/. ^ 
 
EXPLANATION OP FIGURE I. 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 1. Frontal bone. 
 
 2. Parietal. 
 
 3. Occipital. 
 
 4. Temporal. 
 
 5. Nasal. 
 
 6. Lachrymal. 
 
 7. Malar. 
 
 8. Superior maxillary. 
 
 9. Anterior " 
 
 10. Inferior " 
 
 11. Cervical vertebrae. 
 
 33. Scapula. 
 
 34. Humerus. 
 
 From 4 to 7 is the zjgomatic arch. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE HEiiD, NECK, AlTD SHOULDER. 
 
 *. Ligamentum colli. 
 
 a". Trapezius. 
 
 6". Rhomboideus longus. 
 
 c". Scalenus. 
 
 e". Stcrno scapulari — pectoralis transversus. 
 
 f". Antea spinatus. 
 
 g". Postea spinatus. 
 
 h". Teres. 
 
 c. Dilator naris lateralis. 
 
 d. " " anterior. 
 
 e. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 f. NasaKs longus. 
 
 ff. Levator labii superioris. 
 
 h. Buccinator. 
 
 i. Zygomaticus. 
 
 j. Retractor labii inferiorus. 
 
 k. Masseter. 
 
 I. Abducens aiu:em. 
 
 m. Attolentes et adducens aiu-em. 
 
 n. Retrahentes aurem. 
 
 o. Adducens vel deprimens aurem. 
 
 p. r. Tendon of the splenius and complexus major. 
 
 q. ObUquus capitis superior. 
 
 s. Splenius. 
 
 t. Obliquus capitis inferiorus, 
 
 u. Levator humeri. 
 
 V. Sterno maxillaris. 
 
 X. Subscapulo-hyoideus. 
 
 1. Temporal vein. 
 
 2. Facial vein. 
 
 3. Jugular vein. 
 10. Parotid gland. 
 
THE 
 
 A.I:^^TOMY ^NT> FHYSIOLOaY 
 
 THE HORSE: 
 
 ANATOMICAL AND QUESTIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 CONTAINING, ALSO, 
 
 A SERIES OF EXAMINATIONS ON EQUINE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, WITH INSTRUC- 
 TIONS m REFERENCE TO DISSECTION, AND THE MODE OF MAILING 
 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED, 
 
 #lossarg of ycttrinarjt Eethnicaliiits, oTovuological (fbart, anb giritonarg of ©tftrhiarn ^rirnre. 
 
 GEORGE H. DADD, M. D., V. S., 
 
 AnTHOK OP " THB MODERN HORSE DOCTOR," "CATTLE DOCTOR," ETC., ETO . 
 
 BOSTON: 
 PUBLISHED BY JOHN P. JEWETT AND COMPANY. 
 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO : H. P. B. JEWETT. 
 
 NEW YORK: SHELDON, BLAKEMAN AND COJIPANY. 
 
 1857. 
 
ST76ir 
 
 Entered accoriliug to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by 
 
 JOHN 1". JEWETT AND COMPANY, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
 UinOTYPED BV THE AJIERICAN STEREOITPE COMPANY, 
 PnOSNIX BUILDING, BOSTON. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 American Veterinary Literature has hitherto possessed no work devoted to 
 the anatomy and physiology of the Horse ; consequently such subjects are 
 either discussed theoretically and imperfectly, or else fail to be noticed. But 
 a new era is now dawning upon Veterinary Science ; a spirit of inquiry is 
 abroad; and the people of this Republic find themselves in possession of some 
 of the most magnificent specimens of "Uve stock" to be found in the world. 
 The natural inquiry is, "How shall we protect our property?" And the 
 conclusion arrived at is, "Veterinary science offers the only probable and 
 practicable security against the numerous casualties incidental to the halitats 
 of the barn and stable." 
 
 Hitherto, much indifference has been manifested regarding this science, in 
 consequence of the difficulty encountered in its study, for want of proper 
 text-books and teachers ; and its unsatisfactory results when tested by men 
 unacquainted with its fundamental principles. The well-known works of 
 Enghsh and French authors furnish all the necessary information, yet their 
 cost is beyond the means of many, and, therefore, their circulation is very 
 limited. 
 
 In view, therefore, of supplying the above deficiency, which is disclosed in 
 the barrenness of our anatomical and 23hysiological knowledge, and for the 
 purpose of furnishing a work that shall come wuthm the reach and financial 
 means of all men, the author has undertaken the double task ; and it is hoped 
 that the effort will not be thought untimely. 
 
 There are a vast number of highly educated physicians in this country 
 who are often urged by their employers to give advice in the management, 
 medical and surgical treatment, of the inferior orders of creation ; yet decline 
 to do so, in consequence of a lack of authoritative knowledge regarding 
 anatomy, physiology, therapeutics, and pathology. To such, whose sympathies 
 lean in the right direction, and who are wiUing to give counsel, and lend a 
 helping hand in the restoration of a sick or d3dng animal, this work is offered, 
 and the author, therefore, submits it to their candid perusal and criticism. 
 
 The work, however, is principally intended for veterinary surgeons, teachers 
 of the art, and students of veterinary medicine, whose wants the author 
 professes to have some knowledge of; and he has endeavored, to the best of 
 his abiUty, to cater to the same. 
 
 The necessity for such a work, at the present time, is evident from the facts, 
 that three veterinary colleges have lately come into legislative existence, and 
 
 (in) 
 
it is very uatui-al to suppose that, ere long, many candidates for the honors of 
 these institutions will knock at the door of science, and seek admittance ; they 
 must then need fe.ii-ho6ks ; and, m view of furnishing a part of what the author 
 foresees every teacher and student must necessarily need, he oifers this, not as 
 a work pregnant with his own ideas, for that were presumptuous, when anat- 
 omy and physiology are the texts ; but, as a work carefully prepared from the 
 writings of our best authorities, the work may be considered as the legitimate 
 offspring of scientific observation and experience. 
 
 Another argument in favor of the necessity that will soon exist for a text- 
 book of anatomy and physiology is founded on the fact, that agricultural 
 colleges will soon be endowed in every State of the Union ; many already 
 exist; and each mil, probably, endow a professorship of veterinary science. 
 With such, and among the young and aged men that may seek for knowledge^ 
 the author hopes that his work may find favor; and, if such should be the result, 
 he will have the satisfaction of knowmg that he has not labored in vain. 
 
 There are other classes of men that need a work of this description; namely, 
 the husbandman, the horse-owner, and the horse-lover, as well as the purely 
 scientific man. The three first, incited by laudable sentiments, or pecuniary 
 motives, will read the following pages, and study the anatomical illustrations ; 
 some with veneration of that wonderful piece of mechanism, a horse's structure ; 
 others for the purpose of making themselves acquainted with the form, action, 
 and capacities of the same. 
 
 The purely scientific man, who desires to inform himself how veterinary 
 science is to be studied, — what are its legitimate objects, and its appropriate 
 sphere, — will read these pages with considerable profit. 
 
 GEORGE H. DADD. 
 
 Boston, January, 1857. 
 
REMARKS IN REGARD TO THE COMPOSITION OF THIS WORK. 
 
 The plau of the author, in the commencement of this work, was to prepare a 
 complete manual of examinations on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse ; 
 but findino- that he could not bring the mutter withm the prescril^ed limits, the 
 plan was speedily abandoned. The examinations, exceptmg those descnptive 
 of the osseous structure, are intended, either to elicit some physiological tact, 
 or to introduce topics that have not been treated of in the body of the work. 
 
 In attempting to furnish the public with a systematic treatise on Anatomy 
 and Physiolocrj" it wiU be obvious that the author must necessarily avail 
 himself of the labor of others; for, as regards the science of anatomy, no one 
 has anythino- new to offer. The industrious anatomists and dissectors ot early 
 times have°borne off all the laurels, and there remains but little, if anything, 
 for future discovery. As regards physiology, also, there are very few tacts to 
 discover: we now allude," however, to practical physiology— that science which 
 teaches us the functions of the animal body, or the uses of its parts, ihe 
 author has, however, occasionally stepped beyond the details of practical 
 physiolo^ry, and has endeavored to throw some light on the complex combina- 
 tions in which vital phenomena present themselves, and the nature ot their 
 dependencies one upon another. _ Matter of this kind he has thought best to 
 introduce in the form of examinations. ■, , ^ x 
 
 In preparincr this work, the author has endeavored to select the most recent 
 and rehable information. The following list of authors consulted and com- 
 pUed from, together with the foot notes and the writers' names appended will 
 serve to indicate the principal sources on which the author has rehed tor 
 information. ^ , , , . 
 
 Mr PercivaU's Aiiatom>/ of the Horse has been freely employed m composing 
 the anatomical part of the work. The description of the abdommal viscera 
 is from the pen of Mr. Gamgee, and was witten as a pme cssai/, and pub- 
 lished in the London Veterinarian. Carpenter's Physiology, general and compar- 
 ative, is also quoted. Liebig's Chenmtry, Hooper's Dictionary, Percivalls Ucppa- 
 pathology, Eoget's Outlines of Physiology, have also been consulted, and extracts 
 made from the same. The iUustrations, not otherwise indicated, are by Inrard; 
 explanations translated by the author. For the loan of the French plates, the 
 author is indebted to C. C. Grice, V. S., of New York City. ^ ^^ , .. , 
 The plan of the examinations was suggested to the author |jy Ludlow s Manual, 
 of Examinations,— ii work which he formerly, while studying medicine, had 
 occasion to use. The subject matter, in this work, of course diflers kom that ot 
 
 "fcliG foniiGr 
 
 In preparino- the ''Definitions of Veterinary Technicalities," and "Diction- 
 ary" the author has availed himself of the works of Cooper, Hooper, Cleve- 
 land, Blaine, Mahew, and White ; and, regarding the method of making ana- 
 tomical preparations, etc., the works of Parsons, Pope, and Swan, have been 
 consulted. ^- ^- ^- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 FAas 
 Preface, - 3 
 
 Remarks regarding the composition of the work, .-.-..--.. 6 
 
 Remarks on the osseous, cartilaginous, and ligamentous structures, .-..-. 11 
 
 TeGUMEXTARY System. — On the hair of horses ; examinations on the common integument; physiol- 
 ogy of the skin, of the cellular membrane, of the adipose tissue ; examinations on the same, 14-17 
 Of the External Parts. — The hoof; its form, spread, color, magnitude ; the wall ; its situation and 
 relation, connection, figure, di\'ision, solar border, laminae, quarters, heels, coronary border and 
 
 bars, 17-23 
 
 The Sole. — Situation and connection, figure, arch, di\ision, surfaces, and thickness, - - 23-25 
 
 The Frog. — Its situation and connection, figm-e, division, surfaces; the cleft of the frog, its supe- 
 rior sm-face, the sides, the commissures, toe, heels or bulb, coronary frog band ; development of 
 hoof; structure of the hoof; production of the hoof; propftties of horn, .... 25-30 
 
 Intern.u- Parts of the Hoof. — The coronary substance ; its situation, connection, structure, and 
 
 organization, ..-.-...-....-. 30-31 
 
 The C.\RTn,AGES. — Their situation, attachment, and form ; the false cartilages, and their use ; the 
 
 sensitive laminae ; division of the same ; elasticity, number, dimensions, and organization ; the 
 
 sensitive sole ; its structure, connection, thickness, and organization ; the sensitive frog ; its 
 
 situation, division, sti-uctm-e, and organization, ...-..--- 31-34 
 
 A tabular \iew of the bones of the horse, -...-...-- 35 
 
 Anatomy of the skeleton, introduced in the form of questions and answers, embracing a complete 
 
 system of osteology, -.--...------- 36-54 
 
 Remarks on the changes which horses' teeth undergo, with examinations on the same, - - 54-56 
 
 Myology. — A table of the names and number of muscles, divided into regions, ... 57-60 
 
 A tabular s}'nopsis of the number, name, region, situation, insertion, and action of all the 
 
 muscles, 61-78 
 
 Ox DissECTlox. — Dissecting instruments; subjects suitable for dissection; rides in reference to 
 
 dissection of muscles, .......-..-.- 79-80 
 
 Anatomical Prep.aratioxs. — Injecting instruments; directions for using the sjTinge, - 80-81 
 
 On THE DiFFEREXT KiXDS OF INJECTIONS. — FormultB for coarse warm injections ; fine injections ; 
 minute do; plaster mjection; cold injection; as regards the course of injections ; quicksilver 
 injections ; mode of injecting the Ij-mphatics with quicksilver ; method of injecting the lac- 
 teals, and parotid gland ; wet preparations ; preparations by distension ; method of preparing 
 and distending the limgs ; menstrua for preserving specimens ; method of preserving the brain 
 and lungs ; method of macerating and cleaning bones ; to render bones flexible and transpa- 
 rent; method of cleanmg and separating the bones of the cranium; exposition of Mr. Swan's 
 new method of making dry anatomical preparations, -------- 81-87 
 
 Digestive System. — The mouth, lips, cheeks, gums, palate, tongue, salivary glands, pharj-nx, 
 oesophagus, and nasal fossa; cavity of the cranium; the orbits and cavities of the nose ; the 
 mouth, peritoneum, stomach, intestines ; the vessels, nerves, and IjTnphatios of the intestines ; 
 the spleen, liver, pancreas, kidneys, supra, renal capsules, ureters, bladder, urethra, - - 87-119 
 
 GENER.vTrvE Org.vns OF THE M.ALE. — Vasa defercutia, vesiculae seminales, ejaculatory ducts, pros- 
 trate gland, Cowper's glands, -......-•..- 119-121 
 
 0RG.4NS OF Generation Continded. — Testicles and scrotum, spermatic cord, epididjTnis, penis, 
 
 and urethra, - 121-125 
 
 Fem.\le Organs of Generation, 125-128 
 
 Physiological considerations on the reproduction of organized beings, ..... 128-136 
 
 Examination on the digestive system, 136-138 
 
 Remarks and examinations on the eye, - 139-143 
 
 (vii) 
 
vni CONTENTS. 
 
 Respiratory System. — Observation on the same; the larynx, glottis, epiglottis, trachea, hron- 
 
 chial tubes, pleura, mediastinum, lungs, bronchial glands, ------- 144-154 
 
 Circulatory System. — Remarks on the blood ; examinations resumed on the blood, pericardium, 
 
 and heart, ------- 155-167 
 
 Arterial System. — Distribution of the arteries, 158-163 
 
 A table showing the modes of the distribution of the arteries, - 164^166 
 
 Distribution of the veins, ...-.--.-.--- 166-168 
 
 A table showuig the mode of distribution*bf the veins, -- 169-170 
 
 The brain and its appendages ; the nervous system, - 171-177 
 
 Examinations on neurology, .--...---.-- 177-180 
 
 Distribution of the lymphatics, 181-184 
 
 A glossary of veterinary technicalities, - 185-193 
 
 Toxicological chart, - - - - 195-209 
 
 A dictionary of veterinary science, - 211-287 
 
 Appendix. — Ligamcntary mechanism of articulations and joints, ----- 289-291 
 
INDEX OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGUKE I. Presents two ^iews : one of a portion of the osseous structure, showing the head, neck, 
 
 and shoulders ; and the other is composed of the supei-ficial muscles, covering the above parts ; 
 precedes the title page. -------------- 
 
 FIGURE II. Is a section of the osseous structui'e, giving a side of the spinal column, ribs, and a part 
 
 of the rear, anterior, and posterior extremities. 10 
 
 FIGURE III. — Is a representation of the superficial muscles of the body, of a part of the neck, and 
 
 of the extremities, ...------------'■0 
 
 FIGURE rS'. — Has fom- illustrations of the hind extremities, as follows : No. 1 is a side -view of the 
 bones of the oft-hind leg ; No. 2 shows the muscles and tendons of the oiT-hind leg ; No. 3 is a 
 front view of the bones of the same ; No. 4 shows the muscles and tendons in the anterior region, 
 or front part, of the off-hind extremity. .---- 30 
 
 FIGURE V. — Presents Ueo illustrations : the first shows the superficial muscles in the region of the 
 head, neck, and shoulders, on the near side ; and the other is a corresponding section of the osse- 
 ous structm-e, on wliich the insertions of the ligamentum colli into the occiput, cervical vertebrae, 
 and dorsal spines, are sho\ra. ...----------40 
 
 FIGURE VI. — Presents four views of the forward extremities : No. 1 shows the bones which enter 
 into the composition of the near fore-leg ; No. 2 is a side view of the muscles and tendons of the 
 near fore-leg ; No. 3 is an anterior \iew of No. 1 ; No. 4 is an anterior view of No. 2. - - 50 
 
 FIGURE Vn. Presents four views of the near fore-extremity : Nos. 1 and 3 are side and posterior 
 
 views of the bones of the near fore-limb ; Nos. 2 and 4 show the muscles and tendons belonging 
 
 to the above regions. ..-.---------- oO 
 
 FIGURE Vin. — Has four views of the off-hind extremity: Nos. 1 and 3 are side and posterior views 
 of the bones entering into the composition of the Hmb ; Nos. 2 and 4 show the muscles and ten- 
 dons of the same. .-.----------- 70 
 
 FIGURE IX. — Presents two views : one, of the bones ; the other shows the superficial muscles of the 
 
 head, neck, shoulders, and breast, viewed in an anterior direction. ----- 80 
 
 FIGURE X. — Has two cuts : one of wliich shows a portion of the osseous framework ; the other 
 
 shows the superficial muscles belonging thereto. --- 90 
 
 FIGURE XI. — Is illustrated by two cuts : one of which shows a portion of the muscles of the body, 
 neck, and Umhs ; it is a sort of anterior side riew ; the second cut shows the bones which enter into 
 the composition of these parts. --.---------100 
 
 FIGURE Xn. — Has two illusti-ations, which are the counterpart of Fig. XI., as seen from the oppo- 
 site or posterior dii'ection. .-.-.-------- 119 
 
 FIGURE XHI. — Presents a side view of the deep-seated muscles : it is talien from Mr. Blaine's " Out- 
 
 Knes," and is one of the most magnificent plates ever presented to the pubKc. - - - - 120 
 
 FIGURE XrV. — Is a riew of the mu.scles and tendons of the fore and hind extremities. - - 140 
 
 FIGURE XV. —Is illustrated with five views of the off and rear fore extremity : Nos. 1, 2, 3 show very 
 distinctly the action of the flexors of the Umb, as well as their location, and that of the extensor 
 tendons and muscles. The triceps extensor brachii, and pectoral muscles, are also quite prominent 
 and easily recognized ; No. 4 is the same hmb divested of the soft parts ; No. 5 is an interior view 
 of the near fore-leg, and shows some of the tendons and muscles wliich are not seen in the other 
 cuts. ----- 150 
 
 FIGURE XVI. — Presents five views of the hind extremities, in wliich the use and action of several very 
 important muscles and tendons are accurately delineated : Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 compose the bones, 
 muscles, and tendons of the near-hind extremity ; No. 5 shows the muscles and tendons on the 
 inside of the near-hind leg. ------------- 160 
 
 2 (ix) 
 
X INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGURE XVn. — Presents two views (as seen from a posterior direction) : one contains a great portion 
 of the superficial muscles of the body and limbs, and the other shows the basis of their super- 
 structure. --.-.--...------ 170 
 
 FIGURE XVm. — Is the skeleton of a horse, for which the author is indebted to Blaine's " OutUnes 
 
 of the Veterinary Art." ..-- 180 
 
 FIGURE XIX. — Is a counterpart of Fig. XVn., as seen from an opposite direction. ... 175 
 
 FIGURE XX. — Is an excellent representation of the muscles of one side of the head, neck, body, and 
 
 Kmbs. 211 
 
 [The author considers it due to himself to remark, that, in consequence of not seouiing from the engraver good proofs of 
 the plates, there will occur a few inaccuracies between the lettering ou the cuts and explanations accompanying them. 
 These, however, are not of material consequence ; yet, if necessary, the reader can, from analogy, — by comparing one plate 
 with another, — correct the errors with a pen.] 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE II. 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 11. Cervical vertebra. 
 
 12. Dorsal " 
 
 13. Lumbar " 
 
 14. Sacrum. 
 
 15. Coccygeal bones. 
 
 16. True ribs. 
 
 17. False " 
 
 18. Sternum. 
 
 19. Pelvis. 
 
 20. Posterior part of the pelvis, or ischiatic spines. 
 
 21. Inferior, or pubic region. 
 
 22. Femur. 
 
 23. Patella. 
 
 24. Tibia. 
 
 33. Scapula. 
 
 34. Humerus. 
 
 35. Radius. 
 e. Fibula. 
 /. Ulnar. 
 
REMARKS 
 
 OSSEOUS, CARTILAGINOUS, AND LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES. 
 
 The bones are the solid framework which fibrous arrangement is more irregular and 
 
 gives stability to the whole fabric, and af- 
 ford fixed bearings upon which the powers 
 regulating the varied movements operate. 
 The bones, then, are considered as the most 
 dense and solid structures of the animal 
 frame : affording support, and in many parts 
 protection, to some of the softer parts ; at 
 the same time, the leverage which regulates 
 the action of a Kmb is derived from the 
 osseous structure. 
 
 On making an examination of a bone, 
 we find that its external surface is the hard- 
 est part, and it differs very much in thick- 
 ness in different bones, and in different 
 animals. The long bones (or cylmdrical) 
 of the horse contain less marrow, and are 
 more cancellated within, than the bones of 
 the human subject: in many of the former 
 the whole arena is occupied by cancelli. 
 The bones of the ribs have an osseous plat- 
 ing differing in thickness in various sub- 
 jects, and within is a cellular structure which 
 may be termed diploe. 
 
 The marrow, as it is termed, is a soft 
 substance of an oleaginous character, con- 
 tained in an infinite number of sacs, depos- 
 ited and suspended in the cavities of bones 
 and in the canceUi. The marrow sacs are 
 composed of a delicate vascular membrane, 
 which isolates them from each other, and 
 prevents the marrow from gravitating or 
 passing into the osseous structure. 
 
 Bones present the appearance of lamella, 
 yet they are fibrous ; the fibres of the cylin- 
 drical bones are longitudinal; in the flat 
 bones they have a radiated appearance, and 
 in the short and peculiar shaped bones, the 
 
 difficult to trace. 
 
 The basis of the osseous structure is 
 nearly the same as the membranous parts,* 
 being composed of fibrous laminae or plates, 
 which are connected together so as to form, 
 by their intersection, a series of cells anal- 
 agous to those of the cellular structure. 
 This theory has been disputed by some 
 distinguished physiologists; the moderns 
 contend that the osseous fabric is ceUular.f 
 
 Bones are invested, on their exterior, ex- 
 cept those parts plated with cartilage, with 
 a membrane termed periosteum. Through 
 this medium an arterial and venous com- 
 
 * " The analysis of a bone into its two constituent parts 
 is easily eftected by the agency either of acids or of heat. 
 By macerating a full-gro-mi bone for a sufficient time in 
 diluted muriatic acid, the earthy portion of the bone, 
 amounting to nearly one-thu-d of its weight, is dissolved 
 by the acid; the animal portion only remaining. This 
 animal basis retains the bulk and shape of the original 
 bone, but is soft, flexible, and clastic ; possessing, in a 
 word, all the properties of membranous parts, and corres- 
 ponding in its chemical character to condensed albumen. 
 A portion of this solid animal substance affords gelatin by 
 long boiling in water, especially under the pressure, ad- 
 mitting of a high temperature, to which it may be si'.b- 
 jeeted in Papin's digester. On the other hand, by sub- 
 jecting a bone to the action of fire, the animal part alone 
 will be consumed, and the earth left untouched, preserv- 
 ing, as before, the form of the bone, but having lost the 
 material which united the particles, presenting a fragile 
 mass which easily crumbles into powder. Tliis earthy 
 basis, when chemically examined, is found to consist prin- 
 cipally of phosphate of lime, which composes eighty -two 
 hundredths of its weight ; and to contain also, according 
 to Berzelius, minute portions of fluate and carbonate of 
 lime, together with the phosphates of magnesia and of 
 soda." — Eoget. 
 
 t The best authority in support of the cellular theory is 
 Scarpa. Percivall advocates the laminated and fibrous 
 theories. 
 
 (11) 
 
12 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 munication is established between the dense 
 and soft parts. The periosteum is anal- 
 agous to the fibrous textures, being com- 
 posed of numerous inelastic fibres of great 
 strengtJi and density. 
 
 The inner surface of the periosteum is 
 connected with the bone by the vessels pass- 
 ing from the one to the other, and also by 
 numerous prolongations, which pervade the 
 osseous substance. 
 
 The blood-vessels of the periosteum are 
 numerous, and are easily demonstrated by 
 injection. 
 
 CARTILAGE.* 
 
 The structure which appears most inti- 
 mately connected with the osseous is carti- 
 lage. It is a firm and dense substance, 
 apparently homogeneous in its texture, semi- 
 pellucid, and of a miUc-white or pearly color. 
 
 The surface of cartilage is smooth and 
 uniform, presenting neither eminences nor 
 cavities, pores nor inequalities. It has, 
 however, minute capillary vessels, the diam- 
 eters of which are too small for ocular 
 demonstration. Notwithstanding its den- 
 sity, it has a minute circulating apparatus, 
 wliich is demonstrated in diseases known 
 as spavin and ringbone, in which absorp- 
 tion of cartilage occurs. 
 
 Cartilaginous structures are chiefly com- 
 
 * " The mechanical property which particularly distin- 
 guishes cartilage is elasticity, a quality wliich it possesses 
 in a greater degree than any other animal structure, and 
 which adapts it to many useful purposes in the economy. 
 Hence it forms the basis of many parts where, contrary to 
 the purposes answered by the bones, pliancy and resistance 
 as well as firmness are required ; and hence cartilage is 
 employed when a certain shape is to be preserved, to- 
 gether with a capability of yielding to an external force. 
 The flexibility of cartilage, however, does not extend 
 beyond certain limits ; if these be exceeded, fracture takes 
 place. Great density bestowed upon an animal stnictiu'e, 
 indeed, ajipears to be in all cases attended with a propor- 
 tionate degree of brittleness. These mechanical proper- 
 ties of cartilages, as well as their intimate structure, 
 although nearly homogenous in all, are subject to modifi- 
 cation in different kinds of cartilage. Cartilages are 
 covered with a fine membrane, termed the perichondrium, 
 analogous in its structure and office to the periosteum, 
 which we have already had occasion to point out among 
 the fibrous membranes, as investing the bones." — Ror/et. 
 
 posed of gelatin, albumen, and phosphate 
 of calcis. 
 
 Cartilage occurs in two forms, temporary 
 and permanent. The former prevails pre- 
 vious to adult life ; the latter are identical 
 with the permanent structures after the 
 animal has migrated from colthood. 
 
 There are three or four different forms of 
 cartilages, viz : the membriform, interosseal, 
 articular, and inter-articular. 
 
 Tlie membriforni are fibro-cartilaginous ; 
 they furnish a basis of support to the softer 
 parts, supply the place of bone, and give 
 form, shape, and firmness, to parts miossi- 
 fied. By then- elasticity, they admit of con- 
 siderable variation of figure and form, yield 
 to external pressure, and recover their proper 
 shape as soon as pressure is removed. This 
 kind of cartilage is found in the nostrils, 
 ears, larynx, and trachea. 
 
 T/ie interosseal cartilages pass from one 
 bone to another, adhering firmly by their 
 extremities to each. They permit of an 
 increase of extent or motion, as observed 
 between the ribs ; when macerated, they are 
 divisable into lamina of an oval shape, 
 which are united by fibres passing obliquely 
 between them. 
 
 The articular cartilages are those plates 
 of articular substance which adhere firmly 
 and inseparably to t'lie surfaces of bones 
 which arc opposed to each other in the 
 joints, or over which tendons and ligaments 
 play. The elastic resistance of this carti- 
 lage has a powerful tendency to lessen the 
 shocks incident to sudden and violent 
 actions. 
 
 The inter-articular cartilages do not dif- 
 fer in composition from the preceding. 
 They are attached to the inside of the cap- 
 sular ligament, by which they arc rendered 
 somewhat movable ; and, being interposed 
 between the bones of the knee and hock, 
 allow them a greater latitude of motion, 
 while at the same time they contribute to 
 adapt their siu-faces more perfectly to each 
 other. The structure of these cartilages is 
 laminated. 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 13 
 
 FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS STRUCTURES. 
 
 Fibro-cartilage appears to be of an in- 
 termediate nature between ligament and 
 cartilage. Having a fibrous texture united 
 to a cartilaginous basis, it combines the 
 characteristic properties of both of the above 
 textures. 
 
 Fibro-cartilaginous sti-uctiures are found 
 to unite the bodies of the bones of the ver- 
 tebrae ; they then get the name of inter- verte- 
 bral svibstance. They impart great elasticity 
 to the spine, and also diminish the effects of 
 concussion. 
 
 LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES. 
 
 The ligamentous structures are dense; 
 possess a considerable degree of solidity in 
 some parts, while in others they are modi- 
 fications of fibrous membrane. The liga- 
 mentous system includes a number of parts 
 which have received different names, such 
 as ligaments, tendons, faschia aponeurosis, 
 capsiiles or bursse mucosa; and fibres of 
 ligamentous matter also enter into the com- 
 position of other organs, imparting to them 
 different degrees of mechanical strength. 
 The ligamentous structures vary; we find 
 that in some places they are expanded into 
 faschia, etc., at others they collect into dense, 
 enlonsated cords. The first division in- 
 
 cludes fibrous membranes, fibrous capsules, 
 tendinous sheaths, and aponsurosis. 
 
 Fibrous membranes: these resemble or- 
 dinary membranes, only that their fibres are 
 denser. The periosteum is a membrane of 
 this description, and the dxira mater has a 
 similar structure. 
 
 Fibrous capsules are presented in the 
 form of sacs, which surround various ten- 
 dons and joints. These capsules are also 
 lined by a synovial membrane, which secretes 
 the synovia. 
 
 Tendinous sheaths are formed by fibrous 
 membranes which surround the tendons, in 
 those parts that are subjected to fi-iction, or 
 liable to displacement, during the action of 
 the muscles which move the joint. 
 
 Aponeurosis are those extended sheets 
 of fibrous texture wliich in some instances 
 form coverings of parts, while in others 
 they constitute points of attachment to 
 muscles. In the former case they are termed 
 faschiae, and either surround the muscles of 
 a limb, forming a sheath for it, or else invest 
 or confine some particular muscle. 
 
 In the latter case the aponeurosis presents 
 broad, or narrow, surfaces and fibres which 
 give attachment to particular portions of 
 muscle. 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM. 
 
 ON THE HAIR OF HORSES. 
 
 Hair is a peculiar tegumentary appendage, 
 characteristic of the horse and other mam- 
 mals. It is developed on the interior of 
 oUicles which are formed by a depression of 
 the true skin. These folUcles are lined by a 
 continuation of the epidermis, the cells of 
 which are developed in peculiar abundance 
 from a spot at its deepest portion ; the dense 
 exterior of the cluster thus formed being 
 known as the bulb of the hak, while the 
 softer interior is termed its pulp. The 
 elementary parts of hair are : a cortical or 
 investing substance of a dense horny tex- 
 ture; and a medullary or pith-like sub- 
 stance, of a mvich softer character, occupy- 
 ing the interior. The cortical envelope of 
 hairs is a continuation of the outer scaly 
 layers of the epidermis that lines the follicle ; 
 
 whilst the medullary is derived from the 
 deeper stratum whose cells are produced in 
 unusual abundance at the .coecal extremity ; 
 and it is by the constant development of 
 new cells at this point, that the continual 
 gi-owth of the hair is kept up. 
 
 An excoriation or moulting of the hair, 
 which falls off, is replaced by a new gro^vth, 
 which as it comes to maturity assumes the 
 original color. This change in the covering 
 with which nature has so wisely clothed 
 the horse, usually takes place either in spring 
 or autumn, or at both periods. The hair 
 of the mane and tail, however, is not sub- 
 jected to these periodical changes; hence, 
 it acquires considerable calibre and length. 
 
 By analysis, the hair yields carbon, hy- 
 drogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, and 
 its variation in color is due to the presence 
 of dilTerent shades of matter which infil- 
 trates the cortical substance. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS ON THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS. 
 
 ^. Of how many parts do the common integuments 
 consist ? — A. Three : cuticle, cutis, and rete mueosum. 
 
