Qass- L S G ?^ Book 'Sf^S/j ^ -127 2- EDUCATION: ITS ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES, FOUNDED ON THE NATURE OP MAN. BY J. Q. SPUPvZHEIM, M. D., OB" TUB UNnVKSSITIES OF VIENNA AND FAKIS, AND LICENTIATB 31' THE KOTAI. COLLEQE 07 FHVSICIANS IN LONDON. WITH AN APPENDIX, BY S. R. WELLS, CONTAINING A DESCRIPTION OP THE TEMPERAMENTS, AND A BEIE? ANALYSIS OF THE FHRE>NOLOGICAI, FACULTIES. TWELFTH AMERICAN EDITION, nCPBOTZS BT TBX AOTBOR, VBOM 7nx THIBB rOHOOS BSXXZ0I7. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL R. WELLS, No. 3S9 BROADWAY. 1872. A A Xntered, according to Act of Congress, in the y ear 1847, Bt FOWLEBS & WELLS, la th.0 Clerk's OflEce of the District Court for tlie Bouthsrs District of Ne-w Torlc ADVERTISEMENT. The importance of the subject on which this work treats, the wide popularity of its author, and the universal approbation with which it has been received both in England and America, are some of the reasons of its present publication. The real merits of the work cannot be rep- resented in its preface. It must be read and RE-read to be fully appreciated, and in order to simplify and render it still more practical we have added an Annpn^^- --^ which will be found an illustrated descripiion of the Temperaments, together with a brief analysis of all the Phre- nological Faculties, which are also amply illus- trated, giving a general view of the Science of Phrenology. Besides having enlai-ged the work, we have reduced its price, and so changed its form as to render it accessible to all. Parents and Teachers, especially, will find it invaluable, although great benefit may be derived from it by every individual capable of comprehend- ing the magnitude of its principles. PREFACE The mos; important point in Anthropology, or the study oi Man, is to acquire a knowledge of his Na- ture ; and the next, to discover the mode in which his physical and mental constitution may be most advantageously improved. Men of eminent tal- ents have considered the principles of education worthy of their attention ; and many works have been already published on this subject. It may therefore be asked, Why should another be pre- sented ? Because education is still conducted in a manner very different from that in which it ought to be. Mankind has improved less than we could wish. '' There are many books," says Helvetu s, "many schools, but few oersons of underitandin j ; 1* PREFACE. tnere are many maxims, but they are seldom ap- plied ; man is old, but still a child." New eluci- dations of this subject, therefore, are still want ing ; and I hope I shall be able to suggest some new ideas upon it. As, however, many ancient and modern philosophers have examined this sub- ject, several of my ideas may be found in other writings ; but nowhere are they reduced to the principles which I have adopted, and arranged in the same order. I hope also to succeed in point ing out some new objects, interesting in them- selves, and leading to important results. This, no doubt, will produce opposition. I am also aware of the active influence of prejudice, — of old habits and selfish passions ; but nothing shall deter me from communicating what appears to me to be founded on the immutable laws of the Creator. His authority is the only one I ac- knowledge in natural history. Truth is independ- ent of time; it must prevail, though it excite the liatred of the ignorant, the weak, and the jealous. The reader is requested to bear in mind, that the language in which this treatise is composed, is to the Author a foreign one. A person so situ- PREFACE. ated iis not always a competent judge of the nicer shades of meaning attaching to the expressions which he employs ; and from tliis circumstance, together with the difficulty of commanding words to convey his ideas properly, he is liable to be be- trayed into a tone of abrupt and apparently author- itative writing, quite foreign to his wish and inten- tion. To these causes the reader is requested to impute any thing in the manner of the following pages, which may appear not suited to the circum- stances OT the subject CONTENTS. Pag« CrENiRA-L View. - - - - - - 1 Detinition of Education - - - - ib Perfectibility of Man - - - - 2 Improvement of mankind in arts and sciences 4 In religion and morality - - - - 6 Causes of the want of success in education - 11 Singleness of the human species - - 18 Utility of instruction - - - - - 31 Division of education _ - - - 34 £FCT. I. CONDITIONS 0]B EXCITEMENT 36 Chap. I. On the laws of hereditary descent 3T 54 .a Chap, II. On the laws of the vegetative FUNCTIONS « _ - - L>-iration of life _ , - - - 5 I^eriod I. From birth to two years, or infancy 63 Temperature - - - - • 63 Food 65 X CONTENTS, Page Ah ------- 69 Light 70 Cleanliness - - - - - - 71 Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise - 72 Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 74 Dentition Dietetic rules ~ _ - ib Chap. III. On the laws of exercise - - 84 Habit - _ _ . - . 84 Meaning of the word exercise - - - 88 Exercise of intellectual faculties - - 91 of feelings ----- 92 Signs, Greek and Latin _ - - - 96 The means of exercising the faculties are different 1 1 4 Order of exercising the faculties - - - IIC Different success of exercise - . - - 121 Mutual instruction _ _ - - _ 124 Exercise increases the organs - - 130 Chap. iV. Mutual influence of the faculties AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT - - 133 Mnemonics - - - - - - 135 SECT. II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE FACULTIES - - - 140 Phap. I. Importance of morality - - 14J Happiness founded more on morality than on intellect ------- 144 C/HAP. II Each faculty tends to action - 148 Regulation of the mode in which gratificat on should be sought - _ - - t5i Proper employment of tfce faculties * ' 163 CCNTENTS. XI Page Little effect of precepts _ - _ - 154 Faculties which assist each other - - 155 Direction of amativencss and of religious feelings 16^^ Objects of education ----- 167 Chap. III. 3Iotives to action - - - 171 Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions 173 Different motives may produce the same action 174 Selfishness and approbativeness - - - 178 Chap. IV. Differexces of natuPvAL endowment 185 Class I. Where the superior faculties pre- dominate ------- i6. Class II. Where one or several inferior, and one or several superior are very active - 186 Class III. Where certain of the inferior facul- ties are strong, and all the superior weak - ib. Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling ib. Education to be varied with different individuals 188 Individuals should be placed in situations for which they are naturally fitted - - - 190 Chap. V. Education op the sexes - - 205 Condition of women - - - - - ib. There is a natural difference in the mental powers of the sexes _ 1. _ - 207 Certain feelings stronger in women than in men 210 Certain intellectual pov/ers stronger in men than in women ------ 215 Chap. VI. Education of vations 220 Chap. VII. On public and on private education 264 Conclusion ^66 Xii CONTENTS. APPENDIX Page On the coRRECTiori and reform of malefactors 268 Definition of legislation - - - - 269 Aim of Legislation - - _ _ 272 Means of preventing crime - - - {5. Means of correcting Malefactors - - 280 Treatment of incorrigible offenders - - 289 On illegal actions without guilt - - 294 I. Illegal actions of idiots - - - - 295 II. Illegal actions of madmen - - - 299 On illegal actions which admit of extenuating MOTIVES ------ 300 Strong mental affections - - « - 392 Child-murder -----. 308 Conclusion -,.---- 318 APPENDIX TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. The Temperaments, with Illustrations, - - - 319 Symbolical Head, ...--- 322 Definition of the Phrenological Organs, - - . 323 Importance of Phrenology, .... 320 Illustrated Views of the Brain, ... 330 Testimonials in favor of Phre-nolofjy, - - - 332 Memoir of Dr. Gall, with a Portrait, . . - 333 ELEME PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION GENERAL VIEW. The preliminaTy points to be considered in thii general view, are, 1. The definition of the word Education ; 2. The perfectibility of mankind 3. The little success which has hitherto attended Education ; 4. The singleness of the human spe- cies ;— and, 5. The usefulness of Education. As to the definition of Education, I think it necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in this volm-ne several topics, which are not gene- rally considered as falling under Education, in the common acceptation of the word, merely de- noting instruction in literature and accomplish- ments ; I use this term as embracing every means which can be made to act upon the vegetative, affective, and intellectual constitution of man, 2 2 EDUCATION OF MAN. for the purpose of improving this his threefold nature. Being asked what I mean by human nature } I reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone, nor animal propensities, affections, or passions ; noi moral feelings, nor intellect ; neither is it or- ganization in general, nor any system of the body, nor any particularity whatever ; — but human na- ture, in the proper sense of the words, compre- hends all the observable phenomena of life, from the moment of conception to that of death, both in the healthy and diseased state ; or, in short, all the manifestations both of the body and mind. The next introductory point to be elucidated is, whether human nature is susceptible of perfection or degradation. In speaking of the susceptibility of being per- fected, it is not to be understood that man may lose one faculty and acquire another ; for the fun- damental nature of man being unchangeable, in body as well as in the faculties of the mind, such an event is impossible on earth. The meaning- of the proposition, therefore, can only be, whether certain powers are capable of attaining greater or ei^s activity ; — whether some of them may prevail over otliers; and, »vhether the mutual influence of the faculties and their actions may be regulated and well conducted. GENERAL VIEW. In this alter significatioix' alone, the answer is -.flh'mative. Such a perfectibility exists in all living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for iii- stance, may be strengthened, increased, weakened, 01 diminished. Fruit trees may be modified as to their growth, or fruit, their produce. Each part of the bodies of animals is subject to great variations. Animals, also, arc not confined to actions which their preservation requires. They modify their conduct according to the situation in which they may be placed ; hence they are sus- ceptible of a kind of education beyond their wants. Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be instruct- ed to play various tricks. They have also a recollection of what has happened to them, and modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox which has escaped several snares, and knows that he- is watched, takes greater precautions, and proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches tiie habitations of man, with a view of stealing poultry. A bird, whose nest lias been destroyed in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of placing it, in future, in a more retired situation ; and the construction of the second nest is also more solid and more perfect than that of the first. A doix resists its instinct to run after a hare, be- cause it recollects the beating it has previously received on that account. The horse avoids the stone at which it once has stumbled. There are even facts on record of learned pigs and learned canary birds. Similar examples are within Mie 4 EDUCATION OF xMAN. knowledge o. every one, and it is therefore unne- cessary to multiply them. Yet this power oi modifying their actions is not unbounded in animals, but limited according to their nature. Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be taught to hunt like falcons and dogs. Man offers similar appearances. The various modifications to which his body is liable, are known. The manifestations of the mind alsc vary in different persons, even in whole nations. Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has always been essentially the same. The only dif- ference, observed at different times, has been, that the manifestations of the special powers have been more or less active, modified, and variously em- ployed. The next question is, Whether man, with re- spect to his feelings and intellect, has improved or degenerated ? By some authors, mankind is said to have arrived at a greater state of perfec- tion than it originally enjoyed ; while others la- ment its progressive degeneracy. The improve- ment or degeneracy of the human race, in regard to a knowledge of the external world, the prac- tice of the fine arts, and moral conduct, are par- ticularly to be examined. A detailed elucidation of thefee points would require a whole volume : it IS my intention only to take a general view o^ therr - ' ' GENERAL VIEW. 5 (t is superfluous to mention, that the moderns c.ijoy a great superiority over the ancients, with respect to every branch of natural history and natural philosophy. The Baconian and true meth- od of studying Nature, founded on observation and induction, has been recently discovered and introduced. It has forwarded every kind of posi- tive knowledg^e in an astonishing degree. It has, however, been unfortunately neglected in the study of man, and hence his nature is but little known. It is true, whatever it was in the power of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by observa- tion, to discover, was discovered by the ancient philosophers. But the knowledge of man remain- ed extremely vague and uncertain, and Phrenolo- gy alone will supply this defect, and reduce An- thropology to invariable principles. In the fine arts of imitation, mode^'n artists find it difiicult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere imitation of ancient productions ; nature always remains the best model, inexhaustible in her mod- ifications, whilst, by the former proceeding, the arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is impeded. The arts of industry have undoubtedly improv- ^ ed, and political economy may be considerd as a science of modern days. The state of mankind at large is evidcntlv better than in ancient times. 9* 6 EDUCATION OF MAN. and during the ages of darkness ; and it will still improve, in proportion as ignorance and immorali- ty are removed, and the laws of the Creator at- ended to. The improvement oi degeneracy of man, as re- gards his moral and religious opinions, presents a particular interest, even with respect to his world- ly happiness. Both these sorts of notions vary, accordins* to the different states of civilization, and they are, by no means, stationary, any more than the functions of every other faculty. Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and generally consider all Superior Beings as malevo- lent, and worship them through fear. People in a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings of a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be endow- ed v/ith all human feelings ; they required food and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free from the human frailties : he was jealous, often cruel and implacable. He had overturned every thing in heaven, and reduced the other gods to be his slaves. The gods of the Romans were not more noble. They were mercenary, and could be bribed by fine temples, games, and more accepta- ble sacrifices. People of little instruction divided the invisible beings into benevolent and malevo- lent. Others admitted two principles ; one benev- olent, the other malevo ent ; and they acknbw- GENERA"! VIEW. 7 ledged also many inferior deities, a3 emanations from the primitive ones. Persons of more culti vated minds believe in one supreme benevolen deity ; and in inferior spirits, some benevolent others malevolent. The most enlightened ac knowledged only one Supreme Being, boundless in perfection, and the maker of every creature. The mode of worship deserves equally a pecu iar consideration in the history of mankind. It s always conformable to the notions entertained of the natiT^e of the Deity. In order to avert the wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please them, men have made themselves as miserable as possible, by mortifications, flagellations, painfuJ labors, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and sui- cides. To gain the favor of manlike gods, sweet- smelling herbs, burning incense, oblations, gifts. agreeable impressions on the senses, ceremonies which illustrate a prince at his covert, and various sorts of formalities, have been ero'/.oyed. If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the purity and sublime principles of true Christianity, we shall perceive that the latter are greatly supe rior. The Old and New Testament attribute very different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their moral precepts are very different. The old dis- pensation may be viewed as accommodated to the Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub btirn race 8 EDUCATION OF MA!T. The God of Israel was jealous, reveng'eful, ter rible, and a God of war. He was fond of perfume, ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense, even of bloody sacrifices. I^e commanded his people to destroy those who forsook him, or who did not jhey his commandments ; even those who kindled fire on the sabbath day. NciMie? brother, sister, son, daughter, husband, wify nor friend, was to be spared, if he served Jinother god. He who knew an infidel, was forjjaden to pity, conceal or save him ; on the c^/ntrary, it was his duty to stone nim. (Exod. xxr.v Deuteronomy xiii.) The God of Chr^tians, on the contrary, is love, oenevolence au'l charity. He is the father of the vvhole o^ mankind, and wishes for universal hap- piness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner epep.t. He gives the same laws to all, makes no 3:^ce>t:on, and pays no attention to the appear ?.Qje of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards overy one after his actions. He is a Spirit that 3annot be confined to temples, and is to be adored n spirit and in truth. (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John v. Matt. vi. &c.) The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to .hose of their own race ; they were permitted to 'ake usury from foreigners, and to hate them. David praised God in saying, " Do I not hate hose who hate thee ? T hate them with perfect 'tatred." (Ps cxxxvii: They were ordered to \ GENERAL VIEW. 9 form a separate nation, and prohibited from inter- marrying with other people. Their food was pre- scribed ; many things were interdicted and de- clared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon had seven hundred wives and three hundred con- cubines. The husband was allowed to put away his wife ; it was sufficient to write- her a bill of di- vorcement, &c. &c. How superior and more noble are the principles ol Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ; they command forgiveness of every offence seven times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked for ; to love our enemies ; to bless them that curse us, and to do good to them that hate us. They interdict all selfish passions, and declare out neighbor every one wiiOx does the will of God. Christ asked to drink of a woman of Samaria, whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation. He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with publicans and sinners, and declared those only who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his mother, sister or brother. No food is an abomination to Christians. Christ said, "Not that which enters into the mouth defiles a man ;" and St. Paul declares to the Romans, " I know and am persuaded by the Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean in itself." Christ permitted only one wife, and 10 EDUCATION OP MAN. in this respect re-established the law as it was from the beginning of the creation. (Mark x. 6.) Before the Christian dispensation, empires were founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and frightful destruction of the vanquished. Christ declared, that he came, not to destroy men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts himself shall be abased. He made no distinctioo among persons, and considered love and peace as the aim of all commandments. He only pro- posed the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the acceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by the sword. He directed his disciples only to shake off the dust of their feet, in departing out of that house or city where they had not been courteously received, or where their words had not been attended to. The superiority of the Christian principles above the Jewish law is evident. St. Paul said to the Hebrews (iii.), that " Christ is more wor- thy than Moses ;" and (vii. 20.) " by s-o much was Christ made a surety of a better Testa- ment ;" and, (viii. 7.) "if the first Covenant had been faultless, then should noplace have been found for the second.' True Christianity really improves the moral and religious character of a lew. GENERAL VIEW. 11 la regard to morality, it is indeed impossible to establish better principles than have been pointed out in the New Testament. But since these rules, unexampled in ancient legislatloiu hava been established, the followers of Christian! ty have often fallen back to many of the contempt- ible doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have dis- puted, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meal on certain days, in the same manner as Mahome dans dispute, whether coffee be or be not prohib ited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these abuses, however, it is certain, that the precepts of moral and religious conduct have improved by degrees ; and that many selfish and absurd opinions will be rectified, as soon as human nature shall be better understood. True Christianity will gain, by every step which is made in the knov/ledge of man. Let us now see whether Education is advanced as much as may be desirable. Unfortunately we find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles of Christian morality, and the numerous master pieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable truth, that hitherto education has succeeded less than the friends of humanity wish for. Indeed, if we ex amine its influence on the improvement of man- kind, a thousand years is like ci day that is past. Who has not seen children of the* mc-^t pious and \2 EDUCATION OF MAN exemplary parents indulge in scepticism, anc! plunge themselves into profanity and vice ? And who has not observed that licentiousness often pre- vails in the most enlightened and refined classes of society ? Who has not observed very limited talents appear in the offspring of men of the greatest genius ? Now the inferences to be drawn from such facts are, that either the education has not been adapted to the natural dispositions of those individuals, or that every one is not capable of receiving the full effect of a good education ; and as man, in general, hitherto has little improv- ed by education, we must conclude that either he is less perfectible than we may wish for. or that the true means of improvement have not been employ- ed. The latter cause seems to me the most proh able, and it may be principally accounted for by our ignorance of the nature of man. Plants and animals succeed only, if treated according to their natural qualities, and the education of man will not and cannot succeed, without adapting it to his nature. Some philosophers have endeavored to degrade man to a level with the brute ; while others have fancied that he has nothing whatever in common with the animal kingdom. By some the faculties of man are considered as the result of external im- pressions, and accidental circumstances ; whi.e others believe that the existence of each person, and all the phenomena of that existence, are the effects of oredestinatioa. GENERAL VIEW. 13 I shall mention a few particulars concerning the g-reat error, according to which the champions of education consider new-born children as blank paper, on which they can mark every impression. But, under such a supposition, why are children ^f the same family so different ? Why can teachers lot communicate their own talents to every pupil ? Why cannot every one, who understands the mas- Lerpieces of genius, produce similar effects ? Why is not every poet a Homer, — every musician a Handel, a Mozart, a Haydn, — every historian a Tacitus, — every speaker a Demosthenes, — every painter a Raphael ? The rules which lead to perfection being pointed out, it would be easy for every one to put them into practice, if no innate pv? vers were necessary. Experience, then, forces ua to decide entirely against such speculative as- sei lions; those, who have been engaged in con- duciiing education, are convinced that they are in- capable of producing those talents and feelings in children which they could wish ; and those, who assert the contrary, maintain only dreams, and in- stead of observing nature, indulge in their fancy. Many defenders of education wish to persuade-* us, that the first impressions in early age deter- mine the direction of the mind. I do not deny their influence, but it is less than it is generally supposed to be. Children, in their early years, are almost excli^sively intrusted to the care of fe- males, vet boys and girls show from the earliest 3 14 EDUCATION OF MAN. infancy their distinctive characters ; and this dif- ference between the sexes continues through life. A marked variety of tempers and capacities may be observed in children, as soon as they are sus- ceptible of any impression. Children, like adult persons, are differently affected by the same ex- ternal circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to be observed, are more or less permanent. How often, in the maturity of age, when the activity of the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that we are at one time perfectly acquainted with a sub- ject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had never known it ? How, then, is it possible to believe, what individual impressions, received at a period when the mind is almost inactive, determine the character or the mental capacities of a child foj his whole life ? On the other hand, it is wel. known, that many individuals turn out very dif ferent from what they appeared at an earlier period of life. It must therefore be allowed, that the above mentioned opinion is destitute of all support from experience I do not hesitate to maintain, that education must fail, as long as we continue to think that children are born alike, and may receive, with equal advantage, every kind of education. If J. J. Rousseau had taken care of his children, instead of sending them to the public hospital, he would have detected his erroneous conceptions •: he would have observed, that Nature implants certain kinds GENERAL VIEW. 15 af feeling ; that education only weakens, or invig- orates and refines them ; that children react on ex- ternal circ^nnstances, according to their natural dispositions ; and that it is necessary to adapt ed- ucation to the nature of individuals. Hence, the first thing to be done, is to trace back the facul- ties of children to their origin. Such a know- ledge will contribute to the advancement of art& and sciences, and to the improvement of moral conduct, by suggesting suitable means for direct- ing the energies of children to the objects which they are most fitted by nature to attain. "There are ^e\v subjects," says Dugald Ste^vart, " more hackneyed than that of education, and yet there if none upon which the opinions of the world ar{ still more divided. Nor is this surprising ; fo most of those v/ho have speculated concerning h have confined their attention chiefly to incidentc- questions about the comparative advantage of put lie or private instruction, the utility of peculia language or sciences, without attempting a pre vious examination of those faculties and principle of the mind, which it is the great object of educa tion to improve." — (Elements of the Philosopln of the Human Mind, p. 62.) Another great error in education, also foundet on our ignorance of the human nature^ is, tha every teacher takes himself as a model for hi« pupils. What he likes and learns with facilit}' he supposes ought to be equally liked and learne> 16 EDUCATION OF MAN by every other person ; while in every child, the feeling's and intellectual faculties, though essen- tially the same, are modified in quantity and qual- ity Hitherto, on account of none of the systems ;f education hein^ founded on a correct analysis of the faculties of man, education has been con- ducted altogether in a general way ; and hence almost every individual who thinks for himself ivhen arrived at the age of maturity, has found it necessary to begin a new course of education, according to his individual character and talents. Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently un- derstood in education, concerns the organic con- ditions on which the manifestations of the mind depend. This is the object of n new doctrine, and is detailed in my work on Phrenology, Vol. I. '> Education, though it does not create any iK)wer j whatever, may produce great effect ; but for that pjirpose its whole system must be changed, and this will be done in proportion as the nature of man becomes known, and as it shall be acknow- ledged that man must be perfected like other created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and must submit to the determined sway which pre- vails in her government. He errs the moment he ceases to observe, and begirs to excogitate. The construction of a system of education cannot be a creative but an imitative process, •which must bo founded only on the lessons of experience. Here, as GENERAL VIEW. 17 in the cultivation of every other science, it is not by the exercise of a sublime and speculative in- g-enuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is by let- ting himself down to simple observation, — by re- jecting- equally the authority of antiquity, and of eminent contemporaries, when in opposition to nature ; — by sacrificing every consideration that opposes the evidence of observation, and its legit- imate and well established conclusions ; — by being able to renounce all the favorite opinions of in- fancy, the moment that truth demands the sacrifice ; — in short, by following only the lights of obser- vation and induction. " Does not our happiness depend," says a contemporary writer, " on the knowledge of the various relations which man bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the practice of the duties which they impose ; and how are we to discover these relations, except by the assistance ol reason, operating on experience? Can false views of human nature, and its attributes, increase the happiness of the human race individ- ually ; or can political society, framed on such erroneous principles, attain the end for which alone society was framed ? ' Deception and nien- dacy are always regarded in the common and every day intercourse of life as base and odious,-- Is it then only upon subjects of the highest iir. portance to man^ tnat he maybe deceived without darger or detestation ?'" (Retrospective Review. No. I. p 71.) 1 concur ent.rely in these senti- ments 3* 18 EDUCATION OF MAN. My ideas on the nature of man, on his funda- mental powers ; on tlieir innateness ; on the con- ditions of their manifestations in this Ufe ; on the moral liberty, and several other points, are ex- posed, with details, in works entitled Physiologi- cal and Philosophical Principles of Phrenology. ( suppose these points to be known to those who take up this volume, composed merely with phre- nological views, and founded on mere phrenologi- cal principles. In treating of Education and Legislation, it seems important to examine, Whether there is only one species of the human race, or whetiier there are several ? The great variety of bodily and mental appearances ; — of features, complexion, size, and configuration ; — of feelings and intellect- ual powers, — must strike the most superficial observer. The causes of these differences have been examined, and various hypotheses have been invented to account for them. Some authors have had recourse to different original species ; others have accounted for these modifications, by the common laws of nature. It is indeed natural to ask. Whether a Negro and a White Man, a Dwarf and a Giant, a Hottentot and Lord Bacon, are of the same species ? Whether the Cannibal, whose earthly and expected heavenly pleasures are gratffications of the low animal passions, and the true Christian, fill of kindness and boaignity j GENERAL VIEW. 19 whether .be whose ingenuity is exercised nerely in destruction and devastation, and he v/ho be- holds all creatures as objects of Divine providence and beneficence, were originally formed after the same image ? If there be several species of Man, there can be no universal principles of human conduct ; — hu- man nature cannot be included in any one system ; and the rules which are suitable for one nation will not be fit for another. If, on the contrary, there be only one species ; — general principles of education, general rules of conduct, and national laws, may be established. Moreover, if there were several species, and one superior to the others, the White to the Negro, for example, slavery might be contended for as an institution of Nature ; but if the species be only one, neither the primitive moral character, nor Christianity, can excuse this most selfish of all barbarities. I will not consider the arguments of those who, from inferior motives, without any respect for hu- man dignity, and without any religious or moral principles, or reproaches of conscience, force other people to become the mere instruments of their selfish gratification. I shall examine only the reasons which natural history offers, in support of the one or other opinion : that the human race consists of one species, or of several. These rea- sons may be drawn from the external qualities oi 20 EDUCATION OF MAN. the body, such as size, configuration and complex- ion ; its internal structure ; the laws of propaga- tion ; and the manifestations of the mind. In the elucidation of this important object, it is not sufficient to examine the external qualities alone. Such a proceeding is like that of Linnaeus, who classed the animals according to their external appearances, and not according to their nature ; or like that of a librarian, who should class books according to their shape, size, or binding, without regard to their contents. Man is found in all climates ; and hence some philosophers have inferred that there are several species of man. These philosophers reasoned by analogy, stating, that each climate has its own species of men, in the same way as plants and annnals are adapted to hot, temperate, and frigid regions. Plants which grow in the torrid zone, perish in a cold climate, and those which flourish upon mountains, decay on being removed to a plain. The rein-deer, say they, is confined to the frozen region, and the white bear cannot live in a southern climate ; while the elephant, rhinoceros, and many other animals, do not prosper in the frigid zone. Hence Nature has destined and fitted different beings for different climates, and she has guarded them against the natural vicissi- tudes of the seasons. To this end, in Cold coun- tries, animals are protected with more fat, and GENERAL VIEW. 21 thicker hair. The same rule explains why plants and animals lose their qualities, when removed from their native climate ; and why, in several countries, the stock requires to be continually re- newed. In northern countries, for instance, flax degenerates, and a quantity of seed is annuall}? imported from southern regions. In the same way, to preserve, in some degree of perfection, the breed of Arabian and Barbary horses, fre- quent supplies from their original climates are requisite. Lord Kames, (Sketches of the History of Man, vol. I.) one of the principal champions of the opinion that there are different species of man, in- sists much on observations of this kind, and thinks them conclusive. He supports his assertions, by observing, that men, in changing climate, usually fall sick, and often run the risk of losing their lives. This argument, however, is not decisive. The plants and animals adapted to different cli- mates, are evidently of different species. This is not the case with the varieties of men. Moreover, as plants and animals can by no means alter, or regulate the effect of external influences upon themselves, it is conceivable that peculiar species, fitted for every climate, should be created. Man, on the contrary, is able to remove obstacles, to overcotae difficulties, and to modify, in a h jgh de- gree, the effect of external circumstances upon his nature. On the other hand, the argument of anal 22 EDUCA^Io^^ of man. og-y is not even general ; for several animals, such as pig-s, dogs, and others, follow man, and, shelter- ed by him, live in all climates. It is certain that great changes of climate pro- duce diseases. We must observe, how^ever, that it is not a great difference of climate alone that produces this effect, but that all sudden changes of season, weather, situation, and mode of living, also expose us to the loss of health. Iq America, says the Reverend Dr. SxMitii, (" On the Varieties of Men," p. 119.) "we are liable to disorders by removing incautiously from a northern to a south- ern State ; but it would be absurd to conclude, that the top of every hill, and the bank of every river, is therefore inhabited by a different species, because in the one we enjoy less health than in the other. The constitution becomes attempered in a degree even to an unhealthy region, and then it feels augmented symptoms of disorder^ on re- turnino- to the most salubrious air and water ; but does this prove that Nature never intended such men to drink clear water, or to breathe in a pure fltjuosphere ?" It may be added, that there are diseases of professions, as well as of climates. Shall we maintain, therefore, that there is a spe- cies of man for every profession ? Captain Cook, Captain Krusenstern, and other na-'igators, have !)roved, that, with sufficient care,, man can bear ^reat changes of air, temperatu;['e, reason, and iveather. They have preserved the health of their 3ENEKAL VIEW. 23 crews in long voyages, and in the most d/ssimilar climates. The human constitution is known, from positive observation, to become in time assimilated to every climate ; and the offspring of foreigners, at length endure, like the aborigines, the external influence without injury. Thus, the argument that sudden changes of climate have a tendency to produce diseases, or even death, does not prove that there are several species of man. The Reverend Dr. SxMith has clearly shown, from another argument, quoted from Lord Kames, that the latter was too credulous ; that he was de- ceived by erroneous reports of superficial observ- ers ; and that he did not sufficiently understand the pliancy of the human constitution, which ena- bles it to adapt itself to every climate, and to all external circumstances. The last remark that Lord Kames makes, is a striking example against his own assertion. He says, that " the Portuguese colony on the coast of Congo, has in course of time degenerated so much, that they scarcely re- tain the appearance of men." Another assertion of his, is a complete specimen of his credulity. He is of opinion that the Giagas, a nation in Afri ca, could not have descended from the same origi nal w^th the rest of mankind, because, unlike to others, they are void of natural affection ; kill all their own children as soon as they are born, and supply their places with youths stolen from neigh- boring tribes. Common sense, however, wnild 34 EDUCATION OF MAN. answer, that if such a species weie created, it could not continue longer than the prinitive stocl? endured. The stolen youth would resemble their parents, not those who adopted them, and would soon be the sole constituents of the nation. Yet Lord Kames thought that the Giagas formed a pe- culiar species, who continued from generation to generation to kill their children ! All organized beings are modified by externa! influences, though their primitive nature is nevei changed. There is certainly no reason to believe that every kind of apple, pear, or other fruit-tree which we see in our gardens, has been the subjeC' of a distinct creation, these varieties being pro duced by degrees. The specific character, how ever, is constantly the same ; and one tree cai never be changed into another, — an apple-tree, fo' instance, into a pear-tree. The same law of modification prevails among animals. Their size, color, and other q\ialities. are very different in different climates. There are varieties of horses, eight times smaller than other races. Some goats have no horns ; others have several. Tiie pigs, also, of Scotland, Ireland, and Hungary, are very different, but it would be irra- tional to admit as many primitive species of these animals as there are varieties. Their specific character is always the same, and- a pig can never be changed into a sheep. GENERAL VIEW. 25 ody of man is subjected to the general laws of orcfanization, wh}^ should it also not un- dergo considerable changes, and present great dif- ferences of appearance ? This matter, on account of its importance, deserves to be examined m.rre at large. One of the most striking differences perceptible in the luiman race, as well as in animals, is to be found in the skin and liair, which are in the most intimate relation with each other, and indeed re- ceive their nourishment from the same blood-ves- sels. They vary in thickness and color, and evi- dently depend on climate. The ermine and weasel change the color of their hair in summer and win- ter. The fur of wild animals grows thicker in cold weather ; while under the heat of the torrid zone, the hair is coarse Among horses, oxen, rabbits, and other animjiis, some individuals of the same species are brovvni, black, or white; and why should it be thou^^MU absurd, that there should be also variously colored men ? The only difference in this respect betwixt man and animals, seems to be, that man resists longer the influence of external circumstances, and that his skin requires a greater difference of cli- mate to change its color. It is a fact, however, that heat and extreme cold thicken the skin of man and darken his color. We might naturally expect, what is indeed the case, that changes of 26 EDUCATION OF MAN. the skin produced by climate, should take effect in a longer or a shorter time, agcording to the iifferent degrees of civilization ; for example, sav- ages being exposed to the influence of climate, suf- ler its full force ; while civilized nations obviate, Dr even greatly prevent its influence. Among the physical qualities of man, com- plexion is the most easily changed. The Portu- guese in Africa are become black, but they have preserved their original configuration. The Jev/s in northern countries are fair ; they become brown and tawney towards the south, but their configu- ration does not undergo proportionate changes. It seems difficult to say whether the original color of man was white or black ; but it is certain that white people grow black sooner than negroes become white. On the other hand, difference of size and forn does not prove the existence of several species of man, more than that of several animals which va- ry greatly in this respect. The swine carried from Europe to Cuba acquires double its original magnitude. It is the same with the oxen in Para- o-uay. Climate, diet, and the manner of living, may produce such differences. Young animals of liie same litter, treated with care, or neglected, vveL fed or reduced to starvation, will be quite different in shape and size. Childre'n, when neg- GENERAL VISJ^T. 27 lectcd, are emaciated, sallow, and their features ccarse and meagre. The poor, exposed to exces- sive hardships, are apt to become deformed, and diminutive in their persons ; whilst luxury and excess alsaJtend to dehiJitate and disfigure the hu- man constitution. Determinate feelings, too, when permanent and habitual, change the countenance and external appearance. The most effectual means of producing differ- ences, and of preserving those which exist, is pro- pagation; and on this subject I shall hereafter en- ter more into detail. Thus, the external differences of mankind may- be explained by known natural causes, and are no proofs that there are several original species. A sound philosophy never assigns, without necessity, diflerent causes for similar effects. Small influ- ences, acting constantly, will necessarily produce, in time, conspicuous changes in mankind ; just as a succession of drops of water, faUing on the hard- est rock, makes a cavity. The first alteration in the external appearance of man is observed in the countenance, the next in the complexion, and the last in the size and configuration. 