Class ___ Book CDFXRIGHT DEPOSm -3* •3 a :3 ^ ^ **-< < i a 3 o 1— 1 •i £. a a O! &: 5 S >-H b( D •= 4 3 o 3 L 1-3 Ol A H ISTORY OF LOUISIANA BY HARRIET MAGRUDER REVISED AND ENLARGED L C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 1.1^: Copyright, 1909 and 1922, By D. C. Heath & Co. MAR 18 1922 0)C!.A654962 PREFACE In writing this book my aim has been to give to Louisiana children the history of their State in a clear, simple, and interesting manner. Historic material has been collected from many sources, but only that has been used which comes within the comprehension of the child. An attempt has been made to foster State pride by dwelling on the suf- ferings and conflicts of the State, and of her final triumph through the courage, endurance, and love of freedom inherent in her citizens. An effort has also been made to put stress upon the importance of the struggle between the Latin and Anglo-Saxon races for our country, and the results leading to English domination and self-government. The teacher is urged to make frequent use of the maps. It is suggested that for the first lesson in Louisiana history a review be given on the maps of North America and the United States, the teacher showing the relation of Louisiana to the other parts of the country. Outline maps will also be found useful, as children will be interested in marking the discoveries and settlements as they progress. PREFACE Thanks are due many friends for their interest in the work during its preparation. I am especially indebted to Mr. Waddy Thompson, of Atlanta, Georgia, who wrote the introductory chapter, and who read and criticised the manuscript; to Dr. A. B. Coffey, of the Louisiana State University, who read portions of the manuscript ; to Colonel T. D. Boyd, President of the State University, for his courtesy in placing maps at my disposal ; and to Mr. T. H. Harris, Superintendent of Education, at whose instance, when teaching in his school several years ago, I was encouraged to write a history of Louisiana for children. My warmest thanks are due Dr. Walter L. Fleming, of the State University, for his untiring aid and helpful suggestions ; while more than the usual indebtedness is due from me to my publishers. The present revised and enlarged edition con- tains six new chapters that present many topics of recent interest as well as several brief biographies of notable Louisiana men. HARRIET MAGRUDER. March, 1922. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Introductory ix I. Hernando de Soto i II. Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle . . . . io III. La Salle attempts to plant a Colony in Louisiana i8 IV. The End of La Salle's Colony .... 24 V. Iberville 29 VI. Iberville explores the Mississippi • • • 35 VII. Iberville and Bienville 41 VIII. Bienville visits the Red River Country . • Al IX. Bienville at the Head of the Government . 52 X. Antoine Crozat 58 XI. St. Denis . . 65 XII. John Law 71 XIII. The Founding of New Orleans .... 76 XIV. The Mississippi Bubble — New Orleans, the Capi- tal 82 XV. The Ursuline Nuns — The Casket Girls . . 88 XVI. The Natchez Massacre 93 XVII. Defeat of the Natchez 98 XVIII. Bienville, the First Royal Governor . . . 103 XIX. Marquis de Vaudreuil 1C9 XX. The French and Indian War 115 XXI. Louisiana ceded to Spain 122 XXII. The Acadians . .127 XXIII. Don Antonio de Ulloa 133 XXIV. "The Revolution of 1768" 138 V VI CONTENTS CHAPTER XXV. Don Alexander O'Reilly . XXVI. Execution of the Revolutionists XXVII. The Cabildo .... XXVIII. The American Revolution XXIX. The Capture of Florida . XXX. The Navigation of the Mississippi XXXI. Baron de Carondelet XXXII. The New Treaty with Spain . XXXIII. The Last Years of Spanish Rule XXXIV. Louisiana ceded to the United States XXXV. The Formal Transfer of Louisiana XXXVI. Territory of Orleans XXXVII. The Land and the People in 1803 XXXVIII. V^iLLiAM C. C. Claiborne . XXXIX. The Floridas .... XL. Aaron Burr XLI. The Florida Parishes XLII. Admission of Louisiana as a State XLIII. The Baratarian Pirates . XLIV. General Andrew Jackson comes Orleans XLV. The Battle of New Orleans . XLVI. The Middle Period XLVII. Zachary Taylor .... XLVIII. Audubon XLIX. The Causes of the Civil War . L. The Early Years of the War . LI. The War after the Capture of New Orleans LIT. Louisiana in 1864 LIII. Life in Louisiana during the War LIV. After the War . . . t LV. The Ku Klux Klan . to New CONTENTS vii CHAPTER PAGE LVI. The Revolution of 1874 ...... 333 LVII. Development of the State ..... 337 LVIII. Louisiana Customs and Superstitions . . . 342 LIX. Louisiana Customs and Superstitions {continued) 348 LX. Natural Resources 355 LXL Development in Agriculture 362 LXn. Development in Cattle Raising .... 371 LXin. Education . , 376 LXIV. Notable Men of Louisiana 388 LXV. Notable Men of Louisiana (continued) . . . 397 LXVL Conclusion 411 Appendix 415 Index 418 The Capitol at Baton Rouen': INTRODUCTORY Consult Maps of North America and the United States. When Columbus discovered America (1492), he was serving the king and queen of Spain. For this reason Spain claimed all of America. It was not long before the Spaniards began to make settle- ments in the New World. They settled in the West Indies, in South America, Central America, and North America. Their settlements within the present limits of the United States were in what is now known as Florida, in the southeast, and what is now known as New Mexico, Arizona, and Cali- fornia, in the southwest. Between these extreme points on the North American continent the Spaniards had not been able to make a settlement. The story of how the march of the Spaniards through Louisiana, under De Soto, ended in disaster is told in Chapter I. The two nations of Europe that were in those days the rivals of Spain — the English and the French — did not acknowledge the claim of Spain to all of America ; yet they were slow in making settlements in America to oppose the Spanish claim. The first permanent English settlement in North America was made at Jamestown, in Virginia, in X IN'iKODUCTORY 1607, and in the following year the French founded Quebec, in Canada. From these settlements the English and French colonies grew steadily, though the English colonies grew the faster. The English colonies spread up and down the Atlantic coast, from the French territory in Canada to the Spanish territory in Florida. On the other hand, the French settlements extended westward from the Atlantic coast of Canada to the region of the Great Lakes. By this time Spain's power as a great nation had almost passed away. England and France had become the great nations of the world and, natu- rally, there was intense jealousy between them. Wars to decide which people should be master of the \vorld became frequent between the English and the French. Each side realized that the nation that should finally control the North American con- tinent would win in the struggle. The great region of North America known as the Mississippi Valley was then unoccupied by white people. Both the English and the French knew that whoever held the Mississippi Valley would control the continent. The history of the present State of Louisiana begins in 1673, when Marquette and Joliet started from Canada to explore and claim for France the great valley drained by the Mississippi River. A full account of the journey of these brave explorers is given in Chapter II. HISTORY OF LOUISIANA CHAPTER I HERNANDO DE SOTO All the boys and girls of Louisiana love theit native State. When they learn of her early history, of her heroic struggles for liberty, and of her noble men and women, they will love her still more. It is an interesting story. Louisiana has not always been as we know her : a rich and prosperous State, with large cities and towns and railroads and steamboats, and big plantations of rice, sugar cane, and cotton. About two hundred years ago. the whole country was only a great forest, where panthers, bears, wild cats, and buffaloes roamed about, and the dreary swamps and bayous were the homes of alligators and snakes. The only people here then were Indians with their bows, arrows, and toma- hawks ; and the only houses were little huts, called wigwams, which were scattered through the forest. It was in the year 1492 that Columbus bravely sailed from Spain across the unknown ocean and discovered the islands of the West Indies and later the mainland of Central and South America. 2 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA His followers made small settlements on Cuba and other islands. These Spaniards heard from the In* dians wonderful stories of a beautiful land that lay not far distant across the blue waters, meaning what is now the southern part of the United States. They gave glowing accounts of the gold and silver and precious jewels that could be found in this country. The Spaniards set out eagerly to find these riches. They visited Florida, the nearest point to Cuba, and it is thought that some coasted along the shore as far west as what is now Louisiana and sailed a short distance up the Mississippi River. They found no riches. Many died of hunger and cold, or were killed by the Indians. Those who did not die wandered forlornly through the country, and at last reached home half starved and nearly naked. Yet these men, who had found no gold or silver, and had seen only swamps and forests and Indians, told of the gold that was to be found in Florida. They said it was the richest land in the world. Hernando de Soto, a young Spaniard who was living in Cuba, heard these stories and believed them. He had helped to conquer Peru in South America, and his share of the gold taken from the Indians there had amounted to a great fortune. He wanted still more riches, and he was ambitious to become a great conqueror and to govern the coun- tries he should overcome. HER.NANDO DE SOTO Hernanih) Dk Soto De Soto soon went to Spain to get permission from the king to conquer Florida. He laid his plans before the king and offered to bear all the ex- pense. The king gave consent and appointed him orovernor for life over all the country he might con- quer, and granted him an immense estate in his own right. When it became known that De Soto, noted for his bravery and his wealth, and as one of the con- querors of Peru, was to undertake the conquest of Florida, he was the man in all Spain most to be envied. Young nobles from all over Spain and Portugal came to his castle and asked to go with him, offering to bear part of the expense. Some even went so far as to sell their homes to get the money. So De Soto was troubled, not to get enough men for the expedition, but to choose from the many who wished to go. He selected about a thousand, and among them were soldiers who had fought in many hard battles, and the pick and flower of Spanish cavaliers. The expedition was fourteen months getting ready. Everything was put upon the ships which HISTORY OF LOUISIANA could add to the comfort of the voyagers. There were beautiful clothes of velvet and satin, embroid- ered in gold and silver and pean's, chairs of exquisite workmanship, soft beds, and silken and velvet quilts, costly dishes, and all kinds of good things to eat. As the fleet of ten vessels sailed away from Spain, flags on shore were waved, bands played, and the people shouted, wishing Godspeed to the most brilliant expedition that had ever left any shore. When the Spanish vessels neared Florida in the year 1539, they saw along the coast alarm fires which the Indians had built. But when they entered what is now Tampa Bay, not an Indian was in sight. The Indians were there, though, gliding from tree to tree with a stealthy tread and peeping out with angry eyes. They watched the proud Spaniards as they came from the ships armed with swords and crossbows and clad in armor of glitter- ing steel, leading their war horses covered with shining metal, no less proud than their masters, as they arched their necks and tossed their beautiful heads. Though the Indians did not know these men, others of the same race had been in their country and had treated them so cruelly that they resolved bl'ANlSH KMGHT ok 16TH Century HERNANDO DE SOTO that these strangers of such fearful beauty must be fought to the death. Spaniards landing on the Gulf Coast The scenery is from nature. The Spaniards, all unconscious of a hidden foe, raised the Spanish flag, and took possession of the country in the name of their king. It was in May 6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA that they landed, and it seemed as if all the flower of all the earth were crowded together into this on spot, and had burst into bloom to welcome then Tired after the long sea voyage, they threw therr selves on the tender green, and drinking in loni draughts of the perfumed air, laughed and sang an( shouted in the very joy of life and youth and hopf Indian Bow and Arrows They talked late into the night, and their talk wa of gold ; and as they slept under the southern star they dreamed of gold and glistening jewels. The next morning, just when the stars were grow ing pale, they were awakened by the blood-curdlinj war cry of the Indians, who made a fierce attacl upon the Spaniards. Not understanding the Ir dian way of fighting, they ran to their boats. Man; of the Spaniards were killed. When the Indian went away, De Soto again took his men on short and after marching about six miles, camped nea an Indian village. The Indians were afraid t attack them openly, but every Spaniard strayini from the post was instantly killed. De Soto sen presents to the chief, and tried to gain his friend ship, but he was not to be won over. Ten year HERNANDO DE SOTO 7 before, Spaniards had taken his mother and be- fore his eyes had caused her to be torn limb from limb by bloodhounds. He now sent back the presents with the scornful reply: "I want none of their presents • bring me their heads." This was the beginning of De Soto's troubles, and it foretells the whole story. The Span- iards spent three years going through the pres- ent States of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. They found no rich cities, nor gold, nor silver. They found only miserable huts and half-clad savages as they cut their way through the path- less forests. Step by step the right of way was contested, and the tale is only one of cruelty and bloodshed as the Indians and the Spaniards struggled for mastery. At last, worn out, sick, and hopeless, the few of the brilliant company who were left, stood on the bank of the Mississippi River. As De Soto gazed upon the waters of the great river, his thoughts must have wandered back to that morning when his fleet pushed out from the shores of Spain ; to the fortunes wasted ; to the hopes wrecked ; to the nameless graves stretching from Florida to the Mississippi. He would have a name in history, but was it worth the price ? Still determined to find gold, he crossed the river and marched on through what is now Louisiana and Arkansas; yet he found no gold. Disappointed 8 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA at his failure, he returned to the Mississippi. Here he brooded so much over his tragic fate that he soon fell sick with a fever. The once daring leader lay without a shelter over his head, surrounded by a few half-starved though loyal men. He asked his men to forgive him for all the trouble he had caused them, and named a leader to whom he told them to be true, as he would lead them home. Finally the soul of the great explorer went out. In the darkness of the night three or four stern- looking men rowed into the middle of the river and gave the body of their chief into its keeping. All was over now, and their only thought was to get home. After many trials they reached the Spanish settlement in Mexico. Questions. — i. Who lived in Louisiana before the white men came? 2. Describe the country as it was then. 3. Who were the first Europeans to visit Louisiana ? 4. Tell the story of their expedition. 5. What was their object in exploring this country? 6. Describe De Soto's discovery of the Mississippi and the last months of his life. o 52 •" en 5z'.i .^^ ^^^^H^BISJIIP^^^S Sm^^^MJli^l^El - ^^.jSK^k^'LiwS^ Painting bj J. N, Marchand. La. Salle at the Mouth of the Mississippi SO. But there was more work yet to be done. In order that France m.ight hold the country bordering on the Mississippi, French colonies had to be planted in it. La Salle went back to Canada, and in a short while sailed for France. He wished to lay the new- found treasure of Louisiana at the feet of his king. La Salle was received with honor at the court on account of his great achievement. The king lis* 2 2 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA tened to him favorably and gave him more help than he had expected toward establishing a colony in Louisiana. Four vessels were fitted out with what was necessary to start a new colony. There were drugs for the little drug store of the village to be built on the banks of the Mississippi, and articles for the dry goods store and for the grocery store. Then there was a priest to preach to the colonists. The stores that were planned for the new colony were not like ours, for everything was to be given to the settlers until they could make enough money in the new colony to buy what they wanted. About a hundred soldiers went along to protect the colonists, and in the party were merchants, car- penters, laborers, several families with children, and young women who went out to be married. The future seemed very bright for La Salle and his colony, but sometimes a man fails when he has everything to help him, and the cause is in himself alone. La Salle knew nothing of the sea, yet he asked to be made sole commander of the expedition and that the sailors and pilots should sail just as he ordered them. But the king's minister would not allow this, though he did what ought to have satis- fied a reasonable man. He put Beaujeu, a captain of the royal navy, in command while at sea, and La Salle was allowed to direct the course of the ships and have entire control of the soldiers and colonists when they should land. LA SALLE ATTEMPTS TO PLANT A COLONY 23 Neither La Salle nor Beaujeu was satisfied with this arrangement, for they were very jealous of each other. By the time they were ready to sail, Beaujeu had all the sailors and half the colonists hating La Salle. La Salle might even then have made friends with the crew and the captain, for Beaujeu was not a bad-tempered man ; but La Salle was cold and sus- picious, and was too proud to care much what any one thought of him. Questions. — i. What explorer first reached the mouth of the Mississippi ? 2. Tell about the naming of Louisiana and the ceremony of taking possession of the country. 3. In what year did these events occur ? 4. Tell what you know about the early trading with the Indians. La Salle's Autograph CHAPTER IV THE END OF LA SALLe's COLONY The fleet set sail from France in 1684. It was not a happy voyage, as the two leaders were so un- friendly. They safely reached the Gulf of Mexico, but as neither of them knew the coast, they passed the Mississippi without knowing it. On New Year's Day (1685) they landed on a low, sandy shore at a point in Texas which La Salle took to be the mouth of the Mississippi. He soon began to be uneasy, however, for fear he had made a mistake. He asked Beaujeu to turn back and coast along the shore in search of the Mississippi. Beaujeu refused to do so. He said he had advised against landing where they had landed, as the w^ater w^as too shallow for the ships, but now the thing was done ; and as the weather was stormy and the coast dangerous, he was going back to France. Beaujeu, leaving two vessels with the colonists, sailed away. La Salle soon found that his colony would have been a failure no matter where it had been placed, for none of the soldiers were trained, some of them having been worthless beggars around the church doors in Paris. None of the mechanics knew their trade; all were discontented and blamed him for 24 THE END OF LA SALLE'S COLONY 25 their troubles. As a final blow, the two vessels left him by Beaujeu were wrecked. The colony Map of the Country explored by La Salle was now stranded indeed, for as long as the vessels remained there was a hope of getting away. a6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA La Salle now saw that he had failed in what he had hoped to make the grand work of his life. He did not complain, but his disappointment caused him to be more sad and stern than ever. He brooded over his misfortune, and made no effort to cheer his followers. Yet he deeply felt their un- happy lot, and did not intend to spare himself in an attempt to lead them back to Canada. Several times La Salle, with a party of men, set out in search of the Mississippi. Each time he came back to the fort ragged and weary, with the loss of more than half his men, and without finding the river. When La Salle went on these exploring parties, he always put the settlement under the command of Joutel, one of his most trustworthy aids. Joutel was a good manager. He knew that the worst thing possible for the men was idleness, so he set them all to work. They built more comfortable houses than they had been living in, and a small chapel was erected. The settlement was sur- rounded by long stakes driven into the ground; this fence was called a palisade, and was a protec- tion against the Indians. On the tallest house in the fort were mounted eight pieces of cannon, two pieces at each corner of the building. Sometimes Joutel gave the people a holiday, when all would go hunting. The women and children always went too, because they could not be lefJ- THE END OF LA SALLE'S COLONY 27 behind for fear of an attack from the Indians. There was plenty of game on the wide Texas prairies. When the men had killed buffaloes, deer, wild turkeys, wild ducks, rabbits, and birds, the women helped to cut up the meat and smoke it. Then the colonists started home, every one, even the children, helping to carry the meat. Joutel said that if they wanted to eat, they must work. After the colonists were settled in their new houses and the meat was packed in the cellars, Joutel told them that they might all gather in the evenings and sing and dance and play cards. . He asked the colonists to be as cheerful as they could, and to go to the little chapel every day and pray that La Salle might find the Mississippi. At last La Salle returned ; again he had not found the river for which he had been searching so long. The colonists now believed that La Salle would never find the Mississippi, and abandoned the hope to which they had clung that their king would send a ship to take them home. They could stand the strain no longer. Attacked by a disease caused by exposure and poor food, they did not have the strength to withstand it, and a large number died. La Salle nursed the sick as gently as a woman ; and as soon as he could be spared, made the desperate resolve to seek help for his colony by going on foot from his settlement on the coast of Texas to Canada, a thousand miles away. 28 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Of the forty men left he chose twenty and set out for Canada. Most of the men who accom- panied La Salle on this trip hated him, and were ready at the least excuse to revolt. One day during his absence from camp, his nephew got into diffi- culty with one of the men and was killed. La Salle was not the man to let this pass unpunished. This the men knew well ; so when he returned, one of the men hiding in the long grass shot him in the back. " There thou liest, great Bashaw," cried he. Then the men dragged his body into the long grass and left it. La Salle's brother and two others of the party, one of whom was Joutel, got back to France. They tried to get the king to help the colony, but he refused. It is supposed that either the Indians or the Spaniards killed all the remaining colonists. You will remember that De Soto showed the way to the Mississippi Valley. La Salle traveled the whole length of the valley and added it to the French crown. Now let us see who will be the brave man to finish the work. Questions. — Tell the history of the first settlement, in 1685 : I. The plans. 2. The colonists. 3- The leaders. 4- The landing. 5- Life in the Texas settlement. 6. The fate of the colony. CHAPTER V IBERVILLE Shortly after the death of La Salle war broke out between France and England, and the French king had no time to think about Louisiana nor money to spend on her, for wars are very costly. During this time King Louis found that both England and Spain would be very glad to slip in and take Louisiana. Of course, this made him think his name- sake was worth something; and when the treaty of peace was signed, Louis saw to it that England did not get any land in America south of Canada. The French ministers of marine. Count Pontchartrain and his son. Count de Maurepas, were very patriotic men. They loved France and thought it would add to her wealth and importance to have flourishing colonies in America. When they learned that King Louis was thinking 29 Count Pontchartrain 30 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the same thing, both father and son entered with energy into a scheme to send an expedition to Louisiana. It was to be managed differently from the last one. The ministers themselves would choose the man who should lead the important enterprise. They chose Pierre Lemoyne d'lber- ville, a young Canadian officer. He and his eight brothers were known to have fought bravely against the English, and Iberville had distin- guished himself most of all. He was handsome, popular, and liked by both officers and men. Pont- chartrain and Maurepas thought he was just the man for the work, and we think so too. Two well-stocked frio^ates were s^iven to Iberville. Before he sailed, he examined the provisions, the presents for the Indians, and the ammunition, and tried the guns to satisfy himself that everything was all right. The expedition left France in 1698. The Adantic Ocean was crossed without any mishap. Iberville stopped on the coast of Florida. He liked the looks of the country so m.uch that he thought he would take it also for France; but in a bay ahead Pierre I.emovne D'Iberville IBERVILLE 31 he saw ships with tall masts. They belonged to a Spanish fleet. A Spanish officer came out in a boat and received him politely, but just as politely hinted that he had better pass on, as that part of the country belonged to Spain. Iberville then sailed away in search of the Mis- sissippi. He coasted around several beautiful little islands and entered Mobile Bay, but he was not interested in that harbor just then. Other islands were passed, and Iberville's brother Bienville, a boy of eighteen years, was sent ahead to find a good landing. He found a pass between two islands to the north, and one morning just as the dawn was breaking, Iberville in the ship Badine, leading the way, landed at Ship Island. This island is off the coast of what is now the State of Mississippi. The men were tired after their long sea trip, and had a good time roaming about the island. A little island that was near they named Cat Island, because they saw running about ever so many little animals which they took for cats. " This is the kingdom of cats," exclaimed one of the men ; but he was mistaken. They were rac- coons. As soon as the sun came up, Iberville got out his spyglass, and across the water to the north about twenty miles distant he could see land. In- dians were walking about the shore and some were paddling around in their canoes. As soon as a few huts were built to protect the 32 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA men from the weather, Iberville took Bienville and a few others and crossed over to the mainland. He carried with him some of his finest presents, for he was anxious to make friends with the Indians. As there were so many of them and so few French, he feared that if he did not make friends of them, they might kill all the French. Then, too, he wanted them to show him the way to the Mis- sissippi. He need not have been afraid of the Indians, for they were equally afraid of him, and they all ran away just as the raccoons had done — all except one poor, old, sick Indian and a squaw, perhaps his wife, who peeped from behind a tree. The next day the squaw brought several war- riors of her tribe to see the French. Iberville asked them to go with him and look over his ship, but they were afraid to trust him. To show them he was honest, he said he would leave his brother with the tribe while the warriors were visiting the ship. Then the Indians went with him. Iberville gave them a good dinner, and the sailors showed them every- thing on the ship. There was not one on board who could speak the language of these Indians, but the French managed to understand that the savages knew nothing of the long-sought river. The next day several Indians from another tribe came, and the French were able to make out enough to understand that they lived on the banks of a great river to the west. These Indians said that they were IBERVILLE S3 out hunting, and promised that on their way back they would stop and get Iberville and take him to the river. But they did not keep their word, and that was the last seen of them. Then Iberville did what we must all do if we wish to succeed : he de- pended upon himself. The next day he set forth with two barges, about fifty Canadians, and enough provisions and ammunition to last a month. The mists and fog were so thick that they were soon in the gloomiest place they ever saw in their lives. They little knew that they were in the delta of the Mississippi. All day they moved slowly about the multitude of dreary-looking little islands, covered with long, quivering reeds growing up out of the water. Their barges were too frail to battle with the tossing waves of the Gulf during the night ; so they stopped on one of the islands which, even though overflowed, seemed more hospitable than the stormy sea. The men cut down reeds and piled them up so as not to have to lie or sit in water. The next afternoon a fearful storm almost swept them from the island. If you had been there, you would have thought that if you were only spared, you would never wish to go out with an exploring party again. Perhaps some of these men thought so too, but they had started upon the work and had to go through with it; then, too, they were under the command of a man who did not stop till he had finished what he had undertaken. When the storm 34 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA had subsided sufficiently for them to start out again on their journey, a strong wind blew them toward the mainland. Iberville kept as near the shore as possible for fear of making La Salle's mistake of passing the mouth of the river. One afternoon, just about dusk, a furious wind was driving the barges against what seemed to be a rocky cape rising above the surging water. Some decision would have to be made quickly, for night was almost upon them. To remain in the open Gulf was certain death ; to steer toward the rocks seemed almost as certain death. Iberville decided to make a desperate attempt to round the cape. He took hold of the tiller, and his barge plunged forward, followed closely by the other. To his amazement, the cape broke into crags with fresh, muddy water gushing out between them. The crags were not rocks at all. Iberville examined them and found they were only driftwood that had been coming down the river for hundreds of years, and had been stuck together with mud which the sun had hard- ened into a kind of cement. Iberville hoped that he had found the mouth of the Mississippi River. Questions. — i. Tell what you can about the leader of the second expedition of colonists. 2. Where did they land and build their first houses ? 3. Describe Iberville's hunt for the mouth of the Mississippi. 4. Where were the Spaniards settled in North America at this time ? CHAPTER VI IBERVILLE EXPLORES THE MISSISSIPPI The only thing for Iberville to do now was to keep on until he found out exactly where he was. After the boats had gone about a hundred and twenty miles up the river, they came upon some Indians who ran as the French came near ; but one of them was a brave young fellow, and he stopped and faced the newcomers. They made friendly signs and persuaded him to get into their boat. He was a Bayougoula, and led them to the country of the Bayougoulas and Mongoulachas, who received the explorers kindly and gave them a supper of stewed chicken. The hungry men en- joyed this homelike dish and felt that they had found a pleasant country where chickens grew wild; but the Indians said they were only a few that had been taken from a wrecked vessel. From what the Indians told Iberville he was more convinced than ever that he had found the river he was seeking, but he was not the kind of man to rest while there was the least doubt. He thought it best to go on up the river about five days' journey to the Houmas Indians. 35 36 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA As the explorers passed up the river, they came to a part of the country which was higher than any they had seen. On the bank they noticed a long red pole, with heads of fish and pieces of bear- meat stuck on it, which some of the Indian hunters had offered to the spirits for giving them good luck. One of the Frenchmen said it was a " baton rouge " (red stick), and Baton Rouge it has been ever since, for the capital of your State is now where the long red stick once stood. When they reached the Houmas, the chief came out to meet them, and Iberville gave him some of his most beautiful presents. The chief then enter- tained the French in the very best Indian style. A big dinner was given, and when they could eat no more, they smoked a long while. Iberville did not like to smoke, as it made him sick ; but the Indians would have thought him very rude had he refused, so he puffed away, for he wanted to keep them in a good humor. After the dinner and smoking were over, some boys and girls in bright paint and brilliant feathers, with jingling pieces of metal on arms and wrists, bounded into an open space, dancing a wild, fantastic dance, moving their graceful feet and slender bodies in time with the music of pebbles rattled in hollow gourds. The musicians rattled softly at the slow parts, and more and more furiously as the dancers whirled round and round, and in and out. When IBERVILLE EXPLORES THE MISSISSIPPI 37 the dancers retired, out came the young braves, throwing and catching their tomahawks and knives, and singing the terrible war song. This ended the entertainment. When the young people were gone, the chief of the tribe and Iberville sat down for a long powwow, as the Indians called their conferences. The chief assured Iberville that he was sailing on the river he was looking for, and ^ told him that Tonti ^jffn^ had once passed ^^ through the village, on his way to the Iberville's autograph mouth of this same river in search of La Salle. Then one of the guides spoke up and told Iberville that the Mongoulacha chief had a letter which Tonti had left with him to be given to a man who would come up from the sea, meaning La Salle. Iberville now felt that it was useless to go farther. He therefore told Bienville to go down the river to the Gulf, and cautioned him not to forget Tonti's letter. In the meantime Iberville took a few men and explored another part of the country. He came to a small bayou which led to the Gulf through two broad lakes. He named these lakes Pontchartrain and Maurepas for the two ministers through whose influence he had been sent to Louisiana. The two brothers reached Ship Island within a few days of each other. Bienville brought with him 38 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the letter which Tonti had written to La Salle. Tonti wrote in the letter that, as he had heard that La Salle had left France with a party of emigrants for the Mississippi, he had gone to join him with twenty Canadians and thirty Indians. The faithful Tonti closed his letter by saying: " It is the great- est disappointment for me to have to return without having the fortune to find you. Though we have not found any trace of you, I do not despair that God will grant a full success to your enterprise. I hope this with all my heart, for you have not a more faithful follower than I, who sacrifice everything to follow you." The faithful friend of La Salle did not know that his leader had been murdered in Texas and his body thrown into the bushes. Iberville was now sure that he had found the Mississippi. The next thing to do was to plant a settlement. It was necessary to build a fort as quickly as possible, as the supply of provisions was getting low and he had to hasten back to France for more. He had wanted to build the fort on the Mississippi River, but he could not get his large ships through the passes of the delta. After look- ing at several places, he chose a piece of high ground on the shore of the Bay of Biloxi. None of the men were skilled workmen, but they were so tired of roaming around and of being on shipboard that they were glad to get to work. Some cut down trees and built the fort, while IBERVILLE EXPLORES THE MISSISSIPPI 39 others, taking the barges and httle boats, carried things from the vessels to the fort. You children would have had a fine time if you had been there. After everything was clean and in good order Iber- ^^^H ^^^^^^^^^^^HHfl^^^''^ I^^^^^B ^SjH g^ ; jjpt) Jl<»-'- _ — ■ -^^Sfc^^ ( . ,1 „ , , Detroit Photographic Co7npany. The Coast at Biloxi ville went back to France. Before leaving he put Sauvole, one of his faithful officers, in command, and Bienville next in command. The settlers had not been in their new fort long before company came. The Bayougoula chief with some of his warriors came to return the visit of the French. It was now the Frenchmen's turn to enter- tain. It cost them something too, for the Indians expected to receive presents. After bright-colored shirts and other presents had been given, the Indians were taken over the fort. There are many things we never notice because we have been used to them all 40 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA our lives; but if you can imagine yourself a savage who has never been among civilized people, you can understand how many new and curious articles the Bayougoulas found to wonder at. When the Indians saw there was so much to interest them, the chief told Sauvole that their squaws were across the bay. Of course, Sauvole gallantly took the hint and had them brought over. For their pleasure he put the men through a drill and marched them to the beating of the drum. The Indians thought this the most thrilling music they had ever heard, and each one of them wanted the drum; but Sauvole could not spare it. The Bayou- goulas went away delighted, the chief promising the French the friendship of his tribe. Questions. — i. Tell about the Frenchmen's first visit to the site of Baton Rouge. 2. Describe some of the Indian customs of amusement and their entertainment of guests. 3. Tell what you have read about the man for whom Lake Pontchartrain was named. 4. What place did Iberville select for building the first fort and settlement ? Find it on the map in the front of this book. CHAPTER VII IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE Bienville had been Iberville's right-hand man in making friends with the Indians. He had lived among them in Canada and had easily learned many^ of their languages. Moreover, he had a friendly, tactful way. He was fair in his dealings with the Indians, and they liked him. Before Iberville left for France, he had a talk with his brother and told him what he wished him to do while he was away. He said that he had heard that the English were thinking of sending a company of settlers to the Mississippi, and that Bienville must strengthen the French hold by exploring more of the country and making friends with as many Indian tribes as possible. Bienville went first among the Indians on the northern shore of Lake Pontchartrain, and while there he was told that two days before they had been attacked by another tribe headed by two Englishmen. Several days later he was paddling down the Missis- sippi when, on turning a bend, he suddenly came upon an English vessel. Bienville rowed up to it and went on board. He found that he had known 41 42 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the commander, Captain Ban*, in Canada; and in the course of their conversation the captain told him his government was abdxit to send out several ship- loads of people, and that he was examining the banks of the river to find a good place to settle, though he was not quite certain that he was on the Mississippi. Bienville told him that all this country belonged to the French, who had a strong fort and soldiers not far away. The English captain then turned and sailed away. Ever since that time the bend in the river has been called the English Turn. When Iberville got back in the year 1700, Bien- ville told him what had occurred. Iberville became very uneasy, for he felt that the arrival of the Eng- lish vessel on the Mississippi proved the truth of the report that England would try to settle Louisiana. He wished to follow his own ideas with regard to Louisiana; but the government, though inter- ested in its settlement, left the matter in the hands of Pontchartrain, who agreed with Iberville that the only way to hold the country was to people it ; yet they did not agree upon the way of doing this. Iberville had seen what the difficulties would be and what the new settlements would need, to make them a success. He was a man with a great deal of common sense. His plan was to settle the country with people who had a little money, who had worked and were willing to work. With emigrants of that IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE 43 kind he believed the colony would soon be able to take care of itself. But Pontchartrain would not listen to such a plan. He told Iberville to pay a great deal of attention to the taming of wild animals for the sake of their Copyright, igoi, by Detroit Photographic Company, Site of Old Fort Bayou The fort was built by Iberville on the east side of Biloxi Bay wool, to see if it were possible to teach the Indian girls to raise silkworms, to find out if there were valuable pearl fisheries in the Gulf, and to remem- ber that the most important thing was the dis- covery of mines. To make sure that the last was ■attended to, a geologist, Le Sueur, was sent along with Iberville, with orders to search for a copper mine reported to be on the upper Mississippi. Iber- ville had not seen any gold or silver or copper in 44 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Louisiana, and he knew that De Soto had found none. Nor did he have much faith in the geologist's finding any. Yet he obeyed orders as nearly as he could, and in the meantime was sowing a crop of sugar cane and giving the Indians some orange, cotton, and apple seed to plant. Next he looked for a good place to build another fort. Since the English were so active, it would not do to leave the lower Mississippi unprotected. The Indians showed him a place which did not overflow, about fifty-four miles from the mouth of the river. Here the new fort was built. While Iberville and Bienville were superintending the building of the fort, their attention was attracted to a canoe coming rapidly down the stream and steering for the bank where they stood. One of the men leaped ashore and introduced himself as the Chevalier de Tonti, the friend of La Salle. They were very glad to see him. He had heard the French were in Louisi- ana and had come to see if it were really true. He was eager to throw himself into the work, and offered his services to Iberville, who very gratefully accepted them. Iberville needed some one to visit the Indian tribes whom the English were urging to attack the tribes friendly to the French. Tonti was therefore sent on a visit to the fierce Chickasavvs, while Iberville himself visited the Nat- chez Indians. Iberville was greatly delighted with the country of the Natchez. He found them more IBERVILLE AND BIENVILLE 45 civilized than any other Indians he had seen. Their chief was called the Great Sun, and his home was on a mound overlooking the villages of his subjects, which were dotted over a beautiful plain. This Great Sun was a very important person indeed. He chose his servants and his little son's playmates from the most aristocratic families. If a Great Sun died, his servants were strangled at his grave to wait on him in the next world; and if his boy died, the play- mates had to follow their little master. So, while it was a great honor to be chosen to wait on royalty, it was an honor sometimes dearly paid for. The Great Sun could have any of his people put to death if he did not like them, and they supported him, while he did not work at all. When the royal pantry was empty, an invitation was sent to the people to attend a great feast in the king's home. This seems a queer time for such an invitation, but the Natchez Indians' ways were not like ours. All the company came loaded down with something to eat ; and after everybody had eaten a good dinner, there was enough left to last the Sun's family a long time. When food again gave out in the king's house, another invitation would be sent to the people to bring provisions to the royal house- hold. The next tribe the Frenchmen visited was the Tensas, among whom they saw something which they never forgot. They were awakened one night 46 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA by a terrible hailstorm, such as we sometimes have in early spring, and were told the temple had been struck by lightning. When they reached the place, they saw the "medicine man" — who in every tribe was half doctor and half priest, and who looked more like a demon than a man — standing before the blaz- ing temple and shrieking above the howling wind to the squaws that their god was angry and would not be at peace with them until they had offered their papooses (as the Indian babies were called) to him through the flames. Several mothers rushed up, and, throwing their little ones into the fire, stood by watching the flames wrap around the writhing, tender little forms. Iberville tried to make theni feel the horror of the thing, but the women believed they had won a place in the happy hereafter by so great a sacrifice. The Tensas' village was as far as Iberville went. Here, putting the expedition under the command of Bienville with instructions to explore the Red River country, he returned to Biloxi. Questions. — i. How were the English prevented from settling on the Mississippi ? 2. Who was Bienville ? 3. Tell the story of Tonti as given in Chapters HI, VI, and VH. 4. What wise thing did Iberville do in the matter of starting crops ? 5. What Indian customs have you learned about in this chap- ter ? CHAPTER VIII BIENVILLE VISITS THE RED RIVER COUNTRY Bienville proceeded to visit the Red River coun- try. If he and his Canadians had not been hardy young fellows, they would have turned back after the first day's march. They moved steadily toward the north against a piercing March wind, with a sleety rain dashing into their faces. A great part of the time they traveled through water up to their waists. The Indians thought this was too much; they said they did not want to walk through ice water all day, and went back. The Frenchmen laughed and sang and got up into the trees to sleep and eat and dry themselves, and then went gayly. on. They wanted to impress upon the Indians that they had come to stay, and were not to be put out by such small matters as cold winds and ice water. It was owing to Bienville's courage, perseverance, and tact that his men stuck to him. They went as far as Natchitoches, and the knowledge gained of that part of the country was of great value to the French. Iberville, sick with fever, again sailed for France. Before he left he put Bienville in command of the 47 48 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA new fort on the Mississippi and Sauvole in com- mand at Biloxi. As time passed the two young commanders did little more than hold the forts. No new settlers came ; those already there had no money and could do nothing without the help of France. Bienville occupied his time in having his fort kept in fine condition and in seeing to the planting and working of vegetable gardens. Sauvole was having a harder task. His men were more difficult to control ; they had left Canada throueh the love of adventure, and liked to hunt, drink, and play cards; but they would not work. What little had been planted a long drought dried up; water, too, became very scarce, and this nat- urally caused sickness. Sauvole nobly devoted him- self to nursing the worthless, trifling men, and lost his life in doing his duty. Now the charge of both forts fell to Bienville. Many calls for aid were made upon him, but he managed economically and wisely, and was able to keep his own people from starving and to satisfy the Indians with food and presents. Iberville returned to Louisiana in 1701. He tried to get Spain to cede Pensacola in Florida to France, but Spain refused to do so, and warned the French to keep away from her possessions. Iberville was determined to have a port on the Gulf coast, and since he could not get Pensacola, he ordered Bienville to build a fort and start a town BIENVILLE VISITS THE RED RIVER COUNTRY 49 on the Mobile River and move the colony from Biloxi to Mobile. Iberville superintended the build- ing of the fort and the laying out of a small town, Map of the Countrv Around the Mouth of the Mississippi From a 7iiap viade in 1738. and made arrangements for the landing of emi- grants on what is now Dauphin Island. Iberville looked upon what had been done with great satisfaction.' The French now claimed a stretch of country encircling the Gulf from Mobile 50 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Bay to Matagorda Bay on the coast of Texas, where La Salle had landed. It may seem strange that they should want so much territory when they were able neither to work nor to settle what they had. But the early explorers were much like the old woman who was always saying, "While you are get- ting, get a plenty." They were farsighted enough to see that the time to get land was when it might be had almost for the claiming. They knew that another generation would look after settling it. Iberville was particularly desirous of gaining the friendship of the powerful Choctaws and Chicka- saws, especially the latter, as they were friends of the English and disposed to give the French trouble. It was a o-reat relief to him at this time to receive a message from Tonti that he was on the way to the French fort with chiefs from both of these tribes. When the Indians arrived at the fort, they saw a glittering array of presents spread tempt- ingly on the ground. They gazed in wide-eyed astonishment and admiration. So much powder and balls, so many guns, they had not dreamed were in the world — to say nothing of the shining hatchets and knives, and gayly colored beads and curious trinkets. They lost no time in getting out their peace-pipes, and made all the promises Iber- ville asked of them. But the red man in some re- spects is like his white brothers — sometimes he does not keep his word. BIENVILLE VISITS THE RED RIVER COUNTRY 51 War had again broken out between France and England, and Iberville could not remain longer in Louisiana. He was needed to figbt for France on the sea. He knew the war would cbst a great deal of money and that France would need every cent she could raise, yet he was determined that no matter what happened, he would bear his colony in mind. Iberville was too level-headed to believe that soldiers in a fort and geologists with wild schemes of discov- ering gold and silver mines would ever make strong, permanent settlements. He knew that women were needed to make homes, and promised Bienville that when he returned to France he would lay this need before the government. He then sailed away, leav- ing Bienville in command — a governor only twenty- two years old. Iberville knew his young brother had learned much from experience, was firm, quiet, and strong-willed ; and he believed that Bienville would prove worthy of the trust placed in him. Questions. — i. What two forts did the French colonists have in 1700 ? 