 Q. Describe the cuticle or epidermis? — A. It is a 
 thin, transparent, tough, and elastic porous membrane, 
 serving as an envelope to the cutis, or true skin. It is 
 composed of flexible lamellae, so arranged as to bear 
 some analogy to the scales of fish ; it pervades the 
 whole body, and insinuates itself into porous struc- 
 tures and folHcular passages, inlets, and outlets of the 
 system ; it is supposed to be continous from the mouth 
 to the anus. 
 
 Q. Describe the pores or perforations. — A. There 
 are tliree. First, those surrounding the hair. Sec- 
 ondly, exhalent pores. Tliirdly, absorbent pores. 
 
 Q. How is the cutis designated? — A. As the cutis 
 vera, or true skin. 
 
 Q. '\Vhat is the structure of the cutis? — A. It is of 
 a fibrous texture, tough, clastic, vascular, and highly 
 sensitive, and is what we commonly denominate leather. 
 
 Q. What are the attachments of the cutis? — A. 
 The cutis is attached to the subjacent parts by cellu- 
 lar membrane, in some places so tensely that Uttle or 
 no motion is admitted of; in others so loosely that it 
 admits of being thro-mi into folds. About the forehead, 
 upon the back, around the tail, and upon the pasterns, 
 it can scarcely be pinched up ; but upon the sides of the 
 face and neck, upon the ribs, along the flanks, and upon 
 the anus and thighs, it wQl easily admit of duplication. 
 
 Q. "What varieties are there in the density of the 
 cutis ? — A. It varies in density, not only where it covers 
 difierent parts in the same animal ; but in horses of 
 difierent breeds and temperaments, it varies very essen- 
 tially. 
 
 Q. What is the organization of the rete mucosimi ? 
 A. It is composed of a fine, deHcate, laminated tissue, 
 interposed between the cuticle and cutis, and serves as 
 their connecting medium, and is supposed to secrete 
 the coloring matter of the external surface and haii-. 
 (14) 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 15 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. 
 
 The sldn is highly sensitive ; yet those 
 persons who are in the habit of making free 
 use of the whip scarcely ever realize the 
 fact. The author has an impression that 
 the sliin of a horse is more sensitive than 
 that of man ; for example, let a small quan- 
 tity of turpentine be applied to a horse's 
 back, — very soon he evinces signs of pain, 
 which cannot be elicited when a 7nan be- 
 comes the subject of the same experiment. 
 Every horse-owner, also, must have noticed 
 the uneasiness a horse manifests when a 
 common fly, or gad-fly, alights on him; and 
 in a variety of other ways the highly sensi- 
 tive state of a horse's skin admits of dem- 
 onstration. 
 
 -The skin is one of the principal emunc- 
 tories of the body, from the surface of which 
 passes ofl" a large quantity of morbid fluid 
 in the form of perspiration, sensible or in- 
 sensible, as the case may be. The skiii is 
 the great external outlet ; and, should the 
 kidneys or any other organ fail to play their 
 part in eliminating useless fluids, the skin 
 opens its flood-gates, and thus purifies the 
 body. The amount of fluid exhaled from 
 the external siurface has been the subject of 
 some very interesting experiments, and the 
 results are truly astonisliing. 
 
 OF THE CELLULAR MEMBRANE BENEATH THE 
 
 SKIN. 
 
 This tissue abounds in almost every part 
 of the body; thus, says Carpenter, "it binds 
 together the ultimate fibres of the muscles 
 into minute fasciculi, unites this fasciculi 
 into larger ones, these again into still larger, 
 which are obvious to the eye, and these into 
 the entire muscle ; and also forms the mem- 
 branous divisions between distinct muscles. 
 In like manner it unites the elements of 
 nerves, glands, etc., binds together the fat- 
 cells into minute masses, these into larger 
 ones, and so on ; and in this manner pene- 
 trates and forms a considerable part of all 
 the softer tissues of the body. It also serves 
 as the bed in which blood-vessels, nerves, 
 and lymphatics may be carried into the 
 substance of the different organs." 
 
 This tissue consists of a net-work of 
 minute fibres and bands, which are inter- 
 woven in every direction, so as to leave in- 
 numerable areola, or spaces, which commu- 
 nicate fi-eely with one another. 
 
 Of these fibres, some are of the yellow or 
 elastic kind, but the majority are composed 
 of the white fibrous tissue ; and, as in the 
 other form of elementary structure, they 
 frequently present the form of broad flat- 
 tened bands, or membranous shreds, in 
 which no distinct fibrous arrangement is 
 visible. The proportion of the two forms 
 varies, according to the amount of elasticity 
 or simple resisting power which the en- 
 doA\Tnents of the part require. The inter- 
 stices or areolEB are fiUed, during life, with 
 a fluid which resembles very dilute serum 
 of the blood ; consisting chiefly of water, but 
 containing a sensible quantity of common 
 salt and albumen. It is the undue accumu- 
 lation of this fluid wliich constitutes drop- 
 sical effiision, the influence of gravity upon 
 the seat of which, shows the free communi- 
 cation that exists among the interstices. 
 This freedom of eommunication is still 
 more shown, however, by the fact, that 
 either air or water may be made to pass, by 
 a moderate continued pressure, into almost 
 every part of the body containing cellular 
 or areolar tissue, although introduced only 
 at a single point. Li this manner it is the 
 habit of butchers to inflate veal; and 
 impostors have thus blown up the scalps 
 and faces of their children, in order to ex- 
 cite commiseration. The whole body has 
 been thus spontaneously distended with air 
 by emphysema in the lungs; the air having 
 escaped from the air-cells into the surround- 
 ing areolar tissue, and thence, by the con- 
 tinuity of this tissue with that of the body 
 in general at the root or apex of the lungs, 
 into the entire fabric. 
 
 The structure of the serous and synovial 
 membranes is essentially the same as the 
 above. The true cellular membrane is 
 sometimes termed reticular, while that con- 
 taining fat is called adipose . 
 
16 
 
 ANATOilY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 ADIPOSE OR FATTY TISSUE. 
 
 The adipose tissue is composed of iso- 
 lated cells, which appropriate fatty matter 
 from the blood after the same manner as 
 the secreting cells appropriate the elements 
 of bile, urine, and milk. " The portion of 
 fatty matter separated from the circulating 
 fluid to form adipose tissue, is only that 
 which can be spared from the other pur- 
 poses to which they have to be applied ; and 
 hence the production of this tissue depends, 
 in part, upon the amount of fatty matter 
 taken in as food.* This is not entirely the 
 
 * " Deposition. — In almost all animals that are healthy, 
 copious food of a nutritive kind, combined with little labor, 
 will increase the deposition of fat ; but in the human sub- 
 ject, and, indeed in many quadrupeds, the animal spirits 
 appear to hare very considerable influence over this secre- 
 tion. We see numberless examples of people, wlio appear 
 to enjoy the best bodily liealth, and yet are constantly 
 meagre, though their food and habits of life tend to an op- 
 posite state ; and we may occasionally obsei-ve horses and 
 dogs, particularly circumstanced, in which, from their 
 natural leanness, or poorness upon the rib, something of 
 a mental nature would appear to be operating ; indeed, it 
 is a well known truth, that if you separate a horse of an 
 irritable disposition from others with whom he is accus- 
 tomed to be stalled, he wUl fall away in condition, in con- 
 sequence of (to use the vulgar expression) fretting from 
 beinrj alone; and so much does tliis act of segregation affect 
 some, that I have known them even refuse then- food. 
 Those horses are commonly the fattest that are fed on 
 easily digestible food — such as braised or scalded corn, 
 roots of a nutritive kind, chopped hay, etc., and that 
 have little or no exercise : a fact well appreciated by the 
 horse-dealer, whose horses are^fne and Jit for sale, but in- 
 capable of fatigue. 
 
 Absorption. — Constitutional diseases, generally speak- 
 ing, extenuate the body, and more particularly such as are 
 of the acute or painful description ; lience, tlie irritation 
 caused by a simple puncture in the foot, will, if it be of 
 long duration, induce a state of emaciation : under which 
 circumstances, the absorbents are supposed to act with more 
 than ordinary effect, and to take up the adeps from the 
 interior of its cells — Percivall. 
 
 case, however, as some have maintained ; 
 for there is sufficient evidence that animals 
 may produce fatty matter by a process of 
 chemical transformation, from the starch or 
 sugar of their food, when there is an unusual 
 deficiency of it in the aliment." Liebig 
 writes : " Whatever views we may entertain 
 regarding the origin of the fatty constitu- 
 ents of the body, this much, at least, is un- 
 deniable, that the herbs and roots consumed 
 by the cow contain no butter ; that, in the 
 hay or other fodder of oxen, no beef-suet 
 exists ; that no hog's-lard can be found in 
 the potato refuse given to swine ; and that 
 the food of geese or fowls contains no 
 goose nor capon fat. The masses of fat 
 found in the bodies of these animals are 
 formed in their organism; and, when the 
 full value of tliis fact is recognized,it entitles 
 us to conclude, that a certain quantity of 
 oxygen, in sorrie form or other, separates 
 from the constituents of their food, for 
 without such a separation of oxygen, no 
 fat could possibly be formed from any one 
 of these substances." 
 
 The chemical analysis of the constituents 
 of the food of the graminivora shows in 
 the clearest manner that they contain carbon 
 and oxygen in certain proportions; which, 
 when reduced to equivalents, yield the fol- 
 lowing series : 
 
 " In vegetable fibrine, albumen, and cas- 
 eine, there are contained, for — 
 
 120 eq. carbon, 36 eq. oxygen. 
 In starch, 120 " " 100 " 
 
 " cane sugar, 120 " " 110 " " 
 
 " gum, 120 " " 110 " " 
 
 " sugar of milk, 120 " " 120 " " 
 
 " grape sugar, 120 " " 140 " " 
 
 EXAMINATIONS RESUMED. 
 
 CELLULAR MEMBILVNE. 
 
 Q. What is the principal use of cellular membrane ? 
 — A. It is employed in uniting, covering, and defending 
 various parts of the body. 
 
 Q. Does cellular differ from serous or nervous mem- 
 branes ? — A. No, they are all resolvable into the same 
 constituents. 
 
 Q. How does the periosteum differ from the above ? 
 — A. It presents itself in a more condensed form. 
 
 Q. How do capsules of joints differ from common 
 cellidar membrane .' — A. They are a modification of 
 it, under a condensed form. 
 
 Q. In what part of the animal does cellular mem- 
 brane exist in greatest abundance? — A. Immediately 
 beneath the skin ; upon the ribs, and about the breast, 
 and under the jaws, in the scrotum, on the inside of 
 the elbow and thigh. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 17 
 
 " Now in all fatty bodies there are con- 
 tained, on an average : 
 
 " For 120 cq. carbon, only 10 cq. oxj-gen. 
 
 " Since the carbon of the fatty constit- 
 uents of the animal body is derived from 
 the food, seeing that there is no other 
 source from whence it can be derived, it is 
 obvious, if we suppose fat to be formed 
 from albumen, fibrine, or casein, that for 
 every 120 equivalents of carbon deposited 
 as fat, 26 equivalents of oxygen must be 
 separated from the elements of these sub- 
 stances ; and, further, if we conceive fat to 
 be formed from starch, sugar, or sugar of 
 mUk, that for the same amount of carbon 
 there must be separated 90, 100, and 110 
 equivalents of oxygen from these com- 
 pounds respectively. 
 
 " There is therefore but one way in which 
 the formation of fat in the animal body is 
 possible, and this is absolutely the same in 
 which its formation in plants takes place ; 
 
 it is a separation of oxygen from the ele- 
 ments of food." 
 
 OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS. 
 
 THE HOOF.* 
 
 " The hoof is the horny case or covering 
 nature has pro\Tided for the protection of 
 the sensitive parts of the foot. It may be 
 said of itself to constitute such a shoe or 
 defence, as enables the animal in his wild 
 state to travel about in quest of food, not 
 only without injury to the structures under- 
 neath it, but with a degree of elasticity that 
 preserves his whole frame from concussion. 
 Were one forced into any comparison of 
 the sort, it must be admitted that the hoofs 
 of animals bear some anatomical affinity 
 to the human nails, or claws, of other 
 animals ; though they are vastly superior 
 in physiological importance to any such 
 appendages as these. 
 
 * Percivall's Anatomy. 
 
 EXAIVIINATIONS RESUMED. 
 
 ADIPOSE TISSUE. 
 
 Q. What is the fatty matter contained in the adipose 
 cells composed of? — A. Stearine, margarine, and 
 oleine. 
 
 Q. How do they appear when isolated ? — A. The 
 two former are solid, and the latter is fluid. 
 
 Q. How are they preserved in a fluid state in the 
 animal body ? — A. By the ordinary temperature of 
 the body. 
 
 Q. What are the observable differences in color 
 occurring in different parts of the body, and in animals 
 of diverse temperaments ? — A. In some parts of the 
 body it is white, in others it has a yellow tinge ; in 
 animals of IjTnphatic and ner\-ous temperaments it is 
 white; in the sanguine it has somewhat of a red 
 tinge ; in the bilious, it presents a yellow appearance. 
 
 Q. The fat at the ordinary temperature of the li\-ing 
 body being fluid, how is it retained in the fat cells Tvith- 
 out transudation ? — A. The mtervals of the fat cells 
 are traversed by a minute net-work of blood vessels, 
 from wliich they derive their secretion ; and it is prob- 
 ably by the constant moistening of then- walls with a 
 watery fluid, that theu- contents are retained. 
 
 Q. What are uses of the adipose tissue? — A. It is 
 intended to fill up spaces ; fomis a sort of cushion or 
 pad for the support of movable parts. It also acts as 
 a non-conductor of heat, thus preserring the animal 
 temperature ; it serves as a reservoir of combustible 
 
 matter, at the expense of which the respiration may be 
 maintained when other materials are deficient. 
 
 Q. Suppose you desired to fatten a horse or an ox, 
 what method should you adopt ? * — A. I should keep 
 the animal at rest, and furnish him with an abundance 
 of nitrogenized food. 
 
 Q. In what vegetable constituents does nitrogen 
 abound? — A. In vegetable fibrine, albumen, and 
 caseine. 
 
 * Experience teaches us that, in poultry, the maximum of fet is 
 obtained by tying the feet, anil by a medium temperature. These 
 animals in such circumstances may be compared to a plant possessing 
 ia the highest degree tlie power of converting all the food into parts of 
 its own structure. The excess of the constituents of blood forms 
 flesh and other organized tissues, while that of starch, sugar, etc., is 
 converted into fat. When animals are Cittened on food destitute of 
 nitrogen, only certain parts of then- structure increase in size. Thus, 
 in a goose, fattened in the method above aUuded to, the liver becomes 
 three or four times larger than in the same animal, when well fed 
 with free motion, while we cannot say that the organized structure 
 of the liver is thereby increased. The liver of a goose fed in the 
 ordinary way is firm and elastic ; that of the imprisoned animal is 
 soft and spongy. The difference consists in a greater or less expan- 
 sion of its cells which are filled with fat. 
 
 Insome diseases, the starch, sugar.etc., of the food obviously do not 
 undergo the changes which enable them to assist in respiration, and 
 consequently to be converted into fat. Thus, in diabetes mellitus, 
 the starch is only converted into grape sugar, which is expelled 
 from the body without further change. 
 
 In other diseases, as for example in inflammation of the liver, we 
 find the blood loaded with fat and oil ; and in the composition of the 
 bile there is nothing at all inconsistent with the supposition that 
 some of its constituents may be transformed into fat. 
 
18 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 " Form. — Sainbel viewed the foot as 
 'the segment of an oval, opened at the 
 back, and nearly round in front.' To a 
 common observer, the hoof exhibits a conoid 
 form ; the part resting upon the ground 
 being the basis, the vacuity above, the ob- 
 truncated apex. Mr. Bracy Clark asserts 
 that this -view is incorrect, and that the 
 general figure of the hoof is a cylinder, 
 very obliquely truncated upon its ground 
 surface. This he demonstrates in two 
 ways ; either by rolling up a piece of paper 
 into the shape of a cylinder, and afterwards 
 cutting one of its ends in a very slanting 
 direction ; or by taking a carpenter's square, 
 and placing one limb beneath the foot 
 across the quarters, then sloping the other 
 backward against the side of the quarters, 
 parallel to the front, when the edge of the 
 iron will be found parallel to the wall of 
 the hoof. This corrected view of its figure 
 will serve to account for the general equi- 
 formity manifest in the hoof, and also for 
 the undeviating correspondence found to 
 exist between its slope or slant, as well in 
 front as behind, which in an ordinary or 
 healthy foot may be estimated at an angle 
 of 45°. Around the coronet, where the 
 hoof unites with the skin, the cylinder is 
 cut directly across its perpendicular — at 
 right angles with it : it is the oblique trun- 
 cation of its ground-surface that occasions 
 the slant, which latter we may consequently 
 increase at pleasure by any means that 
 augment the former, viz. i by lowering the 
 heels ; by cutting away a prominent frog ; 
 or by putting on thin-heeled shoes. At the 
 same time that we increase the slant of the 
 hoof, we increase the obliquity of the pas- 
 terns, and liliewise proportionately augment 
 the ground-surface of the hoof, from heel to 
 toe, the breadth remaining unaltered ; and 
 in the same ratio, consequently, extend the 
 surface of tread.* 
 
 " Spread. — By the spread, is meant the 
 inclination the hoof manifests, when left 
 unshod, around the toe and sides, to bulge 
 
 * For further elucidation on the cylindrical form of the 
 foot, consult Mr. Bracy Clark's works on the Foot of the 
 Horse. 
 
 or protrude at bottom, whereby its ground- 
 surface becomes augmented, particularly 
 around the outer quarter. To a certain ex- 
 tent tliis is worthy of observation ; although, 
 in my opinion, it is to be regarded rather as 
 an effect of pressure than one of abstract 
 growth. The surface of inclination upon 
 which the horn is produced has no such 
 spread, nor can the hoof itself be said, /row 
 growth alone, to have any such natural ten- 
 dency; but, as it continues to grow and 
 shoot beyond the inner foot that produced 
 it, and to which it was so intimately united, 
 it yields to the pressure of the animal's 
 weight, and bulges or spreads out, and 
 more at the outer side than the inner, in 
 consequence of the pressure tending more 
 in that direction. If we examine a num- 
 ber of hoofs of neglected growth, and con- 
 sequent exuberance and deformity, of va- 
 rious descriptions, we may discover that, 
 in them all, the spread seems to have been 
 the first or incipient deviation from that line 
 of growth viewed as consistent with the 
 health and well-doing of the foot. It is 
 only in the unshod hoof that any spread is 
 found : as soon as the ground-surface comes 
 to be confined by a shoe, pressure can no 
 longer exert its influence to produce such 
 consequences. 
 
 " Mjc. Goodwin aptly observes, that ' to 
 take the form of the hoof correctly, we must 
 strip it of its exuberant or superfluous 
 parts, the same as one would pare the su- 
 perabundant growth off" our own nails. 
 The neglect of this necessary preparative 
 has led to a considerable difl'erence of 
 opinion about the natin-al, healthy, or true 
 form of the ground-surface of the foot. 
 Mx. Bracy Clark, I conceive, has inclined 
 to the side of error in this particular ; 
 though, in the substitution of the cylin- 
 drical for the conical figure of the entire 
 hoof, he has certainly the advantage of 
 other writers. His natural foot is one 
 with great spread to it, much of which 
 the smith would find it necessary to de- 
 prive it of, even on the first shoeing ; and 
 the protuberance of the outer quarter 
 (which Mr. C. points out as an attribute 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 19 
 
 of health) being wholly owing to the spread, 
 will, of course, disappear with the annihi- 
 lation of the spread.' * 
 
 " Although Mr. Goodwin has not here 
 explained what he conceives to be the 
 origin or cause of the spread, it is evident 
 we both concur in viewing it rather as a 
 deviation from health or nature than a cir- 
 cumstance worthy of the consideration it 
 has been accounted of by Mr. Clark. 
 
 " Color. — Hoofs are black or white, or 
 some intermediate shade, or they may ex- 
 hibit a black and white striped or marbly 
 aspect. It is an old observation, and one 
 that passes current among us at the present 
 day, that black or dark-shaded hoofs pos- 
 sess greater strength and durability, and 
 indicate less proneness in the feet to dis- 
 ease, than such as are composed of white 
 or striped horn. The rationale of which 
 appears to be, that white horn (the same as 
 white hair) is the product of parts weaker 
 by nature than such as produce dark or 
 black horn, and, being weaker, consequently 
 are more liable to disease, less able to resist 
 those impressions that tend to disorder. 
 White hoofs are more porous than black 
 ones, and consequently absorb moisture and 
 lose it again by evaporation with more fa- 
 cility : a fact tlfet may probably aid us in 
 accounting for the failures attributed to 
 them. 
 
 '■'■Magnitude. — It requires no veterinary 
 skill to discover any very material dispro- 
 portion in the magnitude of the foot : it 
 wUl strike us at once as being large or 
 small, in comparison to the limb or the size 
 of the animal. A foot of any description 
 that is out of proportion is to the horse 
 possessing it more or less objectionable : 
 but, for all that, these out-of-proportion feet, 
 abstractedly considered, have their advan- 
 tages as well a& their disadvantages. Sain- 
 bel tells us, that a large wide hoof, by ex- 
 tending the surface of tread, ' will increase 
 the stability and firmness of the fabric ; ' 
 but then, he adds, ' this partial advantage 
 grows into an evil when it becomes applied 
 
 * Goodwin's New System of Shoeing, edit, second, 
 page 33. 
 
 to a body capable of translation, and con- 
 sidered in a state of actual motion; be- 
 cause, then, the mass and weight of the 
 foot overburthen the muscles of the ex- 
 tremity.' And because, I would add, the 
 surfaces of contact being greater, the attrac- 
 tion of cohesion becomes greater, and so 
 much the more muscular force is required 
 to raise the foot (particularly in moist 
 ground) from the earth. Besides which, a 
 large foot is apt to become objectionable 
 from its striliing, during action, the opposite 
 leg. On the other hand, it is contended, 
 that a large foot will not sink so deep into 
 soft ground as a small one, and conse- 
 quently will not demand so great an effort 
 of strength to draw it out. This is an 
 argument, however, that can only hold good 
 under the supposition, that in both cases 
 the muscular strength is equal, which we 
 know but rarely to happen, — in general, 
 broad or flat-footed horses possessing supe- 
 rior strength ; small, nan'ow-footed ones, 
 superior speed. There cannot be a doubt 
 about a large foot being unfavorable for 
 speed, a small one for stability; neither 
 one nor the other can be indiscriminately 
 found fault with ; both within certain limits 
 possess their respective advantages ; though 
 to turn out as such, they each of them re- 
 quire to be combined with suitable confor- 
 mation and action. 
 
 " Large bulky hoofs are found to be 
 mechanically weaker than others, in conse- 
 quence of being composed of a thin, soft, 
 porous description of horn. Sainbel ascribes 
 all this to ' a relaxation of the fibres com- 
 posing the hoof: in which case, the diame- 
 ters of the vessels are increased, the porosi- 
 ties are multiplied, and the fluids abound 
 in them in too great quantities ; conse- 
 quently this kind of foot is soft, tender, and 
 sensible.' Small feet, on the contrary, in 
 general possess a close -woven horn, thick 
 in substance, and consequently prove strong: 
 they are rather oval than circular in figure, 
 with great depth of substance, and are 
 found to be of a durable nature. ' In feet 
 of this description,' says Sainbel, ' from the 
 too close union and too close tension of 
 
20 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 their fibres, the vessels destined to conduct 
 the nutritious fluid are contracted and 
 obliterated ; whence proceeds that dryness 
 of the part which renders the horn brittle 
 and liable to split.' * 
 
 " Division. — To the common observer 
 the hoof appears to consist of one entire 
 or indivisible case ; but the anatomist finds, 
 by subjecting it to maceration, or coction, 
 or even to putrefaction, that it resolves 
 itself into three separate pieces : still, so 
 long as the hoof maintains its integrity, 
 such is the force of cohesion existing be- 
 tween these three parts, that we as easily 
 rend it in any other place as dissever one 
 of its jointures. These constituent parts 
 are the wall, the sole, and the frog: 
 
 THE AVALL. 
 
 " The wall or crust is the part of the 
 hoof which is visible while the foot stands 
 upon the ground. It forms a circular 
 boundary wall or fence inclosing the inter- 
 nal structures. On taking up the foot, we 
 find the wall prominent all round beyond 
 the other parts, making the first impression 
 upon the ground, and evidently taking the 
 largest share of bearing. It is the part to 
 which the shoe is nailed. It is, in fact, the 
 most important division of the hoof; ap- 
 pearing to form (in the words of Mr. Clark) 
 'the basis or first principle in the mechan- 
 ism of the hoof, the other parts being all 
 subordinate to this.' 
 
 " Situations and Relations. — The wall 
 takes its beginning at the coronet, from the 
 terminating circular border of the skin, 
 with which it is intimately united ; their 
 line of union being concealed by a row of 
 overhanging hairs. From the coronet the 
 wall descends in an oblique direction to 
 the bottom of the foot, where it em- 
 braces the sole, and terminates in a cir- 
 cular projecting border. The anterior and 
 lateral parts of the hoof are formed entirely 
 by the wall ; but at the posterior part, in- 
 stead of the heels of the wall being con- 
 tinued one into the other so as to complete 
 the circle, they become inflected, first down- 
 
 * Sainbel's Lectures on the Elements of Farriery. 
 
 ward, afterwards forward and inward, and 
 are elongated in the latter direction untU 
 they reach the centre of the bottom of the 
 foot, where they terminate: these inflec- 
 tions or processes of the wall constitute the 
 bars. Altogether, the wall may be said to 
 form about two-thirds of the entire hoof. 
 
 " Connection. — Superiorly, around the . 
 coronet, the waU is united with the sldin; 
 interiorly, within its circumferent border, 
 with the sole ; posteriorly, between its heels, 
 with the heels of the frog; interiorly, be- 
 tween the bars, with the sides of the frog ; 
 and internally, with the sensitive laminEB. 
 Let us now consider the waU in its detached 
 or separate state. 
 
 " Figure. — That of a hollow cylinder, 
 having the sides presented to the ground cut 
 much aslant, and whose circle exhibits a 
 hiatus or deficiency behind, from the latetEil 
 boundaries of which issue two narrow pro- 
 cesses or appendages. Taking a lateral 
 view, the wall assumes a conical shape, 
 being broad and deep in front, and gradually 
 narrowing as it stretches backward. 
 
 '■^Division. — For facility of reference, and 
 in aid of our descriptions, we distinguish 
 in the wall. First, the toe; secondly, the 
 quarters; thirdly, the heels; fourthly, the 
 superior or coronary bordevg fifthly, the in- 
 ferior or solar border ; sixthly, the lamincB 
 or lamellcB; lastly, the bars or appendages. 
 
 " The Toe forms the bow or front of the 
 hoof, and comprehends about two-thirds of 
 the superfices of the waU. It is the deep- 
 est, broadest, and thickest part of the wall ; 
 for reasons that wUl appear hereafter. It 
 exhibits a degree of slant about equal, nat- 
 urally, to an angle of forty-five degrees; 
 though there are variations from this which 
 (as was explained before) will be found, in 
 a measiure, to be dependent upon the oblique 
 truncation of the cylinder. When we come 
 to understand the physiology of this part, 
 however, a more operative and efficient 
 cause for this variation wUl be found in the 
 weight the wall has to sustain, and in its 
 own mechanical strength or force of resist- 
 ance : on which principle it is that light 
 horses, thorough-breds, and ponies, as well 
 

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE III. 
 
 MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 o". Trapezius. 
 
 6. Rhomboideus longus. 
 
 c". Scalenus; and Z. Splenius. 
 
 e". Pectoralis par\-us. 
 
 y". Antea spinatus. 
 
 g". Postea spinatus. 
 
 a and D. Serratus magnus. 
 
 6'. Intercostales. 
 
 c'. ObUquus externus abdominis. 
 
 d'. ObUquus internus abdominis. 
 
 e'. Erector coccygis. 
 
 f. Depressor coccygis. 
 
 g': Compressor coccygis. 
 
 K. i'. Gluteii muscles. J'. Triceps abductors. 
 
 K.. Biceps abductor femoris. 
 
 m\ Tensor vaginae. 
 
 n'. Rectus. 
 
 o'. Vastus externus. 
 
 r". s'. Gastrocnemius externus, and plantaris. 
 
 »'. Flexor pedis accessorius ; its fleshy belly. 
 
 y\ Peroneus. 
 
 x\ Extensor pedis. 
 
 7»". Teres major. 
 
 i". Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 J. Pectoralis magnus. 
 
 K. Humero cubital. (Pectoral region.) 
 
 V. Scapulo-ulnaris. 
 
 m". n". Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 o". Pectoralis transversalis. 
 
 p". Flexor metacarpi, externus. 
 
 u. V. Levator humeri, and Sterno maxillaris. 
 
 s". Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 x". Extensor pedis. 
 
 At the inferior part of the abdomen the letter h. occurs; it should be 4. 4 
 
 The subcutaneous thoracic vein A., hdwever, serves to indicate the region of 
 
 the rectus abdominalis. 
 
 7. The sheath. 
 
 *. Ligamentum colli. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 21 
 
 belonging to the inner part, which is the 
 beginning of the wall itself; the external 
 edge to the white band by which the other 
 is embraced, and to which Mr. Clark has in 
 particular drawn our attention, under the 
 appellation of Coronary Frog-band. This 
 covers the proper or veritable coronary bor- 
 der of the hoof; having, tlnrough its fibres, 
 which are very fine, a sort of dove-tailed 
 connection with it. As it recedes backward, 
 it grows broader to that degree, that its 
 breadth at length becomes doubled ; being 
 about half an inch broad in front, and one 
 inch behind. It is thickest around its mid- 
 dle parts ; its inferior edge, like the superior, 
 becoming attenuated, until it grows so fine 
 as to end in imperceptible union with the 
 substance of the wall, giving it its beauti- 
 fully polished surface : from the heat, how- 
 ever, to which the hoof is artificially exposed, 
 the thin part below the coronet often grows 
 arid, splits from the crust, and becomes 
 everted ; turning, at the same time, in con- 
 sequence of dryness, of a whitish complex- 
 ion. Posteriorly, we find it continued round 
 the heels of the wall and frog, and from 
 thence across the back of the cleft, forming 
 altogether a complete circle, and everywhere 
 showing itself to be the medium of connec- 
 tion between the skin and the hoof. It has 
 been already stated that the cutis terminates 
 in a circular border, let into a groove around 
 the summit of the wall : the cuticle, how- 
 ever, does not end here — it is continued 
 down; in fact, we trace it to the horny 
 band we have been describing, the one being 
 continuous in substance with the other. In- 
 deed, the only detectible diflferences in them 
 are, that one is thicker than the other, and 
 grows hard, and dry, and white, from the 
 effects of heat upon it from without, and 
 the want of moisture from within. This 
 cuticular origin and assimilation may be 
 demonstrated in the putrefied foot ; or, bet- 
 ter still, in the foot of the foetus. The band 
 is broader at the heels than elsewhere, in con- 
 sequence of the greater breadth of exposed 
 cutis at those parts. In its texture it is 
 fibrous, and its fibres pursue the same direc- 
 tion as those of the wall, from which they 
 
 differ only in being of a finer texture. Mr. 
 Bracy Clark appears to entertain some sin- 
 gular notions in regard to the structure, but 
 more particularly the uses, of this part; 
 which, in the respect I bear for their author, 
 I shall consider, when the time may arrive 
 for me to treat of the physiology of the 
 foot. 
 
 " The Inferior or Solar Border offers but 
 little worthy of observation. It constitutes 
 the ground or wearing surface of the wall, 
 and is the part to wliich we nail the shoe. 
 It grows thicker and more exuberant around 
 the toe than in other places, and, from its pro- 
 jecting beyond the sole, presents a conven- 
 ient and suitable hold for the naUs of the 
 shoe. Around the anterior and lateral parts, 
 it embraces the sole ; behind, it joins the 
 bars, which two points of union form two 
 principal bearing places for the shoe. The 
 inferior border possesses a larger circumfer- 
 ence than the superior, in consequence of 
 the oblique detruncation of the hoof. 
 