'D It may be added, that nman may live e^e^y wliere, the flexibility of his body supporting dif- 28 EDUCATION OF MAN. ferent impressions ;— moreover, no obstacle, nei- ther river nor sea, prevents him fiom continuing his excursions ; — he transports with him animals and vegetables, and prepares by art what he can not use in the natural state; and he %nows how to shelter himself and other useful beings against noxious influences from without. The internal structure of the body of man, aiso indicates that there is only one species. To prove that there are several, it would be necessary to show that the number of the essential parts is not the same in all ; that Europeans, for instance, possess certain parts which Negroes have not Whoever could demonstrate, that one part of the brain in Europeans is wanting in Negroes, would prove that there is a natural difference between rhem ; I hope, during my stay in the United States, tn be able to examine the brains of Negroes, and to ascertain that the same essential parts exist in them, subject, merely, to modifications, as it is the case in different individuals of the white race. Another argument to prove that there is only one species of Man, may be founded on the mani- festations of the mind. Every where, and at all times, the same primitive faculties, however modi- lied tlie actions flowing from them may be, are to he observed. Negroes, ir general, are inferior to Europeans; yet some of the former excel in mu- sic, mathematics, and philosophy. Blumenbach GENERAL VIEW. 29 (Goetting". Magazine, t. iv. p. 421,) and BLshop Gregory have collected the names of Negroes fa- mous for their talents. Herder and Raynal, in various passages of their works, quote instances oi extraordinary virtue and morality, observed amo. g savages and barbarous nations. It has been reported, that there are nations with- out religious feelings ; but more exact inves tigation has shown, that religious ceremonies existed, buc had been mistaken for mere social amusements, such as dancing, singing, and fight- ing. It has frequently happened, that descrip- tions of savage nations have been given by trav- ellers, who neither knew their language, nor the signification of their manners and customs. Almost all reports of this kind are founded on sin- gle observations. How erroneous, therefore, must they be, and hov^ little to be relied on, particularly when they describe the customs of nations hostile to strangers. It is known, that savages frequently steal from foreigners, while they continue faithfsd to each other, like several criminals in Europe, who show great attachment and justice towards each other, and rather suffer the greatest torments than betray their companions and friends, but wlu) do not spare either the goods or the lives of other individuals. If a traveller, accustomed to the most brilliant ceremonies of religion, were to meet with a sect of the followers of Confucius, who have neither temple nor priests, nor any %rm oi 4* so EDUCATION OF MAN. external worship ; who adore the Supreme Being" in mere inward contemplation, and in the practice of moral virtue, and he had no direct means of communication with them, mig"ht he not easily be led to +hink, that they professed no religion what- ever r Hence, it is important to distinguish be- twixt the faculties themselves and their applica- tion. Attachment, for instance, may act with re- spect to our native country, — to our friends, — to animals, — or to other objects, — yet the primitive impulse is the same in all these instances, although the external applications are very different. Cour- age may be sViown in self-defence, or in defending others. He who is fond of approbation, may adorn himself with ear-rings, with girdles, with chains, or embroidery. Religious people, in like manner, may pay divine honors to a bull, to a serpent, to the sun, to saints, or to the God of Christians ; — they may howl to the glory of invisible beings, or worship one Deity, by singing psalms, or by the practice of moral virtue, and all of these acts may flow from the same primitive tendency to venera- tion. Finally, propagation is considered as a means of determining whether animals belong to the same or to different species, according as they can or cannot engender together, or as their issue can or cannot procreate. Tried by this test, also, we must conclude that mankind forn but one spe cies. GENERAL VIEW. 31 However, it ought to be observed, that natural history can show only the possibility of mankind neing derived from one original species, which, by degrees, has undergone various changes ; but it cannot prove the reality of this fact, any more than it can ascertain whether the original color oi man was white or black, or v/h ether one or two pairs of each species of animals were created at the beginning. Thus, in the following considerations, I shall take it for granted, that mankind is only one spe- cies, comprehending various races, endowed with the same primitive powers of body and mind. Yet, as the sense of smell, attachment, or courage, &c., is stronger in one dog, or in one race of dogs, than in another; so such or such a faculty maybe more active in one man, or in one tribe, than in another, though both races are essentially of the same species. There remains an important introductory point to be considered, viz., whether education, princi- pally instruction, is useful ; or, in other words, whether it is better to leave the common people In ignorance, or to instruct all classes of society } To answer this query in a satisfactory manner et us remember that the human mind embraces ''eelircrs and intellectual faculties ; that intellect does not produce feelings, but that the latter are 32 EDUCATION OF MAN. the main causes of our actions. Hence it is a great mistake to confine education to intellectual in- struction. Education, then, if well conducted, em- braces both feelings and intellect, and improves both the body and mind. A few observations, however, wiU. prove that intellectual education i« preferable to ignorance. There is a great difference in the actions of al. nations, through the different states of civilization. The history of each at the beginning is stigmatiz-ed with assassination, parricides, incest, and violation of the most sacred oaths. The selfish passions, then, appear to have enjoyed an overwhelming power ; and all enjoyments sprung from the grati- fication of the lower propensities. In periods of ignorance, too, all nations confined moral virtue to themselves, and supposed the rest of nature destined to be their prey. Legislation, corres- ponding with the national character at the begin- ning, is sanguinary; and capital punishment is common. Nay, it falls not on the criminals alone, but also on their relations, and on whole districts. Their religion is founded on terror, their gods are endowed with all the lower feelings and adec- tions such asselfishness, jealousy, wrath, and fond- ness for dreadful actions and expiatory sacrifices. If they hope for immortality, the scenes v/hich they expect are conformable to their actual feel- ings ; triumph over enemies, gratification of lowef passions, and sensual pleasures. The whole teii GENERAL VIEW. 33 dency of the mind is atrocity ; and their actions miffht almost be denominated a series of horrid crimes. I doubt whether those, who consider the savage state so worthy of commendation, would be disposed to give up the comforts of civilization, and be satisfied with the food, clothing, habita- tions and accommodations of Barbarians ; whether they would prefer roots, acorns, nuts, insects and other animals, at the sight of which we shudder, as their food, tc the preparation of a skilful cook • whether they would be better pleased with clothes made of the skins of animals, of leaves or of grass, than with woollen, cotton, linen, or silk habili- ments ? Whether they would like to exchange our comfortable rooms for a hollow tree, for the cavity of a rock, a den under ground, a hut of reeds, or of turf and branches of trees ? Finally, Whether they would seriously think the rough at- tempts of savages at painting and sculpture, equal to the statues of Phidias, and the paintings of Raphael ? In following the history of mankind, we observe, that, in proportion as nations cultivate their moral and intellectual powers, atrocious actions diminish in number ; the manners and pleasures become more refined, the legislation milder, the religion purified from superstition, and the arts address tliemselves to the finer emotions of the mind. By observing also the different classes of society, and%he inhabitants of diiferent provinces, we 34 EDUCATION OF MAN. learn, that ignorance is the greatest enemy of ino» rahty. Wherever education is neglected, de- pravity, and every kind of actions which degrade nrankind, are the most frequent. Among ignorant persons, cceteris paribus, rapacity, cheating, and thieving, drunkenness, and sensual pleasures, are prominent features in the character. Those, then, who object to the instruction of the lower orders, can merely act from selfish mo- tives. Being aware of their superiority, they may wish the inferior classes to be obedient to their arbitrary regulations ; for, unquestionably, it is much easier to lead the ignorant and uncultivated than the instructed and reasoning people. Know- ledge, too, and the habit of reflection, detect abuses and errors, which selfishness and pride may wish to keep concealed. But whoever thinks it right to cultivate his own mind, cannot with justice desire others to remain in ignorance. He, there- fore, who is versed in history, or understands the law of Christian charity, will join those who con- tend for the benefit of an instruction, adapted to every class of society. This, then, will not be confined to reading and writing, but particularly extended over the moral conduct, and all duties and rights m practical life. The education of the body is called Physical, that of the mind, Moral. It is impossi"ble to de- cide by observation, whether education modifies GENERAL VIEW. 35 the mind itself. We can only show, that we may exercise an influence on the instruments, by wnich the powers of the mind manifest themselves. Hence, the study of the organization is necessary, even with respect to the moral education of man ; and for that reason, I avoid the common division of education into physical and moral, though ! find it proper to divide the following considera- tions on education into two Sections. In the first, 1 shall speak of the conditions which contribute to the greater or less activity of the powers of the body and of the mind ; and in the second, of their aim and direction. S8 SECTION I. ON THE CONDITIONS OF EXCIT^EMENT ; OR THOSE WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE ACTIVITY OF THE IN- NATE POWERS OF THE BODY AS V» ELL AS OF THE MIND. These important inquiries are not sufficiently understood, and are, therefore, too generally alto- gether overlooked. They, however, deserve the most serious attention of every natural philoso- pher. Our reflections on them may be divided into four Chapters, corresponding* to the natural divisions of the conditions of excitement them- selves. The first condition is founded on the Laws of Hereditary Descent ; the second on those of the Vegetative Functions ; the third on Exer- cise ; and the fourth on the Mutual Influence of the Powers. 3*. CHAPTER I. H THE LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. i Ah development of the human body is favor ed, retarded, or disordered, according to the gen- eral laws of organization, in the same way as thai of other living beings. Consequently, children participate in the bodily configuration and consti- tution of their parents, and also in their tenden- cies to particular manifestations of the mind, these bein^ dependent on the individual parts of the brain. The elucidation of these subjects is indis- pensable to a sound system of education. Nay, I am convinced, that this condition exerts a greater and more permanent influence than any other, which can be introduced with the view of perfect- ing mankind. Let us first consider how other or- ^ ganized beings are improved. Florists, pomologists, and horticulturalists, are aware that Nature produces the varieties of plants, and they observe the circumstances which are fa- vourable to the improvement of certain qualities. 38 EDUCATlOf^ 9F MAN. They know that the first anc most important point is ripe and wel -conditioned seed ; — the second, a fertile and convenient soil. In short, it is a fact, that, in order to improve the vegetable kingdom propagation is attended to. In perfecting animals, or in promoting their pecu liar qualities, such as the color or figure of horses, the wool of sheep, the smell of dogs, &c., country people have recourse to the laws of propagation. By these means, farmers have succeeded in dimin- ishing or increasing various parts of animalsj such as their bones, muscles, &c. We might naturally suppose, that it would bo sufficient to mention the fact, that the organization of man is submitted to the same general laws as that of animals, to induce reasonable beings to take at least the same care of their own offspring as of their sheep, pigs, dogs, and horses. But man wishes to make himself an exception from the im- mutable laws of the Creator, and the result of his ignorance and self-conceit is lamentable. As this subject is of the utmost importance, I shall enter into a few details upon it. For the sake of bodily health, many natural philosophers, a long time ago, insisted on the ne- cessity of a better regulation of marriage. Their oenevolent desire was supported by the constant observation that health depends on organization, LAWS OK tiLRKDiTARV Dr.sc;:.\T. 39 and that the latter is propagated by birth. " Sir John Setrigfit," says Dr. Adams, (On the Pre- tended Hereditary Diseases, p. 33.) " informs us, that if a flock of sheep, in which there is any de- fect, are permitted to breed in and in, the defect will gradually increase among them ; and Colonel Humphries, by selecting for breeding a marked variety, lias succeeded in procuring a flock with deformed bones." Dr. Adams adds, that if the same causes operate in m*an, we may impute to it many endemic peculiarities found in certain dis- tricts, which have hitherto been imputed to the water, and other localities. Those who have naore confidence in facts than in speculative reasoning, cannot doubt that the qualities of the body are hereditary. There are family-faces, family-likenesses ; and also single parts, such as bones, muscles, hair and skin, which resemble in parents and in children. The disposition to various disorders, as to gout, scrofu- la, dropsy, hydrocephalus, consumption, deafness, epilepsy, apoplexy, idiotism, insanity, &c., is fre- quently the inheritance of birth. There are few families where there is not one part of the bodi^ weaker than the rest, — the lungs, for instance, the eyes, the stomach, liver, intestines, some oth- er viscus, the brain, &c. Children born of healthy parents, and belong- ing to a strong stock, always bring into the world 40 EDUCATION OF MAN. a system formed by nature to resist the causes of disease ; while the children of delicate, sickly parents, are overpowered by the least unfavorable circumstance. Medical men know very well, that in curing" diseases, nature is oftentimes more pow- erful than art, and that the latter is ineffectual, if not assisted by the former. Longevity also de- pends more on innate constitution than on the skill of physicians. Is it not then astonishing, that this knowledge, as a practical piece of infor- mation, is not taught to, and disseminated among young people ? Indeed, it ought to be familiarly and generally known ; not because it is expected that every one would be reasonable enough to regulate his conduct by it, but in order to induce as many as possible to do so. A great number a^^e too selfish to be guided in their own enjoyments by a regard to the condition of their offspring; but many, on the other hand, who reflect on the fu- ture, may be induced to avoid, even from a selfish motive, a union with a person who will be likely to embitter their future days. Even the unthinking must perceive, that the enjoyments of life are ren- dered impossible, when diseases make their rava- ges in a family ; and that love for the most part ceases, when poverty takes up its abode in the house. Others, who wish to live in their posteri- ty, will, when acquainted with the immutable laws of tlie Creator, submit to them, in order to lay a foundation for the prosperity of their descendants. The physical education, then, of both sexes de- LAWS OF Hc^EDITARY bESCLNT. 4l serves the greatest attention, and it is impardona- ble to neglect that of girls. The laws of hereditary descent should be at- tended to, not only with respect to organic life, but also to the manifestations of the mind, since these depend on the nervous system. There are many examples on record, of certain feelings, or intellectual powers, being inherent in whole fami- lies. Now, if it be ascertained that the hereditary condition of the brain is the cause, there is a great additional motive to be careful in the choice of a partner in marriage. No person of sense can be indifferent about having selfish or benevolent, stu- pid or intelligent children. An objection may be made against the doctrine of hereditary effects resulting from the laws of pro- pagation, viz. That men of great talents often have children of little understanding, and that in large families there are individuals of very different ca- pacities. This observation shows at least that the clul- dren are born with different dispositions, pnd it proves nothing against the laws of propagation. The young ones of animals that propagate iiidis- criminately, are very different ; but when the races are pure, and all conditions attended to, tlu" nature of the young can be determined before 5* 4^ EDUCATION OF MAN hand. As long as the races of mankind are mix- ed, their progeny must vary extremely. But let persons of determinate dispositions breed in and in, and the races will become distinct. Moreover, the condition of the mother is commonly less val- ued than it ought to be. It is, however, observed, that boys commonly resemble their mother, and girls their father; and that men of great talents generally descend from inteUigent mothers. But as long as eminent men are married to partners of inferior capacities, the qualities of the offspring must be uncertain. The Arabs seem to understand the great importance of females, since they do not allow to sell a female horse to foreigners, and note the nobility of their horses after the females. The age of propagation too is not indifferent. Animals are not permitted to propagate at all ages, neither too young nor too old, but in the period of their strength. Men of talents and science often marry when their body, particularly the nervous system, is exhausted by protracted studies and debilitating causes. They are seldom rich from birth, and their condition rarely allows them to choose daring the period of their greatest energy ; yet tljey might often accomplish more than they do to the benefit of their offspring, were they bet- ter acquainted with the laws of the hereditary de- scent, and the dependence of the mind on the or- ganization of the body, and would they submit to LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45 appreciate such laws more than fashionable man- ners and customs. The age of the parents is to be considered both in regard to their own health, and to the constitu- tion of their children. Young trees which bring forth fruit are weak; animals that propagate theii species too early in life, generally do not grow strong. Many women who marry when very young, and bear a very numerous family, become early victims to an exhausted constitution. Farther, the fruit of young plants is imperfect. The eggs of young birds are very small ; the pro- geny of young quadrupeds is feeble and diminu- tive ; and, in like manner, the offspring of living beings, when old, is Vv^eak. Such a progeny, therefore, is never destined, by country people, to the preservation of the species. Moses forbade the Jewsr to bring up the firstling males of animals. (Deut. XV. 19 — 23.) When both parents marry early in life, and have a numerous family, the el- dest children commonly possess less talent that! those who are born during the period of vigor of their parents. The laws of degeneration belong to those of he- reditary descent, and deserve a peculiar attention. They again are general throughout all nature. Plants cultivated on the same spot degenerate. Wheat must alternate with barley, flax, potatoes. 44 EDUCATIOIS OF MAN. or other p.ants. Where firs will 113 longer grow beeches will succeed. The seed of plants that ds fTfenerate, ought not to be taken for propagation (or they at length perish entirely: nor ought th sickly organization of one tree to be engrafted o\ another. In this way, we see an explanation win the same sort of fruit-trees dies in whole districts, the external circumstances of which are unfavora- ble. The sickly condition of the tree is constant ly propagated, and it dies at last by the continua" and noxious influence frc*?j without. All trees, or parts of the same tree, perish a little sooner, or resist a little longer than others, on account of the influence of the branch on which they are en- grafted. The same law of degeneration prevails in ani- mals. Various circumstances weaken their con- stitution, and, among various conditions, to pre- vent degeneration, it^ is necessary to cross the breed, and to renew the blood. The degeneration of man, too, is certain, in fam- ilies who intermarry among themselves. Uncles and nieces, or first cousins, or cousins who commit this error for several generations, have no chil- dren, or their progeny is commonly feeble. The smaller the number of choice, the quicker the de- generation takes olace, and no class of society can be made an exception from this lq,w. .Any bodily r»r mental affliction which may happen to originate LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45 n one individual soon affects such families. This frequently happens among the rich and high ranks; and, as their manner of living is not con- ducive to bodily strength, it is quite natural that tiiere should be so many living proofs of the truth of tliis proposition, which invites the friends of hu- manity to admire the law of compensation. The great influence of propagation is ascertain ed also by the fact, that it is infinitely more easy by it to keep up natural changes, and even deform- ities, than to produce them by art. Deaf people often have children with the same defect ; while circumcision among the Jews and Mahomedans has not yet become superfluous. It is more proba- ble that a man born without an arm, should have children like himself, than that he should do sc whose* arm has been taken off by the knife of the sursreon. The laws of hereditary descent are still visible, since the greater number of first-born children are girls ; since, in one year more girls, in another more boys are born ; since, when old and weak men marry young and vigorous females, the great- er number of their children are girls, &c. These effects must have adequate causes, and by more patient attention to the phenomena than has hith- erto been paid, some valuable conclusions might be arrived at. May not the particular and tran- sient state of the same parents, at different periods 46 EDIICAT. ON OF MAN account m some degree, for the differences in tneir children ? At all events, the bodily constitution of both parents, in every respect, ought to be at tended to. Moses (Leviticus xii. 2d & 5th) or- dered a longer period for the purification of a girl than for that of a boy. Is there a natural reason for his having done so ^ Can any inference be drawn from the observation, that the greatest number of monsters are amongst the female sex ? It is indeed a pity that the laws of hereditary descent are so much neglected, whilst, by atten tion to them, not only the condition of single {"aniilies, but of whole nations, might be improved beyond imagination, in figure, stature, complexion, health, talents, and moral feelings. I consider with Aristotle, that the natural and innate dif- ferences of man are the basis of all political econo- my. He who can convince the world of the im- portance of the laws of hereditary descent, and in- duce mankind to conduct themselves accordingly, will do more good to them, and contribute more to their improvement, than all institutions, and all systems of education. Yet they embrace more til an a choice, according to the beauty of con- figuration and to the vigor of body and mind. I'he state of health of both parents, their age, their previous manner of living, contribute to the development of the embryon ; and the state of health of the mother and her vital functions, as digestion, respiration, circulation, &c. during preg nancy as likewise of great weight. LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 47 ^' It is probable," says Dr. Rush, '' that the qualities of body and mind in parents, which pro- duce genius in children, may be fixed and regula- ted ; and it is possible the time may come, when we shall be able to predict with certainty the in- tellectual character of children, by knowing the specific nature of the different intellectual faculties of their parents. The marriages of Danish men with the East Indian women produce children that iiad the countenances and vigorous minds of Europeans ; but no such results appeared in the children of the East Indian women who intermar- ried with the males of any other European nation." (" On the Influence of Physical Causes on the In tellectual Faculties," p. 119.) Three successive generations appear to be neces- sary to produce an effectual change, be it for health or disease. " Si le goitre," says Dr. Fodere, " n'est qu' accidental, et qu'il n'y ait qu'un des parens affecte, les enfans ne naissent pas goitreux. Si de pere en fils un goitreux a epousa une goi- trcuse pendant deux generations, et dans un pays ou le goitre est endemique, a la troisieme genera- tion Penfant qui nait, n'est pas seulement goitreux, mais il est encore cretin." (" Traite du Goitre, et du Cretinisme," Paris, 1800, p. 69.) According to the laws of the creation, therefore, it is said, that "the Lord visits those who hate him (in my opinion vv^ho do not submit to his laws,) to the third and fourth generation ;" viz. by their here j itarv disDositions 48 r.lJ.J'J.VTlON OF MAN. Such causes as produce what is called the old age of natioriS deserve to be remarked. Luxury belongs to them, and its influence, if continued during- several generations, weakens body and mind, not only of families, but of whole nations. The degeneration of the organic condition of man, in general, is not sufficiently understood, and is ol greater effect than the political economists of modern days are av/are of. This neglect is un- doubtedly the most influential cause why families and nations disappear. The Reverend Dr. Smith, who ascribes par- ticularly the variations of man to external cir- cumstances, says, " that Germans, Swedes, and Frenchmen in different parts of the United States, who live chiefly among themselves, and cultivate the habits and ideas of the countries from which they emigrated, retain, even in our climate, a strongresemblance to their primitive stock. Those, on the contrary, who have not confined themselves to the contracted circle of their countrymen, but have mingled freely with the Anglo-Americans, entered into their manners, and adopted their ideas, have assumed such a likeness to them, that it is not easy now to distinguish, from one another, people who have sprung from such different ori- gins. On a closer examination, it will be found, that one stock may adopt the manners of another, a LAWS OF HEREDITARY LKSCENT. 49 Saxon, ibr instance, the ras!ii.)ns of the French, but that the original features of ihe trihes wiL l)e preserved, as long- as they do not intermarry. The genuine races of Flighlanders ;and Lowland- ers of Scotland will not loose their originality by exchanging their countries, but by interoiarryiu^: with eacli other. The Jews are a striking example, that climate and external influences are less powerful in chang- ing man than propagation. They are dispersed in every country of the globe, and though, owing to the climate they have inhabited, their com- plexion may have changed, yet, being prohibited by sacred institutions from intermarrying witli other* nations, they are still distinguishable from other people. The ancient legislators were very attentive to the laws of propagation. Moses complains (Gen. vi.) that the sons of God saw the daughters of men, that they were fair, that they tDok them wives of all which they chose : he divided his people into tribes, but prohibited, on pain of death, ihe intermarriage of the near relations. (Levit. jcviii.) The Greeks, as appears from their customs, philosophy and legislation, had particularly in view the beauty and vigor of the human constitu tior. *' As we,'' says Plutarch, (" De Nobili 6 50 EDUCATION OF MAN. tate,") '^ are aaxious to have dogs and horses from a good hreedj why should we marry the daugh- ters of bad parents." Plato spoke against mar- riages betwixt relations. He, as well as Solon and Aristotle, considered also the age at which it was best to marry. The ancient philosophers commonly fixed it between eighteen and twenty- four for a woman, and between thirty and thirty- six for a man. It may be replied, that these considerations can never become practical rules of conduct for i5ociety at large. In the actual situation of things I will not maintain the contrary. But we must also admit, that the laws of the Creator will not change to gratify our fancy. If we will not sub- mit to his dictates, w^e have no right to complain of being punished by unavoidable, though dis- ngreeable results. Christian principles are not sufficiently exercised in society, yet it is not, on this account, considered superfluous to teach them and he who loves mankind will wish for their promulgation. Now, the laws of hereditary descent are in the same situation. Nay, if ob- served, they would even tend to prepare mankind to receive and keep the precepts of Christianity, which, in the actual and common way of Provi- dence, seems impossible. I find it also necessary to obviate another objection which may be made by religious per LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 51 sons, who are not aware that the letter kills^ while the spirit vivifies. Some, who are entirely unacquainted with natural causes, and who expect all from supernatural influence, may be offended by so much being ascribed to the laws of organi- zation. If they reflect, and will be consistent with themselves, they cannot reject any thing that is in nature, and the work of the Creator. The organization is constituted by the same Al- misfhty Being v.'honi they implore to be propi- tious. If they will submit to Him, they must ac- knowledge every law of creation. The primary arrangements of Nature as certainly proceed from Him., as any subsequent revelation. Shall we, then, have no recourse to natural means to cure diseases, because St. James has admonished us, if any one is sick, to call for the elders of the church, to let them pray over him, anointing him with oil ^ We read in the old Testament, that Elias prayed that it might not rain, and it rained not on the earth for the space of three years and nix months ; and he prayed again, and the heavens gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. Shall we theiefore not study the laws of vegeta- tion, and cultivate the vegetable kingdom ? Shall we neglect to sow, and expect that by means of prayers we shall be permitted to rear ? In the same way, if, while we say prayers, we do not at the same time submit to the laws of hereditary descent and of organization, supernatural influence alone will not it is our first duty to obey them as His dictates ; and having done so, we may then, but not till then, expect His blessing to attend us. The special obe- dience to the natural laws of hereditary descent, is an indispensable condition to the improvement of mankind ; and nothing but ignorance, supersti- ion and prejudice can oppose it. The influence of these laws may be shown to young persons, first in plants, then in animals, and at the end in mankind. Many parents are cautious and fearful of speaking of such notions to their children, and do not think of the anxiety with which children look for information of tliat kind, and of the benefit they may derive from it Such information, Vx^hen given by tlie parents, will be received with confidence and respect. Some young persons will possess reflection enough to at- tend to their bodily health, from the consideration LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 53 that their coristitntion will be commiv/acated tc their offspring. I know positively, that such a proceeding has been more effectual and beneficitd than endeavoring to prevent children from acquir- ing any knowledge of that kind, or to conceal the effects of the disorderly satisfaction of physical love. This propensity deserves the same attention which we pay to hunger and. thirst. Both are ac tive without our will ; and their activity must be directed. Why should we not have recourse to the understanding as far as possible, to regulate the actions, and employ natural means of correc- tion against natural faults ? How can we expect that children should suppress a strong internal feeling, without being acquainted with the bad consequences of its abuses, and with its destina- tion ? It seems therefore advisable to show the dreadful effects of Onanism to those who are in- clined to this aberration ; at first with respect tc their own health, and afterwards in relation to iheir offspring. It has been my object in this Chapter to bring under consideration a most important point, which must precede, and which will influence whatever remains to be done in education. Yet I do not deny the efficacy of various other conditions whic' T -^hall examine in the following pages. 54 . EDUCATION OF M* CHAPTER II. ON THE LAWS OF THE VEGETATIV/. FUNCTIC^NS. It is reasonable, when we desire the improve- ment of any living being, to emploj^ all the means which may contribute towards its perfection. We have seen in the preceding Chapter, that man is born sickly or healthy, deformed or well shaped, an idiot or a genius, — in short, that the human be- ing enters life with the greatest modifications of bodily and mental endowments. The innate con- stitution, then, which depends on both parents, and the state of the mother during pregnancy, is the basis of all future development. Being placed in the world, man is subjected in every respect to the laws of organization. Organ- ization is influenced by light, air, climate, nour- ishment, bodily exercise, rest, sleep, cleanliness, and excretions. The body of man, like other or- fj-anized beings, undergoes various changes : it be- gins, increases. Arrives at its full growth, decreases, and dies. There is a certain regularity in the suc- cession of these natural changes ; and accordingly, (he duration of life is divided into different pe- riods, commonlv called ages. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 55 These changes cannot be entirely prevented, but ihey may be accelerated or retarded by external influences. The regulation of all the conditions which contribute to the development of the body and of its parts, and to the duration of Ufe, consti- tutes what is termed Physical Education. I shall not endeavor to explain Life. I am sat- isfied to say, that it embraces all the vital functions from conception to death. It certainly depends on various conditions, several of which are not yet sufficiently understood. The chemical ex- planation is not more satisfactory than that founded on mere mechanical laws. Life is more than the ef- fect of a machine, more than a chrystalization. The life of man is also more than the organization of a plant, and even more than that of an animal. Some fluids belong to its necessary conditions, such as caloric and the electric fluid ; but it remains undecided how far some ancient and modern physiologists are right or wrong in speaking of a peculiar Vital Principle, which in ancient times often was called the Soul of the World; and which sometimes has been confounded with the immortal soul of man. The modern physiologists consider rather the functions of man than the principles of which he is composed. They place together the functions without consciousness, and call them Automatic Life ; while the tYmctions with consciousness are known under the name of Animal or Phrenic Life. 56 EDUCATION OF MAN. It is not yet generally admitted, that the phrer.ie, like the automatic functions, depend on the or- ganization. Physical education, however, evi- dently rises in importance, if the manifestations oi the mind are modified in energy and quality by the influence of the body. In this respect various opinions have prevailed, and still prevail. There is an ancient belief in oriental countries, that the body prevents the soul from communicating with superior beings, and from exercising freely its powers. Pythagoras, Plato, and almost all metaphysicians, fancied, that in this life thoughts might be manifested without the medium of organization. The body was con- sidered as a prison of the soul. Hence the great tendency to deliver the immortal soul from the mortal body ; hence the spontaneous vexations and torments of the body ; and hence many non- sensical ideas of castigation. This opinion, however ancient it may be, is yet erroneous. Experience, which must constantly guiue our reasoning, proves the dependence of the mental operations on the body during this life. Phrenology teaches the particulars of this doc- trine. The duration of life is commonly divided into Infancy, Adolescence, Adult, and Old Age. With respect to physical education, the time from birth to that of fell growth, is the most important. It LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 57 is preparatory for the rest of our days, and has also a great influence on our offspring. It may be subdivided into several periods, the first of wliich is that from birth to two years, or to that of the first dentition,— I call it Infancy : The second from two to seven years, or to the second dentition, viz. Childhood : The third from seven years to pu- berty, viz. Adolescence : The fourth from pu- berty to full growth, or to the period of Mar- riage. Before I enter into details on these periods, I shall notice some general considerations, and be- gin with Longevity. It is not probable that the life of man has dimin- ished with the duration of the world ; it is more reasonable to suppose, that the years mentioned in the Old Testament were shorter than ours. It is a common observation, that the same term has quite different meanings among different nations, aiid even in the same nation at different periods of its history. The English and Germans, for in- stance, measure the distances of localities by miles ; but it is known that about six English miles make only one mile in Germany. In the same way, it may be that the expression year^ did not always denote the same lapse of time. It is also possible that the duration of a family, that is, of all male descendants, was considered as the continuation of the same life, as it is still a common saying, that parents continue to live in their children. Men, ike quadrupeds, commonly live in the state of 58 EDUCATION 0? MAN. nature five or six times longer than they grow ; and many individuals of the human race arrive still at an age corresponding to these proportions. But there is no reason to suppose that the Jews made an exception from the physical 1-av^s in gen- eral, whilst on the other hand, it is more probable that life, generally speaking, is shortened by arti- ficial means, rather than by the lapse of time since the creation. Among the causes which contribute to longevity, the most important is the innate bodily constitu- tion. In this respect, savages have an advantage over civilized nations. The health of the former is more durable, and they do not experience a number of bodily and mental disorders with w^hich the latter are molested. A moderate temperature is more conducive to old age than great heat. The latter accelerates the natural changes of organized beings, and brings them sooner to death. Pure, dry, and cold air, moderate exercise of all the bodily and mental faculties, a good physical education in general, and quietude of the mind, are all very favorable to longevity. On the contrary, hereditary dispositions to dis- eases, a weakly constitution, great and sudden changesof temperature, intemperance, want of bod- ily exercise, noxious occupations, too great applica- LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 59 tion of the mental powers, misery, unwholesome food, a want of sufficient rest, every kind of de- bilitating influences, disag-reeable affections of the mind, such as jealousy, envy, fear, grief, &c., are hurtful to health. The influence of nature in preserving* the spe- cies, and also the individuals, is great, and has been spoken of at all times, under the name of vis plastica or vis medicatrix naturcB. It is visible in the healthy and diseased state. Yet, however effectual nature, and however favorable all cir- cumstances may be, the succession of the different ages cannot be prevented, and death is at last un- avoidable. Physical education can produce only modifications, but can never annihilate the immu- table laws of the Creator. The modifications produced in the body by ex- ternal circumstances, deserve a special attention. Plants and animals which can live in various cli- mates, are extremely modified by the influence oi outward conditions. Fruit-trees which have been transplanted from the south to the north, bring forth the same kind of fruit, but of modified quali ,ies. The grapes of France excel those of Eng land. Leibnitz has already remarked, that plants and animals show the same type of configuration, are long and slender, or short and stout, in different 60 EDUCATION OF MAW. countries. We may add, that it is the sane with man. In Angora, the beard of the men is modi- fied like tlie hair of animals. In countries where the grass of the meadows is long, the cattle are tall, and animals in general have long extremities. Mankind shgws a similar make. The influence of physical education may be ex- amined with respect to the body as a whole, or to the individual systems, such as the muscles, blood- vessles, bones, nerves, digestive organs, &c. It is certain and generally known, that climate and the manner of living modify the whole organization of man. Cliuiate, in its general acceptation, de- signates not only temperature, but all external influences, particularly air, light, dryness and moisture, and food. A particular effect produced by a high temperature on living beings is, that they undergo their natural changes with greater celerity than in colder regions. Annual plants of the south, the aloes, for instance, when carried into northern countries, last many years. It is quite superfluous to insist on the modifica- tions produced in organized beings, by food, and other external circumstances. Who does not kn/^w that the constituent parts of milk, such as butter, cheese, and whey, of the same cow, vary according to the food with which she is nourish- ed ; that the flesh of roes, hares, rabbits, fowls, &c., though each sort preserves its specific taste, is LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 61 greatly niodif.ed b}" the food on which the animal lives ? This principle, however, is not sufficiently at- tended to in the physical education of children ; they are commonly treated according to a general plan, while external circumstances ought to be regulated according to the individual tempera- ment. In this respect, a very important question may be examined, viz. How far may external circum- stances contribute to the development of indivi- dual parts of the body ? It is known that differ- ent systems of the body, such as the muscles, the nerves, the digestive organs, &c. do not possess precisely equal activity in the same individual. It would be extremely interesting to ascertain, that such or such a climate, such or such food, &c. ^s more or less favorable to the improvement of particular systems of the body. The same degree of excitement, whether of temperature or of food, may stimulate one sys- tem, and weaken another. Great heat accele-* rates the circulation of the blood, and debilitates the digestive organs. As the manifestations of the mind depend on organization, it is conceivable why even talents and moral feelings depend on the influence of climate and nourishment. All obser- vations of this kind have been made merely with 1 62 EDUCATION OF MAN. respect to health and the intellect in general But as medical men admit that some drugs act more on the nerves, others on the blood-vessels, others en ihe skin, others on the abdominal -oi urinary secretions, why should aliments, and other external influences, not be mor'i or less favorable to individual parts of the body ? In this way, nutrition, and the regulation of exter- nal circumstances, will increase in importance as they are discovered to contribute, not only to the development and organic constitution of the body in general, but also to the improvement of single parts. In this respect, our knowledge is by no means satisfactory ; yet every one will feel the import- ance of these considerations, and wish for posi- tive observations. This interesting subject, in- deed, deserves the attention, not only of medical men, but of all those who have the charge of edu- cation. I shall now add some ideas concerning the reg- ulation of the vegetative functions, during the dif- ferent periods from birth to the full growth > or to the time of marriage. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS 63 FROM BIRTH TO THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, OR INFANCY. In this age, the mortality of children is the greatest ; and hence the care bestowed on their treatment must be proportionate to the dangers to which they are exposed. Let us then see what is to be done, with a view to regulating external in- fluences upon them ; admitting however as I have already stated, that the most important requisite to health and prosperity is a good innate constitu- tion. Among the external circumstances after birth, the most essential are Temperature and Food ; then follow air, light, cleanliness, sleep, rest and bodily exercise. Temperature. It is known that without a sufficient degree of caloric, no act of vegetation or animalization can take place ; and that before birth, the child is constantly exposed to the temperature of a luke- warhi bath ; was it then reasonable to think, that immediately after birth a low temperature should be most suited to its health ? In new-born chil 64 EDUCATION OF MAN. drcn it frequently happens, that circulation in the external vessels of the skin is impeded by the influence of cold air, and that from this circum- stance a kind of jaundice arises. In more ad- vanced years, great changes of temperature are hurtful to health. In hot climates, tetanus is often the result of sudden refrigeration. We also see the natural instinct of birds leads them to cov- er their young with their wings. How, then, was it possible to fancy with J. J. Rousseau, that new- born babes may receive benefit when exposed to cold, or when bathed in ice-cold water, or in snow ^ Such a treatment, it is true, has been de- fended by an appeal to the example of northern nations. But it has been overlooked, that in those cold countries the whole animal economy of the parents is different, and that the children parti- cipate in their bodily constitutions. The mo- thers in northern regions digest things which the delicate women of the south could not take with- out injury. It would, however, be as reasonable to feed a southern mother on fish oil, as to bathe her tender offspring in ice-cold water. The bad effect of cold-bathing upon new-born children is now ascertained, and this nonsense has been given up. It is not, however, my opinion that young children ought to be brought up as in a hot-house. I grant that they are often kept too warm and too much wrapped up. Man being obliged to bear various temperatures, children- should be accus- tomed to them by degrees. But the weaker and V.AWS OF TiiF. vegetative: functions. 65 t."ie more delicate children are, the more care is requisite. In general, however, cold is better borne by young than by adult persons. Food, It is scarcely imaginable how the simple pro ceedings of Nature should be neglected, and fan- tastical dreams substituted in their place ; how any one, for instanoe, could doubt, whether, dur- ing the first days, the milk of the mother were wholesome to the suckling, whilst calves, puppies, and the young of all quadrupeds, suck immediate- ly after birth. Why will man alone disdain the laws of Nature, who takes so much care for the [)reservation of the species } How was it possible to think, that honey, syrup of rhubarb, or even wine was more wholesome to young babes than their mother^s milk, which at the beginning is thin, watery, and fit to evacuate the meconium collected in the child's intestines, and which, after a {e\v days, becomes thicker and more nutritious ? Nothing but ignorance would endeavor to gov ern N^^- re. Thus, the mother, after having taken rest from her labors, and some restoring nourish- ment, should, as soon as she has got milk, give s'.ick to her child. In cases only where she ha& got no milk, light artificial nourishment ought to ^ e given, till Nature supplies a better food. 7* 66 EDUCATION OF MAN. Much has been said upon the questi )n, whether the child is better nourished by its mother's milk or by that of another nurse, or by heterog-eneous substances. I think nature must decide. Expe- rience shows, that, cceteris paribus^ a plant succeeds better if it be noi transplanted from one spot to another : and, that young trees transplanted from a fertile soil into a barren one, languish or perish ; while, (in the other hand, if left as they were, they grow luxuriantly. Young birds may be nourished with eggs, viz. with substances on which they lived in the embryo state. Young mammalia also may be well fed upon milk and eggs ; and why should it not be the same with young children ? If the mother be healthy, and her milk nourish- ing, it will agree the best with the digestive pow- ers of the child ; and by giving suck, the mother will be freed from various complaints, noticed by many medical writers as the result of neglect- ing the first duty of a mother. In many cases, however, it will be better for the mother, for the child, or for both, to feed the child on the milk of a nurse ; or, if this be impossible, by other ali- mentary substances. Many mothers of a delicate constitution are weakened and fall into consump- tion in consequence of giving suck. Many chil- dren also perish in such cases from want of suffi- cient nourishment. A mother is certainly blame- able, if, from a love of dissipation and perpetual amusement, she persuades herself that she is sent LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. Gl into the world merely to pass through it in the most easy manner. But in the above-mentioned examples, it is most advisable to have recourse to the milk of a healthy nurse, who, as far as possi- ble, should resemble the mother in age, tempera- ment, and in the period of her delivery. If new- born children are given to nurses who have been delivered some time before, artificial means, such as syrup of rhubarb, or chiccory, generally be- come necessary, to evacuate the meconium ; or we may act on the babe by the medium of the nurse, in giving her alimentary substances that make her milk thin and clear, or even that are slightly purgative. The milk of a wet-nurse varies accordinsr to her age, her bodily constitution, to the food she takes, and according to her manner of living in general. She must avoid every thing which disturbs di- gestion, particularly strong spices, spirituous li- quors, and disagreeable affections of the mind. The suckling participates in her bodily disorders. It is liable through her to vomiting, to hiccough, to pain of the belly, diarrhcea, uneasiness, to con- vulsive motions, and various other complaints. Bad digestion, and all symptoms which result •om it, are frequently caused by feeding the in- \nt immediately after birth with artificial ali- tients, such as panada, pap, &c. It will be found that new-born children succeed best, if they live 68 EDUCATION OF MAN. for .he first three months only on the milk of the mother, or of a sound nurse. By degrees, they may be accustomed to some other food, according to their temperament and digestive powers, begin- ning with liquids, such as milk and sugar, broth, boiled biscuit, rice-cream, &c. and so go on to solids. The younger the child is, the less nour- ishment should be given at once, and the oftener repeated : older children may take more food, and at greater intervals. The nurse's milk certainly has great influence on the development of the suckling. Those, however, who think that it imbibes the moral character of its nurse with her milk, are mistaken. If it were true, that a child brought up upon goat's milk was fond of jumping, that another fed with swine's milk was dirty, it would follow that adult, people ought also to adopt the character of the animals on whose flesh they live. Men and women who live in the same manner, would be endowed with the same aflfective and intellectual faculties. Nor could it happen, that different children, nourished by the same mother, should show quite different characters, even before they had taken any heterogeneous food. Thus, the nurse's milk will contribute to the no\irishment and development of the instruments of the mind , but it will not give rise -to determinate qualities. Her moral character may change her milk with respect to its health v condition, but i» cannot LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 69 produce talents or feelings. Finally, the mental powers of children, though innate, are more or less exercised and directed by the nurse's temper and in en tell capacity, and the nurse is the first moral ;i!id intellectual instructor. Air. Atmospheric air is another indispensable con- dition of human life, and its physical properties and constituent parts, have an influence on all the vital functions. Its transparency is necessary tc vision, or to the passage of light ; its fluidity permits the free motion of the body in it. In vir- liie of this quality it admits also of being changed or renewed. Its elasticity in propagating its vi- brations assists the sense of hearing. Its weight compresses the fluid and solid parts of our or. ganizntion. Moreover, as the temperature of the atmosphere is commonly below that of our body, the air receives the superfluity of caloric. Gen- erally, however, we are obliged to guard against the disagreeable sensations of cold caused by the too great privation of caloric. The constituent parts of the atmovsphere are ex- tremely important to the body. Its oxygen and caloric are essential to the sustenance of lite. Its azote, hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, water, e ec- tric fluid, and the various exhalations of plants 70 EDUCATION OF MAN. aiul animals, have a great influence on the func- tions of organized bodies. Certain conditions of tiie atmosphere cause plants of different kinds to perish. Some winds and conditions of weather produce epidemic diseases among animals and mankind. In some persons, the digestive powers are disturbed at the approach of a storm. Per- sons whose limbs have been injured by wounds, can foretell the changes of the weather by the pains they feel. Nervous and delicate constitu- tions perceive the slightest difference in the state of the atmosphere. Many of them know by their bodily sensations whether the wind blows from the north, east, or west. New-born children, according to their innate temperaments, are more or less benefitted or dis- turbed by the condition of the atmosphere. Some constitutions require a dry and others a moist air. It is, however, a general rule, that it should be pure, and not impregnated with noxious exhala- tions. Light. The influence of light is also necessary to the development and health of organized bodies in general. It changes the color of plants and ani- mals, and the complexion of man. Plants kept in darkness grow pale and vellow. Worms and LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 71 nsects confined to dark places remain white. Those who spend their lives in their closets, have a pale and yellowish complexion. The whole organization, being deprived of light, grows weak and lat. It is affected with scurvy or putrid com- plaints, and the liver enlarges. Hence dark habi- tations, narrow streets, high houses, little win- dows, and whatever shuts out light from dwelling- places, is unwholesome. Light awakes us from sleep ; it excites all functions of the body, particularly those of the skin. Its sudden impression excites sternutation. Too much light produces headach, inflammation of the eyes, of the skin, of the throat, and of the brain ; hence, its regulation is of great import ance. • The eyes of new-born children should not be exposed to a strong light at once, and when they begin to see, they ought to be placed so that the light is before them, since they always direct their eyes towards it, and may acquire an irregu- lar look, the eyeballs being turned too much up- wards or sidewards. Cleanliness. The skin having a great influence on the pre- Bervation of health, by its absorption and excre- 72 EDUCATION OF MAN. tion, its pores mast be kept open by washing the body, and by changing the swaddling-clothes and linen whenever they are unclean. According to the condition of the skin, it may be washed with likewarm water only, or with water and wine, to strengthen it, or rubbed over with some oily substance if it be dry and rough. Some parts, such as the folds of the neck, be- hind the ears, the interior of the legs, &c. which are liable to he inflamed, deserve particular atten- tion. They may be washed with a solution of alum, or powdered with pulvis lycopodii^ or be- smeared with cacao-butter, oil, or any other pure o^reasy substance. I have already mentioned, that children should be accustomed by degrees to a lower temperature : hence the water or the bath employed as the means of cleanliness, must grad- ually be used colder and colder. The body, like the face, might be exposed by degrees to the at- mosphere. Sleep, Watchingj Rest, and Bodily Exercise. Before birth, children seem to sleep almost con- tinually. After birth, the younger the infant, the more sleep it requires. Young ch.idren then should never be awakened, and be allowed to sleep as long as they please. Jt is^ however wrong to employ soporiferous means to produce LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 73 sleep. On the otfier hand, they may b€ soon accustomed to awake and to fall asleep at a cer- tain hour, and this habit is useful in vari(,us re- spects. The free exercise of their limbs is very advan- tageous to them. No part oi" the body ought to be pressed. It was an absurd custom to tie the tender creatures, and to impede all their motions. It is particularly necessary to attend to the head, and not to let it fall backward, since the nerves of the spinal cord may suffer from pressure, on ac- count of the cartilaginous state of the vertebral processes. We ought not to be uneasy when children cry a little. By crying, the lungs are distended and strenerthened, the eves and nostrils are cleaned, and the circulation of the blood is promoted. It is imprudent to lift up children by one part only, such as by one hand or one arm, luxations being easily the result of this practice. It is also wrong to place delicate and fat children too early on their legs, since curvations of the spine and hip bones may be thereby produced. Moreover, the thorax and shoulders are often injured by leading- strings, which, in consequence, ought to be abol- ished. It is true, that many children are strong enough to resist, but delicate ones nuist frequently suffer by them. Too violent shaking may injure the stomach and brain, and produce vomiting, 8 74 EPUCATION OF MAN. principally at the moment when the stomach is full. Bodily exercise is of great influence, but it is to be directed with caution. PERIOD II. FROM THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, TO THAT OF SEVEN, OR CHILDHOOD. Before I consider the particularities of this pe- riod, it will be interesting to advert to a few cir- cumstances with respect to dentition. At first, the natural food of children is liquid ; but about the seventh month, instruments which are fit to assist the digestion of solid aliments, viz. the teeth, ap- [)ear. The development of these organs is often the cause of various complaints. The saliva is generally secreted copiously, frequent sneezing oo curs, the gums grow red and hot, sometimes they are swollen, one or both cheeks are red ; the child carries his hands, and every thing he holds, into his mouth, and presses the gums against it. At the end, white spots are seen where the teeth ap- pear. Commonly the two middle incisors of tlie lower jaw first cut through the substance of the gums. A little while after, the corresponding in- cisory teeth of the upper jaw show themselves, then the ateral incisors, the eye-teeth, and the LAWS CF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS 75 .ateral grinders. When the small molar teeth have come through at the age of about two years^ the first dentition is complete, and the life of the child, which before was precarious, is then more secure; for it is ascertained that a third part ol cliiidren dies before the age of twenty-four months. The growth of teeth, though a natural operation, causes various disorders in the vital functions of children. Diarrhoeas and convulsions are the must fatal accidents attending difficult dentition. The state of the jaws alone, or, by sympathy of several other parts, sometimes of the whole body, is inflanmiatory. Hence the treatment of such children must be conformable. As their constitu- tions, however, are extremely modified, a physi- cian ought to be intrusted with the particular care of them. The general rule is, that every kind of stimulus ought to be avoided. Tepid bathing is an excellent antiphlogistic. It ma\^ be observed in general, that in infancy the vital motions tend particularly toward the head, and that, therefore, this part is the principal seat. of the afflictions peculiar to this age. In order to favor the cutting through of the teeth, the gums may be rubbed with sugar or bits of althea-root, moistened with honey cr syrup; and kept between the jaw^s. The nurse may also introduce her little finger, moistened with honey, 76 EDUCATION OF MAN. between the gams of the chid, to soften them, and to relieve the pains of the young* creati\re. Sometimes little incisions are made into the gums with evident advantage. The excretions of the skin and bowels must be kept free. To the twenty teeth of the first dentition two new grhiders in each jaw are added at about the end of the fourth year. They differ from those that preceded them in this, that they are destined to remain throughout life, whilst the primitive or milk-teeth are lost at seven years of age, in the same order in which they appeared, and are re- placed by new teeth, better formed, and provided with longer and more perfect roots. Towards the ninth year two new large grinders come fortVi bevond the others. There are then twentv- eight teeth. Between eighteen and thirty, or sometimes still later, the denies sapientice^ two in each jaw, complete the second dentition. Dentition, like all other acts of the living econ- )my, is subject to endless variations. There are instances of children that have come into the world with one or two incisors, and there are often su- pernumerary teeth. It is difficult to say why the [>rimitive teeth are detached and replaced by others, which have remained so long buried within the alveolar processes. Teeth of a third set have been Liown to be cut in very old people. 1 AWS OP THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 77 Generally speaking", teeth are not taken all the cire of which their importance demands. They oiieded, and piles are produced. The blood is carried to the brain, and causes head-ache. Thus, the excretions must bo t:\ken into consideration and regulated. They V iry in quantity and quality according to age, teinperanient, nutrition, weather and season. Per- spiration is more considerable in youth than in oUl age, more in hot than in cold weather, more in irritable than in inert temperaments. Children suffer from being kept too warm. Yet too sudden and too great changes of temperature produce in them, as well as in adult persons, catarrhal afFec tions, couo^hing, inflammation, diarrhoeas, &c. The skin ought* to be kept clean, exposed to lla-ht and the air, and thus rendered less sensible to external impressions. Health is preferable to a pale white skin and a sickly constitution. With respect to clothing, the general rale is, that no part of the body ought to be pressed. Weak or- gans may be supported, and the whole body de- fetided an-ainst cold, but all the movements of the body ou2:ht to be free and easy. It is a false taste to hwrt the health, or to injure the vital functions of females with a view to increase their beauty. A sedentary life is adverse to health in general, particularly to that of children. It is the cause ol inca.culable mischief. Children require more bodily exe^^ise. and mo q sleep than adults 80 EDUCATION OF MAN. During" childhood, as well as in infancy, t\\e regulation of the vegetative functions ought to be tlie most important point of education. A good and healthy organization is the basis of all employ- ment and of all enjoyment. Many parents, how- ever, are anxious to cultivate the mind at the expense of the body. They think they cannot in- struct their offspring early enough to read and to write, whilst their bodily constitution and health are overlooked. Children are shut up, forced to sit quiet, and to breathe a confined air. This er- ror is the greater, the more delicate the children, and the more premature their mental powers are. The bodily powers of such children are sooner ex- hausted, they suffer from dispepsia, headache, and a host of nervous complaints; their brain is liable to inflammation and serious effiisions; and a premature death is frequently the consequence of such a violation of nature. It is indeed to be la- mented, that the influence of the physical on the moral part of man is not sufficiently understood. There are parents who will pay m.asters very dearly, in hope of giving excellency to their chil- dren, but who will hesitate to spend the tenth part to procure them bodily health. Some by an absurd infatuation, take their own constitutions as a measure of those of their children, and because ihey themselves in advanced life can support con- finement and intense application with little injury to health, they conclude that their- youQg and deli- cate children can do the same. Such notions art LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 81 aliogeihcr erroneous, — bodily deformities, curved spines and unfitness for various occupations, and Vac fulfilment of future duties, frequently result from such misunderstood management of children. The advantages of a sound body are incalcnlable for the individuals themselves, their friends, and their posterity. Body and mind ought to be cul- tivated in harmony, and neither of them at the expense of the other. Health should be the basis,. and instruction the ornament of early education. The development of the body will assist the man- ifestations of the mind, and a good mental educa- tion will contribute to bodily health. The organs of the mental operatioLis, when they are too soon and too nuich exercised, suffer and become unfit for their functions. This explains the reason why young geniuses often descend at a later age into the class of common men. Indeed, experience shows, that among children of almost equal dispositions, those who are brought up without particular care, and begin to read and to write, when their bodily constitution has acq^uired some solidity, soon over- take those who are dragged early to their spelling- books at the detriment of their bodily frame. No sch(7ol education, strictly speaking, ought to be- gin before seven years of age. We shall, how- ever, see in the following chapter, on the laws of exercise, that many ideas and notions may be com- municated to children by other means than books, or by keeping them quiet on benches. When education shall become practical and applicable tc 82 EDUCATION OF MAN. the future destination of individuals, cii.ldren will be less plagued with nothings, but they will be made answerab.e not only for their natural gifts of intellect, but also for the just employment of their moral powers and the preservation and cultivation of their bodily constitution, since vigor in it is in- dispensable to enjoyment and usefulness. They will be macle acquainted with the natural laws of nutrition and all vital functions, and with their in- fluence on health. The import of the laws of the vegetative func- tions is so great, that those who direct mankind, ought to be permitted to regulate them in many respects. The Mosaic law may serve as a fine specimen. All ancient legislators paid great atten- tion to these laws, as well as to those of hereditary descent. This knowledge will be of greater use than to forbid eating meat on certain days. Teach- ers ought to know, that nothing is unclean or an abomination in itself, but becomes so by being ill used. Man must eat anu drink to live, but he or.ght to avoid all unwholesome food, and what ever disturbs his health. The submission of man to the laws of the veg etative functions is necessary daring his VN^holc life, but particularly from birth to the age of com- plete development, since the time of growth is preparatory for the rest of life. LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 85 An additional observation concerning" the vege- tative functions is, that they, like all others, admit of great modifications, nay, even ot idiosyncrasies. Some persons on account of their innate vigor and >trong constitution succeed under all circumstances they resist all noxious influences, they digest what ever they eat, whilst others suffer from particular aliments, such as mutton, pigeon, veal, cauliflower, &c. These latter and all other particularities can only be observed, hA can never be explained. In regard to them, every one must be his own physi- cian. Demosthenes and Haller were kept in a state of regular excitement by drinking nothing but water. Coffee was the favorite stimulus of Voltaire, and tea that of Dr. Johnson. Sir Isaac Newton lived upon vegetables when he was employed in composing his famous treatise on Optics. Hobbes sat in his study, enveloped in the smoke of tobacco, &c. In general, however, a strict attention to physical education cannot be insisted upon too much among civilized nations. During the periods of life, from birth to the state of full growth, a third kind of laws is 1o be kepi in view, and these shall be considered in the fol lowing pages. • 84 ^UCATION OF MAN CHAPTER III ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. These laws embrace what is called Education in a more limited sense, but in this respect many errors are caused by the true meaning of the word Exercise not being sufficiently understood. I em- ploy this expression as synonymous with putting into action, and distinguish Exercise from Habit ; the latter being the result of the former. Habit. Habit has two significations : it sometimes indi- fio'i-tes the result of diminished activity, and at other times a greater facility of acting. A power being too active, becomes fatigued, diminishes, and is finally exhausted. Moreover, all natural powers become accustomed to external impres- sions, and the former become the less affected the longer the latter are applied. The mimosa sensi- tiva, when shaken for a certain time, ceases to fold Its leaves. In the same way, each sort of impres- sion on the organization loses its effect by frequent LAWS OF EXERCISE. 85 fepeiition. Even noxious impressions, when re- pented) are less felt than they were at first. In this sense Mithri dates accustomed liis stomach and !)!)\ve!s to poisonous substances. The attendants uiid nurses of patients become in a certain degree iiiseiisible to contagious diseases in hospitals. The mind its'clf sliows less energy at each repetition ol t'ne san.ie tunctions It becomes accustomed even lo misfortune and painful situations. Time is a gvei^t remedy of many evils. Organized beings adapt themselves in a surpris- ing degree to external impressions, and a change of place and various circumstances is frequently less advantageous than might have been expected. Prisoners, who have been confined for many years to dungeons, or unwholesome habitations, fall sick when they obtain their liberty. Many morbid, but accustomed affections, such as old sores and exudations, &c. are to be removed with the great- est precaution, and sometimes to be left untouched. Body and mind successively take a turn which can be changed solely by degrees. All changes which nature produces are succes- sive, and art ought to imitate her proceedings. It is the same in dietetic rules, and in every manner of feeling and thinking. Drunkards cannot leave off their bad habits suddenly Vvdthout injuring their health. Those who are near starving from inani- tion, will Derish if too much nourishment be .9 86 EDUCATION OF MAN. given ; and too much light dazzles those wlio have lived long in darkness. The had effects of great and sudden changes of temperature on iii- animate bodies, such as glass, or on plants, an- imals, and man, are generally known. Thoye who are accustomed to certain mental occupa- tions, feel great reluctance to give them up. In the same way, great and sudden changes of politi- cal, moral, and religious opinions, are not borne with indifference. Habit is a second nature, phy sically and morally speaking. The living generation, if not prepared for it, generally rejects every reform. It is only in process of time that the adherents to any new doc- trine become numerous ; and any doctrine, though false, when once admitted, will be replaced by another and a better only by degrees. Yet it is natural that the more agreeable a doctrine is, tl^.e sooner it will gain ground, and that a precept which commands resignation will be submitted to, i^n proportion to the reward it promises. Chris- tianity assigns eternal happiness as the reward for temporal conflicts ; and it was adopted by fisher men and the poor sooner than by the rich. The law of modifying mankind, or of prodric- ing changes is seldom understood by reformers. They are commonly too hasty ; though, at all times, experience has shown the danger and harm of such a proceeding When changes are to ha LAWS OF EXERCISE. 87 made, let them be gradual ; the greater the alter- at'.ons you wish for are, the slower must be your method of proceeding; keeping, however, con- stantly t'ne aim in view. The precipitancy of co.ninon reforn^ers can be excused only by their ignorance of hamau nature, and by their errone ous opinion, that it is sulHcient to point o'.ii errors, and to propose principles, in order to per- fect man without considering that he must by de- grees be prepared for, and accustomed to them. The faciUty of accommodating man to new im- pressions greatly depends on age ; it succeeds best during the period of growth, whilst in latter years we are less susceptible of changes. It is therefore not astonishing, that all new doctrines have been received and propagated by youth and new gene- rations. The law of accommodation, however great, never annihilates the general laws of life. It is even subordinate to them, and cannot prevent the successive changes of age. Again, every individ- ual being born with a different constitution, and with different dispositions, is not equally capable of accommodatinsr himself to circumstances, and hence each will present some modification, though the externa, influences are the same. This is the case in the automatic and animal functions. Not- withstanding these restrictions, the law of accom- modation is incalculably great in the education both of in.lividu lis i^nd of nations- 88 EDUCATION OF MAN. The second meaning of Habit is an increase'! facility of acting in a certain manner. In this ac- 'jcptation of the word, it is still more interesting IS) education than in the former, and deserves a detailed elucidation. Exercise. I have already mentioned that I employ the word exercise as synonymous with putting into action. Now the first law of this kind is, that ex- ercise strengthens powers. This principle is quite general throughout nature, and extends even to in- animate bodies. Musical instruments being play- ed on by masters in the art, improve. The pow- er of a magnet to support weight may be increas- ed, by gradually appending to it more. Every power, both in automatic and animal life, may be exercised, and thereby gains in activity. There is somethinix analosrous even in tbe diseased state. Each organic part, bavingonce been affected by any disorder, is liable to relapses ; in tbe same way as, according to the first meaning of babit, by repeti- tion and continuation many diseases are exhausted. The digestive organs may not only be accus- tomed to various aliments, but they become also more active by being satisfied. In persons who spit out the saliva, the glands secrete more abund- unlly All musclpB which are exercised increase LAWS OF EXERCISE. 89 in strength. Smiths, and those who ise their arms, acquire more power than those who sel- dom employ them. Bodily exercise in general strengthens , and a sedentary life weakens the con- stitution. The influence of exercise on the functions ot the five senses, is generally known and admitted. The sense of feeling often acquires a very high degree of perfection in persons who are blind In the first vol. of Phrenology, speaking of the Generalities of the external senses, I have quoted many examples which prove, that they become more active by practice. Ft is the same with the internal faculties mani- fested by means of the different parts of the brain. Each mental power, if it be sufficiently cultivated, grows more energetic, whilst, if neglected, it shows less activity. In this chapter on the Laws of Exercise, I take for granted, that all dispositions are innate and dis- covered. I refer for the details of this impor- tant proposition to the first vol. of Phrenology. Hitherto philosophers have admitted a few general powers, and have derived from them all particu- lar manifestations. The greater number of them consider the intellect as the cause of the feelings. Accordingly, they confine education to the Un- dcrstandinsr, and do not think of cjltivatins: t' f 9* 90 EDUCATION OP MAN. Feelings themselves. This, however, is a great error, and the first thing to be done is to specify the primitive powers of the Mind ; and then, as they exist independently of each other, every one must be exercised for itself. The legs or arms will not be strengthened by reading treatises on muscular motion. The digestive organs will not act with more energy in those who know all the theories which have prevailed on digestion, and who are even able to explain the causes of hun- ger and thirst. Let such persons have but little to eat and to drink, and give to others who have never heard of any theory of alimentation, whole- some food in abundant quantity, and every intel- ligent reader will perceive w^hose appetite and digestive functions will be exercised to the best advantage. Let any one study the principles of optics mere- ly in books and in descriptions ; let him learn by heart all the theories of colors, but let him never see any color, nor feel their harmony. He may, like a blind man, recollect all the expressions used in painting, but without practical instruction his faculty of coloring will not improve. Who will pretend to cultivate the musical talent only by reading discourses about the principles oi melody and harmony ? Is it not necessary for tliis purpose to perform tunes, or to hear them performed by others, either in singing or in play ing on a musical instrument .'' LAWS OF EXERCISE. 91 It is the same with all intellectual acuities. Each mast be exercised or put into action for it- self. Thus, to cultivate the power of Numeration, the niiiubers must be shown in real objects. Tc e cercise the power of Locality, it is not enoug-li to know the names of each town, river, sea, &c. but their respective situations must be acquired. Souie children easily recollect names and geogra- f)hical descriptions by heart, but feel great diffi- culty in learning local situations ; while others present to themselves, in their own minds, an ex- act image of localities, the names of which they have forgotten. When children are obliged to trace maps, it is not always those who know the localities best that have the greatest power of tra- cing tb.em on paper. The fundamental faculties must be separated in every study. In geography for instance, a perfect knowledge requires the ex ercise of Individuality, of Form, Size, Locality^ and Language. In order to draw maps, Con- structiveness is required in addition. The latter power will be assisted by Order and Numeration. The intellectual faculties of man have improved less by education than they might have done, in consequence of two reasons, first, of the primitive powers of the understanding not being known ; and second, of the dilTerence between sensations and perceptions on the one hand, and the artificial Bigns, either sounds or figures, which express them, on the other, not be ng attended to. 92 EDUCATION OF MAN. To i:roceed as if artificial signs couid produce sensations and perceptions, while they can only call those ideas into recollection which have pre existed in the mind, does incalculable h*rm. Th€ old system of education however, is conducted in this faulty manner. Children learn and repeal words without meaning, like parrots. But it ought to be admitted as a general principle, in communicating every kind of positive knowledge of the external world, that, first, sensations and perceptions must be excited, and these then de- noted by particular signs. In that way only v/e shall avoid the great mistake to which we are ac- customed from infancy, viz. of pronouncing words without knowincf their si^T-nification. The vocal or written signs are to be used only as means of communication, of recollection and tradition ; but they cannot be considered as the cause of any idea or sensation. On the other hand, each intellectual faculty must be exercised by practical application, in the same way as the sense of hearing is exercised by hearing, that of smelling by smelling, that of sight by seeing. With respect to the Feelings, education is still more defective. It is commonly believed that it is more difficult to cultivate the propensities and sentiments than the intellectual powers. It is even said that the feelings cannot be taught. This oroposition, however, is not clearly stated. The LAWS OF EXERCISE. 