2. Tell something of life in the colony at this time. 3. Where was the next fort and settlement made ? CHAPTER IX BIENVILLE AT THE HEAD OF THE GOVERNMENT To be the sole representative of royal authority in the colony was a big responsibility to rest upon the young governor. Just now things were happen- ing which made it important that Bienville should not make mistakes. It meant a good deal in those days to the colonies that France and England were at war, for when the mother countries quarreled, the children across the water took up the fight. Eng- lish vessels cruising about the Gulf interrupted the flourishing trade which had sprung up between the colony and the West Indies, and, moreover, kept Bienville in constant fear of attack. The Indians who were allies of the English were also made bold by the nearness of their friends, and often attacked the Indians friendly to the French. You have noticed, perhaps, that the French were on good terms with most of the Indians. Though Bienville was just as fair in his dealings with them as ever, yet he now had a powerful rival in the Eng- lish traders, who appealed to the Indian's self-inter- est — an instinct very strong in all of us. The English traders were everywhere going among the 52 BIENVILLE AT HEAD OF GOVERNMENT 53 Indians, selling them better and cheaper goods and trying to draw them away from the French, When they could not do this, they encouraged the Indian allies of the English to attack the French Indians and murder the French missionaries. Bienville, though he had few men and very little money, was forced to take sides. To keep his Indian friends, he must protect them. This led to a petty warfare which lasted for many years, was very annoying, and cost a good deal of money, Bienville prob- ably managed as wisely as any one could have done in his place. It is wonderful that he was able to keep his little settlement from being wiped out, as the Indians could see how few men he had. Once when he was trying to impress a tribe with the greatness of the French nation, a chief said, "If your countrymen are as thick on their native soil as the leaves of our forests, how is it they do not send more of their warriors here to avenge the deaths of those fallen by our hands ?" Truly this year of 1703 was a gloomy one. Bienville 54 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Though Iberville did not forget his promise and sent over a ship laden with good things, — and twenty-three fresh-faced girls to become the wives of those young men, — yet the ship was not wholly a blessing. It had touched at Havana and brought into the colony yellow fever. Many of the people died, among whom, and the most deeply mourned of all, was the courageous man and true friend, Tonti. From this time on Bienville had to bring to bear all his courage and self-control. The young women were, disappointed, and did not hesitate to say so. They had been accustomed to the ordinary comforts of a city and had not the slightest idea of the mean- ing of pioneer life. When they were taken to log cabins, furnished with homemade furniture, and had nothing for breakfast, dinner, and supper but parched corn, they said that they had been deceived and that while the men might eat such stuff, they would leave on the first ship if better food were not given to them. As Bienville was a young bachelor, and most of his life had been spent among men, he must have been at a loss to know what to do. This affair, however, was not so serious as the complaints and intrigues of some of the colonists who were jealous of young Bienville. They criti- cised Bienville and interfered with his authority. The quarrel grew until it was not long before every- body in the garrison was taking one side or the other. BIENVILLE AT HEAD OF GOVERNMENT 55 Finally the enemies of Bienville wrote to France that Bienville was selling to the Spaniards the stores sent for the use of the colonists and putting the money in his own pocket. You know without being told that Bienville would not bear this insult patiently. He wrote back to France, bitterly deny- ing the charge, and accused the men of lying mali- ciously. Several years passed and every ship from Louisiana carried back accusations and denials, un- til at last Bienville was dismissed from office. It seems strange that the word of unreliable men should have been taken instead of Bienville's. It seems, too, that his interest in the colony and his services should have counted for something; but then, as now, a great deal depended upon political influence, and Bienville had none. Iberville, once powerful at court, had died. His friend, Count Pontchartrain, was also dead. The new minister, the new Count Pontchartrain, was a very different man from the old count, and neither knew Bienville nor felt any interest in him. A new governor, who, however, died on the way, and a new commissary, Diron D'Artaguette, were sent out. Bienville, like the brave man and honor- able gentleman he was, wanted to sail immedi- ately for Paris and himself answer to the charges made against him, but D'Artaguette told him he would be needed until a new governor had been appointed. D'Artaguette had a kind motive in this. 56 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Though he did not tell Bienville, he had been ordered to look strictly into his conduct, and if the charges against him were true, to send him a pris- oner to France. D'Artao^uette did not want Bienville to q^q to France until he had written a full and true account to the minister, for the royal commissary knew that it was easier to get into a French prison than to get out. He found nothing wrong with Bienville's administration; on the contrary, he found that Bienville had managed remarkably well with so little money. Instead of making money, neither Bienville nor his brothers had received their salaries for some time. D'Artaguette saw that the colony was very poor ; no emigrants were coming in ; and through lack of mioney nothing was done to develop the country. Yet he knew that money had been appropriated for the colony. Where was it.? After reading D'Arta- guette's report, the PVench government discovered that the money had been stolen by officials before it ever left France. Three years passed, and no ship and no governor came to the colony from France. The colony had either to starve or take care of itself. On account of overflows the fort on the Mobile River was re- moved to the site of the present city of Mobile; and to keep all from starving, Bienville sent some of the young men to live among the Indians. They BIENVILLE AT HEAD OF GOVERNMENT 57 hunted with the young braves, and at night danced and sang with the Indian girls, and had such a good time that they were not wilhng to go back to disci- pHne. If work were as much as mentioned to them, they ran off to the woods. The future of the col- BiENViLLE's Autograph ony had never seemed so gloomy, for never before had the mother country so utterly neglected it. But France had not for- gotten the colony. She herself lacked money at this time ; so Pontchartrain was looking about to see how he could best get rid of troublesome Louisiana. Questions. — Tell about Bienville's first term as governoi (i 702-1712) : 1. Relations with the Indians. 2 . The coming of women from France. 3. The yellow fever epidemic. 4. Bienville's enemies and the investigation of his government 5. Hardships of life in the colony. CHAPTER X ANTOINE CROZAT At this time there lived in France a man named Antoine Crozat. He had once been a poor country boy. He had been fortunate enough to have a chance of getting a very good education. As a boy he wanted to do things in hfe — something that his kinsfolk and comrades never dreamed of. He was not satisfied to spend his life as his fore- fathers had done, plodding along in the same old way. When Antoine grew to be a man, he went to Paris and became a merchant. It was not many years before he was rich and lived in a fine house. He had servants and carriages and horses, and when he became very, very rich, he was presented at the court of the great King Louis XIV. He wore velvet and satin, with diamond buckles on his shoes, and sparkling rings on his fingers, and his wig curled in rows of glossy curls. Now he was a fine gentleman indeed ! Even princes of the royal blood paid him attention. They asked him to dine with them and were so friendly as to borrow money from him. You think, perhaps, that he was perfectly happy ; but not so. 58 ANTOINE CROZAT 59 There was something else he wanted. He wished to own large estates, for if they were only large enough, he might become a nobleman himself. Pontchartrain knew Crozat's ambition and un- folded to him a fascinating scheme of chartering Louisiana. Pontchartrain told him that he could own estates in that prov- ince broader than those of any prince, and the mines would bring him such wealth as to make kings seem paupers. Crozat was dazzled at the brilliant prospect be- fore him. He had great confidence in himself; he had made his life a suc- cess so far ; why should he not continue to do so ? Therefore a bargain was made between him and the government in 171 2. As some writer has said, Louisiana became through this bargain a royal farm, with King Louis the landlord and Crozat the farmer. And the farmer felt hopeful of mak- ing a fine crop. Now this was the bargain : No one but Crozat should be allowed to trade in all that immense country between the Alleghany Mountains on the King Louis XIV 6o HISTORY OF LOUISIANA east and Mexico on the west, and from the Great Lakes on the north to the Gulf of Mexico" on the south. For trading purposes he could carry what- ever he pleased from France and trade in any way he liked. If other people should be caught trading in Louisiana without his permission, the king's soldiers would seize their goods. No one else could have factories in the colony. He alone could make silk and woolen and leather goods. He was also given the sole right to trade in furs, excepting beaver skins. This exception w^as made because the Canadians traded in beaver skins, and as they were Frenchmen, they must be protected in this trade. The last and most gracious favor that his Majesty granted to Crozat was to give him all the land he could cultivate and allow him to work the mines. He naturally could not expect to keep all the wealth that it was thought the mines would produce, and considered it generous that the king should reserve only one fourth of all the gold and silver found, and one tenth of the precious stones. Crozat on his part was to bring over tw^o ship- loads of settlers every year, and after nine years was to pay the expense of all officers and soldiers stationed in the colony to protect it. This indeed seemed to offer him the grand oppor- tunity of his life. If Crozat had known as much ANTOINE CROZAT 6i about the geography of this country as young chil- dren now do, he would have scratched his head and thought a long, long time before undertaking so much. That Crozat's interest might be better served, it was thought wise to appoint a new governor and also a council which would govern the colony by the laws of France. But a mistake was made in the appointment of a governor. The new gov- ernor, Cadillac, quarreled with every one who did not think as he did. He quarreled with one man because he got drunk, with another because he was a fool, and with Bienville because he did not take the Holy Communion. Because Dauphin Island was the first land in Louisiana that he saw, Cadillac judged the whole country from that little spot, and said it was a miserable country with a few plum trees bearing two or three plums to a tree. When the settlers came to him to divide the land, he told them to take what they wanted, as none of it was of any account. He called Bienville and his friends vagabonds and ruffians, without respect for law or religion. Now this was the man who, as the governor, was supposed to work for the good of the colony as a whole. Crozat was too wrapt up in his schemes for making more money to take a broad view of the situation and to see that even for his own success it would be better to unite the colonists so that all 62 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA would act together. To do this he simply needed to be just and give the colonies an interest in the enterprise. Instead of doing so, he attached Cadillac to himself by giving him a share in some mines, and ignored Bienville ; but Bienville, of all men, was in close touch with the colonists and had Copyright iqot, by Detroit Photographic Company. Bay St. Louis On this coast one of the earliest settlements was made. their confidence. He felt very badly because he had been put aside for strangers. Bienville, sick at heart, asked to be given a com- mand in the French navy, but Pontchartrain, know- ing how well he could manage the Indians, ordered him to remain in Louisiana. He made no effort to hide his feelings, and thus the new administration began with almost an open quarrel. Crozat found it a difficult matter to make money from the bargain, which on paper had seemed so ANTOINE CROZAT 63 tempting. The land to be worked had to be stocked vyith everything needed on a big plantation, and, though he had been given the right to bring over from Africa a shipload of negroes every year to work the crops, these negroes must be fed and taught to work. Factories had to be built, and fitted with expensive machinery, and the raw ma- terial raised for use in the factories. As for the mines, there were none. Crozat had hoped to establish a lively trade with the Spaniards in Florida and Mexico, but Spain was now friendly to England and unfriendly to France, and consequently forbade the Spaniards in her colonies to trade with the French in Louisiana. The trade that Crozat could carry on with his own colonists amounted to little. They were poor and were scattered throughout the province. They pre- ferred to trade with the Indians and the English, who gave better bargains. This trade was illegal, and was carried on without Crozat's knowledge. Crozat at last found that he could not pay the expenses he had agreed to pay, and when one of his ships came in loaded with expensive goods, he had to give the cargo to the people for wages. But what could they do with such costly things ? They wanted money with which to buy something to eat. Their dissatisfaction added greatly to the troubles of Crozat, but before giving up, he deter- mined to make one more effort to succeed. 64 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Questions. — i. State the extent of the " farm " that was leased to Crozat. 2. What privileges was he given ? 3. What was he required to do? Crozat expected to make a fortune from (i) mining, (2) farm- ing. (3) trading, and (4) manufacturing. Tell why he failed in each of these expectations. A Group of Cree Indians CHAPTER XI ST. DENIS Crozat thousfht of one more chance left to him. If the right man were sent to interview the viceroy of Mexico, some arrangement might be made to establish a trade between Louisiana and Mexico. There was in the colony a handsome young fellow, St. Denis. He was a cousin of Bienville. He had attractive, courtly manners, and Crozat chose him as the best man for this mission. St. Denis and twenty-four horsemen started in 1 714 across Texas. They came to a Spanish set- tlement, the Presidio del Norte, where the com- mander received them most politely. St. Denis told the Spanish commander his business, and asked whether he would assist him ; but the Span- iard answered that he had no authority to speak on the subject, that all such matters must be brought before the viceroy at the city of Mexico. St. Denis spent several days at the Presidio. Durinor that time he found some business of his own to attend to which he had not foreseen. The commander had a charming daughter, Dona Maria. When St. Denis had once looked into the bewitch- 65 66 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA ing dark eyes of the Spanish maiden, he knew she had entered his Hfe not to leave it, and Dona Maria's heart told her she could never forget her gallant young lover. But St. Denis had a duty to perforin for his fellow-colonists; so after a few weeks of love and happiness he bade Dona Maria good-by and jour- neyed on to the city of Mexico to fulfill that duty. The viceroy received him coldly and told him that he had wasted his time in coming. The vice- roy ended the interview by throwing St. Denis into prison. He had been confined in the dark dungeon about three months, when one day as he was deject- edly thinking of the gloom which had overshadowed him and of the many things which make life so sweet, the door opened and an officer, whose duty it was to inspect the prisons, entered. As it little mattered to the poor prisoner who passed in and out of his cell, he did not look up. The officer, after one piercing glance, recognized St. Denis as an old friend and classmate in France, despite the fact that St. Denis, from long confine- ment, had grown thin and shabby. The officer, though a Frenchman, had entered the service of Spain. Remembering that he and St. Denis were boys together, he asked the viceroy to release his friendo The request was granted. The viceroy did even more ; he invited St. Denis to dine with him in his elegant palace. The palace was a more ST. DENIS 67 beautiful place than St. Denis had ever so much as imagined. The dishes, vases, and even furniture were made of exquisitely carved silver. The viceroy was so pleased with St. Denis and his delightful con- versation that he offered the young man the com- mand of a company of cavalry. The viceroy told St. Denis that he had heard of his love affair, and gave his word that the marriage should take place if his offer were accepted. " Now," said the viceroy, " I shall give you two months to think over my proposition. You will meet here many French officers in the service of Spain, who are very well pleased with it." At the end of the two months St. Denis went to the viceroy and told him he could not desert his king and country. The viceroy was a good man, after all. " Then," said he, as, smiling, he opened the doors of a large cabinet, "here is a bag of gold for the expenses of the wedding." The next morning a handsome bay horse was brought to St. Denis's door. Gladly he mounted the beautiful animal, which bore him with the speed of the wind to Dona Maria, whom he now could marry. When St. Denis reached Louisiana, Crozat was bitterly disappointed at the result of his undertaking. About this time, however, other things occurred that troubled Crozat as much as St. Denis's failure. The Natchez Indians were one of the most power- ful tribes, and it was necessary to keep their friend- 68 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA ship. Previous to this time these Indians had shown friendHness toward the French, but Cadillac had offended them. This is how it happened. The Natchez Indians had offered the calumet to him, but a son of the Cadillacs would not condescend to touch his lips to a pipe that an Indian had smoked; so Cadillac refused to smoke with them. A Calumet The Natchez took this as a declaration of war and began robbing and murdering Frenchmen whenever they came across one. Owing to their influence upon other tribes, the hostility of the Natchez had to be stopped at once. Bienville was sent against them, with a force of only thirty-five men. Bienville had such confidence in his knowledge of Indian character that he hoped that, through strategy, he might be able even with his small force to manage the tribe. He camped on an island not far below the Natchez, fortified it, and then sent word that he had come to trade. A few days later three Natchez braves visited him and offered him the calumet. Bienville turned ST. DENIS 69 aside his head, and said that the Natchez were not treating him with respect, for he was the great chief of the French, and could smoke only with their great chief, the Sun, or one of his brothers or a little Sun. The messengers, however, were kindly treated, and when they went back, Bienville sent one of his men along bearing an invitation for the Sun to visit him. One morning the French saw four canoes sweep- ing toward the island. It was the Natchez coming to visit them. The chiefs, decked out in all their savage splendor, were seated under parasols, while twelve of their servants were swimming alongside the boats like water dogs. Bienville ordered one half of his men to keep armed and hidden in one of the houses, and the other half he ordered to meet their guests, help them, ashore, and, as an act of politeness, to relieve them of their weapons. The Indians came on shore dancing and singing the peace song. They offered the calumet to Bienville, who, instead of taking it, sternly demanded what they were going to offer in return for the Frenchmen they had murdered. They did not know what to say, as they were not aware that he had heard of the murders. They were anxious to make friends with Bienville, however, so they brought tc him the heads of all the murderers except one, who was not to be found. 70 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA They then gave Bienville land upon which to build a fort. Bienville erected the fort and named it Rosalie in honor of the Countess of Pontchartrain. When Bienville got back to the French settle- ment, he found that Cadillac had been removed, and that he had been given the command of the colony until the arrival of another governor. The new governor, De I'Epinay, soon came. He brought to Bienville a present from the king of France, a cross of the order of St. Louis to be worn as a reward for faithful services. Bienville was not to be pacified with a trinket. He now no longer tried to hide his feelings. The colonists openly took sides with him or the new governor, and quarreled disgracefully. Crozat felt that the struggle had been too much for him, and had to come to an end. He found that it took more than the shrewdness of a business man to build up a successful colony. Therefore, in the year 17 17, he asked to be released from his bargain. His request was willingly granted by those in power at the court of France, for there had appeared in France another man eager to rent the big farm, Louisiana. Questions. — i. Why could not the Louisiana colonists trade with the Spaniards in Mexico? (See page 63.) 2. How did Crozat attempt to estabhsh trade with Mexico? 3. Tell what you know of Bienville's doings while Crozat held Louisiana, 1712-1717. (See page 62.) CHAPTER XII JOHN LAW The man who thought he could make millions out of Louisiana was John Law, a Scotchman. He was not good and steady, like most of the people of Scotland. He gambled and spent all the money his father left him. Then he went to London, where he acted worse than he had done in Scotland. He murdered a man and had to flee from England. The next time we hear of Law he is in Europe, going around to the different courts reading to the kings little books he had written on trade, and trying to get them to let him show them how to make much money in a little while. The kings were all afraid of the handsome, smooth-tongued rascal, and would have nothing to do with him. All this time Law kept at his old trade of gambling, and gambled so well that at last when he drifted into Paris he had his pockets full of money. King Louis XIV of France had died while Crozat was in Louisiana. He was succeeded on the throne by his grandson, Louis XV. As the new king was only six years old, his uncle, the Duke of Orleans, governed France until young Louis grew to be a man. Old King Louis had left France in a bad 71 72 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA state. For long years he had carried on wars which cost the country millions of dollars. The soldiers had not been paid, and there were many others to whom France owed money. As if these debts were not enough for the country to pay, King Louis had built beautiful palaces and furnished them with costly furniture, mirrors, and paintings, without paying for any of these things. The people had been taxed, until many of them were home- less and starving, and there was no hope of getting more money out of them. Since the king had not used it to pay his debts, where was the money } What had become of it ? It was found that dishonest men had been stealing the government's money. Yet, somehow all the debts had to be paid. It was at the time when the Duke of Orleans and his ministers were nearly distracted over these money matters, not knowing which way to turn, that John Law went to Paris. He told them he could save the country, and that France would be richer than she had ever been, if they would listen to him. It was a sad day for France when the Duke of Orleans met John Law, for the duke had more imagination than common sense. He allowed Law to start a John Law JOHN LAW 73 bank. At first the bank seemed to be a great suc- £ess, and because it seemed to turn out well, Law was listened to when he told the king and his min- isters how a company backed by the government would be able to make in Louisiana a great deal of money for itself and for France. It appeared reasonable that a company, especially, with such a money-making genius as Law at the head of it, could do more than just one man like Crozat had done. Therefore, in 171 7, the duke gave a charter to a company to control Louisiana. The company was named the Company of the West, but it was usually called the Mississippi Company. John Law was made chief director. Some wise men shook their heads and thought that the duke and his ministers were foolish to allow themselves to be led into such an undertaking ; but the duke thought he saw in the scheme a fine chance to help both France and Louisiana. The same terri- tory was granted to the company by the new charter that was granted to Crozat, and the rights and privi- leges were about the same; the main difference being that instead of one man selfishly working for his own gain, a company was now doing so. As a return for getting the charter, the company promised to build churches, send over priests, and import six thousand white people and three thousand negroes. The company set itself to advertising Louisiana. To let people know of this wonderful land across the 74 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA sea, Law scattered tli rough France thousands of little books telling about Louisiana. The people read in open-eyed wonder of that far-away country where it was said that spring was everlasting; that all the year round fruits and vegetables were ripen- ing, flowers blooming, birds singing, and fish of every kind swimming in crystal streams. As they read about the Indians, who, though five hundred years old, could hunt and fight just as well as the young warriors, they imagined it must be delightful to live where people did not grow old. How quick their hearts beat and how bright their eyes grew as they read that it was a common thing for the Indians to give big lumps of gold in exchange for a string of beads or a pocket knife. And as for silver ! It was so plentiful that the streets might be paved with the metal ! And when these charminor books told o of a wild flower growing on the banks of the Mis- sissippi, whose rosy cups caught the dew which was hardened by the morning sun into glittering gems, the story went to their heads like strong wine. They wished to go to this land where there was to be no more work and no more poverty. Louisiana was upon every lip, and Louisiana gold the people believed was to open the way to Paradise. The lord in his castle, the poor man in his hut, the cook in the kitchen, business men, and women of fashion, rushed to the ofhce of the Mississippi Company to buy shares of the company's stock. JOHN LAW 75 All this excitement was just what the company wanted. It was the best way to get people to go to Louisiana. The company gave land and provisions free to poor people who would go. Large tract-s of land were given to rich nobles because it was be- lieved that they would take more interest in getting the land settled and worked if they owned it. Law himself took thousands of acres on the Arkansas River and sent over Swiss and German families. Now, while a great many went to Louisiana, a great many more changed their minds when the time came to sail. This did not please Law, for the first step in his plan was to get the country peopled. Therefore, he decided that if people would not go willingly, they must be made to go. In- mates of jails and poorhouses were taken. Men went up and down the streets and seized poor, frightened men and women, whom they hurried to the seashore, and put aboard ships. The Mississippi Company had made up its mind to succeed, and the govern- ment determined to help all in its power. Questions. — i. What was done with Louisiana after Crozat gave up his lease ? 2. Who was John Law? 3. Tell about the Mississippi Company : (i) Its organization, (2) Its advertisements of Louisiana. (3) The people who were sent to Louisiana. CHAPTER XIII THE FOUNDING OF NEW ORLEANS The ships loaded with Law's immigrants reached Dauphin Island in 1718. The miserable creatures were landed upon the island, and then the ships turned around and sailed back to France for more. The directors of the company knew that at such a time as this Bienville was the only man in the colony who had the brain to see what was the best thing to do and the nerve to take hold with a strong hand. They knew, too, that he could be depended upon to do what he thought was right. So he was again put in command. Bienville was not now a boy who laughed and sang to show the Indians how brave he was. He had been in the colony nineteen years, and was an earnest, sober man, and had learned much from all those years of experience. Dauphin Island was a beautiful place, with its banks of shining white sand stretching out to the dimpling waves, but it would have been hard to pick out a worse spot for people who had to earn their daily bread. In the first place, there were not nearly enough houses for all these people to live in; and then no crops could be raised, as vegetables and corn would not grow on such sandy soil. 76 FOUNDING OF NEW ORLEANS 77 Bienville saw that the first thing to do was to move the colonists to some place where they could go to work and make a living. Ever since he was a boy he had wanted to start a colony on the Mis- sissippi. He knew the land was rich and that good crops could be raised there. Now the chance had come for which he had waited nearly twenty years, and he made up his mind to get these people to the Mississippi. He took fifty men and went across to the river. As a site for a town, he chose a spot upon which he had had his heart fixed for a long time. This story is told of an adventure that happened to Bienville. When he and his workmen got to the place he had selected for his town, no one was in sight except an old squaw, who was sitting on a log under a big oak covered with moss, and was shaking from side to side and crooning to herself. As Bien- ville came up, she pointed her long, skinny finger at him and said that the Great Spirit told her that her death hour would come when palefaces came to cut down the trees under which she had lived a hundred years. " The Spirit tells me," she chanted, " the time will come when between the river and the lake there will be as many houses of the white man as there are trees now." No spirit had been whispering to Bienville, but his good judgment told him that the spot he chose was a fine site for a town. It was on a great river 78 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA which flowed through one of the richest countries in the world ; on one side it could be reached from the Gulf by ships coming up the river, and on the other by boats passing through bayous and lakes. He felt that the place where nature had done so much must some day be a large city. Moreover, Bienville knew that the French must settle on the Mis- sissippi River if they ex- pected to control Louisi- ana. Firm in his belief, Bienville went to work cutting down trees, dig- ging up cypress-knees and palmetto bushes, and cleaning away all the un- derbrush. Barracks were then built. Bienville named his little town New Orleans for the Duke of Orleans. Thus was laid the foundation of the pres- ent great city in the year 1718. The Mississippi Company made a change in the government of the colony which pleased Bienville very much. When Crozat was in Louisiana, there had been a superior council made up of the gov- ernor, Crozat, and a few men interested in his welfare; but now the company set up also inferior Thk Duke of Orleans FOUNDING OF NEW ORLEANS 79 councils in different parts of the province. Leading men were allowed to become members of the inferior councils. It seemed as if the people were going to be given a chance to take part in the government of the colony. Bienville thought that at last France had waked up and was taking the right way to make Louisiana prosper. But he did not understand what was going on in France, and was to be again disappointed. The company still had the strange idea that the most important thing was to send people, no matter what kind of people, to Louisiana. Shipload after shipload came over. One day, when eight hundred immigrants came, Bienville was almost ready to give up. What should he do with all these people ? He did not have enough boats to take the newcomers to the lands that had been given them, and before his carpenters could build more boats, the immigrants would eat up the food which was to last them until they could get to work and take care of themselves. Bienville sent as many as he could to Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, and Mobile. The greatest trouble Bienville had was with the colonists themselves. It would have been easier for him to help them to help themselves if they had been people of pluck and perseverance ; if they had been like colonists elsewhere, who had come to America to worship God in their own way and to make their own laws because they were not allowed So HISTORY OF LOUISIANA to do so at home. It is true that there were among the immigrants some worthy people who afterwards became useful citizens, but most of them were pau- pers, beggars, and convicts, with little sense and no character, who idly sat down and looked to Bienville to feed them. Hundreds died of disease and starva- tion, yet ships kept coming with more of the un- fortunate creatures. New Orleans in 1719 From an old print One thing at least could be done. The capital of the province could be changed. Its location at Mobile was very inconvenient. The water in the harbor was so shallow that big ships could not come near the shore. The freight had to be unloaded into a boat, carried a certain distance, then, as the water grew shallower, put into a smaller boat, then into a still smaller boat ; and finally carts had to come out to the last little boat. Bienville thought that New Orleans was the best place for the new capital, but the directors said that the old fort on FOUNDING OF NEW ORLEANS 8i Biloxi Bay was a better place ; so the capital was moved there. One day a drunken man dropped his lighted pipe, and the new capital took fire and burned down. Again the question came up as to where the next capital should be, and again Bien- ville pleaded for New Orleans; but the council chose the place where the present town of Biloxi stands. The members of the council objected to New Orleans for the capital because, they said, big ships could not go through the passes, but Bienville proved they were wrong by taking a ship through himself. He sent Pauger, one of the engineers, to make a map of the passes to be sent to France, and then be- gan to lay out the streets of New Orleans. Questions. — i. What important thing did Bienville do when •he was made governor again in 1718? 2. Tell something of the man for whom New Orleans was named. (See page 71.) 3. What are some of the advantages of the site of the city? 4. In what year was New Orleans founded? 5. What part did the colonists have in the government at this period? 6. Why were the settlers sent by the Mississippi Company a misfortune for the colony? CHAPTER XIV THE MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE NEW ORLEANS, THE CAPITAL If things were going badly in Louisiana, they were no better in France. People had lost faith in John Law. His bank had failed, and they had at last found that his plan to make money out of Louisi- ana was a grand swindle. Thousands of people had lost all their money and wanted to take revenge on Law. The parliament of Paris sent for him to see whether he could give any reason for breaking the laws and swindling people. Its members had a strong notion to put him to death at once. Law had an idea that they had something of this kind in their minds, and fled from France as fast as a carriage and four horses could take him. The failure of Law's grand scheme is known in history as "The Missis- sippi Bubble." Whisperings kept coming across the sea of the wretchedness of the colonists in Louisiana, and stories spread through France of that fearful land where so many Frenchmen were finding their graves. When neighbors met each other, they no longer talked of Louisiana as a fairyland. They 82 THE MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE 83 now spoke of it as a land of horror, where the burn- ing sun, beating down on marshes and swamps, made it so unhealthy that white people in a little while got sallow and wrinkled and shrank until Failure of Law's Bank they were no bigger than dwarfs ; and no one there ever lived to be old. The Mississippi, they said, overflowed its banks at certain times of the year, and, until it went down, the settlers had to stay up 84 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA in the trees like monkeys, and live on raw fish and berries ; people were kept awake at night by the sting of- mosquitoes and the howling of hungry wolves ; and the swamps were full of frogs, so big that they could swallow little children whole. However, in spite of silly stories told by ignorant people, and in spite of Law's failure, the colony in Louisiana had made a start and was growing, though slowly. Most of the worthless creatures who had lived through the horrors of Dauphin Island had either died since or drifted among the Indians, The government had put out too much money to let the colony go to ruin, and had at last found that most of the people sent over were not the kind to build churches and schools and to make good laws and homes where boys and girls would grow up to be useful men and women. Bienville kept writing that industrious people should be sent to Louisiana, as there was profit in farming if the right kind of people came with enough money to buy land and get started. Some excellent people began to settle on plantations near New Orleans and in Pointe Coupee, and to buy negroes to work their crops of indigo, rice, and tobacco. After Law's failure the Germans on his settlement came so near starving that they started back to Europe. On the way they stopped at New Orleans. As they were thrifty farmers, land was given them below the city, so that instead of going back to Germany they remained THE MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE 85 and planted truck farms. Every Friday afternoon these farmers paddled up the river with their vege- tables, butter, eggs, and chickens, and the next morn- ing spread them in the market for sale. The French again tried to trade with the Span- iards, but had to give it up. La Harpe, whom Bien- ville stationed at the Natchitoches, claimed for France the country as far as Matagorda Bay, on the coast of Texas, — La Salle's settlement, — but Spain claimed it too. Neither country could settle Texas, so at this time no more was said about the owner- ship. Jealousy between the two nations prevented trading. When the French minister saw Pauger's map and read what Bienville had written about the country, he became convinced that Bienville was right in saying that New Orleans should be the capital. Therefore, in 1722, the capital was removed to New Orleans. Shortly afterward the province was divided into nine districts, with a commander for each district. It took France a longtime to learn that her colonies could not prosper unless she gave them more free- dom. She ruled Louisiana by her laws and would not let the colony trade except in the way that suited her, which was often a very bad way for the colony. But the king of France must not get all the blame because the colony did not prosper. The colonists also were at fault. In order to make their settlement 86 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA grow and flourish, they should have worked together, but they did not do this. Bienville and the direc- tors quarreled, and again the settlers took one side or the other. While they were pulling in different directions and fighting out their own wrongs, they were losing their hold on the Indians. A band of Natchez Indians killed two or three Frenchmen. Bienville got the chiefs together, and they made promises to keep the peace, but the Indians knew they had not been conquered. Bienville's enemies wrote to France that it was his fault that the colony did not thrive. Among other things, they charged him with keeping his friends and kinsfolk about him and doing everything to favor them. The government ordered Bienville to come to France and answer for himself. His brother, Chateauguay, and all his kinsfolk and friends were put out of office, and for the first time since the French came to Louisiana no kin of Bienville had anything to do with the management of the colony. Before Bienville left, he helped to make laws for the negroes, called the Black Code. A few of the laws in the Black Code were: negroes should be taught about God; they should have Sunday for themselves; they must be well clothed and well fed; if old and sick, they must be taken care of; and ne- groes and white people must not intermarry. This was the last public paper which Bienville signed before he left Louisiana. THE MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE 87 When he reached France, he sent a paper to the king's minister. In this paper he said that he and his brother Iberville had started the colony in Loui- siana, that he had worked for it twenty-seven years, and that if it had not been for him, the colony would have died. La Harpe also wrote a letter to the minister, stating that Bienville had been treated unjustly. He said that Bienville had certainly not made money out of the colony, which was more than his enemies could say. As a report was started in the colony that the Indians did not like Bienville and were glad he had gone, his nephew, De Noyan, asked the superior council to have some of the tribes called together to see what they would say. All the Indians declared they liked Bienville and were sorry he had gone away. Questions. — i. What was the " Mississippi Bubble " ? 2. Tell how New Orleans came to be made the capital of the province of Louisiana. (See pages 80-81.) 3. What do you think of the charges that were made against Bienville ? 4. What reasons can you give that the colony had not pros* pered ? 5. What was the Black Code? ^^^-^ Law's Autograph CHAPTER XV THE URSULINE NUNS THE CASKET GIRLS The man appointed to succeed Bienville as gov« ernor of Louisiana was named Perier. The company did not think it a good idea to give one man all the power, so it was divided between Perier and De la Chaise, the commissary. It was Governor Perier's duty to see that the laws were obeyed, and he was also to have command of the army. De la Chaise was to have under his care everything that related to trade, and he was to look after the police, and see that the laws were good. In order to avoid jealousy and quarreling. Governor Perier and De la Chaise were given to understand that each was to attend to hi;> own business and let the other alone. For two years all went well. From time to time immigrants came over, who were not of the worth- less class, but were the best kind of people. It had at last become understood in France that Louisiana was not a place where one could run about picking up gold ; nor was it a place so horrible that human beings could not live. The French now knew that in the growing colony a man had a first-rate chance to make money, and many good men came over. 88 THE URSULINE NUNS — THE CASKET GIRLS 89 The great drawback, however, was that so few women came to Louisiana. In the twenty-seven years that the colony had been struggling, many women had, of course, come over. Officers had brought their wives and so had many of the immi- grants. You will remember that a few young women were sent over to be married. Yet there were not enough women for all the men to have wives. This was not good for the colony. Bienville had from the first felt that the only way to make the men good citizens was to give them homes and wives and children to work for. This is why he kept writing to the company, "Send me wives for my Canadians." One of the priests said it might be well for the men to marry Indian girls who had become Chris- tians. This was tried, but did not work at all. Some Indians were once taken to Paris, and among them was a pretty young girl. The ladies of the king's court petted her and decked her out in fine clothes and jewels, and an officer, Dubois, fell in love with her. After she was christened in the church, Dubois married her. There was a big wedding, and the court ladies gave her beautiful presents ; even the king gave her a present, which was a high honor. He also made her husband captain of the Illinois district when he should go back to Loui- siana. After the young couple got back to their new home, the Indian bride soon tired cf her pretty things and sighed for the wild life of the merry 90 HISrORY OF LOUISIANA greenwood. She visited her tribe more and more. Her relatives and friends finally persuaded her to betray the French. One day she led the warriors of her tribe to the fort, and the whole garrison was massacred, even her husband. After the horrible £-^^^^^^'' ^ Old Ursuline Convent affair, the men felt that an Indian wife was no more to be trusted than a pet tiger. The best act the company performed while Perier was governor was to get six Ursuline nuns to come to New Orleans to teach the daughters of the col- onists and to help the company find good girls to marry the young men. The sisters came over in 1727 and were given land with negroes to work it. While their house was building, they lived In Bien- ville's home. They soon had a good number of pupils, and a schoolhouse was put up as quickly as possible. One of the sisters, Madeleine Hachard, THE URSULINE NUNS — THE CASKET GIRLS 91 wrote pleasant letters to her father about the new land to which they had come. She seemed surprised to find the Louisianians so civilized. Bienville's house, she wrote, was the finest in the town. It had two stories and large windows ; and in the windows was fine white linen instead of glass, which. Sister Madeleine said, let in almost as much light as glass. New Orleans, Sister Madeleine wrote, was a handsome, well-built town, and she could hardly be- lieve she was in Louisiana, for there was as much " magnificence and politeness " in New Orleans as in France. The ladies dressed in velvet and silk, and painted their cheeks and knew how to make themselves look very pretty. But, Sister Madeleine added, they did not know much about religion. Then she told of the good things for the table the New Orleans people were enjoying in those days. They drank cafe an laitTuwA chocolate every day, and had venison, beef, geese, chickens, ducks, partridges, vegetables, fruit, and many kinds of fish. Jesuit brothers came to New Orleans about the same time as the Ursuline nuns. Land was given them also, and they set it out in myrtle-wax trees. This was before the day of gas and electric lights, and the priests sold at a good price their myrtle wax for candles. The year after the sisters came to New Orleans, the company sent over a party of girls. They had been selected for their good character, and all had 92 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA come of their own free will. They were called les filles a la cassette — casket girls. This name was given because each had a little box. What do you think was in those boxes ? Their pretty wedding clothes ! The Ursuline sisters took these girls to their own home. The girls were to choose their husbands, but were not to marry any one the sisters thought unworthy of them. You see how times had changed. The casket girls were not to marry just anybody and eat parched corn and live in log houses. They had chaperones and better food than they had in France, and lived in pretty cottages. They soon found husbands and made good wives. The first improvement Governor Perier made was to build a levee in front of New Orleans. He en- couraged the people to farm, and nearly three thousand negroes were brought into the colony to work the plantations. Fig and orange trees were planted, and when good crops of rice, indigo, and tobacco were raised, land began to be worth a good deal. The company put a tax of one cent on every acre, and this money was used to build churches and hospitals. Questions. — i. What were some of the good results of the coming of the Ursuline nuns? 2. Tell about the casket girls. 3. Tell something of life in New Orleans in 1727. 4. What crops were raised in the colony ? 5. Why was a levee needed in front of New Orleans ? CHAPTER XVI THE NATCHEZ MASSACRE When Bienville made his last treaty with the Natchez Indians, the}^ were in earnest and wanted to be friends of the French ; but they were treated unjustly. Fort Rosalie was under the command of an ofHcer named Chepart, who was an overbearing man and who never considered the rights of others. He imposed outrageously upon the Indians. You will remember that the big Sun of the Natchez lived on a high mound, with his subjects in villages below. One of the most beautiful of these villages was called the White Apple. Chepart wanted it for a plan- tation. Sending for the Sun, he told him that the Indians must move away, and build themselves a village somewhere else. The old Sun answered, "Surely my white brother does not speak in earnest ? " He told Chepart that the Natchez had lived there more years than there were hairs on his head ; that in the temple of the White Apple had rested the bones of their forefathers since they had first come to live on the banks of the Feather of Waters ; that ihey wanted to live at peace with the French and would give up other lands; but that they could 93 94 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA never give up the village of the White Apple. Chepart replied that he must have the village. The Sun turned sorrowfully away, saying he would talk with the wise men of his nation about it. When the Suns met and learned what Chepart had said, they were silent with sorrow and anger. The chief of the White A'pple rose. " Children of the Sun," he said, " will not the French soon drive us out of the other villages? What will become of the tombs of our ancestors, and the cradles of our children ? The whitefaces will run their plows over the bones of our dead and put their cattle in our temples. We can destroy them all if we act with courage and skill." The chiefs sat silent for a long time. Only the tight lips and the fierce light in their eyes showed the aneer in their hearts. Before the council broke up, the Natchez chiefs had sworn to rid themselves forever of the hated white race. They sent mes- seneers to the Chickasaws, Yazoos, and other tribes to learn whether they would join them in an attack upon Fort Rosalie. These tribes were ready to do so. The following plan was agreed upon for the at- tack. Each tribe was to put in its temple a bundle of sticks, each bundle containing the same number of sticks. Every morning after the new moon each tribe was to take out one of its sticks and burn it, and the day when the last stick was burned, an at- tack was to be made on the French. THE NATCHEZ MASSACRE 95 The Indians asfreed that none of their women should be let into the plan, for no woman could keep a secret. The Great Sun then went to Chepart and told him that the Indians would move as soon as they chose another spot upon which to build a village. The women of the White Apple wondered what was going on. They were very curious to know why the chiefs held a secret meeting, and why mes- sengers were sent to the other tribes. The mother of one of the chiefs thought she had not been treated with respect, because the men would tell her nothing about what was going on. One day she asked her son to go with her to the Corn village to see a sick friend. When they got into the thick part of the woods, she sat down on a log and told her son that she had always loved him, and, until now, he had trusted her. " Why," she said, " are messengers sent to the other nations ? " The chief replied that the tribes were making a stronger treaty with the French. The old mother flashed her black eyes at him, but did not say any- thing for a long time. Finally she exclaimed: "No, my son, there is a secret, and you do not trust your mother. I have trained you to tell the truth, and you lie to me." Tears came into the eyes of the young chief, for he loved his mother. Unable, to resist her influence, he told her everything about the plot. Bras Pique — for that was the old squaw's name g6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA — liked the French and determined to warn them. At the same time she did not wish any harm to come to her own people. She thought that, if the French were warned, they would strengthen their fort, and that then the Natchez would not make the attack. Therefore, she sent a message to Chepart by a French oflficer, telling him what the Natchez were going to do. But Chepart, who was a very proud man, laughed and said that the Indians were only trying to frighten him and that he was not going to give up the plan to seize the White Apple village. Since the French commander would not heed her warning. Bras Pique tried another scheme. She slipped into the temple and burned one of the sticks before the time agreed upon. This, of course, made the record of time wrong and caused the Natchez to attack the fort one day earlier than the time set with the other tribes. Early one morning, in the autumn of 1729, the Natchez arose and, pretending that they were going hunting, went to the house of every Frenchman for miles around, and got all the guns, powder, and shot they could beg or borrow. At eight o'clock in the morning a party of Nat- chez Indians appeared at Fort Rosalie with corn, furs, and oil for Chepart. While the French commander was looking at the wares spread out before him, other Indians were creeping into the fort. Before any one dreamed of danger, a signal THE NATCHEZ MASSACRE 97 for attack was given. Each warrior picked his man, and so suddenly did the attack occur that it seemed as if all the soldiers in the fort were killed at one time. Such a contempt was felt for Chepart that no one would shoot him. He ran into his garden, and one of the lowest among the Natchez was sent to beat him to death. While the French were being so horribly butch- ered, the Great Sun sat quietly smoking his pipe. He ordered the heads of all the victims to be brought to him. The women, children, and negroes were not killed, but were held as prisoners. The lives of two men were also spared — one a wagoner, who was needed to take the property of the French to the village of the Indians ; and the other a tailor, who was to make over the clothes of the French to fit the Indians. Two French soldiers who happened to be in the woods at the time of the massacre es- caped, and managed to get to New Orleans, where they told Governor Perier the terrible news. Questions. — i. Tell about the beginning of the hostility of the Natchez Indians toward the French colonists. (See pages 67-69, 85.) 