 " This is a part that requires paring down 
 every time the horse is shod. Such is its 
 exuberating nature, that (like the human 
 nail), were it not continually kept worn 
 down, or broken, or cut off, it would elon- 
 gate very considerably, and gradually turn 
 up, exliibiting forms not only of the most 
 unsightly but even grotesque description, 
 and proving incommodious to a degree to 
 be almost entirely destructive of progres- 
 sion. 
 
 " The LamincB (better named lamellts) 
 consist of numerous narrow^ thin plates or 
 processes, arranged with the nicest order 
 and mathematical precision upon the inter- 
 nal surface of the wall. They extend, in 
 uniform parallels, in a perpendicular direc- 
 tion from the lower edge of the superior 
 border down to the line of junction of the 
 wall with the sole ; and are so thickly set 
 that no part of the superfices remains un- 
 occupied by them. They are likewise con- 
 tinued upon the surfaces of the bars. In 
 the recent subject they are found soft, yield- 
 ing, and elastic; but from exposure they 
 become dry and rigid. 
 
 " Every lamellEe exhibits two edges and 
 
22 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 as mules and asses, have vpright or strong- 
 feet (i. e.), walls but moderately sloped; 
 whereas heavy horses, cart-horses, and 
 coach-horses, have commonly flat or weak 
 feet (i. e.), walls that slant immoderately. 
 And (as was before observed) upon the 
 degree of obliquity of the wall must very 
 much depend that of the pasterns. In esti- 
 mating the slant or slope of the wall, it is 
 proper to distinguish between that which is 
 consequent on the detruncation of the hoof, 
 and such as is the effect of a biu-then under 
 which the wall succumbs. The depth of 
 horn in front of the toe, measuring from the 
 termination of the sldn to the most promi- 
 nent point below (and supposing the hoof 
 to be cut and ready to receive the shoe), 
 may be rated at about three and a half 
 inches. The bow or degree of convexity 
 of the toe in front must depend upon its 
 obliquity as well as upon the circularity of 
 the foot. The thickness of the horn com- 
 posing the toe may be estimated at three- 
 eighths of an inch, or from that to half an 
 inch, and this substance is the same from 
 immediately beneath the coronary circle to 
 the junction of the wall with the sole ; at 
 which part there is an accession of horny 
 matter to block up the interstices between 
 the laminffi, and also to fill the angular 
 vacuity that would otherwise exist here 
 between the wall and sole. In the fore-feet, 
 the toe is thicker in substance than either 
 the quarters or heels ; but (we have it from 
 Sainbel) ' in the hind, on the contrary, the 
 heels and quarters are generally thicker than 
 the toe.' 
 
 " The Quarters are the portions of the 
 wall intermediate between the toe and the 
 heels. They are commonly described as 
 standing vpright, and, according to a car- 
 penter's square set against the wall, so they 
 appear to do ; this is not, however, the view 
 the anatomist ought "to take of their posi- 
 tion : to him the oblique course of their 
 component fibres, together with the slant of 
 their laminae, demonstrate that they slope 
 in the same manner and degree as the toe 
 does. The quarters do not run in straight 
 lines from before backward, but by their 
 
 prominence describe gentle curves, the outer 
 making a wider sweep than the inner. 
 This gives the hoof altogether a sort of 
 twisted appearance, and makes the inner 
 part of the toe look more projecting than 
 the outer; a deviation that seems principally 
 to have originated in the spread, and one, 
 methinks, that has had more attention given 
 it than any consequences attachable to it 
 render it deserving of. The quarters range 
 in depth from two to three inches; and 
 measure in thickness from one-fourth to 
 three-eighths of an inch. 
 
 " The Heels are the two protuberant por- 
 tions of the wall by which it is terminated 
 posteriorly. They are the shallowest, and 
 thinnest, and {in connection) only flexible 
 parts of the wall. Though their surfaces 
 recede from the perpendicular, they main- 
 tain the same slope as the toe and quarters. 
 At their angles of inflection, from which 
 are continued the bars, they form (in con- 
 junction with the heels of the sole) pouches 
 or sockets into which are received the heels 
 of the sensitive foot. In depth they range 
 from one and a half to two inches. In sub- 
 stance they do not exceed a quarter of an 
 inch, the outer heel being rather thicker than 
 the inner. 
 
 " The Superior or Coronary Border is the 
 circular, attenuated, concavo-convex part 
 entering into the composition of the coronet. 
 Its extent is marked exteriorly by the whitish 
 aspect it exhibits, and also by some partial 
 separation and eversion of the outer flakes 
 of horn around its junction with the wall 
 below. Externally, it assumes the same 
 character as the wall below it ; but its in- 
 ternal surface is altogether different. In- 
 stead of possessing laminae, the surface is 
 smooth and uniformly excavated, being 
 moulded to the form of the sensitive coro- 
 net, and everywhere presenting numerous 
 pores for the purpose of receiving the secret- 
 ing villi. Superiorly, the coronary border 
 presents two edges, having a groove be- 
 tween them for the reception of the termi- 
 nating border of the cutis. It is this groove 
 that marks the reception of the coronary 
 border into two parts: the internal edge 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 23 
 
 two surfaces. By one edge it grows to the 
 wall ; the other, which is somewhat attenu- 
 ated, hangs loose and floating within the 
 cavity of the hoof. The surfaces, which are 
 two lateral, are smooth, and, considering 
 the magnitude of the lamella itself, of enor- 
 mous extent ; so much so that it might be 
 said almost to be constituted entirely of 
 superficies. And this leads us to the con- 
 templation of the great and magniiicent 
 design which Nature evidently had in view 
 in their formation, viz., the production of 
 ample surface mthin a small space, an end 
 that has been obtained tlirough the means 
 of multiplication. Mr. Bracy Clark pro- 
 cured fi'om the late Thos. Evans, L.L. D., 
 mathematical teacher of Christ's Hos- 
 pital, a calculation of what their united 
 superficies amounted to ; and it appeared 
 to aflbrd an increase of actual surface more 
 than the simple internal area of the hoof 
 would give of about twelve times, or about 
 212 square inches, or nearly one square foot 
 and a half. 
 
 " The lamellae exhibit no differences but 
 in their dimensions. In length they corres- 
 pond to the respective depths of the wall ; 
 being longest, and likewise broadest, around 
 the toe, and gradually decreasing towards 
 the liinder parts. 
 
 " In composition they are horny. Viewed 
 through a microscope, ]\Ir. Clark discovered 
 in their substance two planes of fibres, ' the 
 one running in parallel lines to the axis of 
 the hoof, the other obliquely intersecting 
 these.' When stretched, they exhibit signs 
 of elasticity ; but this appears greater in 
 the transverse than in the perpendicular 
 direction. 
 
 " By means of its lamellae, the wall 
 presents a superficies of extraordinary am- 
 plitude for the attachment of the cofiin- 
 bone. A structure consisting of similarly 
 formed lamellae envelops the bone, and these 
 are dovetailed in such a manner wdth the 
 horny lamellae, as to complete a union 
 which, for concentrated strength, combinin 
 elasticity, may vie with any piece of animal 
 mechanism at present known to us. 
 
 " TJie Bars are processes of the wall, in 
 
 fleeted from its heels obliquely across the 
 bottom of the foot. For a long time, by 
 farriers, they were confounded with the sub- 
 stance of the sole, an error that owed its 
 origin and perpetuation to the malpractice 
 they exercised in paring the foot — in cut- 
 ting both bars and sole down, without any 
 distinction, to a common level. In the 
 natural healthy foot the bars appear, exter- 
 nally, as elongated sharpened prominences, 
 extending from the bases of the heels into 
 the centre of the foot, between the sole and 
 the frog ; posteriorly, they are continuous 
 in substance with the wall, with which they 
 form acute angles ; anteriorly, they stretch 
 as far as the point of the frog, constituting 
 two inner walls or lateral fences between 
 that body and the sole. Sainbel conceives, 
 from their position, that they offer resistance 
 to the conti'action of the heels. Their in- 
 ternal surfaces exhibit rows of lamellEe, 
 continued from those lining the wall, but 
 which are here shoi't, and in their direction 
 transverse, two circumstances referable to 
 the narrowness and inflection of the bar. 
 Towards the extremity of the bar they 
 gradually grow shorter, and less distinctly 
 marked, until we at length lose aU vestige 
 of any more of them. While the promi- 
 nence of the bars is such as to give them a 
 secondary bearing upon the ground, their 
 sharpened forms wiU sinlt them more or 
 less deeply into every impressible surface. 
 
 " THE SOLE. 
 
 " The sole is the arched plate entering 
 into the formation (as its name implies) of 
 the bottom of the hoof: or, to adopt Sain- 
 bel's definition, ' it is that part which covers 
 the whole inferior surface of the foot, ex- 
 cepting the frog.' It is a very just practical 
 observation of Mr. Coleman's, that although 
 a knowledge of every part of the foot is in- 
 dispensably necessary to render us scientific 
 overseers of the farrier's art, no individual 
 part requires such undivided attention, as 
 regards shoeing, as the sole, since the suc- 
 cess of this mechanical operation mainly 
 depends on the paring and defence of this 
 arched horny plate. 
 
24 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 " Situation and Connection. — It fills up 
 the interspaces between the outer and inner 
 walls (or bars) of the crust. I differ in 
 opinion from those who describe it to sur- 
 round the toe of the frog. I hold its circum- 
 ferent support and connection to be the wall 
 of the hoof, to which it is firmly cemented 
 by an interstitial horny matter, filling the 
 crevices between the laminEe. 
 
 " Figure. — The circumferent outline of 
 the sole meastires about two-thirds of a cir- 
 cle, the remaining third being omitted to 
 form a triangular-shaped hiatus or opening 
 for the reception of the frog and bars. This 
 circular form, however, is by no means true, 
 or even invariably the same, in its dimen- 
 sions. Generally, the longitudinal exceeds 
 the transverse diameter. Its greatest diam- 
 eter is shown by a line extended from either 
 heel across its middle to the opposite point 
 of the toe. 
 
 " Arch. — Commonly, the sole presents 
 an arch of more or less concavity inferiorly, 
 and convexity superiorly. But it is not a 
 regular or uniform arch, being one that 
 rather waves or undulates, so as to bear a 
 comparison, made of it by Mr. Clark, ' to 
 the mouth of a bell extremely extended or 
 flattened.' Like that of the bell, the arch 
 is highest in the middle, from which it 
 slopes, laterally, down to a flat, subsequently 
 to rise again around its border, in order to 
 present a dilated surface for attachment 
 towards the wall. There is, however, vast 
 variety in the degree of arch of the sole : in 
 some feet it is of surprising depth; in 
 others, the arch is converted into a flattened 
 svirface ; and yet both seem to perform 
 equally well. In the hind feet the sole is 
 generally more arched than in the fore, and 
 approaches in figure nearer to the oval than 
 the circle. 
 
 " Division. — In the sole we distinguish 
 an anterior part or toe ; a middle or central 
 part ; two points or heels ; and two surfaces. 
 These divisions are not very well defined : 
 but they prove serviceable in aid of our de- 
 scriptions. The toe of the sole is the part 
 encircled by the toe of the wall, against 
 which it abuts, and to which it is intimately 
 
 united by horny matter, the two together 
 forming a stout bulwark of defence to those 
 parts of the internal foot included between 
 them. The points or heels are the two pos- 
 terior salient angles received into the angu- 
 lar intervals between the outer and inner 
 walls or bars. Although naturally the 
 least exposed, these are the parts most sub- 
 ject to injury or pressure from the shoe, 
 being the seat of that disease mistakenly 
 called corn. The middle or centre of the 
 sole is the portion more immediately sur- 
 rounding the fore parts of the frog, and 
 would (were the sole a regular arch) be the 
 most elevated part ; but, in general, we find 
 the sole flattened hereabouts ; the highest 
 parts of the arch being the angles alongside 
 of the bars; the lowermost, those around 
 the toe. 
 
 " Surfaces. — Of the surfaces, the supe- 
 rior (as was mentioned before) is unevenly 
 convex ; the inferior, correspondently con- 
 cave. The former is everywhere pitted, 
 particularly about the heels, with numerous 
 circular pores, running in an oblique direc- 
 tion, the marks of which remain evident 
 upon the inferior smrface likewise. These 
 pores are the impressions made in the soft 
 horn by the villi of the sensitive sole, from 
 whose orifices the horny matter is produced. 
 They also form the bond of union between 
 the horny and the sensitive soles : wliich is 
 of a nature so strong and resisting, that it 
 requires the whole strength of a man's arm 
 to effect their separation — an operation of 
 a cruel description that was wont to be 
 practised in times past, under th& fallacious 
 notion that ' drawing the sole ' was extir- 
 pating the malady. 
 
 " Thickness. — The natural thickness of 
 the sole may be estimated at about one- 
 sLxth of an inch. There will be found, 
 however, variations from this standard in 
 different horses ; and it will also very much 
 depend on the part selected for measure- 
 ment. The portion of the sole most ele- 
 vated from the ground — that which forms 
 a union with the bars — is nearly double 
 the thickness of the central or circumferent 
 parts ; and next to this, in substance, comes 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 25 
 
 the heel. I do not find that the sole ' grows 
 thinner from the circumference to the 
 centre,' as has been stated by an author 
 of celebrity. 
 
 'THE FROG. 
 
 " The frog is the prominent, triangular, 
 spongy body, occupying the chasm left by 
 the inflection of the bars. 
 
 " Situation and Connection. — The frog 
 is fitted into the interval between the bars ; 
 the three, altogether, filling up the vacuity 
 in the sole, and thereby completing the 
 circle, and estabhshing the solidungulous 
 character of the foot. The frog extends 
 forward, towards the toe, about two-thirds 
 of the longitudinal diameter of the ground- 
 surface of the hoof, terminating a little be- 
 yond the central point (or what would be 
 the central point) of the sole — or rather 
 shooting directly through it, so as to anni- 
 hilate the spot. Posteriorly, it is embraced 
 by the heels of the wall; laterally, it pos- 
 sesses firm and solid junctions with the 
 bars, and through their medium with the 
 sole : and these unions are effected not by 
 simple apposition and cohesion of surface, 
 but by a lamellated structure, apparent on 
 the sides both of the frog and bars, by which 
 the parts are reciprocally dovetailed into 
 each other. LameUse are discoverable upon 
 its sides, even all round the toe of the frog ; 
 and this is a circumstance that confirms me 
 in my belief that the bars reach thus far. 
 
 " Figure. — The fi-og may be called pyra- 
 midal, or cuneiform, or triangular in figure; 
 its outline forming the geometrical figure 
 denominated an isosceles triangle. I know 
 of no comparison so familiarly apt as that 
 of resembling it to a ploughshare : not only 
 do they both correspond, as near as such 
 comparisons can be expected to do, in out- 
 line and make, but they likewise exhibit a 
 singular coincidence in function ; the frog, 
 like the ploughshare, being intended by its 
 point to plough or divide the surface of the 
 earth, and in that manner serve as a stay or 
 stop to the foot. 
 
 " Division. — We distinguish in the frog 
 two surfaces, an inferior and a superior; 
 
 two sides ; a point or toe ; and two bulbs or 
 heels. 
 
 '■'■Surfaces. — Both surfaces of the frog 
 manifest striking irregularities, and these 
 are respectively reversed, making one sur- 
 face the exact counterpart of the other. In 
 other respects, the only difference they ex- 
 liibit, is, that the superior exceeds the in- 
 ferior both in length and breadth. 
 
 " The inferior sm-face presents to our 
 view a remarkable cavity, broad, deep, and 
 triangular in its shape, bounded on the 
 sides by two sloping prominences, which 
 divaricate from the convexity forming the 
 toe of the frog, and terminate, after a short 
 divergent course, at the heels. This cavity 
 or hollow is denominated 
 
 " The Cleft of the Frog: with seeming 
 reference to the relationship existing, 
 through its presence, between the horse's 
 foot and the cloven one of the ox, deer, 
 sheep, etc. In consequence of its sides 
 sloping inward, the cleft at bottom gapes 
 wide open ; but along the top is roofed by 
 a simple linear mark running from before 
 backward. The horn is kept continually 
 soft and pliant within the cleft by a pecu- 
 liar secretion from the sensitive parts it 
 covers, the odor of which is notorious. 
 
 " The solid wedge-like portion of horn 
 in front of the cleft, extending from it to 
 the point of the toe, has been observed by 
 Mr. Clark to exhibit, in the natural foot at 
 its fuU growth, ' a considerable bulbous en- 
 largement,' which, by way of distinction, 
 he caUs the cushion of the frog. On making 
 a perpendicular section of the foot, Mr. C. 
 finds tliis part is situated ' nearly opposite 
 or under the navicular bone.' And it would 
 appear (according to tliis author) that this 
 'rotundity, or swell of the frog,' is never 
 reproduced after it has once been annihi- 
 lated by the knife of the smith. 
 
 " The superior surface of the frog, every- 
 where continuous, uniform, and porous, 
 b^ng the counterpart in form of the infe- 
 rior, presents us with nothing but reverses : 
 where the one is hoUow or depressed the 
 other rises into swells and eminences, and 
 vice versa. ■ This accounts for our finding 
 
26 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 the part opposite to the cleft elevated into 
 a conspicuous eminence, bounded on its 
 sides by two deep channels, and a hollow 
 of broader but shallower dimensions in the 
 front. To this central conical elevation 
 Mr. Clark has given the name of frog-stay, 
 from some novel notions he entertains of its 
 physiology. Such a bold promontory of 
 horn rising in the middle of broad and 
 deep channels is well calculated to form 
 that dovetailed sort of connection with the 
 sensitive foot, which greatly augments their 
 surfaces of apposition, and establishes their 
 union beyond all risk or possibility of dislo- 
 cation. It is a part which (as far as my 
 observations on it have extended) grows 
 and becomes developed together with other 
 parts of the foot ; and one that is apt to 
 vary in its relative volume in different feet. 
 In front of the frog-stay, the lateral borders, 
 bounding the hollow in the middle, describe 
 a waving line, which, near half-way to the 
 point of the toe, exhibits a dip or impres- 
 sion : this marks the impression of the 
 navicular bone, and is the part immediately 
 opposite to the ' cushion of the frog,' — a 
 coincidence important to be borne in mind, 
 as tending to throw some light on the na- 
 ture of this new-christened structure.* 
 
 " The Sides are the parts by which the 
 frog establishes its union with the borders 
 of the triangular vacuity in the hoof into 
 which it is admitted. Along their superior 
 borders they are transversely lamellated, or 
 rather indentated, in order that they may be 
 fitted to the internal surfaces of the bars, 
 which exhibit a similar structure. 
 
 " The Commissures are the two deep 
 triangular-shaped hollows between the bars 
 and the sides of the frog. It being only 
 the superior borders of these parts that are 
 engaged in their union, their broad, unat- 
 tached parts, below, form the boundary 
 walls of the commissures. Looking into 
 the interior of the hoof, we discover that 
 the commissures, internally, are converted 
 into rounded promontories, similar in ap- 
 
 * In fact, the cushion of the frog appears to be nothing 
 more than a bulge of the part produced by the superin- 
 cumbent pressure of the navicular bone. 
 
 pearance and texture to the one in the mid- 
 dle — the frog-stay — on the sides of which 
 they are rising. In the natural state, 
 the commissures must unavoidably get 
 plugged with dnt, or whatever the animal 
 may happen to tread upon ; a circumstance 
 from which some far-fetched notions have 
 been extracted concerning their use. 
 
 " The Toe or point of the frog is the ante- 
 rior, undivided, elongated portion; that which 
 forms the apex of the pyramid or wedge — 
 the acute or extended angle of the triangle 
 — the only part displaying that prominent 
 or rounded form that would warrant us in 
 using the epithet ' conical ' to the frog. It 
 possesses solidity of substance, firmness of 
 texture, and luxuriance of growth in an 
 eminent degree ; facts well known to the 
 farrier, who, in paring the foot, seldom fails 
 to make more free with this than any other 
 part of the frog. 
 
 " The Heels or bulbs of the frog are the 
 posterior protuberant parts embraced by the 
 heels of the wall, and separated from each 
 other by the cleft, forming, together, the 
 base of the wedge or triangle. They pre- 
 sent greater depth of substance than the 
 toe, but are of a softer, more spongy tex- 
 ture, and are less resisting and stable, in 
 consequence of being deprived of mutual 
 support by the division of the cleft. Ante- 
 riorly, the heels unite with the lateral promi- 
 nences bounding the cleft ; interiorly, they 
 present two surfaces of tread to the ground, 
 eivdently designed to take a share in the 
 bearing of the foot ; posteriorly and supe- 
 riorly, they exhibit a bulbous fulness, in 
 consequence of receiving at this part a sup- 
 plementary covering from a production 
 which has been (in the description of the 
 wall) adverted to, under the appellation 
 given it by Mr. Clark, of 
 
 " Coronary Frog-band. — It was there 
 stated, that the coronary groove (the groove 
 or canal in the coronary border of the cutis) 
 broadened considerably as it descended to 
 and turned round upon the heels ; in like 
 manner does the horny band produced by 
 it broaden, and not only grow broader but 
 thicker in substance, and consequently in 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 27 
 
 the same degree augments the substance of 
 the heels, occasioning that swell of them 
 which has suggested the appellation ' bulb.' 
 The horny band itself is everywhere lamel- 
 lated upon its internal surface ; but these 
 broadened parts of it display lamellae of a 
 much bolder character, and consequently 
 render their union with the heels so much 
 the more intimate and enduring. The in- 
 ferior edge of the band is denticulated, and 
 the denticulations become so interlaced 
 with the lamellated fibres of the wall, that 
 their union is rendered, in the ordinary 
 state of the hoof, altogether imperceptible. 
 For drawing our attention to this part-, we 
 are indebted to Mr. Clark ; and, insomuch 
 as he considers it to be a production of the 
 cutis (not having any connection with the 
 glandular circle that secretes the wall), and 
 to serve the purpose of ' uniting the sensible 
 parts with the insensible,' I agree with him. 
 I find something very similar to this grow- 
 ing upon the human nail, issuing from the 
 superior edge of the terminating border of 
 the cutis, and continued from the cuticle, 
 which proceeds for some way upon the naU, 
 uniting it more closely and firmly with the 
 cutis, and protecting the latter from exter- 
 nal injury. This production is no more the 
 beginning of the nail itself than is the so- 
 called /rog'-band the commencement of the 
 wall : they are both distinct parts, though 
 but supplementary ones, and seem to be of 
 a nature partaking both of horn and cuti- 
 cle. It has no more important relation to 
 the frog, in my opinion, than it has to the 
 wall : it serves the same piirpose to both, 
 — that of strapping up the heels of the 
 frog and binding them in closer and more 
 intimate connection with the neighboring 
 parts. Were I asked what other use it ap- 
 peared to have, I should say, that it was 
 formed to cover and protect from injury the 
 new-formed horn of the hoof, guarding it in 
 its passage downward, until it has acquired 
 substance and hardness sufficient to resist 
 external impressions of itself. 
 
 "development of the hoof. 
 " During the early months of fcEtality, no 
 
 horn or hoof is to be found. The foot is 
 covered with a substance, white, firm, and 
 elastic, resembling cartilage in its appear- 
 ance, but proving more of the nature of 
 cuticle on examination, which supplies the 
 place of hoof. At the coronet this substance 
 takes its origin from the cutis, being found 
 to be continuous with the cuticle ; but that 
 which covers the bottom of the foot is a 
 production from the sensitive sole and frog. 
 Altogether, it possesses the general form 
 and appearance of the hoof, differing how- 
 ever in these particulars — that the sub- 
 stitute for the wall is comparatively thin in 
 its substance ; while that which grows from 
 the bottom of the foot is enormously thick, 
 and, instead of being shaped into sole and 
 frog, exuberates to a degree to constitute 
 club-footedness. About the same period 
 at which the pastern and coffin-bones take 
 on ossification, horn makes its appearance 
 underneath this cuticular wall, in the form 
 of plates descending from the coronet, ex- 
 liibiting with peculiar distinctness the lamel- 
 lated structure. The horny wall becomes 
 considerably advanced before we perceive 
 any change in the bottom of the foot. At 
 length, horn is detected forming underneath 
 the cuticular substance, which, increasing in 
 thickness, gradually represents sole and frog. 
 Not, however, in an undeveloped state ; for 
 even at birth these parts are yet concealed 
 by the exuberant cuticular covering, now 
 become loose in its textiue, and shaggy and 
 ragged, in consequence of not receiving any 
 further supply from the parts that produced 
 it, and of being near its decadence ; for it 
 not long after falls off, disclosing sole and 
 frog both ready formed. 
 
 "structure of the hoof. 
 " Horn is found to differ in its texture or 
 quality, not only in the many animals in 
 which it is met with, but in different parts, 
 and even in the same part of the body of 
 the same animal. That which composes 
 the hoof of the horse is a remarkable ex- 
 ample of this. How different is the horn 
 of the frog from the horn of the wall ; and 
 yet neither of them agree in texture with 
 
28 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 the sole. The horny substance of the wall 
 is resolvable into fibres, bearing a resem- 
 blance to thick or coarse hairs, wliich in the 
 entire hoof are so intimately matted and 
 glued together, as to have the appearance 
 and strength of solidity. By close and ac- 
 curate inspection these fibres may be seen 
 descending in parallel lines, taking the 
 obliquity of the wall, from the coronet to 
 the inferior or solar border ; they do not run 
 promiscuously, but are arranged in rows, 
 forming sorts of beds or strata, lying one 
 upon another — a disposition made manifest 
 in the foot of the fcetus. A clean-cut trans- 
 verse section of the wall exhibits upon its 
 surface numerous minute, circular, whitish 
 spots, which grow larger and more distinct 
 towards the internal part, and through a 
 glass appear to be hollow or tubular. 
 These spots I take to be produced by sec- 
 tions of the horny tubes, apparently contain- 
 ing a whitish matter, a sort of pith, or pulp, 
 or gelatinous instillation which pervades 
 them from then- origin from the villi of the 
 coronary circle ; the same as hairs derive 
 their unctuous matter from the bulbs pro- 
 ducing them, and (as this matter does the 
 hair) renders the horny fibre tough and 
 elastic — in fact, imbues it with the peculiar 
 attributes so well known to smiths by the 
 appellation of living- horn ; the epithet 
 " living " being here used to denote the ob- 
 vious differences the hoof of a living animal 
 evinces from one that has been long detached 
 from the body, or that is dead. We are too 
 apt to believe that the various agents known 
 to act upon the dead hoof or horn must 
 take similar effect on the living ; and upon 
 this erroneous belief we employ hot and 
 cold water, etc., etc., in treating disease of 
 the feet, forgetting that we have opposed to 
 our remedies the resisting or self-preserving 
 properties of living horn. 
 
 " The sole, as well as the wall, is fibrous 
 in its structure ; but its fibres appear to be 
 of a finer quality, and, in course, are very 
 much shorter : they, however, take an ob- 
 lique direction, from behind forwards, fol- 
 lowing the same degree of slope as those 
 of the wall. They issue from the viUi 
 
 penetrating the superior surface. To the 
 fineness of its fibres, combined with the rel- 
 ative magnitude of the tubular canals, and 
 consequent proportions of horny and gela- 
 tinous substances, may be ascribed the 
 comparative softness and elasticity of the 
 sole. 
 
 " The frog, however, displays these 
 qualities in such a remarkable degree as to 
 appear, in fact, to be composed of quite 
 another kind of horn ; though, on examina- 
 tion, we find it to evince the same fibrous 
 structure, the only perceivable differences 
 being the comparative fineness of the fibres 
 and their proportionably greater tubularity : 
 their direction is oblique, correspondent with 
 those of the wall. 
 
 " PRODUCTION OF THE HOOF. 
 
 " The wall is produced by the coronary 
 substance, a sensitive and glandular part we 
 shall have occasion soon to examine. Its 
 villi, by some peculiar, mysterious, secretory 
 process, convert the blood circulating 
 through them into a soft pulpy gelatinous 
 matter, which by exposure becomes hard 
 horn, descending from the villous point that 
 produced it, in the form of a tubular fibre, 
 down to the sole. The fibres are united 
 together at their very origin, but their tubes 
 or canals diminish, the lower they descend; 
 which accounts for the porous or honey- 
 comb-like structure of the interior of the 
 coronary border and the comparative solidity 
 of the parts below. The outer layers or 
 strata of fibres are found to be more com- 
 pact and of closer texture than the inner; 
 which arises, in part, from the viUi produc- 
 ing them being removed to a greater dis- 
 tance, and to the comparative smaUness of 
 their canals, and which, consequently, the 
 sooner become obliterated. The use of 
 Mr. Clark's coronary frog-band becomes 
 now more apparent, serving, as it evidently 
 does, to cover and protect these external 
 fibres until they grow sufficiently firm and 
 soUd of themselves to bear exposure and 
 resist casualties. 
 
 " The sensitive laminas make no addition 
 to the substance or tliickness of the wall : 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 29 
 
 they simply produce the horny lamella 
 arran!?ecl along its interior; as one proof 
 of which, the wall measures as nmch in 
 thickness at the place where it quits the 
 coronet as it does at any point lower down. 
 Other demonstrations of this fact come 
 every day before such practitioners as have 
 to treat canker, quittor, sandcrack, and 
 other diseases of the feet. 
 
 " The horny sole is a production from the 
 villi of the sensitive sole ; after the same 
 process as that by which the horny frog is 
 secreted from the villi of the sensitive frog. 
 
 " In a state of health of the foot, the se- 
 cretion of horn is unceasingly going on. 
 Disease or injury of the glandular parts may 
 diminish or altogether suspend the process ; 
 disease, under certain other forms, appears 
 also to have the effect of increasing it ; but 
 whether we have any artificial means of 
 effecting this, seems questionable. The 
 wall grows from above downwards. If a 
 mark be made in any part of the wall, it 
 will remain until it grows down and be- 
 comes cut off below, at the inferior border ; 
 and by observations made on the gradual 
 descent and disappearance of these marks, 
 calculations may be formed of the period 
 of time required for the renewal or restora^ 
 tion of the wall. 
 
 " PROPERTIES OF HORN. 
 
 " Horn is a tough, flexible, elastic sub 
 stance, consisting of tubular fibres, more or 
 less intimately connected together, takin 
 the direction from the surface of the body 
 on which it grows. Its property of tough- 
 ness or resistance much depends on its con- 
 dition in regard to moisture ; for if it is 
 exposed to a degree of heat sufficient to 
 abstract much of its natural juice or imbibed 
 moisture, it loses its flexibility and tough- 
 ness, and becomes brittle. On the other 
 hand, saturated with moisture, it is con- 
 verted into a soft and highly flexible sub- 
 stance, but at the same time becomes weak 
 and unresisting. This known eflect aids us 
 to account for the flat-footedness of horses 
 reared in low, fenny, or marshy situations ; 
 the hoof being constantly in a state of 
 
 saturation with moisture, the wall and sole 
 yield to the superincumbent burthen of the 
 body, and the latter grows flat (instead of 
 remaining concave or arched), and even in 
 some instances bulges. If oily or unctuous 
 applications have any effect in softening the 
 hoof, they appear to do so by filling the 
 crevices and interstices between the fibres 
 on the surface, and in this manner checking 
 or suppressing evaporation. Horn takes a 
 high and beautiful polish. Although much 
 inferior in transparency to tortoise-shell, it 
 may be worked up to bear so near a resem- 
 blance to it as to be often, in manufactures, 
 substituted for it, as in combs, etc. The 
 hoof admits of an elegant polish ; and in 
 that altered and improved state has been 
 manufactured into articles no less useful 
 than valuable and ornamental : * even the 
 hoofs of the living animal may, by being 
 kept clean, and when dry rubbed with lin- 
 seed oil, be numbered among the ornamen- 
 tal beauties Nature has bestowed upon 
 quadrupeds. 
 
 " By chemical analysis horn has been 
 found to consist of membranous substance, 
 having the properties of coagulated albumen, 
 and of some gelatine. The horns of some 
 animals, the deer species, from containing 
 bone, become exceptions to this. Mr. 
 Hatchett burnt five hundi-ed grains of ox's 
 horn, and the residuum proved only one 
 and a half grain, not half of which was 
 phosphate of lime. 
 
 "Shavings of hoof thrown into nitric 
 acid become soft, and speedily melt into a 
 yellow mass, which in about eight hours 
 disappear in complete solution. 
 