93 feelinsrs cannot be taught, if by this proposition we mean, that they may be given by education ; in this sense also understanding cannot be communi- cated. Both intellect and feeUnsrs are innate or driven by the Creator, but the latter may be exer- cised in the same manner as the intellect, not by (he action of the faculty ot language, or by learn- ing signs, or by exercising the verbal memory, but by putting the feelings themselves into action. I even think that it is much easier to exercise the feelings than the intellectual powers. It cannot be too frequently repeated, that the Feelings do not result from intellect, any more than intellect is the result of the feelings. No one is benevolent, just, timid, courageous, haughty, or aifectionate, in proportion to his understanding, nor has he penetration on account of his feelings. Moreover, each affective, as well as each intel- lectual faculty, must, and may be exercised for itself. Man learns to be courageous, circumspect, ambitious, just, or benevolent, as he learns to sing, to calculate, to measure, to speak, and to re- flect. When often exposed to danger, he learns to meet death without fear. By habit he becomes indifferent to destruction. The heart, as the Chi- nese proverb states, goes farther than anderstand- ing. Thus, bring men into favorable situations, cal- su'ated to call forth their feelings and these will 94 EDUCATION OF xMAN. be strengthened. In order to cultivate benevo- lence, one should not frequent only the society of rich and opulent persons, and learn by heart de- scriptions of charity ; he must experience misery himself, and contemplate the painful situations of others. There are more poor willing to give sharity from their necessity, than rich from their superfluity. If all our whims and fancies have generally been satisfied, the feelings of conscien- tiousness and benevolence tov/ards others are less excited, than if our wishes have been contradicted and reformed. For the same reason moral feel- ings Vv411 not improve by frequenting places of de- bauchery. The principle in question explains the ancient proverb; verba movent, exempla trahunt, and also the great influence of bad or good company. So- ciety, however, cannot be, as it is often consider- ed, the cause of any faculty; it presents only an opportunity to the innate powers, to act, or excites them to do so. The knowledo^e of the means of excitinar the powers is very important, but not better under- stood than the fundamental powers themselves. [t is time to abandon the immense error, that words and precepts are suflicient to call internal feelings and intellectual faculties into active exer- cise Gospel-preaching is infinite, but many of .hose who deliver exquisite sermons are too often LAWS OF EXERCISE 95 obliged to add : Do what I say, and not what I do. Now, if they themselves show no faith by Hieir works, how can they expect others to do so ? Let education be practical, and the means of excitement adequate to the innate dispositions. Bold children will reap advantage from being brought up alone, but tiimd ones must be early accustomed to the society of strangers. Obstinacy will increase by unseasonable vexations, while just and quiet resistance or mild treatment may sup- press it. The feelings are rather moved by a dramatic representation than by a monotonous sermon. The sight of a person wounded, or in danger, makes a greater impression on the mind, tlian reading that thousands have been killed in a battle. Natural language, in general, has more effect on the feelings than artificial signs. We are, for instance, more likely to smile or laugh on look- ing at a gay face, than on hearing the word gaiety mentioned. The efiect of external impressions on internal faculties is proportionate to the assistance which the external senses give to the internal faculties. I refer part'.cularly to what I said of the mediate functions of the external senses, in vol. I. of Phrenology. In that way, the influence of religious ceremonies on common people, is easily explained, and ought not to be overlooked. Music, and representations of objects and facts in paintings and sculpture, may excite various kinds of feel- 06< EDUCATION OF MAN. ings, t\ii inferior as well as the saperior. — It is true, that these means may be and have been abused ; but I think it wrong on that account to reject them altog-ether. Let the impressions on tiie senses be adapted to the feelings we wish to excite, and these will be exercised. Church riiusic certainly should be different from that of the ball-room, but music itself ought not, there- fore, to be considered as useless in the inspiring religious feelings. By means of music, the sol- dier may be incited to fight, and the Christian to adore his Creator. The great point is, not to confound the means with the aim, and not to con- sider the first as the second. Religious cere- monies are nothing but means to become morally good ; and if they do not tend to that purpose, they lead us into error. The practice of them will not improve the moral conduct any more than learning the commandments by heart will do. It is also true that the eflfect of music is different in different individuals; but it is a great instance of ignorant bigotry and intolerance in persons to exclaim against its use in religion, because they themselves are unfortunately insensible to its charms. I shall add a few remarks on the artificial signs : they are oral, viz. pronounced, or written and printed. We commence with learning the oral or vocal signs. Their number increases in pro- porticn to the activity of the innate faculties oJ LAW3 OF EXERCISE. 97 file body and mind, but children o'.if^ht not to be taught to pronounce any word, without learning at tne same time to understand it. As every family has not tlie means of giving sufficient education to their children at home, they send them to schools or colleges, to be instructed. Public institutions, in consequence, ought to be established, with a view to give notions first, and signs afterwards, in proportion to the notions ac- quired. It is evident, that the objects to be taught must vary, according to the situations of the scholars, in future life, whether they be destined for agriculture, commerce, or any of the learned professions. Articles which compose the nrst necessaries of life, the most common objects and events. Forms, Measures, Weights, Colors, Coins, used in the country, the general division of beings into minerals, vegetables, and animals, the great and common phenomena of nature, n\ the signs. It would be desirable, how- ever, to exhibit the animal itself, where it is not familiarly known. In this proceeding the fundamental powers ol language and configuration are obliged to learn each two impressions : two forms and two names, for instance, A and Ape, C and Cat, &c. T there- fore would advise to teach only the written or printed signs, without bringing them in connec- (ion with objects ; but I would, at the same time. wb.en tl^ey learn the printed signs, exercise their fingers in copying the letters of the signs, or what is the same thing, in writing them in sand, as is the practice in the schools of mutual instruction. The advantage of the other method is supported on the effect of association. But those who are taught in this way, and have the power of confi- guration very active, may be impeded in reading, because they attach to each letter the object they have learnt in its connection ; and in order to read fluently, they must unlearn what thej^ were obliged to learn at the beginning. 4 It is clear that the primed and written signs or etters in any language, ought to be formed in the LAWS OF EX EEC I ST.. 101 friime manner. If both sorts of signs are different, as in the German language, a useless difficulty is created. The printed and written signs should be taught in the same order as the sounds are communicated, and a sign should never be taught without indi- cating the idea that is expressed by it. We ought to begin with learning the single letters ; then to go to monosyllables, and by degrees to polysylla- bles ; and these should be proncyunced without spelling and compared with the printed and writ- ten signs. Ale, Ape, Bed, Bank, Cat, Cold, &c. — Apple, Bacon, Body, Bitter, &c. —Appetite, Can- dle-stick, Candle-holder, &c. As we are accustomed from infancy to connect sounds with the printed and written characters which represent them, we never see the latter without repeating at the same tiuie the former. Did we never learn sounds, without acquiring at the same time a positive knowledge of the things they express, we should always think of the re- lated notions when we heard or saw the signs, and then learning would be much more agreeable, easy, and profitable. The same proceeding is necessary with respect to both the intellectual and aff*ective faculties. A.*- we ovicrht to perceive the external objects indi- cated, before we learn the signs of them, either 10* h 102 EDUCATION OF MAN. vocal, printed or written, so we ought to expe- rience the feeUngs first, before we.learn the words by which they are expressed. Hunger and Thirst, Warmth, Cold, Anger, Fear, and all other emo- tions must be felt before their signs can be fully understood. The natural language alone is proper to communicate the meaning of expressions which denote the affective powers of the mind. The natural language deserves the particular atten- tion in the cultivation of the affective powers. It excites them much more than the artificial signs cnn. If a teacher should instruct girls about po- lite manners, whilst he himself is awkward and sets before them his legs stretched out over a chair, the theoretical lessons will be of less influ- ence than the example which strikes the eyes. If another speak to boys of peaceableness and for- bearance with an abrupt and commanding tone of voice and with sharp haughty features, he puts rather combativeness and self-esteem than benevo- lence and reverence into action. It is a rule to speak the natural language of any feeling, you wish to inspire or to excite, and without doing so, the artificial signs are of little consequence. You may be silent and dumb, and yet distinctly speali to the feelings by natural signs. If education be conducted in this way, moral and religious princi- ples v/ill produce more effect on mankind than they have done hitherto. Then the moral facul- ties will be called into action, and our efforts to cultivate the mind wil not b« limited to the pow LAWS OF EXERCISE. 103 er oi language only, viz. to that taculty which learns by heart artificial signs. lo-norance of the fundamental powers of the mind, and of the means of exercising them, may be observed in all the institutions of society, and in all branches of mental education. Classes foi younger children and whole universities are con- ducted according to erroneous suppositions. The greater number of teachers agree that the reason ing power ought to be exercised in every indi didual; but what shall be done to accomplish that end ^ Perhaps we see one man of great depth of mind who is eminent as a mathematician : the in- ference is immediately drawn, that every child ought to study mathematics, in order to acquire great reflecting powers ; and not even the theo- logian is to be excepted, as if mathematical and moral reasoning were founded on the same prin- ciples Another person also endowed with great rea- sonmg powers is perhaps a great philologist, and particularly an excellent Greek and Latin scholar : therefore, every one is compelled to learn Latm and Greek, with the view of giving him a power- ful mind, as if learning words and phrases v/ere the same as acquir'ng sensations and perceptions of all kinds, and -easoning on them. Happily the time of sophistry is past, and positive" know- ledf^e is now esteemed. Experience shows, that 104 EDUCATION OF MAN. philology and mathematics do not improve arts and sciences, nor the moral character of man. It is replied, that the great mathematician and the great linguist, excel by their philosophical minds. This is certain ; but they did not become good reasoners, one by studying mathematics, and the other bv learnins" Latin and Greek. There are great philosophers who cannot become great mathematicians, nor great linguists. It is true that the mind must be drilled and accustomed to reflect ; but I deny that this can be done only in Latin or Greek, or in the study of mathematics. The reflective pov/ers of man are fundamental, and may be employed in prosecuting any branch of knowledge, in the study of natural history, zoology, geology, chemistry, phrenology, &c. ; and whoever excels in any line by reasoning, must possess them in a higher degree ; but they are by no means the exclusive attribute of mathemati- cians or philologists. They may be applied to any kind of notions and always with most advan- tage to the perceptive powers of which are most active. Now if an individual have calculation or language small, he cannot acquire a great stock of notions of that mind, and his reasoning powers will rather be impeded by the stud}^ of mathe- matics or the classics. It certainly would be as- tonishing, if some talented individuals could not excel in varioiis kinds of knowledge and-be at the same time good classical sc^'olars. The n-r::raV"" LAWS OF EXERCISE. 105 of tlie mental powers and their combiDations ought ta be better understood, and mental discipline which i allow to be necessary, may be arrived at by cultivating various kinds of knowledge, and in combining them with, reflection. Ill the same way, as each faculty exists in itself, and may be combined with others, so each may be exercised alone or in connection with others. We may exercise the faculty of Form, Size, or any other, without learning signs to denote our ideas; and we may learn signs by heart, without understanding their significations ; or Language may also be exercised at the same time with other faculties. Yet it is useful to put into simultane ous, or closely successive action, all the facul ties which have a mutual influence on each other. In this way they excite each other nratually. This rule explains the whole doctrine of Mnemo- nics; that is, the activity of one power excites that of one or several others. In the next chapter, this proposition will be more fully detailed. Here, my principal object is to fix the attention of teachers upon the great fault of confounding to- gether signs and ideas, or of thinking that mere words can produce notion.s. School education after the monkish and old fashioned system, begins with teaching printed and written signs, v/ithout explaining their signi- fications, and even the instruction we commonlv 106 EDUCATION OF MAN. receive in colleges, is more a communication of signs than ideas. Youth are admired and reward ed in proportion as they know signs. Hbvv glo- rious is it for a boy to know how to communicate, the same idea in Greek, Latin, perhaps in Hebrew, or in many modern languages ! Some speak of the delight they experience from reading the classics. This may be with those who have great facility of learning languages. But it is certain that, generally speaking, the study of the dead languages is extremely tedious for the greater number of pupils. Lord Byron stated it in reference to himself. I am convinced, that thereby many children become unwilling to learn things to which they would have attended with pleasure, had they been taught them in their own language in a practical way. Many others are drilled by indefatigable pains to become clas- sical scholars, and nevertheless fail to distinguish themselves. Some good Latin and Greek scholars, when they come to practical business, are left be- hind by fellow students, who at school were im- dervalued. The quantity of Latin words crammed into the heads of the students, does not give them the primitive power of reflection, nor does it serve to cultivate attention to practical life. On the contrary, that constrained method of studying, renders .heir conceptions slow and hi dolent. LAWS OP EXERCISE. lO? It is alsc said that those who know Latin and Greek generally express themselves with more clearness than those who do not receive a liherai education. It is indeed natural that those who cultivate their mental powers, write with more clearness than the uncultivated individual. The mental cultivation, however, may take place in the mother tongue as v/ell as in Latin or Greek. Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is declared to be superior to that of the modern. I allow this to be the case, but I do not find that the English style is improved by learning Greek. It is known, that literal translations are miserably bad, and yet young scholars are taught to trans- late, word for word, faithful to their dictionaries. Hence those who do not make a peculiar study of their own language, will not improve in it by learning, in this manner, Greek and Latin. Is it not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the managers of one of the first institutions of Ireland, that it was easier to find ten teachers for Latin and Greek, than one for the English language, though they proposed double the salary to the latter ? Who can assure us hat the Greek orators acquired their superiority by their acquaintance with for- eign languages ; or is it not obvious, on the other hand, that they learned ideas and expressed them in their mother tongue ? It is farther said, that it is interesting to know Latin and Greek, in order to understand the ety 108 EDUCATION OP MAN. moloiTy of moflern languages. This is true, but with th.is view, the English ought to study alsc the German, Dutch, French an.l Danish, since their language is composed of words borrowed fr )ni all these nations. I am persuaded that the advantage does not re- play the trouble of prosecuting such stud^'es, and that they occasion an enormous v/aste of time and labor. I had rather learn ten ideas in a given time, than ten different signs v/hich express 'one and the same idea. We should never sacrifice positive knowledge and reflection to the acquisi tion of a variety of signs. We should begin to acquire notions and that language which is the most necessary for us to converse in. When I was examined, in order to my becoming a licentiate of the cohege of physicians of London, i* would have been more suitable to have inquired whether I spoke the English language sufficiently than whether I understood the Latin, the English be- ing indispensable to the practice of medicine in ana about London, whilst no physician examines his patients in Latin, any more than a barrister de- fends his clients, or a preacher exhorts his congre- gation in that language. It is said, that a man who knows Latin, has re ceived al.iberal education ; yet it is a lamentable thing that we should pretend to judge of a per- son's useful attainments by his knowledge of an LAWS OF EXERCISE. 109 cieat languages. I wish that the medical profes- sion may be cultivated by men of superior talents, but I hope that a knowledge of Latin and Greek will not continue to be the touchstone of decidiner who isj or is not, fit for practising this difficult and important art. Few surgeons and physicians, who are good classical scholars, will, from that circumstance, equal John Hunter in useful know ledge, and in improving the healing art ; and yet he was not prepared by the study of ancient lan- guages for the excellence he attained. He had not the advantage of having received a scientific edu- cation, and hence his writings want clearness of expressions, but he might have acquired the art of writino;" in a well conducted Ensrlish hisfh school. It may be also remarked with respect to Shaks- peare, that he did not become the great poet, he was, from being a great classical scholar. "VV^ seldom learn co speak Latin and Greek, or we soon lose the habit of doing so. Thus, we learn these languages in order to understand the contents of ancient books. This is well, but then we ought, for the same reason, to study all modern languages ; at least, to act fully up to this princi pie, medical men ought to take that trouble, since, beyond doubt, all branches of natural history, anatomy, physiology, and pathology, are more advanced now than they were at the time of the Greeks and Romans ; and, of course, more know- ledge is to be obtained on those subjects from pub 11 110 EDUCATION OF MAN. lications in the modern languages of Europe, than in the languages of Greece and Rome. Formerly, when scientific books of all nations were publish ed in Latin, a knowledge of it was necessary ; bul since the works of every nation appear in the mother tongue, the same degree of importance can no longer be attached to it. Not every one is obliged to learn Hebrew though he is exhorted to read the Bible, that is in its translation. Further, if men of science be contented with extracts and translations of modern works, why should it not be the same with respect to the ancient ? More- over, the greater number of professional men, who are much occupied in practical life, have scarcely time to read what is written in their own language ; their knowledge of Latin and Greek, therefore J is quite useless to them and the art. Once I heard it stated that the classics contri- bute to the refinement of our feelings, but it should be singular, if we could not feel without knowing Latin and Greek. The erroneousness of such an assertion is evident and does not require a more detailed refutation. It is also remarked that translations are inferior to original words in Latin and Greek, in the same way as the French lan- guage cannot express Shakspeare's thoughts and conceptions. This cannot be said of the Gernian .anguage, and I do not say that Latin and Greek should not be studied at all. I willingly allow that every one who has the natural talent and LAWS OF EXERCISE. Ill * icisiirc, may stndy the ancient languag-es, as Latin. Greek, Hebrew, and ancient as well as the modern, if so inclined, and grant him his hobby; I only irnintain that a knowleds^e of them ousrht not to be required as indispensable from every stu- dent ; and it seems to me particularly unwise to begin our preparatory and college education with them, and to lose so much time and labor which might be more usefully employed. It is replied, that childhood is the most fit pe- riod for learning languages, — that children must be trained up to the tedious study of ancient tongues, because, at a later period, they would not submit to the same trouble. This proposition is supported by no authority, except that of the pre- vailing opinion, that the study of Latin is a neces- sary accomplishment ; it falls to the ground as soon as we feel its' uselessness. It is undoubtedly true, that youth is the fittest period for learning languages, but let us learn those first which are the most important to our future life. Now, the modern languages appear to me to be the most useful. Above all stands our mother tongue ; we ought, therefore, to begin with it. The parts of speech are the same in all languages, and may bo learnt in the modern as well as in the ancient. 1 am quite grieved to see that many young ladies aim at such accomplishments, whilst they entirely neglect every kind of know.edge ndispensable to their future destination as wife and mother. 112 EDUCAIION OF MAN. One should imagine that, in civilizod life the only Juty of the lemale sex consists in useless amuse- iients and by no means in the fulfilment of im- portant functions. I lecve this subject to the con- ^ideration of all those Vv^ho interfere with education md the direction of academic studies. Some may think that I h.z,ve entered into too many de- tails, but the importance and great influence of this matter v;'il] pie^cl my excuse. I am decidec^y of opinion Inp.t in this respect Education stands In need of r'^form. It is, however, said that a mother r:*ay assist her boys in acquiring a classi- cal G(t>ioat"*.t>n. Thi's remark again supposes that all boys ought to learn Latin and Greek, and th'at on account of the first error we must commit a second. Yes, a mother ought to attend to the first education of her boys and to that of her girls en- tirely, but let useful knowledge precede that wliich is merely secondary. There may be single indi- viduals among girls who have a great disposition to learn languages, let them exercise their talents, but let them not be a standard for girls in general. I am sure that few of them, as well as of boys will be greatly delighted with the study of classics. On the other hand I doubt that on account, of this acquirement, girls become better wives, and bet- ter mothers, and that they will, for this reason gain the affection of their husbands. Rich and independent females certainly should be occupied, and if they be married without having children Bome may be entertained by the study of Ian LAWS OF EXERCISE. 113 guag'es ancient and modern. No sensible man will object to this, the question is only what shall be the general rule and what the exception. It, hovvever, still seems to me, that even such ladie? might become more useful to their fellow-crea tures and more meritorious by other occupations. The exertions of Mrs. Fry have been more bene- fical to her fellow-creatures, than the classical knowledi^re of her whole sex in the united king doms of Great Britain and Ireland. In the same way mental arithmetic may be im- portant as far as calculation of the useful is con- cerned. It may be acceptable to those who found morality on so frail a basis as utility and expe- diency. But I do not see that it contributes to diminish selfishness, or to strengthen the noblei sentiments any more than Latin and Greek in crease the love of truth and the feeling of consci- entiousness. Let it then occupy only the time ne- cessary to its practical usefulness. I might alsc? wish to be apprised what useful knowledge young ladies acquire from reading at school works on mental philosophy. Probably the same which little children in infant-schools, obtain from reading and learning by heart texts of the Bible concern ing miracles and doctrinal points which divide the different sects of Christians. Can metaphysi- cians themselves make any practical application ol their doctrines ?— What an age of useful know- ledtre ; what an age of wisdom is ours ' ° 11* 114 " EDUCATION OP MAN. The second principle of exercise is, that the primitive powers are not to be confounded with their application ; each power being always the came, but its applications and modifications infi- nite, according to age and external circumstances. Inattention to this difference, produces more bad effects than many persons suppose. They com- plain, for instance, of the vanity of adult persons, while they continue to nourish this feeling in every child they meet with. He who knows that the Love of Approbation is a fundamental feeling ; that it exists in different degrees of strength in dif- ferent individuals, and that exercise increases its activity, will not excite it too much in infancy, for fear that, in later life, it should produce abuses He will perceive, that flattery of every kind ex- cites this sentiment ; that praising a child for his figure, his hair, his voice, his clothes, his manner of dancing, &c. will put into action, and increase his love of approbation, and prepare for him a source of misfortune. A looking glass and curls of hair, ear-rings and bracelets as well as titles nourish this feeling. Irascible children should not be permitted, and still less encouraged, to beat their playthings, against which they hurt them- selves. As equity was a principal object of the Areopagus of Athens, that virtue was considered as indispensable in the members in all situations. He who killed a bird that looked for shelter in his house could not become a member ; and a n^ember who played on a word, was degraded. LAWS OF EXERCISE. 116 because such a practice might do harm to truth. How inferior, nay puerile, is the behaviour of some modern legislators ! Those who are faithful in little things, says Christ, will be so in great. Thus particular vigilance ought at all times to be observed not to cultivate to excess the propensi- ties and sentiments of children, which may in after life render them unhappy or impede their moral conduct. On the other hand, they are wrong who neglect to cultivate any feeling or the facul- ties of the fine arts, because disorders may and often do result from them. This also happens with acquisitiveness, and with every fundamental power, each of which, however-^ is given to a cer- tain purpose. In admitting that every one is an- swerable for the talents he has received, it is evi- dently our duty to cultivate the fine arts, as far as they are in harmony with all- other faculties. Superstition undoubtedly degrades a reasonable being, but the human character is ennobled and the charms of society increased by respectfulness. There c^an be no doubt that in attending to the dif- ference between primitive powers and their ap- plication, between their legitimate actions and misapplications or disorders, many errors hitherto committed in educatian will be avoided. Ladies want bodily exercise, but it is a mistake to make them march like soldiers. Since no female wi.. gain the affection of a gentleman by a soldier-like manner of walking. Her movements should be graceful and gentle. 116 EDUCATION OF MAN. The third principle of exercise, is, that the order of instruction ought to follow the order of nature, in hringing" the faculties into activity. Children acquire notions before they make themselves ac- quainted with signs to indicate them. They know the objects themselves sooner than their qualities and mutual relations ; they know the qualities of those objects sooner than the modes of tneir ac- tions. Accordingly, their language begins with norms, and verbs in the infinitive mood. By de- grees, they learn signs to indicate their acquired notions of other kinds. Their language, then, evidently shows, that their faculties do not appear simultaneously. It is, indeed, an important point in education to know that the faculties of the mind begin to act successively, viz. in proportion as the organs on which their manifestation depend are developed. Hence, they ought to be exercised in the same order ; and the knowledge of the periods of development of the respective organs, is as necessary as a knowledge of the functions of the primitive faculties ; because it is certain that no faculty t^n be exercised without the assistance of its organ. This principle is general in organic and animal life. It may be here considered, that education, as far as exercise goes, begins earlier in life than is commonly believed. The vegetative functions, the hours -^f sleep, of appetite, " of the urinary and alvine excretions, may be soon regulated LAWS OF EXERCISE. 11*7 Chilflreu are easily accustomed not to fall asleep, except wheQ carried on the arms or shaken in a cradle. They begin to make acquaintance with the external world when a few weeks old. It is hy de£?rees that they taste and feel, hear and see ; that they learn to distinguish their nurse, or those v^ho take care of them, from strangers, and the existence of external objects. When they become attentive to the things around them, we ought to show them repeatedly a great number of various objects, and exercise as much as possible their ex- teriml senses. They are soon tired with the same object, but pleased with new impressions, as is the case also with the greater number of adult per- sons. Thus, it is not a matter of indifference, whether a child be carried quietly on the arm, or whether its attention be excited towards external c'- jects. I consider it as very important in whose society young children are kept ; not that I think that children absolutely acquire the character and talents of those who are around them, but because their society will be favorable or unfavorable to the exercise of the innate dispositions. ' The periods when the innate powers appear, increase, decrease, or disappear, are of great im- portance. Some are active early in life, and con- tinue longer than others which appear later Now, the powers will be cultivated with the most effect at the period of their natural activity. 118 EDUCATION OF MAN. There is some regularity in the appearar.ee and disappearance of the faculties, yet there a: e many exceptions and modifications, as in all natural operations. Nature is immutable only with re- spect to the relation of cause and effect ; but she modifies the phenomena in infinite varieties. It happens usually, that those powers that act strong- ly, appear early and last long. The intellectual faculties and several feelings, commonly decrease in old age. Several persons, however, are par- ticularly fortunate in preserving the energy of their mind to a great age ; but the greater number of old people are deceived, if they take themselves to be still what they were when young. Among the intellectual faculties, those of indi- viduality, form, eventuality, comparison, ^nd lan- guage, appear first. Children soon know many individual objects and facts, and conceive general notions ; they call, for instance, every young being, child. Then the faculties of size, coloring, local- ity, number, order, time and tune, appear succes- sively. Objects and their phenomena ought to be fanght first, and afterwards the qualities of objects uid their relations. Among the feelings or affective faculties, those of attachment, cautiousness, love of approbation, acquisitiveness, combativeness, secretiveness, de giructive ' ess, firmness, benevolence, conscientious LAWS OF EXERCISE 119 ness, and imitation, are very early active. Those of reverence and amativeness appear much later. Let it not be forgotten, that from the earliest age, the feelings, as well as the intellectual facul- ties, may be educated, and that young children show no less difference in their cnaracters than in their talents. They are patient or obstinate, indo- l,ent or lively, timid or courageous, attached to, or careless about others, &c. Let those powers which are naturally too active be quieted, and their activity prevented ; while those that do not act with energy enough, ought to be excited in a practical manner. As imitation is particularly ac- tive, good examples and the best impressions of all kinds should be given. In treating of the vegetative lawsl have stated, that very young children ought not to be obliged to sit still in an apartment all the day, as is some- times the case in common school education. Par- ticular places, in healthy situations, might be in- stituted, where children could come together to play, and at intervals to learn things in nature, and their names, objects and their qualities, in- stead of sending tliem out only to take a walk, or to breathe pure air. Parents might thus have the advantage of having their children kept out of harm's way, and the young creatures themselves would not be compelled to suffer the distresses necessarily experienced when restrained from 120 EDUCATION OF MAN. moving' ilieir limbs, nor be tired by unprofitable, learning. They would be pleased »vith acquiring' the knowledj^e of thing's and of words to express them, and at the same time, they mig-ht be accus- tomed to order and obedience. They will also learn the signs which express the feelings, and their relations, in proportion as the feelings are excited in themselves. Gymnastic exercises might and ouG-ht to be combined with mental instruction. The principal object of such schools should be bodily strength, order, cleanliness, notions of things, and oral signs. The schools for young children in Mr. Owen's establishment at New Lanark, first exhibited, to a certain extent, the practical application of these principles in uniting physical and intellectual edu- cation. The infant schools since introduced in London and in the rest of Great Britain do the same ; and no one can observe the happiness and intelligence which reign among the children there, without wishing this mode of instruction generally adopted ; though it may be still im- proved and more adapted to the nature of man. Unfortunately for the young beings this mode of instruction has already degenerated from its first plan. Many teachers find it too difficult to adapt themselves to the children. From habit, and per- haps from commodiousness , they prefer to keep them quiet, and to teach them A. B. C. and spelling rather than to satisfy the active dispo- sitions of the young minds. Whoever takes interest LAWS OF EXERCISE. 121 m the improvement of education, should first tliinls ot' means of forming teachers. The fourth principle of. exercise is, that it musi be proportionate to the innate dispositions. Too much activity weakens or even exhausts the facul- ties, both feeling's and intellect. This explains why too early geniuses, often become ordinary men when grown up ; why the mental operations, when too active, are frequently deranged, and why it is necessary to keep up the balance between body and mind, and between the individual facul- ties. The brains of delicate children and premature geniuses ought'to be exercised late, and the greater their mental activity is, the less it needs to he ex- ercised ; and the more care is to be taken of the body and the physical education. It is also very important to know, that during the climacteric years, when the body increases most rapidly, the mental powers are weaker. Hence, at that period, the body deserves greater attention than the mind. The mental facullies will resume their activity, v/hen the body has ac- quired its solidity. Increased or uiminished Qnevgy is dependent not only on the periods of growthj but all powers are liable to be occasionally more or less fatigued. 12 122 EDUCATION OF MAN. No power is always equally active, each requifes rest. It is, therefore, advisable to exercise one power after another, and to allow to children suf- ficient sleep. As any faculty, if too much excitca is injured, or even exhausted, so is it weakened if it remain too long inactive. Teachers may easily perceive the disadvantages of too long a cessation Irom study in the effects of vacation on their pu- pils. These latter always find some difficulty in returning to application and order. Intermission ia necessary as well as exercise, but neither ought to be of too long a duration. They are relative, and education "requires to be amended in this respect. A long vacation is more favorable to the teachers than to the students. The former, it is true, want rest, but they might alternate, for the same reason as the objects to be taught must be changed from time to time. Education should never be tedious, nor too long interrupted ; different faculties should be put successively into action, which produces a kind of relaxation, and sufficient care ought al- ways to be taken that the bodily constitution does not suffer by pressing too keenly the progress of mental instruction. Children, who return for months to their family, are rathar spoiled, during that time, than improved in order and obedience. They are indulged in their caprices, and see con- duct practised in direct opposition to what they are taught at school to regard as meritorious. The frequent and lo.ig interruptions of practising the theoretical rules, prevent them from becoming LAWS OF EXERCISE. 123 altogether accustomed to them, and they wish for nothing more earnestly than that the time of learn ing might be over, to be permitted to act in oppo- sition to what they have been taught, and to for- o'ct the ideas they have had so much difRculty in acquiring, Tiie fifth principle of exercise is, that its influ- ence will not be the same on every individual, on iiccount of the innate dispositions. Even different children of the same parents, and brought up by the same teachers, turn out quite differently. In- deed the fact, that the dispositions are innate, can- not be insisted on too much. We must say with Hume, (Essays on Morality, 3rd edit. p. 93.) that the influence of education would be miraculously orreat, could it but create one sense, and that this miracle is reserved to our Maker; that education 'nay cherish and improve the plants of natures for- mation, but cannot introduce any original plant. tiELvr.Tius, who considered man as the result of education alone, was obliged to allow that " une folic passee rarement eclaire les hommes sur une folic presente." Marcus Aurelius calls little politicians, and compares with children, those who maintain that whole nations might be changed mto philosophers. He was satisfied by being able to contribute in a slight degree to common welfare, nnd to improve a few persons. He denies the possibility of establishing Plato's republic. He in particular insists on the importance of making 124 EDUCATION OF MAN. any new idea popular. He adds, that withoiic this precaution the success is impossible, that al)- solute power and lessons remain without effect, if the maimers of the people do not change ; that ill this case, nations are but slaves, and complaii^ of restraint, or are hypocrites, and feign to be per- suaded. It is more easy to cultivate the lower feelings, since they are naturally stronger in mankind ; in ihe same manner those who are virtuous by na- ture will sooner learn to practice moral principles than those in whom the lower propensities pre- dominate. Those who have little conscientious- ness will with great difficulty learn to be just in a b.igher degree, in the same way as those who pos- sess any intellectual faculty in a small degree, will never excel in it. The greater the disposition, the greater the effect of exercise ; yet it is always true, that a proper degree of exercise strengthens the functions of each power. The preceding considerations on exercise aflord an opportunity of speaking of the method of mu tual instruction. It is inconceivable how its ad vantages can be contested. I rather excuse thos? who contend for the beneficial effects of ignorance and who object, that mutual instruction is a meanr of teaching in too short a time, tlian those whc acknowledge the benefit of general in-formation, and yet hesitate to employ this method. Its supe LAWS OF EXERCISE. 