed. "With one hand covering the other over the stomach. A feminine position. Remark. Outline of Motions must explain itself. It gives at least 96 different gestures with each arm, without inclu- ding any changes of the hand or fingers. DIVISIONS OF GESTURE WITH THE UPPER EX- TREMITY. Preparation. This consists in such elevation of the hand and arm from the position of Rest as is necessary to perform the gesture. Commencement. The first part of the motion, which is given with less force than the Stroke. Stroke. Climax or telling point of the gesture, which must be given with greater energy than that of the motion preceding it. Conclusion. The falling back of the hand and arm to the state of Rest. POSITIONS OF THE HAND. Prone. Palm downward. Supine. Palm upward. Inward. Palm toward the body. Outward. Palm away from the body. "Vertical. Pointing directly upward. Forward. Palm turned forward, the iarm being at rest, or in one of the extended or backward positions. Backward. Palm turned backward, the arm being at rest, or in one of the extended or backward positions. DISPOSITION OP THE FINGERS. Natural The fingers all a little bent in towards the palm, and the extremity of the thumb a little bent outward; the same arrangement as when offered for shaking hands. 7 442 GESTICULATION. Clinched, The fingers firmly closed, and thumb pressing over them. Extended. The fingers separated from each other, accord- ing to the excitement of the speaker. Index. The fore finger extended, the other fingers being closed. Collected. The ends of the fingers inclined towards, or touching the end of the thumb. Holding. The fore and middle fingers pressed at their middle against the thumb, the other fingers being more or less contracted. Hollow. The hand supine, and the fingers curved with- out touching. Thumb. The fingers closed, the thumb being used as an index. COMBINED POSITION OF THE HANDS. Applied. The palms, fingers and thumbs mutually pressed against each other. Clasped. All the fingers inserted between each other, and closed, as far as possible. Folded, The fingers of the right hand laid between the thumb and forefinger of the left, the right thumb crossing the left. Crossed, One hand laid on the breast and the other laid over it. Inclosed. One hand so laid within the other that one thumb lies over the other. GESTURES WITH HAND AND ARM. Pointing. Indicating the direction of any object. Noting. The right hand as an index descending gently and repeatedly; often towards the palm of the other hand, hollow. Repelling The arms first retracted, being pushed for- ward with the hand vertical and outward. Waving. The fingers first downward, being raised quickly by extending the joints of the hands and arms. GESTICULATION. 443 Beckoning. The hand imvard, and brought repeatedly towards the breast. Repressing. The hand outward^ being carried repeatedly foTioard. It is the opposite of the preceding. Advancing. The hand first moved downward and back- ward, then regularly /(>r2^;ar(f to the horizontal; a step being made forward to aid in the gesture. f Springing. The hand having nearly arrived at its limit in a gesture, being suddenly thrown forward making the stroke of the gesture. This must be simultaneous with the enunciation of the accented syllable in the emphatic word. Striking. The arm being thrown towards the person ad- dressed, as it were, by the force of the gesture. Threatening. The hand suddenly clinched, is raised into a posture of offence. Pressing. The hand already laid on some part, the elbow being raised and the fingers pressed more forcibly on that part, denoting greater violence of the emotion. Retracting. Withdrawing the arm preparatory to ges- ture. Rejecting. Pushing the hand forward toward an object, at the same time averting the face. METHOD OP DRILL WITHOUT VOICE. Remark 1. A few minutes spent in these or similar drills of gesticulation, every day, in connection with reading les- sons, or at recesses or intermissions, will be sufficient to give j propriety, force and beauty to the expression o^ gesture, where j otherwise there is the greatest backwardness, or the most re- pulsive awkwardness in gesticulation. I Remark 2. It is not to be supposed that these drills as laid down here are the only drills by which a class ought to be trained. They are only given as specimens for the co7n- mgncem Advanced Classes, 85—91 Exercises in Orthographic Fusing 92 — 96 (ti3) •154 CONTENTS. PART TIT. GRAMMAR. I.NTnODUCTION, 99—103 I Method of Teaching Primary Classes, 104 — 142 Method of Teaching Advanced Classes, 143 — 176 Outline of Orthogeny, 149 Outline op the Noun. Dofiuitions, etc., 150 — 156 i Outline of the Vkrw. Definitions, etc , 157 — 161 j Outline of the Pronoun. Definitions, etc.. .... 