 " The same thrown into sulphuric acid 
 turn black, in becoming soft, and require 
 thrice the time for their solution. Muriatic 
 acid also turns horn black, and corrodes 
 it, but has so little effect towards its solu- 
 tion, that after ten days a piece of hoof 
 soaked in it was found to have become only 
 more brittle or rotten. Common vinegar 
 will turn horn dark-colored, but does not 
 
 * The Eclipse hoof, presented by his Majesty at Ascot 
 Races, as the reward of the best horse on the turf, forms 
 a notable illustration of this. 
 
30 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 appear to have any power in impairing its 
 texture, or, at least, in dissolving it. Liquor 
 potassae will not only tiu-n it black, but will 
 corrode the horn of the hoof. Ammonia 
 does not change its color, but slowly destroys 
 its texture, rendering it brittle and rotten. 
 
 "INTERNAL PARTS OF THE 
 FOOT. 
 
 " The internal, sensitive, organic parts of 
 the foot, comprise the bones, ligaments, ten- 
 dons, coronary substance, cartilages, sensitive 
 lamina, sensitive sole, and sensitive frog. 
 
 " The bones entering into the composition 
 of the foot are the coffin and navicular 
 bones : to which may be added (as forming 
 part of the coffin-joint, and consequently 
 having intimate relation to them), the coro- 
 net bone. 
 
 " The tendons immediately connected 
 with the foot are those of the extensor pedis 
 and the flexor pedis perforans : the former 
 being inserted into the coronal process ; the 
 latter into the posterior concavity of the 
 coffin-bone. 
 
 "the coronary substance. 
 
 " A less inappropriate name for the part 
 commonly called the coronary ligament.* 
 
 " To revert, for the sake of elucidation 
 here, to former description — after the hoof 
 has been detached by a process of macera- 
 tion or putrefaction, in a perfectly entire, 
 uninjured condition, it presents around its 
 summit a circular gi-oove, bounded in front 
 by a soft whitish substance, having a thin 
 edge, and being of a nature between horn 
 and cuticle ; and behind, by an attenuated 
 margin, more horny in its character, whose 
 thin edging is denticulated or serrated. Into 
 this circular groove or canal is received the 
 terminating margin of the cutis : the cuti- 
 culo-horny layer of the hoof, in front of it, 
 having every appearance of being a continu- 
 ation of the cuticle. 
 
 " Situation — Dimension. — The coronary 
 
 * Averse as I am to changing or altering names, noth- 
 ing less than a palpable contradiction, in regard both to 
 structure and function, would have induced me to do so in 
 the present instance. 
 
 substance occupies the concavity formed 
 upon the inside of the superior or coronary 
 border of the wall of the hoof: it is the 
 part constituting the basis of the circular 
 prominence commonly distinguished in the 
 living animal as the coronet. It is broadest 
 around the toe of the wall, diminishing in 
 breadth towards the quarters and heels, and 
 being somewhat broader around the outer 
 than the inner side. It is thickest in sub- 
 stance around its middle and most promi- 
 nent parts, gro%ving gradually thinner both 
 above and below. 
 
 " Connection. — Externally, the coronary 
 substance is connected with the hoof; and 
 the connection appears to be principally, if 
 not entirely, of a vascular nature : the sur- 
 face of the waU presenting a porous honey- 
 comb-like texture, and the villi or vessels 
 issuing from the coronary substance enter- 
 ing the pores, and thus establishing an inti- 
 mate and extensive vascular union between 
 these organic and inorganic parts. Inter- 
 nally, the coronary substance is connected 
 with the coffin-bone, the extensor tendon, 
 and the cartilages, by a fine, dense, copious 
 cellular tissue, which at the same time forms 
 a bed for the assemblage and ramification of 
 the blood-vessels concerned in the secretion 
 of the wall of the hoof. Superiorly, its 
 union with the skin is so intimate and com-- 
 plete, that one has been thought to be a 
 continuation of the other ; and, so far as 
 meets the eye of a common observer, they 
 might be taken as such ; but, when we 
 come to examine them by anatomical tests, 
 we not only find a line of external demar- 
 cation between them, but discover such 
 difference of internal structure as forbids 
 the adoption of this delusive notion. As it 
 descends upon the coffin-bone, the coronary 
 substance not only grows thinner, but in 
 growing attenuated becomes imperceptibly 
 gathered or puckered into numerous points, 
 from which issue a like number of plaits or 
 folds, which afterwards form the sensitive 
 laminae. It is worthy of remark, that the 
 part of the bone upon which this transfor- 
 mation takes place is smaller in circumfer- 
 ence than the coronet; consequently the 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE IV. 
 
 NO. 1. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 OFF-HIND ESTREMTTT. 
 
 22. Femur or thigh bone. , 
 
 23. Patella. 
 
 24. Tibia. 
 
 25. Os calcis. 
 
 26. Astragalus. 
 
 27. One of the tarsal bones. 
 
 28. Metatarsus magnum. 
 
 29. The sessamoids. 
 
 30. Os sufeaginis. 
 
 31. Os corona. 
 
 32. Os pedis. 
 e. The fibula. 
 
 The above explanation wUl answer for " Xo. 3," of this plate. 
 
 NO. 2. — MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-HIND EXTREMITY. 
 
 j. Triceps. 
 
 n. Rectus. 
 
 o'. Vastus. 
 
 r. s'. Gastrocnemi, and perforans. 
 
 V. i). Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 u'. (At the hock.) The insertion of the gastrocnemius into the point of the hock. 
 
 x'. Extensor pedis. 
 
 y. y'. Peroneus. 
 
 V. (Beneath the pastern.) Flexor perforatus and perforans. 
 
 z. Bifiu-cation of the suspensory ligament. 
 
 if. The hoof. 
 
 8. One tendon of the suspensory ligaments. 
 
 NO. 4. MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 ANTERIOR \TEW OF THE OFF HIND EXTREMITY. 
 
 n. Rectus. , 
 
 o'. Vastus extemus. 
 
 J. Triceps abductor tibialis. 
 
 y. y\ Peroneus. 
 
 x'. x'. Extensor pedis. 
 
 g. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament. 
 
 5. Saphena vein. 
 
 S,-. The hoof. 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 31 
 
 same measure of coronary substance which 
 but tensely and smoothly covered the latter, 
 admitted of being disposed in gathers or 
 folds so soon as it reached the former. Pos- 
 teriorly, the coronary substance' forms a 
 junction, indeed becomes continuous in 
 substance, with the heels of the sensitive 
 frog. 
 
 " Structure. — The coronary substance 
 discloses three different parts in its com- 
 position : 1. A fibro-cartilaguious circling 
 band, forming the substratum and basis of 
 the entire structure. 2. A cuticular cover- 
 ing, so called from its resemblance in tex- 
 ture to the cutis. 3. A network of blood- 
 vessels, reposing upon the former, and 
 covered by the latter. The cartilaginous 
 structure, freed from its vascular connec- 
 tions, is found to be \\Tought in the form 
 of a coarse, open, irregiUar network, and 
 appears designed mainly for the purpose of 
 aflbrding a bed for the lodgment and rami- 
 fication of the blood-vessels destined to pror 
 duce the wall. The looseness of its con- 
 nection, added to its own elasticity, renders 
 this substance peculiarly adapted to accom- 
 modate itself to the motions of the coffin- 
 joint, and thus preventing those movements 
 from operating prejudicially to the super- 
 imposed glandular sti-uctm'e. 
 
 " Organization. — The coronary sub- 
 stance may be ranked among the most vas- 
 cular parts of the body : no gland even 
 possesses, for its magnitude, a greater abun- 
 dance of blood-vessels, or of blood-vessels 
 (taking them generally) of larger size ; nor 
 does there exist any part in wliich greater 
 care appears to have been taken to arrange 
 its vessels so as to insure an uninterrupted 
 supply of blood. These vessels it is that 
 produce the wall : and there is every reason 
 to believe that they perform this office 
 without any assistance from the vessels of 
 the laminas. 
 
 " THE CARTILAGES 
 
 " Are tvvo broad, scabrous, concavo-con- 
 vex, cartilaginous plates, erected upon the 
 sides and wings of the coffin-bone. Pro- 
 fessor Coleman calls them ' the lateral car- 
 
 tilages,' in contradistinction to two others 
 he has named ' the inferior cartilages.' 
 
 " Situation. — The cartilages form the 
 postero-lateral parts of the sensitive foot, 
 extending the siurface considerably in both 
 these directions. 
 
 " Attachment. — The cartilages are fixed 
 into fossse excavated in the supero-lateral 
 borders of the coffin-bone. Their anterior 
 parts become united, on each side, with 
 descending lateral expansions from the ex- 
 tensor tendon, and are also attached to the 
 coronet bone by cellular membrane. Their 
 posterior parts surmount the aim or wings 
 of the bone, to which they are firmly fixed, 
 and from which they project backwards, 
 beyond the bone, giving form and substance 
 to the heel. Supposing one of the carti- 
 lages to be divided into two equal parts by 
 a line drawn horizontally across its middle, 
 the superior half, which extends as high as 
 the pastern-joint, is covered by skin only; 
 and on that account is quite perceptible to 
 the feel, and (in form) to the sight, as the 
 animal stands with liis side towards us. 
 The lower half is covered, superiorly, by 
 the encfrcling coronary substance; inferiorly, 
 by sensitive laminas : consequently, over all 
 by the hoof, which envelopes both the coro- 
 nary substance and the laminae. The ex- 
 treme posterior ends of the cartilages inciu*- 
 vate downward and backward ; but, being 
 overreached by the heels of the sensitive 
 frog, any abrupt or exposed termination of 
 them is prevented. 'Around these points 
 also the coronary substance makes its in- 
 flections upon the sensitive frog, thereby 
 giving them additional substance and sup- 
 port. 
 
 " Form. — Considered in the detached 
 state, the cartilage in its general figure de- 
 scribes an irregular quadrangle, of which 
 the supero-anterior and infero-posterior an- 
 gles are the most projecting ; the latter at 
 the same time being incurvated inwards. 
 Externally, the cartilage is pretty regularly 
 convex ; internally, it is unevenly concave, 
 the surrounding border turning inwards into 
 the substance of the sensitive frog. The 
 posterior part of the cartilage is somewhat 
 
32 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 thinner than the anterior, and has several 
 foramina through it — three or four of 
 large size — which transmit vessels to the 
 frog. 
 
 " The False Cartilages. — From the in- 
 ferior and posterior sides of the true carti- 
 lages, proceed in a direction forward — 
 towards the heels of the coffin-bone — two 
 fibro-cartUaginous productions, to which 
 IVIr. Coleman has given the name of ' infe- 
 rior cartilages.' K they are to be consid- 
 ered as cartilages at all, I prefer denomi- 
 nating them false ; they being, as well in 
 structure as in use, different from the true 
 or lateral cartilages. They spread inwards 
 upon the surface of the tendo perforans ; 
 become united at their inner sides with the 
 superior margin of the sensitive fi-og ; are 
 covered inferiorly by the sensitive sole ; and 
 at the same time assist in the support of 
 the sensitive frog. They are triangular in 
 their figure, and are arched in the same 
 manner as the sole. 
 
 " Use. — Their use appears to me to be, 
 to fill up the triangular vacant spaces left 
 bet^veen the tendo perforans and heels of 
 the coffin-bone, thereby completing the sur- 
 face of support for the sensitive frog, and 
 extending that for the expansion of the 
 sensitive sole. Bone in these places must 
 have proved inconvenient by more or less 
 impeding the impression upon, and con- 
 sequent reaction of, the sensitive frog. 
 
 "the sensitive lamix^ or lamella. 
 
 " So is denominated the laminated, mem- 
 branous, vascular structure clothing the wall 
 of the coffin-bone. 
 
 " Production. — The sensitive laminae 
 appear to be derived from the coronary sub- 
 stance — the one, in fact, seems to be a con- 
 tinuation from the other ; for if, in a foot in a 
 putrid condition, we attempt to part them 
 by force, we may make an artfficial rent 
 somewhere, but can find no natural separa- 
 tion between them. The cnticular covering 
 of the coronary substance having descended 
 upon the coffin-bone, the circumference of 
 which is less than that of the coronet, be- 
 cause thereupon gathered into numerous 
 
 little plaits or folds, which proceed in paral- 
 lel slanting lines down the wall of the bone : 
 a transformation it may be difficult to ex- 
 plain, since the lamina; unfolded would 
 occupy a much larger surface than the 
 coronet ; at the same time, it is one that 
 has its parallels in the animal constitution, 
 and a remarkable one in the instance of the 
 ciUary processes. 
 
 " Division. — According to this mode of 
 derivation, every lamina consists of one 
 entire plait or duplication of substance, 
 having its inward sides intimately and in- 
 separably united; its outward sides being 
 the surfaces of attachment for the homy 
 laminas. It has also tw'o borders : one op- 
 posed to the coffin-bone, the other to the 
 hoof ; and two ends or extremities, one issu- 
 ing out of the coronary substance, the 
 other vanishing in the sensitive sole. 
 
 " Structure. — The substance of the la- 
 minse when held to the light evinces a 
 degree of transparency ; although its nature 
 is extremely dense, and it possesses extra- 
 ordinary toughness and tenacity. Veteri- 
 nary writers and lecturers have endowed 
 the laminse with a high degree of elasticity : 
 but it appears to me that the property 
 is referable to their connections, and not 
 one that is inherent in their own sub- 
 stance. 
 
 " Elastic Structure. — This is a substra- 
 tum of a fibrous periosteum-fike texture, 
 attaching the laminse to the coffin-bone, in 
 which it is that the property of elasticity 
 resides to that remarkable extent usually 
 ascribed to the laminae themselves : indeed, 
 so elastic is it found to be, that it can be 
 made to stretch and recede the same as a 
 piece of India rubber. Its fibres take a 
 direction downward and backward. At 
 the same time, it affords a commodious bed 
 for the ramification of blood-vessels issuing 
 from the substance of the bone, in which 
 they are (particularly in the stretched con- 
 dition of the substance) protected from in- 
 jurious compression and consequent inter- 
 ruption to their cfrculation. 
 
 " Number. — In round numbers we may 
 estimate the laminae at about 500 ; not in- 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 33 
 
 eluding those of the bars. They vary, 
 however, in number : I have reckoned up- 
 wards of 600. 
 
 ^'Dimensions. — In length they decrease 
 from around the toe towards the sides and 
 heels in a corresponding ratio with the 
 wall ; those in front, the longest, being 
 rather more than two inches in extent ; the 
 shortest, those at the heels, being rather less 
 than one inch. In breadth there is no vari- 
 ation : all measure alike, one-tenth of an 
 inch. 
 
 " Organization. — The laminse are highly 
 .-^ganized, though they are not equally so 
 with either the sensitive sole or sensitive 
 frog; nor are they so red as those parts: 
 and the obvious explanation of this is, 
 that (over and above what is requisite for 
 their own nutrition) all the blood they have 
 occasion for is only that which is suffi- 
 cient for the secretion of the horny la- 
 minse. 
 
 "the sensitive sole. 
 
 " The sensitive sole, or (as Sainbel calls 
 it) the fleshy sole, is the fibro-vascular sub- 
 stance covering the arched concave, or 
 ground surface, of the coffin-bone ; in fact, 
 is the part corresponding to the horny sole. 
 
 " Structure. — The same land of elastic 
 fibrous structiue that sustains the laminse 
 is found constituting the groundwork of the 
 sensitive sole ; only that in the latter case it 
 is closer, denser, and firmer in its texture. 
 Upon this is spread a remarkably beautiful 
 venous network. And the whole is en- 
 veloped in an outer cuticular covering, 
 derived from the heels and frog, from which 
 are sent villous processes, loaded with the 
 points of arteries into the porosities of the 
 horny sole : not, however, perpendicularly 
 downward, but in an oblique direction — 
 downward and forward — the same in 
 which the horny fibres grow. 
 
 " Connection. — Around the circumfer- 
 ence of the coffin-bone, the sensitive sole 
 is connected with the fibrous substance de- 
 scending from the wall, together with the 
 tapering, vanishing points of the laminae. 
 In the cenfre, it is united %vith the bars and 
 
 frog. But its principal attachment consists 
 in its being firmly rooted into the sole of 
 the coffin-bone ; a connection that receives 
 considerable addition from the blood-vessels 
 issuing out of the substance of the bone. 
 
 " Thickness. — The sensitive sole varies 
 in thickness at difterent places. On an 
 average, it may be said to measure one- 
 eighth of an inch in thickness. In the vi- 
 cinity of the frog, it is something less than 
 this. At the heels, it possesses double that 
 thickness. 
 
 " Organization. — This is one of the 
 most vascular and sensitive parts in the 
 body. Indepeiadently of the much ad- 
 mired venous network expanded over the 
 fibrous substance of the sole, arteries enter 
 it issuing from the substance of the bone, 
 and penetrate its villi, which, by talung this 
 course, elude aU compression and obstruc- 
 tion : there are also others — the nutrient 
 arteries ; but these have an external origin, 
 from the inferior coronary artery. The 
 chief assemblage of arteries takes place 
 within the villi, upon the cuticular surface 
 — those issuing out of the interior of the 
 bone simply passing through (without ram- 
 ifying within) the fibrous substance : so 
 that, if the substance of the sole is laid 
 open by transverse section, the incised 
 edge, near the surface, exhibits a deep red 
 tint ; while the interior, nearer the bone, 
 has a pinkish or pale red aspect. 
 
 " THE SENSITIVE FEOG. 
 
 " Under this head is included the cleft, 
 cuneiform body, projecting from the bottom 
 of the foot, together with the substance 
 continued from it and filling the interval 
 between the cartilages. Sainbel calls it 
 ' the fleshy frog.' 
 
 " Division. — We distinguish, in the 
 sensitive as in the horny frog, an apex or 
 toe ; two heels, separated by the cleft; and 
 a portion intermediate between these, which 
 is the bodij. 
 
 " Situation and Connection. — The sensi- 
 tive frog occupies the posterior and central 
 parts of the bottom of the foot, forming in 
 the tread a firm and secure point d'appin. 
 
34 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Being in the hoofless foot equally promi- 
 nent with the projecting edge of the coffin- 
 bone, one might be led to infer that the 
 horny frog should take the same line of 
 bearing with the crust. The frog, alto- 
 gether, is lodged in a capacious irregular 
 space, bounded superiorly by the tendo- 
 perforans and common skin, laterally by the 
 cartilages, and inferiorly by the horny frog : 
 with all which parts it has connections ; 
 besides being continuous with the sensitive 
 bars and sole, and at the heels with the 
 coronary substance. On its sides are two 
 shallow, ill-defined hollows, corresponding 
 to the commissures of the horny frog, into 
 which are received the horny prominences 
 opposed to them. 
 
 " Structure. — Entering into the com- 
 position of this body we distinguish four 
 parts : An exterior or cuticular covering ; 
 a congeries or network of blood-vessels ; a 
 fibro-cartHaginous texture ; and an elastic 
 interstitial matter. 
 
 " The exterior or cuficnlar covering in- 
 vests the prominent bulbous portion of the 
 frog, and also gives a lining to the cleft. 
 Superiorly, it is continuous with the skin 
 descending upon the heels ; anteriorly, with 
 the cuticular covering of the coronet ; infe- 
 riorly, with that of the sole. Numerous 
 villous processes sprout from its surface, 
 and enter the porosities in the interior of 
 the horny frog, taking a direction down- 
 ward and forward, the same as that in 
 which the fibres of the horn grow. 
 
 " The vascular covering succeeds the 
 cuticular, lying immediately underneath it. 
 It consists of a network of blood-vessels, 
 principally veins, but which are not so 
 thickly set as upon the sole. 
 
 " The fibro-cartilagiiwus case comes next. 
 We find it spread over those parts most 
 subjected to pressure, and to be, in many 
 places, one-fourth of an inch in thickness. 
 From its interior are sent off numerous 
 processes, pervading the elastic matter of 
 the frog, forming so many septa intercross- 
 ing one another, and dividing it without any 
 notable regularity into many unequal c^S- 
 partments. Li the posterior and bulbous 
 parts, the septa exist in greater numbers, 
 and are closer arranged than in the middle 
 parts. The fibres of this vaginal substance 
 run obliquely downward and forward, and 
 become intermixed around the borders with 
 those of the bars and sole. 
 
 " The elastic interstitial matter, however, 
 composes the bulk of the sensitive frog. 
 It consists of a pale yellowish soft sub- 
 stance, which has been mistaken for fat or 
 oil, and hence has been named ' the fatty 
 frog.' When cut deeply into, it exhibits a 
 granulated appearance, and the fibrous in- 
 tersecting chords become apparent, putting 
 on the ramous arrangement of a shrub or 
 tree. Altogether, the sensitive frog forms 
 a peculiar, spongy, elastic body, for which 
 we lack some more appropriate name." 
 
A TABULAR VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 BOXES OF THE CRAXICM. 
 
 Komber. 
 
 Frontal 1 
 
 Parietal, 2 
 
 Temporal, two pairs, 4 
 
 Occipital, ...... 1 
 
 Ethmoid, 1 
 
 Sphenoid, 1 
 
 BOXES OF TILE FACE. 
 
 Nasal 2 
 
 Superior and anterior maxiUar)', . . 4 
 
 Malar, . . ' . . ' . ' . . 2 
 
 LacrjTnal, 2 
 
 Palatine 2 
 
 Superior and inferior turbinated, . . 4 
 
 Vomer, ....... 1 
 
 Lower jaw 1 
 
 TEETH. 
 
 Incisors, ....... 12 
 
 Canine, 4 
 
 Molars ' . . .24 
 
 BOXE OF THE TOXGUE. 
 
 Os Hjoideus, 1 
 
 BOXES OF THE 'EAR. 
 
 ISIalleus, 2 
 
 Incus, 2 
 
 Stapes, 2 
 
 Orbiculare 2 
 
 BOXES OF THE SPIXE. 
 
 Cerncal, 7 
 
 Dorsal, 18 
 
 Lumbar (sometimes 6 are found), . . 5 
 
 BOXES OF THE SACRUM AXD TALL. 
 
 Sacral, 1 
 
 Coccygeal (tail), about . . . .15 
 
 BOXES OF THE CHEST. 
 
 Ribs, on each side 18, . . . . 36 
 Sternum, .... . . 1 
 
 PELVIS. 
 
 Innominata (or bones without a name), . 2 
 
 BOX-ES OF THE SHOIXDEK. 
 
 Scapular, . . .... 2 
 
 BOXES OF THE ARM. 
 
 Humeral, 2 
 
 BOXTiS OF THE FORE-AEM. 
 
 Radial and ulnar. The ulnar being, in the 
 adults, connected mth the radius, we shall con- 
 sider them as one bone. Radial, . . 2 
 
 BOXES OF THE KXEE. 
 
 The carpal bones are thus named : 
 
 ^ ["Scaphoid, | T Pisiform, 
 
 i§ J Lunai', ^ J Trapezoid, 
 
 £ 1 Cuneiform, g 1 Magnum, 
 
 S \ Trapezium. ^ { Unciibrm. 
 
 Eight bones to each knee, ... 16 
 
 BOXES BELOW THE KXEE. 
 
 Metacarpal, 2 
 
 Splents, 4 
 
 Pastern, 2 
 
 Coronet, 2 
 
 Sessamoid, 4 
 
 Navicular, 2 
 
 Pedal or foot bones, 2 
 
 BOXXS OF THE HIXD EXTKEMITT. 
 
 Femirr, 2 
 
 Stifle, 2 
 
 BOX-ES OF THE LEG. 
 
 Tibia and fibula. These we shall consider as 
 one to each extremity, .... 2 
 
 BOXES OF THE HOCK. 
 
 Astragalus, 2 
 
 Os Calcis, 2 
 
 Cuboid, 2 
 
 Cuneiform, ...... 6 
 
 BOX-ES OF THE LEG. 
 
 Two cannons and four splents, ... 6 
 
 BOXES BEX-E.\TH THE CAXXOX. 
 
 Pastern, 2 
 
 Coronet, ....... 2 
 
 Sessamoids, 4 
 
 Na%-icular, 2 
 
 Pedal or foot bones, .... 2 
 
 Total number of bones, . . 238 
 The correct technical nomenclature of the above 
 bones will be found in " Osteolog)-," which see. 
 (35) 
 
ANATOMY OF THE SKELETON. -OSTEOLOGY. 
 
 OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF THE 
 HORSE. 
 
 In the form of answers to a series of 
 questions, the student will become ac- 
 quainted with the name, location, form, use, 
 and general peculiarities of the various 
 bones composing the horse's skeleton. 
 
 Q. "What is understood by the natural 
 skeleton ? — A. The term is applied when 
 the whole bones are held together by then- 
 natural attachments : ligaments, cartilages, 
 and synovial membranes. 
 
 Q. Why is the term, artificial, sometimes 
 applied to the skeleton ? — A. Because the 
 bones, having been divested, by maceration 
 or otherwise, of their connectmg ligaments, 
 etc., are united artificially, by wire and 
 plates of metal. 
 
 BONES OF THE CRANIUM. 
 
 Q. Enumerate the cranial bones. — A. 
 Frontal, two parietal, occipital, foiu tempo- 
 ral, ethmoid, sphenoid : ten. 
 
 FRONTAL BONE (oS FRONTIS). 
 
 Q. Describe the situation of the frontal 
 bone. — A. It occupies the antero-superior 
 part of the cranium in the region known as 
 the forehead. 
 
 Q. What are its peculiarities ? — A. In 
 form it is irregular, having two surfaces 
 and four borders. Its surfaces are flat 
 externally, concave internally. Its internal 
 surface is divided by a septum into anterior 
 and posterior concavities. The posterior 
 one is occupied by a portion of the anterior 
 lobe of the cerebrum ; the anterior consti- 
 tutes the frontal sinuses, they being sepa- 
 rated from each other by the nasal spine. 
 The concavity is further divided into shal- 
 low chambers by imperfect septa. 
 
 Q. Describe the borders of the os frontis. 
 — A. They are denticulated and squamous. 
 The posterior is arched, describing segments 
 of two circles. The anterior or nasal is 
 waving, inchnes backwards and outwards. 
 The frontal border is straight, anteriorly 
 broad and triangular. The ethmoidal or 
 outer border is irregular, and unites with 
 the lachrymal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. 
 
 PARIETAL BONES (OSSA PARIETALa). 
 
 Supposing the horse to be an adult, we 
 shall consider these bones as one. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the parietal 
 bone ? — A. It occupies the mesio-superior 
 part of the cranium. 
 
 Q. Describe the same. — A. Its form is 
 quadrilateral : vaulted, concave internally, 
 and convex externally. It has two sur- 
 faces and four borders, denticulated and 
 squamous. 
 
 Q. What is observable on the convex sur- 
 face? — A. A longitudinal messian crest, 
 bifurcating anteriorly ; which indicates the 
 location of the sutm-es, now obliterated by 
 age. Between the bifurcatures arises an 
 eminence above the cranial surface. 
 
 Q. Describe the appearance of the inter- 
 nal surface ? — A. It is indented by, and 
 receives, the lobular eminences of the cere- 
 brum, and it is also furrowed by arterial 
 ramifications which supply the dura mater. 
 
 TEMPORAL BONES (oSSA TEMPORUm). 
 
 Q. What portion of the cranium do the 
 ossa temporum occupy ? — A. Its sides and 
 base. 
 
 Q. How do these bones differ from those 
 in man ? — A. In man they are divided into 
 three portions, squamous, petrous, mastoid ; 
 yet in reality they are united. In the horse 
 
 (36) 
 
ANATOMY AND r PHYSIOLOGY OP- THE .HORSE. 
 
 37 
 
 they constitute four distinct bones, two on 
 each side. 
 
 Q. Name them. — A. Two ossa tempo- 
 nun, pars squamosa, pars petrosa : four. 
 
 Q. Describe their appearance. — One 
 pair is composed of laminae, vaulted ; form 
 ovoid, siumomited by irregular projections ; 
 the other pair are solid and convex. 
 
 OCCIPITAL BONE (oS OCCIPITEs). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the os occi- 
 pites? — A. It is located in the postero- 
 superior and inferior parts of the cranium. 
 
 Q. What is its form ? — A. Convex 
 externally, irregular, having an occipital 
 tuberosity and condyles. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of this 
 bone ? — A. It unites, superiorly, with the 
 parietal bones ; inferiorly and anteriorly with 
 the sphenoid ; laterally, ■\\-itli the temporal, 
 and it articulates posteriorly with the atlas. 
 
 Q. What is the foetal state of the bone ? 
 A. It is easily separable into four portions. 
 
 Q. State its use. — A. It forms the pos- 
 terior and inferior parts of the cranium, 
 protects this portion of the braiji, and gives 
 exit to the spinal cord. 
 
 SPHENOID BONE (os SPHENOIDEs). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the os 
 sphenoides ? — A. It passes from one tem- 
 poral region to the other, across the antero- 
 inferior part of the brain. 
 
 Q. What are its general divisions ? — A. 
 It is divided into body, situated in the mid- 
 dle, alse or wings, on each side, and two 
 pterygoid processes, considered as legs. 
 
 Q. To what bones is it connected? — A. 
 Occipital, ethmoid, squamous-temporal, pal- 
 ate, and vomer. 
 
 ETHMOID BONE (os ^THMOIDES). 
 
 Q. What part of the cranium does the 
 OS sethmoides occupy ? — A. Anterior to 
 the sphenoid, and is the boundary of the 
 cranial, and commencement of the nasal, 
 cavities. 
 
 Q. Describe its form. — .4. The posterior 
 portion bears resemblance to a bird with its 
 wings extended, having no legs, but a long 
 
 erected neck and a small round head ; the 
 anterior part consists of a slim, brittle, 
 porous, spongy sti-ucture of considerable 
 volume. 
 
 Q. What are its connections? — A. 
 With the sphenoid, frontal, vomer, and 
 superior turbenated bones; and with the 
 cartilaginous septum of the nose. 
 
 BONES OF THE FACE. 
 
 Under this head we shall consider the 
 
 Ossa nasi, . . . ... 2 
 
 " raaxillaria superiora, . ... 2 
 
 " maxillaria anteriora, . ... 2 
 
 " malaa-um, . . ... 2 
 
 " lacrj-malia, . . ... 2 
 
 " palati, ... ... 2 
 
 " tiirbinati, superior et inferiora, . . 4 
 
 " vomer, ... ... 1 
 
 Os maxillarc inferus, (lower jaw,) . . 1 
 
 Total, IS 
 
 We shall now consider these bones in the 
 above order. 
 
 NASAL BONES (oSSA NASi). 
 
 Q. How many nasal bones are there ? — 
 A. Two. 
 
 Q. Where are they situated? — A. In 
 the superior part of the face. 
 
 Q. Describe their form? — A. They re- 
 semble the form of a pear ; are broad pos- 
 teriorly, pointed anteriorly ; they are convex 
 externally and concave internally. 
 
 Q. To what bones are they connected ? 
 — A. To the frontal, superior and anterior 
 maxiUaria, and laclirymal. 
 
 Q. What is their use?— .4. To defend 
 the nares, and retain in position the septuni 
 nasi. 
 
 SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES (oSSA MAXIL- 
 LAKIA superiora). 
 
 Q. Where are they situated? — A. In 
 the supero-lateral parts of the face. 
 
 Q. Describe their form ? — A. They are 
 somewhat irregular — trilateral; from the 
 centre (wliich is tliickest) they taper, the 
 anterior part being much thinner than the 
 posterior. 
 
 Q. How are they divided? — A. Each 
 
38 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 bone has a facial, palatine, and nasal sur- 
 face. It has also nasal, alveolar, and pala- 
 tine borders, and two extremities : posterior, 
 which forms the maxillary tuberosity ; 
 anterior, or dental extremity. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of the ossa 
 maxilaria? — A. With the squamous tem- 
 poral, nasal, anterior maxillary, malar, 
 lachrymal, palate, and inferior turbinated 
 bones. 
 
 ANTERIOR MAXILLARY BONES (oSSA MAXIL- 
 LARIA ANTERIORa). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of these bones? 
 — A. They are placed in the supero-anterior 
 and antero-lateral parts of the face. 
 
 Q. What is the general form of tliese 
 bones ? — A. Very irregular ; consisting of 
 a broad, thick base, turned forwards, from 
 which is sent off a thin flexible plate ; and 
 a narrow, elongated, tapering portion 
 turned backwards. 
 