125 riority is too evident to be long impeded by its novehy. It is my decidec^ opinion, that this metlioci oiigh . to be used in all branches o** knowled<2:e. which may be acquired by the influence of teach ers, or which may be taught. Even those who are destined to improve arts and sciences will gain by it. The reason of this is very simple, and founded on the inflaence of exercise ; while at the same time this method has the great additional recommendation of being the least expensive mode of instruction. This advantage is certainly of im- portance, but I shall examine only the benefits which result from exercise. If there be many children or students together, the school hours are not sufficient to examine every one. Young persons, however, who are not examined, are less attentive to their studies than those who are ; their faults, not being remarked, are not corrected, and only a few are noticed. In large classes all that can be expected at present is, that the teacher should explain every thing distinctly, and repeat it with a {ew scholars. He addresses himself commonly to those who learn quickly. Should it happen that the master speaks to others of less talents, the better heads, knowing their lesson, cease to pay attention, or at least are soon v/earied of domg so. But were the better students oblisred to repeat the lesson with tiio 12* 126 EDUCAIION OF MAN. others, they would experience that we learn by teaching ; they would feel inclined to go over and over the same thing with those intrusted to them for instruction, while, in the»common way, they cease to repeat their lessons when left alone. At the same time the students of less capacities wiL be more attentive, and, on account of the constant repetition, they will remember what was lost at the mere explanation of the master. Let us examine any branch of education what- ever, and we shall find that the advantages of this method are always the same. We may take a mathematical problem for the sake of example. Suppose the rules to have been taught, and that they are to be applied. Those scholars who pos- sess the mathematical talent in a high degree, will ^onn finish their problem , and will be obliged to wait in irksome idleness till many others, who cannot follow so quickly, have done. Ii the for- mer, only, are called for by the master to resolve the problem, the others hear it, but it is not at- tended with the same advantage to them, as if they were called to work for themselves. If, on the contrary, the scholars, with little mathematical genius, be chiefly examined, those who excel in that talent will lose their time, and neglect what they know, while their attention would be excited if they were employed in teaching their condisci- pies. Their natural activity may even lead them to do miscliief, whils. they are not otherwise oc- LAWS OF EXERCISE. i27 IAN. dividuals and to mankind at large ly the abuses of araativeness. Many become insane, and, in nii- meroiis cases, mind and body are ruined and aL happiness undermined, by its disorderly gratifica- tions. Parents and teachers commonly are not watchful enough in this respect. The picture may be varied, according to the knowledge of the child, and to the bad effects which are already visible in him. Every thing which excites ner- vous irritability, and accelerates the circulation of the blood, must be avoided. Bodily exercise, however, cannot be dispensed with, as it is neces- sary to produce sleep. If the functions of propa- gation be known, the influence of the vice, not only on him, but on generations to come, may be detailed Many ideas of this kind are mentioned in books on physical education. I refer to them, mentioning again, that a too anxious taciturnity of parents concerning these points, will rather do harm than good, because the propensity is innate, and acts without restraint, if its destination, and tbe consequences of its abuses, be not clearly shown to children. Being informed of its import- ance, they will more readily resist, and submit to ^!u)se means wliicli seem necessary to restrain it. The regulation of the religious feelings also de- t^ei ves great attention. It is known how very dif- ferent the ways of worshipping have been, fron) human sacrifices to adoration in spirit and in tiuth. It is remarkable that at all times continency ijas EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 65 been considered as agreeable to God. The priests of the ancient Egyptians avoided wine and wives. The Levites were forbidden to have intercourse with females daring the time of their sacerdotal service. In Ceylon and Siam the priests are pro- hibited from marrying. The Roman Church re quires an observance of a similar law. Religious precepts of various kinds, and the most opposite opinions, when proposed as the will of God, have been listened to. The majority of mankind is credulous. Say that it is necessary to sncriftce animals, to burn perfume, to ring bells, to fast, to sing, to make prostrations, to dance, to whip the body, or to do various other things in honor of God, and man will comply. Even those who reflect for themselves, and admit the revela- tion of Christian principles, will dilTerin their ex- plication of them. The question, then, is often put. Who can decide which is the true religion ? As the tree is known by its fruit, so is the man by his actions, and a doctrine by its effects. I think that the touchstone of every principle, religious and moral, is the same, viz. its tendency to pro- mote the glory of God and the common happi- ness of oiankind. It is absurd, and even blasphe- mous, to hold ont any doctrine as coming from God, the manifest tendency of which is to inflict evil. I adopt, therefore, only that explanation of every passage of Christianity which favors gener- al love. 166 EDUCATION OF MAN. There are religious people who agree with re- spect to principles, bat vary as to the particular application of them. They insist nrmch on some, and are indifferent about other points ; and some- times follow the absurdities of their own imagina- tions ; they explain c.ie passage of the Gospe-1 ac- cording to its spirit, and take another literally. Others admit the principles, and say that they believe in them, but care very little for their prac- tice ; whereas the least portion of intelligence and honesty might enable them to perceive, that the practice is better than the mere assertion of be- lief. In religious education, as well as in every other sort of instruction, three things are particularly to be kept in view ; first. The objects taught must be suitable to the station of those instructed ; secondly, the knowledge communicated must be applicable ; and, thirdly. The necessary means to attaining the end must be pointed out and attend- ed to. With respect to the first point, the choice of objects to be taught, there can be little difficul- ty in deciding between the advantages of commu- nicating a knowledge of fabulous tales or exam- ples of moral conduct ; of teaching habitual char- ity or vice. Children ought to be taught that moral conduct is the aim and end of their exist- ence, and that morality is indispensable to the welfare of individuals and of society. And mo- ralises, who wish for the iniprovemeiit of mankind. EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 167 ought not to reject any means of attaining that end, except those which have been tried and found ineffectual ; but these shoukl be given up, of what ever date and authority they may be. and on!y <^^hose that prove useful be employed. Thus, all powers should be directed with a view to practical life, the intellectual faculties to the ac- quisition of positive knowledge, and the feelings to the promotion of the general welfare. There is another great error committed in many schools of England, viz. the third part of the year is given up to idleness. This may be necessary, because the objects to be taught are few, and be- cause the faculties employed are fatigued, and re- quire rest or vacation-days ; but these might be filled up by the useful employment of other facul- ties, which could be exercised one after another. In that way more knowledge would be acquired, and sufficient time allowed for relaxation to the mdividual faculties. Natural history, mechanical and chemical ex- periments, are well suited to the capacities of youth, and would delight many ; architecture, painting, music, geography, theatrical perform- ances, &c. would please others. No better recre- ation would be wished for. The great error is, that all children are obliged to learn the same things ; the boys Latin and Greek, and the girls 168 EDUCATION OF MAN. music and drawing. Yet out of the prodig ous number of girls who learn these arts, how few are there, who, after they become mistresses of their own time, and after they have the choice of their own amusements, continue to practice them for the pure pleasure they afford. Even those who take pleasure in good music, are better pleased with hearing others than in performing themselves. How often are the labors of years, and the expen- diture of large sums of money, lost in this way ? What a pity- that we are obliged to learn so many things for no end but to forget them ' Accomplishments in general are not sufficiently distinguished from necessary and useful instruc- tion. The latter is often neglected, and things are taught for which children have no taste, such as drawing and music, while they never would take a pencil in their hand nor play a tune from choice. How glad are they, therefore, when the time for lessons and masters is over, when they are of age, and their education is finished. Many women, possessed of such accomplishments, never toU'Ch the heart of a man. They have learnt many things except those they ought to know. They find a partner only for their money, but the result of such a union is daily seen. Leisure time alone should be filled up by accomplishments, and whoever does not cultivate them from his own impulse, should not cultivate them at al LAC II FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 169 Orde: is of great importance in onr afiairs Children ouglit to be accustomed to take care of whatever belongs to them, and young females shoi]ld be exercised in keeping the family-accounts. Order does not depend only on the understanding, but it requires also experience. This cannot be infused into the mind by precept, but nnist be acquired by practice. Every one should learn to employ his own powers, and to- regulate his own conduct, and for that purpose he should be placed into various situations, and left to his own re- sources. This is particularly necessary to boys. Girls are more dependent, and, in many respects, th*:y may be accustomed to trust to the experience of others, and to conform to the customs of society. They must be more reserved in manners and in their moral conduct, because their faults are of greater consequence than those of boys to their station in society ; for repentance and tears will not wash out tlie errors and immoral conduct of girls. On the other hand however, prudery should be avoided with the same carefulness, and not be confounded with delicacy and modesty. Delicacy of sentiment and refined manners are a great ornament, and ought always to be cultiva- ted. All odd motions or attitudes, and awkward gestures, should be watched, and prevented from becoming habitual 17^> EDUCATION OP MAN The rcdccLiiig faculties derferve particular care Let children be tc/jght, if possible, to understand wliat they say and do, and to express their own ideas with prccisior. I have already mentioned, that those persons are mistaken, who think that reasoning can be improved only by one sort of study, such as of language or mathematics. Th(^ I'.ict is, that studying any branch accurately, ap- plying judgment to it, and reflecting on the rela- tions of Cause and Effect which it exhibits, will cultivate the reasoning powers with equal effect. Comparison and Causality are necessary in impor- tant and in trifling things. If children have great difficulty in reasoning, the first attempt here, as in every other branch, is the most difficult part of the work. We should therefore allow them time to reflect, and wish that they should rather ac- quire one distinct idea, than many confused no- tions of different things. The erroneous method of instruction generally pursued, is the cause why many, when at the end of their school-education, must become their own teachers. Those who have not talent or courage enough to do so, remain within the circle of me- diocrity, and are mere foLowers in the paths of others. Yet copying, or merely imitating others, is the death of arts and sciences I conclude this Chapter with repeating, that each facfxty tends to act ; that each faculty may be MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 171 used and abased; that all faculties ought to be employed in auginentiiig" the common happiness ; and that moral condact and reflection are the prin- cipal means of producing it; but that precepts alone v\all not change and improve mankind Their influence is little in comparison to that of social intercourse. The manners of the world, the spirit of families and of parties, customs and received opinions, are often opposite to those which we are taught at school. We hear sobriety praised, and in our families we find luxury ; disin- terested conduct is highly spoken of in our books, but we live in the midst of a crowd of busy creatures, whose most anxious thoughts are direct- ed towards gain and vanity ; and we observe, that respect and consideration are paid to others in proportion to their wealth, idleness, privileges, and fanciful, nay selfish distinctions. School education is then soon forgotten. Whoever, there- fore, has an influence on society, let him contri- bute all in his power to cause the same spirit to prevail in education, in legislation, in social inter course, in writings, in arts, and in sciences. CHAPTER III. THERE IS NO ACTION tVITHOUT A MOTIVE. The principle that no action takes place with •t a motive, is the same as that there is no eflfect 172 EDUCATION OF MA??. -» without a cause, and the law of causatioi exists in the riK^ral as well as the physical world. Yet the nature of the motives of our actions, and their ori- gin, aie not sufficiently understood. As long as it is believed that education can cre- ate faculties, the whole of mankind will be treated in the same manner, and the same motives will be proposed to ail men. But when we know the in- fluence of innate dispositions, we perceive the ne- cessity of having recourse in each person to his natural powers, and of fortifying or guiding them by cultivation. I here repeat, that our feelings, inferior and su- perior, furnish the principal motives of our actions, that, in consequence, the motives are different like the faculties themselves; but that the proper auii or object of our actions is only one. I take it also for granted, that the cultivation of the faculties proper to man is the aim of his existence ; since they alone constitute moral rectitude, and. general happiness, and submission to the laws cf creation. The superior faculties, when they act by them- selves from their internal energy, do so with pleasure, and constitute the kingdom of love. But, whenever they must be excited in any way, or when the energy of the inferior faculties requires to be moderated or restrained, then government and obedience, or the rule of the law, begins. As MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. KS the inferior faculties, however, exist in human na- ture, and stand in need of constant regulation, it is evident, that Jesus, i:i His own person fulfilled the law and could not abolish it. Its existence wag the v/ill of His heavenly Father, and the constitu tion of human nature evidently requires it. The motives arising from the superior faculties of man, are also termed Religious and Moral; re- ligious, as far as we stand in relation to God as governor and ruler; and moral, in so far as it is our duty to act in such or such a manner with re- spect to mankind. There can be no doubt that our Maker has bound us by laws which must be obeyed. These laws are established by the Creator, and have been confirmed by revelation. Man is a moral being, and the law of his natural morality has been con- firmed by Jesus. This matter, exercising the greatest influence on the happiness of Man, is con- sidered, with details, in my work on the Philo- sophical Principles of Phrenology. Children may soon be made to comprehend that they cannot change the laws of nature, and to see the necessity of submitting to them. When they understand the tendency of these laws, they will feel respect and veneration for that Almighty Being who instituted them, and for His all-wise appointments. But it will be a matter of greater 16*= 174 EDUCATION OF MAN oifficulty to make every one comprehend and hon- estly love the genera^ good as the aim of our ex- istence, though it is conformable equally to the law, natural and revealed. The desire for the common welfare of mankind, is not strong enough in man, to allow us to depend on it as a sufficient motive of self-direction, and, accordingly, various means have been, and still must be employed, in order to direct our actions towards this point. A knowledge of the different motives of our actions, then, is indispensable. If the moral law be writ- ten in the heart of a man, that is, if the faculties of conscientiousness. Benevolence, and Reverence be naturally most powerful in any person, let us appeal to them. If another be more disposed to obey, because it is commanded by the revealed law, that is, if his Hope and Marvellousness be naturally the most powerful faculties, let us not reject these motives. The same aim is to be at- tained, but the means may vary. If the superior motives of man ;— his natural charity, his religious faith, and his reasoning powers are not sufficient to direct his actions, in- ferior motives must be employed, such as love of approbation, acquisitiveness, reward and punish- ment, fear, &c. Many persor.s are prevented from stealing, through the criminal code, or the fear of hell, 2Y oi being dishonored. MOTIVES Oc ACTIONS. 175 The kingdom of fear and selfishness is infinitely more jextensive than that of love. The former has existed, exists, and will long- continue to exist, but the latter cannot come, as long as selfishness and the love of approbation are presented as the aim of our conduct. While these are considered p,s the objects of human existence, conquerors will prevail over their satellites, like Brennus, who sent wine from Italy to his countrymen, saying, If you like this wine, come and help me to con quer the country where it grows. It is essentia, for a teacher, or any one who di rects others, to know that diflerent motives may produce the same action in different persons. One child may behave well through attachment to his parents ; another through fear, or the love of approbation ; a third through selfish views, or a feeling of duty. Moreover, it ought to be kept in view as a principle in moral and intellectual education, that children do many things by mere imitation. They often adopt the manner of thinking and acting of those with whom they live. They consider as good that which they hear praised and see don by their parents. For this reason we know by the cluldren whether we are liked or disliked in a family. Tliis propensity to imitate will produce most effect in children whose natural character is not very determinate, and in them it may be a[)- 176 EDUCATION OF MAN. plied with advantage as a means of instruction. Parents therefore become the best moral teachers \ but let their moral conduct agree with their pre- cepts, if they expect to produce any effect by their teaching. If they show in words an abhorrence of vice, let not their actions be stained by impuri- ty. When they teach their children to avoid bad company, and to esteem virtue and excellence above the distinctions of wealth and rank, let them not be encircled themselves in fashion and vanity. If they exhort them to order, truth, can- dor, and charity, let them prove their sincerity by their own actions. Many children, at an early age, are capable of feeling arguments, but several cannot. Parents and teachers should be always just and reasonable in what they require of them, and then never yield to any resistance or remonstrance whatever on the part of the child. A habit of submission is of the utmost consequence to the moral improvement of children. Children, however, as well as adults, like what is conformable to their natural dispositions. If their intellectual powers are very active, they may be allowed to follow their dictates, and to deter- mine even their own future situation in life. But. if parents wish to bring them up to pre fessions which they themselves prefer, and not according to the natura. gifts of the children, or if children MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 177 are not disting-uished by their talents, they must be encouraged, by various means, and sometimes even forced, to exertion, and to make a choice of employment. Without this, many children would become careless and idle. It becomes necessary to impose tasks whenever the natural dispositions do not induce children to attain the knowledge re- quisite for their profession. It is always an error to allow idleness and free hours as a reward, be- cause such a proceeding implies that learning is a punishment. It is not very judicious, either.^ to conduct education, so that kings' birth-days and holydays are liked, because they exempt children from attending school. This is nearly as bad in principle, as compelling them to learn verses or write versions by way of punishment. Certainly a better mode of chastisement, if necessary, might be found. This kind of punishment is similar to that inflicted by some priests, who as a penance command a repetition of certain prayers. The question concerning emulation and its use- ful or dangerous influence is discussed among in- stitutors. Some prove its good, others blame its bad consequences. It is founded on a strong fun- damental feeling on the love of distinction or ap- probativeness, which may be used or abused. Those who have certain powers very strong are plea?ed with their gratification, they do not want any other motive. But emulation may become an excitement, of any feeling as well as 'ntellectual 178 EDUCATION :f man. power It is a great stimulus for chi dren to learn their lessons, but as its influence is so great in so- ciety and the cause of numberless disorders, and as it is so much cultivated in. social relations, I find it advisable to omit it entirely in school edu cation. At all events no praise should be be- stowed except on talent and virtue. It certainly should be better if we could think that in doing all that which is to be done we do merely our duty. Selfishness and approbativeness act with the mosf different appearances, according to their com- binations with other faculties, and to external cir- cumstances. It is known, and I have already men- tioned, that their activity has been considered, by some philosophers, as sufficient to explain all the actions of men, and even as the source of superior talents. Indeed, whenever we omit any thing, in order to gain any earthly or heavenly enjoyment, selfishness is active ; and whenever we wish to be approved of, the love of approbation comes into play. The tendencies of these two powers are easily distinguished in children ; but I repeat, that their preponderance produces great mischief in society ; that they are too much cultivated in com- mon education, and that it is an error, the evil consequences of which are incalculable, to repre- sent them as the cliief aim of our existence, v/hile they ought to be only secondary motives. I have seen children eidowed with a great deal of pride MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 179 and love of approbation, who became quite in- toxicated by being praised, and, certainly from this excitement, committed new faults, and some- times became intolerable for several days. Let us examine with some more details whether selfishness and the love of approbation produce talents; and whether the satisfaction of these two feelings should be the aim of all our actions ? Is it true, that arts and sciences originate and im- prove in proportion as they are patronized by pecuniary rewards and honor ? In Greece, the masterpieces of poetry, eloquence, history, and philosophy, were not the result of patronage. The successors of Alexander the Great encou- raged the learned, yet sciences lost their grandeur and originality. Only commentaries, compila- tions, and imitations, became numerous. In read- ing history, we meet with many great men v\^lio found their reward in the cultivation of the sciences and the arts themselves, and who were even per- secuted on their account. Many others have per- severed in contributing to the improvement of arts and sciences, only until they met with rewards and honors ; and it was fortunate if this did not happen too soon, as it appeared they worked only for them, and became idle when their aim' was attained. If individuals, because they possess some talents, are to receive the privilege of deciding on the 180 EDUCATION OF MAN. value of every scientific production, the.T eleva* ion to distinction becomes a great obstacle to the progress of arts and sciences, because the learned Iheniselves are not free from selfish passions, and, like the vulgar, are ready to hinder others from attaining similar enjoyments and honors. Few are disposed to acknowledge the superiority of others- As the great maxim of a liberal" government is, Let them ad, so the true patronage consists in not preventing talents from exercising themselves, as long as absolute justice towards mankind is not in- jured ; in rewarding productions according to their influence on the general welfare, and in reward- ing only services actually performed. Among the abuses concerning rewards and distinctions, I men- tion only the fault to give to regular professors the exclusive right of teaching, and what is still worse, to permit them to delegate their duties to any substitute they may choose. Monopoly im- pedes improvement in every thing. If the ser- vices of a professor be useful to society in other avocations, and he cannot attend to his scientific pursuits, his professorship ought to be transferred to the person who, next to him, cultivates that branch with pleasure and success It is certain that reward and distinction do not produce talents, though they are of great weighv in exciting and directing the actions of all the E^CH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 181 faculties, i even infer from history, that man- kind v.'ill suffer, and that all institutions will re- main imperfect, as long as selfishness and glory lire the aim of our actions; or, in other words, as long as places are looked for with a zeal in pro- portion to the profit they bring, and to the dis- (iuction they bestow on the possessor, whilst all our actions ought to tend to the common benefit and honor of mankind. Nothing but the place we occu])y in society, and fitness for its duties, should give distinction. It should be considered as every man's duty, to do all that he is capable of doing for the general happiness of those among whom he lives. Private interest, when exclusive- ly pursued, is the greatest enemy of morality. Whoever contends for it as the chief aim of our existence, acts after the imipulse of his animal na- ture ; — he is not a man. Selfishness, it is true, has greatly contributed to abolish various kinds of injustice, for every one is ready to resist his oppressor. In religious and civil legislation, privileges are more and more limited, and the rights of m.an become more equal than they were in ancient times. We no longer believe that all mankind is made for the sake of a {e\v. Indeed, as long as there is any thing to gain, there will be many who will contend for in- dependence, out of mere selfishness ; but the princi- ple from which they act, though hitherto auxiliary to the common good, cannot be applauded ; for it 17 182 EDUCATION OF MAN. would lead xhem to tyrannize in their turn, if tliey had the power. Mankind cannot become happy ^ if selfishness be not replaced, or at least mitigated, by a supe- rior motive of action. He who pursues his own advantage only, so far as he can do so without in- juring another, is just; he who gives up his su- perfluity rather than to do harm to another, is noble ; he who works only for the common wel- fare is the most noble, and no one, but him, de- serves that name. A great step towards perfection, would be the full and practical admission of the principle that every one has the right to employ his talents to the utmost for his own benefit, as far as he can do it without injuring others. This system of gov ernment is certainly far superior to that of exclu sive privileges of any kind : — Many battles, how ever, will be fought betwixt selfishness and bigotry on the one hand, and reason and sound morality on the other, before it is generally admitted and followed. It must be added, however, that the adoption even of this principle cannot be expected to obviate misery, nor luxur;f , with all its fatal consequences,, for this simple reason, that the natural endow- ments of individuals are very different, and that those who have more talents will govern the others EACH FACULTY TEiSDS TO ACTION. 18S m one way or another. While selfishness con tinnes to be the motive of their actions, the hiixhlv gifted will employ the weak to advance their own ends. The poor will be constantly dependent on the rich, and will serve them as the onlv ihiug, they can do to live. Supremacy v/ill, of neces- sity, fall on sing-le individuals. Nations also, through selfishness, interfere with each other, and war becomes unavoidable. The fortunate com- mander finds satellites whose advantage it is to serve him, as workmen serve the manufacturer ; he avails himself of their talents, and tells his countrymen that peace, and obedience to his will, are essential to their happiness. Is not this the state of Man as far as history informs ns ? And this must continue to be his state, wherever per- sonal welfare is the only rule of conduct. Tyran- ny causes revolutions ; revolutions, again, are pro- ductive of tyranny ; and all this has its origin in selfishness. There is no possibility of changing this permanent circle of events in mankind, ex cept by subordinating private interest to common advantage. This doctrine is not new, it is the basis of Chris- tianity ; but it has been dreadfully abused at dif ferent times, even by pretended teachers of mo- rality. It is no where practised in its full vigor, and happy is the nation whose governors foilow it even in a limited degree. But it ought at least to be generally propagated, and its good effects shown to every one who is capable of appreciating them. 184 EDUCAl ON OF MAN. The difTerence of motives does not only exist in chilaren, but also in adults., and whoever wishes to determine different individuals to the same con- duct, must appeal to different faculties of the mind He must follow the example of the great apostle, who became all things to all men, in order to save them. Whoever has only one motive of salvation to propose, will never keep all mankind together, and whoever wishes to move strongly must appeal to the feelings. Experience however shows that few persons can be guided by the superior feelings alone, and that reasoning is seldoir of any great weight as a motive of conduct ; it is also obvious, on the other hand, that the greater number of per- sons are actuated by inferior motives, and even by commandment and by fear. Yet I would recom mend, that the propriety of making use of all pos- sible inducements to produce virtuous conduct should be kept constantly in view, and that every motive should be employed, beginning with the most noble and elevated with morality and reason, and ending with the lowest, with fear and iuipres- sions on the sense of feeling, and the sensations of hunger and thirst. We may reason with those who understand the laws of the Creator, and feel their importance, whilst others, who cannot com- prehend these laws or perceive their utilit}^, should be restrained by inferior and selfish motives, ever by disagreeable impressions on their senses, or by feeling the pains of hunger, or solitary confine- ment The lalter means wi. be rarely necessary, DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENTS. 185 but a SO, should not be neff.ected. The flosririnor system however, will be abandoned in pioportion as hiitnan nature becomes understood, and eduo-a> tion conouctcd accordingly. CHAPTER IV. EVERY ONE HA? HIS NATURAL GIFTS. The reader, somewhat versed in Phrenology, will easily perceive, that the different considera- tions of this work are in the most intimate Conner tion with, and even founded on, ideas developed in other publications to which I have frequently referred. In this Chapter I take it for granted, that all mental dispositions or powers, are innate, and I speak of them in so far only, as regards the direction of their actions. In respect to feelings as well as intellect, man- kind may be ranged in different classes. Theie are persons who may be called fortunate, if not elect, namely, those who, from the felicity of tlieir natural constitution, desire only what is good, who act from love, and show pure morality in all their actions. In these happy beings, the superior feelings predominate much over those common to man and animals. 17* 186 EDUCATION OF MAW. The rest of mankind, by far the greater num- ber, are ol liged to combat against the activity of the inferior feeHngs, and stand in need of the law to direct and restrain them. Three subdivisions of this latter class may be considered. The first embraces those who have one or several of ihe inferior as well as one or several of the supe- rior feelings very active. These persons may be great in vice or virtue, according as they follow the dictates of their inferior or superior faculties. In the second order, may be reckoned those in whom certain inferior faculties are very active, and all the superior very weak. Such individu- als are exposed to the danger of being overwhelm- ed by vice, in proportion to the weakness of the superior motives. This disproportion is common in great criminals. In the third class are placed by far the greater number of mankind, namely, those individuals in whom all the faculties are middling ; those who act according to education and external circum- stances, and follow, without examination, the moral and religious principles which they are taught. Some philosophers, founding on them as instances, have been led to maintain, that man does every thing by imitation. Though that opinion be erroneous, the influence of imitation, remains very great and we may say with Mr. Combe. (Essays on Phrenology, p. 322.) "As a DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 181 j^eneral rule, whatever you wish your child to be or do. be that or do that to him. If you wish him to be outrageous, to be cruel, to be quarrel- some, be outrageous, cruel, and quarrelsome to him. If you wish him to be humane and polite, •be humane and polite to him. If you wish him to be just and pious, be just and devout before him." The great mass of mankind, indeed, cannot be left to their own guidance ; common people, when tempted, easily yield ; education, therefore, in all its details, legislation, and all public institutions, ought to contribute to accustom them to regularity and order. But, at the same time, the rulers of mankind must not expect the lower minds to be obedient whilst they forget their own duty. Power is given, not for the selfish gratification of those who are invested with authority, but to promote the general happiness of the commu- nity. With respect to undei standing, it is also certam that few are endowed with a mind so compre- hensive, as to enable them to learn whatever they please, and to embrace the principles of universal knowledge. Some are given rather to deep re- flection than to great learning ; others have less reflection, but nuich talent for acquiring erudi- tion ; and, in the lust place, the greater nuinbtM- do not excel in any department of knowledge, of art, or of science whritever ; but may learn any 188 EDUCATION OF MAN. thing that is necessary to qualify them to become isefiil members of society. The preceding facts being ascertained by ob- servation, we may examine the question, Whether the same kind of education will equally suit every * individual. The aim in educating all must be the same, namely, to render them virtuous and intelligent but as the natural endowment of individuals is different, all persons are not capable of the same improvement, and everyone cannot be induced by the same motives to pursue the same end. The faculties proper to man, being the aim ol all oiu' actions, should be cultivated in every per- son as much as possible, but the natural differ- ence will be observed with respect to the energy of these, as well as of the other faculties in differ- ent individuals. Nature, by her endowment, con- stitutes some characters moral, and others reli- gious. The latter will act more from faith, the former from duty. Yet, the law, ''Love thy neigh- bor as thyself," must be constantly held up to both, as the object of their exertions, and obedi- ence to it required, even of those who do not feel inclined to do so. If the superior motives be not sufficiently strong to produce this obedience, the lower faculties DIFFERENCE OF NATURAi. ENDOWMENT. 189 must be employed. The influence of the latter powers, then, is double ; they constitute motives themselves, and they also assist the superior feel ings to arrive at their gratification. Among the lower motives, selfishness and fear are the mo^'f generally energetic, and no legislation can exclude the use of them. Thus, a true system of education cannot be founded on single views, or established according to single individuals ; it must be adapted to hu- man jiature. I have already mentioned tliat whoever will direct man, ought not to hold out only one motive of action. He who endeavors to change every person into a philosopher, and he who will never reason with any one is equally mistaken. A preacher who invites others to be- come morally good, will err when he trusts entirely to the motives which govern his own actions, not beinir aware that sometimes such motives make no impression on others. He ought to bring for- ward all possible reasons to touch all his auditors, and make them feel those motives which they are susceptible of. He ought to be particularly care- ful to be understood, and to speak by examples. Moreover, his precepts must be confirmed by his own actions. He who teaches order and cleanli- ness, must be orderly and cleanly himself ; he who preaches peace and charity, must not deny these principles by his moral conduct. Those who say, Folbw my words, but not my actions, are 190 . EDUCATIOJN OF MAN unfit for their situation, and ought to be replaced by more worthy subjects. It follows, that the feelings, as well as and even still more than the hitellectual faculties, ought to be considered before children are destined to cer- tain professions, or adults to certain places. To bring up a child endowed with great animal pro- pensities, such as Amativeness, Combativeness, Acquisitiveness, Self-esteem, &c. to the church, whatever his intellect may be, is the height of error and absurdity. Nothing has done greater harm to society-, than placing individuals in pro- fessions and situations for which they were unfit, not only through the want of some necessary facul- ties, but also through the inordinate activity of some of the opposite ones. Strong amativeness or cruelty produces nuschief in a Roman Catholic priest, as does the love of domination in the repre- sentative of a free nation, corruptibility in a judge, fear in a general, &c. The feelings, also, ought to be exercised with a view to the future destina- tion of children. Combativenes is to the soldier what reverence is to the clergyman ; but, in both, benevolence and conscientiousness should be active. his also impossible to insist too much on the tJtjportance of considering the effect of tlie natural fee.ings, in the choice of persons to rule or to lead society. This highly interesting point can be per- ceived, ii all its magnitude, '.ly those only who DIFFERENCE OF NA'^URAL ENDOWMENT. 191 are convinced, that the faculties which produce feelings, are natural gifts differing ii. every indi- vidual ; that they are independent of intellect, and arc the principal cause of our actions. In this way, fishermen, who are eniinent/y gifted in natural sentiments, may be better moralists than high priests, mathematicians, orators, or philoso- phers, who excel only in intellect, and whose moral sentiments are weak compared with their inferior propensities. An opposite error, but not less hurtful to society than the preceding, is committed by those who despise and neglect the cultivation of the intel- lectual faculties. Some religious persons of this kind, have endeavored to put aside alt temporal concerns, and have become hermits. Others avoid all pleasure, or even torture their body, in order to be agreeable to their Creator. Others repre- sent a knowledge of the Bible, as a substitute for all other information, in the same way as the Ma- hometan confines his knowledge to the Koran. Our iarnorance of human nature is the cause of such uiistakes. The faculties which produce feel- ings, constitute only one part of our nature ; the other part is intellectual, and the feelings work in darkness it not (,nlisfhtened bv the understanding. Intellectual education too, is frequently miscon- ducted from ignorance of human nature. The basis, howevei', of the direction of intellect is the 192 EDUCATION OF MAN. same as that of feelings. A plurality of intel lectual powers exists, and they are possessed in different degrees of strength I'y aifTerent indi- viduals. The reflective faculties are essential to our moral conduct in every situation ; and are necessary to form clear conceptions in all intel lectual operations, while the perceptive faculties are applicable only to certain kinds of employ- ment. The reflective powers then should be ex- ercised in every individual. I have already repeated, that all our learning ought to be useful, and that we should obtain pos- itive notions instead of mere signs, which convey no meaning. Indeed no one has excelled, nor will excel, as a deep thinker, as a great minister general, lawyer, physician, or moralist, merely because he is a good classical scholar. Great men are no doubt frequently SAJiled in the claj^sics ; and it would certainly be astonishing', if their natural capacities, whicli enabled them to become great, should prevent them from becoming good Latin scholars, since we see that they are obliged to spend more time and laboi' in learning Latin than in any other pursuit. But it should never be forgotten, that the talent for learning artificial signs is a primitive one, and that it may or iii:iy not be combined in any individual v/ith a gre.it endowment of other intellectual powers, and heuLC that it is wrong to consider it as the standard ol understanding in general. It is high time, says DIFFERENCE OF NATURA.L ENDOWMENT. 193 Dr. Rush, (Essays Literary, Moral, and Philo- sophical. Pfiil. 1803,) to disting-uish between a philosopher and a scholar, between things aiid words. We may be g-cod scholars, and know nothing of man and things. A mere scholar can call a horse or a cow by different names, but he fre(]uently knows nothing of the qualities and uses of these valuable animals. "A boy of eight years old, with the Latin grammar in his hand, asked his father who made the Latin language, and for what it was made ? Another boy, oi eleven years of age, wished he had ncit been born, because of the trouble which he found in learninof Latin." It is certain, as Dr. Rush also says, that many sprightly boys, of excellent capacities for useful knowledge, have been so disgusted with the dead languages, as to retreat from the drudg- ery of schools to low company, whereby they have become bad members of society. The exclusive study of the ancient language? has retarded the progress of the arts and sciences Whoever takes an interest in their improvement must declare against it. Philology ought to be considered as a particular branch of instruction, in the same way as Chemistry, Botany, &c. Usefi 1 and practical knowledge ought to be the principal object of intellectual education. During the time we spend in learning the words in which Virgil deliv^ers the erroneous opinion, that bees originate from putrefaction, we might learn, with greate*" 18 194 EDUCATION OF MAN. advantage, the natural history, treatment, and use- fulness of this insect itself. In countries where vines are planted, it is more useful to teach chil dren how to cultivate them, and how to make wine, than the expression which Horace employs to inform us, that he liked a good glass of wine. Instead of learning Mythology in Latin and Greek, we had better make ourselves acquainted with the history of the different religious creeds, and of true Christianity by reading in our mother-tongue. Of what use is it to us to know what words the Greeks used when they spoke, since we never con- verse in Greek ^ Intellectual education may be divided into Gen- eral and Professional ; and in both respects the pupils may be subdivided into several classes, not according to age and time, but according to the objects to be taught, and those to be learnt ; for, in point of fact, son:e children learn double what others do in a given time, and succeed better in one branch than in another. They should remain in each class as long as, and no longer than, is necessary to acquire sufficient knowledge of the branch there taught. There should be one pro- fessor for each branch, and each class should be conducted according to the plan of mutual in- struction. I have already laid it down as a fundamental rale, that no sign should be employed without its DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 195 meaning is explained, and that children should be constantly admonished, that they use artificial sig-ns as means of" communication or recollection, aiKl that sensations, feeling's, notions, and reflec- tions, precede, and cnn be acquired only by, the activity of the faculties themselves. 