2. Tell of the building of Fort Rosalie. (See page 70.) 3. What action of the French commander led to the Indian attack on Fort Rosalie? 4. Describe the Indians' plan for reckoning the date on which the fort was to be attacked. CHAPTER XVII DEFEAT OF THE NATCHEZ The Natchez massacre was fearful enough in itself, but the tale grew more horrible as it spread from one end of the colony to the other. It was rumored that the massacre was only a beginning, and that the Indians all over the country were going to band together and not stop fighting until the last one of the white race was killed. To add to the terror, it was believed that the negroes would help the Indians by killing their owners on the lonely plantations. Never before were there so many anxious hearts in Louisiana. A ship was sent to France for soldiers and firearms, but as it was a great distance across the Atlantic Ocean and as there were only sailing vessels in those days, it would be a long time before help could come from the mother country. Fortunately for the French the Choctaw Indians remained faithful. Le Sueur, a French officer, with seven hundred of the Choctaws, came upon the Natchez Indians while they were having a big feast and rejoicing over their victory. He killed sixty of the warriors and rescued some of the white women 98 DEFEAT OF THE NATCHEZ 99 and children who had been captured at Fort Rosalie. The poor prisoners were found huddled together, trembling with fear and expecting to be scalped at any moment. Soldiers were sent from New Orleans to follow Le Sueur and give him help, but before they could reach the scene, the Natchez had sought shelter in two strong houses of the White Apple village. The cannon of the French were not of much account, but the soldiers kept on firing, and the Natchez briskly sent back shot for shot. The French, seeing that they were not doing much damage to the Indians, thought they would put an end to the battle by sending a man with a flag of truce to demand the surrender of the Natchez. But the Natchez did not look at the matter in the same way that the French did. Give up ? Not the heroic Natchez ! There was too much at stake. Why should they give up to the greedy white men what was theirs and their fathers before them ? They opened fire on the man with the flag of truce, and he threw down the flag and ran. The Choctaws scornfully said that if their white allies could not fight better, they would go home. The French really had not fought as hard as they might have done, for they were afraid of killing the women and children who were still held prisoners by the Natchez. They could no longer think of the poor prisoners now, for if the Choctaws left them, the battle was surely lost. So they gave the Natchez lOO HISTORY OF LOUISIANA to understand they were going to figbt in earnest. This made the Natchez uneasy, and they sent word that they wanted to talk with the French. One of the Choctaw chiefs thought there had been too much talking already and not enough fighting. He went out before the fort and made a speech. He told the Nat- chez that they were only a handful compared with the Choctaws, and that if they did not give up the rest of the white women and children and the negroes to the French, the Choc- taws would sur- round their forts and starve them to death. The Natchez said they would give up the prisoners if the French would retire to the banks of the river. The French agreed to the bargain, but no sooner were they out of sight, than the Indians slipped away. They left behind, however, the white prisoners, who were taken care of by the soldiers. Governor Perier joined the army, and the retreat- ing Natchez were followed. They were found in A Choctaw Ball-player DEFEAT OF THE NATCHE^^ loi what is now Catahoula Parish. There the brave Natchez took their last stand and held the French at bay for nine months. "-^^t last they offered to make peace. Governor Perier said that the chiefs must come and have a talk with him about peace. The Great Sun and several of the Little Suns, therefore, went to the French camp. Soon it began to rain. Governor Perier invited his visitors into an old cabin. As soon as they went into the cabin, the chiefs found that they had walked into a trap. The house was surrounded by armed men, and in order to save their lives, the chiefs had to promise that the whole tribe would surrender. It rained all the next day, and the Indians — about four hundred women and children and forty-five warriors — came straggling into the French camp. A stormy night set in, and in the darkness some of the Natchez, who were unwilling to surrender, — the last of a brave people, — stole away and joined the Chickasaw^s. Governor Perier ordered the Chickasaws to give up the Natchez, but the Chicka- saws refused, saying that they would never give up anybody who had come to them for protection. The army was not strong enough at the time to force them to do so. When the army reached New Orleans, Governor Perier sent the Indians who had surrendered to him to the West Indies, where they were sold as slaves. The shielding of the Natchez by the Chickasaws, I02 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA on the one hand, and the treachery of the governor in selling his Indian prisoners, into slavery on the other, could lead to but one thing — war between the colony and the Chickasaws. The company all this time was looking on with anxious eyes. The Natchez war had cost a great deal of money ; a war with the Chickasaws would cost as much more. People would not settle in or trade with a country engaged in war; therefore the company did not see how any money could be made out of Louisiana. In 1731, in despair, it gave up its charter, and Louisiana was handed back to Louis XV. Thus Louisiana became a royal province. The king did not wish to have this bur- densome property on his hands, but he knew that if he did not take care of it, England would seize it. The first thing to be done was to settle with the Chickasaws for protecting the Natchez. Who was the man to do it ? Perier had shown that he could not deal with Indians. Could a new man do any better? In this trying hour all turned to Bienville, who had remained in France. The king appointed him the first royal governor of Louisiana. Questions. — i. Who were the allies of the French against the Natchez? 2. How did the war against the Natchez end? 3. How did the Chickasaws come into the war? 4. How did the lease of Louisiana to the Mississippi Company end ? CHAPTER XVIII BIENVILLE, THE FIRST ROYAL GOVERNOR The ships that bore Bienville back to Louisiana stopped at San Domingo In the West Indies, and there he saw some of his old friends among the Natchez. The proud chiefs, who had once ruled like kings, were slaves working in the fields under the eye of an overseer. The Great Sun told Bien- ville that he was very sorry the, massacre had taken place, but that Chepart was to blame for It, because he had acted so unjustly that the Indians could no longer stand his cruelty. Bienville knew that the. chief spoke the truth. He also knew that the colony would never be safe again until the Chlckasaws were either made to give up the Natchez or were driven out of the country. When he reached Louisiana, he began to get ready to march against the Chlckasaws. His plan was to go up the Tomblgbee River and attack the Chlckasaws in their own country — ^now the northern part of Alabama and Mississippi. He sent word to the Chevalier D'Artaguette, a brother pf Diron D'Artaguette and the, commander in the Illinois country, to join him. Bienville could not 103 I04 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA get ready to start at the time first set, so he sent a second messenger to D'Artaguette, fixing another date for their meeting. When Bienville and his army reached the Chicka- saw country, he found the Chickasaw villages front- ing a wide, green prairie. Back of them were the smaller villages of the Natchez. Bienville wanted to attack the Natchez first, as they were the cause of the war, but his old allies, the Choctaws, would not agree to this. They had gone into this war only for what they could get out of it, and the Chickasaws, who were their old enemies, had a large supply of provisions. They therefore urged Bienville to attack the Chickasaws first. Bienville was uncertain what to do. D'Artaguette had not come, and if the Choctaws left him, he would be in a bad way. Against his judgment and because the Choctaws continued to urge it, Bienville sent his nephew, De Noyan, to begin the fight against the Chickasaws. De Noyan made a gallant charge, but when he looked back, he saw that only the officers and a few men were following him. Most of the soldiers had hidden behind cabins, and the Choctaws were some distance away, dancing and yelling. Bienville tried to get his soldiers and the Indians to fight, but when he saw that nothing could be done with them, he ordered a retreat. Bienville, carrying his wounded with him, retired to New Orleans. BIENVILLE, THE FIRST ROYAL GOVERNOR 105 Some weeks later, one of D'Artaguette's men, whom the Chickasaws had made prisoner, escaped and came to New Orleans. He told Bienville the sad fate of the brave young commander. D'Artaguette did not get Bienville's second mes- sage changing the time of meeting, and he reached the place where he and Bienville were to meet four days before Bienville arrived. He looked anx- iously for the French troops, and begged his Indian allies to wait. They, like the Choctaws, got impatient, and said they would leave if he did not attack the Chickasaws at once. He and his officers thought that the best thing for them to do was to make the attack without waiting longer for Bienville. The men fought courageously. The victory was almost won when about five hundred Indians, led by Englishmen, rushed from behind a hill with such fury that the French gave way. D'Artaguette fell wounded. His men rushed up to get him, but were beaten back. He and most of the other prisoners were then tied to posts and burned to death by slow fires. They all met death like heroes. One died singing a death song like the Indians. The whole colony mourned the awful fate of the brave men, and no one sorrowed more than Bien- ville. Diron D'Artaguette, who had always been Bienville's friend, became his bitter enemy, for he blamed Bienville for the death of his young brother. io6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The king thought the war had not been well man- aged, and he also blamed Bienville. The noble, patient Bienville answered that he could not fight without men. The Indians, he complained, no one could depend upon, and the men sent from France were not trained soldiers from the French army, but worthless tramps. He said that more than half of them had been whipped for stealing since they had come into the colony. Bienville felt that he must regain the confidence of the king and the colonists, and that the only way to do so was to conquer the Chickasaws and Natchez. The English were busy supplying the Indians with guns, and were winning over even the French allies with presents. Bienville sent to Canada for men whom he knew would stand by him, and urged the French government to send him trained soldiers. The minister of war sent to Bien- ville seven hundred men, guns, cannon, ammunition, provisions, money ; in fact, everything he had asked for. It seemed as if Bienville was at last to be in a position to accomplish something. But he was again to be disappointed. The minister wrote that the king had also sent over Sieur de Noailles, who had the experience and the talent to command, and his Majesty wished him to take command of all the troops, not only those sent from France, but also those raised in the colony by Bienville. After all BIENVILLE, THE FIRST ROYAL GOVERNOR 107 these preparations, another was to have the command over him! Do you wonder that Bienville lost heart? Another attack upon the Chickasaws was planned in 1739. The expedition was a failure. The French did not get near enough to the Indians to fight, and came back with only a patched-up peace with the Chickasaws. Thousands of dollars had been wasted, and many a poor soldier had lost his life from swamp fever. Though De Noailles was in command, yet Bien- ville got just as much of the blame. Discouraged and hopeless, he felt he could no longer be useful in Louisiana, and asked to be relieved of the governorship. While waiting for the king's order, he still worked for his beloved colony. You will remember that the Ursuline sisters had started a school for girls. But there was no school in Louisi- ana for boys. Bienville tried to get the king to give him money to build a school for the boys, but the king refused. Bienville had come to Louisiana in 1699, a boy strong in the joy and hope of young manhood ; he left it forever in 1743, a hopeless old man. Forty- four of the best years of his life were given to Loui- siana. He took charge of the colony when it was feeble and struggling; he saved it from Lidian massacre ; and he nourished it into strong life. When the colony was able to stand alone, the work was taken from him, and other hands finished it. io8 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA There Is a parish in the State and a street in New Orleans named for him. Is this enough ? Do you think the Louisianians have shown grati- tude to Bienville ? New Orleans, the city he founded, should have a park named for him, and in the center of the park should be a statue of Bienville, the father of Louisiana. Questions. — i. What was done with Louisiana after the Mis- sissippi Company gave it up? 2. What were two important events of Bienville's term as royal governor? 3. What was the outcome of his first war against the Chicka- saws? The second war? 4. What part did the English take in these wars? 5. Make a summary of what you have learned about Bienville, the "father of Louisiana." CHAPTER XIX MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL The king selected the Marquis de Vaudreull to take Bienville's place as governor. The colonists loved Bienville and were sorry to see him go away, but they could not but be proud of the high honor the king had shown them. A marquis ! Howmuch King Louis must value Louisiana to send one of the great nobles to govern her! The family of the great marquis had influence at court, and the colo- nists thought a man so rich and noble would never have come to the far-away province unless the king had promised to help him in the work. Surely, they thought, there must be better days in store for Louisiana. As time passed, the high opinion of the marquis did not grow less. He was nicknamed the Grand Marquis, so charming and so elegant were his man- ners. De Vaudreuil loved show and pleasure, and the government house looked like a small court with its brilliantly lighted ballroom, where beautiful ladies in court dresses of silk and satin danced with high-born officers. The gay little city of New Orleans was in a whirl. Louisianians continued to log no HISTORY OF LOUISIANA tell of the dinner parties and magnificent balls long after the Grand Marquis was dead. Several stories about the marquis show that his fine manners came from a kind heart. One of his officers wrote something against his character to the minister of marine. The minister sent the letter to De Vaudreuil. On one occasion, not long after, the officer was pretending to be one of De Vaudreuil's best friends. De Vaudreuil quietly asked, " Have you forgotten what you said in your letter about me } " " Against you. General, and from me ! I swear nothing could be more false!" replied the officer. De Vaudreuil then told him to be careful what he said, or the letter would be shown him. The officer was afraid he would be disgraced. He looked down, but said nothing. De Vaudreuil did not punish him, and never spoke of the letter again to any one. Another story runs that once a piece of De Vaudreuil's costly silver was missing. He sent for the negro who took care of the dining room. The negro was so frightened that he shook from head to foot. His master smiled and said to the man who had charge of his wines, " Get a bottle of my best wine and give to this poor fellow to cure him of his fright." This kind of governor is delightful, but the pros- perity of a country does not depend upon the pleasant manners of the governor and his dinner parties and MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL III brilliant balls. There must be in a ruler something more than the power to dazzle and amuse people. De Vaudreuil had a fair chance to make the col- ony prosper. After forty-four years of struggle the colony had at last taken root. Thrifty colonists had found that a livinor could be made in Louisiana. There were seven or eight sawmills around New Or- leans, and all were doing a good business. The col- ony was exporting a little cotton, pitch, tar, tobacco, sugar-cane, salt, and furs. The Jesuits above the city had begun to raise sugar- cane. Bienville had tried to get settlers to come over from San Domingo, but at that time there were so many quarrels in the colony that they could not be per- suaded to come. Under De Vaudreuil, things promised to be different. He was a new man ; he had no favorites ; and it seemed as if all would work together for the good of the colony. Then settlers from San Domingo were persuaded to come over. De Vaudreuil started out well by causing levees to be built on the river. He had noticed that the planters seemed to be playing a game with the old Marquis de Vaudreuil 112 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Mississippi. If there was no overflow, the planters won and made a great deal of money and had a good time spending it. If there was an overflow, which happened too often, the crops were buried under the yellow waters. Then the planters lost heavily, and money was scarce all over the country De Vaudreuil had a law passed that property owners along the river must build levees, and if they did not, their plantations would be taken from them. Another good law provided that every year a cer- tain number of soldiers who had been faithful to their duty should be discharged from the army if they would promise to build homes and marry. The promise was not hard to keep, for about this time the king sent to Louisiana sixty black-eyed girls. These maids had heard how well the casket girls had done, and they wanted pretty homes with flower gardens for themselves. The king was very kind to this last group of girls, for when one found a husband, he set the young couple up in house- keeping. He gave them land, an ox, a cow and a calf, a rooster and five hens, a gun, and a hoe. In addition, seed and rations were furnished them free for three years. Yet the colony did not prosper. The chief cause was that the people were not allowed to govern themselves, and the laws France made for them were not always good. No country can grow with- MARQUIS DE VAUDREUIL 113 out trade, and no trading can be done unless the value of money is so fixed that it does not change. The king would not allow any silver or gold money in the colony, but sent over paper notes. Sometimes these notes would be worth a great deal, and then again almost nothing. With the value of money changing so often, people were afraid to buy, for w^hen they came to sell, the notes might be worth so little that they would lose. But a greater evil than paper notes was the habit the colonists had fallen into of accusing one another of stealing. De Vaudreuil accused the intendant of selling the presents brought over for the Indians and the provisions for the soldiers, and keeping the money. The intendant, not to be outdone, said there had been no such thing as law in the colony since De Vaudreuil had come into it; that the superior coun- cil decided any case to suit the governor, and that the government was run by his petted soldiers, who insulted the people. The intendant further said that the governor was selling the flour sent to the soldiers and was giving them corn instead, and that his wife alone was permitted to sell medicines to the colonists. So much was written on each side that no one can now get at the truth, but we may be sure that there was a good deal of stealing in Loui- siana in those days. One thing was certain: the colony had gone backward under the Grand Mar- quis. 114 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA In the whole of Louisiana there were now only about three thousand white persons. When the Mississippi Company gave up its charter, the w^hite population numbered five thousand. Finally, in 1753, as war between France and Eng- land was threatening, De Vaudreuil was ordered to Canada, so that he might help the Canadians fight the English colonists in America. M. de Kerlerec was sent out to govern Louisiana. Questions. — i. Tell something of the character of the Marquis, de Vaudreuil. 2. Tell what you can of industries in the colony — farming, manufacturing, commerce. 3. Where were the laws for Louisiana made? Was this satis- factory ? Why ? 4. What form of money was used in the colony? What were the results? 5. What was the white population of the Louisiana province in 1 73 1? In 1750? De Vaudreuil's Autograph CHAPTER XX THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR Louisiana in those days included an area that now forms a large part of the United States, for it stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Alle- ghany Mountains, and from the Gulf to the Great Lakes. In order to understand better the history of Louisiana, you must now learn a little of United States history. From the time that La Salle began his search for the Mississippi, in 1678, to the time that De Vaudreuil was sent to Canada, in 1753, the French had been jealously watching the English who had settled on the Atlantic coast of North America. During that time there had been several wars between France and England, and the conflict had extended to the French and Ensflish colonies in America. Most of the fighting in America had occurred in Canada. You remember the French explorers, La Salle, Iberville, and Bienville, all had the same plan of building trading posts around the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi. Their idea was to make of these trading posts forts which would shut in and guard the French possessions against the English. Later, as the French in Canada began to come south ii6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA and the English on the Atlantic coast of America began to spread out towards the west, the French built forts from Lake Erie through the western part of Pennsylvania. This brought the French to the Ohio River. Now with forts around the Great Lakes, down the Mississippi, and on the Ohio River from Pennsylvania to the Mississippi, with New Orleans to guard the mouth of the Mississippi, and Mobile to control the Gulf, France felt that Louisiana was protected. (See map on page 25.) But without any reason that the French could understand, England claimed the Ohio Valley and the right to build trading posts along the Ohio. Nothing could keep the restless English colonists from moving westward across the Alleghany Moun- tains to the rich fields of the Ohio Valley. In those days, when two great nations laid claim to the same territory, the only way to settle the dispute was to fight it out. So, in 1754, France and England began to fight for the ownership of the Ohio Valley. France had the advantage at the start, for she had occupied the country for a long time and had built a strong chain of forts. But France made two mistakes. She did not know the worth of Louisiana, and instead of putting forth all of her energy to save that immense country to the French crown, she used her money and most of her skillful soldiers to fight other countries of Europe. Then she did not realize how the English colonists THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 117 had grown in number and strength, or how their love for England would make them fight against France. Neither France nor England could foresee that the land for which they were fighting would be settled some day by millions of people. Neither country could realize that the great question to be decided by this war was whether these millions should be an English-speaking people governed by English law, or a people with the language and laws of France. At the beginning of the war it seemed as if the French would win, but a change came when the English government put a great statesman, William Pitt, in charge of her affairs. Pitt sent to America money and the most able ofificers and skillful soldiers in England. From that time the English were victorious. The war had begun in western Penn- sylvania and had moved up through western and northern New York into Canada. The last great battle was fought at Quebec in 1759. Here the two most brilliant officers of the war, Montcalm, the French general, and Wolfe, the English general, were killed. Upon the death of Montcalm, the French at Quebec laid down their arms, and soon afterward the Grand Marquis, De Vaudreuil, sur- rendered at Montreal. This put an end to the war as far as America was concerned, though France and England continued to fight for some time longer in other parts of the world. Spain helped ii8 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA France in the conflict. The war is known in Amer- ica as the French and Indian War. In 1763 commissioners from Spain, France, and Bkfore the French and Indian War •England met at Paris to agree upon terms of peace. In deciding what territory should belong to each of -these nations, England of course got the biggest •share. France gave up to England Canada and tall; the country east of the Mississippi, except the THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 119 city of New Orleans and the island of Orleans, which was a piece of land east of the Mississippi between Manchac and the Lakes. France also gave After thk French and Indian War to England the right to use the Mississippi Riven During the war England had captured Havana, Cuba, from the Spaniards. By the treaty of peace Havana was returned to Spain, and in exchange England secured Florida. 120 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Now let us see what was going on in lower Loui- siana, while the war was in progress and these great changes were taking place. Even a statesman could have done little for the colony in those unquiet times, and M. de Kerlerec was no statesman. He was a blunt old sea captain, who had been in the navy twenty-five years. He knew the sea and how to manage sailors, but knew as little about governing a colony as he did about dancing the minuet with court beauties. The first act of Kerlerec was to call the Indians together to make treaties with the chiefs. The In- dians did not show much eagerness to be friendly with the French. They knew that a war was going on in the north between the French and the English, and that the French were being beaten. They saw- that Kerlerec had no money, and they thought it would pay them better to be friendly with the Eng- lish. The Indians told Kerlerec that they liked the French better, but that the English gave them more, and if the French wanted their friendship, they must give them as much as the English gave. As Kerlerec could not do so, the Indians would now and then murder some lonely traveler or attack families living on the plantations. Most of the soldiers had been sent from the colony to fight the English in Canada. Kerlerec begged France to send more troops to protect the colony, but he asked that Swiss and not French soldiers be THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR izi sent. The French, he said, were worse than none, for they stole and did such outrageous acts that the people were afraid of them. It would be hard to tell where France found the soldiers that she sent to Louisiana. You remember that Bienville said the soldiers sent him were cowardly; Perier made the same complaint; and now Kerlerec asked that French soldiers be not sent at all. Kerlerec was an earnest, upright man, but he was not suited to hold the governorship in such stormy times. Added to his other troubles, the French from the forts in the north that had surrendered to the English were coming into Louisiana, and he had all he could do to keep them from starving. The colonists were again quarreling. This time everybody quarreled. Finally Kerlerec, whom the French government blamed for all the trouble, was recalled and thrown into the Bastile, the biggest and gloomiest old prison in France. Questions. — i. State the location of the EngUsh colonies in America in 1750. 2. What territory did France own? 3. What territory did Spain own? 4. How did the French protect their territory? 5. What was the immediate cause of war in 1754? 6. Where did the fighting mostly take place? 7. How did the war end? 8. After the treaty of peace of 1763, what territory in America did England own? CHAPTER XXI LOUISIANA CEDED TO SPAIN Those were gloomy days for Louisiana. If the Louisianians had known what their mother country had done, they would have felt even gloomiei. At the close of the war France knew that England would seize Louisiana unless it were protected. But to have it well protected meant to keep a standing army in the province and ships in the Gulf of Mexico hovering about the coast. This would cost a great deal of money, and France had none to spare for such a purpose. At the time when France was surrendering to England Canada and her other possessions east of the Mississippi, her troubled thoughts were full of the Louisiana colony. What should be done with this heavy burden ? Crozat had staggered and fallen under it ; so had the Company of the West ; and France felt that she could not carry it any longer. Now, the king of Spain had suffered loss by help- ing France in the war, for he had to give up Florida to EnHand. He felt resentful about it. To soothe r O the Spanish king for the loss, and at the same time LOUISIANA CEDED TO SPAIN 123 to rid himself of a weight, the French king gave Louisiana to Spain. The gift was secretly made on the same day on which the three countries, France, England, and Spain, signed the treaty of peace. Poor Louisiana ! A failure from the start, and now tossed as a trifling gift from one monarch to an- other ! As the transfer of Louisiana from France to Spain was secretly made, the Louisianians did not kn'ow for a whole year that they had been given away. In the meantime, however, they were sad and uneasy, for they saw that the colony was neglected. Only three hundred soldiers had been left in Louisiana. No new governor had been sent over ; but D'Abadie, who had come to New Orleans just before Kerlerec had sailed for France, was put in charge and was called Director General. Other changes which hurt their pride as French- men were taking place, and made them feel that the power of France was dead in the land which her colonists had struggled so long to hold for her. The English were not backward in claiming their own, and as they took command of the country surren- dered by the French, the disbanded French troops came straggling into New Orleans. They came from the forts in the Illinois, Natchez, Yazoo, and Baton Rous^e districts. The new names given to the forts by the English reminded the Louisianians that the old order of things 124 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA was passing away. Fort Manchactook the name of Fort Bute ; Fort Conde became Fort Charlotte. In Florida, also, as the Spaniards left the country, Eng- lish names took the place of the old Spanish names. French families from the districts moved into New Orleans, and several small Indian tribes that had re- mained faithful to the French drew near the city. The French in Louisiana were drawing close to- gether, and the English were closing in about them. France seemed to have forsaken her colony. What was going to happen, the Louisianians asked them- selves. The worst surely had come when France gave up the territory which Iberville, Bienville, and their hardy Canadians had won for her. There was one bright spot in the gloom. Eng- lish vessels, under the pretense of taking supplies to the English forts, went up and down the Mississippi. They were in reality trading vessels. Inside of the boats, running the whole length, were shelves filled with goods of every kind. As the vessels moved slowly along the Mississippi, people from the plan- tations hailed them and went to the banks of the river to buy from the pleasant clerks who praised their wares and jingled their money boxes. A short distance above New Orleans, at a place called Little Manchac, the vessels stopped and tied up to a tree. How the merchants and citizens flocked there to buy! It was against the law for the Louisianians to trade with the English, but LOUISIANA CEDED TO SPAIN 125 every one seemed to forget this. The long war had brought trading to a standstill in Louisiana, and the people had gone without almost everything all those years. The government officers not only did not attempt to enforce the law, but they, too, joined the shopping parties that went gayly up to Little Manchac, where anything might be bought, from bandannas for the head of the old mammy to silks and laces to set off the beauty of the young mistress. At last, in 1764, a ship came from France bring- ing to D'Abadie a letter, signed by no less a person than the king himself. The letter was an official notice that Louisiana had been given to Spain, and ordered D'Abadie to turn over the province to the Spanish officer who would be sent to receive it. The very winds seemed to spread the dreadful tidings. To be given away ! The proud Louisia- nians could not and would not believe it. If by the treaty of 1763 they had passed with the rest of their country and countrymen under the power of Eng- land, they could have better endured it, since it was the custom of nations for the conquered territory and its people to pass into the hands of the con- queror. But for a brave people to be handed over from one owner to another like a f^ock of sheep or a gang of negroes ! France had, indeed, been faithless. While the Louisianians were hoping and half believing that the news could not be true, a band 126 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA of exiles from Acadia, which we now call Nova Scotia, in Canada, came to New Orleans. The Acadians were of their own race. As the Louisi- anians listened to the sad story of the wanderings of the Acadians, they thought that the same fate might some day come to them. Gloom and despair were in their hearts as they thought of their own' future. Questions. — i. What was done with the Louisiana province in 1763, at the close of the French and Indian War? 2. State what territory in America was now owned by Spain ; by France. 3. How did England's success in the war affect New Orleans and the neighboring territory? 4. When and how did the Louisiana colonists learn of their transfer to Spain? CHAPTER XXII THE ACADIANS Many writers have told about the Acadians, but the story that will please you most is the one told by an old Acadian grandmother to her little grandson, Acadia was a part of Canada, and is now known as Nova Scotia. All through Acadia, the grand- mother said, there were little settlements of French people. The place where she lived was called St. Gabriel. The people were all kin to each other and lived like one big family. The Acadians were a happy, industrious people. They were not rich, but they had thrifty gardens, plenty of chickens, fine cattle, and enough money to live comfortably. These people lived on in peace and quiet for gen- eration after generation. They disliked changes ; so they followed the customs and religion of their fathers before them. One of the old-time customs was that when a young couple were about to be married, the whole settlement helped to start them in life. The men built them a little home, plowed their land and planted it. The women fitted up the house from the front room to the kitchen. They gave furniture from their own homes, wove bright 127 128 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA carpets, and made quilts and tablecloths enough to last for years. They placed dishes in the closet and polished pots and pans on the kitchen shelves. When the bride walked into her new home, every- thing was ready for her. People in those days did not get the news so quickly as they do now. Ships did not come often from France, and months would pass without the Acadians knowing what was happening in the outside world. One morning at church the old curate of St. Gabriel told them a war was going on between France and England. From time to time came reports of the war. At last came the terrifying news that English soldiers had landed on the coast of Acadia, and were burning the villages and forc- ing the Acadians upon ships which carried them to far-away countries. The old curate of St. Gabriel was like a father to his people. He had been with them in their joys and in their sorrows, and they now turned to him to tell them what to do. He and the older men of the settlement thought it best to leave Acadia and go to Louisiana, where they knew people of their own race had settled. The English were marching toward them so fast that on the very day the inhabitants of St. Gabriel decided to leave their town, they found that they had better flee before night came. All the cattle were killed, and every house in the village was set THE ACADIANS 129 on fire. At sundown three hundred Acadians set out on their journey. They looked back on their burning houses and thought sadly that in a little while the pretty village of St. Gabriel would be a pile of ashes. As darkness fell about them, the air grew chilly, ' " •i^M,'^--' A View in Acadia and mothers held their little ones close to give them warmth from their bodies. Suddenly all stopped. Then hearts tightened with dread. Through the still night came sounds of a drum and marching men. A few steps ahead a company of English * soldiers faced them. " Acadians," said the com- mander, stepping forward, " you are traitors ! But the king of England offers pardon to all who will I30 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA swear allegiance to him." " Sir," answered the Acadian leader, " our king is the king of France." Then he told the officer that he and his friends were going to Louisiana. The officers gave a scornful laugh, and said they should have a free passage to Louisiana in one of the ships of the English king. The Exile of the Acadians The Acadians were disarmed and taken to the seashore, where they were forced on the ships. Husbands were separated from their wives, children torn from their mothers' arms, and lovers parted from each other. On shipboard the Acadians had miserable places in which to sleep, very little to eat, and hardly enough water to keep them alive. After a long voyage the ships landed on a strange THE ACADIANS 131 shore. The Acadians asked if they had reached Louisiana. The English only laughed and sailed away. Now, what was to become of the poor Aca- dians } It was night, and they were without money and friends in a strange land. But fortunately aid came to them. The next morning two gentlemen on horseback rode up and told the Acadians that they had come to welcome them to Maryland. The gentlemen said that they had estates large enough to support all the Aca- dians and they invited them to settle there. The Acadians lived three years in Maryland and prospered. While there, they learned that many other refugees from Acadia had reached Louisiana. Hoping to find among these refugees their relatives and friends, they set out for Louisiana. After many months of weary travel, they arrived at New Orleans. The good people of that city helped them to reach the Teche country, where the other Acadians had settled. Many were the happy meetings between relatives and friends who had been parted. A brave people who had given up so much for their king had at last found a home. Some day you will read Longfellow's poem called " Evangeline." This is about an Acadian girl who is parted from her lover, and she comes to the Teche country looking for him. She searches for him many years and does not find him until they are both old and he is dvino;. 132 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The descendants of the Acadians living on Bayou Teche tell the story this way. When the Acadians were driven from their country, two lovers, Emme- line la Biche and Louis Arceneaux, were put on different ships. Emmeline was with the Acadians who first went to Maryland. She had been a gay, light-hearted girl in Acadia, but she was saddened by the separation from her lover. In spite of her sadness she was so sweet and gentle that she was no longer called Emmeline, but Evangeline, which means God's little angel. When the Acadians landed on the banks of the Teche, the first person Evangeline saw was Louis standing under an oak. She ran joyfully up to him, but he turned sorrow- fully away and told her to forget him, for he was married. Evangeline neither spoke nor moved. Her beautiful brown eyes widened, and all intelli- gence went out of them forever. Though her mind was gone, her manner became even sweeter and gentler. But the shock was so great that she did not live long afterwards. She was buried on the bank of the Teche, under a laro^e oak which has always been known as Evangeline's oak. QuKSTiONS. — I. How did the transfer of Canada to England affect some of the French people in Canada? 2. Why did the Acadian exiles wish to go to Louisiana? 3. Tell the story of Evangeline. CHAPTER XXIII DON ANTONIO DE ULLOA When we last spoke of matters in Louisiana, D'Abadie was in command. He did not live long. Aubry, who was captain of the troops, took D'Aba- die's place until some word should come from Spain. The first outbreak of grief and anger over the cession of Louisiana to Spain had passed. The colonists were now calm enough to form some plan of action. The king, as they thought, did not understand the situation. He did not know the worth of Louisiana, and he surely must doubt the loyalty of the Louisianians. There was some mis- take, they said, and it must be righted. A meeting was held at New Orleans, at which leading men from the city and all the parishes were present. Lafreniere, the attorney-general, who was an elegant-looking man and a fine speaker, opened the meetino-. Lafreniere's father had come from O Canada as a follower of Bienville, and had handed down to his son a deep love for Louisiana. La- freniere made a soul-stirring speech. When it was finished, it was agreed that Jean Milhet should go to Paris and state their cause to the king. When Milhet reached Paris, he first went to see 133 134 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Bienville to get his help. Bienville was now an old man with long white hair; but though he was old, Bienville was just as true to Louisiana as when he was young. It grieved him to think that his be- loved colony was to pass into the hands of Spain, and he gladly agreed to help the colonists. In those times the Louisianians did not read in one day's paper what had happened the day before. They got news only when French ships came, and this was not very often. A simple-hearted people in a far-away province, they did not know the life led by the wicked Louis XV. They did not know that the (government was run bv men who stole from the people and trampled on their rights. If they had known these things, they would not have sent Milhet to France. Milhet soon found that he would never be able to see the king. It was only after a long time that he succeeded in meeting the king's minister, the Due de Choiseul. Every day after that Milhet and Bienville went to see Choiseul, and each day he met them with smiles and bows and promises, but did nothing. A whole year passed and Milhet's petition had not been read by the king, though his minister still bowed and smiled and promised. Little did Milhet or Bienville know that the Due de Choiseul was the man who had caused Louisiana to be given to Spain, and had determined in his false heart that the Louisianians should never see the king. DON ANTONIO DE ULLOA 135 As the colonists did not hear from Milhet, they became more hopeful, but suddenly there came news which killed all hope. The Superior Council re- ceived a letter from Don Antonio de Ulloa, a Spanish officer, saying that he was coming to take possession of Louisiana for the Spanish government. When Ulloa reached New Orleans in 1766, Aubry went out to his vessel to meet him. Aubry also had the French troops drawn up on the levee, and a salute fired. A few of the colonists were seen straggling about with sullen faces. Later Ulloa was received respectfully by the citizens, though their hearts did not warm toward the Spaniard. Ulloa was a small, thin man, and stern and cold in his manner toward the colonists. He had been used to having the men under his com- mand obey him without question, and he expected the Louisianians to do the same. He was not a man who could adapt .himself to other people, and he made no effort to win the kind feeling of the discon- tented colonists, into whose hearts the spirit of free- dom had begun to enter. On the contrary, he showed a contempt for them, and would associate with no one but Aubry, who, eager to keep his posi- tion, was always at the beck and call of Ulloa. The Superior Council asked Ulloa to show the letters from his government giving him the right to take command in Louisiana. He refused. Up to this time the colonists had only disliked Ulloa; now 136 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Jf'^''^- IH^^^^^^^- 3 ^^^^^^^^^^^: '--- i they did not trust him. They could not understand what manner of man he was. He would not show his letters, and he allowed the French flag to float over New Orleans, as if the country was still under the government of France ; yet he acted as if he had the right to govern. He visited the parishes and examined the forts, took the census of New Orleans, and gave Aubry money to pay the French sol- diers. Ulloa told Aubry in secret that he would take posses- sion of Louisiana in the name of Spain when he secured more troops. He had brought with him only a small force of Spaniards, as he had expected the French troops to join him. They, however, had refused. As Ulloa took upon himself more and more the duties of a governor, the business men feared he would make laws which would ruin their trade, for they knew that unjust laws had killed all the trade in other Spanish colonies. Their fears soon came true. Ulloa ordered that no vessel should enter the port without letting him know how much her cargo was worth ; that all vessels must be built by Spaniards and owned by Spaniards ; that trade Old Creole Cottage DON ANTONIO DE ULLOA 137 should be carried on only with certain ports in Spain. The merchants of Louisiana had been car- rying on a flourishing trade with Mexico and the West Indies, and Ulloa's orders meant the break- ing up of this trade. Ulloa could not have struck Louisiana a harder blow. Think what it would mean to the Louisiana of to-day if she were cut off from trading with other countries! It meant just as much to the Louisiana of that day. It would mean ruin to us ; and it meant ruin to them. At the request of merchants and shipbuilders, the Superior Council sent a petition to Ulloa ask- ing him to do nothing until he had heard them speak in their own behalf. Ulloa answered that he would wait until he got more " support " from his government. By this he meant more soldiers. Matters were in this unsettled condition when Ulloa disappeared. Questions. — i. How did the colonists protest against the transfer to Spain? 2. How did Bienville in his old age try to help Louisiana? 3. How did Ulloa begin his government of Louisiana? 4. Why did the Louisianians distrust Ulloa? CHAPTER XXIV "the revolution of 1768" Ulloa was a very learned man. He had written several books, and had found out valuable things about metals. Once, when watching an eclipse of the sun, he discovered a brilliant spot on the moon. After deep thought he assured himself that this spot was a hole. Now, when Ulloa left New Orleans so suddenly, the question was asked, Where had he gone ? Did he leave that he mioiht be able to con- tinue quietly his scientific studies ? Those who were curious to know his whereabouts watched Aubry, and found out that Ulloa was at the Balize, at the mouth of the Mississippi, and that Aubry went back and forth, keeping Ulloa posted as to what was going on in the colony. Weeks and months passed, and Ulloa did not come back. But it was no question of science which had taken the Spanish scholar to the Balize. Don Antonio de Ulloa was in love. He had gone to the Balize to be married to the Duchess d'Abrado. The duchess kept her lover — fifty-one years old — patiently waiting for his bride seven months amid the swamps and mosquitoes. They were married at the Balize by Ulloa's chaplain. 138 "THE REVOLUTION OF 1768" 139 Don Antonio dk Um.oa The women of New Orleans looked forward with pleasure to the coming of the governor's wife. This first lady of the land was young and beautiful, and the Creole belles of the capital city dreamed of de- lightful balls and gay little sup- pers to be given at the govern- ment house. They were to be disappointed. The duchess was not the gentle, tactful woman needed to soften the feeling be- tween Ulloa and the Louisiani- ans. She was more proud and haughty than her husband had been. She would not associate with the women of New Orleans, not even with those who were refined, educated, and of gentle birth. She would not deign to sit in the same church with them. Her only companions were two Indian girls whom she had brought with her from Peru. At last Milhet came back from France. The Louisianians saw now that no help was to be ex- pected from France. They also saw that their liberty was in danger. Lafreniere, the two Milhets, and Doucet called a meeting in New Orleans, in 1768. This was a meeting of the people, and every parish sent delegates. The object of the meeting was to bring before all the people of the province the outrages Ulloa had committed. The Superior I40 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Council was the highest court in Louisiana, yet Ulloa paid no attention to it. He set the law aside, and governed according to his own will, backed by his soldiers. Yet, he could not be made to show the document to prove that Louisiana had become a Spanish colony, and he allowed the French flag to remain floating over the province. Lafreniere, addressing the meeting, said that a people could be happy only when protected by law ; that the safety of a people was not in the will of one man, but in councils and parliaments. Before the meeting closed, the delegates decided that Ulloa had seized power to which he had no right, and they drew up a petition asking the Superior Council to order him to leave Louisiana. The council there- upon ordered Ulloa to leave the colony. It was a grave matter to expel from the country a man of Ulloa's position. It is true Ulloa had re- fused to show proof of his authority. Yet, before coming to Louisiana, he had written to the Superior Council that he had been ordered by the king of Spain to take possession of the colony. Spanish ships had brought him to Louisiana ; Spanish troops were under his command. There could be no doubt that he held a high position in the service of Spain. There was, however, a passage in King Louis's letter to D'Abadie which made the Louisianians cling to the idea that France, in ceding Louisiana "THE REVOLUTION OF 1768" 141 to Spain, still kept some hold on the province. King Louis had said he hoped his cousin, the king of Spain, would see to it that the colonists would continue to enjoy their rights, and that the "Supe- rior Council would continue to administer justice according to the laws of the colony." There was nothing more binding in the letter than this, — a mere hope, — but the colonists believed that King Louis had some control over the king of Spain, and M^ould uphold them in what they had done. Aubry, at the head of the colonial troops, es- corted Ulloa to his vessel. All night the vessel lay quietly at its moorings. A party of young men, going home from a wedding feast at the break of day, thought it would be a fine joke to cut the ropes of the vessel while the Spaniards were sleeping. No sooner had the thought occurred to them than they acted upon it. When they cut the ropes, the vessel drifted with the current. Cold and revengeful Ulloa was borne away from the unfriendly shores of Loui- siana to lay his case before the Spanish court. Questions. — i. Describe the convention of 1768 : (i) Why it was called. (2) Who attended it. (3) The petition to the Superior Council. (4) The result. 