 Q. How is each bone divided ? — A. Into 
 three surfaces and tliree borders. 
 
 Q. Describe the surfaces. — A. The 
 superior or nasal smface is smooth, con- 
 vex, and oblong. The inferior or palatine 
 is vaulted, it contributing to the formation 
 of the palate ; within it, of an oval form, is 
 the interdental space, which is occupied by 
 two thin, flexible plates, the palatine pro- 
 cesses, denticulating along the sides with 
 each other. In the side of the bone is a 
 deep hollow, for the reception of that por- 
 tion of the superior maxillary bone which 
 holds the tusk ; and tlie remainder of the 
 surface, posteriorly, is articulated with the 
 same. The anterior or labial surface is 
 broad, smooth, and convex, and gives at- 
 tachment to the depressor labii superioris, 
 and gums. 
 
 Q. Describe the borders. — A. The 
 anterior border is broad and curved, and is 
 composed of two laminse, formed apart and 
 divided into septa for the insertion of six 
 incisors. The posterior border is naiTow 
 and sloped, and denticulates with the nasal 
 bone. The internal border is broad, 
 quadrilateral, curved, and denticulates with 
 its fellow, forming thereby the superior 
 
 maxillary symphysis, through which runs 
 the foramen incisivum, for the transmission 
 of the palatine arteries. 
 
 Q. How is this bone connected? — A. 
 It connects with the superior maxillary and 
 nasal bones, and with its feUow. 
 
 MALAR BONES (oSSA MALARUm). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the ossa 
 malarum? — A. They occupy the antero- 
 external part of the orbit. 
 
 Q. Describe their form. — A. Irregularly 
 triangular, presenting a broad basis forw^ards. 
 
 Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into 
 three surfaces, three angles, a basiform and 
 an apiform extremity. 
 
 Q. Name the surfaces. — A. Facial, 
 maxiUarj-, and orbital. 
 
 Q. Describe the same. — A. The facial 
 surface is divided into two portions by the 
 zygomatic spine ; the upper division is 
 smooth and nearly flat ; the lower part is 
 narrow and roughened, for the insertion of 
 the masseter muscle. From this surface, 
 posteriorly, arises the zygomatic process, 
 which is very obliquely sloped off, and 
 laminated for adaptation to the process 
 of the same name, meeting it from the tem- 
 poral bone, the tw^o together forming the 
 zygomatic arch. The maxillary surface is 
 concave. The orbital surface has a smooth 
 concavity which forms the infero-external 
 part of the orbit. 
 
 Q. Describe the angles. — A. There are 
 three, superior, inferior, and posterior. The 
 superior constitutes the external portion of 
 the orbital circumference. The inferior 
 forms the zygomatic spine. The posterior 
 is not so prominent nor defined, but forms 
 an irregular link with the superior maxillary 
 bone. 
 
 Q. What of the extremities ? — A. The 
 anterior extremity is broad, irregular, and 
 denticulated, and articulates with the supe- 
 rior maxillary and lachrymal bones. The 
 posterior or apiform extremity forms the 
 zygomatic process. 
 
 Q. With what bones do the ossa mala- 
 rum connect? — A. With the temporal, 
 superior, maxillary, and lachrymal bones. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 39 
 
 LACHRYMAL BONES (OSSA LACHRYMALIa). 
 
 There are two lachmyral bones: we shall 
 describe but one, considering that they are 
 both alike, as indeed are those already refer- 
 red to, in a plm-al sense. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the lachry- 
 mal bone ? — A. It occupies the antero- 
 external part of the orbit. 
 
 Q. How is it divided ? — A. Into three 
 surfaces and five borders. 
 
 Q. Name the surfaces. — A. Internal, 
 external, and orbital. 
 
 Q. Name the borders. — A. External 
 and internal facial, nasal, and external and 
 internal orbital. 
 
 Q. What is observable in the orbital ex- 
 cavation of this bone? — A. The lachrymal 
 fossa. 
 
 Q. What occupies this fossa or groove ? — 
 A. The lachrymal vessels, sac, and duct. 
 
 Q. With what bones is it connected ? — 
 A. With the frontal, nasal, malar, and supe- 
 rior maxillary bones. 
 
 PALATE BONES (oSSA PALATi). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the palate 
 bones ? — A. They are placed in the infe- 
 rior posterior part of the face, adjoining the 
 base of the cranium. 
 
 Q. What does the palatine surface form ? 
 — A. The palatine arch or roof of the 
 mouth. 
 
 Q. What of the nasal surface ? — A. It 
 forms the posterior surface of the nasal 
 outlet. 
 
 Q. What other surfaces do these bones 
 present ? — A. Ethmoidal and orbital. 
 
 Q. To what part of the bone is the vel- 
 lum palatei attached ? — A. To the palatine. 
 
 Q. How are the palate bones united to 
 the superior maxillary? — A. By their supero 
 and infero lateral borders ; each being den- 
 ticulated. 
 
 Q. What other connections have the pal- 
 ate bones? — A. They are joined to the 
 frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, vomer, and in- 
 ferior turbinated bones. 
 
 TURBINATED BONES (oSSA TURBINATA SUPE- 
 RIORA ET INFERIORa). 
 
 Q. Where are the ossa tmrbinata located ? 
 
 — A. Within the nasal cavity : the superior 
 above, and the inferior below. 
 
 Q. What is their form, and how are they 
 divided ? — A. In form they are oblong, thin, 
 foliated, convoluted, scroll-like, and cavern- 
 ous. They are divided into external and 
 internal sm-faces ; superior and inferior ex- 
 tremities. 
 
 Q. How many bones are there? — A. 
 Four. 
 
 Q. Describe the bones. — A. Their ex- 
 ternal surface is convex, and presents series 
 of longitudinal grooves which mark the 
 ramifications of small blood-vessels. The 
 internal surface is cellular, being unequally 
 divided by transverse septa. Their interior 
 is capacious ; they are open superiorly and 
 closed anteriorly. They are porous and 
 elastic. The superior bone exceeds in 
 volume the inferior, and makes its convolu- 
 tion from below, its superior border being 
 attached ; whereas, the reverse is the case 
 with the inferior one. 
 
 ' Q. What are their connections ? — A. 
 The turbinated bone is connected above with 
 the ethmoid ; and laterally, with the nasal 
 bone. 
 
 VOMER. 
 
 Q. From what does the name of this 
 bone arise ? — A. From its resemblance to 
 a ploughshare. 
 
 Q. What are its uses ? — To divide the 
 nasal chambers and permit the expansion 
 of olfactory nerves. 
 
 Q. What is inserted into its superior 
 groove? — A. The septum narium. 
 
 Q. What are its connections ? — A. It 
 unites with the ethmoid, sphenoid, superior 
 and anterior maxiUary, and palate bones. 
 
 LOWER JAW. INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE 
 
 (oS MAXILLARE INFERIUs). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of tliis bone ? — 
 A. It composes the inferior and posterior 
 parts of the face. 
 
 Q. What is the foetal state of the bone ? 
 
 — A. In the fcetal state it is divided, at its 
 inferior junction, by a connecting cartilage, 
 hence the part has been called its symphysis. 
 
 Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into 
 
40 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 body, neck, sides, and branches ; external 
 and internal surfaces, and corresponding 
 borders. 
 
 Q. What do you understand by these 
 terms?- — A. Body signifies the anterior 
 part reaching posterior to the tusks ; neck 
 signifies the contracted jjart, immediately 
 posterior to the body; sides are the parts 
 comprehended between the neck and the 
 branches ; the branches are the parts poste- 
 rior to the neck, which terminate in the con- 
 dyles. As regards surfaces, the external is 
 convex, rounded, rough, and porous, and 
 affords attachment for muscle and gum. 
 The internal sxirface is concave, rough, and 
 porous, and answers for the attachment of 
 muscles and gum, and as a channel for the 
 tongue, and attachment for the froenum 
 lingua;. 
 
 Q. "What do you understand by borders ? 
 — A. Each superior border exhibits six 
 alveolar cavities for the molar teeth; the 
 septum are composed of osseous lamiiiEe. 
 The inferior border is tliin and irregular. 
 The posterior border is broad and roughened 
 for the insertion of muscles. 
 
 GENERAL INQUIRIES. 
 
 It is now presumed that we understand 
 the location and names of the different bones 
 composing the cranium and face ; and, be- 
 fore we proceed further, it may be profitable 
 to make some general inquiries regarding 
 the bony structure. 
 
 Q. Is not the number of bones greater 
 during colthood than at mature life ? — A. 
 Yes, many of the bones separable at that 
 period become united in the adult. 
 
 Q. How are bones divided l^A. They 
 are divided into long or cylindrical, broad 
 or flat, and thick. 
 
 Q. What do you understand by cpiphy- 
 sisis of bones? — A. The region where car- 
 tilage is interposed between bones that 
 finally become ossified. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of bones? — 
 A. They consist of a cellular, reticular, and 
 vascular parenchyma, and of osseous mat- 
 ter deposited in it : their base, therefore, 
 is the same as that of the soft parts. 
 
 Q. Are bones vasciilar ? — A. Yes. 
 
 Q. How can you demonstrate their vas- 
 cularity ? — A. By numerous small fora- 
 minas and by the tinge they receive from the 
 coloring matter of the food. 
 
 Q. Name the investing membrane of 
 bones? — A. Periosteum. 
 
 Q. What is its organization ? — A. Fi- 
 brous. 
 
 Q. Of what use is this periosteum? — 
 A. It limits the growth of bones, is the 
 medium of circulation and nutrition, and 
 affords attachment for ligaments and mus- 
 cles, and favors the free articulation of the 
 latter. 
 
 Q. What does its internal surface se- 
 crete? — A. An oleaginous fluid, depos- 
 ited in the cellular structure and cavity of 
 bones. 
 
 Q. What are foramina? — A. Holes 
 perforating the substance of bones. 
 
 Q. What are sinuses? — A. Occun-ing 
 in bones, they are large cavities with small 
 openings. 
 
 Q, What are sinuosities? — A. Superfi- 
 cial but broad irregular depressions. 
 
 Q. What are furrows ? — A. Long, nar- 
 row, and superficial canals. 
 
 Q. What are notches ? — A. Cavities in 
 the margin of bones. 
 
 Q. What are fossae ? — A. Deep and 
 large cavities on the surface of bones. 
 
 Q. What are glenoid cavities? — A. 
 Cavities for articulation. 
 
 Q. What are tubercles? — A. Small em- 
 inences. 
 
 Q. What are tuberosities ? — A. Rough 
 elevations. 
 
 Q. What are spines? — A. Long pro- 
 jections upon a bone. 
 
 Q. What are heads? — A. The round 
 tops of bones. 
 
 Q. What are necks ? — The narrow por- 
 tion of bones beneath their heads.. 
 
 Q. What are processes? — A. Short pro- 
 jecting portions of bones. 
 
 THE TRUNK (REMARKS ON THE SAMe). 
 
 We shall now consider the peculiarities 
 of the trunk; which comprehends the verte- 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF FIGUEE V. 
 
 MUSCULAR STRUCTUKE. 
 
 LATERAL VIEW OF THE HEAD, NECK, AND SHOULDEK. — THE HEAD. 
 
 a. 
 
 Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 h. 
 
 Levator palpebroe. 
 
 c. 
 
 Dilatator naris lateralis. 
 
 d. 
 
 " " anterior. 
 
 e. 
 
 Orbicularis oris. 
 
 /• 
 
 Nasalis longus. 
 
 f 
 
 Levator labii superioris. 
 
 i. 
 
 Zygomaticus. 
 
 J- 
 
 Retractor labii inferioris. 
 
 k. 
 
 Buccinator. 
 
 K. 
 
 Masseter. 
 
 h: 
 
 Temporalis. 
 
 m. 
 
 Attolentes et abducens aurem. 
 
 /• 
 
 Facial Teins. 
 
 
 THE N*ECK. 
 
 •. 
 
 Ligamentum colli. 
 
 6". 
 
 Rhomboideus longus. 
 
 s. 
 
 A portion of the splenius. 
 
 e". 
 
 Scalenus. 
 
 e". 
 
 Pectoralis parvus. 
 
 0. 
 
 Abducens vel deprimens aurem. 
 
 r. 
 
 Tendon of the splenius and complexus major. 
 
 t. 
 
 Obhquus capitis inferiorus. 
 
 u. 
 
 Levator hiuneri. 
 
 V. 
 
 Sterno maxillaris. 
 
 X. 
 
 Subscapulo hyoideus. 
 
 3. 
 
 Jugular vein. 
 
 
 KEGION OF THE SHOULDEE. 
 
 a". 
 
 . Trapezius. 
 
 f" 
 
 '. Antea spinatus. 
 
 ^'■ 
 
 , Postea spinatus. 
 
 h". 
 
 . Teres major. 
 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 * 
 
 Ligamenture coUi, or subflaviimi. 
 
 1. 
 
 Temporal bone. 
 
 2. 
 
 Parietal bone. 
 
 4. 
 
 Zygomatic arch. 
 
 5. 
 
 Nasal bone. 
 
 6. 
 
 Lachry-mal bone. 
 
 7. 
 
 Malar. 
 
 8. 
 
 Superior maxilla. 
 
 9. 
 
 Anterior maxilla. 
 
 10. 
 
 Inferior maxilla. 
 
 b. 
 
 The neck of the same. 
 
 11. 
 
 Cervical vertebree. 
 
 33. 
 
 Scapula. 
 
 34. 
 
 Humerus. 
 
 c. 
 
 The incisors. 
 
 *. 
 
 The lining membrane of the ear. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 41 
 
 bral chain, thorax, and pelvis. It is gener- 
 ally called the spine, or back bone, and 
 extends from the occipital bone to the sac- 
 rum. The spine is divided into three 
 regions, denominated cervical, dorsal, and 
 lumbar. The spine, as a whole, exhibits 
 three surfaces and two extremities. The 
 surfaces are named superior, inferior, and 
 lateral. The superior surface is flat in the 
 region of the neck ; in the back and loins 
 it offers a series of projections. The infe- 
 rior surface is more uniform, and the lateral 
 is very irregular. 
 
 CERVICAL VERTEBRJ2. 
 
 Q. How many cervical vertebrae are 
 there ? — A. Seven. 
 
 Q. What is the name of the first ? — A. 
 It is called atlas. 
 
 Q. How does it differ from the rest? — A. 
 It has no superior spinous process nor body ; 
 the vertebral hole is larger than in the 
 others, and its transverse processes are very 
 broad. It has three pairs of foraminas : 
 one posteriorly, through which run the verte- 
 bral arteries ; and two anteriorly. 
 
 Q. What is the name of the second cer- 
 \dcal vertebra ? — A. It is named dentata. 
 
 Q. How is it recognized from the rest ? 
 — A. By its anterior projection, which in 
 the human subject resembles a tooth. 
 
 Q. With what does this tooth-like pro- 
 cess articulate ? — A. It articulates with 
 the infero-posterior part of the ring of the 
 atlas. 
 
 Q. Describe the third, fourth, and ffth 
 cervical vertebra;. — A. They possess the 
 genuine characters of cervical vertebrm, and 
 closely resemble each other; the third, how- 
 ever, has commonly a more elevated supe- 
 rior spine than either of the others, and is 
 narrower across the mesio-siiperior part of 
 the bodi/ (measuring from the roots of the 
 articular processes), which dimension in- 
 creases in the fourth, but is greatest in the 
 fifth. 
 
 Q. What of the sLxth vertebral — A. It 
 has no inferior spine ; and its transverse pro- 
 cesses are trifid, consisting each of three 
 eminences. 
 
 Q. What of the seventh l — A. It is the 
 shortest, and in its general conformation re- 
 sembles the first dorsal. Its body, pos- 
 teriorly, presents two semilunar articular 
 depressions, constituting a part of the socket 
 for the first rib. 
 
 DORSAL VERTEBRJE. 
 
 Q. How many dorsal vertebrce are there? 
 
 — A. Eighteen. 
 
 Q. What is peculiar to the dorsal ver- 
 tebras ? — A. They have each a bodi/, spinous 
 process, and transverse process, and are 
 generally distinguished by the length, form, 
 and direction of their spines. 
 
 Q. How is the fii-st dorsal vertebrce dis- 
 tinguished from the rest? — A. By the 
 sharpness of its spinous, and singleness of 
 transverse, processes, and by the breadth of 
 its articulatory sm-faces. 
 
 Q. How do the articular depressions for 
 the insertion of the ribs differ in each bone? 
 
 — A. They are less deeply marked, as we 
 proceed posteriorly. 
 
 Q. How are the seventeenth and eight- 
 eenth distinguished from the rest? — A. 
 They have perfect articulatory depressions 
 on the bodies for the insertion of ribs. 
 
 LUMBAR VERTEBRJ3. 
 
 Q. How many lumbar vertebrEB are 
 there?— A Five. 
 
 Q. How are the bodies of the lumbar 
 vertebra distinguished from the dorsal? — 
 A. They are larger, conti-acted in the centre, 
 and their edges are more prominent. 
 
 VERTEBRAL CANAL. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the vertebral 
 canal? — A. In the cervical region it is ca- 
 pacious and semi-oval ; through the dorsal, 
 transversely oval and smaller. In the lum- 
 bar it is semi-circular, of less diameter than 
 the cervical and greater than the dorsal. 
 
 Q. With what does the spinal canal con- 
 nect ? — A. Anteriorly, with the cranial 
 cavity ; posteriorly, with the sacral canal. 
 
 PELVIS, SACRUM, AND TAIL BONES. 
 
 We shall now consider the posterior 
 boundary of the trunk. 
 
42 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 OS SACRUM. 
 
 Q. What is the popular name of this 
 bone ? — A. It is called the " rtimp bone." 
 
 Q. Where is it located? — A At the 
 superior part of the pelvis, between the ossa 
 illia. 
 
 Q. What is the popular name of the 
 ossa illia ? — A. They are called the haunch 
 bones. 
 
 Q. How many pieces enter into the com- 
 position of the sacral bone, in the foal? — 
 A. It is composed of five pieces. 
 
 Q. How are they uiaited ? — A. By fibro- 
 cartilaginous substance. 
 
 Q. What ultimate change takes place in 
 tills substance? — A. It becomes ossified, 
 and hence the solid bone. 
 
 Q. How is the sacral bone divided ? — A 
 Into three sm-faces, two borders, base, and 
 apex. 
 
 Q. Describe its surfaces. — A. They are 
 named superior, inferior, and lateral. The 
 superior is convex, very irregular; on its 
 central line are five eminences, and laterally 
 are superficial grooves pierced by the four 
 sacral foraminae. The inferior surface is 
 smooth and slightly concave. The lateral 
 sm-face is thick anteriorly, gradually tapering 
 posteriorly ; they are roughened for the re- 
 ception of the sacro-iliac ligament. 
 
 Q. Describe, briefly, the base and apex. 
 — A. The base is composed of a central and 
 two lateral parts. The apex is oval, and 
 articulates with the anterior bones of the taU. 
 
 BONES OF THE TAIL (oSSA COCCYGIs). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the ossa 
 coccygis ? — A. Posterior to the sacrum. 
 
 Q. Of how many bones is the taU com- 
 posed? — A. Fifteen. 
 
 PELVIS OR HAUNCH BONES (oSSA INNOMINATa). 
 
 Q. How do anatomists divide these 
 bones, in the fostal state? — A. Into ilium, 
 ischium, and pubes. 
 
 Q. Li the adult horse are there more 
 than two bones ? — A. They are considered 
 as two, yet in reality they are united at the 
 pubes so as to constitute but one bone. In 
 
 this state, however, they are denominated 
 ossa innoniinata — unnamed bones. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the iliatic, 
 ischiatic, and pubic portions? — A. They 
 are in the anterior, superior, and lateral parts 
 of the pelvic region. The ischiatic extends 
 posteriorly and the pubic interiorly. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of the 
 ossa innominata ? — A. They are connected, 
 anteriorly and inferiorly, to the os sacrum ; 
 posteriorly and inferiorly, to each other, 
 forming the symphysis pubis ; laterally, 
 with the thigh bones. 
 
 Q. What are the uses of the pelvis? — 
 A. It affords an arch for supporting the 
 posterior parts. It contains the urinary or- 
 gans, rectum, etc., gives protection to blood- 
 vessels and nerves, and origin and insertion 
 to various muscles and ligaments. 
 
 CHEST OR THORAX. 
 
 The thorax or chest is formed by the 
 dorsal vertebrae, superiorly ; ribs, laterally ; 
 and sternum, inferiorly. It also affords pro- 
 tection to the principal organs of circula- 
 tion and respiration. 
 
 Q. State the number of ribs and their 
 arrangement? — A. Their number is gener- 
 ally thirty-sbc ; eighteen on each side, eight 
 of which are termed ti'ue, and the remainder 
 false, ribs. 
 
 Q. Why are the anterior eight called 
 true ribs ? — A. Because they have a direct 
 cartilaginous insertion into the breast bone 
 or sternum. 
 
 Q. Why are the posterior ten termed 
 false ribs ? — A. Because they are indi- 
 rectly connected with the sternum. 
 
 Q. What is the general conformation 
 of a rib ? — A. It is lengthy, curved ; con- 
 vex outwardly or laterally ; terminating in 
 a sharp border posteriorly, which forms a 
 posterior convexity. On the inner surfaces 
 it is concave, and of course the reverse of 
 the external. 
 
 Q. What are the variations in ribs ? — 
 A. They vary in length, degree of curva- 
 ture, and obliquity of direction. 
 
 Q. How shall we divide each rib ? — A. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 43 
 
 Into a body, external convexity ; internal 
 concavity, a superior and inferior termina- 
 tion ; anterior and posterior edges. 
 
 Q. What do you understand when the 
 term, head, is applied to a rib ? — A. It 
 signifies its protuberance — its superior 
 portion ; presenting a smooth convexity for 
 articulation with the bodies of vertabras. 
 ' Q. Where is the neck of a rib situated 1 
 A. Immediately below the head. 
 
 Q. What is the difTerence between the 
 anterior and posterior edges of the ribs ? — 
 A. The anterior edge is circular and the 
 posterior is sharp. 
 
 Q. Where is the tubercle of the rib 
 situated ? — A. Posterior to the head ; at 
 the root of the neck. 
 
 Q. How is the first rib distinguished 
 from the rest ? — A. It is the shortest and 
 thickest, and is almost straight. 
 
 Q. How does the second rib differ from 
 the first? — A. It is longer, less dense, 
 and has a greater curvature in the region of 
 its neck. 
 
 Q. How do the ribs differ from the 
 second to the seventh ? — A. They increase 
 in breadth. 
 
 Q. How do they differ in length ? — A. 
 Up to the ninth. 
 
 Q. How do they differ in curvatinre ? — 
 A. Gradually up to the eighteenth, which 
 is the most curved of all. 
 
 BREAST BONE (sTERNUm). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the sternum ? 
 — A. It occupies the anterior and inferior 
 portion of the thorax. 
 
 Q. How does it differ from the human 
 sternum ? — A. In the human subject it is 
 composed of three pieces ; in the adult 
 horse it is considered as a single bone. It 
 is made up, however, of seven irregularly 
 formed bones. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of the ster- 
 num ? — A. It is composed of an osseaus 
 cellular substance and cartilages. 
 
 Q. Name the cartilages ? — A. Ensi- 
 form and cariniform. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the cariniform 
 cartilage ? — A. It affords attachment to 
 
 the sterno-maxillares and sterno-thyro-hy 
 oidei muscles. 
 
 Q. To what part of the sternum is the 
 ensiform cartilage inserted ? — A. To its in- 
 ferior and posterior part. 
 
 Having now considered the bones of the 
 head (with the exception of the teeth), and 
 hyoides (appendages), spine, thorax, and 
 pelvis, we now commence on the bones 
 composing the extremities. These are four 
 in number, disposed in pairs, and known 
 as the fore and hind extremities. Our 
 examination will be conducted with refer- 
 ence only to one fore, and one hind, ex- 
 tremity ; presuming that a description of the 
 bones on one side will suffice for those on 
 the other. 
 
 FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the fore 
 extremities ? — A. They occupy the antero- 
 lateral parts of the trunk, from which they 
 proceed inferiorly. 
 
 Q. How are the bones divided? — A. 
 Into shoulder, arm, knee, leg, pastern, coro- 
 net, and foot. 
 
 Q. Name the bones composing each 
 region ? — A. 
 
 SHOCXDER BONES. 
 
 Scapijla, Humerus. 
 
 AKM BOXES. 
 
 Radius, Ulnar. 
 
 BONES OF THE KNEE. 
 
 ^ f Scaphoid, 
 § J Lunar, 
 « I Cuneiform, 
 S i^Trapeziun. 
 
 i ["Pisiform, 
 « J Trapezoid, 
 I 1 Os Magnum, 
 S 1 Unciform. 
 
 BONES OF THE LEG. 
 
 Large Metacarpal. 
 
 Two small Metacarpal (splents). 
 
 IN THE REGION OF THE FETLOCK. 
 
 Two Sessamoid Bones. 
 
 PASTERN BON'S. 
 Os Suf&aginis. 
 
 COKON'ET BONE. 
 
 Os Corona. 
 
 FOO^ BON-ES. 
 
 Navicular and Coffin-bones. 
 
44 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 Q. How many bones compose one of 
 the fore extremities ? — A. Twenty-one. 
 
 OF THE SHOULDER. 
 
 Q. The shoulder being composed of the 
 scapula and humerus, what portion of the 
 thorax do they occupy ? — A. They occupy 
 its antero-lateral region. 
 
 SCAPULA, (shoulder blade). 
 
 Q. What is the position of the scap- 
 ula ? — A. It occupies the antero-lateral 
 parts of the thorax. 
 
 Q. Describe the bone. — A. It is trian- 
 gular, broad, and thin superiorly ; narrower 
 and thicker inferiorly ; its external surface 
 is unequally divided into two superficial 
 concavities, named fossae antea et postea 
 spinata;. Its internal surface is smooth, yet 
 excavated. 
 
 Q. Describe the borders. — A. The su- 
 perior has a thin, roughened summit for 
 the insertion of the cartilage of the scap- 
 ula ; the anterior is thin in its upper half, 
 yet below it becomes rounded ; the posterior 
 is obtuse and rounded. 
 
 Q. How does the scapula terminate in- 
 feriorly ? — A. By a glenoid cavity. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of the 
 scapula ? — A. It has a ligamentous con- 
 nection with the spines of some of the dorsal 
 vertebras ; to the thorax, it is connected by 
 muscular faschia; and its inferior connec- 
 tion is by means of the glenoid cavity, to 
 the head of the humerus ; this latter forms 
 the shoulder joint. 
 
 Q. Is there anything remarkable about 
 the shoulder joint? — A. Its most remark- 
 able feature is, the great disproportion in 
 size between the head of the humerus and 
 the glenoid cavity. 
 
 Q. How is this disproportion in magni- 
 tude compensated for ? — A. By an exten- 
 sive capsular membrane, wliich admits of 
 extensive motion. 
 
 Q. What are the insertions of tliis cap- 
 sular membrane ? — A. It has a circular 
 insertion into the rough margin of the 
 glenoid cavity, and also around the neck of 
 the humerus. 
 
 Q. How is this membrane protected in- 
 ternally and externally ? — A. Internally it 
 is clothed with a synovial membrane ; ex- 
 ternally by adherent muscles. 
 
 humerus. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the 
 humerus ? — A. It is situated beneath the 
 scapula, occupying a diverse direction, viz., 
 downwards and backwards, and is in con- 
 tiguity with the lateral parts of the thorax. 
 
 Q. Describe the form of the humerus. 
 — A. It is irregular, cylindroid, having a 
 convoluted appearance, and its superior 
 extremity is much larger than the inferior. 
 
 Q. How is this bone divided? — A. 
 Into a body, superior and inferior extremi- 
 ties. 
 
 Q. Describe the body. — A. It is angu- 
 lar, with sides, contracted superiorly, and 
 flattened and rounded inferiorly. From its 
 superior-anterior-lateral margin projects a 
 roughened tuberosity, into which the leva- 
 tor humeri is inserted. The lateral part of 
 the body is hollow or excavated. The in- 
 ner side is somewhat roughened and promi- 
 nent. 
 
 Q. Describe the superior extremity. — 
 A. The superior extremity being much 
 larger than the inferior, presents a head 
 and several tubercles : it has a projecting, 
 hemispherical surface, designed for exten- 
 sive articulation. It presents a smooth 
 surface, yet has an irregular, indented 
 groove for the insertion of a capsular liga- 
 ment. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the tubercles ? — 
 A. The anterior, three in number, serve as 
 articulations for the flexor brachii to tra- 
 verse. The fourth serves as a protection 
 against dislocation. 
 
 Q. Describe the inferior extremity. — A. 
 It consists of two heads or condyles, sepa- 
 rated by deep ovoid fossa, into which is 
 received the olecranon of the ulna. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of the 
 humerus ? — A. Superiorly, it connects 
 with the scapula ; inferiorly, it articulates 
 with the radial and ulnar extremity of the 
 Os Brachii. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 45 
 
 OS BRACHII (arm BONe). 
 
 Q. Describe the location of the os 
 brachii. — A. It is located beneath the tho- 
 rax, in the inferior region of the humerus. 
 
 Q. How does this bone differ from those 
 of the human subject ? — A. By being con- 
 solidated into a single bone. 
 
 Q. How is it divided ? — A. Into radial 
 and ulnar portions. 
 
 Q. Descrihe ihe radial. — A. It consists 
 of a body, superior and inferior extremi- 
 ties. The body is lengthy, compared with 
 other bones of the fore extremity ; posteri- 
 orly it is excavated and roughened ; ante- 
 riorly it projects with a smooth, cylindrical 
 surface. 
 
 Q. Describe the superior extremity. — 
 A. The superior extremity presents an in- 
 terrupted articulatory surface, having a 
 central eminence, with two cavities, which 
 correspond to the articulations of the os 
 humerii. 
 
 Q. Describe the inferior exti'emity. — 
 A. It appears to consist of three articulatory 
 sturfaces, which correspond with those of the 
 bones of the carpus. 
 
 Q. Describe the ulnar portion of the os 
 brachii. — A. It presents a tapering trian- 
 gular projection, firmly connected with the 
 radius; at its junction with the same, it 
 presents a semilunar concavity ; this, with 
 the articulatory surface of the radius, forms 
 the humero-brachial articulation. 
 
 Q. Name the projection of the ulnar, 
 commonly termed point of the elbow. — A. 
 Olecranon. 
 
 Q. What muscle is inserted into the ole- 
 cranon ? — A. The triceps extensor braehii. 
 
 Q. What is the state of this bone in 
 early colthood ? — A. It is composed of two 
 pieces named radius and ulnar, wliicli after- 
 wards become consolidated. 
 
 Q. With what bones does the inferior 
 portion of the os brachii articulate ? — A. 
 With the scaphoid, lunar, and cuneiform 
 bones. 
 
 BONES OF THE KNEE (CARPUs). 
 
 The bones of the knee correspond to the 
 wrist, or carpus, of man. 
 
 Q. How are these bones arranged ? — A. 
 They are ranged in tvo rows, or tiers ; one 
 of the number, trapezium, is located in the 
 posterior part of the carpus. 
 
 Q. Name the bones of the first row ? — 
 A. Scaphoid, lunar, cuneiforme, trapezium. 
 
 Q. Name the bones crossing the second 
 row? — A. Pisiform, trapezoid, magnum, 
 unciform. 
 
 Q. What is the general form and situa- 
 tion of each of the bones of the first row? 
 — A. The OS scaphoides is semi-ovoid in 
 form, its superior surface is sigmoid and 
 smooth, the inferior surface is somewhat 
 oval, and rests upon the trapezoides and 
 magnum of the second row. Its internal 
 surface comes in contact with the os lunare. 
 The OS lunare is the second bone of the first 
 row; it articulates superiorly with the 
 brachii ; inferiorly, with the ossa magnum 
 and unciforme ; its superior surface is trian- 
 gular ; inferior, oblong ; on one side, inter- 
 nally, it articulates with the scaphoid, on 
 the other with the cuneiforme. The cunei- 
 forme is known as the external, yet smallest 
 bone of the knee. Its superior surface is 
 concave ; inferior, smooth ; its internal sur- 
 face articulates with the os lunare, and pos- 
 teriorly it unites with the trapezium. 
 