1 reckon the knowledg'e of as many objects and beings as possible, viz. of the three kingdoms of natural history, of their physical and chemical qualities, of the vital phenomena, of history, geo- graphy, geology, and cosmography, of anthropo- logy, the mother tongue, printed and writter signs, calculation, and, finally, moral and religious principles, to be essential to^a general intellectual education. Elementary ideas, or outlines of these objects, are sufficient for children ; but during the college education, these branches are to be extended and detailed, but always taught by the way of mutual instruction. * It is a common complaint that arts and sciences do not improve as much as might be wished for. This proves at least that education does not pro- duce talents ; but I think, on the other hand, that Nature has given many capacities which education suppresses. If, for instance, a boy who has little talent for learning Latin, but great inclination to draw, will, whenever the master turns his eyes 196 EDUCATION OF MAN. away, exercise his natural bias, he will, when per- ceived, at least be scolded. The consequence will be, that at the end he will know but very little Latin, while his innate talent of drawing has been prevented from being" exercised. In this way many children are punished for cultivating their natural gifts, and their intellectual education is impeded. How different would every one be, were he brought up according to his natural en- dowments. It is really the greatest misfortune for mankind to educate children and youth in an indiscriminate manner ; and we may say, that in consequence of absurd views in the selection ot the objects taught, and in the manner of teaching, learning has hitherto been tiresome, unprofitable, and even disgusting in no ordinary degree. The mistakes committed are particularly great in professional education. It is a lamentable truth, that i^ew persons stand in the situations for which nature particularly fitted them. This soldier ought to have been a clergyman ; that clergyman a soldier ; and here we see a shoemaker who was intended for a poet ; and there an advocate who was designed for a shoemaker. The first indica tion of improvement in this respect will appear, when human nature shall be better understood ; it will be known that there are natural gifts, tha these gifts are different ; that precepts and rules neither bring forth talents nor moral conduct ; that none should be promoted to the degree of a lead %^-: DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 197 ing man, who is not fit for the station, and that he who is fit for one pUxce, is not on tlmt account necessarily fit for all others. It is a great evil if education be very expensive, so tliat merely rich persons can receive it. Their children are not al- ways the most talented, whilst the geniuses among the poorer classes are exchided. In this respect the Roman hierarchy serves as a model. It was conceived in a true republican spirit, and no t^vil government has hitherto sliown a succession of tal- ents at the head of aflairs, to be compared with the church of Rome. There is another example on record, which proves the importance of chcjosing the talents among all classes, and employing every one ac- cordiuiT to his talents. The sociclv ol" the .Jesuits rose in a short time to an extraordinary height and iulluence. Several causes coiitrihuted to this result ; but the principal one certijinly was, that they were employed in ccjnducting education, dis- tinguished the genius of their pujiils, chose for their order oidy those who excel 1-ed in talents, and employed each individual according to liis natural dispositions. No society will acquire an equal in- (luence that expects to do so from teaching alone. Moreover, their regulations were calculated to contribute V their excellence. They were under a leading general, who nominated without con- trol all functionaries of the order, and could re- 18^ 193 EDUCATION OP MAN. move them at pleasure. To him the reports o^' the subordinate societies were submitted. These reports were minute and circumstantial in the highest degree, containing- exact inform.ation of the characters of the novices, and professed mem- bers, their talents, dispositions, and prevailiDg" tendencies, and, above all, their knowledge of hu- man nature, and experience in affairs. Thus, the general could appoint to each man his station and his reward, could elevate and degrade, exclude and retain, and allot the chief duties to the highest abilities. 1 am far from defending the church of Rome and the society of Jesuits in all their tendencies. I argue only in favor of their sagacity j in furnish- ing means of education to the better heads of all classes, and in employing every member according to his abilities. If every one were employed according to his natural gifts, a double advantage would re- sult : arts and sciences would be cultivated with more success, and many persons would be better pleased with their station in life. It is certain, that it is not always the profession to which we are forced by circumstances, that makes us happy. Many would be satisfied with a smaller income, if they were allowed to follow their natural bias. Even people of independent fortune are still de- pendent on the general arrangement of education DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWxMENT. 199 They know perfectly well that one or another of their sons will never excel as classical scholars, but they must submit to custom, and prejudice ; the boys must be drilled for years, though they will soon forget that which they learned by com- p ilsion. This is school-wisdom ! The second error of professional education is, that we are plagued with a great deal of useless knowledge, while the most important objects are overlooked. Of what use is mathematics to a clergyman, while his attention is scarcely called to human nature, and to the organic conditions on which the manifestations of the mind depend ? None of the unprofitable studies ought to be com- pulsory. Yet as every kind of knowledge is use- Ail, no branch of it should be neglected, and therefore Latin and Greek might with propri- ety, continue to be taug;Jit, if we make it requi- site^ for those only to learn them who have the inclination to do so, or whose professions require such knowledge. No one can learn every thing, and it is wrong to oblige pupils to learn that which is useless in their practical situation in life. The third error of professional as well as of general education, consists in the method of teach- ing. It has been examined in the preceding pages, and I mi.mtion it once more for the sake of connec- tion. Children learn languages without ideas, 200 EDUCATION OF MAN. and natural history by mere desciiptions ; and those who teach them in this manner, if they think at all about the matter, must proceed on the belief that every word communicated necessarily excites, in the mind of the pupil, the idea which they mean it to convey. This, however, is an extrava- gant error ; for words can excite only ideas already acquired, and if no previous ideas have been form- ed, they are mere unmeaning sounds. The same error is committed in professional education. In the study of medicine, for instance, we are fre- quently told a great deal about various diseases ; of external appearances ; of different conditions of the pulse or skin, &c. before we observe such things in nature. The result is, that the time and labor we spend in acquiring such theoretical know- ledge are, in a great measure, lost. Let us first see Nature, and then hear descriptions. A medical student, who has never seen a patient, but studied the theory of diseases, will be as little acquainted with them as with minerals of which he has only read the descriptions, though he might excel :n his theoretical examinations. Thus, in the study of medicine, it is not only wrong to compel the students, as is the case at cer- tain uj\iversities, to learn the auxiliary sciences in detail, such as mineralogy, botany, zoology and chemistry, since a perfect and practical know- ledge of each of these branches would require sev- eral years ; but it is also a great error to begin with theoretical lectures. DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 201 Moreover, the individual brandies of medical education are too much separated. The instruc- tion begins commonly with anatomy, without the pupi'. being taught to think of the use of any pai- ticular part. At certain universities, they spend the greater part of the time in studying osteology and myology, (the knowledge of the bones and muscles ;) they must learn the name of each bony ridge and edge ; but may hurry over, with very superficial notions of the viscera and nerves, which certainly are more important to medical practi- tioners in general, than those of the bones ; whilst operative surgeons alone stand in need of a very exact knowledge of the bones and blood-vessels. Physiology and anatomy ought never to be separated from each other : the structure will be learned with more ease and pleasure, when at the same time its uses are taught On the other hand, students ought to begin with t'he more necessary functions, and go on to those of less importance. When well acquainted with anatomy and physiol- ogy, they ought to see patients, and the different morbid symptoms ; they should learn to distin- guish diseases, to become attentive to modifica- tions according to age, temperament, climate, season, and manner of living, and to learn the mode of treatment. Being instructed in this prac- tical way, they will feel an interest in studying the Materia Medica.^ or the substances used out ol the three kingdoms of nature, and also the chem 202 EDUCATION OF MAN. ical preparations and doses. This sti dy will not require great extension, if we attend more to the art of heaUng" than to the display of knowledge. The most skilful practitioners use a small num- ber of drugs in curing their patients, and they use still less for themselves, being indisposed. When human nature shall be better understood, and the primitive faculties of the mind, and the conditions of their m.anifestations more perfectly known, professional education will be better "^egulated, and we shall then no longer be obliged to learn merely for the school, or, as we com- monly say, for the examinations. We shall then acquire only practical knowledge, and no one will find it necessary to begin his own plan of useful learning when he has finished his studies at the university. Indeed, nothing can be mere tedious for students, than to attend ex officio lectures of mere theoretical schoolmen. Here the qualifications of teachers might be con- sidered with propriety ; they are certainly of great importance, biit it is not my intention to speak ot them. Pupils are well aware, that great abuses are committed in this respect ; that it is not always the most worthy who fills the cha/r. 1 merely notice, that there is a difference betwe ?,n the possessing of knowledge and the capacity of eommunicatinj3c it to others, and that some persons of more knowledge are sometimes less skilful in DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 203 teaching, than others of less information, in the same way as the best students of theoretical knowledge have not always the most practical skilL The common method of teaching arts is not bet- ter than that of cultivating sciences. Let us sup- pose, for the sake of example, that those only who have natural talents apply themselves to drawing, painting, and the arts of imitation, — but we may ask, how are they generally taught ? They are too frequently confined to copying the antiques as the only models of beauty and perfection, instead of representing and imitating nature. In this way artists will be only copyists, and never can acquire any claim to originality. On the other hand, the ancients had no exclusive privilege of genius, nor did they necessarily exhaust all the sources of ex- cellence, so as to leave to posterity no resource but to copy them. On the contrary, there are many antiques that have no merit but their age. The only criterion, then, of greater or less perfection in works of art, is their resemblance to nature. Now. if the ancients have broucrht forth master- pieces in imitating nature, why should not modern artists do the same, since nature, though infinite in her modifications, is constant in her laws ? Let us imitate the method of the ancient artists, but not copy their productions. They represented nature, and imitated her varieties ; they gave to . each strong hero, strong muscles, yet different in proportion and size, jist as we find in nature 204 EDUCATION OF MAN. why should our ai'tists copy only the statue o\ Hrrcules, in crder to indicate bodily strength r Why should they in general confine themselves only to one and the same configuration and atti- tude for particular personages ? All musicians might be equally, and, with the same right, re- quested to follow only the productions of one or several great composers ; and all music which is not like that of Handel, Mozart or Haydn, be declared to be good for nothing. Even on the supposition that education, in all its details, is well understood, and its principles practised, still there will be but a few individuals, who will unite all the faculties necessary to such or such a situation. The individual painters will be rare, who possess in a high degree the faculties of Constructiveness, Configuration, Size, Color- ing, Imitation, Individuality, Comparison, and Causality. The same difficulty of uniting the necessary fundamental faculties together prevails in all arts, sciences and professions. In every one there are and will be individuals endowed with one or several of the necessary gifts ; but it sel- dom happens that all the faculties are united in an eminent degree in one person. The combination of the primitive powers are innumerable, and form the proper subject of a particular treatise on talents and characters. EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 205 Tlie reader will keep in mind, that in this vol- ume, I intend merely to expose the fundamental principles according to which education is to be regulated, and the human race perfected. The peculiar apphcations are without end. The two following chapters, however, one on the education of both sexes, and the other on that of nations, seem to me particularly interesting. Yet there too the general principles remain the same, but their application is to be modified, and adapted to the peculiarities of sexes and nations. CHAPTER V. EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. The question, whether both sexes are to be ed- ucated differently, or in the same manner, and jilaced in different or in the same situations in practical life, has been, and is still differently an- swered. Women call men usurpers and tyrants ; and they, on the contrary, boast of natural and positive rights of superiority. I shall consider, in the first place, in a general way, the condition of women as it was, and as it is, and then ex- amine what natural claims they have to equality. Their education is t(t be regulated according to the determination of the latter point. 19 206 EDUCATION' OF MAN. The condition of women is very ^use^ab^.<^ among" barbarous nations ; they are slaves. Wher- ever bodily strength and animal feelings predom- inate, they are sadly off. They are purchased and divorce is permitted. The Jews were privi leged to divorce their wives. (Duet, xxiv.) Among civilized nations, as long as the code of morality is dictated by the lovv^er feelings, females are looked on as means of gratifying the selfish passions of men. The ancient Greeks and the European nations, during the dark ages, treated them with every indignity. Polygamy is inti- mately connected with the custom of purchasing wives. It prevailed originally every where, and exists still in many countries. In China, the wives are sold at marriages, and not permitted to make any choice of their own. By polygamy, however, some men usurp the right of others, i custom which is contrary to nature, since more boys are born than girls ; or are we authorized to admit that the contrary happens in Asia .^ The pure spirit of Christianity abolished this odious practice, and re-established the primitive law of the Creator The female sex has risen by a slow progress to nigher and higher degrees of estimation in Europe. Females are respected wherever moral feelings are esteemed. Where this is the case, they are valued as riends ; but still they are either con ■«» EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. '4f^07 ' " "-■''■•^ sidered as wenk and delicate creatures, and as- ^ ?:isted, since it is thon^rht a duty to couipassionate '^ and to succor the feeble, or they are treatejil as si!U[)le and useful housewives. Vvhere a taste for beautiful forms and elegance of manners prevails, the females -are considered as ag-reeable companions, and often become mis- tresses. Women are best treated, when polite manners and moral feeling's are cultivated. Then they liv6 with men under the decent form of matrimo- ny. Their gentle and insinuating manners are highly appreciated, and they are considered as in- timate and faithful friends. Yet there is no society where the two sexes stand altogether in an equal situation. Is this dif- ference f()unded on nature, or the result of the selfishness of men "^ Women speak of vindicating their natural rights ; they call it tyranny to deny them a share in civil and political affairs, to orce them to remain immured in their families, &.c. Mary Wolstoncroft has taken great painis to show, that both sexes are by nature equal. She was obliged to admit the actual inferiority of her sex ; but still she endeavored to prove, that women are degraded only by want of education, and by external circumstances ; and that men, through jealousy, p- rposely neglect the cultivation 208 EDUCATION OF MAN. of girls. Male writcfs, on tlic contra 'y, maintain, tliat nature has made the two sexes diflerent, tliong-li concordant, so as to produce together a delicious harmony ; that she has prepared tliem for their future destinations, hy a particular mod ification of feelings and intellectual faculties given to each, and avoided rivalship between them, by giving them diflerent dispositions. It is to be understood, that I do not speak of single individuals. There are women who re- semble men, and vice versa. Mary Wolston- CROFT speaks of her own manner of feeling and thinking, which resembled that of a man. She contends particularly for the power of generaliz- ing ideas, of drawing comprehensive conclusions from individual observations, a power which- seems to her the only requisite of an immortal being ; a power which is commonly denied to women, and often considered as inconsistent with the female character. I allow that this power exists in some women stroiiger than in many men ; but Mary Wolstoncroft would accuse herself, and speak against her sex, if she would draw gen- eral inferences from her own individual feelings. As I am of the decided opinion, thhit the two sexes, in the actual state of things, are naturally differ- ent in their dispositions, I shall contrast them in a summary view. They possess essentially the same powers d." mind, the whole diflereiice coneists in the degrees in which they have thci»"». EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 209 The form of the female body, is rounded, and mdicates rather delicacy and beauty than strength and solidity. '' Let us be allowed," says Mary WoLSTONCROFT, " to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy, but also during youth, and we shall arrive at the same perfection of body." I admit, that in girls, confir-ed to close rooms, and prohibited from taking sufF.cieat exercise, the muscles are relaxed, and the diges- tive powers destroyed. It would certainly be ad- visable to take the grejitest care, of the bodhy constitution, and to adopt a manner of living which would secure females against bodily defor- mities, and the immense train of nervous com- plaints that nfiiict them under the present system. 1 pity the female sex for their physical education being so utterly neglected, and for their mental im- provement being thoroughly mismanaged ; yet 1 am also fully convinced, that although the same physical education were given to the muscular system of both sexes, each would preserve its e- culiarities, because the functions, those at least which characterize the sex, are different in e:u''-. Country people of Europe furnish a certain proof of the truth of this assertion ; boys and girls are brouq-ht up in the same way, but it is superfluous to sny which sex is the strongest, and whicli lias recourse to the other when muscular strength is required. Women are exposed to many little dis- orders unknr wn to the male sex. Farther, in ful- filling their duty as mothers, they are exposed to 19^ 210 EDUCATION OP MAN. great sufferings, and causes of weakness. ^lan kind is treated in this, as in many other respects, like all viviparous animals. Though the manner of living be the same in both sexes, the females are smaller and weaker than the males. Some of the feelings necessary to the preserva- tion of the species are stronger in men, and others of them stronger in women. In animals, the male pursues, the female yields, and so it is in mankind. Among all nations men court, and women are courted. As to the love of offspring, the two sexes show a decided difference. Female children delight to dress and undress a baby, to take every possible care of a doll, to get an infant in their arms, to carry it, to sing and to walk about, stag- gering under the weight. Boys seldom think of such a pastime. They have more inclination to noisy amusements, to run about, to ride upon a stick by way of a horse ; they delight in a top, a ball, a drum, &c. Since the suckling mother must stay with the child, and provide for its wants, nature has taken care that she should be pleased with doing so. Indeed many mothers have this feeling too strong, they cannot manage their children properly ; they spoil them, become unjust towards other persons on their account, and sacrifice truth and every thing for their sake. This is seldom the case with fathers ; they are commonly obliged to inflict the deserved punish- ments, ard to be the judges in all disputes. EDUCATION OF THE SB. k'ES. 211 Mary Wolstoncroft denies that women from oirth independently of education, have a fond- ness for dolls. She quotes her own feelings, and ventures to affirm, that the doll will never excite I he attention of a girl, unless confinement allows her no alternative. " Girls and boys," says she, " would play harmlessly together, if the distinc- tion of sex were not inculcated long before nature makes any difference." Mary Wolstoncroft is very wrong to take herself as the standard of her sex, while general observation shows, that through- out nature the love of offspring is stronger in fe- males than in males. Another feeling more energetic in women than in men, is Attachment. Tliis feeling is not the result of their weak state, but is given by nature. Many women have sacrificed to it their happiness and welfare. Females commonly wish to possess, exclusively, the friendship of others, and often complain of the want of friendship in men, since they are not so exclusively governed by it. The circumstance of this feeling being so energetic and prevailing in women, is an additional motive why •reduction should be niore severely punished. 1 fear that many legislators v/ink at this crime, from the circumstance of their not beinsr tl emselves sc proi7e to strong attachments as women. There are still some other feelings more active in women than in men, Avhich essent ally enter 212 . EDUCATION OF MAN into the formation of the female character. It iS; however, difficult to say whether they contribute to their happiness, since it often happens, that, if they be not satisfied, they become sources of unhappmess to them. I allude to Idealty and Approbativeness. One of the nic st prevailing* sentiments of females: is the Love ct Approbation. They show it fron their carlie-Gt infancy in dressing, v^alking-, speak ing", &c. &c. They are constantly desirous ol knowing what others say of them ; they are font of distinctions of e\ery kind, of decorations am external show. Young' g'li^s, who are scarce!,^ capable of understanding ^ivh^.^. ii\ said of them may be governed by talkliij \o vl:om of v/hat other people think of then- be;^.lviol^^ This motive Jias not the same tiTovvC uith boys. Many females are intoxicated by t^t kvc of ap- probation, they cannot distinguish tiuo \\K\\t' from false flattery, nay, they would be plcasi\\ vnth adoration. They try to make impressiow^. on others by various means. Some would suffci \vh in order to be pitied, rather than remain a\\\^- ticed. No man will object indiscriminately against (h' feeling which causes a desire of pleasing ; it is thN source of many pleasures in society ; but its tot great activity, combined with some other sent! ments, and not directed by reflection, makes man} EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 215 women weak and fastidious, or mere objects of amusement, by their pretty nothings and mfantine airs. It is still worse, if such fine ladies be full of capricious fancies. Females who are governed 'jnly by this feeling, will remain alluring objects for a moment, but they will not obtain a durable interest in the aftections of a sensible man. It fol- lows, that the sentiment of the love of approba- tion being in general too strong in women, does not stand in need of being exercised ; it is, indeed, their greatest enemy. Farther, they delight fre- quently in a world of fiction and eccentricity. The softer feelings and the religious sentiments are conmionly stronger in women than in men. Females therefore become easily the favorite tools of priesthood. Females naturally haveless courage and destruc- tivenessthan men, and more Cautiousness. Fear, therefore, ought not to be cherished in them ; but it ought to be treated as cowardice. To fear a cat, a mouse, an insect, a little noise, &c. is irra- tional, looks infantine, and indicates altogether n false susceptibility of mind, or a too great nervous irritability. The ardor with which some femah^s amuse themselves in hunting, shooting., and gaming, appears, on the other hand, eqiially ol)- jectionable. In short, while coarseness in felnale^^ is to be avoided ; delicac/ and refinement of taste must not be confou ided with weakness. 214 EDI CATION OF .MAN. The conduct of females in general is unstable ; their opinions are often wavering ; they think too ramch of incidental occurrences ; of actual even>ts ; they wish to enjoy immediately ; are moved by momentary 'impressions ; do not like to work for a future period ; while men have more frequently the end in view. Females undertake many things : they are warm by fits and starts, but their warmth is soon exhausted. Indeed, hitherto the greatest enemies of the fe- male sex reside in their own feelings. Many civ- ilized women please, rather than inspire with re- spect. They prefer alluring manners to perma- nent friendship. Many are charming, romantic, vain, or fine sentamental ladies. They are occu- pied with trifling things, mere beings of sensibility and pleasure, refined by novels, poetry, and gal- lantry ; but they should never forget, that they will always be considered as insignificant when they wish only to be fine ladies, and not to fulfil the duties which nature has assigned to them. Thus, the feelings and their combinations in women, tend much to make them dependent. To be independent, it is not sufficient to be endowed with the feeling of duty and justice as the principal motive ; these must also be combined w^ith indil Terence about the opinion of others when unjust, with courage and perseverance, r. order to resisi EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 215 difficulties and obstacles, and to attend oily to the aim, and to tlimk of the necessary means. In order to understand perfectly the great phenomenon observad at all times, that one half jf the human species has excluded the other half from all participation in government, it is neces gary to compare also the understanding of the two sexes. The intellectual faculties, though, like the feel- ings, essentially the same in both sexes, are wide- ly different in power in the two, and in the ac- tual state of things men undoubtedly enjoy the superiority. I by no means say, that women are made to be the toys of men, much less their slaves : and I wish that their understanding may be more cultivated than it usually is, not by Latin and Greek, but by useful knowledge. Let their whole character be prepared for the important duties in their future stations as wife and as mother. Who- ever will attend to female education, v/ill find that they acquire many notions of individual things ; that they excel in the recitation of anecdotes and de- scriptions of manners, in the epistolary style ; that they are admirable in details, but dwell on effects, without tracing them back to their causes. In arts and science females rarely show themselves masters, they most commonly remain apprentices. Those female authors who defend their sex, main- tain that their education is neglected, and that on 216 EDUCATION OF MAN. this account alone they are inferior, for they are ail obhcred to admit the actual inferiority of the fair sex. Yet there can be no doubt that more gu'ls than boys learn music, drawing-, and paint- ing, and that many females cultivate these ar^^s ex- clusively. Why then, we may ask, do their com- positions so rarely equal those of men ? When- ever great combinations, deep reflection, discrim- ination, and general abstraction are required, when principles and laws are to be established, females in general remain behind. A shawl or a ribbon will soon absorb their minds, and make them easily neglect any philosophical discussion. Thus, there is a natural difference between ike two sexes, not in the number, but in the degrees of the primitive powers of the mind. Some are stronger in women, others stronger in men, and both sexes seem to be destined to different occu- pations in society. Indeed no education wili change the nature of the innate dispositions. Let, then, each sex, and each individual, be cuUivated and employed in those things for which he is fit. The claim to justice and merit is equal in man and woman ; their duties only are different. Fe- males are not destined in any circumstances to be slaves, or mere patient drudges, nor are their du ties limited to those of chaste wives and good man agers of their families only ; women are required a^so to direct the ediicaticn of their children, and to be agreeble and intelligent companions to their EDUCATION OF THE bLALS. 2 1 'i hus:ands. Lei their unders-tanding's be cultivated by useful knowledge ; by the study of the hun)an mind, and the principles of education, and of their duties in the direction of their families ; let their intellect be improved by the study of history and of arts and sciences. Girls commonly learn only objects of secondary importance, mere accomplish- ments ; and hence, when they arrive at the age of being united to a husband, they are seldom capa- ble of supporting permanent friendship, by the elevation of their minds, and the steady practice of the domestic virtues. Many do not know how to guide themselves, and still less their oHTspring, their servants, and household affairs. Indeed, if the fair sex go on as they have done hitherto, they cannot repine that they have no share in political concerns. If their minds do not take a more seri- ous and more solid turn, they may govern in drawing-rooms, where delicate feelings and polite manners are attended to, but they will have no permanent influence on the laws of society. I beg leave, however, to repeat, that I adnut individual exceptions, and speak only of the sex in general. I even think, that legislators are wrong to take it for granted, that the intellect of men is, in every case, superior to that of women. Some females contribute more than their husbands to the fortune of the family : Is it then not unjust to permit the husband to spend what the wife has gained, and to deprive her of power, when, in 20 218 EDUCAT13N OF MAN. point o fact, she might manage affairs to /he ad vantage of her fam ly and of herself? I would not like to be misunderstood, and cer- tainly not to be thought hostile to the fair sex. I most sincerely wish their advancement in every respect. In my opinion there should be a greater number of better wives, if there v/ere a greater number of better husbands. But I think of women what I say of nations. If they want a Saviour from without, they are not yet fit for emancipation. Let them do the work necessary to this change, and they will no longer complain of inferiority. Let the girls cultivate their intellect by practical knowledge. Let them aim at solidity as well as ])olite and refined manners, and not at prudery. This latter can be an indication neither of sense nor of taste. Society, where both sexes meet to- gether in social intercourse, is most conducive to mutual improvement, to delicacy of sentiment and language. Why do gentlemen exclude ladies from their society when they meet to speak of scientific objects ? Ladies of former days probably have shown less taste for such conversations. Or is it the fault of the gentlemen ? In that case let our females direct the attention of men to science and arts, let them prove that they have the same de- sire of knowledge as their pretended Lords, and are not occupied merely with finery, ornamental dress, and showy appearances. Let them emanci- pate themselves. B .it as long as they can read EDUCATION GF THE SEXES. 219 the Old Testament from one end to anothei and can listen to sermons where expressions are u-sed, which no delicate person would pronounce in po- lite society of gentlemen, whilst they think it in- delicate to speak at table of the leg of a fowl, I cannot help thinking, that there is some want of reflection either in the gentlemen who introduce such customs, or in the ladies who submit to them. or in both. I know the power of custom, but if the fair sex cannot overcome such fashionable, but nonsensical trifles, how can they imagine to be able to legislate for society at large .'' I am sorry to say, but, indeed I cannot perceive any arrangement of nature that can lead me to expect that women in general will cease soon to be considered as subor- dinate to men in the higher intellectual capacities. Their feelings obscure easily their understanding ; this is evident in their religious manifestations. In social life they seize quickly the useful and prac- tical part of things, but they seldom take genera) and comprehensive views. Yet let the many grat- ify their ambition ; let them endeavor, if they please, to acquire the same degree of talent, ener- gy, penetration and perseverance which we see in many men ; but, till they have acquired it, let then, cherish order, and exercise the virtues of their actual condition in society, rather than to present themselves in a sphere for which they, generally speaking, are not fitted. 220 EDUCATION OF MAN. CHAPTER VL EDUCATION OF NATIOISS The first idea that presents itself i i this Chapter, is to inquire who, according* to the laws of the Creator, is intrusted with national education, this being" taken in the most extensive siornification of the word. In treating of the education of chil- dren, I took it for granted, that parents are their natural protectors and leaders, and that they ought to consider it their duty, to favor the happiness of their progeny. On the other hand, parents, being free agents, are to be declared answerable for their influence on their offspring. Nations and governments are often compared the former with children, and the latter with pa rents. The analogy, however, is very inaccura^ie^ nations never owing their existence to their gover- nors. This comparison is further objectionable, since nations always provide for the living of their rulers. It seems, therefore, more reasonable to think, that individuals unite under determinate conditions for the sake of the common good ; and submit, on that account, to an appointed leader or director. But »vho could fancy hat this submis- EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 221 gion can be agreed to at the expense of the general welfare ? — The sovereignty of nati{)ns seetns evi- dently to be a law of the Creator, and will be ac- knowledged in proportion as men become intelii- i'ent and virtuous. Yet, let us suppose what governors like to per- suade mankind : that they exist by the grace of Gob, viz. allowing this to be in the same way as every arrangement is made, and every kind of order is established by the will of the Creator ; but let us add the question, whether God, the Fa ther of all, according to reason and Christianity, could establish civil and religious governments for the' sake of any absolute power and private pleasure, independent of general happiness ? — Reason s?ys, that wherever there is a community, its aim can be the public good alone. This prin- ciple prevails as regards families, tribes, nations and mankind at large. Christianity teaches the same doctrine. Jesus Christ, instead of assign- ing privileges to his disciples, abolished all per- sonal supremacy and prerogatives. "■ Ye know," fiaid he, " that the princes of the Gentiles exercise dominion over them, and they that are great ex- ercise authority upon them ; — But it shall not be so among you, but whosoever will be great among you, let him be .your minister, and whosoever wi- be chief among you, let him be your servant." (jMatt. XX.) " The disciples had disputed among themselves who should be the greatest ; and he 20^ 222 EDUCATION OF MAN. sat down and called the twelve and said unto them, If any man desire to be the first, the same shall be the last of all and servant of all." (Mark ix.) He ordered them to be peaceable, humble, charitable, and satisfied with their daily bread. The following" text, " Render unto CsBsar the things which are Csesar's, and unto God the things that are God's," (Matt, xxii.) commonly quoted to prove that Christianity is not against absolute rulers, bears, in my opinion, a more sound interpre- tation than is commonly given to it. Christ im- posed upon his followers a new code of morality, which was the will of his heavenly Father, and incumbent on all his disciples, Jews and Gentiles . one of its great commandments, applicable to all members, is to love our neighbor as ourselves. Now, I doubt, whether common sense can allow privileges compatible with such a doctrine ? If v/e maintain that Jesus Christ sanctioned abso- lute power, because be did not interfere with it ; it may be said, with equal propriety, that he sanctioned every state of things, he did not men- tion. Is it not a natural consequence of his doctrine* that those who follow it, change their former manner of living, and abandon the abuses of preceding ages ? at all events, even those who consider God as the true legislator, and them- se.ves as the directors appointed by his special grace, must acknowledge that t-he a-im of Chris- tianity is the general happiness of mankind, and that all notions opposed to that cause, m.ust be abandoned. f.DUCATlON CF ^fATIONS. 223 The reader, then, may easily suppose, that 1 do lot intend to examine the means favorable to gov- ernments, in order to dispose nations to be satisfied with the good pleasure of their rulers, to keep them in ignorance and poverty, to force them to passive obedience, and employ them to mere selfish )urposes, in short, to enslave them ; on the con- trary, my object is evidently to speak of the means whicli may enable governments to fulfil the only reasonable and moral destination of their existence. [ take it for granted, that general welfare is the object of national education, and go at once to the inquiry how this is to be obtained. In national education as in that of individuals, the same principles prevail. Those who wish to contribute to this great work must always remem- ber, first, that they cannot create, but are confined to the laws of the Creator ; hence, that they can produce certain eflTects only imder conditions ; secondly, that the faculties of the mind are innate, and that their manifestations depend on the cerebral organization ; thirdly, that the special faculties of the mind are essentially the same, but more or less active in different nations ; fourthly, that man acts from feelings rather than from intellect ; and finally, that the feelings in themselves are blind, and that their actions must be regulated by reason. Convinced of these prin- ciples, they may endeavor to increase or diminish the activity of the individual powers, and direct them towards the aim of society. 224 EDUCATION OF MAN. With respect to the general preliminary princi- ples of national as well as individual education, I refer to my other publications, where these points are examined with details ; even in treating of the means necessary to obtain the desired effect of na- tional education, I may be short, since they are the same as those explained in the preceding chapters. Among the means of improvement, propagation occupies the first place, and crossing tne breed is the surest way of changing races. Foreign inva- ders, who intermarried with the old inhabitants, have greatly contributed to change the character of different nations ; and new settlers who mix with the natives will be of greater effect than all sorts of other regulations. The northern provinces of Ireland are inhabited by Scotch, and by a mix- ed race of Scotch and the primitive inhabitants ; their character is known to be different from that of the Leinster people, and their cerebral organi- zation is not less so. Tribes, by attending to the laws of hereditary descent during several genera- tions, might be modified with greater certainty than by theoretical instruction in reading and writing, by hearing sermons and repeating prayers. Granted that governments have no right to force nations, except in conformity with the established laws ; they may, however, if they reaJly mind the welfare of the people, inculcate the natural laws of hereditary descent, and find various ways to EDUCATION :f NATIONS. 225 favor their practice. Careless tribes ouglit to in terniarry with cautious persons ; fearful with coura- g"eous ; gloomy with gay, &c. Natural morality and Christianity command nations to live in peace, and by crossing their blood, their faculties of body and mind may be strengthened and improved. The principle. Make the tree good and it will bring forth good fruit, is undeniable. Thus, the knowledge of the laws of hereditary descent being the first and surest means of im- proving nations, deserves the attention of legisla- tors and governors : it embraces the conditions of innate strength of body and mind ; the causes of degeneration ; the propagation of hereditary dis- eases ; the number of inhabitants, or population ; and the regulation of marriages. A military gov- ernment, that institutes the conscription, such as it existed in France under the reign of Buonaparte, — that carries on war for several generations, and distributes all the honors only to soldiers, — is the greatest curse to a nation. Degeneration will be unavoidable, since all the better heads are sacri- ficed, and the inferior allowed to propagate. On the other hand, when all inferior moral and intel- lectual organizations are employed as soldiers, and prohibited from marrying, the military line may be very useful to society. Hence, if stand- ing armies be necessary, take up in preference those who enlist from laziness and disorderly nabits, and who are under the inflaence of the lower propensities. 