162 — 165 ! Outline op Syntax. Remarks, etc., 165 — 166 j Outline op Analysis. Definitions, etc., 167 — 176 | Methods of Oral Analysis, 171 | Methods of Written Analysis, l73 — 174 j AbridgExMEnt, 175 — 176 j PART IV. GEOGRAPHY. | Introduction, 179 — 183 Method of Teaching Primary ('lasses, 184 — 195 \ Method of Teaching Secondary Classes, 196 — 214 | Topic List for Natural Divisions of Land, 207 j Topic List for Natural Divisions of Water, 209 j General Directions for the Study of Political | Divisions, 211—214 j Method of Teaching Advanced Classes, 215 — 236 | Outline of Mathematical Geography, 217—218 j Outline of Physical Geography, 218—223 j Outline of Phenomenal Geography, 224 — 229 | Outline of Political Geography,... "! 229—234 \ Topic List for Descriptive Geographj', 235 j Use OP Apparatus, 237 — 264 I The Globe, 237 ! Uses of the Globe, 238 — 248 j Tellurian, 249 ! Uses of the Tellurian, 249 — 264 j PART V. ARITHMETIC. Introduction, 267 — 271 Methods of Teaching Mental Arithmetic 272—282 Methods of Teaching Written Arithmetic, 283—290 Theoretical Arithmetic, 291 — 344 Outline OP Arithmetic. Definitions, etc., 291 — 297 Outline op Notation. Definitions, etc., 297 — 304 Outline op Numeration. Definitions, etc., 305 — 306 Topic List for Fundamental Rules, 306 Discussion of Addition 307 — 313 Outline op Compound Numbers, 314 Outline OF Common Fractions. Definitions, etc., 315 — 329 Outline op Decimal Fractions. Definitions, etc., 329 — 332 CONTENTS. 455 Outline of Ratio. Definitions, etc., 334 — 335 Outline op Puoportion, Definitions, etc., 336 — 338 Outline op Percentage, 339 Outline op Gain and Loss, 339 Outline OP Commission, 339 Outline of Brokeraoe, 339 Outline of Stock, 339 Outline OP Insurance, 340 Outline op Taxes, 340 Outline op Interest, 340 — 341 Outline op Bankino, 342 Outline op Exchange, 343 Outline op Involution, 343 Outline op Evolution, 343 Outline op Arithmetical Progression, 344 Outline op Geometrical Progression, 344 PART XL ELOCUTION. Introduction, 347 — 364 Outline or Elocution. Defi.iitions, etc., 355 Outline of Departments. Definitions, etc., 356 Outline of Management of Person. Direc- tions, etc., 357 — 301 Method of Drilling a CLoss on Management of Person. Remarks and Directions, 361 363 Outline of Vocal Culture. Definitions, etc.,... 364 — 389 Drill in Breathing, 367; Drill in Articulation, 369; Pitch, 369; Drill on Pitch, 370; Force, 373; Drill on Force, 373; Laughing Exercise, 377; Rate, 378; Infiections, 379 ; Method of Drill in Rising Inflections, 380 ; Rising Slide Bend, 381—33'^; Falling Inflections, 383; Partial Close,— Perfect Close, 38 4; Series, 386; Method of Drill in all the Simple Inflections Combined, 383; Compound Inflections, 339. Rules for Inflections, 394 — 409 Rule i. Examples for Drill, 395; Excepf.ion 1, 396; Exception 2, 397; Exception 3, 397. Rule ii. Examples for Drill, 398 ; Exc(.'i>tion, 399. Rule hi. Notes 1, 2, Examples for Drill, 400—401; Exceptions 1, 2, 3, 401. IIi^le ir. Notes 1, 2, 403. Rule v. Notes 1, 2, 3, 404, — 405: Rule vi, 406; Rule vii, 406; Rule viii, 407; Rule ix, 408; Rule x, 408; Method of Drill in Poetry, 403. Emphasis, 409—415 Classes of Emphasis, 409 ; Methods of Giving 45G CONTENTS. Emphasis, 400; Mcthoils of Drill in Classes of Emphasis, 410; Ordinary Emphasis, 411; An- tithetic Emphasis, 411; Cumulative Emphasis, 412; Deferred Emphasis, 412; Conventional Emphasis, 413; Examples for Drill in Methods of Emphasis, 413; Depression of Pitch and Diminution of Force, 413; Depression of Pitch and Increase of Force, 413; Whisper, 414; In- crease or Diminution of Rate, 414; Change of Accent, 414; Emphatic Sweep, 414; Emphatic Pause, 414— 415. Tone, 415—416 Examples for Drill in Impure Tone, Nasal, Guttural, Aspirated, Tremulous, 416. Styles of Delivery, 416 — 429 Method of Drill in Styles of Delivery, 41'?; Ex- amples for Drill in Narrative 418 ; Didactic 419; Persuasive, 419; Argumentative, 420 Colloquial, 421; Humorous, 423; Plaintive, 424; Denunciatory, 424; Contemptuous, 425; Ironical, 425; Angry, 42G; Personating Styles, 426—429; Love, 427; Fear, 427 ; Hate, 428 ; Anger, 428; Irish, 428; Dutch, 429. TiiAxsiTioN, 429 — 134 Transition in Paragraph, 430 ; in Style, 430 — 432; in Parenthesis, 432; from Male to Female Voice, 433—434. GESTICULATION. OrjTLiNE OF Gesticulation, 435 — 437 Detiniticns, Remarks and Explanations, 438 Positions and Motions of the Feet, 440 Positions of the Arm, 440 Divisions of Gesture with Upper Extremity,... 441 Positions of the Hand, 441 Disposition of the Fingers, 441 Combined Position of the Hands, 442 Gestures with Hand and Arm, 442 Method of Drill without Voice, 443 Oratorical Gesticulation, 444 Directions to the Tcaclier, 444 Teacher's Directions to Pupils, 444 Introductory and Concluding Gesture, 445 Positions and Motions of the Hands and Arras, 445 Drill in Gesticulatiim with Voice, 446 Examples for Drill in CJesticulatiori and Vocal Delivery, 448—452 "^^tT? U-^