 Q. What is the general form and situa- 
 tion of each of the bones of the second 
 row ? — A. The os trapezoides is situated 
 on the inner side of the knee, resting on the 
 inner splent bone, and articulating with the 
 OS magnum ; its form is that of an iiTegular, 
 curvated, flattened cone ; its superior surface 
 is convex, and its inferior flat. The os 
 magnum is the middle bone of the second 
 row, and is known as the largest bone of 
 the knee. Its superior surface presents two 
 articvilatory surfaces, one sigmoid and ob- 
 long for the OS lunare, and the other ovoid 
 and flat, to correspond with the surface of 
 OS scaphoides ; its interior surface is flat, 
 and articulates with large metacarpal bone. 
 The OS unciform is situated on the outer 
 side of the second row, and in form resem- 
 bles a blunt hook; its superior surface is 
 convex; its inferior irregular, articulating 
 with the outer splent and cannon. The os 
 
46 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 trapezium is situated in the posterior part 
 of the carpus, and presents two smooth sur- 
 faces for articulation with the ossa cunei- 
 forme and brachii. Its external, lateral sur- 
 face is convex; its internal concave; its 
 superior border gives attachment to the 
 flexores metacarpi ; and into the inferior is 
 inserted a ligament. The ossa pisaforms 
 — for sometimes there are two present — is 
 situated posterior to the trapezoides; its 
 form is orbicular or pea-shape. 
 
 METACARPAL BONES. 
 
 The metacarpal bones are three in num- 
 ber, viz : metacarpus magnum, 1 ; metacar- 
 pus parvum, 2. There seems, however, so 
 great a disproportion between the os mag- 
 num and ossa parva, that the former may 
 be considered as the principal support of 
 the fore extremities. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the metacar- 
 pus ? — A. Immediately beneath the carpias. 
 
 Q. Describe the form of the metacarpi 
 magnum. — A. It is a long cylindrical 
 bone, presenting on its anterior surface a 
 circular, smooth appearance; its posterior 
 surface is somewhat flattened and depressed. 
 
 Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into 
 a body, and two extremities. 
 
 Q. Describe the extremities. — A. The 
 superior presents a smooth articulatory sur- 
 face, tapering towards its outer edges, yet 
 more depressed on its inner and posterior 
 part ; in the anterior region is a roughened 
 prominence, for the insertion of the extensor 
 metacarpi, and on the lateral side of the 
 bone are eminences which afford insertion 
 for the lateral ligaments. The inferior ex- 
 tremity presents a pulley-like surface, with 
 two unequal condyloid surfaces, separated 
 by a semi-cLrcular eminence, which corre- 
 sponds to a counterpart found on the supe- 
 rior end of the suffraginis. 
 
 Q. What are the articulations of the 
 metacarpi magnum ? — A. It articulates su- 
 periorly with the carpus ; interiorly, with the 
 OS suffragmis ; posteriorly and laterally, with 
 the ossa sepamoidea, and metacarpi parva. 
 
 OSSA METACARPI PARVA (SPLENT BONEs). 
 
 Q. How many bones compose the ossa 
 
 metacarpi parva ? — A. Two : external and 
 internal. 
 
 Q. Describe their situation. — A. They 
 are attached to the lateral and posterior 
 parts of the metacarpi magnum. 
 
 Q. How do you divide them ? — A. Into 
 bases, middles, and apices. 
 
 Q. Describe the base. — A. It is sur- 
 mounted by a smooth articulatory surface, 
 corresponding to the inferior portion of a 
 part of the knee joint. 
 
 Q. Describe the middle. — A. It is tri- 
 facial: the anterior surface is roughened 
 for the insertion of inter-articular tissue, 
 which connects it with the cannon ; the inner 
 surface is excavated; the outer surface is 
 rounding, and terminates, posteriorly, acu- 
 minately. 
 
 Q. Describe the apex. — A. It tapers, and 
 ends in a tubercle, which curvates in an 
 inferior and superior direction. 
 
 Q. How do the ossa metacarpi parva 
 differ ? — A. The external is generally larger 
 than the internal, and has a broader articu- 
 latory surface. 
 
 Q. What bone does the external splent 
 articulate with ? — A. The unciform. 
 
 Q. What bone does the internal splent 
 articulate with ? — A. The trapezoid. 
 
 Q. How are the splents connected to the 
 cannon ? — A. By cartilago-ligamentous tis- 
 sue. 
 
 Q. What changes does this cartilaginous 
 tissue undergo, subsequent to adult life ? — 
 A. In a majority of cases it becomes ossified. 
 
 PASTERN BONE (oS SUFFRAGINIs). 
 
 Q. Describe the location of this bone. — 
 A. It is located beneath the cannon, and 
 takes an oblique direction from the same ; 
 it articulates superiorly with the cannon; 
 posteriorly with the ossa sesamoidea. 
 
 Q. Describe the form of the os suffra- 
 ginis. — A. It is a flattened cylinder, yet its 
 superior portion is more bullvy than the in- 
 ferior ; it is generally considered as being 
 about one-third the length of the cannon, 
 and is divided into a body, superior and 
 inferior extremities. 
 
 Q. Describe the body of the os suf&a- 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 47 
 
 ginis. — A. The body presents two surfaces, 
 anterior and posterior ; the anterior is con- 
 vex, the posterior flattened and uneven ; it 
 lessens in bulk in an inferior direction. 
 
 Q. How is the superior extremity of the 
 pastern bone recognized from the inferior ? 
 
 — A. The superior is the largest, and pre- 
 sents two shallow articular cavities ; between 
 them is a groove, which receives the central 
 eminence of the inferior extremity of the 
 cannon bone. The inferior extremity is 
 much smaller than the superior; it is bi- 
 convex, and consists of two articular con- 
 vexities, separated by a transverse shallow 
 depression. 
 
 SESSAIIOID BONES (OSSA SESSAM0ID.E). 
 
 Q. Where are the two sessamoids situ- 
 ated ? — A. At the posterior part of the 
 articulation formed by the cannon and 
 pastern bones. 
 
 Q. What is the form of these bones ? — 
 A. Trapezoid: three sides present triangular 
 faces, whose apices unite in one point, which 
 is directed upwards ; the bases of the same 
 form a fourth side, which is turned down- 
 wards ; and are therefore divided into three 
 sides, base, and apex. 
 
 Q. Give a general description of the 
 faces or surfaces of these bones. — A. They 
 are known as anterior, posterior, and lateral 
 faces ; the anterior are excavated, smooth, 
 and articulatory, and along their inward 
 borders — which are opposed to each other 
 
 — are levelled off, so that the two form a 
 groove for the reception of the central 
 eminence of the inferior portion of the can- 
 non. The posterior surfaces are convex and 
 rougli ; the lateral surfaces are grooved and 
 roughened; the bases are narrow and uneven. 
 
 Q. What appears to be the object in ex- 
 cavating the anterior surfaces of these 
 bones? — A. To extend the articulatory 
 surface of the pastern joint, and admit of 
 extensive anterior and posterior motion. 
 
 Q. For what purposes are the posterior 
 surfaces roughened ? — A. For the insertion 
 of the suspensory Ligaments. 
 
 Q. What occupies the cavity which 
 occurs in consequence of uniting the inter- 
 
 nal surfaces of these bones ? — A. The flexor 
 tendons. 
 
 Q. What ligaments are inserted into the 
 bases of these bones ? — A. The long, 
 short, and crucial ligaments. 
 
 CORONET BONE (oS COEON^). 
 
 The OS coronce is situated beneath, or 
 rather inferiorly, to the pastern, and may 
 therefore be termed the inferior, pastern; 
 it occupies a location between the superior 
 pastern and coffin bone. 
 
 Q. Describe the os corona, or inferior 
 pastern. — A. It presents a square body; its 
 breadth, however, somewhat exceeds its 
 longitudinal measurement. It has four sur- 
 faces, viz., superior, inferior, anterior, and 
 posterior ; the superior surface is bi-concave, 
 corresponding to the projections of the 
 superior pastern ; the inferior surface is bi- 
 convex, consisting of two condyloid prom- 
 inences, separated by a slight transverse 
 depression, corresponding to the articulatory 
 surface of the coffin-bone ; the anterior sur- 
 face is convex, yet rough and irregular ; the 
 posterior surface is quite smooth, yet exca- 
 vated. 
 
 Q. What are the conn? ctions of the os 
 corouEe ? — A. It connects with the pastern, 
 cofSn, and navicular bones. 
 
 BONES OF THE FOOT. 
 
 THE COFFIN BONE (oS PEDIs). 
 
 The coffin bone is considered as the base 
 of the osseous structure of the fore extremity. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the coffin bone 1 
 — A. It presents a semilunar outline ; an- 
 teriorly and superiorly it is convex ; pos- 
 teriorly and inferiorly it is concave ; it is 
 divided into wall, sole, tendinous surface, 
 articulatory surface, and wings. 
 
 Q. Describe the wall. — A. It is a 
 miniature of the form of the hoof; it exhibits 
 a porous and furrowed surface, and has in- 
 numerable perforations, varying in size and 
 form ; its superior part is surmounted by 
 the coronal process; the inferior edge of the 
 waH is somewhat oval, and is notched and 
 serrated. 
 
48 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 Q. What are the uses of the porosities 
 and furrows ? — A. They serve as so many 
 attachments for the fibrous tunic of the 
 sensible laminae. 
 
 Q. What name is generally applied to 
 the largest of the perforations found in the 
 coffin bone ? — A. They are termed for- 
 ammsB. 
 
 Q. What occupies these forarainae ? — 
 A. Blood-vessels and nerves. 
 
 Q. Describe the sole of the coffin bone ? 
 — A. The sole exhibits a broad, uniform, 
 concave surface, resembling in most cases 
 the figure of the inferior part of the hoof; it 
 has porosities similar to those formed on 
 the wall ; it is bounded anteriorly and later- 
 ally by the circumferent edge of the wall ; 
 posteriorly, by a sharp, uneven, semi-circular 
 edge, which divides it from the tendinous 
 surface. 
 
 Q. What do we find on the tendinous 
 surface? — A. 1st, a rough depression in 
 its fore and middle part, marking the inser- 
 tion of the tendo perforans. 2ndly, two 
 lateral grooves, passing obliquely inwards, 
 and terminating each in a large foramen. 
 3rdly, a porous space intermediate between 
 the two former divisions, into wliich is fixed 
 the inferior navicular ligament. 
 
 Q. What occupies the lateral grooves? — 
 A. The trunks of the arteries and nerves 
 which occupy the interior of the coffin bone. 
 
 Q. What are the pecuharities of the ar- 
 ticulatory surface of the coffin bone ? — A. 
 It has two lateral depressions, which extend 
 posteriorly to the alae ; a broad eminence 
 runs transversely between them ; this emi- 
 nence is terminated in front by the coronal 
 processes, having an incurvation backwards ; 
 behind it, the surface is bevelled off", to 
 which part is opposed the navicular bone ; 
 the depressions alluded to are deepened by 
 the prominent edge running around the an- 
 terior and lateral parts. 
 
 Q. What portion of the coffin bone does 
 the articulatory surface occupy? — A. The 
 superior part. 
 
 Q. What is the form of this surface ? — 
 A. It is half-moon shaped. 
 
 Q. Describe the alffi, or wings ? — They 
 
 consist of a protuberance on the posterior 
 part of each side of the coffin bone ; the 
 protuberance, however, is generally bifid; 
 the lower portion which is the largest, is 
 irregular and asperous, and projects in a 
 posterior direction ; the upper portion is tu- 
 bercular, yet smooth ; between the divisions 
 of the alae is a notch, which, at a certain 
 period in the life of the animal becomes a 
 perfect foramen. 
 
 Q. What is attached to the irregular sur- 
 face of the larger division of the alee ? — A. 
 The cartilage of the foot. 
 
 Q. What is affixed to the tuberculated 
 portion of the als ? — A. The coffin liga- 
 ments. 
 
 Q. What vessel passes through the 
 notch ? — A. The lateral artery. 
 
 Q. What is there remarkable about the 
 structure of the coffin bone ? — A. It has a 
 spongy, fragile texture, pervaded in every 
 direction by minute canals for the trans- 
 mission of blood-vessels and nerves ; it dif- 
 fers very essentially from many bones of 
 the body, which, in healthy subjects, are 
 remarkable for compactness and sofidity. 
 
 NAVICULAR BONE (oS NAVICULARe). 
 
 Q. What is the general form and division 
 of the navicular bone ? — A. It is semi-lu- 
 nar : its lunated border, however, only forms 
 about one third the circle of its dimensions ; 
 it is divided into two sm-faces, two borders, 
 and two extremities. 
 
 Q. Where is tliis bone situated? — A. 
 At the posterior part of the coffin joint. 
 
 Q. Describe the superior and inferior sur- 
 faces of the navicular bone. — A. The 
 superior surface bears a corresponding 
 aspect to the articulating surface of the 
 coffin bone, having two superficial lateral 
 depressions, with an eminence betw^een 
 them. The inferior surface is also articu- 
 latory ; and exhibits lateral depressions yet 
 more superficial than the superior; it has 
 also an eminence across the middle, nar- 
 rower yet more prominent than the former. 
 
 Q. Name the tendon which articulates 
 over the inferior surface. — A. Tendo per- 
 forans. 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 49 
 
 Q. Describe the borders. — A. The bor- 
 ders are lunated and straight : the lunated 
 is broadest in the centre, and narrows to- 
 wards the extremities ; superiorly it has a 
 smooth narrow strip of surface along the 
 middle, which is adapted to the bevelled 
 portion of the articulatory surface of the 
 coffin bone ; the part beneath is fluted and 
 porous, into which is inserted a ligament 
 which connects it with the coffin bone. 
 The straight border is thinner than the 
 opposite one ; superiorly it is rough and 
 porous ; inferiorly it is smooth and lipped. 
 
 Q. What is the form and direction of 
 the extremities of the navicular bone ? — A. 
 They are obtusely pointed, one directed 
 outward and the other inward. 
 
 Q. What ligaments are inserted into the 
 extremities ? — A. The lateral ligaments. 
 
 HIND EXTREMITIES. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the hind 
 extremities? — A. They occupy the inferior 
 and posterior parts of the pelvis, and sup- 
 port the posterior parts of the trunk. 
 
 Q. How are the bones of the hind ex- 
 tremities divided ? — A. They are thus 
 divided : Femur, stifle, thigh, hock, leg, pas- 
 tern, coronet, and foot. 
 
 Q. Name the bones comprising these 
 parts. — A. 
 
 FEMUR. 
 STIFLE BONE. 
 
 Patella. 
 
 THIGH BONES. 
 Tibia and Fibula. 
 
 HOCK BONES. 
 
 Astragalus, Os calcis. 
 
 Cuboid bone, 
 Three Cuneiform bones. 
 
 BONES OF THE LEG. 
 
 Metatarsi Magnum. 
 
 Metatarsi Parvieum, two bones (splents). 
 
 PASTERN JODfT. 
 
 Ossa SessamoidiE (two bones), 
 Os Suffraginis (pastern). 
 
 CORONET. 
 
 Os Corona. 
 
 BONES OF THE FOOT. 
 
 Os Pedis and Os Navieulare. 
 
 Q. Where is the femur situated ? — A. 
 Between the pelvis and thigh bones. 
 
 Q. How is it divided? — A. Into a body 
 and two extremities. 
 
 Q. What are the peculiarities of the 
 superior extremity? — A. It consists of two 
 parts : a hemispherical, smooth, articulatory 
 head, directed upwards and inwards, and 
 joined to the body by a flattened neck, 
 and exhibiting on its inner side a fissure, 
 into which is fixed the teres or round liga- 
 ment. The other part is a large irregular 
 projection at the base, and posterior to the 
 same is a deep oval cavity ; at the superior 
 part is a roughened crest; inwardly it pre- 
 sents a concave, smooth surface. 
 
 Q. What is the proper name of the pro- 
 jection? — A. The great external tro- 
 chanter. 
 
 Q. What muscles are inserted into the 
 the same ? — A. The gluteii. 
 
 Q. What is inserted into the concave 
 smooth surface? — A. The capsular liga- 
 ment. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the body of the 
 OS femoris ? — A. It is cylindrical. 
 
 Q. How does it correspond in size and 
 weight with other bones of the body ? — A. 
 It is the longest and weightiest. 
 
 Q. What is the form of inferior extrem- 
 ity ? — A. It is broad and thick, and has a 
 trochleal prominence and two condyles. 
 
 Q. Give a description of the same. — A. 
 The articular or puUy-Uke surface anteriorly 
 consists of a broad, semi-circular groove 
 bounded on either side by a prominence ; 
 the condyles much resemble each other, 
 excepting that the external is the thickest, 
 and the internal most projecting; they 
 exhibit prominent, convex, articulatory sur- 
 faces ; on their sides are rough eminences ; 
 between them is a deep fossa ; at the base 
 of the external condyle is a pit. 
 
 Q. What articulates over the pulley-like 
 surface ? — A. The patella or stifle bone. 
 
 Q. What is inserted into the rough emi- 
 nences ? — A. The lateral ligaments. 
 
 Q. What occupies the fossa ? — A. The 
 inter-articular ligament. 
 
50 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 Q. What is inserted into the pit ? — A. 
 The tendon of the extensor pedis. 
 
 Q. What is the state of this bone during 
 colthood ? — A. Exti-emities are attached to 
 the body of the bone by means of cartUage. 
 
 Q. What changes do the extremities 
 undergo just prior to adult life ? — A. They 
 become consolidated with the body of the 
 bone. 
 
 STIFLE BONE (paTELLa). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the patella ? 
 
 — A. It is situated on the anterior and infe- 
 rior extremity of the femur. 
 
 Q. What is its general form ? — A. 
 Quadrangular, convex externally, irregularly 
 concave internally. 
 
 Q. How is it divided ? — A. Into three 
 surfaces and four angles. 
 
 Q. Describe the surfaces. — A. The an- 
 terior surface is convex, yet quite prominent 
 in the centre ; it has a roughened surface, 
 and is porous. The superior surface is 
 angular, uneven, and roughened. The pos- 
 terior surface is articulatory, and unequally 
 divided by an eminence running across it 
 into two shallow concavities, which are 
 adapted to the condyles of the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the femur. 
 
 Q. Describe the form of the angles of the 
 patella. — A. They are obtuse. 
 
 Q. Why is the anterior surface of the 
 bone roughened ? — A. For the insertion of 
 tendinous and Ugamentary attachments. 
 
 Q. What is implanted into the uneven 
 and roughened part of the superior border ? 
 
 — A. The tendons of the rectus and vasti 
 muscles. 
 
 Q. What is inserted into the inferior and 
 lateral angle? — A. The Kgamentum pa- 
 tella. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of this 
 bone ? — A. It is connected to the inferior 
 portion of the femur by tendinous and 
 capsular ligaments; to the tibia it is con- 
 nected by similar ligaments. 
 
 THIGH BOXES (tIBIA AND FIBULa). 
 
 In consequence of a horse having a very- 
 large femur, and that bone appearing to 
 
 enter into the composition of the haunch, 
 the tibia and fibula are termed thigh bones, 
 although in man they are termed bones of 
 the leg ; the fibula of the horse, however, is 
 a very small, slender bone, affixed to the 
 superior part of the external side of the 
 tibia. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the thigh 
 bone ? — A. It is situated between tiie stifle 
 and hock. 
 
 Q. What is the form of this bone ? — A. 
 It is long, straight, prismatic ; its superior 
 extremity is larger than the inferior. 
 
 Q. What is its direction ? — A. Oblique 
 in a contrary direction to the femur. 
 
 Q. How is the tibia divided ? — A. Into 
 a body, superior and inferior extremities. 
 
 Q. What is the general form of the 
 body ? — A. It is irregularly triangular, the 
 posterior face is broadest, the anterior angle 
 is rounded, and the sides are roughened. 
 
 Q. What is peculiar to the superior ex- 
 tremity of the bone ? — A. We find tn^o 
 irregular ovoid articulatory surfaces, corre- 
 sponding to the eminences on the inferior 
 extremity of the femur ; these are separated 
 by an acute elevation, and two fossa, into 
 which is inserted the lateral ligament. 
 
 Q. Describe the inferior extremity. — A. 
 It is flattened, and has two deep articular 
 grooves running in an anterior and posterior 
 direction ; its exterior margin is roughened. 
 
 Q. What are its connections ? — A. It 
 connects with the femur and patella supe- 
 riorly ; interiorly, with the bones of the hock. 
 
 fibula. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the fibula? 
 — ^4. At the posterior part of the tibia. 
 
 Q. How is it connected to the tibia ? — 
 A. By cartilago-ligamentous substance. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the two ends of 
 the bone ? — A. The superior is bulky, flat- 
 tened from side to side, and roughened. 
 The inferior is slender and tapering, and 
 extends about half way down the tibia. 
 
 BOXES OF THE HOCK (taRSUs). 
 
 The tarsus, or liock, comprises a part of 
 the osseous structure of the horse, that 
 
<<5 
 
f^»%^ 
 
EXPLAJS^ATIONS OF FIGURE VI. 
 
 NO. 1. — POKE EXTREMn'IES. 
 
 f. The ulnar. 
 
 34. Humerus. 
 
 3q. Kadius. 
 
 36. Carpus. 
 
 37. Metacarpus. 
 
 38. Sessamoids. 
 
 s. or 39. Os suf&aginis. 
 
 40. Os corona. 
 
 41. Os pedis. 
 
 The above description also answers for No. 3, — the bony structure. 
 
 NO. 2. — MUSCULiVR STRUCTURE. 
 
 L.iTEIUL ■iTEW OF THE NE.1R-F0IIE EXTEEMITY. 
 
 s". Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 H' . Humero cubital. 
 
 n". Levator htunero. 
 
 p". Flexor metacarpi estemus. 
 
 i". x". Extensor pedis. 
 
 jj". j<". v. Flexor tendons. 
 
 v". Flexor tendons. 
 
 z. Suspensory ligament. 
 
 i{. The hoof. 
 
 NO. 4. 
 
 ANTEEIOR VIEW OF THE NEAX-FOEE EXTEEMITT, 
 
 s. Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 t. Extensor metacarjri obHquus. 
 
 a;". Extensor pedis. 
 
 y". Extensor suffiraginis. 
 
 ^•. The hoof. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory Ugament^ 
 
THE HOBBE. 
 
 H 
 
 every veterinary student should aim to be 
 well acquainted with ; it is a part that seems 
 to be, in this country, more liable to anchy- 
 losis and exostosis than any other region ; 
 here is the seat of spavin, and no one can 
 possibly understand the nature of such dis- 
 ease unless he be conversant with the ana- 
 tomical mechanism of the hock. The hock 
 corresponds to the tarsus or instep of man, 
 and is composed of six bones, viz., os calcis, 
 astragalus, os cuboides, ossa cuneiformis ; 
 which comprise three small bones, viz., ex- 
 ternal, internal, and middle cuneiforme. We 
 shall first consider the os calcis. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the os cal- 
 cis ? — A. It forms the posterior projec- 
 tion known as the point of the hock — ■ the 
 superior and posterior bone of the tarsus. 
 
 Q. Give a general description of the 
 bone. — A. Its figm-e is irregular ; presents 
 a body, tuberosity, posterior surface, and 
 base ; the body is most bulky at its inferior 
 part ; as a whole, it is irregularly convex ; 
 concave and expanded at its base, where 
 it presents four surfaces for articulation 
 with the astragalus ; the tuberosity is ob- 
 long, flattened on each side, and terminates 
 in a rough tubercle, into which is inserted 
 the tendons of the gastrocnemii. It is sit- 
 uated on the superior part of the hock. 
 
 THE KNUCKLE BONE (aSTRAGALUs). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the asti-a- 
 galus ? — A. It is situated in the superior 
 part of the hock, and is the principal sup- 
 port of the tibia. 
 
 Q. How do you distinguish it from 
 other bones ? — A. It is readily distin- 
 guished by its double pulley-like articula- 
 tory surfaces, which consist of two semi- 
 circular prominences, having between them 
 a deep groove, well adapted to receive the 
 projection found on the inferior extremity 
 of the tibia. 
 
 Q. What is the appearance of the pos- 
 terior surface ? — A. It has four articulatory 
 surfaces, corresponding to those of the os 
 calcis. 
 
 Q. What is the appearance of the base 
 or inferior extremity ? — A. It has an irre- 
 
 gularly flattened articulatory surface, which 
 comes in contact with the large cuneiform 
 bone. 
 
 CUBOID BONE (oS CUBOIDES). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the cuboid 
 bone ? — A. On the outer part of the 
 hock. 
 
 Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into 
 four surfaces, viz., external, internal, supe- 
 rior, and inferior. 
 
 Q. How do you distinguish the external 
 from the internal surface ? — A. The exter- 
 nal siu-face is broad, kregular, curved, and 
 roughened ; on the other hand, the internal 
 is excavated, and has three articulatory 
 surfaces. 
 
 Q. How does the superior surface difler 
 from the inferior ? — A. The superior sur- 
 face has two articulations, with a fossa 
 between them ; the inferior surfaces are 
 smaller, and correspond, one to the articula- 
 tory head of the splent bone, and the other 
 to the cannon. 
 
 large cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme 
 magnum). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the cunei- 
 form bone ? — A. Directly beneath the 
 astragalus. 
 
 Q. What is the appearance of this bone ? 
 — A. It presents a triangular form; its 
 acvite termination being in a posterior du-ec- 
 tion, it has superior and inferior sm'faces, 
 sides, and angles. 
 
 Q. How is the superior surface distin- 
 guished from the inferior l — A. The supe- 
 rior surface has a uniform articulatory 
 surface, with the exception of a small, 
 rough grove running to its centre, from the 
 outer side, which terminates in a central 
 pit. The inferior surface is rather convex, 
 yet presenting a flat appearance ; its poste- 
 rior an^le has an articulatory surface, cor- 
 responding to that of the cuboid bone. 
 
 Q. What are the articulations of tliis 
 bone ? — A. It articulates with the astra- 
 galus, cuboid, middle and small cunei- 
 form bones. 
 
52 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 middle cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme 
 medium). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the middle 
 cuneiform bone ? — A. It is situated be- 
 neath the large cuneiform. 
 
 Q. What is the relative size of the ossa 
 cuneiformis ? — A. The one beneath the 
 astragalus is the largest ; the middle is the 
 medium ; and that at the posterior part of 
 the hock is the smallest. 
 
 small cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme 
 parvum). 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the small 
 cuneiform bone ? — A. It is situated at the 
 posterior part of the hock. 
 
 Q. What are the articulations of this 
 bone ? — A. It articidates superiorly with 
 the internal angle of the large cuneiform ; 
 anteriorly, with the same angle of the mid- 
 dle cuneiform ; posteriorly, with the inter- 
 nal splent bone and cannon. 
 
 HIND CANNON (oS METATARSI MAGNUm). 
 
 Q. What is the popular name of the 
 hind cannon ? — A. Shank-bone. 
 
 Q. How does it compare in length with 
 the cannon of the fore extremities ? — A. It 
 is about one-sixth part longer than the fore 
 cannon. 
 
 Q. Is there any difference in the supe- 
 rior surfaces of the fore and hind cannons ? 
 — A. Yes ; the superior surface of the fore 
 cannon corresponds to the surfaces of the 
 inferior bones of the carpus ; the superior 
 extremity of the hind cannon closely resem- 
 bles the surfaces of the middle and small 
 cuneiform bones, and also that of the 
 cuboid. 
 
 Q. How do the hind and fore cannons 
 differ in conformation ? — A. The bone of 
 the Iiind extremity is more circular and 
 prominent, anteriorly, than the forward 
 one. 
 
 METATARSI PARVIUM (hIND SPLENTS.) 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the metatarsi 
 parvium? — A. They are situated at the 
 posterior part of the liind cannon. 
 
 Q. How are the hind splents recognized 
 
 from those of fore limbs ? — A. The hind 
 splents are longer than the fore ; their bodies 
 are more circular and prominent forward, 
 and the superior extremities correspond to 
 a part of the cuneiform and cuboid bones ; 
 while the superior extremities of the forward 
 splents correspond to a portion of the in- 
 ferior row of the bones of the knee. 
 
 We now come to the bones articulating 
 beneath the inferior extremity of the hind 
 cannon, viz., pastern, sessamoid, coronet, 
 coffin, and navicular bones. These, according 
 to the opinion of Mi-. Percivall, " so closely 
 resemble their fellows of the fore extremity " 
 that we shall dispense with examinations 
 regarding them, merely remarldng that the 
 bones of the hind feet are generally broader 
 in a lateral and posterior direction than 
 those of the fore ; the pastern and coronet 
 bones are somewhat longer than their fellows 
 forward. 
 
 BONES OF THE EAR. 
 
 Q. Name the bones of the ear. — A. 
 Malleus, incus, stapes, and orbiculare. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the malleus? — 
 A. It appears to resemble a mallet. 
 
 Q. Name the long process or handle. — 
 A. Manubrium. 
 
 Q. To what is the manubrium attached? 
 
 — A. To the membrana tympani. 
 
 Q. Describe the form of the incus. — A. 
 It is said to resemble a blacksmith's anvil, 
 but, probably, approaches nearer to the 
 figure of a molar tooth ; it has a depression 
 on its surface, which receives the head of 
 the malleus. 
 
 Q. Describe the stapes. — A. It resem- 
 bles in form a common iron stirrup, yet has 
 a more triangular appearance. 
 
 Q. With what bone does it articulate? 
 
 — A. The OS orbiculare. 
 
 Q. Describe the OS orbiculare. — A. It is 
 the smallest bone of the body, not exceeding 
 in size a grain of mustard-seed. 
 
 Q. What is its use in the mechanism of 
 the ear? — A. It forms the medium of 
 junction and communication between the 
 incus and stapes, and facilitates the motions 
 of the latter bones. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 53 
 
 03 HYOIDES (bone OF THE TONGUe). 
 
 Q. Wliat is the situation of the os 
 hyoides ? — A. It is located at the root of 
 the tongue, at the anterior part of the larynx. 
 
 Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into 
 a body and four horns. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the body ? — A. 
 In shape, it resembles a spur, consisting of 
 neck and branches ; the neck is inserted 
 into the root of the tongue, and the branches 
 are in a posterior direction, embracing the 
 superior border of the thyroid cartilage. 
 
 Q. What is the appearance of the horns ? 
 — A. There are two long and two short 
 horns; the short, or inferior, ascend oblique- 
 ly from their articulations with the body of 
 the bone, and terminate in oblong, smooth 
 extremities. The long or superior horns 
 constitute two long, flattened, thin bones, 
 extending backward in a horizontal direc- 
 tion from the summits of the inferior horns. 
 
 Q. What are the connections of the os 
 hyoides ? — A. It is connected with the 
 temporal bone, larynx, pharynx, tongue, and 
 some of the muscles of the neck. 
 
 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 Q. How many teeth do we find in the 
 jaws of the adult horse? — A. Forty. In 
 the mare, however, the canine teeth are 
 generally imperfect or undeveloped. 
 
 Q. How are the teeth divided ? — A. 
 Into tlaree classes, viz.: incisors, or nippers; 
 molars, or grinders ; canini, or tusks. 
 
 A. Enumerate each class. — A. There 
 are twelve incisors, twenty-four molars, and 
 four canine. 
 
 Q. Is there anything peculiar about the 
 development of horses' teeth ? — A. Yes ; 
 the teeth with which the animal is furnished 
 during colthood are termed temporary, and 
 are generally shed ere the animal arrives at 
 the age of five ; the temporary teeth are 
 twenty-four in number, twelve incisors and 
 t^velve molars ; they differ from what is 
 termed the "permanent set," in being small- 
 er and whiter, and in having necks or con- 
 tractions at the superior part of the fang, 
 and the eminences on their face are quite 
 
 sharp. The converse is the case with regard 
 to the permanent teeth. 
 