22Q EDUCATION OF MAN. I think it necessar/ to ac d, that it is by no means my intention to degrade the military profession ; I acknowledge its usefulness and merit in time of necessity, as in a war of defence against foreign aggression. I even admit, that in order to resist with vigor, every member of the community should be exercised in the use of arms, and be obliged to defend his country in case of attack. The number of degenerated brains will always be small in proportion to the great bulk of the na- tion ; they will be easily kept in order, partly by the regular behavior and good example of their companions, partlj^ by the severe laws of military discipline. Their number will also diminish by degrees, when all the principles of national edu- cation shall be practised. The great weight I lay on this proceeding depends on the means of puri- fying the race, by preventing the inferior organi- zations'from propagating. The next object of national education concerns what is commonly styled physical education, or the regulation of the vegetative functions. It in- cludes the salubrity of air and light, cleanliness, food, clothing, bodily exercise, in short, corpo- real health and strength, these being indispensable conditions to personal happiness and public use- fulness. In this respect, too, a good deal more than gen- erally is. might be done : in taking for granted that EDUCATION OF JVATIONS. 221 governments never act from selfish views, bu al- ways with the intention to favor the public good, since they are aware that they themselves die, whilst their nation continues and may be everlast- ing, and that therefore they calculate their mea- sures not for momentary advantages, but for per- manent results. This latter point, however, is too often neglected, though it is a characteristic sign of greatness in a legislator, if his regulations be lasting, viz; adapted to nature and her manifes- tations. The preservation of bodily health and strength is of greater importance than legislators common- ly imagine, and its neglect during several genera tions may greatly contribute to the fall of a nation —Overgrown towns, capitals in general, aftei several centuries, would die out, if the inhabi tants were not renewed by people from the country. In the same way whole nations may be weakened by various causes : they may degenerate, lor.e their energy, grow old, as it is commonly express- ed, and become incapable to resist foreign invaders. Hence, whatever besides the innate dispositions of the body and mind, concerns the salubrity of hab- itations, the purity of air in the streets and houses food, cleanliness, bodily exercise, &c. belongs tc the scope of legislation. This chapter is vast, ar^d includes every point conducive to health anil strength. 228 EDUCATION OF MAN. In lais as m any other respect, nations, like :h[\ dren, do not always understand what is the most advantageous to them. They are too often satis- fied with temporary amusements, and neglect tht conditions of permanent happiness. Legislators, therefore, be they hereditary and permanent, or chosen and temporary, might and ought to lead Ihe community, and prepare their happiness, ii\ the same way as parents provide for children. The views which governments entertain of their right to interfere with the personal liberty of the people, are sometimes very singular. They often show indifference about things which do harm to individuals and to the whole of the nation, and punish as crimes disorders which are of little con- sequence. They may wink at debauchery, drunk- enness, gluttony, luxury, &c. and bestow the right of hunting as a privilege ; they fix the quan- tity of wine which may be carried from one cellar to another, and inflict a penalty upon the trans- gressor, but license numberless ale-houses; they grant only a sn^all quantity of gunpowder to be kept in private houses, but tolerate gaming-places and lotteries; they force the individuals to be sailors or soldiers, but have no authority to pro- pagate vaccination ; they oblige medical men to study anatomy, and inflict upon criminals the dis- section of their body as a punishment, &c. ; they allow the poor to nmltiply as they like, and force the rich to nourish the poor and their progeny, EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 229 d'l . Who does not perceive that they never hesi tate to interfere in whatever answers their own purposes, always under the pretext of the common welfare, but that tliey have no right to restrain llic personal hberty in whatever is indifferent to ib.ein. It seems to me that, among civilized na- tions, everv interlcrcncc of the c:overnment should be allowed which tends to tlic commonwealth, and wb.ich is obligatory forcvery mendDcr of the society. Personal exceptions are unjust, they weaken by degrees the force of the laws, and at last destroy their elHcacy. The req-ulations conccrnini]^ habitations and nourishment arc of prime influence. The situa- tion must be healthy, the air pure, its circulation free ; hence the streets large, the houses not too higii, the abodes and walks freed of every sort of ordure; dunghills and filth at a certain distance from dwelling-places and public roads. In short, it is necessary to enjoy cleanliness of every de- soription, and pure air in every situation. Nourishment must be adapted to the constitu- tion, age, occupation, climate and weather. No- thinGT is wholesome or unwholesome in itself. In northern countries, and in cold weather, animal food is more easily digested than vegetables ; these latter, on tlie contrary, agree better in the south and in hot weather ; whilst a mixture of meat and vegetables favors best bodilv strength in temper- 21 230 EDUCATION OF MAN. ate climates ; but whenever animal food is we.. digested, it gives more strength to the bcxiy, and then vegetables, by feeding and multiplying do- mestic animals, should be changed into flesh, be- iore they serve to nourish man. Temperance and sobriety greatly invigorate the l)ody and mind ; intemperance and debauchery, therefore, should be restrained by all possible means. The natural wants are to be provided ; and as Christians pray only for their daily bread, objects of refined cookery might be imposed with enormous duty, and drunkenness considered as a civil fault. As bodily exercise particularly strengthens, as it invites to sleep, and secures against great disor- ders, it is to be generally encouraged. Gymnastic amusements may be established for all ages and for all classes of society. The Jews were ordered on the sabbath day to take a walk out of the city ; and here rich and poor, young and old, master and slave, met and indulged in innocent mirth or jn the pleasures of friendly intercourse. Moses, too, instituted three national festivals, not only !or the sake of religion, but also to maintain na- tional union. The gymnastic exercises and na- tional games of the Greek and their good effects are generally known and admired. Why then are similar enjoyments and means of producing public spirit neglected by modern legislators ^ EDUCATfOX OF NAT ONS. 231 Why are priests allowed '^^o change the sabbatn clay into a day of gloom, wliilst Moses wish.ed it io oe a day of cheerfulness ? The rich amuse themselves during the week, they have balls, or at least other parties of joy in which the clergymen themselves participate ; but are the poor, who work from Monday to Saturday for their sustenance, to be entirely deprived of every kind of amusement? Will they not naturally be drawn i,u ale-houses and gin-shops, or at least feel inclined to indulge is drunkenness or other animal propensities, since all public amusements, even a walk in the fields, are interdicted. The true sense of religion is mis- understood, and the bad consequences are unavoid- able. I have reason to believe that refined civili- zation on one hand, and gloom in religion on the 3th er, are great causes of misery and many secret sins which ruin the health of many individuals. Priesthood should consider it their duty to be better acquainted with human nature and the laws of the Creator, which man never violates withor.t suffering for it. Religion cannot be instituted to make man miserable, or to prepare him for the mad-house. Idleness, the great source of personal dissatisfac- tion and of many faults and crimes, should be de- clared a moral and civil vice, and as such prohib- ited. Every one should be obliged to exercise a profession ; mendicity entirely forbidden ; and 232 EDUCATION* JF MAN. every citizen Iionored in proportion as .le con tributes to the welfare of his fellow-creatures. Here a difficult matter present? itself conceri-ing the poor and charitable institutions. The feelings are blind, and temporary relief of a feeling may do permanent mischief. This seems too much the case with charity. The poor are undoubtedly a burden to themselves and to the community at large ; I find, therefore, whatever contributes to increase their number objectionable, charitable in- stitutions not excepted, since in providing alimenta- tion for the poor they encourage their propaga- tion. It is not my object to examine this matter, but I admit, with all enlightened political Econo- mists, that the number of population depends on the means of alimentation, though it cannot be said that the most populous countries are the most happy. I also refer the reader to the chapter on happiness, in the Philosophical Principles, Vol. 11. of Phrenology, to make him understand niy man- ner of thinking. I here confine myself to state the reasons which induce me to blame the obliga- tion to provide for the poor. It is generally nn- just to force others to work for our wellare ; nnn if the government think it right to prevent nse from doinsr so with others, there is no more rii^ht to oblige me to nourish others, or to work for them. All donations of this kind should be vol- aitary Governments may excuse this inj\istice by the puoUc order and welfars, b;:t ^vould they EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 23S not act more prudently by removing the causes of misery than by increasing- the number of the mis erable ? As general welfare is the aim of society, and as the poor-laws and chiritable institutions augment the mass of misery, benevolent and char- itable persons will do well to reflect and reason before they act, in order to bring their feelings in harmony with reason. It is a well known fact, that charitable institutions of any kind never diminish the number of those who stand in need of assistance; hence they give rise to permanent harm. Their nature should be changed, and it might be taken as a leading point, that public in- stitutions are to be abolished, if they augment public misery, and to be encouraged as far as they diminish misery and establish general happiness. Public schools where useful knovvledg-e is tauo-ht, institutions for blind or for deaf and dumb, and hospitals for unforeseen accidents, are of the latter kind. Legislators in general are not careful enough in reference to pauperism. As sufficient alimentation is the first condition of our preservation, and as parents are bound by nature to bring up their children, those who c:ui- not provide for a family should be prevented froni propagation. On the other hand, as idleness and niendicity are civil fuilts, charitable institutions should be houses of correction or penitentiaries. The 'azy and mendicants might be confiueil. in- 2P 234 EDUCATION OF MAN. ptructed, ediicaled, obliged to work, and kept till they can provide for themselves. Again, as many occnpations in society are hurtful to health, they must be superintended, particularly if youth be employed therein. Children, for in- stance, brought up in factories and hot rooms, una- voidably degenerate, and hev ^ne sources of fu- ture misery. The consequences of idleness and poverty being deplorable, activity and industry are to be patron- ized. Yet also this proceeding is not without in- convenience. Besides the misery which attends the working classes, in proportion as they degen- erate, the happiness of the f^imilies who enrich themselves by industry and commerce is never lasting, since riches invite to luxury, and luxury occasions many evils of body and mind in individ- uals and nations. I grant that, in the actual state of things, luxury has the advantage of bringing money into circulation, and this ought to be at- tended to as long as great riches are collected. But the mischief begins if the owners spend above their income, or if they look out for gain by every means. In this way, a too great anxiety about riches, as well as great poverty, do harm. Two important ideas concerning riches may be examined : 1. Great wealth is neither sufficient nor necessary to personal happiness; and, 2. Riches alone do not secure the duration of nations any more than tha: of families. EDUCATION OF NATIONS. Zbo The first idea is confirmed by daily observation A greater number of persons understand to make a fortune rather than to enjoy it; and whilst they collect and work, they are commonly happier and more satisfied than when they give up business and live in retirement. Personal happiness depends on health, and health on temperance. Now this virtue only requires a moderate income, which may be procured by a moderate exertion. This state again protracts the necessity to work, and keeps up an essential condition of happiness, which is no more possible without occupation than col- lecting wealth without activity. The second idea is equally certain, and confirmed ny history. Monarchical governments, therefore, who want a court and splendor, keep up rich families by primogeniture, and hitherto they en- deavored to preserve their nation by poverty and ignorance. The examination of this subject be- longs to political economy, a science destined, in my opinion, to discover means not only of colleci ing wealth, but of securing property. This object is interesting both in a moral and political point of view; and here we find anew example of justice being nseparable from the gen eral and permanent happiness of mankind. Ricli families left to themselves degenerate. Now is it not evidently a great injustice, that degraded children enjoy wealth, whilst acUve and intelU- 236 EDUCATION OF MAN. gent members of society are deprived of the pos- sibility to ameliorate their situation, as it hap})ened under the feudal system? The bulk of a nation living in that state is miserable, and the rewsources of its government are exceedingly small. On the othei hand, if landed property remain in the possession of a few families, by the law of primogeniture, whilst others can enrich themselves by industry and commerce, the number of inde- pendent persons increases, welfare and comfort be- come more general, and the pecuniar}^ resources of the government grow in the same proportion. Yet the injustice of primogeniture, and most likely the degeneration of families, will continue. But justice is accomplished, personal happiness procured to the greater number, and the greatest advantage secured to the government, if all sorts of privilege be banished, every individual allowed to employ his talents, and to earn the profit of his labors, and to spend his property as he pleases. Under such circumstances individuals and fami- lies will disappear, but the nation will flourish and last. There will be talents in abundance ; ac- tive and intelligent citizens will collect riches, and lay great weight in the balance of national pro- perty and resources. Yet it may be observed that the aristocracy of many, founded on the moral system of utility, without previous education and without natural sentiments of manners and refine EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 23*7 mc.it is the least agreeable. As rich families com- monly degenerate and become soon poor again, re- fined manners are neglected; even the fine arts are less cultivated, as long as the community stands in need of pecuniary resources. Marriao-es arc forused according to the views entertained of wealth and comfort, however degenerated the par- ties may be under republican governments; there- fore, particular care should be taken in education with respect to social refinement. All possible means which prevent rich families from deffenera- ting, ought to be pointed out and attended to. If the things go on as they did hitherto and still do, there is no wonder that many are disappointed in their wishes and expectations. Natural talents and dispositions being different, there can be no equality except that before the law, which is the same to ail, and equally pro- tects the poor and the rich ; which allows to every one the use of his powers, rewards personal merit, and makes every transgressor answerable for the disorders he commits. The natural dif ference of mental dispositions, as to quantity and quality, and the innate love of distinction and superiority, will always be a mighty cause of pub- lic disturbances. Rulers, therefore, ought to be very careful in regulating these matters, and they ought to know that, without morality all their la bor is n vain. 238 EDUCATION OF MAN. Those who take interest in the duration of public prosperity, will highly appreciate riches, and acknowledge the great influence and power which they bestow on their possesors, be these single individuals or nations. But governors will find, that, to produce the desired efTect, besides riches, many other conditions concerning body and mind must be attended to, and just the same as are necessary to the improvement and preserva- tion of individuals. They will seriously reflect on what Lord Bacon said to King James, of the true greatness of Britain, viz. that in the measur- ing or balancing of greatness, there is commonly too much ascribed to largenees of territory, to treasure or riches, to the fruitfulness of the soil or aflluence of commodities, whilst the true greatness requires a fit situation of place, and consists essen- tially in population and breed of men, so that every common subject should be fit to make a soldier. Supposing even that war might be avoid- ed, a healthy, intelligent and moraJ breed of men IS still the most essential condition of national du- ration and happiness. The legislators in America might, nay ought to be particularly attentive to the laws of the new settlers. They may rely on the laws of nature bein^^ more powerful than their arbitrary concep- tions. If they admit the races of men indistinctly, what they never do with animals, the country will and must experience more trouble than commonly EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 239 ife thought of. The slave dealers kno^v that one race of negroes is preferable to another, and why should it not be the same with the white. The evil will not be remedied in educating the chil- Iren and in establishing poor-houses for the heed- less adults. The number of troublesome citizens \vill rather increase by such means. The influence of public institutions is conceived, and should be conducted according to the laws of exercise, (as explained above, Sect. I. chap, iii.) Institutions in order to produce effect must be lasting ; but every sort of institution, if continued for generations, will accustom whole nations to certain manners of feeling and thinking, and strengthen the special and individual powers of the mind. In examining this subject, the following propo- sitions may be laid down as principles. Nations, as well as individuals, act from feelings ; feelings do not result from intellect, nor intellect from feelings ; and every faculty, in order to be exer- cised, must be put into action. It may be added that, generally speaking, the selfish feelings are strong enough, and scarcely need any exercise, whilst those destined to forward the public hap- piness are commonly weak ; — farther, that lessons and sermons never suffice to root out strong feel- ings, and seldom hinder their disorderly effects ; — lina.ly tb "it natural means may be employed with S40 EDUCATION OF MAN peculiar advantage, in order to increase, ciminish, or prevent the activity of-any fundamental faculty As to the objects to be taught, two general re- marks may be made : it is a great error to con- fine education to intellectual instruction ; and, secondly, it is wrong to attend rather to theoreti- cal than practical knowledge. Ignorance is cer- tainly a fertile cause of error, but society at large v/ill derive greater benefit from moral improve- ment than from scientific acquirements. Theo- retical schoolmen, I am sorry to say, are too much attached to intellectual instruction, and not enough to the progress of moral conduct. In- tellect, however, furnishes means to gratify the animal nature, as well as the nobler feelings of man. There should be schools for infants, chil- dren and youth, where positive notions of things, their usefulness and means of Improvement, are communicated by the way of mutual instruction ; where, at the same time, morality is shown in action and imposed as a duty ; where refined man- ners are inculcated ; and where physical educa- tion is particularly taken care of. I hope the time will come, when every one will learn to read, to write and to cipher, in order to be able to ac- quire rew notions, to teach others that which he knows and to assist his recollection ; v/hen all knowledge, extended according to age and partic- ular classes of society, will be practical, from the most common notions of household aflTairs and ag- EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 241 riciiltnre, to the deeper conceptions of arts and to tlie principles cf sciences ; when, at the same time, the feeUngs will be exercised and their actions reg-nlated according- to the principles ol .norality ; wh^ nothing will be taught or learned merely lor the school, but every thing in refer- ence to universal happiness ; when the religious feelings will be cultivated in every one, not by words bat in deeds, not by superstitious formali- ties, but in harmony with reason and with the in- tention to improve the fate of mankind ; when even the animal feelinsf-s will not be nes^lected, but only employed as powerful means to assist the faculties proper to man, which alone are the aim of our existence ; finally when all the powers of tiie physical, intellectual and moral nature will be cultivated in harmony. From the preceding remarks it follows, that the principles of excitement are the same for govern- ments as for parents. The same rule too, holds out with respect to the direction and employment of the special powers. Wliatever contributes to the general happiness must be encouraged and commended, whilst the contrary is to be prevent- ed and forbidden. Education can neither be con- fined to the body nor to intellect, nor to the feel- ings, but all sorts of powers must be exercised at the same time, and in harmony with each other. Reason, destitute of the assistance of feelings, re mains cold, and feedings without reason are bliridi 22 242 EDUCATION OF MAN. and prepare numberless disorders. Fina ly, Jie affective and intellectual manifestations of the mind depend on the body. Even religion, with- out being combined with understanding, unavoid- ably degenerates into superstition, and may become a frequent cause of insanity and suicide. Religion too, as well as intellect, without morality, will do more harm than good to society at large, in nour- ishing party spirit, self esteem, and all sorts of selfish feelings. Civil governments, who know that they are instituted for the common welfare ill this life^ will proclaim the same rules of moral conduct for every member of the community, and tolerate every religious opinion, provided it does not disturb peace nor injure the rights of others. They v/ill confine their exertions to the actual state of society, and not interfere in any way with the life to come ; they will remit all conceptions of that kind to every one's own conscience. There will be no creed obligatoiy, and none will enjoy particular advantages ; in other words, there will be no religion of state. I also think, that such governments will consider it as right, to" pay teachers only for things which are useful to every one, but refuse to charge the community with expenses for knowledge which is advanta- geous to single individuals alone. Spontaneous do- nations, or voluntary contributions, however, may be allowed to propagate knowledge of every kind, whilst the only duty of the government' remains to protect every member of the community in his ex EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 243 ertions, as long* as they are harmless to others, and conformable to general justice. Taxation will be proportionate to the advantages which individuals derive from the institutions which must be paid for. The things indispensable to human exist- ence and preservation, such as air, light, and fuel, v\^i!l be exempt from all duties, and indirect taxes in general will be abolished. Nothing but tl^e ncrht of the strongest, and selfishness, can keep up t. '■ things as they commonly are, in contra- diction with the principle that those who live have a right to exist ; that every one should earn but the profit of his labors ; that sinecures should be repealed, and idleness despised. A religious reform in general seems necessary and desirable. Very i'ew among those who allow themselves to reason, believe that the priesthood has the power of sending into, or excluding from, heaven. Christianity and common sense teach that every one should do his duty, and that he can do no more. Relisrious teachers, therefore, should be considered in the same way as teachers in lan- guages, arts and sciences. Every one who has talent and time might study religious ideas, write and c^mverse with others on them, in short, do as he pleases, provided he conducts himself in con- formity with the principles of general morality. Every one might read the Scriptures of Reveki- tion, and form his own opinion : and every civil government should follow the example of theUni 244 EDUCATION JF MAN. ted States of America, and abolisli priesthood as a political body, or as a necessary division ot' the. g-overnment. Jesus expressly stated, that I. is king-- dorn was not of this world. (John xviii. SG ) I am aware that the sacerdocy w II object to such a reform, and do what they can to make man believe that there is no morality without re- ligion, and no religion without their office, and that they deserve to be largely rewarded. I, however, cannot help thinking, that man has been, and still is, misled by priests, .because he is natu- rally religious, and that priests ascribe to their in- fluence what belongs to the power of the Crea- tor. The time of what was called theocracy is over. I can, however, conceive, that where civil governments decide in every respect what people are permitted to do, religious as well as political opinions are dictated ; but it seems natural to ad- mit, that where liberal principles prevail, reli- gious and civil liberty should go hand in hand. Yet there is still too much credulity among tlie great number of the congregations. They are occupied during the week in their worldly con- cerns, and on Sunday, without troubling theiu- selves much with examination, they will listen to their clergyman ; if he speak to their liking, and according to their feelings. Some teachers wiP cry against the greaf pope of Rome, b^lt make at the same time the little pope in their pulpit, ii; Bending all who differ from their manner of think EDUCATION OF NATIONS. :245 ing, to eternal damnation, whilst they devjlare tb.eniselves and their followers predestined to eter nal beatitude : This doctrine, indeed, is comfort- able for the elect, and the congregation may say amm and sing Alleluia, but it shows also that common sense is sometimes wanted in religions considerations. I think it very wrong to leave these matters exclusively to a privileged profes- sion, whilst they ought to occupy every intelli ffcnt mind. I shall mention a few well known re- marks concerning the doctrine of the Sunday, or as it is also styled Sabbath keeping. The Sabbath day is allowed to be a noble institution of Moses, who ordained it, as a day of rest for man and ani- mals, hence a benevolent regulation for all classes of working people, particularly for slaves. The cessation of labor on one day of the week, aiueli .>- rates the condition of all laboring classes, and con- tributes to cleanliness, to the preservation of health and to the restoration of bodily strength. It also gives leisure for intellectual, moral, and religious instruction and meditation, and in fact a portion of the law was read to the Jews on the Sabbath day, and their physical welfare was attended to — No one can think that God in creating the world became literally speaking, fatigued, and wanted tc rest and refresh himself: (Exod. xxxi. 17.) and tnat this was the principal motive of the Mosaic law in reference to the Sabbath. It is only to be said that the Jewish language abounds in hguralivf* expressions. 22* 246 EDUCATION OF MAN. The Sabbath was far:her commended to the Jews in remembrance of their delivery from the bondage in Eg3^pt, and as a sign of the old Cove- nant Two questions, however, arise : 1, wnether the Jewish Sabbath day is obligatory to the followers of Jesiis ; and 2, whether it is incumbent upon christians to keep the Sabbath in the same manner as the Jews did ? It is a fact generally known that the day itself has been changed since the time of the Apostles and the first Christians. (Acts xx. 7.; 1 Cor. xvi. 2.) In reference to the 2d question, it seems to me that, as with Jesus the old covenant ceased and a new one began, the Sabbath as well as circum- cision, both signs of the old dispensation, with all ceremonial observances prescribed for the Sabbath, are abolished, and that the Sabbath day is at an end altogether. The Jewish temple was destroyed, the Levitical priesthood, their sentiments, theii church government, the whole tone of their wor ship, and all signs of the Jewish covenant were gone. If the Jewish Sabbath-keeping be incum- bent .ipon Christians, I think the Jewish Sabbath year, and the Jubilee, too, o.ight to be kept up. EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 347 Farther, we read that Moses, when he instituted the Sabhath, gave at the same time various other statutes, commandments, and moral laws, .which oLiG^ht to be either kept or abolished togeth- er. Jesus rectified a number of the Jewish moral laws. He, {ov instance, forbid polygamy, which Moses had allowed ; he abolished capital punish- ment of adultery, in opposition to Moses, and he made many other alterations as is evident from the sermon on the mount. Moreover, if the Jewish manner of keeping the Sabbath were obligatory and so important as many say, it appears extraordinary that Jesus should have been silent about it, whilst he con- stantly admonishes his apostles and disciples of the great commandments of love. • Jesus himself did on the Sabbath several things at variance with the Jewish law. He went, for instance, with his disciples through the corn-fields and plucked ears, — he cured diseases, and even said that the Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath, and that therefore the Lord of man is Lord also of +he Sabbath. (Mark ii. 27. 28.) He even admonisned his disciples to assem- ble and to sing to the glory of God ; lYiey were to be known by their good works and mutual love. It is also known that the Apostles and first Christians kept the Lord's day in a different man 848 EDUCATION OF MAN. ner in which the Jews kept their Sabbath. Si. Paul called a holyday, on the New moon or tlie Sabbath days a shadow of things to come, (Col. ii. 14 — 17.) He positively stated that '' ho who loves one another has fulfilled the law. it was, however, a practice among the first christians to assemble on the Lord's day, to sing, to break bread, to gather stores and to be instruct- ed ; in short they had religious assemblies upon the first day of the week as on the day on which Jesus arose from the dead ; — as a festival of the Creation ; — as a day of rejoicing and of holy wor- ship. But a cessation upon that day from labor beyond the time of attendance upon their meet- ings is not insinuated in any passage of the New Testament, nof did Jesus or his apostles deliver any couunand to their disciples for the discon- tinuance upon that day, of the common offices of their respective professions. If it was their inten- tion, they ought to have stated it, since they preached not only to Jews but also to Gentiles, but they never enforced the law of rest as in the Mo- saic lavfs. It is farther to be remarked, that Pliny the younger in his letter to Trajan, where he made a report concerning the Christians, wrote that " lie discovered nothing but that they were accustomed to meet together on a stated day before it was light, and sing among themselves a hymn to Christ, as a EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 249 God, and to bind themselves by an oath not to commit any wickedness, nc;r to be gn'lty of theft, robbery, or adultery, never to falsify their words nor to deny a pledge." Finally, history tells us that Constantino first, A. D. 321, made a law for the observation of the Sunday throughout the Roman empire. The Sunday was declared a day of rest in cities and towns, but the country people were still allowed to follow their work. But in 330 the Council of Or- leans prohibited, also, country labor, and declared it unlawful to travel with horses, cattle, and car- riages ; — to prepare food ; — and to do any thing necessary to the cleanliness and decency of houses and persons. The only thing I contend for is that the Sunday of Christians cannot be the Jewish Sabbath, nei- ther as to the day nor as to the manner of Sancti- fication. Yet this institution is of great impor- tance, but enlightened minds will take greater views of it than mystical persons are wont to do. It is childish to think that we can do any thing to increase the beatitude of the Supreme Being. The name of divine service should be done away. Let It be a day of rest, and of physical, intellectual, and moral instruction and improvement, and of reli- gious adoration. It is also reasonable to commu- nicate instructive lessons in the form of songs, and the music may excite the nobler feelings, but it is 250 EDUCATION OF MAN. pitiful to sing-, in disharmonioas ton .s, any his- torical narrative of the Jews, or incomprehensible metaphors of imaginary minds. In short, this institution might be turned to the greatest benefit and improvement of body and mind, among the lower, as v/ell as the higher orders^ whilst in the ordinary state of things it invites the former to disorders, physically and mentally speaking.- — I refer the reader Avith respect to my ideas on the religious and moral constitutions of Man, to the 2d Vol. of Phrenology. My writings in general may prove that the prin- ciples of true Christianity alone satisfy my mind, but not Christianity disfigured by popery or by any sacerdocy who substitute their inclinations for the will of God, and declare themselves infal- lible ; nor Christianity that degrades the Creator and disturbs peace and general happiness. On the other hand,, the aim of civil governments being the common welfare of society, it seems to me that intelligent rulers should enact regulations to that purpose alone, and protect, and even en- courage religious ideas as far as they are condu- cive to, and in harmony with, that end ; but they should not employ religion as a means of gratify- ing selfish^ views, nor allow the priesthood to treat religion as a trade ; and certainly they shoiild not allow the priesthood to undermin'e th6 happiness of man, njr any religious sect to enjoy privileges, EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 251 tnese being" positively interdic.ed b}^ Christianity. The public wants to be enlightened. In giving freely my opinion, I follow the prin- ciple of Protestantism, which grants the use of reason, and I agree with them who think that no one has the right to impose his religious opinions upon others ; that true religion consists in the fulfilment of all our moral duties ; that the be- lief of this truth having been revealed, is a pow- erful motive to practice morality, and that this was the will of the great and all-wise Intelligence, who arranged the universe, who gave man his moral nature and the laws of reason. On the other hand, I pity Mankind for not being able to bear the moral code of Christianity, and for not being ripe to enjoy religious and civil liberty. It is lamentable to see, that in some countries there are onlymasters and servants ; that superstition, ignorance, and jooverty are em- ployed to keep the people in subordination, and to gratify the selfish views of their civil and re- ligious leaders ; and that even among civilized na- tions, where the best known principles of govern- ment are in vigor, the great bulk cannot be left to themselves, but must be conducted. I, there- fore copy from Cowper's letter to the Rev. Wal- ter Bagot : " Do I hate a pars )n ? Heaven for- bid ! I love you all when you are good for any thing ; and as to the rest, I would mend them if I 252 EDUCATION OF MAN. could, and thai is the worst of my intentions towards therri." And, from the hints of a Barris er to the public, " Whoever sets the best example of indus- try, uprightness, charity, justice, benevolence, njildness, integrity, and all those practical vir- tues which are the basis, immoveable and eternal, of Christianity ; such a man is the best teacher of religion which the community can possibly re- ceive." On the other hand, T reject, as destruc- tive, every doctrine which sows a spirit of secta- rian bigotry ; generates superstition ; introduces discord into the circles of domestic life, depre- ciates the bonds of charity and peace, or even reprobates all practical virtues and righteousness as filthy rags, and which places peculiar doctrines above the authority of the Gospel, whose great tendency is, and ever w411 be, to excite the sinner to repentance and reformation ; — to cultivate be- nevolence and justice, and to link together man- kind in the bonds of peace and charity. A favorable change is wanted, but it may be asked, who shall produce it ^ the governments, or the nations, severally or together .-^ Hitherto nations are too much accustomed to be guided ; and gov- ernors too fond , of commanding and imposing their good pleasure as law. Both parties seem to be wrong. Governments, it is true, may succeed better and sooner, since they can follow a regular plan, and have greater means. of e;xecution. But aj§ rulers are too much disposed to do what flat- EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 253 tcrs their selfishness, nations ought to think of their own welfiire, and know that vox populi is vox Dei. Instead of expecting every improvement from tlieir governors, they ought to work at their de- liv-erance from tutorage. There will be masters as long as there are servants, and children depend on their parents as long as they cannot gain their own livelihood. It is conceivable that govern- ments like to rule their subjects, but these are blameable for not using all reasonable means to gain and deserve their independency. They should be aware that a liberal government lets the people act for themselves, provided the com- mon welfare does not suffer, and that, on the other hand, governments are despotic in propor- tion as they interfere with personal liberty, and prevent the public good. In fact, in many situa- tions, when the things do not go on as they are wished for, nations may accuse themselves rather than their governors. By perseverance they will always obtain what they deserve. Remarks of this kind are also applicable to the improvement of religious creeds. It is an histori- cal fact, that the priesthood always wishes to keep religious ideas stationary, and that every religious reform began with individuals, or with the civil power. This will be the case as long as religions governors do not keep pace in knowledge nuc] mora improvement with the community at largo. Anv church whose tenets were composed in dark 23 254 EDUCATION OF MAN. ages, and adapted to the capacities of ignorant' people, will be divided against itself, whenever the public become enlightened, and it must end in its overthrov/, if the leaders remain in ignorance, and confound the aim of religion with the mean? that lead to it. The former certainly remains the same at all times, and amongst all classes, but the latter must vary in different periods of civil ization. It is as lamentable as repugnant, to hear ignorant teachers speak of the heavenly Father as endowed with qualities for which every reasona- ble person would disdain his neighbor. The evil is great, and deserves the serious attention of the civil and religious governors. What, then, is to be done to establish civil and religious liberty ? Is it sufficient to proclaim a re- form ? By no means. The French tried one constitution after another, and it is scarcely deci- ded which suits them best. Civil and religious 'iberty may be the law of a country while slavery and religious tyranny continue. It happens that there is sometimes more religious freedom under absolute governments than in republics. Man does not like to obey and to revere, but he is fond of governing others. He contends for free- dom for himself, but thinks to have the right to enslave others. When will stupidity and im- morality, severally cr jointly, cease to g«¥fage, was sent to the house of correction at Onolbach, 1755. She was received with blows and stripes. This treatment made so deep an impression on her mind, that she began to detest life, and in order to get rid of it, determined to commit murder. She thought that by so doing, she would have time allowed her for repentance, which she knew she could not have, were she to destroy herself. She premeditated her design in cold blood, and ac- complished it on another woman in the following manner. *' One Sunday she complained of being ill, and requested to be excused from attending Divine service. A simple, and half fatuous girl was allowed to attend her. She convinced this girl that there was no hope of their being relieved from their present miserable situation, but by their both consenting to die, and she proposed to the girl to kill her first. The girl was soon recon- ciled to the proposition, and the only condition she made was, that her companion should not hurt her. She stretched herself out, and the murder- ess accompl shed the horrid crime of cutting the girl's thr)at. EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 80*7 •'Upon being asked, in the court of justice, what conl.l have induced her to commit so liorrid a deed, as the murder of her fellow prisoner ? she answered. Fear of the sharp blows and pain she knew she had tc sustain in the house of correction. She thought within herself. If I take away my own life, my soul is lost for ever ; but if I murder another, though in that case I also must forfeit my life, still I shall have time to repent, and God will pardon me. When she was asked. Whether she had no hatred against the deceased, or if she had ever received any ill-usaj^e from her .-* she an- swered, That the deceased had never done her any injury, and if any thing vexed the deceased, she always came to her to make her complaints. Upon being asked, if she slept well after having committed so horrid an act ? she answered. That she prayed to God before going to bed, and »lept v/ell, and when she awoke, she again prayed. She seemed perfectly calm and collected during her trial, until it was explained to her, that she had drawn down the eternal wrath of God upon her- self. Then she wept bitterly. The physician ascribed the crime to despair, and tccdium vitas, ; but the law would not understand the hint." There is a similar fact mentioned in the journal which is published at Leipzig, under the title Zeiiung fur die eleganiie Welt, (N. 92. 