2. In what ways had Ulloa failed to convince the people that he represented Spain ? 3. Why had he not taken formal possession for Spain? CHAPTER XXV DON ALEXANDER o'rEILLY The leaders of the convention of 1 768 published a memorial, as the writing was called, which gave a full account of the unlawful acts of Ulloa, and up- held the delegates in all they had done. Copies of the memorial were scattered through the colony, and a copy was sent to Ulloa, in Havana, who promptly forwarded it to the Spanish government. Since the colonists still clung to the mother coun- try, Lesassier, a member of the Superior Council, went to France to justify the course they had taken. Lesassier bore with him a petition to King Louis asking that the Louisianians be again taken under his protection. But as was the case when Milhet carried a petition to France, the minister stood be- tween the throne and the colonists; and their appeal never reached the ears of King Louis. Aubry then sent a report of the affair to the French government. He wrote cautiously, for he wished to wait to see how France would view the matter before he should side with or against the colonists. He was convinced, so he wrote, that Ulloa had not been the right man to govern Loui- 142 DON ALEXANDER O'REILLY 143 siana ; nevertheless, he and a few other worthy ones had submitted to his rule. Ulloa himself was not slow in laying his wrongs before the Spanish court. He wrote bitterly of the insult put upon his king and upon himself, the representative of Spain. When his report, with the memorial from the colonists, reached Spain, a council of ministers was held to decide whether Spain should keep Loui- siana or whether the province should be given back to France. The council decided that Spain should hold Louisiana. The council did not reach this conclusion because it thought that in the years to come the province would be valuable. Spain prized Texas and Mexico, and thought it best to hold Louisiana because it lay between her valued posses- sions and the English colonies, and so would serve as a protection against the advancing English. The council agreed that, as subjects of Spain, the Loui- sianians must be punished for the " rebellion," as Ulloa had termed it. Don Alexander O'Reilly was chosen to rule Louisiana. As his name tells you, O'Reilly was an Irishman ; but he had served in the Spanish army a long time and had become a general. General O'Reilly was sent to Louisiana with a large army. He was ordered to " subdue the rebels by force," if necessary ; but the king himself commanded him to be merciful, saying he was only to banish from 144 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the colony those who deserved a greater punish- ment. During all this time the Louisianians lived in the deepest anxiety. No news came from France, and none from Spain, except that now and then rumors drifted into the colony of a fleet which Spain was getting ready to send to Louisiana. Lafreniere and his followers were bold enough to think of seizing Louisiana, and forming a govern- ment with the power in the hands of the people. This, you know, is the form of government we now enjoy as a part of the United States, but in the year 1768 the United States had not been formed. The determined leaders were ready to fight for the prin- ciple of self-government, and to die for it, but noth- ing could be done without the support of the people. And the people ? Were the Louisianians without spirit.'^ No, the French- Americans in Louisiana held in their hearts the same idea of self-government that, some years later, caused the English-Americans on the Atlantic coast to form a government "of the people, for the people, and by the people." But, though the hardships and dangers of life in a new country had made the Louisianians hardy, ' self- reliant, and strong in their personal affairs, they had been born and reared in dependence upon the mother country for a government. They had within them the instinct of freedom, but had not been trained to know their strength or to use it. DON ALEXANDER O'REILLY 145 They could grasp the idea of self-government, but it was too new and too shadowy for them to put it into practice. The time had not yet come when the Louisianians could hold together in a common cause. As the people would not unite with them, the leaders could do nothing. The colony waited helplessly to see what move Spain would make. One morning a messen- ger came into New Orleans with the news that a Spanish fieet of twenty-four ships was '' i' at the Balize. Tlie fleet proved to be the escort of Don ' ' -^--V' Don AllWNDlK ORlilly O'Reilly, who was coming to take possession of Louisiana. The people, with anxious faces, stood in groups on the street corners, and on the levee, lookinof toward the south whence the Spanish ships were coming up the river. They now realized what it meant to defy Spain. The only thing to do was to submit and to hope for the best. Aubry advised Lafreniere and the other leaders of the so-called " revolution" to be the first to greet O'Reilly. Acting upon this advice the leaders went down the river to meet the fleet. O'Reilly received them on board of his vessel with marked courtesy. Lafreniere told him that, since help 146 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA was no longer expected from France, he, in the name of the Louisianians, would promise submission to Spanish control. Aubry declared that there would have been no trouble if Ulloa had satisfied the people that he was the representative of Spain. O'Reilly answered that he could not talk of the matter until he had looked into it from all sides, but he assured the Creoles that he had their interests at heart. During the conversation O'Reilly used the ex- pression, " rebellious people." Milhet thereupon spoke up and said that such a term could not apply to the colonists, for they had resisted no lawful au- thority. O'Reilly invited the Creoles to dinner, and after they had partaken of his hospitality, they parted from him pleasantly. O'Reilly, with three thousand troops, landed at New Orleans in the part of the city facing what is now called Jackson Square, but at that time was called Place d'Armes. Aubry had his troops drawn up on the levee to receive the representative of Spain. O'Reilly and his brilliant staff marched across to the Place and drew up the Spanish soldiers on three sides of the square. Aubry marshaled his troops on the remaining side. Surrounding the square were thousands of people, awed into silence, as they viewed the imposing scene. O'Reilly and Aubry walked toward each other, and met in the middle of the square. O'Reilly DON ALEXANDER O'REILLY 147 handed to Aubry the papers from the king of Spain, giving him the right to receive the province. These papers were read aloud. The French flag was lowered, and the Spanish flag raised in its place. There was no longer any doubt that the Louisia- nians were subjects of Spain. Questions. — i. Tell of the second appeal to the French king. 2. Tell of the first ideas of independence and self-government in Louisiana. 3. What did the Spanish government do when it learned of the rebellious actions in Louisiana? 4. How did the leaders in the colony receive O'Reilly? 5. Describe the ceremony at the Place d'Armes when Spain formally took possession of Louisiana. CHAPTER XXVI EXECUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS O'Reilly took possession of one of the hand- somest houses in New Orleans, and lived in a style befitting the representative of a rich and powerful nation. He had a large chair with a canopy over it placed in one of the most beautiful rooms. Here, like a king seated in his chair of state, he received the people. So elegant were his dinners and so brilliant his receptions that the belles of De Vau- dreuil's day owned to their daughters that even in the time of the Grand Marquis there had never been such pomp and magnificence. The citizens of New Orleans, even the leaders of the so-called *' revolution," accompanied by their wives and daughters, did not hesitate to attend O'Reilly's receptions, for Lafreniere had given his word that the colonists would remain quiet, and O'Reilly had declared that he would act for the good of the people. So far as the Louisianians were concerned, the matter was settled. They had buried the past, and were acting in good faith. If they had been plotting against O'Reilly, not one of them would have entered his house and broken bread with him. 148 EXECUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS 149 O'Reilly, however, had no such nice sense of honor. While he was acting the part of the friendly man and gracious host, he was keeping Aubry near, getting from him information and papers relating to the expulsion of Ulloa. O'Reilly particularly wanted the names of the leaders. Aubry promptly gave the names. He even gave more information than was asked of him ; and he added the opinion that it was the leaders who had caused the revolt, and that they should be punished. So secretly did O'Reilly and Aubry plot that no one suspected what was being done. One night O'Reilly gave a large reception. His rooms were thronged with the best society of tlie capital city. All the leaders of the revolution were there except Villere, who was absent on his planta- tion. O'Reilly moved among his guests, saying a pleasant word to each, and putting all at ease by his own grace and charm of manner. After a little while he made it convenient, in some light, un- noticeable way, to get Lafreniere and the other leaders together. O'Reilly then asked them to walk into an adjoining room. Bowing and smiling, the gentlemen entered the room with their host. Do you think that they were invited in to have a smoke and friendly chat ? All around the room stood soldiers, armed as if they were going to battle. O'Reilly's manner sud- denly changed. He called the Creoles rebels, and ISO HISTORY OF LOUISIANA accused them of trying to overthrow the Spanish government. Under his orders the soldiers seized the gentlemen and threw them into prison. When Villere heard what had taken place, his first thought was to flee from Louisiana. How- ever, on receiving a letter from Aubry saying that his flight would be used to prove the guilt of his friends who were in prison, he returned to New Orleans. He was immediately arrested and put on board a Spanish ship. Madame Villere, hearing of his arrest, hastened to the city, and went out in a canoe to the side of the prison-ship. While she was pleading with the officers, Villere heard her voice. He attempted to go to his wife, but was instantly killed by the guard. Villere's shirt, soaked through with his blood, was then thrown into the canoe to his wife. O'Reilly pretended to give the other prisoners a trial, but it was a farce. They did not have a fair trial in open court, with lawyers to defend them and witnesses to testify in their behalf. They were ex- amined separately and secretly, each in his cell. They did not know the names of the witnesses who testified against them, or what they testified. The Louisianians could defend themselves only by repeating what they had already told O'Reilly; namely, that they did not, and could not, know that Ulloa had authority to rule over the colony; that they had acted while the French flag still EXECUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS 151 waved over them, and while the colony was still under French law, with Aubry holding it for the king of France. It was useless, however, for the prisoners to make any attempt to defend themselves. O'Reilly had made up his mind to make an example of them, hoping that this would so terrify the other colonists that they would never dare rebel again. He com- manded that Lafreniere, Milhet, Noyan, Caresse, and Marquis should be placed upon mules, and with cords around their necks be led out of prison and hanged. When it became known that these good and true men were to die, the citizens of New Orleans were stirred to the depths of their souls. Men, women, even little children, implored O'Reilly to spare the lives of the patriots, at least until their cause could be heard by the king. O'Reilly, in spite of the fact that the Spanish king had commanded him to be merciful, turned a deaf ear to the pleading of the inhabitants that the lives of all the prisoners be spared. But cruel as O'Reilly was at heart, the case of one of the prisoners touched him. He was moved to pity when he thought of Noyan, — Noyan, the nephew of Bienville, with his frank, handsome face and boyish manners, — who had just married Lafreniere 's daughter. He allowed it to be hinted to Noyan that he would be permitted to escape. But Noyan refused to do so. Not even for the sake 152 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA of his girl-wife would the young Louisianian desert his comrades in distress. It was found that there was no hano-man in the colony, so the condemned prisoners were ordered to be shot. When the day of execution came, hundreds of people left the city. Those who could not leave went into their houses, closed the doors and win- dows, and waited in an agony of sickening dread to hear the fatal shots. Only the tramping of soldiers broke the deathlike stillness which brooded over the crushed and helpless city. At three o'clock on a perfect October afternoon in 1769, the condemned men were led to the Spanish barracks. Lafreniere, it is said, gave the order to fire. A volley of mus- kets broke out on the still air, and five patriots went to their death, — the first Louisianians to give their blood for the cause of freedom. The other men who had been arrested by O'Reilly on the charge of being revolutionists were not put to death, because it was declared that they were merely under the influence of the leaders. They were all sentenced to imprisonment, however, some for a term of years, others for life. The prop- erty of all of them was seized. The property of Villere, who was killed on the Spanish ship, was taken from his wife and children. One of his sons lived to be governor of Louisiana. Aubry seemed to be the only person in Louisi- ana who approved of O'Reilly's cruel course. He EXECUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS 153 praised O'Reilly for making an example of so few of the " revolutionists." But Louisiana was no longer a pleasant home for Aubry, since the people regarded him as a traitor. He very soon sneaked away from Louisiana. Taking with him a bag of gold and a box of silver earned by his treachery, he sailed for France. Retribution came upon him quickly. The vessel upon which he sailed was wrecked as it entered the Garonne River in France. Aubry, with his purse of gold and box of silver, went to the bottom of the river. ^ JXjl^ 9-^ O O'Reilly's Autograph Questions. — i. Describe O'Reilly's apparent friendliness and his treachery. 2. What was the prisoners' defense against the charge of con- spiracy and rebellion ? 3. Were they allowed a trial? What do you think of con- demning a man without a trial? 4. What penalties did O'Reilly inflict? CHAPTER XXVII THE CABILDO O'Reilly thought that he had brought the Loui- sianians to their senses. He had made them un- derstand that Spain would put up with no rebelHous spirit. Now that he had made himself master, he wrote to the Spanish court that he would pacify the colonists by every means in his power; that he would try to make them feel that the past was forgotten ! The Louisianians had given O'Reilly an ugly nickname, — " Bloody O'Reilly," — but it would not be just to the Spanish general to remember him only as Bloody O'Reilly. He was an able, active man. The king had directed him to form a new govern- ment in the colony, and he went about the work in an earnest, sensible way. The first thing he did was to take a census of New Orleans, which showed 3187 inhabitants, counting the negroes. O'Reilly, as far as was possible, trusted none to do what he could do himself. He visited the differ- ent parishes, looked into the condition of the people, and asked them to let him know their needs. The levees next drew his attention. In those days the 154 THE CABILDO 155 government did not help to keep up the levees as it does now, and the people had not learned to work together for the good of the whole country. It was, therefore, a wise idea of O'Reilly to give a certain amount of land to anyone who would work it, and would keep up the levee in front of his property. The city government of New Orleans was run in a careless, haphazard way. Sometimes there was money to pay the city's expenses, sometimes there was none. O'Reilly arranged for a fixed yearly income. Each tavern was taxed forty dollars a year, each hotel twenty dollars, every barrel of wine or whisky one dollar, and the butchers were taxed three hundred and seventy dollars a year. The city was allowed to put a certain tax on vessels both entering and leaving the port. The money received from the last-mentioned tax was to be used to build levees. By far the most important act of O'Reilly was to bring Louisiana under firm, just laws. Before this the system of government had been loose. The code of laws was, of course, Spanish. Since the colonists were French, they naturally objected, but there was really little difference between the Spanish and French laws. The actual change was only that the colony was to be under a strong, settled form of government. A court, called the Cabildo, took the place of the Superior Council. The Cabildo had some of the powers of our Supreme Court, and 156 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA some of the powers of our legislature. The Cabildo met every Friday, though the governor could call a meeting at any time. O'Reilly opened the first session of the Cabildo and installed Unzaga as governor. Unzaga was not given so much power as had been allowed the former governor. Under the laws of the Cabildo, if a gov- ernor did any unlawful act, he could be brought before the Cabildo, and his conduct examined. It was the duty of several officers of the Cabildo to visit every F'riday the prisons of the city. They were to see that the jails were kept clean, that the jailers were kind to the prisoners, and were to set free those who had been put in jail for small debts. You will remember that when Lafreniere and his comrades were tried, they were confronted with no witnesses. Now a law was made that no person ac- cused of a crime could be found guilty unless con- fronted with two witnesses of good character who swore to his guilt. These are only a few of the Spanish laws, but there were others just as good. O'Reilly did his work well, but he was never for- given for the execution of the six patriots. The doors of Creole homes were never opened to him. He left no friends behind him when he was called away shortly after the new government was formed. The Spanish rule would have been just, had it not been for the trade laws. At that time Louisiana had indigo, lumber, tobacco, and furs to sell, but she THE CABILDO 157 was not allowed to send them where they would be bought. Louisiana could trade only with six ports in Spain, and two vessels a year from France were permitted to enter her ports. Spain got better in- digo from her other colonies; more tobacco was The Old Cabildo of New Orleans grown in the West Indies than the Spaniards could use ; and as for furs, both Spain and France were such warm countries that they did not need them. On the other hand, Louisiana had at her very door a people who needed what she had to sell. More than that, these people, the English settlers in America, had what Louisiana wanted to buy, and were eager to trade. The English — who, as you know, now owned all east of the Mississippi except 158 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the island of Orleans — had built large warehouses at Manchac, Baton Rouge, and Natchez. Vessels from Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Balti- more kept these warehouses filled with goods of every description. Queer-looking boats with shelves from prow to stern still glided down the stream and tied up at Little Manchac. What a pity the law of Spain forbade the Louisi- anians to trade with the English ! The English spread their wares, and the New Orleans merchants went to see the tempting display. Seeing led to buying, and Little Manchac fairly buzzed with trade as the merchants bargained for whole cargoes of the floating stores, and gave their furs and tobacco in exchange. Year in and year out the brisk trade went on. Unzaga quietly went his way and said nothing. He knew that trade was life to the col- ony, and that Spain could not furnish enough sol- diers to guard the Mississippi from Natchez to New Orleans. For the first time there was freedom in the prov- ince, and under its healthful influence Louisiana blossomed like a rose. The English-Americans, attracted by the rich soil of the colony, left the ware- houses and floating stores to buy plantations in Louisiana. From the plantations they soon went to New Orleans and established business houses. The colonists loved Unzaga for his gentleness. They were sorry to see him leave when, in 1776, he THE CABILDO 159 was sent to govern another Spanish colony. But they could not help loving the man who for the time being was named as his successor, — Galvez, the dashing young colonel of the Louisiana regi- ment. Galvez, though but twenty-one years old when placed in command, was a man in whom the people could put their trust. Would Bienville have known his colony under Unzaga and Galvez ? Both ofificers married Creoles, and other Spaniards followed their example. The people of Louisiana were now French, Spanish, mixed French and Spanish, and Americans. Questions. — i. What were some of the things O'Reilly did to help the people and the city of New Orleans? ,2. Tell something about the laws in the colony at this time. 3. Tell of the organization of the Cabildo and its duties. 4. Describe the conditions of trade : (i) The export products of Louisiana. (2) The restrictions on trade. (3) The illegal trade with the English. 5. Tell about the settling of English-Americans in Louisiana. CHAPTER XXVIII THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Is it not hard to realize that Great Britain, France, and Spain once owned our country? You have seen that the laws made by France and Spain for their colonies were often unjust. Great Britain for a long time dealt wisely with her American colonies. They were allowed to elect their own legislatures and to make their own laws. These laws were so good that many people in Europe came to live in English-America. Great Britain, however, did not forget that the colonies belonged to her, and kept her right to make laws for them whenever she chose. As a result of the French and Indian War, Great Britain had gained an immense territory in America, but the war had cost so much that she had been compelled to borrow a great deal of money to carry it on. She wanted her American colonies to help pay the debt. The Americans had helped bear the expense of the war, and thought that they had done enough. Great Britain insisted on raising money in the col- onies, and for this purpose made laws taxing their i6o THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION i6i trade. The Americans had enjoyed making their own laws too long to allow a country across the Atlantic Ocean — even their mother country — to pass laws taxing them. In 1775 they raised armies to oppose the English The Committee presenting the Declaration of Independence to THE PRESIL'ENT OF CONGRESS After a bronze tablet on pedestal of monument. policies. The next year they determined to separate from Great Britain. On July 4, 1776, a Congress, representing all the colonies, adopted the Declara- tion of Independence — a set of resolutions that declared the colonies to be free and independent States, The Louisianians, you remember, had the same idea in 1768. There was, however, a great differ- ence. In the English colonies the people numbered i62 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA seven or eight million ; they were well-to-do, many of them rich ; there were many cities, large for those days; and the men had learned to fight in the French and Indian War. In the French colony there were only about four or five thousand inhab- itants ; the people were poor ; there was but one city in the colony ; and the men had no military training. Besides, the Louisianians had never been used to governing themselves. But the spirit of Lafreniere and his brave followers still lived in the hearts of their countrymen, and the Louisianians gave sympathy and aid to the Americans. It is true that the Louisianians had enjoyed good government under Unzaga, and trade with the Eng- lish had enriched them. This trade, however, was contrary to law. They had been able to carry it on simply because Unzaga, a kind, sensible man, acting according to his own judgment as to what was best for the colony, had allowed it. Galvez also governed justly and encouraged trade. But what assurance had the colonists that such a condition would con- tinue ? What assurance had they that trading would always be allowed? At any time the king might order that oppressive laws be enforced. Any gov- ernor, if he chose, might .interfere with trade. It is no wonder, then, that the sympathies of the Louisi- anians went out to the brave Americans who were struggling to become free. For a long time Spain took no part in the war THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 163 except to encourage Unzaga, and after him Galvez, to aid the Americans. The last year that Unzaga was in the colony, the American merchants in New Orleans openly sent shiploads of arms, supplies, and ammunition to Pennsylvania. Later a decided stand was taken against the British. As France and Spain were friendly, these two countries made a treaty permitting trade between Louisiana and the French West Indies. Galvez did all in his power to encourage this trade. French vessels, taking the place of English vessels, went up and down the river, buying and selling, and sailed out of the port at New Orleans loaded with Louisi- ana products. The English tried to smuggle in some of their goods, but Galvez seized eleven of their richly laden vessels. On account of this vig- orous action of Galvez, the English were obliged to leave the Mississippi. France, in order to cripple her old enemy. Great Britain, made an alliance with the American revolu- tionists. She sent them money, ships, and soldiers. Spain aided them through her colony of Louisiana, and did not have the foresight to see that in doing so she was bringing the French-Americans and the English-Americans closer together. Oliver Pollock was one of the leading American merchants in New Orleans, and was especially active in aiding his countrymen. When large ves- sels came from Fort Pitt, in Pennsylvania, for sup- 164 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA First Flag of the United States Adopted by Congress in 1777- plies, Pollock, with the help of Galvez, would see that they were well loaded. In this way seventy thousand dollars' worth of arms and provisions went to the Americans. The vessels sailing between Louisiana and the Atlantic States opened the way for other Americans to come to Louisiana. Captain Willing from Philadel- phia visited New Or- leans and Mobile. He tried to get the English in Florida to join the cause of the American colo- nies that were supporting the Revolution, but they remained on the side of the mother country. He then took about fifty men up the Mississippi River. He burned the houses, killed the cattle, and de- stroyed the crops on the English plantations at Manchac, Baton Rouge, and Natchez. Colonel Morgan, the American commander at Fort Pitt, wrote to Galvez that he thought it would be an easy matter for th^ Americans to surprise the English at Mobile and Pensacola if vessels could be had at New Orleans. Colonel Morgan also wrote that he would pay well for the information if Galvez would tell him the strength of these places and the number of soldiers in the garrisons. Galvez had THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION - 165 not been at all pleased when Willing went up the river. A Spanish governor could not enjoy the sight of American boats filled with armed men on the Mississippi. When the letter from Colonel Morgan came, he was still less pleased. He did not want any country but Spain to have Florida. He got all the information he could about the garrisons at Mobile and Pensacola, but instead of sending it to the American colonel, he sent it to his government in Spain. Then Galvez had four boats built to defend the Spanish interests on the Mississippi. Questions. — i. What brought on the Revolutionary War be- tween England and her American colonies ? 2. How did the Louisianians feel about the war ? 3. What help was sent the Americans from New Orleans ? CHAPTER XXIX THE CAPTURE OF FLORIDA Spain wished to brino; the American Revolution to a close, and proposed that commissioners from France, Great Britain, and the United States should meet at Madrid to settle upon terms of peace. Great Britain was unwilling to recognize the American government, and would not agree to meet a commis- sioner from the United States. Spain then declared war against Great Britain. This was welcome news to the daring, ambitious young governor of Louisiana. He had eagerly watched the movements of the English and Americans, and had kept his eye jeal- ously fixed on Florida. Florida had once belonged to Spain. What a glorious deed for the man who would again put it in the hands of his royal master ! The English and the Americans were both eager to control Louisiana. When Spain entered the struggle, Great Britain at once determined to attack New Orleans, for with New Orleans in her possession, her boats could sail up and down the Mississippi, and keep Louisiana from helping the Americans. The English made a plan to surprise New Orleans. They worked so secretly that they 1 66 THE CAPTURE OF FLORIDA 167 came near succeeding, but Galvez captured a letter to an English commander which told what the Eng- lish were planning. Galvez was wide awake. He fully understood what the loss of New Orleans would mean to Spain. If the Eng- lish should capture New Orleans, they would push on to the precious gold mines of Mexico. Not only was Louisiana threatened, but all of Spain's American possessions were in danger. Galvez felt that something ,11 , T T Bernardo de Galvez must be done at once. He wanted to attack the English settlements at Manchac, Baton Rouge, and Natchez. To get the necessary aid, he called a meeting of his council, but the council was neither so bold nor so far-seeing as the young governor. The members agreed to help Galvez in whatever preparation he should make to defend New Orleans, but they thought that the plan to attack the English settlements showed that Galvez had more imagination than common sense. They said it would be foolish to draw Louisiana into the war because a hot-headed governor wanted to fight. Now, Galvez had not at first been regularly ap- pointed governor, but had only been put in com- mancl temporarily. But a commission had come 1 68 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA to him making him the regular governor, at the same time that news came that Spain had declared war against Great Britain. Galvez had so far kept his appointment a secret. When the council re- fused to help him, the thought came to him that he might make good use of his commission. With it he would appeal to the people ! All the inhabit- ants of the city were called together at the Place d'Armes. Galvez stood before them with his com- mission in his hand. He told them that he had been appointed their governor and that the English were threatening New Orleans. He said that it was the duty of a governor to protect the people, and he could do nothing for their protection un- less they would help him. Would they do so? It was a question that meant much. For the first time, a Louisiana governor felt the need of the people, and asked for their support. The crowd cheered and cheered, and promised to follow their gallant leader. Galvez went to work with energy, and in a short while had an army made up of regular troops, Creoles, Americans, and negroes. He told his men that he intended to post them along the river, where he expected the English to make an attack. When the army w^as a short distance from Man- chac, the governor ordered a halt. He then made a speech to his soldiers, stating that his real object was to take the British forts. Would they stand by THE CAPTURE OF FLORIDA 169 him ? Again there was cheer after cheer, and the Httle army eagerly promised to follow him. The fort at Manchac was easily taken, and the army marched on to Baton Rouge. Colonel Dick- son and his brother ofificers of the British garrison were eating breakfast when a cannon ball went whizzing over their heads and passed through the opposite wall. The British returned this morning greeting, but after a few hours' fighting, surrendered Baton Rouge, and agreed to give up Natchez to the Spaniards. Galvez hastened back to New Orleans and began preparations to march against Mobile and Pensa- cola. The active young commander, after raising an army of two thousand men, sailed from the Ba- lize to attack these towns. A terrible storm on the Gulf almost wrecked the fleet, but at last it landed safely at Mobile. The town did not hold out any longer than Manchac, Baton Rouge, and Natchez had done. The next movement was against Pensacola. This place was strongly fortified and had a large gar- rison. Galvez sent to Cuba for more troops, but he received nothing but promises. Tired of waiting, Galvez himself went to Cuba. As he was the son of the viceroy of Mexico, and had relatives who were influential at the court of Spain, Galvez got all the troops and ammunition he needed. Coming across the Gulf, his fleet was almost destroyed by a I70 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA storm. But Galvez did not give up. He went back to Cuba and secured more ships, arms, and men. This time he got safely across the Gulf and landed on the island of St. Rosa, at the entrance of Pen- sacola harbor. The Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown From the painting by Trumbull, in the Capitol at Washington Storms were so frequent on the coast of the island that the ships were in danger. Galvez told the Spanish admiral, who came with him from Cuba, that the vessels must cross the bar and enter the harbor. The admiral said that the channel was too narrow for the ships. Galvez could not force the admiral to obey him, but he did not intend to be outdone. Taking two or three gunboats be- longing to the Louisiana government, he entered THE CAPTURE OF FLORIDA 171 the channel. The British poured a heavy volley upon the little fleet, but it swept gallantly on and landed safely. Thereupon, the admiral, who could not stand the shame of being thought a coward, passed into the channel with his fleet and joined Galvez. A brave attack was made upon Pensacola, and the gariison surrendered. Galvez won his brilliant victory at Pensacola in 1 781. In the same year the American army, under George Washington, compelled the British general, Cornwallis, to surrender at Yorktown, in Virginia. The surrender of Cornwallis virtually put an end to the American Revolution. In 1 783 treaties of peace were signed by Great Britain, France, Spain, and the United States. Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the United States and the western boundary of the new government was fixed at the Mississippi River. Great Britain also gave back Florida to Spain. On the other hand, Spain granted the free navigation of the Mississippi to the United States and Great Britain Questions. — i . When Spain declared war against Great Britain, what was the effect in Louisiana? 2. How did Galvez break up the English plan to capture New Orleans ? 3. Describe his efforts to capture Pensacola and his final success. 4. After the treaty of 1783, what did Great Britain own in America? What did Spain own? CHAPTER XXX THE NAVIGATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI Spain had not the slightest Idea of keeping that part of the treaty which promised the free use of the Mississippi River. She did not want the Americans to enter her possessions, and she looked upon the Mississippi as a part of these. The Westerners, as the people of Tennessee and Kentucky were called, did not see the matter in the same light. They lived upon the bank of the river, and consid- ered that it belonged to them as well as to Spain. The river, they contended, was a public highway for the use of all. The Westerners had crossed the mountains and cut through forests until they had reached the Mis- sissippi. They had built log cabins, made their own furniture, and lived on bear's meat and a kind of corn bread which they baked in ashes and called johnnycake. In the course of time the settlements of the hardy pioneers became towns. The West- erners then had good houses and fine furniture, and they ate johnnycake only because they liked it. They were an Industrious people. They raised more corn, wheat, pork, chickens, and turkeys than 172 THE NAVIGATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI 173 they could use. To make their country prosper, they had to sell what they did not need. The vexing question now arose as to where they should sell. There were no railroads in those times. The only way the Westerners could get their produce overland to the cities on the Atlantic coast was to load wagons and send them through great forests and over hio-h mountains. This method of market- O ino: cost so iTiuch that the Westerners could not afford to use it. The only outlet that remained for their produce was the Mississippi, and the only city with which they could trade with profit was New Orleans. Spain, without exactly breaking the treaty, made laws which interfered with trade and kept the West- erners — especially the Kentuckians, who raised the greatest amount of produce for trade — angry and dissatisfied. They had to pay heavy fees for the right to use the river and to sell their produce in New Orleans. If these fees or taxes were not paid, the goods were seized and the owner was put into prison. Louisiana was no longer a Spanish province at the end of nowhere. She had come into close touch with the United States, of which she was by nature a part. The Louisianians did not approve of Spain's treatment of their thrifty neighbors, for they eagerly welcomed the loaded flatboats crowding their port, and opening trade between them and the Americans. 174 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Miro, the new governor, stood as Spain's repre- sentative between the people of Louisiana and the people of the United States. He understood con- ditions in America much better than the king of Spain, and wrote to his "gracious Majesty" that Louisiana was not like his other colonies, and advised A Flatboat that she be not governed by the laws that were made for the other colonies. The king, however, refused to make any change in the laws for Louisiana. Miro, nevertheless, resolved to help Louisiana and the Westerners all he could. He allowed American families to settle in the province, and, whenever it was possible to do so, took no notice of the breaking of the trade laws. Under this policy a brisk trade soon sprang up, but, in spite of Miro's care, the peace was not kept. Every little while some officer stationed on the river THE NAVIGATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI 175 stopped the flatboat of some Kentuckian, seized his cargo, and put him into prison. So many such out- rages occurred that the people of the West became aroused, and declared that, since God intended the river to be used by every one living on its banks, they meant to use it for their trade. The Ken- tuckians did not put much faith in the Congress of the United States, for the national government was then very weak, and, besides, they felt they were too far away from the Atlantic States for Congress to take much interest in them. Still, they decided to ask the government to make some agreement with Spain that would give them the free use of the river. If Congress would not help them, — well, they would help themselves. Some of the Kentuckians thought it would be best for the West to join Louisiana, and become a prov- ince of Spain, so as to secure the use of the Missis- sippi River; some thought a better way would be to ask France for aid ; others wanted to seize New Orleans and force Spain to give them the use of the Mississippi. There were still others who wanted to withdraw from the United States, form an inde- pendent republic, and ask the friendship of Spain. Lastly, there was another party, made up of the cool- headed, loyal people, who wished to stay in the Union, but insisted that Congress should protect them in their right to use the river. Governor Miro knew all that was going on in 176 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Kentucky, and offered every inducement to the Western people to settle in Louisiana. He quietly did all he could to make the West secede from the United States, so as to gain that beautiful country for Spain. General James Wilkinson was a Kentuckian who had a great deal of influence with his people. He came to New Orleans with a large cargo of flour, butter, lard, bacon, and tobacco. His boat was seized. When Miro heard of it, he ordered the boat to be re- turned to its owner, and allowed General Wilkinson to sell his cargo without paying duty. Miro, hoping to win over General Wilkinson, gave several fine din- ners, and told him that he might trade with New Orleans free of duty. Before Wilkinson left the city, he gave Miro a written statement to the effect that the Kentuckians were about to leave the Union. This caused many letters to pass between the Louisiana governor and leading men in Kentucky on the subject of the West seceding from the Union. Though every effort was made to persuade Ken- tucky to secede, the movement did not succeed. In 1789 a new government, under a strong con- stitution, was organized for the United States. A Kentucky Pioneer THE NAVIGATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI 177 George Washington became the first President. Washington was so just and wise that the whole country had faith in him, and the Kentuckians knew that they could depend upon him to pro- tect their interests. They therefore decided to remain in the Union. Though Governor Miro failed to gain new ter- ritory for Spain, he governed well the province of Louisiana. His first act when he came to Louisi- ana was prompted by a kind heart. At that time there were many people suffering from the dreadful disease of leprosy. Every one feared it, and the miserable lepers wandered about the streets, eating what they could pick up, and sleeping wherever they could find a place. Miro had a hospital built for the lepers. After this was done, the unhappy creatures were at least comfortable. A fire swept over the city, leaving thousands starving and homeless. Miro had tents put up and used the government's money to buy food for the suffering people. In every way he worked for the good of the colony. After a time a feeling came over Miro that he could no longer be useful in Louisiana, and he asked to be removed. W^hy should he feel this way ? He could scarcely explain the reasons. He had seen the Americans throw off the control of Great Brit- ain ; he had seen these same people boldly pushing toward the Spanish possessions, and clamoring for 178 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the right of way on the Mississippi ; lie had seen the Louisianians, impatient of restraint, determined to trade with the people of the United States. Miro knew that, to keep peace, he had been forced to give way to the people. But there was still another reason that crrew out of conditions in Europe. In 1789 the people of France had caught the spirit of freedom which had been working such a change in America. They rose against their king, and spread the new doctrine that all men are brothers with equal rights. This spirit of freedom seemed brooding over the world. The times and the people were changing. Miro felt he could not change with them. He asked that another man, who could better deal with the situa- tion, be put in his place. Questions. — i. What provision regarding the Mississippi River was made in the treaty of 1783? 2. Why were the people of Tennessee and Kentucky depend- ent on the use of the Mississippi? 3. How did Spain hamper navigation and trade on the river? 4. Tell about the plans to withdraw Kentucky from the Union. CHAPTER XXXI BARON DE CARONDELET The next governor was a fat, quick-tempered little gentleman with a long name — Fran9ois Louis Hector de Carondelet. The governor was a baron, too, but the Louisianians had known so many offi- cers, marquises, and barons that titles no longer made an impression -s upon them. They liked the Baron de Carondelet for his good qualities. Carondelet did not come to Louisiana ignorant of the temper of the people with whom he had to deal, or of the state of affairs in the West. To hold the colony for his royal master, Carondelet knew that he must be firm, and at the same time tactful. He resolved to make the colonists under- stand that, as their governor, he was in command; but he meant to act in such a manner as to draw the people to him. As for the Americans in the West, he felt sure that he would find some way to get along with them. Carondelet found New Orleans poorly defended. He divided the city into four wards, and stationed a policeman in each ward. The policemen walked the streets all night and at every hour called out 179 i8o HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the state of the weather and the time. He also had large hanging lamps swung at the street cor- ners throughout the city. There were no elec- tric or gas lights in those days. Unless the moon shone, the streets were in darkness ; thieves and murderers lurked in the dark corners, making it unsafe for any citizen to go out at night without his lantern and short sword. The street lamps made the dan- ger of going about at night much less. Carondelet's improvements cost a good deal. He raised the money to pay for the lamps and the wages of the policemen In a queer way. A tax of one dol- lar and twelve and a half cents a year w^as put on every chimney in New Orleans. Surely, it cost a good deal to keep warm in those days ! The first newspaper in Louisiana was issued dur- ing Carondelet's administration. It was called Le Moniteur de la Louisiane, Carondelet received orders from the home gov- ernment not to be too strict, for a time at least, in enforcing the trade laws. He therefore allowed American merchants to bring their clerks from the Eastern States and to establish branch houses in An Early Street Lamp BARON DE CARONDELET i8i New Orleans. American names became so common in the city that one could not walk the streets with- out noticino; them on the stores. Vessels from the East and flatboats from up the river, stocked with merchandise of every kind, crowded the port and levee. When the cargoes were sold, the Americans, Creoles, and Spaniards would get together to spend the evening. They enjoyed themselves somewhat noisily. The good, quiet people who thought that night was made for sleep only would be awakened by a band of passing revelers. The sleepy souls, only half awake, wondered whether the dreaded Westerners had at last come down the river to murder them. But when they remembered that it was only New Orleans entertaining her guests, they again drifted into the land of dreams. The next morning the traders were ready to go home. Some sailed away to the East, and others, the sturdy flatboatmen, broke up their boats, sold the lumber, and, buckling on their pistols, mounted their fast horses and went dashing homeward through the woods with their pockets full of money. Thus passed the first two years of Carondelet's administration. At the end of that time terrible news came from France. The French Revolution, which began when Miro was in Louisiana, was still in progress. The French people had killed their king and his beautiful queen, and had vowed that they would govern themselves. The Louisianians HISTORY OF LOUISIANA were French at heart. While they did not approve of all the revolutionists had done, they sympathized with them in their effort to be free. Patriotic French songs were sung on the streets and in the saloons of New Orleans. One night at the theater some one in the audience cried out: " Give us the Marseillaise! " This was the war song of the revolutionists in France. As the orchestra struck the. first note, the crowd rose to their feet. More than a hun- dred throats poured out the soul-stirring song which had so aroused the people of France. The singing of the Alar- seillaise at the theater wor- ried Carondelet, but he became more uneasy when one hundred and fifty men in sympathy with the revolutionists of France signed a petition, ask- ing that the province be taken under the protection of France. Suppose the Louisianians should seize the province and hold it for France ! Or, worse still, suppose they should ask to be taken under the protection of the United States ! The baron had beautified the city ; now he began to fortify it, in order that he might hold it for Spain. Every morning at daylight the fat little baron was Baron Carondelet BARON DE CARONDELET 183 on horseback superintending the work on the forts. A French general said that Carondelet's forts looked like playthings for babies. But what did it matter.? The baron was satisfied with them, and the colonists, no doubt, looked upon them as towers of strength. Carondelet asked the Louisianians to sign a paper promising to be true to Spain. They readily did so. French songs were forbidden to be sung on the streets, and public meetings were broken up. Louisiana was then safe from within, but there was danger from without. The French minister to the United States sent an agent to arouse the Ken- tuckians. They were urged to seize Louisiana. A French club in Philadelphia sent a letter at the same time, urging the Louisianians to throw off the yoke of Spain. Carondelet knew he did not have enough troops to protect Louisiana, so he resolved to make an attempt to get the Kentucklans to secede from the United States and unite with Spain. He sent a botanist, Mr. Powers, Into Kentucky to gather specimens of plants. It took Mr. Powers a long time to make his collections. While employed in his work, the botanist met many prominent men and hinted to them about the matter of secession. These men smiled and lent a willing ear, as Spanish gold went from the pockets of Mr. Powers Into their own. What was going on finally reached the ears of the Kentucky people. They refused to leave the Union, i84 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA and nothing came of the plotting between Carondelet and the Kentucky gentlemen, except that it cost Spain a great deal of money. In the meanwhile, a plot had been formed in the very heart of Louisiana, which, if it had suc- Making Sugar from Sugar-Cane From an old print ceeded, would have been a terrible calamity. Some bad white men put it into the heads of the negroes in Pointe Coupee to murder all the white people in the parish. The plot was found out, and the leaders among the negroes were hanged. The white men, whodeserved more severe punishment, were banished. BARON DE CARONDELET 185 In 1794 a revolution, which was not warlike but industrial, came to Louisiana. It was one that has brought millions and millions of dollars into the State. In that year the principal crop in the State was indigo. A little insect made its appearance and ate the leaves and buds, just as the boll weevil has recently been eating the cotton bolls. Then, as now, the planters feared they would be ruined. Could they use their land for some new crop that would be as successful as indigo had been i^ Up to 1794 no sugar had been made in Louisiana, though good syrup had been made. It was believed that the Louisiana cane did not ripen sufficiently to cause the syrup to granulate. A planter, Etienne de Bore, felt sure that sugar could be made from the cane. He asked the advice of a sugar-maker from the West Indies, who told him that sugar could not be made from Louisiana cane. De Bore persisted in his belief and planted his whole place in cane. His friends thought him very foolish, and his wife implored him not to risk all they had in one crop. But he listened to no one. When grinding time came, De Bore employed to boil the syrup the same sugar-maker who had said that sugar could not be made from Louisiana cane. When De Bore began to grind his cane, many of his neighbors came to the mill and hung anxiously over the big kettles. They almost held their breath as the syrup boiled just to the point when it should i86 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA form little grains of sugar. The sugar-maker took up some of the boiling syrup. After looking at it carefully, he gave the joyous cry: " It granu- lates ! " It is more than a hundred years since De Bore made the first sugar in Louisiana. Much better sugar is now made, but De Bore's name should not be forgotten, as he took the first step towards start- ing one of Louisiana's great industries. Questions. — i. What did Carondelet do to make New Or- leans a better place in which to live? 2. Give your own description of how you think the river wharves looked, of the boats and the men who came there to trade. 