 Q. What is the popular theory regarding 
 the periods of cutting the teeth? — A. A 
 foal is said, at birth, to be in the act of cut- 
 ting twelve molars, three on each side of 
 the jaw bone ; at this time, there is no ap- 
 pearance of incisors ; and when they do 
 appear, which period will be about the 
 second or third week from birth, sometimes 
 sooner, the front incisors of the upper jaw 
 are the first to show themselves, and be- 
 t^veen the fourth and fifth week, they are 
 succeeded by the middle incisors ; the side 
 or lateral incisors make their appearance 
 between the sixth and tenth month. The 
 animal is then said to have a full set of 
 temporary teeth. After the animal has at- 
 tained hisfu-st year, the fourth molars malie 
 their appearance. Between the period of 
 the first and second years, the fifth molars, 
 in each side of the jaw, are apparent. Be- 
 tween the second and third years, the front 
 permanent incisors displace the temporary, 
 and, at the same time, the first temporary 
 molars are shed, and replaced by the perma- 
 nent. Between the third and fourth years, 
 the middle temporary incisors are succeeded 
 by the permanent, and about the same time 
 the second temporary molars are shed. 
 During the interval of the fourth and fifth 
 years, the lateral permanent incisors appear ; 
 the sixth and last, permanent molars are 
 up, and then the tusks also appear. At this 
 period the horse is said to have a fuU mouth; 
 a complete set of permanent teeth.* 
 
 We have now arrived at an era (or re- 
 
 * On this side the Atlantic we are not in possession of 
 any reliable information as regards the periods of cutting 
 and shedding teeth ; we have to depend entirely on English 
 authority. Their theory is, that the age of a race-horse shall 
 be reckoned from the month of May in the year of his 
 birth, without any inquii-y whatever as to the season, 
 month, or day of foaling ; so that the produce of January 
 are actually four months older than by reckoning, or as 
 their ages appear on the calendar, and these are called 
 early foals ; whereas those foaled in March are denorai- 
 nated-/ate. These data are more arbitrary than truthful ; 
 may suit the convenience of English turfmen, but will not 
 pass current among our breeders, — who, generally, pay 
 particular attention to the time of foaling, and date the 
 birth of the colt accordingly. 
 
54 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 markable period) in the age of the horse ; 
 have briefly considered a series of changes 
 which the teeth of a colt undergo, up to 
 the period of maturity, and shall now turn 
 our attention to the changes observed in 
 the process of wear and tear of the perma- 
 nent teeth. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE CHANGES 
 WHICH A, HORSE'S TEETH 
 UNDERGO. 
 
 The nippers or front teeth of a fiiU- 
 mouthed horse, just having shed all the 
 temporary ones, present a beautiful ap- 
 peai-ance : the contrast bet\veen the lily 
 whiteness of the teeth, and the rose-tinted 
 color of the gums and their membranes, are 
 never so much the subject of admiration as 
 at this period. 
 
 Teeth, when first cut, present a sharp 
 border externally, from which a gradual 
 depression commences until the internal 
 border is reached ; in the course of about 
 a year, in consequence of friction on the 
 external, and growth of the internal, the 
 surface presents two elliptical enamelled 
 rims, one of which borders the face of the 
 tooth, the other encircles the depression or 
 pit. 
 
 Within this pit is a black incrustation, 
 which is denominated " bean " or " mark ; " 
 at a period of about ttaee years from the 
 time of cutting the permanent teeth, the pit 
 or cavity is consolidated or fiUed up, and 
 the surface of the tooth is worn down so as 
 to present a comparatively smooth one. 
 We must not expect, however, to find the 
 face of the teeth uniform ; for cribbers, and 
 voracious feeders, deface the surfaces very 
 much, which gives to the teeth the appear- 
 ance of age. Still, a good judge, who takes 
 into consideration not only the appearances 
 of surfaces, but also the form and direction 
 of the teeth themselves, is not apt to be 
 deceived regarding the age of a full-mouthed 
 horse. 
 
 Pessina, from whose work ]\Ir. Percivall 
 quotes, concludes that — 
 
 " At the age of eight (in most horses). 
 
 the disappearance of the marks is perfect: 
 the teeth are all oval, the central enamel 
 upon the face is triangular, and nearer to 
 the outward than the inward border, and 
 the cavity of the tooth appears within the 
 outward border like a yellowish band carried 
 from one side to the other. 
 
 " At nine years, the front teeth appear 
 round, the middle and the lateral contract 
 their oval faces, and the central enamel di- 
 minishes and approaches the inward border. 
 
 " At ten, the middle teeth become round, 
 and the central enamel has approximated 
 the inward border and is rounded. 
 
 " At eleven, the middle teeth are rounded, 
 and the central enamel is almost worn off 
 the posterior incisors. 
 
 " At twelve, the lateral teeth are rounded, 
 the central enamel has quite disappeared : 
 the yellow band has grown wider, occupies 
 the centre of the face of the tooth, and 
 the central enamel continues in the teeth 
 of the upper jaw. 
 
 " At thirteen, all the incisors are rounded, 
 the sides of the front teeth spread out, and 
 the central enamel continues in the upper 
 jaw, but is rovmd and approaches the inward 
 border. 
 
 " At fourteen, the faces of the front inci- 
 sors put on a triangular appearance, the 
 middle grow out at their sides, and the cen- 
 tral enamel of the upper teeth diminishes, 
 but still exists. 
 
 " At fifteen, the front teeth have become 
 triangular, the middle enter upon that 
 figure, and the central enamel of the upper 
 jaw is still visible. 
 
 " At sixteen, the middle are triangular, 
 the lateral commence that shape, and the 
 enamel of the upper teeth has disappeared. 
 
 " At seventeen the triangular figures of 
 Ihe posterior jaw are completed ; but their 
 triangles are equilateral until the eighteenth 
 year. Then their sides lengthen in succes- 
 sion from the front to the lateral teeth, in 
 such a manner that — 
 
 " At nineteen, the front teeth are flat- 
 tened from side to side ; 
 
 " At twenty, the middle incisors have 
 taken on the same shape ; lastly — 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 55 
 
 " At h\'enty-one the lateral teetli are also 
 flattened." 
 
 Professor Passim* "systematically di- 
 vides the lifetime of the horse, wliich he 
 computes at thirty years, into six periods, 
 that take their rise from and are determined 
 by an equal number of changes the teeth 
 naturally undergo, in regular succession. 
 
 " The first period is that during which 
 the animal retains aU or any of his milli 
 teeth ; it extends from birth to the fifth year. 
 " The second period includes the sixth 
 year, and continues so long as the marks 
 remain visible upon the faces of the pos- 
 terior incisors; which is generally about 
 tliree years. 
 
 " In many instances, however, and espe- 
 cially among horses that have been kept at 
 pasture, the faces of the front teeth, and 
 sometimes those of the middle, are worn off 
 earlier. 
 
 " The third period is that during which 
 the teeth retain the oval form. As the pits 
 and marks degenerate, the face of the tooth 
 slowly and gradually undergoes a de\dation 
 of figm-e, from that of a pretty regular ellip- 
 sis, whose long to its short axis bears the 
 proportion of six to three, to an irregular 
 one, in which these proportions are as five 
 to four. This period requires, on an aver- 
 age, the space of sis years for its comple- 
 tion ; the front teeth enter it in the seventh 
 and conclude it at the expiration of the 
 tn^elfth; the middle pass through it one 
 year later; and the lateral, cr side teeth, one 
 year later still. 
 
 " In the fourth period the faces of the 
 teeth assume a circular figiu-e, and hence 
 have been denominated round. At the 
 commencement of this period, the breadth 
 of the face to its thickness is as 5 to 
 4 ; at the conclusion, it measures in an 
 inverse ratio, as 4 to 5 ; about the middle 
 of it, the diameters are equal. Tliis period 
 also endures six years ; so that the front 
 teeth, which enter it in the thirteenth year, 
 complete it by the expiration of the 
 eighteenth ; the middle follow one year 
 later ; the lateral, one year later still. 
 * See Percivall's Lectures. 
 
 k 
 
 " During the fifth period, the face of the 
 teeth deviates by slow degrees from the 
 round, and passes into the triangular state. 
 In the beginning, its thickness exceeds its 
 breadth as 5 does 4 ; in the end, as 6 does 
 3. It is the professor's opinion, yet uncon- 
 firmed by experience, that this period, lilte- 
 wise, on an average, includes a space of six 
 years; the front teeth, therefore, complete 
 it with the twenty-fourth, the middle with 
 the twenty-fifth, and the lateral with the 
 twenty-sixth years. 
 
 " The sixth and last period is one, in the 
 course of which an additional angle is 
 projected from the anterior or inferior part 
 of the tooth ; Pessina distinguishes it by 
 the epithet biangular ; he has never met with 
 a horse that had lost his teeth from age ; 
 but he has seen their faces elliptrical con- 
 trariwise, looking outwards or forwards. 
 This period is milimited. 
 
 " In the anterior, or upper jaw, the marks 
 disappear from the front teeth in the course 
 of the ninth year ; from the middle in the 
 tenth; and from the lateral in the elev- 
 enth. 
 
 " What progress these upper teeth have 
 not made in transformation diuring the 
 second period, equivalent with the poste- 
 rior, they gain it in the third; notwith- 
 standing the depth of pit, their proportions 
 are then the same. They continue three 
 years longer in the second, and consequently 
 are only three in the thfrd period ; so that, 
 by the twelfth year, the third period is 
 completed by the front upper teeth, and 
 so on. During the ioxvcih, fifth, and last 
 periods, the changes are alike, and equally 
 perceptible in either jaw. 
 
 " So far, the upper teeth are entitled to 
 an equal share of our regard; though, in 
 the generality of cases, they need not be 
 inspected. In such a remarkable man- 
 ner the lateral teeth of the upper jaw wear 
 away so that they often appear as if 
 notched or indented. 
 
 " In regard to the tusk or tush, Pessina 
 remarks that he has found the least regu- 
 larity in its changes of any tooth. The 
 very facts that the tushes are not in all 
 
56 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOESE. 
 
 horses cut at the same age, that they have 
 little or no attrition against each other, and 
 that they are worn by the tongue and food, 
 sometimes more, at others less, should lead 
 us to draw conclusions from them with 
 great caution ; in fact, as indications of 
 age, they can only be trusted to when they 
 accord with the incisors. The tush or 
 tusk makes its appearance by the fifth, and 
 is completely evolved by the sixth year. 
 In the seventh, the apex of the cone is 
 worn off. In the eighth, its furrows grow 
 shallow ; in the ninth they are obliterated. 
 Then the apex gradually wears away , in 
 the twelfth year it becomes round ; from 
 which time, though it gradually becomes 
 shorter, its shape varies but little. But it 
 is not uncommon to see the tush blunted 
 
 like an acorn in the ninth year, nor to find 
 it still pointed in the sixteenth year. 
 
 " Pessina concludes his account of the 
 changes to which the teeth are subject, 
 by observing, that, as they are dependent 
 on wear, which is no law of nature, but 
 an effect of mechanical and accidental 
 causes, they cannot, but under certain lim- 
 itations, be implicitly reUed on." 
 
 We are now supposed to be in posses- 
 sion of some of the most important facts 
 tending to elucidate the changes which the 
 teeth vindergo ; and, in view of maldng our- 
 selves more conversant with this subject, 
 we shall re-commence our examinations, 
 for it is a matter of the highest importance 
 that a veterinary surgeon shall understand 
 the method of ascertaining a horse's age. 
 
 EXAIMINATIONS ON THE TEETH. 
 
 Q. Does the evolution of the tush always indicate 
 that the animal is five years of age? — A. No. It has 
 been seen between the tliii-d and foiu'th years. 
 
 Q. Which teeth do you place the most reliance on 
 in ascertaining the age of a horse ? — A. The side or 
 lateral of the lower jaw. They make their appearance 
 last ; their pits are the last to disappear ; after the 
 age of eight or nine, however, the pits in the incisors 
 of the upper jaw are also indicative of age ; they, being 
 deeper, of course remain some time after all vestiges 
 of the same have disappeared in the lower jaw. 
 
 Q. In adult life is there any continued accretion or 
 after-growth of the teeth ? — A. Yes. If it were not 
 so, the animal would, in course of time, have to gather 
 food, and grind the same with his gums ; for, acccord- 
 ing to the law of icear and tear, destruction of the in- 
 struments — -grinders of food — must more or less reg- 
 ularly take place. 
 
 Q. AVhat changes talic place as the horse advances 
 in age, in the incUnation of the incisors? — A. They 
 acquire a horizontal direction. 
 
 Q. How is this change of dhection compensated for 
 in the grinders ? — A. The faces of the latter are worn 
 down by friction, and thus the nippers come in contact. 
 
 I Q. Are there not times when the consumption of the 
 faces of the teeth, by ii-iction, is not in proportion to 
 growth, in issue from the socket ? — A. Yes. 
 
 I Q. What is the result ? — A. The faces of the grind- 
 ers do not come in contact, and the food is, conse- 
 quently, imperfectly masticated. » 
 Q. How is this rectified ? — A. By sawing off the 
 nippers to their natural length. 
 
 Q. Talcing it for granted that there is a time when 
 
 ' the teeth cease to grow, how do you account for the 
 lengthy teeth observed in aged horses ? — A. The fang 
 shrinks, and is carried upward in the lower and down- 
 
 . ward in the upper jaw, and the gums also shrink; thus 
 we get length of teeth. 
 
 Q. What are the general appearances of age, uncon- 
 nected with the teeth ? — A. The muscles of the head 
 and face condense, and give to the same a lean appear- 
 ance ; the canities above the eyes are deep ; the gums 
 and palate become pale and callous ; the submaxillary 
 space is capacious, and gray hairs make their appear- 
 ance in various jjlaces ; the neck appears small and 
 n-iry, the withers sharp, the back ciu-ves, and the 
 hmbs appear sinewy. 
 
MYOLOGY. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE MUSCLES. 
 
 To the naked eye, the muscles appear to 
 be composed of fasciculi, or bundles of 
 fibres, which are arranged side by side in 
 the direction in wliich the muscle is to act, 
 and which are united by areolar tissue. 
 These fasciculi when separated appear like 
 simple fibres, but when examined under a 
 microscope are found to be themselves fas- 
 ciculi, composed of minuter fibres, bound 
 together by delicate filaments of areolar tis- 
 sue. By carefully separating these, we may 
 obtain the ultimate muscular fibre. This 
 fibre exists under two forms, the striated 
 and non-striated. The former is chiefly 
 distinguished by the transversely-striated 
 appearance which it presents. The non- 
 striated consist of a series of filaments 
 which do not present transverse markings. 
 At an early stage of the development of 
 muscular fibre, however, there is no differ- 
 ence in the forms of either striated or non- 
 ' striated. Both are simple tubes, containing 
 a granular matter in which no definite 
 arrangement can be traced, yet presenting 
 enlargements occasioned by the presence of 
 nuclei. But, whilst the striated fibre goes 
 on in its development, until the cells of the 
 fibrillas are fully produced, the non-striated 
 
 fibre retains throughout life its originsil 
 embryonic condition; the contents of the 
 tube remaining granular. The non-striated 
 muscular fibre is the kind of structure proper 
 to the muscular coat of the alimentary 
 canal, bladder, uterus, trachea, bronchial 
 tubes, etc. They seem to be arranged in a 
 parallel manner into bands or fasciculi, 
 without any very definite points of attach- 
 ment. On the other hand, striated muscular 
 fibre has attachments to its extremities of 
 fibrous tissue, through the medium of which 
 it exerts its contractile power on the part 
 it is destined to move. 
 
 At the truncated extremity of the striated 
 muscles we find tendons. To the ordinary 
 observer, tendons appear to unite abruptly 
 with muscular fibre ; but this is not the case, 
 for tendinous fibres are distributed over the 
 whole muscle, crossing it diagonally in both 
 directions, so as to form a double-spiraUy 
 extensible sheath ; the tendinous fibre finally 
 collects at the extremity of a muscle, and 
 forms the tendon. 
 
 Each muscle is smrounded by cellular 
 membrane, which dips into its substance, 
 and, by means of the fat which its cells con- 
 tain, lubricates the parts, and thus guards 
 against friction. 
 
 A TABLE OF THE NAMES AND NUMBER OF MUSCLES, DIVIDED INTO REGIONS. 
 
 SUBCUTANEOUS REGION (BENEATH THE SKIN)! 
 
 1. Panniculus carnosus. 
 
 AURICULAE REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EAR). 
 
 2. Attollentes maximus. 
 
 3. Attollentes anterior. 
 
 4. Attollentes posterior. 
 
 5. Anterior conchje. 
 
 6. Posterior conchae. 
 
 7. Retrahentes extemus. 
 
 8. Eetrehentes internus. 
 
 9. Abduoens vel deprimens aurem. 
 
 PALPEBRAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS). 
 
 10. Levator palpebra; superioris. 
 
 11. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 OCLXAR REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EYE). 
 
 12. Levator palpebrae superiorus internus. 
 
 13. Levator oculi. 
 
 (57) 
 
58 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 14. Depressor oculi internus. 
 
 15. Abductor oculi externus. 
 
 16. Adductor oculi internus. 
 
 17. Olibquus superioris. 
 
 18. Obli(|uus inl'erioris. 
 
 19. Retractor oculi. 
 
 ANTERIOR MAXILLARY REGION (MUSCLES OF THE NOSE 
 AM) FACE). 
 
 20. Zygomaticus. 
 
 21. Levator labii .superioris aliquae nasi. 
 
 22. Dilator naris lateralis. 
 
 23. Nasalis longus labii su])erioris. 
 
 24. Caninus vel levator anguli oris. 
 
 25. Buccinator. 
 
 26. Depressor labii inferioris. 
 
 27. Levator menti. 
 
 28. Dilator narium anterior. 
 
 29. Nasalis brevis labii su])erioris. 
 
 30. De])ressor labii superioris. 
 
 31. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 POSTERIOR MAXILLARY REGION (lIUSCLES OF THE TTF4T) 
 AND CHEEKS). 
 
 32. Temporalis. 
 
 33. JIasseter. 
 
 34. Stylo-maxillaris. 
 
 35. Pterygoideus internus. 
 
 36. Pterygoideus externus. 
 
 HYOIDEAL REGION (MUSCLES BETWEEN THE BRANCHES 
 OF THE LOWER JAW). 
 
 37. Digastricus. 
 
 38. Mylo-hyoideus. 
 
 39. Gcnio-hyoideus. 
 
 40. Plyoideus magnus. 
 
 41. Hyoideus parvus. 
 
 42. Stylo-hyoideus. 
 
 GLOSSAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE). 
 
 43. Hyo-glossus longus. 
 
 44. Hyo-glossus brevis. 
 
 45. Genio-hyo-glossus. 
 
 46. Lingua lis. 
 
 PH\RYNGL\L REGION (MUSCLES ABOUT THE PHiRYNX). 
 
 47. Hyo-pharyngeus. 
 
 48. Palato-pharyngeus. 
 
 49. Stylo-pharyngeus. 
 
 494. Constrictor phaiTngis, anterior. 
 
 50. Constrictor pharyngis, medius. 
 
 51. Constrictor pharyngis, posterior. 
 
 L.iRYNGEAL REGION (MUSCLES ABOUT THE L-tRYNX). 
 
 52. Hyo-th)Toidcus. 
 .53. Crico-thjToideus. 
 
 54. Crico-ai'jtenoideus posticus. 
 
 55. Crico-arytenoideus lateralis. 
 
 56. ThjTo-arytenoideus. 
 
 57. Aa-j1enoideus. 
 
 53. Hyo-epiglottideus. 
 
 PALATINE REGION (SIUSCLES OF THE PALATE). 
 
 59. Tensor palati. 
 
 60. C'ircumflexus palati. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE NECK. 
 
 HLTUERO-CERVICAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE 
 LTPER AND LOWER PARTS OF THE NECK). 
 
 61. Khomboideus longus. 
 
 62. Levator humeri. 
 
 LATERAL CERVIC.U, REGION (SIDE OF THE NECK). 
 
 63. Splenius. 
 
 64. Complexus major. 
 
 65. Trachelo-mastoideus. 
 
 66. Spinalis colli. 
 
 su^ERo-CER■\^co-occIP^AL region (muscles situated 
 abo^t; the head). 
 
 67. Complexus minor. 
 
 68. Rectus capitis posticus, major. 
 
 69. Rectus capitis posticus, minor. 
 
 70. Obliquus capitis, superior. 
 
 71. Obliquus capitis, inferior. 
 
 INFERIOR CER\1CAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED IN 
 THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK). 
 
 72. Sterno maxillaris. 
 
 73. Sterno-thjTo-hyoideus. 
 
 74. Subscapulo-hyoideus. 
 
 75. Scalenus. 
 
 76. Longus colli. 
 
 INFERIOR CER■^^CO-OCCIPITAL REGION (MUSCLES BE- 
 NEATH THE BASE ATLAS). 
 
 77. Rectus capitis anticus, major. 
 
 78. Rectus capitis anticus, minor. 
 
 79. Obliquus capitis, anticus. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE CHEST. 
 
 DORSO SCAPULAR REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT 
 THE SnOUXDER BLADE). 
 
 SO. Ti-apezius. 
 
 81. Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 82. Rhomboideus breris. 
 
 PECTORAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED IN FRONT OF 
 THE ERE.iST BON'S). 
 
 83. Pectoralis, transversus. 
 
 84. Pectoralis, magnus. 
 
 85. Pectoralis parvus. 
 
 COST.\L REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED EXTERN.iL ANT) 
 INTERN.AL TO THE RIBS). 
 
 86. Serratus magnus. 
 
 87. Intercostales extcmi. 
 83. Intercostales interui. 
 
 STER.\AL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE BREAST BONE). 
 
 89. Lateralis sterni. 
 
 90. Sterno-costalis, extemi. 
 
 91. Stemo-costalis intemi. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 59 
 
 DOKSO-COST.VL Ri;GIOX (MUSCLES ON THE SIDES AND 
 ITPCR PAKT OF TDE CHEST). 
 
 i)2. Superlicialis costarum. 
 
 93. TraiisversaKs costarum. 
 
 94. Levatores costarum. 
 
 DOUS.VL REGION' (MUSCLES OF TIIE DACK, .VXTErUOR TO 
 THE LUMBAR ^-ERTEBICE). 
 
 95. Longis.simus dorsi. 
 
 96. Spinalis dorsi. 
 
 97. Semi spinalis dorsi. 
 
 DLU>HR.\G5LiTIC REGION. 
 
 98. Diaphragm or midriif. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 LLTUBAR REGION (MUSCLES OF THE LOINS). 
 
 99. Semi spinalis limiborum. 
 
 100. Intertransvcrsales lumbonmi. 
 
 101. Sacro lumbalis. 
 
 102. Psoas Magnus. 
 
 103. Iliacus. 
 
 104. Psoas par\Tis. 
 
 ABDOMLN.\L REGION (MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN). 
 
 105. Obliquus externus abdominis. 
 lOG. Obliquus internus abdominis. 
 
 107. Transversalis abdominis. 
 
 108. Rectus abdominis. 
 
 AN.\L REGION (MUSCLES OF THE ANUS). 
 
 109. Retractor aui. 
 
 110. Spliincler ani. 
 
 GEXIT.IL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE M,\I,E ORGANS OF 
 GENERATION). 
 
 111. Cremaster. 
 
 112. Erector penis. 
 
 1 13. Triangulai-is penis. 
 
 114. Accelerator urinEe. 
 
 The muscles in the genital regions of the female are 
 named : Erector Clitoridis, Sphincter Vagina;. 
 
 COCCTGEAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE T.\IL). 
 
 115. Erector coccygis. 
 
 116. Depressor coccygis. 
 
 117. Curvator coccygis. 
 
 118. Compressor coccygis. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 EXTEKN.VL SCAPU'LAR REGION (MUSCLES ON THE OUT- 
 SIDE OF THE SHOULDER BLADE). 
 
 119. Antea-spinatus. 
 
 120. Porte a-spinatus. 
 
 INTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION (MUSCLE ON THE LVSIDE 
 OF SHOULDER BLADE). 
 
 121. Subscapularis. 
 
 POSTERIOR SCAPUXAR REGION (MUSCLES BEHIND THE 
 SHOULDER BL.\DE). 
 
 122. Teres major. 
 
 123. Teres minor. 
 
 ANTERIOR HU-JIEEAL REGION (MUSCLES IN FRONT OF 
 THE OS HUMERI). 
 
 124. Coraco-humcralis. 
 
 125. Flexor brachii. 
 
 126. IlumeraKs externus. 
 
 POSTICRIOR UUMER.iL REGION (MUSCLES BEHIND THE 
 
 127. ,. . 
 
 128. lis 
 
 129. £ § g 
 
 130. w"' 
 
 OS HUMERI). 
 
 Ca|)ut magnum. 
 Caput medium. 
 Caput parvum. 
 Anconeus. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE ARM AND FORE LEG. 
 
 .AXTERIOR BRACHIO CRURAL REGION (MUSCLES IN FRONT 
 OF THE ARM). 
 
 131. Extensor metacai-j)i magnus. 
 
 132. Extensor pedis. 
 
 133. Extensor suflraginis. 
 
 134. Extensor metacarpi obliquus. 
 
 SUPERFICIAL POSTERIOR BR.\CniO CRURAL REGION 
 (MUSCLES ON THE EXTERN.AL SIDE OF THE ARM). 
 
 135. Flexor metacarpi externus. 
 
 136. Flexor metacarpi medius. 
 
 137. Flexor metacarpi internus. 
 
 138. Flexor accessorius sublimis. 
 
 DEEP POSTERIOR BRACHIO CRITI-AL REGION. (THESE 
 MUSCLES ARE SITUATED BENE.VTU THE FORMER.) 
 
 139. Flexor pedis perforatus. 
 
 140. Flexor pedis perforans. 
 
 141. Flexor pedis accessorius profundus. 
 
 142. Lumbrici, anterior. 
 1424. Lumbrici, posterior. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE IIIXD EXTREMITIES. 
 
 GLUTKAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR P.ART 
 OF THE QU.VRTER). 
 
 143. Gluteus externus. 
 
 144. Gluteus maximus. 
 
 145. Gluteus minimus. 
 
 PELM-TROCHANTERLVN REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED AT 
 THE UTPER PART OF THE THIGH BONE). 
 
 146. Pj-rilbrmis. 
 
 147. Obtm'ator externus. 
 
 148. Obtm-ator internus. 
 
 149. 150. Gemini. 
 
 ANTERIOR rLIO-FEMOR.U, REGION (MUSCLES SITU.WED 
 AT THE FORE PART OF THE HAUNCH). 
 
 151. Tensor vaginEe. 
 
 152. Rectus. 
 
 153. Triceps vasti. 
 
 154. Rectus parvus. 
 
 INTERN.AL ILIO FEMORAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED 
 AT THE INN-ER PART OF THE HAUNCH). 
 
 155. Sartorius. 
 
60 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 156. Gracilis. 
 
 157. Pectineus. 
 
 158. » o C Adductor brevis. 
 
 159. .§ 3 < Adductor longus. 
 
 160. file Adductor magnus. 
 
 POSTEEIOR ILIO FEMOEAL REGION (MUSCXES ON IHE 
 OUTER ANT3 POSTERIOR FART OF THE HAUNCH). 
 
 161. Biceps abductor. 
 
 162. Abductor tibialis. 
 
 MUSCLES OF THE THIGH A^^D LEG. 
 
 ANTERIOR AND FEMERO-CRURAE REGION (MUSCLES IN 
 FRONT OF THE TIBIA). 
 
 163. Extensor pedis. 
 
 164. Peroneus. 
 
 165. Flexor metatarsi. 
 
 SUPERFICIAL POSTERIOR FEMORO-CKUEAL REGION 
 (MUSCLES IN THE REGION OF THE HOCK). 
 
 166. Gastrocnemius extemus. 
 
 167. Gastrocnemius internus. 
 
 168. Plantaris. 
 
 DEEP POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRUHAL REGION (MUSCLES 
 •n-HICn ARE FOUND BENEATH THE FORMER). 
 
 169. Popliteus. 
 
 170. Flexor pedis. 
 
 171. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 The muscles of the internal ear are named : 
 
 Laxator tympani, 2 
 
 Mcmbrana " 2 
 
 Tensor " 2 
 
 Stapedius, 2 
 
 Total, 8 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 "We shall now recapitulate, as regards 
 what has preceded, in reference to the num- 
 ber of muscles ; for there exist various 
 opinions regarding the same. It may be 
 proper for us to bear in mind, however, that 
 VETERINARY SCIENCE, here, is yet in its in- 
 fancy ; and it is well known to some prac- 
 titioners, that there are several muscles 
 which remain to be named by some future 
 compiler of veterinary literature. But for 
 all practical purposes we know enough of 
 the anatomy of the horse. The industrious 
 individual, however, who not only desires to 
 make himself conversant with what is al- 
 ready known, but aims to improve in the 
 
 future, will not rest satisfied with the pro- 
 ductions of his predecessors. To such an one 
 we bow with due deference, and encourage 
 him to proceed in the work of progression. 
 There is a fine field for exploration, and a 
 discerning public are ready and willing to 
 crown the industrious laborer with the laurel 
 of merit. 
 
 In the preceding table, the number of 
 muscles, including those marked 49 1-2 and 
 142 1-2, appears to be 173; among these 
 are ten single ones, wliich are thus expressed: 
 
 Whole mmiber, .... 173 
 
 Deduct single ones, .... 10 
 
 Pairs, . 
 
 Multiply by 
 
 163 
 2 
 
 Single muscles, 326 
 
 Add muscles of the internal ear, four pairs, 8 
 
 Single muscles, as above added, 
 
 334 
 10 
 
 It appears, therefore, that there are in the 
 system of the horse three hundred and forty- 
 four muscles. 
 
 It should be borne in mind, that in the 
 preceding classification all are considered as 
 muscles. Among them are found tendons, 
 which are component parts, or rather ap- 
 pendages, to the same. Mr. Percivall says 
 there are, in the horse, 151 pairs, and 10 
 single muscles ; add the four pairs of the in- 
 ternal ear, which he has omitted in the cal- 
 culation, and we get 155 pairs. On page 
 72, " Hippapathology," the number of 
 muscles is 
 
 312 
 Add muscles of the ear, omitted, . . 8 
 
 The author's estimate, 
 Diiference, 
 
 320 
 344 
 
 24 
 
 Probably the above author considers the 
 " 24 " as tendons. 
 
^ 
 
 •& 
 
 ^ 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE VII. 
 
 NO. 1. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 35. Radius. 
 
 g. Trapezium. 
 
 36. Lower row of the carpal bones. 
 
 37. Metacarpus magnus. 
 
 38. Sessamoids. 
 
 39. Os suf&aginis. 
 
 40. Os corona. 
 
 41. Os pedis. 
 
 NO. 2. — MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 INTERNAL VIEW OF THE NEAK-FOKE LEG. 
 
 o". Pectoralis transversalis. 
 
 2 . Flexor metacarpi medius. 
 
 r". " " iiitcrnus. 
 
 s". Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 t" " " obliquus. 
 
 m". iC. Flexors pedis — perforatus et perforans. 
 
 v". Suspensory ligament. 
 
 x". Extensor pedis. 
 
 z. 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory hgament. 
 
 NO. 3. 
 
 The description of No. 1 answers also for No. 3. The letter /. is intended to 
 point out the location of the ulnar, into which is inserted the triceps. 
 g. Region of the carpus. 
 
 NO. 4. 
 
 n". Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 o". PectoraHs transversahs. 
 
 o'. P". Flexor metacarpi externus. 
 
 q". Flexor metacarpi medius. 
 
 «". Fleshy beUy of the perforatus et perforans. 
 
 a;". Extensor pedis. 
 
 g". Extensor sufiraginis. 
 
 z". u". v". Flexors tendons. 
 
 k. Hoof. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 «1 
 
 3 "^ 
 
 ." CJ ;:3 
 
 I is 
 
 >^ O ' 
 
 rt S3^ 
 
 32 A r^«— * ^ 
 
 ■So s ° s 
 
 go a-g o-g a>i 
 
 o o o =* ■^-' o -^ c 
 H^&H H HE 
 
 "§-"1 "^^ •- 
 
 s ^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 S o 
 Td2 ' 
 
 bD -= J5 
 
 2 "S ,r --T 
 
 " S-2 g 
 
 5dS 
 
 c "3 
 o &, 
 
 ^ ^ "^ 5 o C c; 
 fj S S ^; M o o 
 a M C -^ — ^ ^ 
 
 .2 o bc if 5 s 5 
 
 43 -^ :Z! 2 ~ cr ^ 
 
 CO -C T^ ^ Q,^^ ^ -t-^ 
 
 
 =^3 ^ 
 
 ^ > O 
 
 IP'S « => 
 
 o .i 
 
 bD 
 
 E n ^ Ch 
 
 ^ -B -2 -3 
 
 o o o o 
 
 
 5§ 
 
 o aj ?i a; 
 2. o " o 
 
 O >- r- 
 
 •^ "^ S g _m O 
 — ' tw o ,o -o " 
 
 , :g ° :S ^ -g « 
 
 ' o J!; o cr-S 
 
 C3 .iS 
 
 ■-2 .2 
 
 5 -^ p „ 
 
 O 0) o =" "^ O 
 
 ^ r^ a " 
 
 o ~ 'o ^ 
 
 5:^ 
 
 +j 
 
 1^ 
 
 +^ 
 
 'a 
 
 
 a.-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 afipfi 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 bn 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 CJ 
 
 -a 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 be 
 
 C 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-' 
 
 o 
 
 t( 
 
 _^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-l 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CI 
 
 J5 
 
 (U 
 
 a. 
 