1st. Aug. 1805.) Amongst a great number of malefactors confined in the prison of Torgav, and presented 308 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS to Dr Gall, there was a woman who had drown- ed her child, a boy of four years old. Dr. Gall examined her head, then took the hand of Profes- sor LoDER, who was present, and put it upon the organ of Philoprogenitiveness, that he might ex- amine its size. When the prisoner had retired, jall said that that organ was great in this w jman, the organ of Murder (as it was then called) small, and that, in general, her head was well organized. He desired to be informed of her character and capacities, principally with respect to her crime. The magistrates said t:iat this person was born of poor parents, whom she had lost early, and that she had received no education. When grown up, she became a servant in the village. Every one was satisfied with her conduct and behaviour. Un- fortunately she was seduced, and had a child. The being to whom she gave life was the cause of her misery. She was dismissed from service, and no one would receive her on account of her child. For a long time she did not know how to endure her situation. She loved her infant with the most tender affection, thoug'h she had reason to detest his existence. Finally, a poor peasant and his wife had pity on her ; they kept the child ir their house, and took care of him for three years. The mother foiuid a place, and her behaviour wa» vory exemplary. The child increased, and gave great satisfaction to the adopting father, who loved hinr very rnuch EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 309 This was enough for bad tongues to say, that the peasant was his father. Satisfied with his con- scious innocence, he despised the wicked imputa- tion, but this was not the case with his wife. To keep peace r home, he was obhged to give the boy back to le mother. She begged her master and mistres in vain to keep her ; in vain she represented o them, that she had served with ex- emplary assiduity and fidelity. She was dis- charged in the most severe season. All the wealthy peasants treated her with the same severity. She sold whatever she possessed to feed her child and herself. He decayed through cold and misery. In this situation she prayed to Heaven to let both lierself and him die. Her maternal affection was overpowered by an internaP voice, which said alo'.id, that the only means of saving them was the destruction of her child. She preferred to see him die suddenly, and in a moment of despair, r?he carried him to the River Elbe, and precipita- ted him into the stream. Exhausted, she fainted away, and was found in this situation. As soon as she recovered her senses, she accused herself. During her detention before trial, namely, a whole year, she behaved very well ; she manifested dis- tinct and deep repentance of her deed, which, however, she did not consider as a crime. The cler^ryman, who visited her I>om time to time, said that she was ignorant, but that she was mild, and very doci.e. The superintendants gave ex cellent testinnnies of her good conduct. These 510 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS, difTerent motives determined the Court of Appeals to change the first judgment, according to which she ought to have been beheaded, and they con- demned her to confinement fior life., without being severely treated. Here she learned to write and to read, and her whole conduct was orderly. From this narrative of facts, it is evident .hat her organization was not in contradiction with her manner of feeling and thinking, and thai she de- served the benefit of the application of extenuating motives. There is no illegal action which has greater and juster claims to be treated with equity than child-murder. In various countries penal legisla- tion is too severe in this respect. I am far from excusing a crime when it is voluntary ; but T con- tend also for extenuating motives, whenever they can be admitted. Legislators and judges are commonly more or less severe, according to their own manner of feeling, rather than according to philosophical principles. Several say is it possi- ble to imagine a more barbarous and inhuman action, than that of a mother, deaf to the cries of nature, destroying her child, at the moment when he seeks for aliment from her breast ^ Others leply, that because infanticide is a crime against nature, and because the hearts of all mothers re- volt at the idea of it, it is impossible that it can EXTE]\trATING MOTIVES. 311 be committed except in a moment of derangement, and in a state of delirium. Infanticide impresses us with the idea of bar- barity and atrocity with the greater force, be- jQi^.se it seems natural that the love of offspring ^iiould prevent such an action. It is true, nature :as endowed the greater number of women with nis benevolent propensity. But in women, as .well as in females of animals, this propensity has different degrees of energy. Certain cows do not sufier their calves to suck ; some pigs, cats, rab- bits, &,c. kill their young, while other females of the same kind of animals cry for several days, and refuse to eat, when they are bereft of their offspring. It is a lamentable truth, that this dif- ference of motherly love exists aJso in mankind. All women do not desire to become mothers some consider their pregnancy as the greatest mis fortune. Several mothers seek various pretexts, in oi'der to remove their children out of the house There are others, who being freed from shame, reproach, misery, and many inconveniences, by the loss of their illegitimate children, yet shed tears for a long time after, at the remembrance Oi them. Others, on the contrary, see their legiti- mate offspring buried without a pang. Thus it is beyond doubt, that natural love of offspring is very weak in some women. It is therefore wrong to believe that infanticide is a more unnatural act than any other murier. 312 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS T have examined thirty-seven child murderers, and in thirty the organ of Philoprogeny was very small. It does not follow that a mother, in v^hom the organ is small, must necessarily destroy her offspring. My object is only to observe, that this sentiment is not strong in every mother, and that, if females, in whom it is weaiv, are exposed to va- rious unfortunate circumstances, they are destitute of a great motive to combat the internal sensations which may impel them to this crime. Almost all laws against infanticide are framed on the supposition, that this crime, when not com- mitted in a fit of rage an^ hatred, is always pre- meditated. But is it true that these two are the only affections which exclude premeditation ? Different actions of our sex may be cited, in an- swer to this question. How often does not the sentiment of honor, which is even preposterous, dispose man to hazard his life. Several have de- stroyed themselves, for having lost a woman they loved. Others despair from disappointed ambi- tion, or from the loss of fortune. Our sex, how- ever, is the strongest ; we are seldom destitute of all resources, or deprived of all hope of finding a companion for life. How different is the situa- tion of an unfortunate woman? The intellectual faculties of the female sex are commonly weaker ; hence they have less will to resist their stronger sensibility, and stronger affections and passions. Their sentiment of honor and shame is cultivated EXTENUATING MOTIVES. S13 from infancy, exercised and cxnited ; and we re« cinire of young-, tiniorons, inexperienced and sen- sible creatures, when the most (hx\idrul event over- wliehns them, to be cool, calm, and reflecting-. The complaints of pregnancy, and many terrible thoughts during it, weaken the bodily stren,q-th, increase irritability, and disturb the mind. When the critical moment arrives, they are most fre- quently alone, without consolation, overwhelmed with grief and weakened ; how, then, can we ex- peat that their judgment should be sound ? and if such an unhappy mother destroy the feeble exist- ence of her offspring, perhaps in a fit of delir'um, how is it possible to confound such an action with the most horrible of crimes ? Moreover, men and women are more irritable at certain periods. In my work on Insanity, I liave treated of these periods of irritability in tb.e arti- cle on Fits. It coincides with tiie period of the menses, and their delivery happens at the same time, viz. wlien the n)other would have had the tenth periodical return. Thus it is natural, that at this period the unfortunate woman should feel licr situation more strongly, and be more inclined to take a fatal resolution. Our sex can never be exposed to such a misfor- tune; and if, as it is the case in certain couiUries, we, the legislators, tlink that it is not expedient to require satisfaction from the seducer, and if we 28 514 CORjjECTlON OF MALEFACTCRS. fear to be iinjujjt against perfidy, why do we feai to be indiilg-ent and humane, towards the frail and disappointed female ? It is even conceivable, that such an unfortunate mother may continually think of the ingratitude and perfidy of the father of her child ; that she may consider how he has deceived her in the most infamous manner; how he is the cause of her ignominy and misery ; how he for- gets his forfeit, whilst, in some countries, the laws do not afford her any protection against him ; and how his stratagems • are styled merely love in- trigues. May not indignation trouble her under- standing, and excite derangement of her mind. Indeed, if it were not so difficult for a mother to take such a desperate resolution, infanticide, the result of illegitimate pregnancies and of per- fidy on the side of seducers, would be much more frequent. Hence it is but just to take into con- sideration the internal conflict which may have deranged the senses of a child niurderess, and to appreciate all extenuating motives. The ideas on infanticide, which Dr. Hunter has detailed in a letter to the Royal Society of London, deserve the attention of every criminal legislator. I agree that it must be punished as murder, when it is committed with premeditation, with mature re- flection, in the complete use of moral liberty, with- out an urgent provocation, and through mere de- pravity of morals. In this case, the legislator de- serves all thanks for protecting the child who is EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 315 without support and defence. But it is important to know how to distinguish the difTerent circuui* stances which accompany this action, and there can be nc doubt that verj^ often infanticide admits of many extenuating motives. Lying-in hospitals, where every woman with ciiiki IS taken in and brought to bed, without be- ing obHgcd to say who she is and whence she came, and foundhng-hospitals, often prevent in- fanticide. In countries where such estabhshments are wanting, child-murder is more frequent than in others where they exist. These institutions, however, tend so much to weaken the motives to moral restraint furnished by the obligation to sup jort and to cherish offspring, that it may be fair iy questioned whether the evils they produce in this point of view, are not greater than those they prevent in the other. In order to prevent child-murder, there is a law in certain countries, which obliges pregnant girls to discover their situation to some accouch- eur or midwife. If they do not fulfd this formal ity, they are supposed to have tlie intention of committing infanticide. In other countries, the proprietors of houses are answerable for pregnant girls who live in them. They are thus required to know the state of their locatories. 316 CORRECT..ON OF MALEFACTORS. Unfortunately legislators are often in the same situation as physicians who attend incurable dis- eases. Tliey try uncertain means, rather than do nothing. The law which obliges women to iiui- mate their state of pregnancy, is in contradiction to nature. It is not necessary to mention, that there is no need of such a law with respect to girls of the town. These have lost their bashfulness, and will go to the lynig-in hospitals to be deliver- ed. Such a regulation, therefore, must be intend- ed for timorous, bashful, and decent women, who have been seduced. Now, the feeling of honor and bashfulness is considered as the best safeguard of female virtue, and is constantly cherished ac- cordingly ; nevertheless, when such a girl falls, she is required, under pain of punishuK^/t, to make her shame known. There are men of mature age who, with the greatest reluctance, would confess certain diseases to their most intimate friends. How, then, can the law be so severe on females for not confessing a circumstance which they are taught to look upon as more disgraceful than any disease ^ Besides, when we consider that such unfortunate girls are frequently actuated by * strong feeling of the ignominy and misfortur.e ('.t'^.y bring on their family by their m'sz-on t^ot, we ou£rht to recollect, that their o\hable by a round form of the body, softness of the muscular syc- tem, repletion of the cellular tissue, fair hair, and a pale skiu. It is accompanied by languid vital actions, with weakness, and slowness in the circulation. The brain, as part of the system, is also slow, Ian guid, and feeble in its action, and the mental manifestations are pro portionally weak. " The Sanguine Temperament is indicated by well-defined fomis, moderate plumpness of person, tolerable firmness of flesh, light hair inclining to chestmit, blue eyes, and fair complexion, with ruddiness of countenance. It is marked by great activity of the blooU-vessels, fondneS'S for exercise, and an animated countenance. The brain j>ar- takes of ihe general state, and is active. " The BiMous Temperament is recognized by black hair, dark skin, moderate fulness and much lirmiiess of 11e.-5tiri«'-" • T,r;if.^ir.«op mulishness, (see cut fig. 14). Deficiency: Fickle-minded. No dependence can be placed on such a development, ns there i? no stability o'" character. MORAL SENTIMENTS. io. (A».\>XlK>T!OLSNKSS. J UStlCe ; infegrKy , jSiiso ui uHl>, and of moral obligation. Abuse: Sciu;i lousness . seli-con- deninatioii : i-einorse: unjust censure. Deficiency: No peni- tence fur -sin, or compunction for having done wrong. IG. Hope. — Expectation ; anticipation ; looking into the future with confidence of success Abuse : Extravagant promises ; find anticipation of impossible success. Deficiency : Despond- ency ; gloom: melancholy. 17. Spirituality. — Intuition; perception of the spiritual, wonder. Abuse : Belief in ghosts, witchcraft, and many of the unreasonable isms. Deficiency : Lack of faith ; extreme \ncredulity : skepticism. 18. Venkratio-x. — Reverence; worship; adoration; respect (ov antiquity. Abuse : Idolatry ; superstition ; worship of wooden gods. Deficiency : Disregard for the feelings of others, or for things sacred. 19. Benevol>:-nce. — Kindness; desire to do good; sympa- thy ; philanthropy : disinterestedness. Abuse : Giving alms tc the undeserving ; too easily overcome by scenes of suffering. Deficiency : Extreme selfishness ; no regard for the distresses of others. SEMI-INTELLECTUAL SENTIMENTS. 20. CoNSTRUCTiVE.NESs. — Mochanical ingenuity ; ability to use tools ; construct and invent. Abuse : A loss of time and money in trying to invent perpetual motion. Deficiency : In- ability to use tools or understand machinery; lack of skill. 21. Ideality. — Love of the perfect and beautiful ; refine- ment; ecstasy; poetry. Abuse: A disgust even for the com- 22i) DEFLVITIOIS or THE FACULTIES. nion duties of life. Deficiency: Houghness : want of tijsto nl refinement; disregpad of tlie fine arts. ■ B. Sublimity. — Fondness for the grand and niagnificent: tile wild and romantic in nature, as Niagara Fails; mountain sconory. Abuse : Extravagant representations ; fondness for tragedies. Deficiency : Views the terrific without pleasure or emotion. 22- Imitation. — Power of imitating; copying; working after a pattern. Abuse : Mimicry ; servile imitation. Defi- ciency : Inability to conform to the mannei-s and customs of society. 23. MiRTKFULMiss. — Wit; fuu ; playfulness; humor; ability to joke, and enjoy a hearty laugh. Abuse : Ridicule and sport of the infirmities and misfortunes of others. Deficiency : Gra- vity ; indifference to all anuisements. INTELLECTUAL ORGANS. OSSERVING AM) K^'OV/I^■G FACULTIES. 24. Lndividualitt. — Ability to acquire knowledge by obs«v vation, and to see all things seeable. Abuse : An insatiable desire to know all about other people's business ; extreme in- quisitiveness. Deficiency : A want of practical knowledge, and indisposition to notice external objects. 25. Form. — Memory of shapes, forms, faces ; the configura- tion of all things ; it enables us to readily notice resemblances ; when fully developed, we seldom forget countenances. Defi' ciency: A poor memory of faces, shapes, etc.; not a good artist. 2G. Size. — Ability to judge of size, length, breadth, height, depth, distance, and weight of oodies by their size ; of measur- ing angles, perpendiculars, etc. ; ability to judge accurately of the proportion which one body holds to another. Deficiency Unable to judge between small and large ; seldom judges c( r rectly the dimensions of an object. 27. Weight. — Gravity ; ability to balance on-e's self, requirer by a marksman, horseman, or dancer ; also the ability to " cari^ a steady hand." Abuse : Excessive desire to climb trees, or gc DKn.viTio.N or Til?: faculties. 327 filott usinecest a rily . DelVcieiicy : luubilily to keep one's I ultmce ; liabiiity lo sluinhle. 23. Color. — .Judgment of the different sliades, hues, and fints, in paintings ; the rainbow, and all things possessing color, will be objects of interest. Abuse: Extravagantly fond of cjolors ; a desire to dress with many colors. Deficiency : Inabil- ity to distinguish or appreciate colors, or their harmony. 29. Order. — Method ; system ; arrangement ; ne-atness and convenience. Abuse : More nice than wise ; spends too mucli time in fixing; greatly annoyed by disorder; old maidish. Deficiency : Slovenliness ; carelessness about the arrangement of books, tools, papers, etc. ; seldom kuoYv^s where to find any- thing, although recently used. 30. Calculation. — Ability to reckon figures in the head ; mental arithmetic ; to add, subtract, divide, multiply ; cast ac- counts and reckon figures mentally. Abuse : A disposition to count everything. Deficiency : InabUity to understand the most simple numerical relations. 31. Locality. — Recollection of places; the geographical faculty ; desire to travel and see the world. Abuse : A roving, unsettled disposition. Deficiency : Inability to remem.ber places; liability to get lost. 32. Eventuality. — ^Memory of events ; love of histoiy, anecdotes, facts, items of all sorts; a kind of walking newspaper. Abuse : Constant story-telling to the neglect of duties. 33. Time.—- Recollection ot the lapse of time ; day and date ; ability to keep the time in music and dancing, and the step in walking ; to be able to carry the time of day in the head. Abuse : Drumming with the feet and fingers, much to the annoyance of others, when in company. Deficiency: In- ability to remember the time when things transpired ; a poor memory of dates. 34. Tune. — Love of music, and perception of harmony, giving a desire to compose music. Abase : A continual singing, humming, or whistling, regardless of propi-iety. Deficiency : Inability to cojiiprchenf! the charms of music 328 rEFINITIO.\ OF THE FACULTIES. 35. Language. — Ability to express our ideas verbally and to use such words as will best express oiir meaning ; memory of words. Abuse : Volubility of expression ; more words than thoughts. Deficiency : Extreme hesitation in selecting appro- priate language. REFLECTIVE OR REASONING INTELLECT. 36. Causality. — Ability to reason and comprehend first principles ; the why and wherefore faculty ; originality. Abuse : Too much theory, without bringing the mind to a practical bearing : — such a mind may become a philosopher, but neither practical or scientific. 37. Comparison. — Inductive reasoning ; ability to classify, and apply analogy to the discernment of principles ; to general- ize, compare, discriminate, illustrate ; to draw correct infer- ences, etc., etc. Abuse : Excessive criticism. Deficiency : To be unable to perceive the relation of one thing to another. C. Human Nature. — Discernment of human character , perception of the motives of strangers at the first interview. Abuse : Unjust suspicion ; a disposition to treat all strangers as rogues. Deficiency : Misplaces confidence ; is easily deceived. D. Agreeableness. — Blandness and persuasiveness of man- ner, expression, and address ; pleasantness ; insinuation ; the faculty of saying even disagreeable things pleasantly. Abuse : Affectation. Deficiency : Want of ease of manner ; inability to make one's self agreeable. (From Chambers's Information for the Pecple.) THE PRIMITIVE FACULTIES OF MIND, AS CONNECTED WITH THEIR ORGANS IN THE BRAIN. Mind, which was considered by the metaphysicians as a single thing or essence, was said by them to be capable of being in diflfei-ent states, in each of which states it made one of its va- rious manifestations, as memory, judgmeOt, anger, etc. In no particular does the phrenological hypothesis difier more from the metaphysical than in this. The phrenological doctrine is, FACULTIES OF THE JIIND. 329 •^hat the brain, the organ of the mind, is divided into various &culties each of which has its own mode of acting. It is held — First. That by accurate observation of human* actions, it is possib e to discriminate the dispositions and intellectual power of man, such as love, anger, benevolence, observation, reflec- tion, etc. Secondbj That the true form of the brain can be ascer- tained from the external form of the head; the brain, though the softer substance, being what rules the shape of the skull, just as a shell takes its form from the animal within. I'liirdly. The organs or parts into which the brain is divided, all of which organs are possessed by every individual except in case of idiocy, appear on the brain's surface in folds or convolu tions, somewhat like the bowels or viscera of an animal, but have a well-ascertained fibrous connection through the whole substance of the brain with one point at its base, called th€ medulla oblongata^ which unites the brain to the spinal cord. The organs have thus each a conical form from the medulla oblongata to the surface ; the whole being not inaptly compared to the stalks and flower of a caiJiflower. Fourthly. The brain is divided into two equal parts called hemispheres ; on each side of the fosse or division between these hemispheres the same organ occurs ; all the organs are there- fore double, in analogy with the eyes, ears, etc. But when the term organ is used, both organs are meant. The organs which sire situated close to the middle line drawn vertically on the Uead, though close to each other, are nevertheless double ; for example. Individuality, Benevolence, Firmness, etc. Fifthly. Besides the brain proper, there is a smaller brain, attached to the hinder part of the base of the brain, called the cerebellmn. Sixthly. The brain, including the cerebellum, is divided into the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. The cerebellum forms part of the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe contains ail the intellectual faculties ; the posterior and lower range of the mid- dle lobe are the regions of the animal propensities ; while the moral sentiments are found, with a sort of local pre-eminence, to have their oi-gans de-cloped on the top or coronal surface of the head. 330 V!]':'v or a!N. VOP OF rilY. BRAirf. Kw^.<^^ . % - This view represents the top or upper part of the braiij sliowing its \Tirious convolutions; each of which is supposed U piuforni different functions. VtLAV OF Jli'y, BT.AIX. 331 hASF OF THE URAIN A A FF, The cerebellum, allotted to Amativeness andProcveatiou AA, The anterior lobe— Intellectual Faculties. DD, The middle lobe— Animal Propensities. BB, The posterior lobe— Domestic Propensities. rMPOx r.Axei-: of fiirkxologt TESTIMONIALS FROM DISTINGUISHED MEN IN FAVOR OF PHRENOLOGY. *' It is emineLtly, we think, the system of mental philosophy for the unlearned man, because it is much less abstinct than any other. In perusing the account which it gives of the mind and its parts, ordinary people feel, for the first time in their attempts at psychological investigation, that they have ground whereon to rest the soles of their feet. Thus, supposing tht observations made with regard to the connection of certair. manifestations of thought and feeling with certain parts of the bi'ain to be untrue, there is still a distinct value in Phrenolog5% lis an extensively available means of studying mind. We deem it right, at the same time, to mention that Phrenology appeals lo us as beforehand likely to be true, in as far as it assigns a natural basis to mind ; while we are equally sensible that its leading doctrines have acquired a title to a very respectful atten- tion, from the support given to them by avast amount of careful observation, and the strikingly enlightened and philanthro})ic aims for which jnany of its supporters have become remai'k able." — Robert Chambers. " Were I at this moment oflered the wealth of India on condition of Phrenology being blotted from my mind for ever, I should scorn the gift ; nay, were the wealth of the world placed in one hand, and Phrenology in the other, and orders issued for me to choose one. Phrenology, v/ithout a moment's hesitation, .vould be preferred." — George Combe. " It is my decided opinion, that he who teaches and trains upon phrenological principles, will experience a constantly in- creasing attachment to his profession, will invariably secure the affectionate esteem of his pupils, and will, as a necessary con- sequence, succeed in giving them a thorough education, moral, intellectual, and ])hysical. I write this from several y«ars ex- tensive experience. * " ]n history, the use of Phrenology is truly valuable, and, 1 iiiay add, in overylhing ehe." — A. J. Dorsey. KIEMOIR OF GAL]-. •^3 <;., . FRANCIS JOSEPH GALL. Dr. Gall, the founder of Phrenology, was born in Germany in the year 1758. His parents being professors of the Roman Catholic religion had intended him for the seiTice of that church ; but his natural disposition was averse to such a course, and having become early interested in medical studies, he pre- ferred to engage in that profession. His youth was spent in acquiring a knowledge of the elementaiy branches of science and literature. He was passionately fond of the studies of na- ture, and frequently resorted to the country and the forests to make observations on butterflies, insects, birds, and other tribes of the animal kingdom. This spirit of inquiiy was undoubtedly the key which opened up to him the way to his future discove- ries. Gall had observed that those scholars with whom he found the greatest difficulty in competing in verbal memory, were distinguished for large prominent eyes. He made very gj^.j iMEMOlR OF &ALf.. extensive observations on this point ai.d w:u> .hiully led tc suspecl *liat there must be some necessary connection between memorj ^OY u'ords and the size and j)rojection of the eye. Afterwards, while engaged in medical studies, he found that, though the struct uie and functions of every other organ of the human body were understood by anatomists and physiologists, those of the brain were enveloped in the greatest mystery. He found on examination also that the notions of philosophers respecting the faculties or powers of the mind were of the most vague, indefi- nite and unsatisfactory nature. And after the most extensive observation and research, Gail was led to believe that the brain was the organ of the mind, and moreover, that it was composed of a congeries of organs, and, that the mind consisted of a cor- responding number of faculties, which has since been thoroughly tested, and most conclusively demonstrated, by observation and experiment. Nor does the writer know of a single individual who has examined the science, who pretends to disbelieve in its most beautiful principles. Gall's head, as will be seen by the engraving, is truly mag- nificent ; and his countenance, dress, and manners, with the depth, profoundness, liberality, and simplicity of his remarks, prove to you that he is a philosopher — a perfect gentleman — and a kind-hearted friend. — From the Biography of Dr. Gall. Works on Phrenology and Physiognomy, Published by S. R. WELLS, 389 Broadway, N. Y. "Good Books for all." — Here are tlie best Works on tliese subjects. Eacli covers ground not covered by others. Copies of one or all "will be sent by return post, on receipt of price. Please address as above. American Plireno?o£:ica! Joxir- NAL AND Life Illustrated. Devoted to Ethnology, Physiology, Phrenolofjy Physioguomy, Psychology, Biogi-aphy, Education, Art, Literatui-e, with Meas- ures to Eeform, Elevate and Improve Mankind Physically, Mentally and Spir- itually. Edited by S. R. Wells. Pub- lished monthly, in octavo forai, at $'6 a year in advance, or 30 cents a number. Annuals of Plireiiology and Phtsiogxomy. One yearly l2mo vol- ume. Price 25 cents for the current year. For 1S65, 'Gti, '67, 't58, '09, '70, '71. The seven containing over lour hundred pages, many portraits and biographies of distinguished personages, together with articles on " How to Study Phrenology," " Bashfuluess, Diffidence, stammering," " The Marriage of Cousins," '• Jealousy, Its Cause and Cure," etc. The seven bound in one volume, muslin, $1.50. Constitution of Man. Considered in relation to External Objects. By George Combe. The only authorized American Edition. 'vVith Twenty En- f ravings, and a Portrait of the Author, luslin, $1.75. 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Iffo^v to Read Character. A New Illustrated Iland-Book of Phrenology and Physiognomy, for s^tudents and Examin- ers', with a Chart for recording the sizes 3f the diflerent Organs of the Brain, in the Delineation ot^ Character, with up- wards of 170 Engravings. Latest and best. Paper, Musliu, $1.25. Memory and IntelJe<^t«al Im- PROVEMENT, applied to Cultivation of Memory. Very uselul. $1.50. licctures on Plsrenoloqry. By George Combe. With Notes." An Es- say on the Phrenological Mode of Inves- tigation, and a Historical Sketch. Bj BoARDMAN, M.D. 1 vol. 12mo. $1.75. Mental Science. Lectures on, ac- cording to the Philosophy of Phrenology. Delivered before the Anthropological Society. By G. S. Weaver. $1.50. Moral Pliilosopliy, By George CojiBE. Or, the Duties of Man consid- ered in his Individual, Domestic and Social Capacities. From the Edinburgh Edition. VVitli the Author's latest cor- rections. $1.75. Natural l.a\vsof Man. Questions with Answers. A Capital Work. By J. G. t>purzheim, M.D. Musliu, 75 cents. Neiv Physiognomy; or, Signs of Character, as manifested through Tem- perament and External Form.s, and es- pecially in the " Human Face Divine." With more than One Thousand Illustra- tions. By S. R. Wells. In three styles of binding. Price, in one 12mo volume, 768 pp., handsomely bound in muslin, $5 ; m heavy calf, marbled edges, $S ; turkey morocco, full gilt, $10. ^ Phrenology and the Scriptures, Harm.ony between Phrenology and Bible. By John Pierpont. 25 cents. Phrenological Busts, Showing the latest classification, and exact locations of the Organs of the Brain, fully develop- ed, designed for Learners. In this Bast, all the newly-aiscovered Organs are given. It is divided so as to snow each Individual Organ on one side : and all the groups— Social, Executive, Intellec- tual, and Moral— properly classified, on the Qther side. There are two sizes, the largest is sold in box, at $2.00. The smaller, at $1.00. Sent by express. Plirenoloscy Proved, lUiistra- I TED AND Applikd. Embracing an An- alyses of the Primary Mental Powers in their Various Degrees <>f Development, and Location of the Phrenological Or- g tns. Illustrated. $1.75. Self-Culture and Perfection'of Character : Including the Training and Management of Childi-en. $1.50. Self-Instructor in PJirenolojjfy AND i'HTsiOLOGY. With over One Hun- dred Engravings and a Chart for Phren- ologists, for the Recording of Phrenolog- ical Developments Paper, 50 cents. Muslin, 75 cents. Symbolical If ead and Plireno- LOGicAL Map, on flne tinted paper, for Framing. 25 cents. ■Wells' New Descriptive Chart for Use of Examiners, giving a Delinea- tion of Cliaracter. 25 cents. Your Character from IToui Likeness. For particulars, hov to hav» pictures taken, inclose stamp fc r a copj of " Mirror of the Mind." To Pliysicians, liCcturerSj and Examiners. We have a cabinet of 40 Casts of Heads, selected from Our Mn seum. which are sold at $85.00. Also a set of Phrenological Drawiigs, on can- vas, size of life, 40 in number, price $40.00. A set of six Anatomical and Physiological plates, colored and mount- ed, $iO. Another pet of twenty, in sheets, plain, $35. Colored and mounted. *60. Skeletons, from $40 to $60. Manikins, $250 to $1000. Portraits in oil from $5 upwards. Woodcuts, $3.50 to $5. Sym- bolical Heads, Electrotypes, $3 to $5, and $7.50, according to size. All Works pertaining to tlie " Science of Man," including Phren- ology, Physiognomy, Ethnology, Psychology, Physiology, Anatomy, Hygiene, Dietetics, etc., supplied. Enclose stamp for Wholesale Terms to Agents. Address S. R. Wells, 389 Broadway, New York. Works on Physiology and Hygiene. [It has been said that, a man at Forty Years o ' Age, is either a " Physician or a Fool." That at this Age, he ought to know how to treat, and take care of himself. These Works are intended to give instruction on "How to Live." How to avoid Diseases and of Premature Decay. They are practical, adapted to both People and Profession.] Anatomical and Physiolo{2:ical Plates Arranged expressly for Lectures on Health, Physiology, etc. By R. T. Trail, M. D. They are six in number, representing the normal position and life-size of all the internal viscera, mag- nified illustrations of the organs of the special senses, and a view of the nerves, arteries, veins, muscles, etc. Fully col- ored, backed, and mounted on rollers. Price for the set, net $'20. Avoidable Causes of Disease, Insanity, and Deformity, including Marriage and its Violations. By Dr. John Ellis. $2. Children, their Management in Health and Disease. A Descriptive and Practi- cal Work. By Dr. Shew, $1.75. Diseases of tlie Throat and Lungs. With Treatment. 25 cents. I^oinestic Practice of Hydro- PATHY, with a form of a Report for the assistance of Patients in consulting their Physicians. By E. Johnson, M. D. $2. Family Gymnasium. Containing the most improved methods of applying Gymnastic. Calisthenic, Kinesipathic, and Vocal Exercises, to the Develop- ment of the Bodily Organs. By, Dr. Trail. Many Illustrations. $1.75. Food and Diet, With observation^ on the Dietical Uegimen suited for Dis- ordered States of the Digestive Organs, Dietaries of the Principal Metropolitan Establishments for Lunatics, Criminals, Children, the Sick, Paupers, etc. A thorough scientific Work. By Jonathan Pereira, M. D., F. R. S. and L. S. Edited by Charles A. Lee, M. D. $1.75. Fruits and Farinacea, the I'ropeb Food of Man. Vegetarian. By John Smith. With Notes and lUtcstra- tions. By R.T. Trail, M.D. Muslin, $1.75. IIydroi>athic Coolc Book. With Recipes for Cooking on Hygienic Princi- ples. By Dr. Trail. $1.50. Hydropathic Encyclopedia. A System of Hydropathy and Hygiene. Embracing Outlines of Anatomy ; Phy- siology of the Human Body ; Hygienic Agencies, and the Preservation of Health; Theory and Practice; Special Pathology, including the Nature, Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment of all knowB Diseases. Designed as a Guide to Fami lies and Students, and a Text- Book for Physicians. By U. T. Trail. M.D. $4.50. The most complete Work on the subject Faiidily Pliysician. A Ready Pres- criber and Hygien .c Adviser. With Ref- erence to the Nature, Causes, Preven- tiou, and Treatment of Diseases, Acci- dents, and casualties of every kind. With a Glossary, and Copious Inuox. By Joel &h: v. M. D. Muslin, $i. ]IIanaa:enteiit of Infancy, Physio- logical and Moral Troatroent. By An- drew Combe, M. D. With Notes and a Supplementary Chapter. Muslin, $1.50. Midwifery and llie Diseases of Women. A Descriptive and Practical Work. With tht general management of Child Birth, Nursery, etc. $1.75. Movement-Cure. An Exposition of the ^wedish Movement-Cure. Embrac- ing the History aud Philosophy of this System of Medical Treatment, s^ith Ex- amples of Movements. andDiret ions for their Use in Various Forms of Chronic Diseases. Illustrated. By George H. Taylor, M. D. Muslin, $1.75. Notes on Beauty, Vigor and De- TELOPMENT ; Or, How to Acquire Plump- ness of Form, Strength of Limb, and Beauty of Complexion. 12 cents. Pljysloloijy of Digestion. Con- sidered with relation to the Principles of Dietetics. I :y Andrew Combe, D.M. Illustrated. 50 cents. l»hllosopl»y of tlie Water-Cure. A Development of the true Principles of Health and Longevity. By John Balbir- nie, M.D. 50 cents. Practice of tlie Water Cure. Con- iSS|p?ocSset "'foT.St^"''' ™"°'" "A SpecialList" of 70 or more Private Medical, Surgical and Anatomical Works, Physiolog-y, Animal and Mental : invaluable to those who need them, sent Applied to the Preservation and Restor- i"»» "o.^ ^ iw i, wo^ » uv- ia^^^^ ^ ^ ' ,. ation of Health of Body and Power of on receipt of stamp. Address S. R. Wells, Mind. lUustrated. Muslin, $1.50. 8S9 Broadway, New York. The Reader will greatly oblige by exbibiting tbis Catalogue to a neighbor, who would, perliaps, be glad to procure some of the Works ; or, would like to become a subscriber to the Illustrated Phrenologi- cal Journal, or engage in the sale of these publications. Works for Home Improvement. This List embraces just such Works as are suited to every member of the family- old and young. These Works will serve as guides in Self-Improvement, and are aln ost indispensable to those who have not the advantages of a liberal education. Principles of Physiolog-y applied to the Preservation of Health and to the Improvement of Physical and Mental Education. By Andrew Combe. $1.75. Science of Human Life, Lectores on THB. By Sylvester Graham. With a copious Index and Biographical Sketch, of the Author. Illustrated. $3.50. Sober and Temperate Life. The Dis courses and Letters of Louis Cornaro. With a Biography of the Author, who died at ISU years of age. 50 cents. Tea and Coffee, their Physical, Intel- lectual, and Moral Effects on the iSystem. By Dr. Alcott, 25 cents. The Alcoholic Controversy. A Ee- Adew of the Westrrdnster Eevieio on the Physiological Errors of Teetotalism. By Dr. Trail. 50 cents. The Story of a Stomach. By a Re- formed Dyspeptic. Paper, 50 cents; muslin, 75 cents. Three Hours' School a Day. A Seri- ous Talk with V^arents. By W iUiam L. Crandal. Muslin, $1.50. Water-Cure in Chronic Diseases. An Exposition of the Causes, Progress and Terminations of Various Chronic Diseases of the Digestive Organs, Lungs, Nerves, and Skin, and of their Treat- ment. With engraved View of the Lungs, Heart, Stomach, and Bowels. By J. M. Gully, M.D. $2. Aims and Aids for Girls and Youn^ Women, on the various Duties of Life, Physical, Intellectual, and Moral, Self- Culture, Improvement, Dress, Beauty, Employinent, the Home Relations, Du- ties to Yonn^ Men, Marriage, Woman- hood, and HapDiness. By Rev. G. S. Weaver. Muslin, $1.50. .ffisop's Fables. The People's Pictorial Edition. Beautifully illustrated with nearly Sixty Engravings. Cloth, gilt, beveled boards. Only $1. Benny. An Illustrated Poem. By Anna Chambers Ketchum. Published in the elegant style of Enoch Arden. A beautl fa. Christmas present. $1.5). j Chemistry, and its application to Pbys- iology, Agriculture, and Commerce. By Liebig. 50 cents. Footprints of Life ; or, Faith and Na- ture Keconciled. A Poem in Three Parts. The Body. The t=oui. The Deity. By Philip Harvey, M.D. $1.25. Fruit Culture for the Million. A Hand- Book. Being a Guide to the (.Culti- vation and Management of Fruit Trees. Descriptions of the Best Varieties, and How to Propagate them, lllus. $1. Good Man's Hiegracy. A Sermon by Kev. Dr. Osgood. 25 cents. G-cspel Among- the Animals ; or, CUrist with the Cattle. Same. 25 cents. Hand-Book for Home Improve- MENT : comprising " How to Write," "How lo Talk," "'How to Behave," and " How to do Business," in one vol. $2.25. How to Live ; Saving and Wasting, or, Domestic Economy made plain. By Solon Robinson. $1.50. Home for All ; The Concrete, or Gra- vel Wall. New, Cheap, Superior Mode of Building. $1.50. Hopes and Helps for the Young" of BOTH Sexes, Relating to the Formation of c;haracter. Choice ot Avocation. Health, Conversation, Cultivation of Intellect, Moral Sentiment, Social Affection, Court- ship and Marriage, By Weaver. $1.50. Library of Mesmerism and Psy- CHOiiOGT. Comprising the Philosophy of Mesmerism, Clairvoyance, and Men- tal Electricity ; Fascination, or the Pow- er of Charming ; The Macrocosm, or the World of Sense ; Electrical Psychology, the Doctrine of Impressions; The bci- ence of the Soul, treated Physiologically and Philosophically. One large vol. Il- lustrated. Muslin, $4.0v,. Life at Home ; or, The Family and its Members. A capital work. By William Aikman, D.D. f 1.50 ; gilt, $2. Life in the West; or. Stories of the Mississippi Valley. Where to buy Pub- lic Lands. By N. C. Meeker. $2. Man, in G-enesis and in Geology; or the Biblical Account of Man's Crea- tion, tested by Scientific Theories of his Origin and Antiquity. By Joseph P. Thompson, D.D.,LL.D. One vol. $1. Pope's Essay on Man. With Notes. Beautifully Illustrated. Cloth, gilt, bev- eled boards, Best edition* $1. Oratory— Sacred and Secular; or, ] the Estemporai eons ^pcakel•. Inc'uding I Chairman's Guide for conducting PuMic Meetings according to the best Parlia- mentary forms. By Wm. Pittenger. $1.50. Temperance in Cong-ress. Ten Min- utes' Speeches delivered in the House of Representatives. 25 cents. The Christian Household. Embrac- ing the Christian Home, Husband, Wife, Father, Mother, Child, Brother, and Sis- ter. By Rev. G. S. Weaver. $1. The Emphatic Diaglott ; or. The New Testament in Greek and English. Con- taining the Original Greek Text of the New Testament, with an Interlineary Word-for-Word English Translation. A work for Students in Theology, and S. S. Teachers. By Benjamin Wilson. Price, $4, extra fine binding, $5. The Planchette Mystery ; An Inquiry into the Nature, Origin, Import, and Tendencies of Modem Signs and Won- ders. How to Work Planchette. 25c. The Right Word in the Big-ht Place. A i^ew Pocket Dictionary and Reference Book. Embracing Synonyms, Technical Terms, Abbreviations, For- eign Phrases, Writing for the Press, Punctuation, Proof-Reading, and other Valuable Information. Cloth, 75 cents. The Temperance Reformation. Its History from the first Temperance Soci- ety in the United States. By Rev. J. Armstrong. With Portrait. $1.50. Ways of Life, showing the Right Way and the Wrong Way. By Rev. G. S. Weaver. Muslin, $1. Weaver's Works for the Young:. Comprising " Hopes and Helps for the Youu]^ of both Sexes," " Aims and Aids for Girls and Young Women," "Ways of Life : or, the Right Way and the Wrong Way." A great work. $3, Wedlock ; or, the Right Relations of the Sexes. Disclosing the Laws of Conjugal Selection, and showing who may and who may not Marry. For both Sexes. By S. R. Wells. Plain, $1.50 : gilt, $2. Capital Punishment; or, the Proper Treatment of Criminals. Single copies, 10 cents. Education of the Heart. By Hon. Schuyler Colfax. 10 cents. Father Mathew, the Temperance Apostle, his Portrait, Character, and Biography. 10 cents. We liaye all works on Phonography and a large stock of Mecha-nical and Scientific Books for sale. Any book wherever published may be ordered at advertised price, and will be promptly sent, by return post, from this office. English, French, Spanish and German Works, imported to order. Agents wanted. Address, S. R. Wells, 389 Broadway, N, Y. r ; LIBRARY OF CONGRESS^] 019 808 546 7 .•A . M".■'^ ■' ■'}'■;,'' ' '. ■ ■'•'■i " I . • • ■ '• ■' t ■>