3. What indications were there that the feeling for France was still strong in Louisiana? 4. Tell about the first successful manufacture of sugar in Louisiana. " CHAPTER XXXII THE NEW TREATY WITH SPAIN You remember that a treaty was made between Great Britain, Spain, and the United States in 1783, at the close of the Revolutionary War. You also remember that the treaty fixed the boundaries be- tween the possessions of these three countries, and granted to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States the right to sail the Mississippi from its source to its mouth. Neither Great Britain nor Spain had kept the treaty. In 1794 Spain was at war with both Great Britain and France. Spain was anxious to be on friendly terms with the United States as long as she was at war with other countries. The trouble between Spain and the United States had been on account of the use of the Mississippi River. For the pur- pose of guarding the river and the frontier, Spain had kept forts and soldiers at Natchez, which is north of the thirty-first parallel of latitude, the line fixed by the treaty of 1783 as the boundary between the United States and the Spanish possessions. Thus Spain had trespassed upon territory belonging to the United States. 187 i88 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The United States protested against this invasion of its territory, but Spain paid no attention to the protest until it suited her to do so. Now that she was engaged in war with Great Britain, and France, Spain thought it best to make friends with the Americans, for otherwise they might be friendly to the British. Spain wanted the United States to take neither one side nor the other. To put the Americans in a friendly spirit, Spain agreed to draw up another treaty. By the new treaty, made at Madrid in 1795, the southern boundary of the United States was again fixed at the thirty-first degree of lat- itude (which was south of Natchez). The right to navigate the Mississippi from its source to its mouth was again granted to the citizens of the United States. Furthermore, the treaty of 1795 gave to the Americans, for the term of three years, the right to store their goods at New Orleans or some other suitable place, and from there to deliver them to the American ports on the Atlantic coast free of duty. At the end of three years, if it was not in- jurious to Spanish interests, this provision was to be renewed. Spain quieted the United States by her fair prom- ises, but she did not intend to keep them. Caron- delet understood the situation perfectly. While the home government was occupied with its war with Great Britain and France, he quietly decided to do a little work for his country. He determined THE NEW TREATY WITH SPAIN 189 to make an effort so to weaken the United States that they would be easier to handle when Spain, after peace was declared with other nations of Eu- rope, would be at leisure to settle with the infant American republic. Thomas Powers was again sent up the river. He held private meetings with several prominent Ken- Map showing East Florida, West Flor- ida, AND THE Florida Parishes tuckians and told them that Spain would never give up the territory she claimed east of the Mississippi, and that she would never allow navioration of the river. Mr. Powers wasted his time, and the Baron de Caron- delet played his game and lost — lost, too, many thousands of the king's gold dollars. A few lead- ing men of Kentucky were willing to play into the hands of Spain, but the people at large were not. They stored, under the law, their produce in New igo HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Orleans, traded free of duty, and were content under the government of the United States. If Spain was determined to break the treaty of 1795, the United States was just as determined that it should be kept. You will see on the map that Natchez is north of the line dividing the American from the Spanish possessions. Then, of course, Natchez was in the country that belonged to the United States, though Spain had never removed her forts and troops from that territory. In 1797 the United States sent a commissioner, Andrew Ellicott, to receive from Spain the territory which belonged to the United States. Gayoso de Lemos, the Spanish commissioner at Nat- chez, wanted to gain time, and tried to put Ellicott off. Gayoso insisted that the meaning of the treaty was not exactly clear; even Carondelet was not sure that he understood it. He said that to give up territory was a matter of such grave importance that he could not act until he had been ordered to do so by the king or the Spanish minister in America. Ellicott urged that according to the treaty the country belonged to the United States, and that the treaty must be kept. Gayoso raised objection after - f% l^r^'iM 1 ^ mk ^t^Sjk h. K^^^M W frnMnj^^ '- Ir Andrfav Ellicott THE NEW TREATY WITH SPAIN 191 objection. Asa result of the conference, no time was set for the transfer of the territory. Most of the peo- ple in the territory were Americans. They got tired of so much talking, and began to hold meetings. Gayoso had two of the leaders arrested. The people became enraged that Americans on American soil should be arrested by a Spaniard. They armed themselves and made such threats that Gayoso had to shut himself in the fort for safety. Ellicott, tak- ing the side of the people, declared that he would protect them in their rights as American citizens. Gayoso, thereupon, sent out from his safe retreat a proclamation asking the people to be quiet. He promised to pardon all who were sorry for what they had done. The people showed their sorrow by forming companies of militia and drilling every day to the tune of Yankee Doodle. Gayoso at last asked the American commissioner to quiet the ex- cited people. The people next held a mass meeting and ap- pointed a " Committee of Public Safety." They announced that no public act of the governor would be considered lawful unless approved by the com- mittee. Gayoso, thoroughly frightened, asked Elli- cott to meet him at the house of a planter in the neighborhood. Gayoso had to slip out of the fort and go through a cane-brake at the back of the house. Colonel Ellicott said afterward that when he entered the parlor and saw Gayoso, he felt very 192 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA sorry for him, his face was so worn and haggard from anxiety. The meeting did not result in much comfort to the Spaniard. Ellicott told him that there was nothing^ to do but, to recos^nize the Com- mittee of Safety as representatives of the people. Gayoso did so. Carondelet had no money and but few soldiers ; so he was forced to approve what Gayoso had done. Questions. — i. Why was a treaty between Spain and the United States necessary in 1795? 2. What commercial privileges were granted to the Americans? 3. How did Ellicott attempt to force the Spaniards to keep the treaty? 4. How did the people of the Natchez district try to assert their rights ? CHAPTER XXXIII THE LAST YEARS OF SPANISH RULE Carondelet was discouraged. He was devoted to the interests of his cov.ntry, and it troubled him when he saw that Spain was losing her power in Louisiana. He had seen Spain yield to the clamor of the bold flatboatmen ; he had seen her fail in her efforts to induce the West to secede; he had seen the Americans compel her to keep the treaties of 1783 and 1795; and he, the Baron de Carondelet, had been forced to approve Gayoso's action in recog- nizing the Committee of Safety as representatives of the people. But what could Carondelet do ? Nothing, unless he had troops and money. He wrote appealingly to Spain for help. He said that without the necessary funds and soldiers he could not make his government respected. Spain, how- ever, could not help him, for the king had spent all the money that he could raise to carry on his European wars. A rumor began to spread through the colony which made Carondelet all the more anxious and troubled. It was reported that France wished to regain Louisiana. Whether this report was true 193 194 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA or not, Carondelet at least saw enough to arouse his suspicions. An armed French vessel had been seen at the Balize. A French general, Collot, had visited the plantation home of M. de Bore. It was plain that General Collot had not come to Louisiana to learn how to make sugar. He spent most of his time in New Orleans visiting the forts, making plans of them, and drawing maps of the city. Carondelet had him arrested and sent to Philadelphia. dAjoyS^ Autograph of Carondelet In 1797 Carondelet was sent to another colony. Like Miro, the baron f^lt the times were out of joint, and that he was not the man to set them right. Gayoso, who succeeded Carondelet as governoi, did not take up his new duties with the feeling that he could make Spanish authority stronger in Loui- siana. The Spaniards still went through the form of holding the Natchez district. Colonel Charles Grandpre was appointed to fill Gayoso's place as commander at Natchez, but the Committee of Safety refused to permit him to take command. Soon afterward the Americans sent Captain Guion THE LAST YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 195 to Natchez with a body of troops. Captain Guion was a kind-hearted man. He felt sorry for the Spaniards and did not want to wound their pride by ordering them to leave. The American officer hoped that they would give up the forts when they saw him in command. But the Spaniards stayed on, until at last Captain Guion sent word that they must leave in a certain time, and that if they did not do so, he would attack their forts. One night the Spaniards left so quietly that no one heard them. The next morning at daylight the Americans entered the deserted forts. The United States owned this country, and they now held it by force of arms. It was not long before Cono^ress organized the Natchez district with the territory south of Tennessee, forming the Missis- sippi Territory. The citizens of New Orleans at this time were not sharing the gloomy feelings of the Spanish governor. Though fires had swept over the city, overflows had injured the crops, and a yellow fever epidemic had raged, New Orleans prospered ; for Spain did not attempt to enforce her unwise laws, and trade flowed through the gates of the city. It was a golden time for the Louisianians. Flatboats and trading vessels crowded the river front ; ware- houses were filled with rich cargoes from both East and West. Sales were quick and profitable. The Americans had established so many business houses 196 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA in New Orleans that it became necessary to station a consul in the city to protect their interests, par- ticularly as the French on the Gulf had seized so many American vessels. The three years in which the citizens of the •United States were to be allowed to store their goods in New Orleans drew to a close. Still busi- ness went blithely on. No doubt the time would be lengthened, so everybody thought. Suddenly the life and buzz and hum and whir of trade stopped. Spain had broken faith. An order was made in 1798 that no more goods were to be brought to New Orleans. No other place for storage was fixed upon, as the treaty provided. The Westerners had never before been so aroused. They swore they would not endure such a breach of a nation's good faith. They pledged themselves that they would sail their boats on the Mississippi, and capture New Orleans, even if they had to withdraw from the Union and endanger the peace of the United States. Other States of the Union sympathized with the Western States, and so strong grew the feeling against Spain that John Adams, who was President at the time, sent three regiments to the Ohio, and ordered twelve more to be in readiness in case they should be needed. In 1798 Gayoso died suddenly. The next year Casa Calvo was sent to Louisiana to act as governor until one should be appointed. The American regi- THE LAST YEARS OF SPANISH RULE 197 ments remained stationed on the Ohio, awaiting further orders. The Spaniards in Louisiana looked anxiously toward the North, not knowing at what moment the Kentuckians might come sweeping down the river. But the United States and Spain were not the only countries concerned about Louisiana. The at- tention of Napoleon Bona- parte, who had become the ruler of France, was di- rected to the fair province from which France had parted so lightly. He ordered his ministers to collect information relating to Louisiana. Pontalba, who had lived in Louisiana, prepared for Napoleon a paper giving a description of the province. Pontalba's journal was dazzling. Napoleon felt that he must have Louisiana. The province was needed as a stepping-stone for his future conquests. ^HL"^^^ ^^^H ^Hk- 1^1 B^ ^H ^^H:'-'-^ i^^H wKr ^^^^H BET '' '~^^^^^^^^H Napoleon Bonaparte Questions. — i. How were the Spaniards finally forced to leave Natchez? 2. What act of Spain aroused hostility in the United States? CHAPTER XXXIV LOUISIANA CEDED TO THE UNITED STATES Napoleon had acquired the habit of getting what he wanted, and he made up his mind that he must have Louisiana. Spain valued Mexico much more highly than she did Louisiana. This Napoleon knew, and he also knew that the king of Spain feared the Americans. Napoleon told the Spanish king that Mexico would be much safer with a friendly power like France be- tween it and the Americans. The king was easily deceived. He told Napoleon that he would give Louisiana back to France if France would give him a certain province in Italy. Thus by a treaty made in 1800, the Louisianians, without their knowledge or consent, were again tossed over to another nation. It was agreed that the treaty be kept secret, for thougrh Great Britain and France were not at war. Napoleon knew that if Great Britain heard that Louisiana belonged to France, she would slip in and take the province before he could send troops to protect it. Napoleon's ambition was to conquer the whole world, but Great Britain stood in his way. The 198 LOUISIANA CEDED TO THE UNITED STATES 199 British owned a powerful navy and had a very disagreeable way of sailing around to see what the French were doing. However, Napoleon thought that, with France owning Louisiana, it would be an easy matter to send French troops up the Missis- sippi, attack the British in Canada, and get back all that was lost in the French and Indian War. In order to carry out this plan, it was necessary that Great Britain should know nothing about it, and for this reason the treaty transferring Louisiana from Spain to France was kept secret for a whole year. When the news of the treaty between France and Spain reached the United States, it caused much excitement. The Americans did not want the French under such an ambitious man as Napoleon for neigh- bors. They determined to make an effort to purchase for their government the island of Orleans and the Floridas. Robert R. Livingston, a noted lawyer who was then the American minister to France, was instructed by the President to try to make the purchase. Livingston tried for a long time to get Talley- rand, Napoleon's great minister, to agree that France would sell the island of Orleans and the Florida country to the United States, but he did not suc- ceed. This shrewd minister was, in his way, as remarkable a man as Napoleon himself. No one could get him to tell what he did not want known. 200 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA At last Livingston became uneasy. He thought Napoleon was turning over in his mind some plan against the peace of the United States. He wrote to his government to be on guard and watch the French. About this time the trouble between the Western- ers and the Spaniards over the use of the Mississippi broke out again. Sympathy with the Westerners was so strong in the United States Senate that a senator arose and said that it was well enough to try to bargain with France, but that it would be much better if the United States would seize Louisi- ana before Napoleon could land his army upon its soil. He then introduced resolutions claiming that the United States had a right to the use of the Missis- sippi ; that the American people had a right to deposit their goods at New Orleans or some other suitable place near by; that the President of the United States should be given the power to seize such a place of deposit ; and that he should also be given the authority to call on the militia to hold the place when seized. A majority of the members of the Senate voted against taking such a decided step. It was finally agreed, however, that Congress should raise eighty thousand soldiers and hold them in readi- ness, in case they were needed. In the meanwhile, matters had not been going in a way to suit Napoleon. You cannot hold your hands too full. Napoleon at last found this out. LOUISIANA CEDED TO THE UNITED STATES 201 He had been trying to keep Europe at his feet by invading foreign countries and by defeating the British navy; but his invading armies had been driven back, and Great Britain had crippled him on the ocean. These things set Napoleon to thinking, and Livingston was helping him to think. Livingston went so far as to say that his 2:overnment would demand the cession of New Orleans and the Florldas. Such a statement sounded warlike, and Napoleon had too much on his hands just then to under- take a war with America. Livingston then told Napoleon that it w^ould be better for France to have the friendship of the United States, for war was likely to break out between Great Britain and France, and should this happen. Great Britain might seize Louisiana, or help the United States to seize it. A short time after this conversation, Talleyrand came to Livingston and asked how much the United States would give for the whole of Louisiana. Desk on which the Transfer of Louisiana was Signed ao2 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The whole of Louisiana! All of that vast, unknown territory from the Mississippi to the Rocky Moun- tains! Such a proposal nearly took Livingston's breath away. He could hardly think! He replied that the United States wanted only New Orleans, but he mentioned how much he thought that his government would give for the whole province. Liv- ingston cautiously added that he was only giving his opinion, as he had no authority from his government to buy all of Louisiana. Talleyrand smilingly re- marked that he had no authority to sell all of that vast domain, and that he had broached the subject to Livingston because the idea just happened to come into his head. But Talleyrand had evidently talked with Napo- leon about selling all of Louisiana to the United States. Before coming to a decision. Napoleon con- ferred with two of his other advisers. One of them was opposed to the plan. He told Napoleon that Louisiana was bound to become a wonderfully rich country ; that some day a canal would be dug across the Isthmus of Panama, and then New Orleans would be one of the most important ports in the whole world. The canal across Panama is now be- ing dug. Was not this adviser of Napoleon's a far- seeing man? Napoleon acknowledged to his advisers that he knew the value of New Orleans and Louisiana, but that he did not see how he could keep the province. LOUISIANA CEDED TO THE UNITED STATES 203 The next morning news came that Great Britain was getting ready to make war on France. This news made Napoleon decide to sell Louisiana. In the mean- time, the Unit- ed States had sent James Monroe, who afterward be- came Presi- dent, to Paris to help Living- ston. A few days after his arrival, Mon- roe and Liv- ingston, while dining with other gentle- men at their residence, saw Marbois, one of the two advisers with whom Napoleon had conferred, walk- ing in the garden. Marbois was invited to come in, but declined, saying that he had private business with Livingston and Monroe, and would see them after the company had withdrawn. That evening he returned and offered to sell the whole of Louisiana to the United States. The American commissioners hardly knew what to say, as they had not been told to buy so much. Napoleon was now so eager to Signing the Treaty From the Louisiana Purchase Monument at St. Louis 204 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA sell the whole province that he would not wait for Livingston and Monroe to write home to find out what they should do. It was clear that if they did not buy the province for their government, it would be sold to some other nation. Monroe and Livingston therefore acted on their judgment and bought Louisiana. With the Yankee instinct for making a good bargain, they hag- gled over the price, and finally agreed to give fifteen million dollars. The treaty of sale was signed on the 30th of April, 1803. When it was signed, Livingston looked at the names, Livingston and Monroe, on which the ink was still wet. " We have lived long," he said, " but this is the noblest work of our lives." Questions. — i. What change in the ownership of Louisiana province occurred in 1800? In 1803? 2. Why was the transfer of 1800 kept secret for a year? 3. Why was the LTnited States anxious to own New Orleans? 4. What were Livingston and Monroe's instructions when they were sent to Paris? 5. What did they actually do? 6. What price did the United States pay for the Louisiana province? 7. When was the sale made? 8. Tell what you know about Napoleon Bonaparte. CHAPTER XXXV THE FORMAL TRANSFER OF LOUISIANA The treaty of sale between the United States and France, you have just learned, was signed April 30, 1S03. A few weeks before this time M. Laussat landed at New Orleans. Napoleon had sent him to receive Louisiana from Spain. Napoleon knew that France would hold the province but a short time, but M. Laussat did not know it. The French commissioner had formed great plans of what he was going to do for Loui- siana. He would first get immigrants into the country. Then he would so improve and build up the province that it would prove a glory to France and reflect honor upon the governor, who probably would be a gentleman bearing the name of Laussat. Salcedo, who had been appointed governor of Louisiana by Spain after Gayoso's death, received Laussat with great ceremony. Governor Salcedo and the New Orleans society people of that day en- tertained the French commissioner and his lovely wife with dinners and balls. These entertainments were so magnificent that a writer of that period 205 2o6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA said that they seemed to him like fairyland; that the " cities of France could offer nothing more brilliant." Monsieur and Madame Laussat returned the hospitality of the Louisianians, keeping New Orleans in a mad whirl of feasting, music, and dancing. At one of the beautiful balls given in honor of the wife of the French commissioner, while the guests were eating supper, a turtledove hopped down from a bunch of roses in front of Madame Laussat. In his little beak he held a piece of folded paper. When Madame Laussat opened it, she saw a verse written to herself, saying that she was sen- sible and good and beautiful, and altogether charm- ing, without being vain. Yet the Louisiana women were as charming and as good to look upon as the fair Frenchwoman. The Creoles had clear, pale complexions, red lips, dark hair and eyes, and graceful figures. Their elegant robes were ornamented with flowers and embroid- ery, — that picturesque touch being given to the toilets which is the birthright of most women with French blood in their veins. Laussat and the Spanish officials and the leading citizens made a great many speeches. Laussat told the people that when Louisiana had been given to Spain, a wicked king had been on the throne of France, but now the great Napoleon was at the head of the nation. Napoleon, he said, was as just THE FORMAL TRANSFER OF LOUISIANA 207 as he was great, and remembered that the Louisian- ians were French, and would protect the province and put it under good laws. In reply, the planters and citizens of New Or- leans said that they were glad to become citizens of France, but at the same time they must own that with the exception of O'Reilly they had no com- plaint to make against the Spanish governors. These gentlemen said, furthermore, that they hoped that the Spaniards would be allowed to keep all the property they owned in Louisiana. Laussat was disappointed in the Louisianians. They had opened their larders and wine cellars to him, and were boon companions, but they had not shown the enthusiasm he had expected at the idea of passing into the hands of France. Laussat had in his mind the Louisianians of Lafreniere's day. But in the thirty-five years that lay between 1768 and 1803, the Louisianians had gained a good many ideas of the worth of self-government. The Span- ish governors had been so indulgent that they had scarcely felt that they were under foreign rule. The Spaniards had intermarried with the colonists, and were, as the Louisianians said, their brothers. The Louisianians still loved France as the home of their ancestors, but they did not like the idea of passing without their consent into the hands of any country, even though it were France, their mother country. Then, too, the instinct of self-protection 2o8 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA made the Louisianians fear Napoleon ; and Napo- leon was so great that his word meant the word of France. Since De Bore's discovery that sugar could be made with profit in Louisiana, many planters had come into the colony to plant cane. This of course meant more negroes. Napoleon had set all the negroes free in San Domingo. " Whatever be your color," he had caused to be proclaimed, " you are free ! " It was feared that Napoleon might take the same course in Louisiana. If he did, the coun- try would be ruined. But neither the fears of the Louisianians nor the ambitions of Laussat had any part in the schemes of the mighty Napoleon. In a few months news reached the colonists that Louisiana had been sold to the United States. Laussat was ordered to re- ceive the province from Spain, and to hold it until the United States should send commissioners to receive it. On the 30th of November, 1803, Laus- sat met Governor Salcedo and Casa Calvo in the old Cabildo. The representatives of Spain deliv- ered the province to the representative of France. The keys of the city were given to Laussat, and Casa Calvo announced that Louisiana was a pos- session of France. The Spanish flag was lowered, and the French flag went up. Laussat again made a speech. It was much like the former one, only now Laussat told the people THE FORMAL TRANSFER OF LOUISIANA 209 what a glorious privilege it was to become a part of the American republic. The Louisianians lis- tened without interest. They knew that in a few days they would be again transferred — this time to the United States, when they would again see the same ceremonies. Laussat appointed a council to take the place of the Cabildo. Etienne de Bore was made mayor of New Orleans. When the Spanish troops left Loui- siana, young Americans and Creoles formed a com- pany under the command of Daniel Clark, the American consul. They patrolled the city day and night, and kept order until the American commis- sioners should come. Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, had appointed William C. C. Claiborne, governor of the Mississippi Territory, and General James Wilkinson, commander of the American army, as commissioners to receive the new pur- chase. In the latter part of November in this same year of 1S03, the commissioners, with a body of troops, camped two miles outside of New Orleans. On a bright morning, December 20, the city was in great commotion about the Place d'Armes, for at noon that day the province was to be turned over to the United States. At the appointed time Governor Claiborne and General Wilkinson rode up to the square, followed by infantry and cannoneers. The militia was drawn 2IO HISTORY OF LOUISIANA up on one side of the square to receive the commis- sioners. The American troops were drawn up on the opposite side. The prefect, Laussat, and a number of citizens went into the Cabildo. Laussat sat in the chair of honor, with Governor Claiborne on his right and i'liE Place D'Armes General Wilkinson on his left. After the necessary- legal papers were read, Laussat delivered the keys of the city to Governor Claiborne. The commis- sioners and Laussat then walked out on the gallery facing the square. Gov^ernor Claiborne addressed the Louisianians as his fellow-citizens. He made a fine speech, but it was lost on his hearers, as he spoke in English and they understood only French. At the end of Claiborne's address, the French flag was lowered, and the flag of the United States THE FORMAL TRANSFER OF LOUISIANA 211 raised. As the two flags met halfway, salutes were fired, and then the flag of France went down and the Stars and Stripes floated over the people. Louisiana had now formally become a territory of the United States. Questions. — i. Find out how long Spain had owned Louisiana. 2. Describe the ceremonies in New Orleans at the transfer from Spain to France. 3. Describe the transfer to the United States. e^^XL,*^^ ^ ^. ^^^"^^^i^^^^O^-Ji Autograph of Governor Claiborne CHAPTER XXXVI TERRITORY OF ORLEANS Livingston and Monroe, you have learned, were not given authority to buy the whole of Louisiana. After the purchase was made, President Jefferson explained to Congress why the two American minis- ters had bought the whole territory. Jefferson laid before Congress the treaty of cession, and asked the Senate to approve it, for unless the Senate ap- proves a treaty, it does not become effective. Louisiana became a bone of contention between the members of Congress. Some of the senators were horrified that any body of sensible men should think of approving such a purchase. To buy that " great unbounded world," they said, was the great- est curse that could befall the United States. Rather than see Louisiana become a part of their country, they w^ould gladly give the province to any nation on the face of the earth that would take it. Any one could foresee, they argued, that Louisiana was too far from the capital of the United States to feel any loyalty to the Union. Moreover, the time would come when the Louisianians and the West- erners would unite, form a government of their own, and leave the Union. TERRITORY OF ORLEANS 213 But, the opponents of the purchase added, what was the use of talking? It was contrary to the Constitution to make the purchase, so that ended the matter. Fortunately for our country, a majority of the senators did not think that way. Senator Breckenridge made a splendid speech in reply to the members opposed to the purchase. He was a Ken- tuckian who knew Louisiana and the Louisianians, while to the senators from the East Louisiana really was a " great, unbounded world," Breckenridge said that it was one of the most wonderful acts of any government to gain all that vast territory without one drop of bloodshed, and without injury to a single person. Breckenridge likewise insisted that since it was lawful to acquire land east of the Missis- sippi, it was lawful to acquire it west of the river. After more talk on both sides, the Senate approved the treaty, and Congress passed a bill to provide the money with which to pay for Louisiana. Congress decided that, as citizens of the United States, the Louisianians were entitled to the enjoy- ment of life, liberty, property, and religion, but that as yet the Louisianians were not capable of self- government. Therefore, in March, 1804, the Loui- siana Territory was divided into two parts, called the District of Louisiana and the Orleans Territory. The Orleans Territory was the part that afterward became the present State of Louisiana, and all that need concern us just now. 214 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA In the same year President Jefferson appointed Claiborne governor of Orleans Territory. He was the first American governor to rule over Louisiana. Governor Claiborne soon found that he had come among a disappointed and discontented people. The L o u i s i a n i a n s thought that according to the treaty of cession they should govern themselves, and were in- dignant at the power given the American governor, Claiborne appointed all the civil and military officers ex- cept those named by the President. While there was a legislative council to make the laws, Governor Claiborne selected the members of this council. Then after the laws were made, they had to be submitted to Congress. If Congress approved of the Louisiana laws, they went into effect ; but if Congress did not approve them, new ones had to be made. There were a Superior Court and lower courts. Here, too, the Louisianians were deprived of all con- trol, for the naming of the officers of courts rested in the hands of the President and the Senate. The American Congress had also cut the vast Louisiana Thomas Jefferson TERRITORY OF ORLEANS 215 Territory into two parts without the consent of the people ! It was made unlawful to bring in slaves from foreign countries. A harder blow than this could scarcely have been dealt the Louisiana planters. The trade laws of Ulloa were not much worse ! Where was all the boasted freedom of the United States ? the Louisianians indignantly asked. Where were the liberties they were to enjoy under the American government } The dissatisfied people •looked back with regret to the days of the Spanish governors, under whose gentle rule they had lived thirty-four years. Governor Claiborne had a hard task before him. It was his difficult mission to mold into one people two races of diffet'ent ideas, language, and religion. The Louisianians and the Westerners, as you have seen, got along well together during Spanish rule, but at that time the situation was different. It was then only a matter of trade. Now the Americans had purchased the province itself, and the Louisiani- ans, sore at the thought of being sold, were suspi- cious, quick to take offense, and deeply resentful of the conduct of the Americans. Governor Claiborne was himself disliked because he did not speak French and because he surrounded himself with officials of American birth ; yet the Cre- oles refused to hold office when it was offered to them. The meeting of Americans and Louisianians on 2i6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the streets of New Orleans led to disputes which were followed by quarrels, and the quarrels by duels. Even social gatherings had their quarrels. One Sunday night at a ball — the balls were always given on Sunday night in those days — a French and an English dance were formed at the same time. An American went up to the musician and was about to 2:ive him a beatino; because the EnHish dance was not formed first. Governor Claiborne quieted the uproar which followed, and persuaded his countrymen to allow the French dance to begin. The American had been quieted only for the mo- ment. He got a party of dancers together and started an English dance. Some one cried out : " If the women have a single drop of French blood in their veins, they will not dance ! " At these words every woman in the room disappeared, nor did any of them return. At another ball. General Wilkinson began sing- ing " Hail Columbia," and was joined by all of his staff. Immediately the French roared forth " En- fants de la Patrie ! " Each crowd tried to out-sing the other, but Governor Claiborne finally quieted them. The next day the Americans invited the Frenchmen to a banquet, and they good-naturedly accepted. The most serious cause of discontent in Louisiana was the confusion in the courts. The country had been governed by the French and Spanish laws, and TERRITORY OF ORLEANS 217 these were not understood by the American lawyers. On the other hand, the trial by jury was new to the Louisianians. The cases before the courts were tried in both English and French. Some parts of the trial were translated, but not the arguments of the lawyers. The case was opened in Eng- lish. While the American lawyer was speaking, the French jurymen went out and smoked. The defense was made in French. Then the Americans on the jury went out and smoked. At the end of the argument the jury went into a room to decide upon their verdict. The French and American jurors talked with all their might, neither side un- derstanding the other; but, strange to say, the jury always came to a satisfactory agreement. There were many wrongs to right, much distrust to be overcome; yet in this unsettled time it was fortunate for the Louisianians that their governor was a man whom they could respect and trust. Questions. — i. What do you think of the arguments in Con- gress against the purchase of Louisiana? Think of these argu- ments in the light of conditions as they were in 1803. 2. How was Louisiana governed when it became a Territory of the United States? 3. Explain why the Americans and the Louisianians did not get along easily together. CHAPTER XXXVII THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE IN 1803 Where was this land, and what kind of people were they over whom there were such fierce disputes? The United States senators knew that the Rocky- Mountains cut across the pathless wilderness which trailed off from the Mississippi toward the west. Exactly where they were, no one could tell. Nor could any one give the boundary of Louisiana to the north or south. It was only known that in the for- ests of this great unexploredcountry lived thousands of Indians as untamed as the animals they hunted. Many senators thought that President Jefferson had been foolish to pay fifteen million dollars for such a territory. It did not bring them comfort to know that white people lived on a part of the pur- chase. They thought that the Creoles understood so little about American government that it would be dangerous to let them share it. If one of the senators had visited Louisiana in 1803, he would have changed his mind in regard to many matters. He would have found that, while the Louisianians spoke French, sent their sons to 218 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE IN 1S03 219 France to be educated, and loved their mother country, they were not Frenchmen. They were a people made from a union of two races on American soil. They were under the influence of French and Spanish laws, customs, and beliefs, but at the same time they were a part of their American surround- ings and of the time in which they lived. Thus, while the Louisianians were different from the peo- ple in other States of the Union, the government had no need to fear them. They were a quiet, slow- moving, law-abiding people, thoroughly satisfied with themselves and their way of living. They were not at all anxious to mingle with people from other States, except for purposes of trade. In 1803 New Orleans had about ten thousand in- habitants. It was becoming one of the chief seaports of the United States. In that one year it shipped two million dollars' worth of cotton, sugar, molasses, and tobacco, and imported from the West even more than that amount of flour, beans, corn, meal, butter, hams, lard, and other produce. New Orleans was not a well-kept city in those days. The streets were very poorly lighted, and were muddy and dirty. The citizens preferred to place their pride in their homes, many of which were very handsome. They had large rooms, wide halls, and broad galleries. Roses were everywhere, climb- ing across the window sills, over the garden walls, and up the galleries, and the air was sweet with the 220 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA perfume of the orange, oleander, myrtle, and mag- nolia blossoms. The life that the Creoles led was much gayer than that of other cities. No one was in a hurry to become rich. The people were content to live simply and inexpensively, and to take time for enjoy- ment. The Louisianians, then as now, were fond of dancing. There was frequently so much mud and water in the streets that carriages could not be used, but this did not keep the Creole belles from a ball. They lucked up their skirts, put on heavy shoes, and, skillfully balancing themselves on the rickety board banquettes, set out with light hearts for the dance. Two slaves went in front bearing a lantern, and two followed behind carrying the satin slippers, the ivory fan, and other articles that their mistress would need at the ball. The women of that day were not well educated. The girls were taught first of all to be gracious and charming. Writers tell us that they were very apt pupils, and were sensible and quick-witted, though they knew very little about school books. Most of the people of the province lived in New Orleans and the southern parishes. The settlement farthest north was at Natchitoches, and was made by St. Denis. One of Louisiana's historians, Mr. Gayarre, has given an interesting account of life on his grand- father's plantation. His grandfather was Etienne THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE IN 1803 221 de Bore, the man to whom sugar planters owe so much. All the plantations in the province were managed very much like that of M. de Bore. The Bore plantation was about six miles above New Orleans. The house, with its wide halls and galleries, was cool and roomy, and was shaded by A Typical Louisiana Home of the Early Nineteenth Century grand old oaks that led to the flower garden and orchard. Beyond were the fields of waving sugar- cane. Over all was a feeling of order, contentment, and simple plenty. The plantation was like a little kingdom in which the master was king. Very little was bought on the Bore plantation, but a great deal was sold. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep were raised. There were hun- 222 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA dreds of geese, ducks, turkeys, chickens, and guinea fowls. Eggs were gathered by the bushel. Only one month in the year — the month of August — was the big pigeon house empty of squabs. Two women were kept busy from morning to night patting the golden butter into shape, molding cream cheese, and putting clabber and buttermilk into pans and bottles. There were vegetables of every kind in their season. Fish and shrimp were caught in the river, and in the woods " possums " fattened for sweet-potato time. There was no danger of starving on the Bore plantation. Every morning at daylight carts were loaded with the produce and sent to the markets in New Orleans. In this way M. de Bore made thousands of dollars each year. Besides this, he made much money from his sugar. The doors of the wide hall stood open to welcome guests and wayfarers. No friend or stranger passed in his travels up or down the coast without being invited to share the hospitality of the plantation. But there was a dark side of which few people ever thought. As there was so much money to be made in cultivating cane, many people bought plantations in Louisiana. The next thing that they did was to import slaves to work the crops. Ship- load after shipload of negroes was brought into the State for this purpose. A few thinking people be- lieved that slavery was not right, and some day THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE IN 1803 223 would bring trouble to the white people. After a long time the trouble came. The Old Markets, New Orleans Questions. — i. What were the chief exports of New Orleans in 1803? 2. What produce was imported? What reasons can you give for the importing of these goods? 3. Where were the settlements in Orleans Territory? 4. Tell all you can of the homes and the people in New Orleans at this period. 5. Tell something about life on a plantation. CHAPTER XXXVIII WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNE The Loulsianians continued to be dissatisfied with the new government. They claimed that the United States had not kept faith, for, they said, the treaty of cession had promised them self-government. They were so dissatisfied that they sent delegates to Washington with a petition to Congress asking that Louisiana be made a State. Congress stood aghast at such a proposal ! Some of the members were charitable enough to say that the Louisianians must be very ignorant to make such an unreasonable request. The petition was written in French, a language the congressmen could not read. Therefore, they asked, what could Louisiana, whose inhabitants were French, Spanish, West Indians, negroes, mulattoes, a few untaught Americans, and a mixture of all these races, know of free American institutions ? One member ven- tured his opinion that the few sensible people who were in Louisiana would look upon self-government in that Territory with distrust, as it would be danger- ous to try such an experiment with so ignorant a people. 224 WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNE 225 Though the Louisiana delegates did not succeed altogether in their mission, they did not entirely fail. President Jefferson and most of the members of Congress wanted to give the Louisianians some rights of self-government, but they were not will- ing, just then, to admit Louisiana into the Union as a State. A law was therefore passed by Con- gress providing that the Territory of Orleans should be governed much like the Mississippi Territory, which' had not yet been admitted into the Union as a State. Though the delegates were disappointed, they felt that something had been gained, and they had reason to feel so. You will remember that the members of the leg- islative council that made the laws for Louisiana were chosen by Governor Claiborne. For the gov- ernor to choose the lawmakers was putting a great deal of power in the hands of one man. Under the new law that Congress passed, the people were to elect the representatives to the legislature, which was to consist of twenty-five members. Like the legislature of to-day, there were to be tw^o houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. But ■ B^ .f^'H ■ ^H H :¥ 91 ^^1 H E^^ . >(^H H ^^^ 1 William C. C. Claihokne 226 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA members of the Senate were not to be elected di- rectly by the people, as they are to-day. The House of Representatives, elected by the people, was to send the names of ten of its members to the Pres- ident of the United States. From this number the President, with the consent of the Senate of the United States, selected five men to compose the Senate of the Louisiana legislature. The President of the United States was also given the right to re- move a member of the Louisiana Senate whenever he saw fit. The United States further promised the people of the Orleans Territory that they should be admitted as a State, with rights equal to the other States of the Union, as soon as the Territory had sixty thou- sand inhabitants. The Louisianians were still dissatisfied. They did not think that the new laws gave them sufficient self-government. They did not see why the United States should interfere with their right to manage their own affairs. Governor Claiborne, in writing to the President of the discontent of the people, approved of what Congress had done. He wrote that he thought that the Louisianians had been given all the power that they had any right to expect, and all that they should be trusted with at that time. The governor was an honest man and always advised what he thought was best. The trouble was that he had WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNE 227 come among a people who were different in their ideas and training from any he had ever known, and consequently he did not understand them. For this reason he sometimes made mistakes. The Louisianians were always ready to find fault with Governor Claiborne. They made many dis- agreeable remarks about him, and the newspapers criticised him for almost everything he did. Clai- borne, though only twenty-eight years old when he came to Louisiana as governor, had the good sense and self-control to make no reply to whatever was said against him. He quietly did his duty as he saw it. On one occasion there was a difference of opin- ion between the council and the governor. The council hotly stated that it was not a baby's rattle, — a thing to amuse the governor, — and that if Clai- borne was going to have his own way in every- thing, the council might as well dissolve. Claiborne answered in a brave, manly spirit. It was natural, he said, that there should be differences of opinion, but he felt sure that he and the council had the same end in view, since they both had the good of the people at heart. Nevertheless, he added, he must act as he thought best. Governor Claiborne did not think the Louisi- anians should be allowed to govern themselves, for they had lived only under either French or Spanish rule, and did not know American laws. Time would 228 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA prove whether they could manage their own govern- ment, and meanwhile he did not think that they should have more power than Congress had given. There was still another reason why Governor Claiborne did not think that the Louisianians should be given self-government : he did not trust them. He could not understand how people who were not Americans could feel loyal to America. Claiborne knew that the Creoles liked the Span- iards and were kin to many of them. He feared that the Creoles and Spaniards might join together and attempt to capture New Orleans. What made him the more anxious was that so few Spaniards had left Louisiana when it ceased to be a province of Spain. Everybody thought that they would do so, yet they seemed to have no desire to leave. Claiborne had no proof that the Spaniards intended doing harm. Therefore he quietly watched them, and in the meantime tried to win the good-will of the people. Questions. — i. What rights in the government of the Terri- tory were the people given? 2. What was the condition on which Louisiana could be ad- mitted to the Union as a State ? 3. Tell what you have read about Governor Claiborne in the last three chapters : (i) His part in the transfer of the province. (2) His official positions. (3) His relations with the people. (4) His personal characteristics. CHAPTER XXXIX THE FLORIDAS Several times mention has been made of the Floridas. There were two Floridas, East Florida and West Florida. East Florida was the present State of Florida and extended to the Perdido River. West Florida extended from the Perdido to the Mississippi River. The southern limit of both Flori- das was the Gulf of Mexico, and the northern limit was the thirty-first parallel of north latitude. (See the map on page 189.) Both the United States and Spain claimed Wegt Florida and the country about Natchitoches. The United States claimed that when Louisiana was bought from France, West Florida, as far as Mobile, was included in the treaty of cession. Spain in- sisted that she had never given West Florida to France, and that, therefore, France could not have sold it to the United States. As neither the United States nor Spain would give up its claim, the United States sent James Monroe to Spain to settle the dispute. It was hoped that Monroe and Pinck- ney, the American minister at the Spanish court, would be able to settle the question in a friendly 229 230 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA way. But the only idea that the Americans had of arranging the matter wa^ that of gaining the terri- tory. Spain, too, had the same idea. Monroe, on his way to Spain, wrote to Talleyrand, asking his opinion on the subject. Talleyrand, you will remember, had been active in bringing about the sale of Louisiana. He replied to Monroe's letter, stating that Spain had never given up West Florida ; that France had tried to get both Floridas, but that Spain had refused to part with them. When Monroe reached Spain, the two American ministers and the Spanish ministers took the treaty between France and Spain, and for days studied it most carefully. The ministers of both countries argued and argued, but could not come to an agree- ment. Each side still claimed W^est Florida. President Jefferson did not think it wise to urge the American claim. He did not think the United States was in a condition to go to war with Spain on account of it. Besides, there was no pressing need for the territory. He therefore concluded to wait and see what time would do toward settling the question. Though the American governor had firm hold at New Orleans, some of the Spanish officials still lingered. Casa Calvo remained in New Orleans. He was a charming man, and was welcomed at the homes of the best people. He excused himself to the governor for not leaving by saying that he daily expected orders to assist in fixing the boundary line THE FLORIDAS 231 between the United States and Mexico. Claiborne did not believe the statement, especially when re- ports came to him that the elegant Casa Calvo was quietly attempting to make the Louisianians dissat- isfied with the United States government. The governor was made all the more uneasy by these reports, because the Spaniards had strengthened their forces. The Spanish troops in West Florida and Pensacola numbered nine hundred men ; those in the fort at Baton Rouge numbered two hundred, and those at Mobile about eighty, while it was said that Spain had sent more troops to Texas. The tables had turned since the days of Carondelet. It was not now a case of the Americans worrying a Spanish governor, but a case of the Spaniards causing sleepless nights to an American governor. Still, the Spaniards had no need to boast. West Florida was full of Americans who would neither leave the country nor let the Spanish inhabitants live in peace. These Americans had become all the more restless under Spanish control, because they saw American rule so near them — in Louisiana and Mississippi. They believed that West Florida belonged to the United States, and were indignant that their country did not claim her own. Constant quarrels and disturbances arose between the Span- iards and the Americans. It did not cause a more kindly feeling between the two races when Governor Claiborne at last asked Casa Calvo to leave Loui- 232 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA siana, A strong desire to become a part of the American republic, like their neighbors in Missis- sippi and Louisiana, made the Americans in West Florida determined to drive out the Spaniards. ' About two hundred armed men gathered together with the intention of attacking the Spanish fort in Baton Rouge. The leaders did not agree, and the attempt fell through. The Spaniards, of course, tried to seize the leaders. Most of them escaped to the Mississippi Territory, but the Spaniards suc- ceeded in catching three — the Kemper brothers. They treated the Kempers very cruelly. While taking the brothers down the Mississippi to Baton Rouge, to put them into prison, they were seen by a negro, as they turned a bend in the river. The negro ran across the country to Pointe Coupee, where an American regiment was stationed, and told the commander. The commander took a body of troops and went to the rescue of the Americans. He captured the boat and set the brothers free. There was trouble all the time in West Florida, and Spain and the United States each left the people to fight their own battles. West Florida was a tempting bit of territory which caught the attention of the old foes of the Spaniards up the river. Nothing better suited the daring Kentuckians than to dash toward the south and drive the Spaniards out of the country. There was nothing to prevent their making this trial. The THE FLORIDAS 233 center of the United States government lay beyond the far-away mountains ; too far for power to be brought to stop the Kentuckians, whose life in the forest made them almost a law unto themselves. The scheme appealed to their lawless hearts. Aaron Burr, a shrewd and unprincipled man, felt the fever- ish beat of the Westerners' pulse. He had been Vice President of the United States, but had lost his hold upon the people of the East by killing a man in a duel. Coming West, he put himself in close touch with the people. They, not fully under- standing his deeply laid plans, chose him for their leader. Questions. — i. What States now include the Territory of West Florida? 2. What part of the present Louisiana was in West Florida? What important city ? 3. What was the dispute between the United States and Spain regarding West Florida ? Explain it. 4. Describe the condition of the Americans in West Florida. CHAPTER XL AARON BURR In 1805 a gay little barge came floating down the Mississippi and landed at New Orleans. For years Indian canoes, light barques of the early pioneers, and loaded flatboats of the Westerners had Qrlided southward with the river's current; but the old river had borne upon its yellow waters nothing like this floating palace. Carpets covered the floors ; silken coverlets were on the downy beds, and costly silver and tableware added to the attractiveness of the well-served meals. The owner of the cozy house boat was Colonel Aaron Burr, who had come to pay a visit to New Orleans. The master of the barge was as elegant as his surroundings. Colonel Burr was about middle height, but he carried himself with so much dignity and grace that he appeared to be taller. His face was very intellectual, and he had piercing dark eyes which could become tender and sweet when he willed them so. He wore black velvet knee breeches, a coat with lace ruffles at the wrist, a shirt with ruffles down the front, black silk stockings, and low shoes with silver buckles. He had the easy and 2:racious air of a man who had mino^led with 234 AARON BURR 235 the best people; and so he had, for he had been an officer in the war in which the Americans threw off the yoke of Great Britain ; he had been a mem- ber of the United States Senate, and Vice Presi- dent of the United States. There was much talk about war between the United States and Spain, growing out of the dis- satisfaction caused by Spain's claiming territory within the United States. Everybody knew that should such a war come. New Orleans would be a very important point for military movements on ac- count of its being so near Texas. A society had been formed in the city for the purpose of finding out what the Spaniards were doing in Texas and Mexico. This society welcomed Burr, for it was supposed that so prominent a man as Colonel Burr had the confidence of his government, and that he had been sent to New Orleans to study its position and learn all that he could concerning the move- ments of the Spaniards. New Orleans received her distinguished guest with open arms. Balls, dinners, receptions, and theater parties were given in his honor. New Orleans was too polite to ask her visitor why he had come. Burr was not very frank in giving his reasons for visiting New Orleans. He let it be understood, however, that his purpose was to attempt to capture Texas and Mexico for the United States, should war break out with Spain. 236 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA About a year after Burr's visit to New Orleans, rumofs spread through the entire United States that some dark, deep plot was being laid to over- throw the government, and that the plotters would • assemble in large numbers at New Orleans. No- body could tell anything positive about the plot, but all were greatly excited over it. General Wilkinson wrote to Governor Claiborne: "You are surrounded by dangers of which you dream not," and it did not add to Claiborne's peace of mind when the general continued: "The storm will probably burst in New Orleans." General Wilkinson wrote also to President Jefferson of a "wicked conspiracy which took in the old and the young," and which, he feared, "would receive support in New Orleans." From the Atlantic to the Mississippi the whole country was thrown into a fever of excitement and dread. President Jefferson sent out a proclamation warninor the citizens of the United States that a plot had been formed against the government and commanding them to have nothing to do with it. He ordered all of the officers of the army and navy to be watchful, and begged the good people every- where to help him discover the men who were so disloyal as to enter into the conspiracy. Governor Claiborne felt very uneasy, the more so because he did not trust the Creoles. Near the end of the year 1806 he called a meeting of the mer- chants and other prominent citizens of New Orleans. AARON BURR 237 He was then able to name the man who was accused of being the leader of the plot against the peace of the country — it was Aaron Burr, who had been in the past year a guest of the city. The governor told those who had gathered at the meeting that Colonel Burr would soon come down the river with two thousand men ; that four thousand more from among the Westerners were ready to join him ; and that it was reported that a thousand men in New Orleans would support him when he reached the city. He also told his hearers that Burr's scheme was to cap- ture New Orleans, to conquer Texas and Mexico, seize the territory of the United States west of the Alleghany Mountains, and unite all these countries into one mighty empire, with himself as the ruler. Governor Claiborne asked the citizens to help him and General Wilkinson to defend the city. The answer was that they would do all in their power. The merchants of the city promised to fit out ves- sels to meet Burr as he came down the river. Some months later the Legislative Council met, and, in the name of Louisiana, declared loyalty to ^H 1^^^^ ^^^MB mL RmBn^^^^^^^ ^Vw ^H fgj General James Wilkinson 238 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA the United States. While the people throughout the country were keeping up their spirits by making patriotic speeches, yet growing somewhat nervous over the expected bloody conflict, Colonel Burr, with a party of friends, was sailing down the Mississippi for the purpose of settling on lands which Burr owned on the Ouachita River in Louisiana. The party stopped at Natchez. Here Burr was per- suaded to go to the capital of Mississippi and an- swer the charges against him. He was tried and declared innocent. Later, at Richmond, Virginia, he was tried for treason against the United States. Again he was acquitted. For a long time nearly everybody believed that Aaron Burr intended to commit treason against his country. Now a good many think that he intended only to take Texas and Mexico from the Spaniards, and make himself ruler over those countries. Only under the pretense of fighting for the United States could he hope to conquer the Spanish possessions, and Spain and the United States did not go to war; so his scheme fell through. How far he intended to carry his plot will never be known. Question. — Tell what you can of Aaron Burr : (i) His life before he came to New Orleans. (2) His stay in New Orleans. (3) The plot with which he was connected. (4) The outcome. CHAPTER XLI THE FLORIDA PARISHES The Americans in West Florida remained quietly under the Spanish rule during the excitement caused by Burr's conspiracy. The United States and Spain seemed to have dropped the question of boundary, at least for a time. In 1810 the Americans in West Florida grew tired of waiting for the United States and took matters into their own hands. About two hundred men from the neighborhood of Bayou Sara and the Mississippi Territory, headed by General Philemon Thomas, marched against Baton Rouge, which was still held by the Spaniards. Spain either did not value West Florida, or else she had no money to spare. The fort at Baton Rouge was old and broken down, and there were only a few men to defend it ; even among those few there were several poor crippled fellows who hob- bled along on sticks. The Americans attacked the fort, but the attack was almost a bloodless battle, for only one Spaniard was killed, and not a single American so much as received a scratch. The garrison and all the arms and ammunition fell into the hands of the Americans. 239 240 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The victors then marched back to St. Francis- ville, near Bayou Sara. There they held a conven- tion and declared that the country which they had conquered should from that time be free and inde- pendent, and that it should be called the State of West Florida. A constitution for the new State was then drawn up. It declared West Florida to be a free and independent State ; that it had the right to form any kind of government the people thought best; that it could make treaties and trade with other countries ; and, in short, had every right be- longing to a free nation. Fulwar Skip was elected governor of the new State. The territory of this baby republic was made up of the parishes which are now called the Florida Parishes. They are: West Feliciana, East Feli- ciana, St. Helena, Washington, East Baton Rouge, Livingston, Tangipahoa, and St. Tammany. All these parishes together contain nearly four million acres of land. This is a good deal of land ; yet when you think of the number of acres in the whole of Louisiana, and then of the number of acres in the United States, you will see that West Florida was indeed a baby republic. The new State felt its weakness. It was afraid of Spain, France, and Great Britain. So it sent to the United States government a copy of its new constitution, together with a letter asking that West Florida be taken under the protection of the United THE FLORIDA PARISHES 241 States. The American government was given to understand that it must act quickly in the matter.^ or the State of West Florida would ask the protec- tion of some other country. The people of West Florida were willing to become a part of the United States, as either State or Territory, but, they said, they would do so only upon two conditions ; namely, they should govern themselves, and all the land should belong to them. The country belonged to them, they claimed, for by risking their lives they had secured it without help from any other country. They advised the United States government that they would sell some of the land, and use the money in digging canals, building bridges and roads, and in other ways improving their State. Having clearly stated that they asked protection, but not control, the West Floridans waited for an answer to their announcement. The President smiled at the pert litde State. West Florida had asked that the American govern- ment act quickly. The action was quick enough. The President, who was James Madison, issued a proc- lamation in which he said West Florida belonged to the United States, since it was a part of the Louisiana Purchase. The President kindly ex- plained that possession had not heretofore been taken of West Florida because it had not been con- venient, and there had been no need for haste. The United States and Spain were on friendly terms, 242 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA and the two countries had expected to discuss the matter at the proper time and settle it in a friendly way. The President further declared that what had been done in the West Florida convention did not make any difference so far as the claim of the United States to the country was concerned. The people must not be so foolish as to think that the United States would allow them to take land that did not belong to them. West Florida was a part of the public lands of the State, and would be used for the good of the people. The President enforced his proclamation by taking possession of the Territory in the name of the United States. Governor Claiborne was put in charge of West Florida. He was instructed to establish courts, so that the people might be protected in the enjoyment of life, liberty, and property, and to do everything he thought needful to establish a firm government. If the people of West Florida should attempt to resist, Claiborne had orders to use force, and if he did not have enough troops, he was to call on the governor of Mississippi for more. The people of West Florida were commanded to respect the governor, keep good order, and obey the laws. Governor Claiborne marched into the new Terri- tory at the head of a body of troops. The new State had adopted a flag of blue with a silver star in the middle. At Baton Rouge and Bayou Sara the lone THE FLORIDA PARISHES 243 star banner was lowered and the Stars and Stripes hoisted. The people quietly submitted. They could attack the old broken-down fort at Baton Rouge, but they could not resist such a strong power as the United States. Thus died the State of West Florida. Later, when the Territory of Orleans was admitted into the Union as the State of Louisiana, the Florida Parishes were made a part of the new State. Questions. — i , What are the Florida Parishes ? 2. Tell the story of the State of West Florida. 3. What part did Baton Rouge have in this story? CHAPTER X.LII ADMISSION OF LOUISIANA AS A STATE Julian Poydras was a man whom we should not forget. He came to Louisiana very poor, but by his industrious habits became owner of several big plantations in Pointe Coupee parish; in fact, he was one of the richest planters in the country. Distinguished visitors to Louisiana never left with- out becoming guests at the plantation home of Julian Poydras. On one occasion he entertained three young men of royal blood, whose father afterward became king of France. Though Poydras was so rich, he was simple and quiet in his manner. He did much good with his money. When he died, he left large sums for a hospital for the sick and a school for. poor boys. He also left a fund from which poor girls in Pointe Coupee and West Baton Rouge parishes, about to get married, were given their wedding clothes. Probably no" man in Louisiana has done more to make people happy than Julian Poydras. Poydras held many public offices. In iSii he was the representative of the Orleans Territory in the Congress of the United States. The Territory then 244 ADMISSION OF LOUISIANA AS A STATE 245 had more than sixty thousand inhabitants and was ready to enter the Union as a State. Poydras re- minded Congress of the promise to make the Terri- tory a State as soon as the population reached this figure. Immediately a hot debate arose. Some members had long dreaded the coming of the time when Louisiana would ask for admission as a State. Most of these men were from the far-distant New England States, and none of them knew anything about Louisiana. They did not believe that the Creoles would ever become desirable citizens of the United States, for they did not think that the Creoles would be true to any country but France or Spain; nor could they see how a Territory, pur- chased so recently as Louisiana, could be fit for Statehood. The members from the South and West had long been associated in business with the Louisianians, and felt kindly toward them. They favored miaking a State out of the Territory of Orleans. Josiah Quincy, a member of Congress from Mas- sachusetts, was the most bitter in opposition to Louisiana becoming a State. He made a speech, which he began by saying that, should Louisiana be admitted as a State, he thought the Americans ought to fight. He declared that their forefathers had fought to give rights and liberties to Americans, not to the mixed race in Louisiana. He ended his bitter speech by declaring that if Congress could so 246 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA far forget its duty as to permit Louisiana to become a State, any other State in the Union had the right to secede. In spite of all Quincy said and the opposition of others, the Territory of Orleans was admitted into the Union in 1812 as the State of Louisiana. Claiborne had the honor of being elected the first governor of the new State. Allen B. Magruder and Joel Destrehan were the first United States senators. Thomas Boiling Robertson was the first congressman. If Louisiana was to enjoy the privileges of her sister States, she was also to share their burdens. The very year that she became a State (181 2) the United States declared war against Great Britain for the purpose of putting a stop to the practice that Great Britain had of seizing American ships and sailors. During the first years of the war, the fighting was confined to the North and Northwest. But the old longing to own the Mississippi Valley again came over the English, and news soon reached Louisiana that Great Britain was preparing to send eighteen thousand of her best trained soldiers against New Orleans. By sending veterans who had won victories on the battlefields of Europe, Great Britain showed how much she valued the possession of the Mississippi Valley. Strange to say, the United States did not seem to value it at all. New Orleans ADMISSION OF LOUISIANA AS A STATE 247 Louisiana Seal was poorly defended, and no good vessels were on the gulf to protect the coast. Maps of the city and coast were sent to the United States government showing how easily New Orleans might be taken, but the government did nothing to protect the city. The English believed that the Louisianians did not like the Americans, and would re- joice to be again under Span- ish rule. For this reason they let it be understood that if they took Louisiana, it would be given back to Spain. They thought that this would make the Creoles flock to their side as soon as they landed. Pirates infested the southwest coast of Louisiana. Governor Claiborne had tried to make these men stop trading in New Orleans, but he had not been able to do so. At last Claiborne offered a reward for the heads of the leaders. The En2:lish counted strongly on the help of these men, for they thought the pirates would surely want to be avenged on the American governor. Claiborne became very anxious. He heard the reports that the English had spread, and he believed the people loved Spain. By 18 14 it had become certain that New Orleans would be attacked. The United States government still sent no troops, but 248 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA ordered Governor Claiborne to get together a thou- sand men of the State militia and drill them. Gen- eral Andrew Jackson, who had been fighting the Indians in Florida, was ordered to take command of the Louisiana troops and to defend New Orleans. It was high time to get ready for the defense of New Orleans, for several English regiments under General Nicholls had already landed at Pensacola. General Nicholls had lost no time. He sent a proc- lamation through Louisiana. It began very grandly, something like this : " Louisianians ! we, the Eng- lish, your best friends in the world, call upon you to help us ! We want to free you from a faithless government, and give you back the land which be- longs to you. Do not be afraid of us, gentle Loui- sianians ! Europe can tell you that Great Britain does not think of her own interest, and now she is thinking only of you and your wrongs." The old English spider stood at the door of his web, and put out his feelers. All his little eyes were bright and shining as he watched the Louisiana files. Would they walk into his parlor .f* Governor Clai- borne feared that they would. Questions. — i. When did Louisiana become a State? 2. Tell all you know about Julian Poydras. 3. Tell about the second war between the United States and Great Britain. CHAPTER XLIII THE BARATARIAN PIRATES There once lived in France two brothers who were blacksmiths. Their names were Pierre and Jean Lafitte. These men were not content to be honest, plodding smiths, toiling " from morn till night." The spirit of the old sea robbers was in them. The tales that they heard of adventures in the New World stirred their blood, and they made up their minds to seek a fortune in New Orleans, where there were already many of their own race. The brothers set up a smithy in one of the quiet streets of New O/leans, and soon the shop was one of the most popular places in the city. A great many men, merchants especially, went to see the brothers, and had long talks with them. But they did not talk about the shoeing of horses and the mending of wagons and carriages. This part of the work was carried on by slaves, and did not appear to interest either the visitors or the Lafittes. The brothers were making money, and making it fast, but it was not the heavy beats of the hammer on the anvil that brought in the dollars. They made no secret of their real occupation. 249 250 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA On the southern coast of Louisiana there dwelt a band of smugglers. These men shipped goods into the State without paying a tax on them. Because they paid no tax, they could afford to sell their goods very cheaply, and many people traded with them because in such purchases a little money could be made to go a long way. The Lafittes became the agents for these unlaw- ful traders. They found that selling goods for the smugglers paid much better than blacksmithing either in France or in New Orleans. Before long Jean Lafitte, called Captain Jean, became the leader of the smugglers, and no man ever had a more devoted band of followers. Captain Jean was a tall, handsome fellow with black eyes and hair. He did not know what it was to be afraid, and it was hard to deceive him. The brothers had found the work which suited them, ft and the place in which they carried on their unlaw- ful trade was after their own hearts. The southern shore of Louisiana looks as if it had not quite made up its mind to be put down in the geography as land or water. It is a bewilder- ing maze of channels, lakes, bayous, and swamps, all of which lead to the Mississippi River. Six miles from the gulf are two small islands, Grande Terre and Grande Isle. Back of these islands lies Barataria Bay, which forms a quiet harbor for ships. Leading out from the bay are bayous which THE BARATARIAN PIRATES 251 open into the Mississippi. From the banks of these bayous stretch miles and miles of desolate swamps. Most people would not care to live in such a dismal place, but it suited the purpose of the smug- glers. The wildest part of the whole coast was about Barataria Bay, and was called in a general BARATARIAN LUGGERS way Barataria. Here it was that Captain Jean made his headquarters. The Baratarians had a strong little fleet. Their vessels would dart out into the gulf, seize Spanish ships laden with rich cargoes, and then go skim- ming back into the bay and up some bayou, to hide behind the tangled vines and undergrowth. The pirates built storehouses on several of the islands, and when these were filled with costly, beautiful goods, agents would slip through the country and let the people know what they had 252 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA on hand. Then such a flocking down to Grande Terre as there would be! Captain Jean and his crew usually delivered the goods to the merchants in New Orleans, while Pierre stayed in the city to take orders and keep his brother posted as to the market price. The citizens of New Orleans walked up to the Lafittes on the street and gave them an order for goods as openly as if they were dealing with merchants in New York or Philadelphia. Those were prosperous days for the pirates ; yet their goods were wonderfully cheap. The Louisi- anians chatted and marveled over their purchases as the little boats threaded their way through the bayous back to the Mississippi. Governor Claiborne knew that the Lafittes should not be allowed to rob vessels and sell the cargoes. He tried to make the people of Louisiana see that it was wrong, but, under the Spanish rule, they were so used to buying goods without paying duty that they could see no harm in it. Governor Claiborne offered five hundred dollars for Jean Lafitte's head. Captain Jean got angry and offered five hundred dollars for Governor Clai- borne's head. No one seemed to care for the re- ward on either side, and Lafitte went about as openly as before. Governor Claiborne then asked the legislature to help him bring the Baratarians to justice. The legislature, however, said that it did not think it THE BARATARIAN PIRATES 253 could raise the money to fight five hundred bold, well-armed men. Besides, it could not see that the Baratarians were harming any one save the Span- iards, and Lafitte had said that he had letters of marque from the Republic of Carthagena. These letters gave him the right to seize Spanish ships. Governor Claiborne could not get the people to act with him, try as he would. Once when Lafitte was taking a cargo to New Orleans, a United States revenue cutter attacked him. Captain Jean never killed any one if he could help it, particularly an American, but in beating off the cutter, four Americans were killed. Lafitte told the captain of the revenue cutter that he was very sorry for the death of these men, but that he would kill any one who tried to take his property. Meanwhile war — the War of 181 2 — had broken out between the United States and Great Britain. The British Government made preparations to seize the Louisiana country. One day when Captain Jean was returning from one of his trips, he saw a British man-of-war at Grande Terre. The com- manding ofiicer bore a letter from General Nicholls asking Lafitte to help* the British against the Americans. When Captain Jean read the letter, he said: " Why do the British want our help ? " " Because," replied the officer, " you Baratarians are the only ones who know this part of the country. 254 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA You are brave men, well able to help us against the Americans, Besides, the Americans have attacked your vessels and have offered a reward for your arrest. Of course, you must hate them." Captain Jean gave the officer a shrewd glance, and asked, "What will you give us to help you ?" " Your men will be well paid," eagerly replied the officer. " As for you, you will be made a captain in the British navy, and you will also be given thirty thousand dollars," Lafitte said that he must have two weeks to think it over. He was putting the Englishman off in order to give him time to warn Governor Clai- borne that the British were so near. He sent two of his men to take the news to the governor and to put himself and his band at the service of the Americans. The governor called a council and placed the matter before its members. All except Claiborne and one other gentleman decided that they would not trust the Baratarians. One of the men whom Captain Jean had sent to Claiborne was a traitor. The Americans paid him to pilot vessels to Bara- taria. The Baratarians wfere completely surprised, and there was a desperate fight. A great many of the Baratarians were killed and taken prisoners. Their buildings were burned and their goods and vessels seized. The two brothers escaped to the Mississippi, where some friends hid them. THE BARATARIAN PIRATES 255 When General Jackson came to New Orleans, Captain Jean went to him and offered the aid of his men in the defense of New Orleans. Before General Jackson came to the city, he thought that the council had acted exactly right in not accepting the help of the Baratarians. He had said the Brit- ish might be glad to have the assistance of bandits, robbers, and pirates, but that he wanted no such help. General Jackson did not often change his mind, but he changed it when he saw Captain Jean. One brave man recognizes another, and General Jackson thankfully received Captain Jean's offer. You will find out later if the Baratarians were worthy of the trust which General Jackson put in them. Questions. — i. Tell about the smugglers on the gulf coast : how they got their merchandise and how they sold it. 2. Why was this southern coast a favorable place for smug- glers? "• 3. Tell the story of Captain Jean Lafitte. CHAPTER XLIV GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON COMES TO NEW ORLEANS The people of New Orleans were very much alarmed when they learned that the British were near. They knew that they could not withstand the enemy, and were not much comforted by the fact that General Jackson was being sent to protect the city. They looked upon Jackson as a rough Westerner with but little education. He had been a lawyer without knowing much law ; now he was a soldier, and they feared he did not know very much about fighting. To be sure, Jackson had had rare experience in fighting Indians, but the Louisianians did not trust to that kind of training when it came to meeting on the battle-field the skilled troops of Old England. General Jackson reached New Orleans on the afternoon of December i, 1814, and began at once to fortify the city. He first examined the defenses along the Mississippi River. He found there several dilapidated old forts. These he ordered torn down, the lumber piled up, and a cannon placed on top of each pile. Then he returned to New Orleans and set up a battery at the rear of the city. He also 256 ANDREW JACKSON COMES TO NEW ORLEANS 257 sent word to Governor Claiborne to close up with logs the bayous leading into New Orleans from the gulf and lakes. The stretch of gulf shore, the many winding bayous and lakes, and the Mississippi River give to Louisiana a very long coast line. Yet the United States had pro- vided but six gun- boats and one sloop of war to protect all this coast. The land forces which Jackson had at his command were small in num- ber and poorly trained, but they were brave and de- termined men, and as Jackson re- viewed them, he seemed satisfied. There were the Kent'uckians and Tennesseeans whom he had brought with him, troops from Mississippi commanded by Hinds, regiments from the West under Coffee, the Tennessee militia under Carroll, the Lafittes with their Baratarians, and one negro company. General Andrew Jackson 258 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Arms and ammunition were very scarce. Private houses were searched, and all the old rusty pistols, guns, swords, and even long knives were collected. Jackson had these oiled and rubbed, and then, as the final step in making ready to meet the British, he gave his men a talk. Jackson did not make a long speech. He had come to fight, not to talk. He told his men that they were going to win, and that he himself should fight as long as there was an Englishman in Loui- siana. If the general's heart felt just a little faint at the thought of the splendidly drilled British, he gave no hint of it. He did not complain that the United States had sent him no troops. He did not say what he could do if he had a well-equipped army. He made the most of what he had at hand, and worked all the harder because he had so little. New Orleans was like a big camp, and General Jackson was the central figure. He took command as if he knew exactly what to do, and made the peo- ple feel that whatever he willed would be done. It was his faith in himself and his men that made him successful. It was a short and easy passage from Lake Borgne to New Orleans through Bayou Bienvenu, if one but knew the way. Therefore it seemed best to station here the six little gunboats which the United States had provided. Lieutenant Thomas A. C. Jones was in command. ANDREW JACKSON COMES TO NEW ORLEANS 259 Against this pitifully weak fleet the British Admiral Cochrane sent a thousand men in fifty open boats. The Americans tried to escape, but there was no breeze to fill their sails, and as this was before the days of steamships, they could make no headway. The little fleet finally ran aground in a narrow channel. Lieutenant Jones had only one hundred and fifty men, but this plucky little body of Americans was not going to be captured without a fight. Jones ordered the guns to be made ready, and steadfastly watched the advancing British as their boats, rowed by skilled oarsmen, swept over the sunlit lake. In the prow of each boat was a brightly burnished can- non, and back of it sat the redcoats — as the British were called, on account of their uniform — the points of their bayonets glittering like jewels in the sunlight. The Americans waited until the British were well within range. Then a fierce blaze of fire flashed out over the lake. It killed many of the enemy, but did not break their perfect order. On they came, with steady, even stroke. Suddenly, with one swift, lengthened pull the barges bounded alongside the gunboats, and the British and Americans met in a fierce hand-to-hand fight. The British captured the gunboats, but it cost them three hundred men to do so, while the Americans lost but sixty. The news of the naval battle on Lake Borgne reached New Orleans the next day. Hie governor 26o HISTORY OF LOUISIANA at once sent a message to the legislature advising it to adjourn for fifteen or twenty days. Governor Clai- borne thought that every man in New Orleans would be needed to defend the city. The legislature refused to adjourn. A committee stated to the governor that in time of war the legislature should remain in session to suggest ways to raise money to aid the people. General Jackson did not like this act of the legis- lature. He did not want any suggestions. He had undertaken to save Louisiana, and was going to do it in his own way. He therefore declared the city to be under martial law. This meant that the laws made by the people were to be set aside, and that General Jackson, aided by his soldiers, was to rule according to his best judgment. Jackson now set to work to guard all of the en- trances into the city. Yet, in spite of his care, Bayou Bienvenu, leading from Lake Borgne to the Mississippi, was left open. The British were quick to take advantage of this opportunity. There 'were some Italian fishermen living on Bayou Bienvenu. These men sold their fish in New Orleans. The British paid them to take into the city two of their officers, disguised as fishermen. Along Bayou Bienvenu and on Villere's canal, which led from the bayou to the city, were large plantations. One of these was the home of Major General Villere. When the major general heard ANDREW JACKSON COMES TO NEW ORLEANS 261 that the British were on Lake Borgne, he sent sev- eral Creoles down the bayou to watch the movements of the enemy. The Creoles agreed that if they were captured, they would all say that Jackson had a large and powerful army to defend the city. One night the little band was surprised and cap- tured by five British barges which crept up the bayou and were upon them before the Creoles could escape. The British asked how many soldiers Jack- son had at his command. The captives, to a man, replied that he had twelve thousand soldiers in New Orleans and four thousand at the English Turn. The fishermen had told the British that Jackson had very few men, which was the truth, but the British believed the Creoles. Questions. — i. Describe the American troops that fought a'" New Orleans. 2. What do you think of General Jackson? 3. Tell about the battle on Lake Borgne. 4. What is meant by putting a place under martial law? House in which Andrew Jackson was Born CHAPTER XLV THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS The British pushed on up the bayou and landed back of General Villere's plantation. The general's son, Major Villere, saw the redcoats march quickly from behind an orange grove. He tried to escape through the back of the house, but the British sur- rounded the yard, and he was soon captured and put in a room under a guard. The young major knew that General Jackson ought to learn at once that the enemy was coming. Somehow he must escape and reach New Orleans. With this one thought in mind, and without think- ing of the danger to himself, Villere dashed past the guards, jumped through an open window, and made for the shelter of a thick wood. The soldiers followed, firing as they ran. He could hear the order given to surround the wood and capture him alive or dead. Major Villere had just hidden himself in the branches of a large, moss-draped oak, when he heard his favorite hunting dog whining and scratching at the foot of the tree. He knew that she w^ould be- tray him, so he came down quickly, and, with tears 262 THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS 263 in his eyes, killed the faithful, affectionate animal, and hid her body in the bushes. Scarcely had he climbed again into the tree when the enemy came crashing through the wood. They looked all about, thrusting their bayonets into the brushwood, but they never once thought of looking up into the tree, where sat the major watching them. At last they gave up the search and went away. Then Major Villere jumped to the ground and ran for the next plantation. There he got a swift horse that bore him to General Jackson. General Jackson was a man who made up his mind quickly. He said, " We must fight them to-night." He summoned all the troops from their different stations, and ordered the gunboat Carolina down the river. The artillery had already been sent be- low to guard the city. At the gate of Fort St. Charles, Jackson reviewed the troops as they marched down the levee road. He waited until the last man passed ; then he galloped after them. That evening at nightfall the British soldiers were gathered about their campfires, singing and telling stories. Suddenly they heard a sentinel hail a boat that was gliding quietly down the dark river. There was no answer to the voice of the sentry. The sol- diers, who had paused for a minute to gaze idly at the boat, again took up song and story. But neither was ever finished. A clear, stern voice ran^ across the water, " Now, 264 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA boys, give It to them for the honor of America!" At the same time there was a boom of cannon from off the river. It was answered almost instantly by a rattle of shot from a wood behind tlie camp. The British, who were running from the cannon balls to the Site of BAXTLE-FiELn of 1814, Chalmette National Cemetery shelter of the levee, were met by a squad of Ameri- cans who rushed out of the wood cheerincy each O other on with shouts and cries. In the darkness all was confusion. The British officers could not get their commands, and fought with any squad that happened to be near. It was a fierce, hand-to-hand skirmish, lasting until half-past nine, when Jackson withdrew his men. There were more British left dead on the field than Americans. This battle occurred on the 23d of December, 1814, and was called the battle of the twenty-third. In it THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS 265 the Loulsianlans learned to trust their commander, and General Jackson learned that the Creoles were true men who could stand fire. The British made the mistake of not at once pushing on six miles farther to New Orleans. If they had done so, they could have taken the city before General Jackson could march his forces back to protect it. On Christmas Day, one of England's greatest generals, Sir Edward Pakenham, took command of the British troops. The first thing Sir Edward did waS' to destroy the Carolina and drive away the Louisiana. He did not want his men again to be placed between two fires. Between the 23d of December and the 8th of January, both sides did some cannonading, but no battle was fought. The Americans worried the British like wasps. Day and night they threw shells into the enemy's camp, so that the British could neither rest nor sleep. They could not even keep a sentinel, for the American hunters picked each new one off with the same sure aim that had brought death to many a rabbit and squirrel in the woods of Tennessee. Twenty-two hundred Kentuckians came to New Orleans to help Jackson. They were in rags, and were armed with rusty old guns that would not shoot. But Jackson was glad to see the brave men, and the houses were ao:ain ransacked to find then? 266 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA better weapons. The ladies of the city made them warm clothes. In one week they made twelve hundred coats, eleven hundred pairs of trousers, and eight hundred shirts. During this time General Jackson built strong breastworks. They were a mile long, and were made of logs plastered together with mud. On the night of the 7th of January, 181 5, the Americans heard stirrings in the British camp, and at daylight the next morning, the British sent up a rocket. This was their way of saying that they were ready to fight. The Americans answered with a cannon shot, which said that they too were ready. Then the splendidly drilled British troops, led by General Gibbs, advanced toward the Americans. The orderly British soldiers were a strange contrast to the mixture of Louisianians, Mississippians, Ken- tuckians, Tennesseeans, Baratarians, Indians, and negroes that made up Jackson's army. When the British had nearly reached the Ameri- can breastworks, it was found that their scaling ladders had been forgotten. They could not climb the breastworks without ladders, so they hastily sent back for them. Meantime, their troops were wait- ing in an open space, exposed to the fire of the Americans. A flash and roar that shook the earth came from Jackson's strong defense. The British fell like blades of grass before a mower. Their line gave way, but soon rallied and pressed forward. 268 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA A second time the storm of death-dealing bullets drove them back. At last General Pakenham's regiment came up with the ladders. Pakenham dashed forward, waving his hat and cheering on his men, but he was not to command them long. His scarlet uniform was a target which the backwoodsmen could not miss, and he soon fell and was carried off the field mortally wounded. With the brilliant commander's death, the battle was lost to the British. In this wonderful battle of New Orleans, the British greatly outnumbered the Americans. Yet the American loss was but eight men, while the British lost two thousand. After the victory, the women of New Orleans went down to the battle- field to care for the wounded. They found that it was the British, not their own men, who needed help. The saddest part of the terrible loss was that the lives of all of these brave soldiers might have been saved, had there been a telegraph or cable to bring news quickly. Peace between America and Eng- land had been declared the day before General Pakenham came to New Orleans. But the battle was over and the dead were buried before it was known that peace had been made. After the battle, the people in New Orleans were wild with joy and paid great honor to General Jack- son. It would be pleasant to end the story here, but THE BATrLP: OF NEW ORLEANS 269 there Is more that must be told. When the legis- lature thanked the heroes who had saved Louisiana, it did not so much as mention General Jackson's name. Jackson had forced the legislature to close, and after the battle he had kept the city under martial law. The le2:islature could not forgrive him for this. It thought that he had no right to inter- fere with State laws. General Jackson was brought before the court and fined a thousand dollars. He paid the fine, saying that eveiy good citizen should obey the law. Long years after the War of 1812, Congress paid him back this money, with interest which amounted to thirty thousand dollars. Jackson had put the city under the command of his soldiers because he did not trust the Creoles. He could not be blamed for this, as their own gov- ernor did not trust them. But both Jackson and Governor Claiborne lived to see that in this mistrust they made a great mistake. The battle of the 8th of January was a grand victory for America. It saved New Orleans and the Mississippi River from falling into the hands of the English. If the English had got possession of the Mississippi Valley, the United States might have been cut in two, and in this case our country would have extended only to the Mississippi River, in- stead of spreading from ocean to ocean. 270 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Questions. — i. Tell about the battle of the twenty-third. 2. What took place during the next two weeks? 3. When was the battle of New Orleans fought? Tell what you can about it. 4. How could an army so poorly trained and armed as the Americans were succeed against the large, well trained British forces? 5. What was one result of Jackson's putting the city under martial law? Why had he thought martial law necessary? Gold Meual pkesenteu by Congres TO Andrew Jackson CHAPTER XLVI THE MIDDLE PERIOD The victory of New Orleans not only saved Louisiana — it united the people. Up to that time the Creoles had felt the shame of having been bought by the United States. They were suspi- cious and unjust. But when the British entered Lake Borgne, it was not the French nor the Ameri- cans who were in danger, it was the State of Louisiana. A common danger brought the people together, for French and Americans alike had to defend their homes. They ate the same food, slept side by side, fought in the same regiments, and each found good in the other. When the war was over, it was the united Louisianians who rejoiced over the victory. Claiborne was governor thirteen years. After his administration we find both Creole and American names in the long list of governors between 1816 and the present time. So it was in every business and profession. The Creoles and Americans married one another, and as their children's children grew up, the Louisianians became truly one people. After the British were driven away from Loui- 271 2 72 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA siana, the history of the State for a long time was uneventful. In those days, as now, the governors were able men, chosen by the people to be at the head of their government. There was no more giving away of the people, or selling them. The Louisianians were living the quiet, happy life of a prosperous people. Settlers from Georgia, Mississippi, Kentucky, and other States came into Louisiana bringing money to invest and new ideas. The population spread from the south to the northern, western, and eastern part of the State. More plantations were started in cot- ton, cane, and tobacco ; towns were built ; steam- boats went up and down the Mississippi. In 1830 the first railroad in the State was built between New Orleans and Milneburg, and four years later New Orleans was lighted by gas. In this time of growth better laws were made. Changes were made in the State constitution, and each change meant more power placed in the hands of the people. But there was shadow as well as sunshine. Evil days fell upon the Louisianians, bringing overflows and yellow fever. The levees were not well built. Every few years parts of them gave way, and the Mississippi swept over the rich crops of cotton and cane. The loss to the State meant thousands of dollars. Even worse than the devouring water was the terrible yellow fever. The doctors at that time did THE MIDDLE PERIOD 273 not understand how to treat the fever, and had not learned how to keep it out of New Orleans. One of the worst yellow fever epidemics occurred in 1853. In the spring of that year, two vessels on their way to New Orleans stopped at Rio Janeiro, where the captain of one vessel and several of the crew took A View on the Levee, New Orleans, 1850 the yellow fever and soon died. When the ships reached New Orleans, an immigrant from one of them was taken to the charity hospital and died in a few hours. In a few days the fever broke out in another part of the city, then in another, and another. It seemed as if the air was laden with the germs which brought death to one out of every ten per- sons. A great many of the citizens left for the North. Those who .could not go away bravely awaited their fate. It seemed mere chance whether it should be life or death. During the first week of 274 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA August, the death list from the fever was nine hun- dred and forty-seven. It was hard to find enough well persons to dig the graves for those who died. On the 2 2d of August the fever was at its height. Two hundred and eighty-three died that day. The next day there were twenty-five less, the next fewer still, until the scourge had spent its force. One would think that a city so often visited by a terrible fever would soon become deserted. But not so ; in spite of overflows and yellow fever New Orleans grew larger and the parishes became thickly settled. As the State prospered, more attention was paid to education. Far back in the early days of Loui- siana, Bienville saw the need of education in his little colony. You remember that though he was not governor when the Ursuline nuns opened a school for girls, yet it was owing to his efforts that the Sisters came to Louisiana. Bienville tried to get the king of France to establish a school for boys, but Louis XV did not think it worth while. A monk. Father Cecil, taught the first school for boys in the State. When Louisiana became a territory of the United States, its legislature took an interest in education. Colleges and public schools were established from time to time. The State gave money to the col- leges, but did not seem to understand that -lower schools were needed. The children of the rich THE MIDDLE PERIOD 275 and of those who lived comfortably went to private schools or had tutors and governesses. It was not until 1845 that the people began to feel the value of public schools. Some years before, Governor Roman had said that the schools in Louisiana should be free, and the rich and the poor should be taught together. Gov- A ViF.w OF New Orleans in 1852 ernor Roman meant that every child in the State should be given a chance to show what was in him, and that those who did the best work should be the ones to have the best start in life. The same year, 1845, Alexander Dimitry was appointed the first superintendent of education. The public schools, once started, prospered until the breaking out of the Civil War, in 186 1. A long time after this war, Louisiana was under the con- trol of men who stole the State's money ; but when 276 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA honest men got into power again, they remembered the children. Schools have now become a part of the State's progress. Louisiana has two universities, a normal school, two industrial schools, and numerous colleges and private schools. Many of these have beautiful build- ings, well heated and lighted, fitted with comfort- able seats, desks, blackboards, and libraries. Often there are window gardens to make the rooms home- like. Every year, as the teachers become more thoughtful and intelligent, they take greater inter- est in the health of the children. This will make the children of Louisiana go out from the public schools a strong race with vigorous bodies and clear brains. Questions. — i. Mention some of the things that had long kept the inhabitants of Louisiana from becoming united as one people. 2. What experiences brought the Louisianians together? 3. How long ago was the first railroad in the State built? 4. What were the two greatest enemies to the growth and prosperity of the State? 5. Why are free public schools one of the very best things a State can provide for its citizens? 6. Find out what college is nearest your home. What indus- trial school. CHAPTER XLVII ZACHARY TAYLOR Louisiana has a claim upon one of the long file of Presidents who have passed to the White House. When Zachary Taylor was elected Presi- dent of the United States, he owned a plantation in Louisiana and considered this State his home. Virginia and Kentucky also claim President Taylor, for he was born in Virginia in 1784, and while he was a little boy, his father moved to Kentucky. Kentucky was not a safe place in which to live at that time. The Indians still thought it their rightful hunting ground, and were not willing to have white people settle there. For this reason the settlers' lives were constantly in danger. Every night the Taylor boys helped their father barricade the doors and load the guns. They learned to throw the tomahawk, and to load and shoot while running. They even went armed to school, for the Indians were very bold, and had been known to come very close to the schoolhouse. At one time, when the boys of the neighborhood were going home from school, three of them were captured and killed only a few minutes after they had parted from Zachary and his elder brother Hancock. 277 278 HISTORY 0I<^ LOUISIANA Brought up in a time of such danger, most of the boys in the settlement were watchful and brave. Many of them became soldiers when they grew up. Hancock Taylor, when a very young man, was ap- pointed first lieutenant in the United States army. Zachary, too, wished to be a soldier, so he joined the State militia and went on many raids against the Indians. Most of his time, however, was spent at home working on his father's farm. When Zachary was twenty-four years old, his brother Hancock died. Then Zachaiy was made first lieutenant in Hancock's place. He was sent to Indiana to punish the Indians who were burn- ing the homes of the settlers from Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Lieutenant Taylor was in the West several years. When he was not fighting, he was studying his profession, and getting ready for his life work in the army. After a time the United States government began to notice the successful young soldier who laid his plans so wisely and led his men so bravely. Lieu- tenant Taylor was made a captain, then a major, and in a few years more he became a colonel. Colonel Taylor was sent to settle the Indian troubles in Florida. He was the same skillful, cool- headed officer in Florida that he had been in the West, and the government now honored him with the title of general. He was put in command of the Department of the Southwest. Louisiana ZACHARY TAYLOR 279 was one of the States in this department, and the headquarters were at Baton Rouge. The United States barracks at Baton Rouge were on the site of the old Spanish fort. When the Taylors reached their new home, it was thought that the commanding officer would live in one of the handsome brick houses of the post, but the Taylors were simple folk. They chose a rambling old house with wide galleries, where roses bloomed from March until Christmas, and here they lived very happily. The general was a short, stout, rosy- faced person, as fond of his comfortable home as was Mrs. Taylor, who had gentle manners, and who loved to work in her beautiful flower garden. She raised vegetables, and took pride in making all the butter used on her table. In 1845 the home life of the Taylors was broken up. There was danger of war between the United States and Mexico. Many years before some Americans had setded in Texas. They gradually came to own much property, and thought that they should have a share in the government; but their flt^VS^T"*^. Zachary Tavlok 28o • HISTORY OF LOUISIANA ideas were so different from those of the Mexicans, who owned Texas, that there was constant trouble. At last the differences of opinion led to fighting. The Americans were victorious, and took pos- session of the country, making it an independent republic. After four or five years the Republic of Texas asked to be admitted into the Union. The United States accepted the new territory and set about fixing the boundary between Texas and Mexico. This question of the boundary line led to more trouble. The Mexicans thought that the Ameri- cans were claiming more territory than belonged to them. So General Taylor was ordered to march to the frontier and defend the rights of the Union. When he reached the Rio Grande River, he at once set about building fortifications. The Mexicans did the same on their side of the Rio Grande, which is the natural boundary between Texas and Mexico. The two armies then waited, watching each other. At the end of several weeks the Mexican general wrote to General Taylor that he had been ordered to break up the American camp, and that the Americans had better leave while there was time. General Taylor sent back word that he should stay where he was. At this reply the Mexicans crossed the river and the war began. General Taylor wrote to the governor of Louisiana, Governor Isaac Johnson, for ZACHARY TAYLOR 281 more troops. The legislature of Louisiana voted a hundred thousand dollars to help carry on the war, and regiments from different parts of the State went at the call of General Taylor. The American army entered Mexico and won batde after battle. When the Americans reached Monterey, the Mexicans felt safe, for the stone walls of the houses were built high above the roofs, and the Mexicans could hide behind these and shoot down upon the enemy. But in spite of this strong defense. General Taylor entered the town and marched his men to a fort which had been left open. Here they turned their guns upon the Mexi- cans, who had been keeping up a constant fire from the tops of the houses. The Mexicans scattered like chaff before the wind. In a short time Monterey was in the hands of ,Xjeneral Taylor. The government sent General Scott, another famous American, to storm the City of Mexico. General Scott was ordered to take General Taylor's best-trained men. General Scott did not wish to do this, for he knew that General Taylor would have liked to be sent to the City of Mexico himself. But Scott had to obey orders. When General Taylor bade his soldiers good-by, he told them to do their duty like brave men. General Taylor would indeed have liked to go with the troops to the City of Mexico, but as events turned out, there was enough for him to do 282 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA elsewhere. Santa Anna, the most noted of all the Mexican generals, thought that this would be a good time to attack General Taylors weakened forces. When the American commander heard that Santa Anna was advancing toward him, he took his men to a mountain pass called Buena Vista, and waited. General Taylor sat on his war horse, Old Whitey. Back of him was his little army of five thousand men. They were few in number, but all had steady hands and brave hearts, as they watched the Mexican host of twenty thousand ad- vance in orderly array far down the mountain. Soon a Mexican soldier bearing a white flag of truce galloped up the pass. He brought a letter from Santa Anna to General Taylor. Santa Anna wrote that if there was a battle the American army would be cut to pieces, but, as General Taylor was a worthy man, he would give him a chance to sur- render. Santa Anna gave General Taylor an hour to make up his mind. General Taylor did not wish this hour. He sent back word at once that he had no intention of surrendering. The battle began im- mediately. It was the most brilliant of General Taylor's victories in Mexico. It is called the battle of Buena Vista. Several months after this battle the war came to an end by the surrender of the Mexicans. Then General Taylor went back to Louisiana. His countrymen felt that they could not honor him ZACHARY TAYLOR 283 enough Many cities and towns invited him to visit them, and wherever he went, there were bonfires, street parades, banquets, and receptions. Finally General Taylor was elected President of the United States. Battle uf Buena Vista As an officer, General Taylor was beloved by his men. Old Rough and Ready, as his soldiers called him, would not wear his uniform, and clung to an old black hat with a twine string for a band and the crown half gone. But his troops knew that an able commander was wearing those shabby clothes, and that no danger could throw him off his guard. Once in a while, however, the general considered it a matter of duty to look his best. When he was 284 HISTORY OF T,OUISIANA in Texas, Commodore Conner sent word that he should like to pay his respects. General Taylor knew that the commodore was fond of dress, so he decided to wear a uniform. He rushed to his tent and dragged out from a chest a rumpled coat, which he put on in such haste that three buttonholes stood above his collar with no buttons to meet them. Then the general, feeling stiff and miserable, sat bolt upright to await the commodore. But Commodore Conner, knowing General Tay- lor's habits, thought it would be in bad form to appear in full .dress, so he wore a suit of white drilling. As the two men shook hands, there was a sly look of merriment on the face of each. When General Taylor became President of the United States, the high position did not turn his head. He was always as simple in his manners and as faithful in performing his duty as he had been on his father's farm and on the battle-field. Questions. — i. Tell something of the early history of Texas. 2. What brought on the war between the United States and Mexico in 1845? 3. Tell all you can about General Taylor : (i) His boyhood. (2) His rise in the army. (3) In the Mexican War. (4) As President. (5) His personal characteristics. CHAPTER XLVIII AUDUBON There was born on a Louisiana plantation, on May 4, 1 780, a boy who was one day to become a famous man. This boy's name was John James Au- dubon. His father was an officer in the French navy. Little Audubon was not like most other children. Instead of playing with boys of his own age, he liked to spend hour after hour in his father's big garden, watching the mocking birds, blue jays, red- birds, orioles, and woodpeckers. He learned how the birds build their nests and get their food. He noticed the coloring of every feather, and when he had studied the birds a long time, he began to paint them. He made pictures that were wonderfully lifelike for the work of a little boy. When Audubon was twelve or thirteen years old, his father's work called him to France, and he took his family with him. Audubon's mother was proud of the boy's beauty. She dressed him in velvet and lace, and had him taught music and dancing. But, though he was fond of music and liked to dance, he liked better to roam in the woods. He painted the French birds, and brought home birds' nests and pieces of moss and rocks. 285 286 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The commodore, as Audubon's father was called, said that his son was filling the house with trash. One day he told Audubon that it was time to stop painting birds and get to serious work. He sent Audubon to a school where boys were trained for the sea, but Audubon did not like that kind of life. The commodore asked him what he would rather do. Audubon said that he wished to be an artist and paint American birds. Was ever a father more disappointed ? He had set his heart on seeing the boy a brilliant naval officer, winning victories for France. But the com^ modore was a sensible man, and knew that it was wisest to let his son. follow the bent of his own talent. So Audubon began to study under a famous artist named David. When he had learned to paint pretty well, he became discontented. How could he paint birds without seeing them } Stuffed birds and copies were no inspiration. The commodore finally made Audubon the present of a large plantation in Penn- sylvania, and the young artist returned to America. He owned miles and miles of woodland, the home of thousands of birds. On the plantation was a big rock in which there was a cave. Audubon took this for his home, and put in it a bed, a table, a chair, and a cupboard for his dishes. He put away his fine clothes, and got a hunter's suit of buckskin. Now he was ready to study the birds. At first AUDUBON 28] the little feathered creatures were afraid of him, but they soon made friends with this lone man of the woods. They quarreled and fought and went to housekeeping and raised their little ones near his cave without taking any notice of him. Audubon never killed a bird except to study it. He learned to put the dead birds on wires, and by means of threads to raise or lower the head, wings, or tail. This helped him in his study, for it was almost like hav- ing a live bird before him. When Audubon's father died, he left his son a large amount of money. Audubon decided to" go into business. He married a lady named Lucy Bakewell, and they went to Louisville. Here Audubon opened a large store, but he was no busi- ness man. He lost all his money and had to start over again. He felt that he must go back to the work he loved and could do best. Some people thought it a waste of time to study birds. But Audubon's wife had faith in him. She urged him to continue his study, and helped him by going to the little town of Bayou Sara in Louisiana and John J. Audubon 288 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA opening a school. The wealthy planters near Bayou Sara were glad to pay a large sum of money to have their daughters taught by so gifted a woman as Mrs. Audubon. When his noble wife had gone to Bayou Sara, Audubon and his son, Victor, crossed the Missis- sippi. They went deep into the lonely wood, and there made their home. They lived on roots and berries, and slept under the trees. Often they had to wade through treacherous swamps, but they did not mind the hardships They were thinking of the wonderful work, in which Victor was coming to take as great an interest as his father. Audubon taught Victor to paint, and to recognize the different birds and know their habits. At last, after many years of patient labor, Audu- bon began to feel satisfied with what he had done. He had written the life history and made drawings of American birds. He was becoming a famous man. In 1827 he went to England. Everywhere the people were delighted with the beautiful books of the great artist. He was invited to take dinner with rich noblemen, and met noted writers, musi- cians, and artists. But though Audubon was greatly admired, he was still very poor. As he sat at rich men's tables splen- did with gold and silver dishes and sparkling glass, a queer little smile sometimes crossed his face as he wondered where he would get his next meal. Sir AUDUBON 289 Thomas Lawrence, a noted portrait painter, helped him to sell his pictures, and this brought him a small income. But Audubon knew that to get money to have his book on "American Birds" published, the king must approve it. How could he manage to meet the king ? Audubon called upon Mr. Gallatin, the American minister to England, to talk the matter over. The minister thought the artist a very simple man to imagine that the king would see him. He told Audubon that he, the American ambassador, had to wait six weeks before his Majesty granted him a meeting, which lasted but five or six minutes. But Audubon had made one friend who knew what his work was worth. Sir Walter Waller was the friend's name. Sir Walter said that the kins: must see those beautiful American birds that were so lifelike that one almost expected to hear them sing. He himself took the drawings to the king. His Majesty was charmed. " They are fine ! " he said. " Fine ! " And he put down his name for one of the books, not as a king, he said, but as a gentleman who loved what was beautiful and true. The king told Sir Walter that Audubon might publish his book under the protection of the crown. At last, after so many years of work and poverty, success had come. Audubon's fortune was made. When it became known that the king had bought zgo HISTORY OF LOUISIANA one of his books, many rich people subscribed for copies. Indeed, any one who bought "American Birds" must be rich, for the price was one thousand dollars. As soon as he was sure of success, Audubon's first thought was of his true-hearted wife and boy at home in America. He returned to this country, where his wife and son became his agents. They sold many of the books. Audubon bought a home on the Hudson River. He named the estate for his wife. All the world now honored the artist. Kings and emperors sent him costly gifts ; scientific soci- eties added titles to his name. Audubon lived to be an old man, and when he died, was buried In New York City. A monument was raised to his memory, and his home, now within the city, is called Audubon Park. The State of his birth, Louisiana, also has a park in New Orleans named for him. The Audubon Society for children is the memorial which the great artist would most have appreciated. In this society children are taught the usefulness of birds to man, and to love and protect the beautiful, timid creatures who were so dear to the gentle Audubon. Questions. — i. What was Audubon's great work? 2. Explain how he learned so much about birds. 3. Tell the story of Audubon's life. 4. Find out all you can about the Audubon Society. CHAPTER XLIX THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR • The saddest hours in Louisiana's history were yet to come. In 1861 the Civil War broke out between the Northern and the Southern States. To understand some of the causes which led to this war, we must go back many years. When the Revolutionary War was over and America was free from Great Britain, thoughtful men saw that the States could never prosper or be protected unless they united and formed a strong government. The colonies, however, had felt the power of Eng- land. They feared that if they united they would not be able to leave the Union at any time that they wished. They finally decided to join together as the United States of America, but it was under- stood that any State could withdraw if it chose. All the States, both Northern and Southern, made the same claim. In 181 1 Josiah Quincy of Massa- chusetts said that his State ought to leave the Union if Louisiana were admitted. Before and after this time, other States made similar assertions of the rio^ht of a State to leave the Union. When the nation was young, if there were disputes between 291 292 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Congress and the different States, Congress gave way to prevent trouble. In 1832 South Carolina refused to pay a tax which had been authorized by Congress. By this time there were people who said that the States must obey the laws made by Congress, and that they had no rieht to leave the Union, or secede, as it was called. General Andrew Jackson, who was then President of the United States, held this view, and there would have been trouble if the tax had not been lowered. As the years went by, the Union grew stronger. Every year there were more people who earnestly believed that the Constitution of the United States showed that a State could not secede. Others read the Constitution differently, and just as ear- nestly believed that the States had only entered into a contract which was to last so long as they felt benefited by it. There was another question to which the people gave serious thought. This was slavery. The traders who came from Africa with shiploads of neo-roes were Northern men who first sold thei** slaves both to the North and South. There were larcre factories in the North where cloth, shoes, and other goods were made. The slaves were not intelligent enough to work in the factories, and the climate was too cold for them ; so slavery died out in the North. The negroes were, however, THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR 293 well suited to work on the big cotton, cane, and tobacco plantations of the warm South. Both sec- tions of the country felt the wrong of slavery. The South felt it even more than the North. She had millions of a lower race of people in her midst, and feared that, as years went by, evil would result. Yet Picking Cotton she could not afTord to do without the slaves, for her wealth lay in her soil, which the negroes worked. This state of affairs might have lasted for many years if it had not been for two important events. One of these was the invention of a machine known as the cotton gin ; the other was the Loui- siana Purchase. In 1793, Eli Whitney, a Massachusetts man. was visiting in Georgia. While there he saw negroes picking seed from the cotton by hand. 294 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA In this slow way one negro could not clean more than one pound of cotton a day, though, by using a little machine called a roller-gin, five pounds was a day's work. As Whitney watched the negroes, an ingenious idea came to him. It resulted in his in- venting a machine which in one day would clean a thousand pounds of cotton. Henceforth the South could furnish all the Northern and English mills with cotton. This made cotton raising more and more prof- itable. Plantations increased rapidly, and the negro traders could hardly bring in slaves fast enough to work in the wide cot- ton fields. In 1803, the time of the Louisiana Purchase, the States east of the Mis- sissippi River were about evenly divided into slave and free States. Both North and South were con- tent with this arrangement. When the territories west of the Mississippi wanted to enter the Union as States, the question arose whether they should come in as free or slave States. The North de- clared that slaves could not be taken into the new purchase. The South insisted that the Constitu- tion and the Supreme Court of the United States Whitney's Cotton Gin After the original model THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR 295 both declared that slaves were property, and that the court had decided that a man could take his property wherever he went The real difficulty lay in the fact that the country had grown until both North and South contained a great many people, and both sections were fighting for power. Their business interests were different, and a tax which would help the Northern manufac turer would perhaps injure the Southern planter. If the Western territories were settled by Northern people, the North would have more power in Con- gress and could pass laws beneficial to the North and harmful to the South. The people of both sections of the country were deeply stirred. Conventions were held, and wise men on each side urged their party to give up a little and keep the peace. But the excitement was too great for the difficulty to be settled peacefully. Though the slaves, as a rule, had kind masters and were happy, many people in the North began to write articles telling with what horrible cruelty the negroes were treated. The South became more angry than before, and determined to leave the Union. She believed that she had the right to do this, as the States had entered the Union with the understanding that each could withdraw at any time that it chose. South Carolina was the first State to withdraw, and other States soon followed. In January, 1861, a convention met in the Capitol 296 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA at Baton Rouge. The wisest men in Louisiana thought that the people were acting with too great haste. They said it would be better to wait until every effort had been made to bring the two parts of the country to a peaceable agreement. Several of these men spoke with deep feeling before the con- vention. They implored the delegates to consider what a serious thing it was to break up the Union. They reminded them that the sacred history of our country belonged to both sections, that Northern and Southern men had framed the Consti- tution, had fought together in the wars with Great Brit- ain and Mexico, and had rejoiced over the same victories. But the eloquent speakers saw in the determined faces before them that most of the members of the convention had made up their minds to secede. Every Louisianian must be true to his State, so, with tears streaming down their cheeks, many of the speakers signed the ordinance of secession. This ordinance, which declared Louisiana to be no longer a State in the Union, was read on the boulevard fronting the state house. By some it was received Jefferson Davis THE CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR 297 with wild cheers, but hundreds turned away with sorrowful faces. When Thomas O. Moore, who was governor at the time, called for troops, men flocked in from all the parishes. Every home was open to the soldiers, and ladies went in the afternoons to see the regi- ments drill. The towns were gay with the sounds of fife and drum, and the stirring strains of Dixie and the Bonnie Blue Flag. In February, 1861, representatives from the Southern States met at Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a government. The new government was called the Confederate States of America, and Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was made the Presi- dent. Questions. — i. Why did slaveholding die out in the North and increase in the South ? 2. Tell about the invention of the cotton gin and its effect on the South. 3. How did the Louisiana Purchase, by adding a vast territory to the Union, affect the slavery question? 4. Describe the secession convention at Baton Rouge. 5. Tell about the organization of the Confederacy, CHAPTER L THE EARLY YEARS OF THE WAR General Beauregard, a Louisianian, opened the war by capturing Fort Sumter in South Carolina. He had been ordered to attack the fort because the North was sending supplies and ammunition to strengthen it. General Beauregard was trained to be a soldier at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. He had been a gallant officer in the Mexican War, and when the Civil War broke out was superintendent at West Point. When Louisiana seceded, he gave up his position, his hopes, and ambitions, and, like a true-hearted man, went back to his own people. At the fall of P^ort Sumter, both North and South felt that the war had begun in earnest. Yet the Louisianians did not think it would ever reach their own State. For this reason most of the troops were sent to other States. Thus Louisiana was left unprotected. One of the first plans of the Federals, as the Northerners were called, was to get possession of the Mississippi River. If they controlled the Mis- sissippi, the Confederacy would be cut in two, for on 2g8 THE EARLY YEARS OF THE WAR 299 the west side of the river were Arkansas, Texas, and a large part of Louisiana. These States formed an important part of the Confederate territory. The Confederate government now made the same fatal mistake that the United States government had made in the War of 181 2. It was blind to the im- portance of New Orleans. General Lovell was sta- tioned there. He had been sending his men to Gen- eral Beauregard, and had but three thousand left under his own command. Only twelve hundred of these were armed. The fleet which was to defend the city was a pitiful col- lection of old steamboats, fitted out with guns and otherwise made as warlike as possible. They were given the fierce-sounding names of the Warrior, the Defiance, and the Rcsohite, but there was no hope of their striking terror to the enemy. New Orleans was protected from below by Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. A raft of chains and logs was stretched across the river from one fort to the other to stop the Federal gunboats. The two forts had fifteen hundred men between them, and very little ammunition. p. G. T. Beauregard --LEP-^^^^/y^yy 300 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The Federal fleet, under the command of Com- modore Farragut, was large and powerful. Farragut had all the men and ammunition that he needed, and his officers were trained seamen. In addition to the naval force there was an army of thirteen thousand men under General B. F. Butler. On April 19, 1862, Farragut came up the river as far as the forts, and there determined upon a brave and daring act. While Commander Porter, one of his officers, was shelling the forts, Farragut boldly broke through the chains and steamed toward New Orleans. It was a brave deed — one of the bravest in the history of our country. The news spread that Farragut was nearing the unprotected city. General Lovell thought it best to withdraw his troops. He had no chance against so powerful a foe, and knew that it would be better for the people of New Orleans if there were no Confederate sol- diers in the city unless there were enough to protect them properly. The night before the Federals landed, no one slept in New Orleans. Most of the men were away at the war, but the remaining citizens had hauled all the cotton and provisions from the ware- houses to the levee. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton and hundreds of barrels of salt meat and sugar were set on fire. This was done so that the enemy might not seize them. When night fell, it seemed as if some wicked fairy had passed her wand THE EARLY YEARS OF THE WAR 301 over the city and changed it into the home of evil spirits. The smell of burning meat, sugar, and mo- lasses spread everywhere ; the flames from the cot- ton bales sent out fitful gleams and at last swept in wide sheets to meet the black clouds ; while from below came the sounds of boominof cannon. Capture of Forts Jackson and St. Philip by Farragut All through that awful night men and women sat with pale faces, and with despair in their hearts. If the Federal troops captured New Orleans, they would have the key to the Mississippi Valley. Vic- tory seemed to be deserting the Southern cause. In the morning, Farragut steamed slowly up to the city. Two officers were sent from the flagship to demand the surrender of New Orleans. Mayor Monroe said that he had no military authority to give up the city, but as there were no soldiers to 302 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA defend it, the enemy could take it. Federal troops lined the streets as the State flag was taken down and the United States flag was raised over the mint and city hall. New Orleans was captured. Farragut now turned the city over to General Butler. Before Farragut had taken formal posses- sion of New Orleans, several sailors, without his permission or knowledge, had hoisted the United States flag over the minto Some wild boys, eighteen or nineteen years old, made a dash at the flag and pulled it down. One of the boys, named Mumford, was caught. The first act of General Butler, when he had taken command of New Orleans, was to hang this boy. The citizens did all they could to save the thoughtless lad's life. They explained to General Butler that the United States flag had not been hoisted by the command of Commodore Farragut, and that the city at that time was not in the hands of the Federals, General Butler, however, showed no mercy. He arrested ladies and gentlemen and sent them to Ship Island to work under a negro guard. Then he and his officers took possession of their elegant homes and stole the costly and beautiful articles which make up the homes of wealthy peoj^le. Thousands of dollars' worth of furniture, pictures, books, and silver were sent to the North. He armed the negroes to fight in the war waged against their former masters. In every possible way he wronged THE EARLY YEARS OF THE WAR 303 and insulted the citizens. Finally the better class of people in the North, some of Butler's own sol- diers, and the House of Commons in England blamed those who had sent such a man to New Orleans. He was then removed. Like O'Reilly, Butler left no friends behind him. Butler's place was filled by General N. P. Banks. Questions. — i. Why was the possession of New Orleans im- portant in the war? 2. What defense did New Orleans have? 3. Describe Farragut's capture of the city. Old City Hall, New Orleans Where the officers of the fleet came to demand surrender of the city. CHAPTER LI THE WAR AFTER THE CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS The capture of New Orleans was only the begin- ning of Farragut's work. It would not be finished until he had joined a Federal fleet above Vicksburg and had the clear sweep' of the Mississippi River. The commodore now sent seven of his gunboats up the river to capture the towns on its banks. Baton Rouge and Natchez were not fortified, and surrendered, but Vicksburg and Port Hudson were able to hold out. Farragut then went up the river himself,, and though the batteries at Vicksburg poured down shells upon his fleet, he passed them as bravely as he had sailed between Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. When Vicksburg was taken, Farragut went back to New Orleans. Meanwhile the Confederates had resolved to try to regain Baton Rouge, which was under the com- mand of the Federal general, Thomas Williams. The Confederate ofificer ordered to attack Baton Rouge was General Breckinridge, who had once been Vice-President of the United States. Breck- inridge did not think there was any chance of retaking Baton Rouge unless the Confederate ram 304 AFTER THE CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS 305 Arkansas reached there in time to protect him on the river side. The Arkansas had done some good fighting at Vicksburg, and had been ordered to Baton Rouge. General Breckinridge waited until he received the news that the Arkansas had passed Bayou Sara; then he marched against Baton Rouge. The battle began at once, and was stubbornly fought by both sides. The Federals were at last pushed to the river. There, instead of being fired upon by the Arkansas, they came under the protection of their own gunboats. The battle was lost to the Confederates, and all because the Arkan- sas had not arrived on time. Where was the Arkansas ? Breckinridge, in de- spair, asked himself the question a hundred times during the encounter. In the course of time he learned that as she sailed down the river her ma- chinery had got out of order. Though her men worked desperately to repair the damage, when the ram was five miles from Baton Rouge, the engineer said nothing could be done. At the same moment the gunboats of the enemy were sighted. The commander of the Arkansas steered for the bank. John C. Ukeckinridge 3o6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA After the men had jumped ashore, the Arkmisas was set on fire. As the. flames reached the guns, they went off, and the little ram, without a guide, her flag flying, her guns booming, drifted down- stream,: gallantly fighting her last battle. Not long after the battle at Baton Rouge, General Richard Taylor was appointed to take command of the Confederate forces in the State. General Taylor was the son of General Zachary Taylor, and an able lofficer. He did not come into the State with a jwell-drilled army. Confederates were becoming •scarce, and he had to get his troops as best he could. At Qpelousas Governor Moore gave him soijiie militia, and in Vermilionville he met Ex- Governor Mouton. With the aid of the ex-governor and the Creoles in that part of the State, General Taylor raised a small army. The troops were collected none too soon. Taylor was attacked by a large Federal force sent up from New Orleans by General Banks, and was compelled to retreat to Natchitoches. While General Taylor was in the Lafourche country, he went up the little bayou, Petit Anse, to Avery's Island. This island of a thousand acres was the home of Judge Avery. For a long time it had been known that there were salt wells on the island, and Judge Avery had boiled the salt down and given it to his nei2:hbors and to the Confederate soldiers. The judge thought that if he were to AFTER THE CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS 307 deepen the wells, he could get more salt. When the workmen began to dig, they struck an immense bed of pure rock salt. Judge Avery gave up this mine to General Taylor to be used for the Confed- eracy. Later a Northern gunboat went up Petit Anse to shell the mine, but became tangled in the marsh and was glad to get away without accomplish- ing its mission. The mine is still worked, and it seems as if the salt would never be exhausted. In 1863, the year that General Taylor retreated to Natchitoches, General Kirby Smith was sent to Louisiana. He was to have command of all the forces, with General Taylor under him. About this time General Banks crossed the Mississippi to aid in the siege of Port Hudson. General Taylor, now that it was no longer necessary to watch General Banks, went back into the southern parishes. Taylor carried out a well-laid plan to surprise the enemy at Berwick Bay. He came upon them with- out the least warning, taking seventeen hundred prisoners. As many of these were sick, Taylor sent them to the hospitals in New Orleans. What most pleased the Confederates was the large supply of stores which they found in the Yankee camp — guns, ammunition, medicine, and plenty of good food. Taylor's men were sadly in need of all these things. It had been many months since the poor fellows had received enough to eat. 3o8 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA General Taylor next marched to the Mississippi and placed batteries on the river below Donaldson- ville. He hoped to keep the Federal gunboats from passing between New Orleans and P^ort Hudson. He intended to send a force against New Orleans, but the sad news came that Vicksburg had fallen, and five days later Port Hudson surrendered to General Banks. The Federal gunboats now pa- trolled the Mississippi from north to south. The Confederacy was cut in two. General Taylor was in a very dangerous position. There are in south Louisiana so many bayous which will float gunboats that his army was in peril from both land forces and fleets. He therefore retreated up Bayou Teche. The year 1863 had been a gloomy one for the Confederacy, not only in Louisi- ana, but all over the country, and the next year did not promise to be any brighter. The State was growing poorer, and the half-fed, half-clad soldiers in gray were becoming fewer in number. The last battles in Louisiana were fought at Mansfield and Pleasant Hill in the northern part of the State. On the outskirts of Mansfield, Gen- eral Taylor and his dwindling army stood at bay. Against them came a large force under General Banks. General Smith thought that Taylor should not fight such a large army, but Taylor said that he would defeat Banks. He did, and drove him back to the Mississippi. AFTER THE CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS 309 The next year General Lee, the commander in chief of the Confederate armies, surrendered, and the war was at an end. Millions of graves dotted the hills and valleys of our country; fire, sword, and famine had swept over the South; but the war had settled the question which had cost so much. The States would never be allowed to leave the Union. Questions. — i. Give an account of General Breckinridge's attempt to take Baton Rouge from the Federals. 2. Tell about General Taylor's success at Berwick Bay. 3. Name the chief battles that were fought in Louisiana. 4. Who were the commanders of the Confederate and the Federal forces in Louisiana? Confederate Battle Flag CHAPTER LII LOUISIANA IN 1864 Abraham Lincoln, who was President of the United States during the Civil War, did not believe that a State could secede. He said that the South- ern States had never left the Union. President Lincoln knew that it was not according to the laws of a free country that a people should be under the rule of soldiers. He wanted as soon as possible to establish civil government; that is, a government in which the people rule themselves. There were a few men in the South who, when the war broke out, would not leave the Union, though they could not make up their minds to fight against their State. Lincoln's plan was to form a State government of these Union men in the parts of the Southern States which were under the control of the Federals. When General Butler was in New Orleans, President Lincoln directed him to attempt to form a civil government, but the general was too busy getting together the valuables which he took away from New Orleans to think of the good of the people. After he was removed, General Banks took up the matter. 310 LOUISIANA IN 1864 3" The President appointed a chief justice of the Supreme Court, and also put the lower courts in working order. In 1864 an election was held in South Louisiana, which was in the possession of the Federals. In this election Michael Hahn was chosen governor. In that same year the northern portion of the State, which was held by Confederates, elected Henry W. Allen gov- ernor. Louisiana should now have had her full share of civil rights, for she had two gov- ernors, two legislatures, and two capitals. The Federal capital was New Orleans, and the Confederate, Shreveport. At this time the planters were in great trouble because they could get no one to work their plantations. Though the negroes in the southern parishes had not yet been set free. Con- gress forbade any one returning a runaway slave to his master. Therefore, swarms of negroes deserted the plantations and hung idly about the streets and camps in New Orleans. The planters urged Gen- eral Banks to make the negroes go to work. General Banks had not proved to be an able soldier, but he was a sensible man. He now did what was best for both negroes and white people. He gave certain orders and appointed an officer, called a provost Henry W. Allen 312 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA marshal, to see that they were obeyed. Negroes were required to work if they had agreed to do so. They might work for whom they chose, but if they made a contract, they were forced to keep it; if they refused, they were turned over to the provost mar- shal and made to work on the streets without pay. Wages were to be paid by the month, and the mar- shal was to see that they were paid. He also settled disputes between the negroes and planters. What was going on in North Louisiana during this last year of the war ? Henry W. Allen, the gov- ernor, was born in Virginia, but had lived in Louisi- ana for many years. He had pledged his love and loyalty to his adopted State. When he came South, he first taught school, and later practiced law in a small town in Mississippi. After he had been there several years, he met an old planter from West Baton Rouge parish. The old man liked Allen's pleasant, frank manners, and persuaded him to settle in Baton Rouge. Through his new friend's influence, Allen soon had a large law practice. Several years later, at the death of the planter, it was found in his will that several of his plantations were to be sold very cheap to Allen. When the Civil War broke out, Allen joined the Confederate army with the rank of colonel. He fought gallantly through many battles, but it is as the "War Governor" that the Louisianians knew him best and loved him. As soon as he became LOUISIANA IN 1864 313 governor he visited his people to talk over with them ways in which they could help themselves. Governor Allen then went to Shreveport and set to work with energy. He made an arrangement by which sugar and cotton could be sold beyond the Rio Grande. The money received was to buy only what was absolutely necessary, the people cheerfully agreeing to do without everything else. Small factories and stores were built, and the profit from them was put into the State treasury. From the pine trees turpentine was obtained ; castor oil was made from the castor-oil plant, and other medicines from roots and herbs. A small foundry turned out pots, kettles, and pans ; a card factory made cards for carding cotton. These cards were pieces of wood ten or twelve inches long and about six inches wide, with a handle in tlVe middle. The pieces of wood were pierced with an awl, then wire was drawn throus^h the holes and clinched on the back. The inside of the cards bristled like saws. Cotton was put between the two cards, and after a few deft movements from side to side, the carder tossed out long, slender flakes which were ready for the spinning wheel. When it had been spun, the thread was woven into cloth or knit into socks and stockings. Governor Allen encouraged the people to plant gardens, and to raise cowpeas, corn, and sweet potatoes, and as much cotton as possible. Toward the close of the war, the Federal legisla- 314 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA ture met In New Orleans. It was made up of Northern and Southern men. The Northern mem- bers had come to Louisiana in the wake of the Federal army with the intention of getting rich quickly — honestly, if possible. The Southern mem- bers were those who had shouted loudest for the Confederacy when there was hope of success; but who, at the fall of New Orleans, had sided with Butler. These unworthy men passed an act declar- ing that all those who had signed the ordinance of secession, and who had held public ofifice in the State, were guilty of treason. A few months after the meeting of the legislature, the war closed. Governor Allen felt that he could not live in Louisiana under the new rule. He re- solved to go to the City of Mexico. Before leaving, he spoke to his 'loved^ people for the last time. He told them that, as they had fought like men, as men they knew how to make peace. He said that they were not to sit down and weep over what could not be helped, but to go to work with a will. Governor Allen died in the City of Mexico. Several years later his remains were brought to Baton Rouge. Questions. — i. When did Louisiana have two state govern- ments at the same time? How did this happen? 2. Tell what you know about our "War Governor." 3. What was done to supply clothing and medicines during the war? CHAPTER LIII LIFE IN LOUISIANA DURING THE WAR During the war, while the men were in distant parts of the country fighting, the women and children at home suffered many hardships. The mother was now head of the family, and she had to keep the children fed and clothed. The women in the towns found this more difficult than those in the country. There was no work for them to do, and many ladies, to keep their families from starving, were forced to go to the Federal quartermaster and draw rations. They took their stand in a long file made up largely of negroes, the first to come being the first served. Even then, to get the rations, the women had to take an oath to be faithful to the United States government. On the plantations it was different. On every plantation there were a few faithful negroes who. did not desert to the Yankees, and with the help of these the mistress managed pretty well. She and her " hands " raised chickens, worked a garden, and made a few bales of cotton. Ladies whose delicate hands had never been roughened by the slightest toil, learned to cook, wash, and iron, and hoe the gardens. 315 3i6 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA When the lower part of the State fell into the hands of the Federals, and the upper part was held by a few half-starved Confederates, the Louisiana women bravely accepted the situation. They knew they must depend upon themselves. They thought of many ingenious ways to get food and clothing. Tea, coffee, flour, and many other articles could not be raised at home. So coffee was made from sweet potatoes cut in little cubes and parched. For tea they used boiled sassafras roots. As few sugar mills were running, both tea and coffee were sweet- ened with black molasses made in little home-made mills. Cakes were made of meal sifted through fine cloth and sweetened with black molasses. As candles, soap, and starch could not be bought, they were prepared at home. The candles were made in this way: twisted strings were tied to a stick, and the stick was placed across tin molds so that each string fell exactly in the middle of the mold. Then melted tallow was poured into the molds, which were set in cold water. Soap, too, was easily made. Lye was prepared by . dripping water through ashes. This lye was boiled with scraps of fat meat and old bones, and there was the soap ! Sometimes it was soft and sometimes it was hardened in molds, and even per- fumed, if the maker was so fortunate as to have a little peppermint, or anything with a pleasant odor. Pins and matches the plucky Louisianians could LIFE IN LOUISIANA DURING THE WAR 317 not make. This, however, was a small matter. Thorns with a piece of wax for the head took the place of pins, and there was always fire somewhere in the neighborhood where one could get a few live coals. You need not think your grandmothers did not wear pretty clothes. During the first years of the war dresses were made of window curtains, sheets, and tablecloths. Afterwards, when these were gone, the Confederate women carded and spun cotton and wove cloth on little hand looms. They dyed the cloth different colors, as suited their fancy. Black- jack and walnut bark dyed the cotton black; laurel leaves dyed it yellow; wild indigo made it blue; and other colors were obtained by boiling the cloth with different leaves and barks and setting the colors with rusty nails. Shoes were sometimes made of old leather purses, bags, and the tops of trunks. If a lady wished to be especially elegant, she fashioned a pair of gloves from the legs of her husband's broadcloth trousers. It was in the making of hats that the skill of the Confederate women rose to genius. These were made of palmetto, plaited in very fine strips, which were sewed together and bent into shape. They were bleached white with sulphur, and trimmed with flowers made of scraps of ribbon, silk, and velvet, and with feathers plucked from the geese, ducks, and chickens. 3i8 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA It was not only for their families that the Louisi- ana women worked in the trying days of the Civil War. They did a far more important work in clothing and feeding Confederate soldiers. Every town and neighborhood became a big sewing society where articles were made for the boys in gray. When the church bell rang, ladies and children would gather from all directions, carrying on their arms small baskets containing their scissors, needles, thimbles, and thread. At the beginning of the war, hat bands, handkerchiefs, and other dainty articles were embroidered ; but later there was only time to make the most necessary clothing. Boys and girls picked to pieces old linen rags, making soft piles of what is called lint. This was used to put on the wounds of the soldiers. The Federal soldiers kept guards on the outskirts of each town, letting no one in or out. Sometimes the people outside of the towns, particularly the sol- diers, needed so badly to purchase goods that they became desperate. Then it was that their brave women relatives came to the rescue. Many a lady, who, in better days, would not have crossed alone the dark hall of her plantation home, now ran the blockade. This is how it was done. Two or three bales of cotton were put on a wagon ; sometimes the gentle lady herself perched on the load, but usually she rode on horseback and an old negro took the reins. They started in the middle ot the LIFE IN LOUISIANA DURING THE WAR 319 night, and wound through the woods, keeping from the highway as much as possible. The reason for doing this was that in every neighborhood there was a trifling class of men who would neither work nor go to war. They were called jayhawkers. They stole from the women and children, and thought themselves very lucky when a load of cotton fell into their hands. If the travelers escaped the jayhawkers, they generally managed to slip into town and sell the cotton. It was fortunate that cotton brought good prices in those days, for food and dry goods were very high. A barrel of flour cost fifteen hundred dollars; bacon and beef, twenty dollars a pound; sugar, coffee, and tea from forty to fifty dollars a pound. A calico dress cost three hundred dollars, and gloves, often not mates, were forty dollars a pair. This was in Confederate money, which many mer- chants would not take at all. Getting out of the towns was harder than getting in, as the guards searched every one for fear that something might be taken to Confederate soldiers. The women had to resort to many ways of deceiving the guards. Big hoop-skirts were worn in those days, and cloth to make uniforms, cavalry boots, bottles of brandy, and cans of powder were tied on the hoops. Quinine and calomel were sewed into belts, and into " rats " worn in the hair, and sometimes dolls were stuffed with medicine for the soldiers. 320 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The Confederate women did their noblest work as nurses. The sick and wounded soldiers were carried to the largest church or hall in the town, where they were nursed with the tenderest devotion, and anything in the homes of the people was cheer- fully given to them. It was hard for the women to stay at home and bear such heavy burdens; but through the anxious .years only bright, hopeful letters went from the sorrowful South to warm the hearts of husbands and sweethearts in the army. Questions. — i. Tell something about the life of the women on plantations ciuring the war. 2. Why were they obliged to make for themselves the neces- sities of life ? 3. What were some of the things the women did to help the soldiers ? 4. Tell anything you can learn at home about life during the war. A Pair of Wooden-soled Shoks Worn by a Confederate soldier in the latter part of the war. CHAPTER LIV AFTER THE WAR As Governor Allen had said, the Southerners had fought like men, and like men they knew how to make peace. They still believed that a State had a right to secede, but they had been defeated in trying to prove their cause, and were willing to let the matter rest. The Confederate soldiers surren- dered in good faith. They went home from the war with their minds firmly made up to obey the United States laws and to feel no more bitterly than they could help. It was a hard home-coming. Many of the sol- diers who had lived in the towns returned to find their houses stripped from cellar to garret, and strangers living in them. Thousands never got back their property. Those who had lived in the country found their broad acres overrun with grass and weeds ; not a fence rail on the plantation ; not a wagon, plow, horse, or mule ; the sugar-house and cotton-gin burned; the wife and children often living in the quarters ; and all that was left of the once stately home charred columns standing in a bed of ashes. 321 322 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Now as to the soldier himself, sometimes a grad- uate of one of the English, Scotch, or German uni- versities ; perhaps owner of a splendid library and art treasures collected in Europe, or possessor of a laboratory or an observatory with a telescope which cost several thousand dollars. Did he appear like a fairy prince whose magic presence alone would restore order and thrift to the scene of desolation ? The home-comer was ragged, barefoot, and half- starved; often he was crippled, or had come home to die. Yet the brave Louisianians made the best of this state of affairs. The past could not be helped, it was gone ; but the future was theirs, and they meant to use it well. Most of the negroes, after some months of idle- ness, went back to their old masters and began to work for wages. Hard as times were, it was not long before parties were given and dancing feet aeain moved to the sound of the fiddle and bones. These gatherings were called "starvation parties," because there were no refreshments and the dancers looked as if they had dressed for a masked ball. Just after the war it was not considered respectable to dress well. Any one with money was suspected of having stayed at home to sell cotton to the Yan- kees instead of joining the army. Poverty was the badge of an aristocrat. It was only the young who knew how to live in the New South. The old people did not have courage to begin life anew. A AFTER THE WAR 323 good many sold out and went to France; a few went to California; but most of them, after a few vears, died. As President Lincoln had believed that the Southern States were still in the Union, it seemed a simple matter to him to have the courts soon in running order, the representatives back in Congress, and the States on their old footing in the Union. He had said that the Louisianians should not lack a fair election if he could give it to them. Lincoln had in his heart no thought of revenge toward the Southern people. It was a terrible blow to the whole South when five days after the surrender he was killed by a half-crazed actor. The next President, Andrew Johnson, felt kindly toward the South. He wanted to finish what Lincoln had begun, but went about it in a different way. He did not have Lincoln's good judgment nor his influence upon Congress. Worse even than Lincoln's death was the fact that at this time two of the most influential men in Congress worked against the South. These men were Charles Sum-, ner and Thaddeus Stevens. For a long time there was a bitter quarrel between the President and Congress. Congress went so far as to try to put the President out of office. It did not succeed in this, but it did succeed in taking out of his hands the power to help the Southern States. 324 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA After the war an amendment, or new law, was added to the Constitution, setting the negroes free. Another amendment, called the Fourteenth Amend- ment, gave the negroes the right to vote. By this law also all the leading Southerners — all who had, previous to the war, held any State or national office and had in any way helped the Confederacy — were prohibited from holding any public office. The States could not enter the Union until they had agreed to the Fourteenth Amendment. At this same time Congress made new laws for the Freedman's Bureau. The Bureau had been established during the war for the purpose of looking after the needs of the negroes. Following the Fourteenth Amendment, the Bureau was given the power to sell lands which had been taken from Confederate soldiers and use the money for negro schools. If the Southern people interfered with the Bureau, United States soldiers were to settle the matter at the point of the bayonet. All the con- tracts between the negroes and the planters were to be first approved by the Bureau. The negroes be- lieved that the United States government would support them for the rest of their lives, and that the property of the white people was to be divided among them, so as to give each negro forty acres and a mule. They would not work ; taxes were high ; no crops could be raised, and the planters were driven almost to distraction. AFTER THE WAR 325 In the meantime there was a struggle in Loui- siana to prevent the meeting of a convention, the object of which was to give the negroes the right to vote. There was a riot, and about forty-four negroes were killed. It was, however, useless to resist Congress. The followers of Sumner and Stevens declared that the South was conquered ter- ritory, and that it should be treated as such. The seceded States were divided into five military dis- tricts. Each district was to be under an office with a regiment of soldiers. General Sheridan was sent to Louisiana and Texas. The Louisianians protested that it was not lawful to put troops over a people in time of peace. They would prove in the courts that such an act was unlawful. General Sheridan then removed the attorney-general and other officials from office. The courts were broken up. There was no longer self-government in Loui- siana. She was under the rule of a dictator. Questions. — i. What was Governor Allen's advice to the citizens of Louisiana? 2. Why was the assassination of Lincoln a misfortune to the South ? 3. What was the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution? 4. What was the Fourteenth Amendment? 5. What was the Freedman's Bureau? CHAPTER LV THE KU KLUX KLAN Following the Federal army into Louisiana was a class of men who received the name of carpet- baggers. This name was given them because it was said that each one could carry all he owned in a carpet-bag. Many of the carpet-baggers were the riffraff of the North who saw^ the helpless condition of Louisiana and thought that it would be a good time to plunder her. General Sheridan, with his troops to back him, w^ould not allow any man to vote who had not taken the oath that the Recon- struction Act required. This oath required a man to swear that he had never been in the Confederate army or given help to the Confederate soldiers. Louisiana's leading citizens could not take this Test Oath ; they were, therefore, shut out from governing their own State, and Louisiana fell help- less into the hands of a few of her own unw^orthy citizens, ignorant negroes, and carpet-baggers. In 1868, H. C. Warmoth, one of the newcomers, was elected governor ; the lieutenant governor was Oscar J. Dunn, a negro. The negroes flocked to the side of the carpet-baggers, for the poor, untaught 326 THE KU KLUX KLAN 327 creatures looked upon these men as standing for the party which had freed them. They Hstened with behevinof ears to the tales that now the blacks and whites were equal, that their children would go to the same schools, and that the property of the white people would be given to them. There was but one result to this kind of teaching. The negroes would not work, and became impudent and dangerous. They became a source of great peril. The sons of Louisiana were crippled, but life was left to them, and they would give it, if necessary, to protect their homes. They could not stand forth in the light and give royal battle to the foe ; but they could strike in the dark, and strike with the deadly aim of the rattlesnake of their own swamps. It was at this time that the Ku Klux Klan under- took its work. In its beginning the Ku Klux Klan had no idea of the great good it was to accomplish in the South. The society began in a spirit of idle- ness and fun. One evening, not long after the war, several young men were sitting in a lawyer's office in a small Tennessee town. They had no money with which to go into business, and did not know what to do with themselves. " Boys," said one of them, " let's get up a society of some sort ! " Just the thing! They all took to the idea at once. The purpose of the next meeting was to bring in more of their comrades, write a ritual for 32« msrOKY (JF JXJUISIANA their society, and give it a name. One member suggested tliat a Greek word, Kiiklos^ meaning circle or l)and, would be a suitable name. Another said, "Let's call it Ku Klux." Another young fellow cried out, " Klan ! " So there stood the brotherhood, the famous Ku Klux Klan. The ])rinci[)al officers were the Grand Dragon and his eight Hydras; the Grand Titan and his six I'uiics; tlu; (irand Cyclops and liis two Night I lawks. The place of meeting was called the Den. Jwery member was required to have a white mask for tlie face; a tall cardl)oard hat, which made him ap])i'ar much taller than he really was; a gown, while, bl.-iek, or colored, to cover him completely; and a small whistle. The members swore to abso- lute secrecy. Ihe Klan met in a dreary j)lace on the edge of the town. The house was an old, tumble-down building with a deep cellar, and was surrounded by trees whose huge trunks had been bent or broken by many storms. Negroes going by in the dark reported that sti-ange hapj)enings were taking place in the old house. There were uncanny sounds, sueli as pit-rcing shrieks and bursts of insane laugh- ter more terrifying to the belated traveler than the imagined wail of lost s])irits. 'I'he house, it was said, would in an instant become brilliantly lighted from roof to cellar ; there would be sounds of merry dancing to unearthly music. Then in the twinkling THI-: KU KLUX KLAN 329 of an eye all would become as dark and silent as before. The roads about the Den became deserted after night-fall. People began to think the Ku Klux must have some serious work to do, and to wonder what it was. The society spread, and dens were established throughout the Southern States. The Ku Klux noticed that disorderly blacks and whites began to behave better wherever there were dens. During the reign of the carpet-baggers the Louisiani- ans formed a secret society to protect themselves. It was, called the L eague of the White Camellia, but after a Ku KlXX Mfc-MHKkS time, all secret societies for self-protection in the South- ern States were known as the P'-Uslon of Dr. waiter L. Fleming. Ku Klux Klan. Negroes under the influence of the carpet-baggers and teachers from the North often became impudent, or committed crimes which the white men had not the power to punish by law. Whenever this was the case, the Ku Klux would take a ride. At the witching hour of midnight, when all was quiet in the cabin, the trembling, smothered notes of a screech owl coming from the moist, dark wood would cause the sleepers to stir 330 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA restlessly. Then came the sound of a soft whistle, and horses' hoofs trampled before the cabin door. The negroes sat bolt upright with gasping breath and eyes widened in fear. The door was opened, and hideous figures filled the room. All wore masks. Some were in white, while others wore black, with deep red circles about the eyes. Still others were headless. This effect was given by drawing the gown together over the head of the wearer. The headless Ku Klux carried a grinning skull on his arm and had skeleton fingers which he held out in a most friendly manner to shake hands with any one near him. Perhaps he said he was thirsty. The trembling negro would bring a bucket of water. Then the headless visitor would thrust aside the gourd dipper, and raising the bucket, pour down the whole contents — not into his stomach, however, but into a leather bag beneath his robe. When the last drop had disappeared, he would say : "That's good! It's hot where I came from, and this is the first water I've tasted since I was killed at Shiloh!" The Ku Klux made the negroes believe they were the ghosts of Confederate soldiers. Before they left, a few words of good counsel would be spoken, and these always had a good effect. If the negro had committed a crime, his body was left dangling at the end of a rope from the nearest tree. Carpet- baggers who had a bad influence upon negroes THE KU KLUX KLAN 33^ received something like this : " Some live to-day, to-morrow die. You will be led out by the Klan and learnt to stretch hemp. Bludy Moon ! Black Kniofht! Last Hour! Beware! Beware!! Be- ware ! ! ! Ku Klux." The carpet-bagger was not to be seen the next morning. In this way the new- comers were driven from small towns and country neighborhoods. White people knew the Ku Klux were not ghosts, but they did not know who they were, and many were very anxious to find out. Once the Grand Dragon sent word that on a cer- tain night the Klan would parade through the streets of a town. The streets were full of curious people who felt they would now discover the secret. One man who said he knew every horse in the country lifted the cover- ing from the horse of a Ku Klux, and, to his aston- ishment, found it was his own. No one ever found out who the Ku Klux were until they disbanded, and the members gave up the secrets of the order. The Klan kept together for two years. At the end of that time wicked men took advantage of the dis- guise to wreak vengeance on their enemies. They L,AR^l•;^-llA(;c;I•:l^s Permission of Dr. Walter L. Fleming. 332 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA claimed to be Ku Klux, and their actions gave the society a bad name. The real Ku Klux Klan felt the day of their usefulness was over, so they dis- banded. Questions. — i. Who were the carpet-baggers? 2. What was the origin of the Ku Klux Klan? 3. How did it protect the community? 4. Describe some of the doings of the Ku Klux Klan. CHAPTER LVI THE REVOLUTION OF 1 874 While the Ku KIux could protect the country people and those living in small towns, it could not take the State out of the hands of the carpet-bag- gers, for they were upheld by the United States government. In 1870, when Warmoth was gov- ernor, Louisiana became a den of thieves. The legislature was made up largely of negroes ; the superintendent of education was a negro; nearly every office in the State was in the control of cor- rupt men. Robbery was wholesale. The expenses of a legislator were sometimes over one hundred dollars a day; the school funds were stolen; and the State was forty million dollars in debt. Other Southern States were in debt through misrule, but Louisiana was in the lead. All the State officials became rich ; and Warmoth, the governor, who had entered office a poor man, at the end of four years was worth a million dollars. This money came out of the people, who were taxed until they could not pay, and many lost their homes. Misery was wide- spread from one end of the State to the other. At last the old saying that thieves will fall out came true. The officeholders began to quarrel 333 334 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA over the plunder. Warmoth led one faction; two men named Packard and Carter led the other. Warmoth sent a report of affairs to President Grant at Washington. Packard did the same. The two leaders kept up their dispute until the Packard party became the stronger and Warmoth, to save himself, joined the respectable class of Louisianians. John McEnery was nominated governor, and was elected. The Packard party nominated Kellogg for governor. On this ticket the lieutenant gov- ernor, secretary of state, and superintendent of edu- cation were negroes. When McEnery was elected, the Packard faction seized the State House. The McEnery party took possession of the City Hall. Both McEnery and Kellogg were determined to have the office, and President Grant was called upon to settle the question. Grant decided in favor of Kellogg. The quarrel, however, went on. McEnery began to drill militia. There were fre- quent fights between his militia and the metro- politan police, a body of soldiers that protected Kellogg. There were uprisings of the people in all the parishes. The Louisianians at length de- cided that this state of affairs should go on no longer. They formed themselves into a league, called the White League, and swore that they would have white rule, or die in the attempt. On September 13, 1874, the White League pub- lished in the morning paper an appeal to all loyal THE REVOLUTION OF 1874 335 citizens, urging them to meet the next day on Canal Street in New Orleans. The morning of the 14th found the men of New Orleans answering to the call. A committee of five was sent to Kellogg to tell him that the people of the State considered that he had not got his office honestly, and that he must give it up. But Kellogg was not to be found. He had taken refuge in the Custom House, where there was a Federal squad of armed men to protect him. There were no negroes to be seen on the streets that day. The citizens were told to go home and to meet again at two o'clock in the afternoon. From different parts of the city men began to gather, and by three o'clock all was ready. The Met- ropolitans were the first to open fire. The League was poorly armed, but made a bold charge. Giving the " rebel yell," the old Confederates charged upon the Metropolitans, and chased them down the open levee, past the Custom House, where the United States troops were guarding Kellogg. As the citi- zen soldiers dashed past, the soldiers took off their caps and cheered them on. The Federal soldiers had been in the State long enough to understand the conditions, and most of them were in sympathy with the Louisianians. When night came, the city was in the control of the citizens. The victory was dearly won, for sixteen patriots had given their lives in the cause of liberty. Were the Louisianians now free ? Not yet. 336 HlS'l'ORV OF LOUISIANA President Grant sent down more troops to pro- tect Kellogg. Yet something had been accom- plished. When, seven months after the battle of the 14th of September armed men entered the house and put out members who had been elected, Congress sent a committee to find out what was the matter. The committee reported that the Louisi- anians wanted nothing but "justice, fair elections, and good government." The people in the North were a long time learning of the hardships of their sister State, but they learned at last. In 1876, Francis T. Nicholls was elected governor. He received eight thousand more votes than Pack- ard, who claimed that he had been elected. Nicholls had been a brave soldier, and he was just as brave a citizen. He said, " I have been elected governor, and I intend to be a governor." Nicholls took the oath of ofifice on an open gallery fronting a park, and was cheered by thousands. Packard took the oath behind closed and guarded doors. For the third time Louisiana had two governors. In this election Federal troops did not interfere. Tbey were soon afterwards removed, and the carpet-bag government fell to pieces. Louisiana, after ten years of struggle, was free. Questions. — i. What was the condition of the State govern- ment for ten years after the war ? 2. Why was the White League formed? 3. Tell about the events of the fourteenth of September, 1874. CHAPTER LVII DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE The long, desperate struggle was over; but the Louisianians had come into their birthright, and law, justice, and order again reigned. The same determined spirit which had carried them through the war, and which had given them strength to re- sist carpet-bag rule, now upheld them. With a pur- pose not to be set aside, they went to work to build up the State. There were three drawbacks to Louisiana's prog- ress. These were : the channels at the mouth of the Mississippi were not deep enough for the pas- sage of big ships ; the levees were not strong enough to hold back the Mississippi ; and the State was in yearly danger of a yellow fever epidemic. Far back in the early days of the State, about the time that; Bienville succeeded in making New Orleans the capital of the new province, a French engineer saw that New Orleans might be given a deep waterway to the sea. The mouth of the Mississippi had no good channel on account of sand- bars continually forming in the passes. Thus big 337 338 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA ships could not go back and forth. The engineer of Bienville's day had proposed a plan to deepen the channel, but the struggling colony had no money for such a costly enterprise. As time went by, dredging machines were used to take the sand away, but the work was expensive and could not be properly done. The merchants of New Orleans suffered heavy losses, for ships with rich cargoes were often aground many days on the sand- bars. In 1S74 an engineer. Captain James B. Eads, thought he saw a way to clear out the sand. His idea was much the same as that of the French en- gineer of Bienville's time. The plan of both was simply to let the Mississippi do her own dredging. Captain Eads built two long lines of "mattresses" made of willow, held firmly in place by long piles. One " mattress " extended from the east,' the other from the west, leaving a passage of more than a half mile between them. The river, crowding rest- lessly to the gulf, could not pass over the " mat- tresses," and had to surge into the pass. Thus it cut deep Into the sand, sending it whirling to the sea. Eads built the " jetties," as they were called, in four years, and since their completion the prod- uce of Louisiana has been carried through them to many foreign countries. The United States fur- nished the money to build the jetties. If the levees were not kept sound, there would be no produce to send away. There was no way DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE 339 to put fne Mississippi to work repairing the levees. The part that the river played was that of destruc- tion. For many years the Mississippi and the plant- ers fought for mastery, and in 1882 it appeared as if the river might win. In that year there were two hundred and eighty-four crevasses, — more than fifty- six miles of caving levees. This meant a great deal Jetties at the Mouth of the Mississippi River of water flooding the State. It was fun for the boys and girls to go craw-fishing, and to swirl through water down the railroad track on hand-cars. They could step from their galleries Into pirogues, gliding over fields and through the woods. There was a new charm in the well-known places which now looked strange and weird. But fathers and mothers got no amusement from the overflows. To them every ripple of the creep- ing water seemed a death knell. Levee building cost a great deal of money. The Louisianians anxiously asked themselves how they could pro- 340 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA tect themselves. Probably they could not have done so, had not the United States government again helped them. Levees were built wide enough at the top for a carriage road, and at last the peo- pie felt safe. The next important matter to be considered was some means to check the yellow fever epidemics. This seemed almost beyond human skill. In 1878 more than four thousand people in Louisiana died of yellow fever. Towns in which the fever raged were shut in, and towns still free of the fever were guarded night and day by armed men who turned back men, women, and children fleeing from the stricken localities. These people had to find shel- ter and food as best they could. They suffered in- tensely. Trains were not allowed to take out freight; steamboats were not permitted to land; business was dead, and the people from other States shunned Louisiana as they would a pesthouse. Several years later relief came. A quarantine station was built at the mouth of the Mississippi. Officers visited the ships which came from ports where there was yellow fever. The ships were purified, and the passengers were not allowed to enter the State until there was no danger of their spreading the fever. The last terrible epidemic was that of 1878. The fever has come Into the State several times since, but in a mild form, and people no longer dread it as formerly. It is now believed DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE 341 that yellow fever is caused by the bite of a mosquito, and it is thought that by killing the mosquitoes the disease may finally be kept away entirely. Questions. — i. State two things done by the national government that have promoted the industries and com- merce of Louisiana. 2. Explain the use of the jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi. 3. How can the State be protected against yellow fever ? CHAPTER LVIII LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS We all belong to the same American family, there^ fore manners and customs throughout the Union are much alike. Emigrants from the Atlantic coast going to the South and West always carried some of their old habits. Yet the simple home life of each State differs in some respects from that of every other. Louisiana, especially the southern por- tion, has many customs peculiar to herself, owing to having been first settled by the French and Spanish. The northern part of the State is more under the influence of the English-speaking parts of the countr)'-. Settlers from Tennessee and Georgia brought Into North Louisiana, among other old customs, those of log-rolling and quilting bees. Long years ago, on reaching a place which he thought would make a suitable home, the settler cleared a space and built his house, but one man and his slaves could not cut down and roll away a sufficient num- ber of logs to clear a plantation. Therefore, every spring the planters In a neighborhood took turns In helping one another. They collected on one planta« 342 LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS 343 tion and cut down trees ; then, by placing long poles under the logs, rolled them together and set them afire. The men next passed to some other planta- tion, and in this way, by clearing a few acres every year, farms of good size were soon made ready for planting. Thousands of acres of valuable timber thus went to ashes. In this more thrifty age, the logs would have been sent to sawmills and made into barrels, staves, and planks. While the men were occupied with log-rolling, the women were holding a quilting bee. The in- dustrious wife had spent many a long winter evening in making quilt patches. These were now sewed together, stretched in long frames, and quilted, the neighborly women turning out a fine pile of quilts. In the fall there was another gathering of the neighbors. Sitting around blazing fires of j^ine knots, they merrily husked corn. The shucks were put into several cribs to be used for fodder, while other cribs were filled almost to bursting with the golden corn. The shucking always ended with a dance and a big supper. One of the old-time customs In South Louisiana, which is still observed in a few parishes, Is the chiavari. When a widow or widower married, a man ran about screaming, " Fire ! Fire ! " Men, women, and children then gathered before the house of the newly married couple, shouting, beating on old kettles, tin pans, drums, clashing shovels and 344 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA tongs together, blowing on combs, tooting horns, and making every loud noise imaginable. The policemen never interfered, for the crowd was always good-tempered. The chiavari lasted until the bride and groom made their appearance. They were usually sensible enough to come out on the gallery and invite the people in to have a glass of wine. When this was done, the noise suddenly ceased, and after drinking the health of the newly wedded pair, the crowd went quietly home. Long ago a rich and beautiful young widow mar- ried a man who was considered unworthy of her. The fair lady refused to be seen and moved from house to house, but the mob followed. The chia- vari lasted three days and nights. Finally, In order to put a stop to it, the crowd was given three thousand dollars. This money, however, was not touched by a single person in the chiavari ; every cent of it was given to orphans. A Creole lady never paid the first visit to a lady moving into her neighborhood. It was considered true politeness to permit the new person to choose her associates. This practice has not died out. The old-time usage of lagjiiappe is passing away. The word lagniappe is taken from the Spanish phrase la nappa^ which means a sweetening — something to make one pleased with his bargain. Lagniappe in Louisiana means a small addition to a purchase, and was given only in grocery stores. 34(J HISTORY OF LOUISIANA Only a few years ago, every grocer kept a box of candy or small cakes to be given away, and every customer looked upon lagniappe as his right, and demanded it. Small stores felt that giving away so much was too great a tax upon them, and they agreed to give no more lagniappe. Buying a " quarti's worth " is very popular with housekeepers. When vegetables are cheap, five cents buys more of one kind of vegetable than a small family can use for a meal. Then the house- keeper may buy a quarti (half of five cents) of tomatoes, and a quarti of snap beans, thus getting two kinds of vegetables for five cents. At one titne, and but a few years ago, the keeping of Sunday in South Louisiana was different from what it now is. More buying was done on Sunday than on any other day, as many people had to work hard all the week, and put off the shopping to be done on their holiday. On Sunday the merchants spread out their wares most temptingly, and as the people passed down the streets with their loaded market baskets, they jostled against each other good-naturedly as they stopped outside the attractive show windows before going in to shop. A law, called the Sunday law, has been passed, which now requires merchants to close their stores on that day. Yet, in many parishes, while Sunday is no longer a day for business, it is looked upon as a day for pleasure. First, people go to church, and LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS 347 then to market, and Sunday marketing is never undertaken lightly, but performed with care and nice judgment. A little money is daily put aside by the poor for the Sunday dinner, and poor indeed must be the white or the black who passes out of the market without a chicken, a salad, and okra or file for gumbo. After the dinner there are different forms of amusement, such as baseball, horse racing, and a ball at night. Questions. — i. Why do some parts of Louisiana have customs unlike those of any other parts of the United States ? 2. Describe some of the ways in which neighbors helped one another in the early days. 3. Find out some custom peculiar to the State, besides those mentioned in the book. .■■I, jy^ 1 k , 1 ISPfffial'j ... V: H 3lS\5?i,'-.- _ --^x»**-^-fc=: ■'->'" a j|s^^^Q^^^H Cotton Levee, New Orleans CHAPTER LIX LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS {cOUtinMed] Tournaments were common in most Southern States, and were a favorite form of amusement in Louisiana. On the day of the tournament hundreds of people occupied rows of seats such as are now seen at the circus, while carriages and buggies crowded the grounds. In the centre of the race track was a wooden structure, upon the extended arms of which hung wooden rinses. At the hour set for the tournament to begin, twenty-five young men appeared, sitting with graceful ease upon spirited horses. The men were dressed as knights, wearing in their hats wav- ing plumes, and carrying pointed lances. Each knight, riding at full speed, was to capture as many rings as possible. The first started with lance poised and well aimed ; following, in quick succes- sion, another rode out; then anotlier, and another, until all the contestants were dashing round and round the race track. When the rings were all captured, it was the privilege of the knight holding the greatest number on his lance to choose a lady upon whose head he placed a wreath of flowers, thus crowning her Queen of Love and Beauty. The 348 LOUISIANA CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS 349 knight taking the next largest number of rings crowned the First Maid of Honor, and so on until there were four in the royal party. At night there was always a ball, in which the successful knight and his queen led the dance. Sometimes, instead of rings, an old gander was suspended in the centre of the race track. As the riders shot past, each one tried to pull the neck of the dodging gander, and he who succeeded in hold- ing the head in his hand won the right to choose the Queen. The "gander pulling" was a sport so cruel that rings were oftener used. At one time in the United States quarrels and disagreements between men were settled by duel. Nowhere was this practice more popular than among the Creoles. A gentleman who felt himself wronged by another sent a challenge to the man who had offended him. He who received it might have intended no harm, and might consider dueling wrong, yet he would have been shunned as a coward if he had refused to fight. There was a law against dueling, but the people believed so firmly that it was the only honorable way to settle a diflficulty, that the law was not enforced. After a challenge had been accepted, each man chose his second. The seconds selected the place of meeting, saw that the pistols or swords were in good condition, marked off the distance between the duelists, and gave the signal to begin. 35" HISTORY OF LOUISIANA The Oaks, one of the most famous dueling grounds in the world, was in the suburbs of New Orleans. Duels were fought over unimportant mat- ters that in these days would call for scarcely a passing thought. A challenge would spring from a slight misunderstanding at a dance, an impolite act, " The Oaks ' or a difference of opinion. The following anecdote shows the temper of the men of that period. In a conversation among several gentlemen, one ven- tured the opinion that the Mississippi was a small stream compared with the rivers of Europe. A Creole instantly declared that he could not hear the Mississippi thus spoken of, and a challenge was given and accepted then and there. He who had held the LOUISIANA CUSrOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS 351 old river in such light esteem received a sword thrust which left an ugly gash from cheek to cheek. Between the years 1834 and 1844, scarcely a day passed without duels being fought at The Oaks. On one particular Sunday in 1838, ten duels were fought. The Oaks, more than a hundred. years old, are still standing. If they could speak, their moss- covered branches would tell us sorrowful stories of a custom now happily passed away. The last day before Lent always falls on a Tues- day, — Mardi Gras, — which means "fat Tuesday." It was so called because it was the last day on which one might feast and dance before the opening of the Lenten season. The custom of masking on Mardi Gras was brought from France by the early settlers. During the period when Louisiana was a French, and later a Spanish, province, the maskers went from house to house, but there was no regular street parade until after the Americans came into the State. The Americans thought Mardi Gras might become a business enterprise, and be made so attrac- tive as to draw visitors to New Orleans. There is now a fixed programme. Rex, the King of the Garni- val, who is some wealthy citizen, comes up the river on Monday, and is royally welcomed. Early Tues- day morning the merry children, noisy with tinkling bells and dressed in masks and gay dominoes, come out of their houses and visit from door to door in their neighborhood. Later In the day there is a 352 HISTORY OF LOUISIANA street parade, and another one at night. The night parade is so beautiful as to make one think only of fairyland. The Mardi Gras gayeties end with the most brilliant ball of the season. The day before Easter hints are dropped that the rabbits will be about that night. The sleepy children stay awake as long as possible watching for them. The rabbits are never seen; but, after long search- ing, their nests are found hidden snugly under hedges, in the grass, behind curtains, and under beds. There are red, black, purple, blue, green, and yellow eggs; eggs striped and dotted, and of every hue. When the nests are found, the children living near together begin the contest of egg fighting. All seem to be screaming two magic words, "points or butts," and an outsider would see nothing but con- fusion. But this small board of trade knows exactly what it is doing. There are rules regulating how the egg shall be held, which end shall be used, who shall give the first stroke, how it shall be struck, and the kind of egg to be used. Any one so unfair as to fiffht with a oruinea's eo- Navigation of the Mississippi, 175, 200. Organization of Louisiana, 213, 214, 225, 226, 228. Purchase of Louisiana, 212, 213, 218. Connor, Commodore, 283, 284. Constitution of the United States, 176, 213, 292, 294, 296, 324. Corn husking, 345. Cornwallis, General, 170, 171. Cotton, Cotton gin, 293, 294. Exporting, iii, 219, 313, 349. Manufacturing, 313, 343. Raising, 17, 44, 185, 272, 293, 313, 315, 318,319. Council, Inferior, 78, 79. Legislative, 214, 225, 227, 237. Superior, 78, 113, 135, 137, 140-142, 155- Courts in Louisiana, 150, 155, 15&, 214, 216, 217, 242, 311, 323, 325. Creoles, 139, 146, 149, 156, 159, 168, 181, 206, 209, 215, 218, 220, 228, 236, 245, 247, 261, 265, 269, 271, 306, 346, 351, 352. Creve Coeur, Fort, 20. Crozat, 58-65, 67, 70, 73, 78, 122, 358. Customs in Louisiana, 344-356. Dauphin Island, 49, 61, 76, 84. Davis, Jefferson, 296, 297. Defiance (war vessel), 299. Destrehan, Joel, 246. Dimitry, Alexander, 275. Donaldsonville, 308. Doucet, 139. Dueling, 351-353- Dunn, Oscar J., 326, Bads, James B., 338. Easter customs, 354. Education in Louisiana, 84, 90, 107, 219, 220, 244, 274-276, 322, si3, 342, 360. Elections, in 1812, 246; in 1864, 311, 323; in 1873, 334; in 1876, 336. Ellicott, Andrew, 190-192. England, and the United States, 166, 171, 246- 248, 253-269. Colonies in America, ix, x, 115-117, 160-164, 171, 357, 358. in Canada, 118, 122. in Mississippi Valley, 17, 29, 41, 42, 44, 118, 123, 124, ig8, 246, 269. Relations with Indians, 41, 44, 50, 52, 105, 106, 120. Trade with, 63, 124, 157, 158. War with France, x, 29, 51, 52, 114- 119, 163, 166, 171, 198, 199, 201, 203. War with Spain, 166-171, 187, 188. English Turn, The, 42, 261. Epinay, Governor de 1', 70. Evangeline, 131, 132. 420 INDEX Exports, from Kentucky, 172, 173, 176. from Louisiana, 11 1, 156-158, 219. Farming in Louisiana, 48, 84, 85, 92, III, 112, 222, 341-343. Farragut, Commodore, 300-302. Flatboats, 173-17.';, 181, 193, 195. Florida, Cession of, to the United States, 199, 201. Discovery of, 2, 3, 4. East and West, 189, 229-233, 239-243. England's ownership of, 119, 122, 124, 164, 165. Indians iu, 278. Spaniards in, ix, 30, 31, 48, 63, 166, 169-171. State of, 229. Florida Parishes, 189, 239-243. Food supplies, in Civil War, 313, 315, 316. France, in Canada, x, 10, 11, 14-18, 60, 115- 118, .122, 199. in Louisiana, 20-125, ^^3, 182, 183, 193, 197-211, 358. in Mississippi Valley, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21. War with England, 1,29, 51, 52, 114- 119, 163, 166, 171, 198, 199, 201, 203. War with Spain, 187, 188. Freedman's Bureau, 324. French and Indian War, 11 5-1 19, 160, 161, 199. Frontenac, Count, 10, ii, i6, Gallatin, Albert, 289. Galvez, Governor, 159, 162-171. Gander pulling, 351. Gayarre, Charles, 220. Gayoso de Lemos, igo-196, 205. Georgia, 7, 272, 293, 344- Germans in Louisiana, 75, 84, 85. Gibbs, General, 266. Grande Isle, 2i;o. , Grande Terre, 250, 252. Grand pre, Colonel. 294. Grant, U. S., 334, 336. Great Britain. See England. Great Lakes, The, 10, 16, 18, 25, 60, IIS, "6, 358. Guion, Captain, 194, 195. Hachard, Madeleine, 90. Hahn, Michael, 311. Havana, 54, 119, 142. Hinds, Major, 257. Houmas Indians, 35, 36. House of Representatives of Louisiana, 225, 226. See Legislature. Iberville, 30-51, 54, 55, 87, 115, 124. Illinois country, 89, 103, 123. India, Trade with, 10, 16. Indians, Customs of, I, 13, 36, 37, 45, 46, 94. in battle of New Orleans, 266. Marriage with, 89. Relations with Europeans, 2, 4-7, 10- 14, 18, 20, 26, 27, 31-33, 35-47. 50. 52.53. 56.57.77- Trade with, 11, 15, 16, 18, 52, 63. Tribes of, 11, 20, 35, 44, 45, 50, 94. War with, 53, 68-70, 93-107, 120, 248, 256, 277. Indigo, 84, 92, 156, 157, 185, 317. Jackson, Andrew, 248, 255-270, 292. Jackson, Fort, 299-301. Jackson Square, New Orleans, 146, 347. See Place d'Armes. Jefferson, Thomas, 209, 212, 214, 218, 225, 230, 236. Jesuits, 15, 9 1, III. Jetties of the Mississippi, 338, 339. Johnson, Andrew, 323. Governor Isaac, 280. Joliet, Louis, x, 10-15. Jones, Lieutenant T. A. C, 258, 259. Joutel, 26-28. Kellogg, W. P., 334-336- Kemper brothers, 232. Kentucky, 172-177, 183, 189, 197, 213. 233, 257, 265, 266, 272, 277. Kerlerec, Governor, 114, 120, 121, 123. Ku Klux Klan, 327-333. Lafitte, Jean and Pierre, 249-255 "57. Lafourche Parish, 306. INDEX 421 Lafreniere, 133, 139, 140, 144, 145, 148-152, 156. Lagniappe, 346, 348. La Harpe, 85, 87. La Salle, 14-28, 34, 37. 38. 5°. "5. 358- Laussat, 205-210. Law, John, 71-75, 82-84, 359- Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 289. League of the White Camellia, 329. Lee, General R. E., 309. Legislature of Louisiana, 214, 225, 252, 260, 269, 274, 281, 314, 233- Leprosy in Louisiana, 177. Lesassier, 142. Le Sueur, 98, 99. Levees, 92, in, 112, 155, 272, 273, 337- 340. Lincoln, Abraham, 310, 323. Livingston, Robert R., 199-204, 212. Log-rolling, 344. Louis XIV, 16, 17, 21, 29, 58, 59, 71, 72. Louis XV, 71, 102, 109, 134, 140-142, 274. Louisiana (gunboat), 265. Louisiana, District of, 213. Louisiana, Province of, Boundaries of, 59, 115, 202, 218. Capital of, 80, 81, 85. Cession to France, 198, 208. Cession to Spain, 123, 125, 133-141, 146. Cession to the United States, 204, 209-213. Discovery of, 2, 7, 20. Early settlements in, 22-28, 30-32, 38, 42, 44, 48, 49. Government of, 78, 79, 85, 88, 112, 155. 174. Life in, 26, 48, 54, 84, 89-92, 109, 139, 216, 218-223, 344, 345. Naming of, 21. Population of, 114, 154, 162, 219. Louisiana, State of, 213, 243, 245-343. Admission to Union, 224-226, 245, 246. Growth of, 271, 272. in Civil War, 298-309. in Mexican War, 280, 281. Life in, during Civil War, 311, 313, 315-322- Louisiana, State of (Continued) Reconstruction period, 310-314, 221- 336- Secession of, 295-297. Lovell, General, 299, 300. Madison, James, 241. Magruder, Allen B., 246. Manchac, 119, 124, 125, 158, 164, 167- 169. Manitou, Indian, 13. Mansfield, Battle at, 308. Marbois, 203. Mardi Gras, 353, 355. Marquette, Father, x, 10-14. Marquis, Pierre, 151. Matagorda Bay, 50, 85. Maurepas, Count de, 29, 30. Maurepas, Lake, 37. McEnery, John, 334. Medicine, in Civil War, 307, 313, 319. Metropolitans, The, 335. Mexico, City of, 281, 314. Gulf of, 14, 24, S3, 34, 43, 48, 52, 116, 122, 169, 196. Spaniards in, 8, 63, 65-67, 143, 167, 169, 198, 235-238. Trade with, 63, 65, 137. War with, 279-282. Milhet, Jean, 133-135, 139, 142, 146. 149-152. Military government, 260, 269, 310, 325- Milneburg, 272. Miro, Governor, 174-178, 194. Mississippi Bubble, The, 82. Mississippi Company, 73-82, 88-92, 102, 114, 122. Mississippi River, x. Boundary of the United States, 171, 269. Discovery and exploration of, 2, 7, 9-17, 20, 21, 25, 28, 32-37. in Civil War, 298, 301, 304, 30S. Jetties, 337-339- Overflow of, 112, 195, 272, 337-' 340. Right of navigation on, 119, 166, 171-178, 187-189, 200. Mississippi, State of, 7, 31, 103, 272, 312. 422 LMDEX Missi5;sippi Territory, 195, 209, 225, 232, 239, 257, 266. Mobile, 13, 49, 56, 79, 80, 116, 164, 169, 229, 231. Money, Confederate, 319. in Louisiana, 113. Mongoulacha Indians, 35, 37. Monroe, James, 203, 204, 212, 229, 230. Mayor, 302. Montcalm, General, 117. Monterey, Battle of, 281. Montgomery, Alabama, 297. Moore, Governor T. O., 297, 306. Morgan, Colonel, 164, 165. Mouton, Governor Alexander, 306. Mumford, W. B., 302. Napoleon, 197-208. Natchez, 123, 158, 164, 167, 169, 187- 19s. 238, 304- Natchez Indians, 44, 45, 67-70, 86, 93- 106. Natchitoches, 47, 85, 220, 229, 306, 307. Negroes, after Civil War, 311, 315, 322, 324, 326-330. as soldiers, 168, 257, 266, 302. Freedom of, 208, 311, 324. Importation of, 63, 73, 215, 222, 292, 294. in the government, 326, ^^^, 334. on plantations, 84, 92, 208, 311, 315, 324- Regulations for, 86, 312. Right to vote, 324, 325. Slavery of, 222, 223, 292-295. Uprisings of, 98, 184. New Orleans, 108, 116, 194. Battle of September 14, 1874, 335. Commerce of, in, 137, 156-158, 173, 176,202,219,337,338. 5ee Trade. Founding of, 77, 78. Grovi^th of, 84, 90-92, III, 124, 158. History of, 133, 136, 139, 145-158, 163-164, 166-169, 17s. 177. i79~ 183, 188-190, 195, 196, 22t;, 230, •34-238, 273, 274. in Civil War, 299-304, 307, 308. in War of 1812, 246-248, 254-269. Lifcin, 85, 91, 109, 139, 216, 219, 220, 222, 249, 252, 352, 353. New Orleans {Continued) made capital, 80, 81, 85. Population of, 154, 219. Transfer to United States, 199-2 11. Views of, 80, 90, 136, 157, 180, 210. 223, 273, 27s, 342, 347, 349. Newspaper, First, 180. NichoUs, General, 248, 253. Governor F. T., 336. Noailles, Sieur de, 106, 107. Nova Scotia, 126, 127. Noyan, 87, 104, 151. Oaks, The, 352, 353. Ohio Valley, Claims to the, 116, 359. Opelousas, 306. O'Reilly, General, 143-156, 207. Orleans, Duke of, 71-73, 78. Orleans, Island of, 119, 158, 199. Orleans, Territory of, 213-217, 224-22O, 244-246, 274. Ouachita River, 238. Packard, S. B., 334, 336. Pakenham, General, 265, 268. Panama Canal, 202. Pauger, 81, 85. Pensacola, 48, 164, 165, 169-171, 231, 248. Perdido River, 189, 229. Perier, Governor, 88-92, 97, 100-102, 121. Petit Anse, 306, 307. Pinckney, Thomas, 229. Pioneer life, in Kentucky, 172, 176, 277. in Louisiana, 26, 48, 54, 84, 89-92, 344, 345- Pirates on Gulf coast, 247, 250-255. Pitt, Fort, 163, 164. Pitt, William, 117. Place d'Armes, New Orleans, 146, 168, 209, 210. Pleasant Hill, Battle at, 308. Pointe Coupee, 84, 184, 232, 244. Pollock, Oliver, 163. Pontalba, 197. Pontchartrain, Count, 29, 30, 42, 43, 55, 57, 59, 62, 358. Countess, 70. Pontchartrain, Lake, 37, 41, INDEX 423 Port Hudson, 304, 307, 30S. Porter, Commodore, 300. Powers, Thomas, 183, 189. Poydras, Julian, 244, 245. Quarantine, 340. Quebec, x, 14, 117. Quilting bees, 344, 345. Quincy, Josiah, 245, 291. Railroads, 173, 272. Reconstruction Act, 326. Reconstruction period, 3 10-3 14, 32 1-336. Red River, Exploration of, 46, 47. Resolute (war vessel), 299. Revolution, American, 160-166, 171, 187. French, 178, 181. of 1768, 139-153. of 1874, 3337336- Rio Grande River, 280, 313. Robertson, T. B., 246. Roman, Governor A. B., 275. Rosalie, Fort, 70, 93-99. St. Charles, Fort, 263. St. Denis, 65-67, 220. St. Francisville, 240. St. Gabriel, Acadia, 127-129. St. Philip, Fort, 299-301. Salcedo, Governor, 205, 208. Salt mines, 306, 307, 343. San Domingo, 103, iii, 208. Santa Anna, 282. Sauvole, 39, 40, 48. Schools. See Education. Scott, General, 281. Seal of Louisiana, 247. Secession, in Kentucky, 175-177, 183, 189. of Southern States, 295-297. Rights of, 246, 291, 292, 295, 310, 32 1, Senate of Louisiana, 225, 226. See Leg- islature. Sheridan, General, 325, 326. Ship Island, 31, 37, 302. Shreveport, 311, 313, 360. Skip, Fulwar, 240. Slave and free States, 294. Slaves. See Negroes. Smith, General Kirby, 307, 308. Smuggling, 163, 250. Soto, Hernando de, 2-9, 28, 44. South Carolina, 292, 295, 298. Spain, Explorers from, ix, 1-8. in Florida, 2, 31, 48, 63, 119, 122, 166 169-171, 229-232, 239. in French and Indian War, 11 7-1 19 in Louisiana, 29, 123-125, 133-208, 228, 247, 359. in Mexico, 8, 63, 65-67, 143. Treaties with, 119, 123, 163, 171-173, 187, 188, 190, 193. War with England, 166-171, 187, 188, War with France, 187, 188. Starvation parties, 322. Stevens, Thaddeus, 323, 325. Sugar, Exporting, iii, 219, 313. Manufacturing, 184-186, 222, 316, 343- Raising, 44, 185, 208, 221, 272, 293. Sumner, Charles, 323, 325. Sumter, Fort, 298. Sun, The Great, 45, 69, 93-97, loi, 103. Sunday, Observance of, 348, 349. Swiss in Louisiana, 75, 120. Talleyrand, 199-202, 230. Tampa Bay, 4. Taxes, 92, 155, 173, 180, 250, 292, :>95, 324. Taylor, General Richard, 306-308. Hancock, 277, 278. Zachary, 277-284, 306. Teche, Bayou, 131, 132, 308. Tennessee, 172, 257, 266, 327, 344. Tensa Indians, 45. Test Oath, 326. Texas, 24-28, 50, 85, 143, 235-238, 279, 280, 299, 325. Thomas, Philemon, 239. Tobacco, 84, 92, III, 156, 157, 219, 272 293- Tonti, Chevalier de, 20, 37, 38, 44, 50, 54. Tournaments, 350. Trade, Regulation of, 59, 60, 63, 88, 113, 125, 136, 156, 162, 174, 180, 188, 195, 196. 424 INDEX Trade (Continued) Smuggling, 163, 250-252. with Indians, 11, 15, 16, 18, 52, 63. with Mexico, 63, 65, 85, 137. with the Americans, 63, 124, 157, 173-176, 17S, 180, 181, 195, 196. with the West Indies, 52, 137, 163. See New Orleans, Commerce. Treaty, of cession to Spain, 123. of 1763, 118, 123, 125. of 1783, 171-173, 187, 193. of 1795, 188, 190, 193. of 1800, 198, 199. of 1803, 204, 212, 213. with Indians, 69, 70, 93, 120. Truck farming, 341. UUoa, Antonio de, 135-143, 146, 149, _ ISO- United States, History of the, 115, 144, 278, 281. Revolutionary War, 161-166, 171, 291. National government, 175-177, 233, 291, 292. Relations with Louisiana Province, 173-178, 187-192, 19s, 196- Purchase of Louisiana, 199-205, 208- 213. Territory of Orleans, 213-217, 224- 226, 234-238, 246. West Florida, 229-233. War of 1812, 246-248, 253-269. Mexican War, 279-282. Civil War, 291-309. Reconstruction of South, 310-314, 323-326, 333-33(>- Unzaga, Governor, 156-159, 162, 163. Ursuline nuns, 90-92, 274. Vaudrcuil, Marquis de, 109-115, 117, 148. Vermilionville, 306. V'icksburg, 304, 305, 308. Villcre, Joseph, 149, 150, 152. Major, 262, 263. Major General, 260, 262. Voudouism, 355, 356. Waller, Sir Walter, 289. War of 1812, 246-248, 253-269. Warmoth, Governor H. C, 326, 3^^, 334- Warrior (war vessel), 299. Washington, George, 171, 177. West Raton Rouge Parish, 244, 312. West Indies, Indian slaves in, loi, 103. Settlement of, jx, i, 2. Settlers from, in, 224. Trade with, 52, 137, 163. Westerners of the United States, 172- 176, 179, 181, 196, 200, 212, 215, 216, 233, 237. White Apple Village, 93-96, 99. White League, The, 334. Whitney, Eli, 293, 294. Wilkinson, General, 176, 209, 210, 216, 236, 237. Williams, General Thomas, 304. Willing, Captain, 164, 165. Wolfe, General, 117. Women, in Civil War, 315-321. in the colonics, 26, 27, 54, 89-92, 112. Yazoo Indians, 9/. Yellow fever, 54, 195, 272-274, 337, 3401. Yorktown, Surrender at, 170, 171.