 •^ -s tt 
 
 H H 
 
 C rrj 
 
 c 
 
 03 
 
 "ca 
 
 
 •s o 
 
 -2 >.■-? 
 
 O Q O O t,_i 
 
 ono 
 
 'S & 
 
 m cc 
 
 d 
 
 -1 
 
 is 
 
 C - ^ J5 
 
 ,Q x: [o J3 
 ■ ^H -+-i "-1 -t-^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 hShh P-( 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 Si a ^ <-< 
 
 J J 
 
 IC CO I>QD G5 O 
 
 .- -£.2 
 
 o P _H 
 
 n !? ;:! ro tn 
 o O O pj ?3 
 
 a-i "o "o P P 
 gJ O 3 CT C 
 
 S-TS TJ ;p ;3 
 57^ 13 X! ^ 
 
 •«ti lO to O 00 
 
 Pi 
 
62 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY' OP 
 
 V 
 
 c-o-s X 
 o s c ^ 
 
 O S s « 
 
 .- s +: iS " c to 
 
 c c £: 5=3 
 
 rt = ,, t^ = c 
 
 ttJ ^ ~ r i cS fl 
 
 ~ ° v s ° « s 
 
 <1 H 
 
 c^ -^ 
 
 
 ■:=13 P =. 
 
 (u -r ^ i- ^ 7 "" 
 to i 1- C c3 .-f j3 
 — « T? r! r^ A ^ 
 
 -; C3 C 
 
 s r3 ^ is 
 
 (H -3 a) <u 
 
 §3P^ " 2 § 
 SP - -y. <D :;- S 
 
 N 2 <i^ :S ^ 
 
 o 5 
 
 o^ 
 
 1) 
 
 -:^ o 
 
 .2 ^ ? "cJ "3 S 
 -g (S s o ^ rs 
 
 =* o' . =^ I- 
 
 -tj 2 ^ c o c 
 o V o «* " 3 
 Eh H 
 
 60 
 
 C 
 
 -3 
 
 ^ c t^ 
 >-■ O C OJ 22 
 
 -c o js 2 
 
 : _ ■ - S -^ = 
 ~ rt C ? c: • 
 
 : § > S J-l ^ 
 
 ' S "S "3) a; .^ cj 
 
 : 2 ^ c :5 =« s 
 
 . ,0 CS C3 <c Q ^ 
 
 
 ^ o 
 
 'P. _ 
 
 ft tc 
 
 CX.2 o g 
 1= t^ ^ a 
 
 ^ S a) !o 
 
 
 ^ a; 
 
 ,^ 5 ^ ^ o S 
 
 "^ .^ P oj "^ 
 
 2 J= O ^ -^ O ^ 
 
 ^ rt 5 S 
 -^ o c >>-^ 
 
 r aJ rt £ ^ aj 
 
 1 +^ « tx? g u: 
 i o 2 "" o-"^ c, 
 
 C- aj rt g - c 
 
 O K -d ' 
 •-■ to H 
 
 be--; ■£ f; cJ 2 
 
 "O S 
 
 S ^ ^ 5 4i. 
 
 die 
 
 — ■ a c p • 
 
 ; ig o 
 0) ~ 
 
 i: J5 o -c 
 
 -t- o • 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 '-( 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 <D 
 
 gs 
 
 J3 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 +3 
 
 
 «»H 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 <-) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 3 
 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 t; 
 
 £1. 
 
 
 13 
 C 
 C3 
 
 j3 
 
 "3 
 
 
 .S 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 a) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 CJ t„ 
 
 rt 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 ,ij 
 
 D-n 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 
 aj 
 
 a. 
 
 ,^ 
 
 
 ', 1 
 
 . TD 
 
 P 
 
 Is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 J O 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 aj 
 
 ~ 
 
 -^ Xi 
 
 D 
 
 Cl> 
 
 o 
 
 n) 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Jl^ 
 
 jp 
 
 C) 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _o 
 
 
 
 S J2 
 
 -3 
 
 >.o 
 
 O 
 
 
 aj 
 jp 
 
 
 5 
 
 O a. 
 
 P 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 aJ D S 
 
 a) _e 
 
 a) *^ CI 
 5<« > a5 
 
 O "m ■« S 
 
 0) 
 
 (11 
 
 ^-tJ 
 
 
 
 
 UJ 
 
 c 
 
 d) 
 
 o Si 
 
 a. 
 
 -*-* 
 
 P 
 
 
 1 " 
 1^ 
 
 fo 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 9-0 
 
 3 S 
 
 
 
 Ph s 
 
 o ^ 
 
 13 
 
 I bD 
 
 O 
 
THE H0B9E. 
 
 63 
 
 O — ' 
 
 •3 ^ 
 
 
 r3 
 
 c 
 
 <U O 
 
 
 o ■a .^ 
 
 ^ c 
 
 _4_3 
 
 
 ^ *- 
 
 
 
 nen 
 wi 
 
 trils 
 
 TS ID 
 
 '3 
 
 
 ^ be 
 
 la 
 
 
 omi 
 and 
 ip. 
 nos 
 
 c o 
 
 .2 
 
 c 
 
 
 " be 
 
 .S- 
 
 aise the pi 
 lie chin, 
 iic under 1 
 dilate the 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 '5 
 
 o ci 
 
 hereby ha 
 ect in dila 
 ril. 
 
 o 
 
 >- ->^ -1^ o 
 
 o -^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 E-i i 
 
 ^o -fS 
 
 
 4) 
 
 .s 
 
 0) TS 
 
 
 t« m be • 
 
 s s 
 
 -3 
 
 5 c 
 
 
 o^ c 
 
 • •+e 
 
 aj TD 
 
 
 s 
 
 =3 ."S 
 
 fi-be 
 
 C3 C 
 
 O 
 P 
 
 o 
 S . 
 
 ■2^ 
 S-3 
 
 ^2 ^ c 5 
 
 oralis 
 ig the '. 
 pperj c 
 iress a 
 baclcw 
 
 be- ^ 
 
 C 0) g 
 
 " y -2 
 
 '■i 
 
 0) 
 
 c.~ c r- ^ 
 
 ?r P -^ 
 
 c/: 
 
 — 
 
 2 J= 'O 
 
 'd •:3 
 
 .£■-£ o S 
 
 Ji o 
 
 a a -*^ ci ^ C: •-! 
 
 5.0 
 
 -g "1 £ -^ CD g 
 
 -K . OJ ^ 
 
 
 ^ ci S 
 
 
 be c3 
 
 cS 
 
 wj C "2 O 
 
 
 n 
 
 tilage 
 rior a 
 heir 
 lie n 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 C3 G. 
 
 a 3 O O . 
 
 ^-P 
 
 .5 
 
 ;:; o a 
 
 ni 
 
 Si-^ 
 
 
 o — "d "^ "> 
 
 •5 bb^ 
 
 IS 
 
 OJ 
 
 El S 
 
 -d^ 
 
 0) 
 
 O O g ti. g_, 
 O S C3 
 
 := c ••^-•^ o ■ 
 
 -^ S -d-s 
 
 ?i S !- OJ a C3 
 S i3 ^ J3 CO 
 = ^ C 
 
 2t:oc.|-| 
 
 ° e*^ £ 
 
 S S ^ B ^- « -g 
 
 S " t3 O O J^ 
 
 ci -S 
 
 S S '-' tn 
 S fe OJ m 
 
 -= ^ s 
 
 
 C " 
 
 
 ■^ ^ 
 
 bCrt 3 
 
 O o 
 
 "' 3 
 
 
 -O c3 
 
 matic ridge, rou 
 
 le of the lower j 
 
 parts of 1he ?• 
 
 
 
 '3 fe 
 
 o .a 
 
 trj t(_ 
 
 o o 
 
 
 ■2- 
 
 
 c'bc 
 -d rt 
 
 3 E 
 
 beo 
 
 ,a 
 
 ^oj 
 
 gnSPS 
 
 'S 2 
 
 b-= 
 
 
 tc^ 
 
 ) — c ^ o 
 
 ^ m S S :S 
 
 5 5 o "^ 
 
 J3 9. 
 
 S S 0.ii 
 
 o -r -= 
 
 ci ^ C 
 
 
 o «a o' 
 H Eh 
 
 V. S 
 
 rSt^ -a 
 
 ,1, o •:i 
 
 ,T! ^-^ 
 
 c 5 
 
 Q, 
 
 ■M 
 
 
 o 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 b 
 
 
 0) 
 
 ClJ 
 
 _rt 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 +^ 
 
 y 
 
 .:_: 
 
 ci 
 
 fi 
 
 lyj 
 
 ^ e 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Ph 
 
(54 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 
 P-. to j3 
 
 
 
 
 ^ a 
 
 rt P te ,0 cS 
 
 t2 '3 'p '^ s 
 
 o — ' 
 H 
 
 ^ o-^ 
 H 
 
 ^5 
 
 gs 
 
 41! 
 
 
 03 
 
 ■3 >^ 
 
 c3 -a 
 
 '.Br'S ^^^ 
 
 o g S § o 
 
 J -^ S? ^_§ 
 
 -t^ Qj a; >- "'^ 
 ^-a£^ o 
 
 to o C ^ a 
 
 o U u <1) . ^ 
 
 « o' 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 ' O ^ (U 
 
 ■B'-S 
 
 rt 
 
 « 03 O 
 
 t^ to 
 
 to >-' 0) c 
 
 ^ o ,> ^ S 
 
 
 5 (u 
 
 - g^' 
 
 o " "" ' 
 
 -as. 
 s a 
 
 tongue 
 to draw 
 outh. 
 
 .S 6i3 
 
 d 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 the 
 , and 
 le m 
 
 C3 C3 
 
 S 
 
 f? 
 
 ^ 0) ~ 
 
 
 c 
 
 is 
 
 t; o -;3 
 
 ^ g ra 
 
 ^ i> a 2 
 
 Tl 
 
 
 C 
 
 aj 
 
 d 
 
 P 
 
 
 bn 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nd 
 
 <U 
 
 o.a 
 
 >! 
 
 ■*^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 t4H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 -c 
 
 
 C3 
 
 02 
 
 0-0 
 o -^ 
 
 
 3 ,/ ^ '-' to 
 >-. bn 2 O ,^ "2 
 
 5 S c -? 
 
 ~ 
 
 => 
 Eh 
 
 
 •T3 i 
 
 11 
 
 5^ o u. ^ 
 
 .=* "S ^ cr~" ~ 
 
 ^ Cd "*"^ r^ to 
 
 :2 ^ O s Qj rt 
 
 Ch J2 ,1:3 O OJ c2 
 
 .a ^ -M § g-.a 
 
 CD .2 -^ (U * >„ 
 
 :£ .2 '^ :g -n .> 
 
 r5 '^ 
 
 £-a 
 
 
 ss 
 
 O C TS i2 
 ^H trr tC CI, 
 
 
 c G *aj 
 
 ; -G T) 
 
 O cs o 
 
 
 rt 
 
 •5 
 
 (D «J 
 
 TS 
 
 C3 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 "S 
 
 <D 
 
 I'^'Z 
 
 X2 
 
 '-P 
 
 :h 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 " a 
 
 ve and befo 
 ;ding muscle 
 the lower 
 art of the ne 
 ng the base 
 ' the tongue 
 
 
 C43 
 
 -w 
 
 
 < £ 
 
 < s 
 
 "^° 
 
 
 -3 >. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a a 
 
 Tl 
 
 
 
 
 
 'to U 
 
 0) 
 
 
 trrg 
 
 •*^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 fe^ 
 
 
 
 >i 
 
 
 
 a, 
 
 ^ 
 
 J 
 
 P 
 
 
 60 °, 
 
 O W 
 
 _>> 6 
 
 ffi CS 
 
 &> i 
 
 w 
 
THE HORSE. 65 
 
 • oj to o -d 
 
 !3 J- to ij, .-1 
 
 :S > -2 Q S -^ 3 
 
 ?'^ be 
 
 
 >-. 
 
 O J3 
 
 ci 
 
 "^M 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 <D .3 
 
 :@ <u 
 
 -fi-S 
 
 be 
 
 a 
 
 bCrS 
 
 "u P, 
 
 O Ki 
 
 2 bb 
 
 m H a^ O) H H E-t H E-t _ 
 
 c+i^ -M-- ppceo ^oEhoo"^'*^ c3>j bo, 
 
 ^ I Z Z ^^bh^ ^^M^^'-^c ^^ Is Zs ^s 
 
 '-^+- ^^ Q ^ O >y a «^ '!? > -^^ Xtu rSn-, Hi 
 
 
 
 Iris|.:ii|3^^ri=ii|i3||ii"=s Is III 
 
 •rt ^ 2 -I "S^ S ^ -^'^2 5 "c^ .3 5^--:3 rt-M 2 s^bS q 2-1'^ 2-1 
 •d a~ Cr-^ja a « a~ S-S"^ c3i„*^ o 2 isi+--^^i-w a o-h e^ 
 
 EcSocsWO-OoaoOGoSOo P--^ &,o+3:t3-Pr|C3Co^+^ 
 
 ■aa+-'Cr^-ai-'i»«-»^cS--i "'<-i oc.ra-<- 
 
 ecSoc3M-lo-ooao"'='oS°o ^^-^ ^^^ o „ _ 
 
 Eh feHHH Eh EhEh H 
 
 2 2 ^ go 
 
 
 cj ^ 
 
 OJ 
 
 a. 
 
 Oh 
 
 be 
 
 3 
 
 
 a 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 h 
 
 
 "S 3 3 ^ 2 ^ 
 
 g tc t« QJ -r^ -5 fe bfl 
 
 ai 
 
 ^ .jr ° :S ^ -J^ ^ 2 
 
 a 2"^ ab a'*^ aQ)^^--2.2a&':3o 
 
 -g T^ o S,-2 0.0 g^:^ ^ c^ o n,i3 tH S 
 
 W kS P , P P <1 P 
 
 1^ 'tJC 
 
 hH 
 
 -c; 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 -a 
 
 -^3 
 
 5 :« 
 
 0) 
 
 _QJ 
 
 ■g> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R § 
 
 6.2 
 
 -5 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■c " 
 
 •c «« 
 
 43 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 H 
 
66 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 i2 CL. 
 
 
 S S 
 
 -c ^2 
 
 J m a) (U 
 
 ^ tH O 
 
 13 ^ O rt 
 
 M £ o 
 
 
 
 I- -a ~ 
 ■43 ^ ^ c 
 
 1:^ 5-- -a 
 
 E-^is tc, 
 
 £ S 
 
 u o 
 
 ij 
 
 
 S <u O o 'tti 
 
 1:2^^ 
 
 ^ Gi • f2 .1. 
 
 cj ."S ^^ S ?5 
 
 >> O ni 3 
 
 W p CD 6/) « 
 
 S (D r; ^ c3 
 
 m 
 
 o o 
 
 a, 2 
 
 to i> ~ ' — I 
 
 .43 
 
 
 0) 
 
 o > 
 
 
 O o 
 
 "^•^ §^5 §"rt 
 -« ^ E? c 5 
 
 J^-ls rt g g< 
 ! J3 — • ■— CO 
 
 ■ u :S 
 
 S O <D 
 
 ■g S u S d „ 
 
 OJ 
 
 C3 
 
 ^2 gii-5:S 
 - :! >-. ^ o 
 
 -5 m g g 
 -H" D cj O 
 
 O -P OJ 
 
 .S^ 
 
 ^%-.^ 
 
 o aj 
 
 
 cs •- 
 
 <^ ^ "^ .- ? 
 
 ■^ ^ P. ^ 'S. „ o 
 
 m ii >- 
 
 « o 
 
 -►^ to a, 
 
 .S^r^l T3 
 
 
 
 
 O +3 ^ O O C 
 
 _g t*- v^ J3 C <D 
 
 "^ m to o S j^ 
 
 O 03 S "" 5 O 
 
 "*" 2 S C "^ "^ 
 
 Cj - 
 
 S -D to -M *- T3 'S 
 ■3 -^^ C O ^ P 
 
 ijliNss 
 
 'a 0) S o "S 
 
 i Cj M rt O -*^ 
 
 ^H Q O 
 
 g o-s 
 
 rS-fe' 
 
 rt 
 
 "Ebv, to ^ d^ 
 
 -^ S to «-5 2 
 
 03 — - ^ ^ -+^ -^ 
 
 ^ c vh o 5 ti 
 
 03 ^ 
 
 0) 
 
 ^^ 
 
 "s s 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 -^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 03 
 
 S^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 b 
 
 o-e 
 
 03 
 
 P— : 
 cj'bD 
 
 
 )-:] 
 
 Ri 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 oi.a 
 
 h5 ?J 
 
 CcJ 
 
67 
 
68 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 
 > -= C o 
 
 
 r2 6C 
 S.S 
 
 O) O 
 
 0) 2 
 
 £.2 
 
 3 -^ 
 
 
 •^ C3 
 
 6C 
 
 ^Jlj 
 
 rt ^ 
 
 
 *3 
 
 (D CJ 
 
 u^ ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 lif^ 
 
 ~'a ^ o 
 
 
 Is 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 rt 
 
 S 2 
 
 ody 
 rt of 
 one. 
 
 o 
 
 "S 
 
 
 ^ rt -" 
 
 O 
 
 
 > "' 
 
 -^t:-^ 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 
 S ° g 2 
 
 '^ =" o o 
 
 >" ^ "lit ^ 
 
 "^ c ^ <=> 
 
 tn ^ '^ 
 
 cu o S :S 
 
 S S <« 
 
 .2 c O 
 -J^.5Prt 
 
 o "S o -- 
 
 K rt +3 "i -T^ 
 
 s.S 5 
 S 2^ 
 
 ^.rt e^ 
 
 I , ^ o 
 
 r rt OJ -iri 
 
 1;=; 5^ 
 
 g ° §^ 
 
 C C rt 
 to O D CL, 
 
 -3 ^ oj i! o 
 Q HJ 4^ rt C 
 
 H 
 
 rt 
 
 £ rt.S 
 
 /- o- 
 
 ^ :r' 
 
 %:; rt be 
 
 
 O -G .rt ' 
 
 Eh 
 
 O 0) !« o o 
 
 ^ ;i b o 
 
 rt 
 
 O 
 
 rt 
 
 'So;^ 
 
 -e 
 
 "o 
 
 £'3 g 
 
 
 
 
 •^ .-- ■*^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 — -2 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 O-rt--^ 
 
 ^ ^:^ & 
 
 S ''B ^ ."S 
 
 'S rt O 
 
 +3 o ^ _S g^ r^ 
 
 ^ .O g D 
 
 .c.ia 
 
 r= 2 B D 
 
 'n O "v. 
 
 
 O O o. 
 
 a.2^ 
 
 
 •^i 
 
 
 ^it 
 
 o d 
 ^5 
 
 S2 0) 
 O y 
 
 1) 
 
 
 ion the u 
 side of 
 lind the 
 
 
 &0 
 
 rt 5 
 
 3 
 
 s ^ 
 
 c-g 
 
 o .2 .-ts 5 
 "C '> "a, ."t; 
 
 .O ^H -rt -^ 
 
 52 "3 
 
 P^ 
 
 P^ 
 
THE HORSE. 69 
 
 
 
 
 ^ S H Eh H QC Eh Eh 
 
 II lllis iiii bill's 1^ |ili&i« ^^ !•§» 
 
 Eh H HH^HEhH 
 
 5:S'rt"^SS 'laojtc^^'^bn, o"7'-:=5'S-3 So'S-'-orh'nU'SScs-.m OD"*^ 
 
 o :S H,^ " ^ 2 ^ ^ s «5_ s IP'S g s g ^„^ 4 ^ .s a g.£ ..£ s'tS : tc s ^ .-2 ■?= ~ ° 
 
 v 
 
 (1) 
 
 
 fH 
 
 0) 
 
 <i) 
 
 
 fi) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 ti2 
 
 "•^ 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 rt 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 ;_ 
 
 
 
 UJ 
 
 ID 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 ti 
 
 D 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 CS 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 ■^ 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ;m 
 
 
 "S 
 
 03 
 
 f3 
 
 QJ 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 
 a; 
 
 s 
 
 
 'a 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 cl 
 
 C!i 
 
 O 
 
 Oj 
 
 tt-i 
 
 
 ■IJS 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o- 
 
 Ch o 
 
 UJ 
 
 _t^ 
 
 
 03 2 O 
 
 S- _2 o] in 
 
 C am 
 
 :S fi"cs . C 
 
 ID ■— < -t.^ •" 
 
 pq m ^qpqp<!OP 
 
 fi 
 
 a; ,^ 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 • rt - b 
 
 s '■ a 
 
 cr"T3 ,. 
 
 ; c ^ 
 '3 c ■ 
 
 , ^H O I— I , 
 
 ■^ B ■S a '6 bl.-ii 
 
 o a 
 
 ^ s-s 
 
 !r< g ^ 
 
 
 o £ -S 
 
 
 'I ^i 
 
 
 •^-3 rt . g a.. 
 
 5J S S2 
 III 
 
 o " « 
 
 -je, -a be a « 
 
 i S .S -^^ a 
 
 
 
 § s 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 .§ 
 
 
 5 = o bc"^ 
 
 
 O 
 .a 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 C3 
 
 o "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,a 
 
 aj 
 
 Ch . 
 
 
 ative ; also in 
 he head and 
 muscle contra 
 other dilatin 
 s the body 
 
 _3 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 .S 3 
 
 "a 
 
 
 be 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 g 
 
 "3 
 
 s 
 
 •a .2 
 o 5 
 
 2 S 
 
 
 oper 
 
 ingt 
 
 One 
 
 the 
 
 dine 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 -^ 
 
 Jo 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £B 
 
 •!3 
 
 
 
 a 
 'a, 
 
 _o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 
 J3 
 
 .a 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 o c- 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o *> 
 
 S- 3 
 
 it 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 to 
 
 ^e 
 
 o 
 
 <x> 
 m 
 O 
 
 two last; a 
 The right cr 
 
 all the lum 
 eral tendin 
 
 
 
 -fJ tc 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^ -Q 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ?2'2q2cijj>beooc3^ 
 
 aa -^aaja^-wjDS 
 
 1 tj o a 
 I a =" cs 
 
 m ^ ^ -w ^ 
 
 -7^ -a o 
 
 :g 
 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 j3 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 -+— 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 (D 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 Tl 
 
 +3 
 
 
 
 
 ■73 
 
 
 ^ ii O '-' ri ,S 
 -C ^ +- g ^ J5 
 
 a ^ .ii 
 
 1 -f= ,. Q -a o 43 
 
 o o 
 
 6~ "e'H^ m-^, 
 
 O "i 
 
 to '0 
 
 n 
 
 longissi 
 eneath 
 to the a 
 
 
 
 4i c; 
 5 ^ 
 
 be ijc li to 
 
 -g- S 
 
 > a S' 
 
 i-lT^ be^:?^ 
 
 "- S o 2 
 
 S o 
 
 1^ ^^.2 <"' 
 
 , ^ ^ -S,^ .S^ o o 
 
 
 
 S "S o "o 
 
 a 
 
 2 o 
 
 o-^ 
 
 u c ja 
 
 ^■:| 
 
 o 
 
 g S o 
 pq 
 
 bc^ S,:; 
 o S-a'* 
 
 ■p 2 
 o 
 
 <^ S . 
 — ' .a S ,S 0^ 
 
 
 pq 
 
 fi S 
 
 c3 be a 
 
 figs 
 
 "El 
 
 ■•5e 
 o 
 
<^ 
 
EXPLANATION 01^ FIGURE VIII. 
 
 NO. 1. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 22. Femur. 
 
 23. Patella. 
 
 24. Fibiila. 
 
 25. Os calcis. 
 
 26. Astragalus. 
 
 27. Inferior row of the tarsal bones. 
 
 28. Metatarsus magnus. 
 
 29. Sessamoids. 
 
 30. Os suffi-aginis. 
 
 31. Os corona. 
 
 32. Os pedis.' 
 
 The above explanations will serve to illustrate No. 3. * * are the matatarsi 
 pai'num. 
 
 NO. 2. 
 
 INSIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-HIND LEO. 
 
 g. Rectus. 
 
 p'. Vastus internus. 
 
 2*. X. X. Extensor pedis. 
 
 q. Flexor metatarsi. 
 
 r'. v\ Gastrocnemius externus et internus. 
 
 t. Peroneus. 
 
 u. The insertion of the gastrocnemi. 
 
 v'. V. Tendon of the flexor metatarsi. 
 
 z'. Suspensory ligaments. 
 
 if. The hoof. 
 
 6. 5. The saphena vein. 
 
 K. Abductor femoris. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory hgament. 
 
 it'. (Beneath the jjostern) Perforatus et perforans. 
 
 NO. 4. 
 
 K. J. Biceps, showing the manner in wliich it bifurcates. 
 
 r'. Gastrocnemius internus. 
 
 t'. Peroneus. 
 
 v'. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 5. " " externus. 
 
 u'. Insertion of the gastrocnemi. 
 
 y'. Peroneus. 
 
 u. u'. v'. Flexors of the foot. 
 
 «f. The hoof. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 71 
 
 rB 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^2S| 
 
 
 
 -t3 
 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 •^ OT 
 
 prox 
 
 k^erse 
 
 the 
 
 bac^ 
 
 'P. 
 
 
 J3 
 
 m 
 
 •^^ 
 
 c=l 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 cj r; 
 
 n ap 
 trans 
 nd a- 
 draw 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ■-' 
 
 Gh c3 
 
 ni . O 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 u. 
 
 9 -0 
 
 borum 
 ing th 
 cesses 
 time t 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a, 
 
 Cj 
 
 o 
 
 1) 
 
 o 
 > 
 
 O i 
 
 O •" 
 
 ? 5 « S c^ 
 
 §- S ■« - -5 « 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 i '^ u 
 
 rt a; 
 
 ^ S „ ° 
 
 Th CI, Q,j3 
 
 J3 O 
 
 
 X 2 
 
 H H 
 
 CS 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 C3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 -fc 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^1 
 
 b 
 
 !0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 -3 
 
 JS 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 ,J3 O C- O ' 
 
 C ii G -^ 
 
 1 ^ ^ I^ I ^i" -o ^ g^' ^ 
 
 o ti •=; 
 
 ■jj 
 
 ■*^ s „r 
 
 
 p^^ 
 
 £^ 
 
 o — "E 
 
 OJ 
 
 ttac 
 lese 
 the 
 
 3 -^ 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 CS*- 
 
 
 c-o f- 
 
 &, 
 
 H 
 
 h 
 
 H 
 
 
 mi 
 
 cS 
 
 •+f P OJ O -y 
 
 J 1^ a; -S 
 
 fe o ° S g 
 
 rt to <u M 
 
 -1^ o O 
 
 
 sc o .2 ^ 
 
 .2 W) 
 
 -2 *" .S S 
 
 
 S G § 
 
 a ^ ^ 
 
 s S o be i: <" '^ 
 
 -^ C S -►- CI. « 
 
 2 g S =3 o " 
 c5.a > „.^ 2 
 
 o 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 .a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S s- -t- rt . . 
 
 
 ji O 
 
 rl 
 
 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 inn 
 thei 
 and 
 I ve 
 limb 
 antei 
 
 
 &.-0 
 
 B o 
 
 O 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1l 
 
 the 
 ear 
 ody 
 orsa 
 he I 
 •och 
 
 
 2 '5 
 
 "rt 
 
 tc 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 O S ^ T) -.- -P 
 
 o 
 
 L'o 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 Xl 
 
 +^ +3 
 
 Eh 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 ^•s.e 
 
 
 n> a 0) 
 .5 3:2 
 bc-a 
 
 a a 
 
 &H a ■ 
 
 ■;< <u bJ3 . 
 
 a b 
 
 cS 
 
 o fe 
 
 S 2 ^ 
 
 O ..am. 
 
 >H O -►- " g 
 
 .2 " - '"^ ■-" " 
 
 in » 
 
 o -a 
 
 
 ,~ a^ 
 
 !a= J ^^ "S .a 
 
 >> c » o a m 
 
 -a ja a2 vm jj c 
 
 •3 ii 
 
 ^■^'a-S 
 
 ■^ ci cTr^ 
 
 a X J= 
 
 ''c a ^ . 
 
 o a a 
 
 .S -a 
 
 a as 
 
 o ^ 
 
 5 S 
 
 o a 
 
 a C 
 
 a a 
 
 « r' o 
 
 P^ 
 
 ss 
 
72 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 WJ 
 
 -a c 
 
 1 
 
 c o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &1 
 
 f^!> . 
 
 
 pom 
 
 
 o <u 
 
 
 
 -^ (U 
 
 Oh 5 <U 
 
 tS m 
 
 S :S 
 
 -^ S 
 
 g-^ " 
 
 s s 
 
 O n! O 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 S o 
 
 
 
 
 « 'T3 " 
 
 T3 
 
 
 3 jd 
 
 ■^ s 
 
 2 
 
 
 C +^ 
 
 <u cs "*"^ 
 
 rf 
 
 
 d ^ 
 
 +3 4j ^ 
 
 tfi 
 
 
 q; 'S 
 
 J5 cS 
 
 
 
 .a ~ 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 Z'^ 
 
 &, o o 
 
 !-!- 
 
 
 CS --^ 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 -o 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 M A 
 
 .2-^ 
 
 
 
 " (L> 
 
 ' '3 ^ 
 
 c-^ o c 
 
 o m e -1 
 
 CI- CJ S CJ *' 
 
 tc +^ O J3 
 
 
 OJ "^ m P c3 , 
 
 _L CO ?::: s-i ,j^ , 
 
 3 S §'2 
 
 
 ^■5 
 
 s a 
 
 CS ??nPi2 
 
 cS -S 
 
 Ei) 
 
 9 cs 
 
 to "O 
 
 O cd 
 
 O^ ?n 
 
 
 ^3, 
 
 043 
 
 c3 3 
 
 ^2p8o 
 
 •^3 0:3 
 
 C3 
 
 alba. 
 
 the inn 
 the false i 
 the lumbf 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 re linea 
 the cart 
 ue ribs 
 
 a 
 
 QJ 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 a 
 
 •^ o-P 
 
 a. 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 r5 OJ 
 
 " -3 13 O 5 
 
 S H 
 
 g S 2 
 
 c "3 "^ cs 
 
 i 5 c 
 
 : ? OJ ■ 
 
 '^ s. 
 
 43 O . 
 dj flj ct 
 
 o- o 
 
 s ^ 
 
 ^ <U S Q "= 
 
 " trj CD 
 
 r- 5 '^ 
 
 
 
 ■3 4J 
 
 g 5' 
 
 O 0, 0) 
 3^ Si 
 
 w 
 
 .ir-3 3 
 O H 
 
 _0 _H_ 
 
THE HOKSE. 73 
 
 
 ^ ° 
 
 m c:3 - _^ 
 
 -c .: 
 
 c 3 S 
 
 H 02 H ^ H H O H 
 
 II |j^ 1° ^^1°| |3°--S^ °:B6.S^§- °^S °§ 
 
 es^ "^tc St- citSr-iS 2'"--rf-3 '--Ss ---aj" "-H 
 
 " nj ^ 2 £ M ^Cp^G £S°'drt 'S'^^-S^.SO h'^ m -=5 
 
 i^^*^ 
 
 o o 
 
 
 ^ H H H H Eh Eh H_ 
 
 S S g S £ ^ ^ S 
 
 ^2 
 
 o ^ -3 
 
 S'3 
 
 0) 3 
 
 (1) 
 
 
 .S .^ 
 
 rt 
 
 .So .. 
 
 -^ p 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 >i Q 
 
 CS 
 
 >^ 1) 
 
 
 
 Eu--<'^ 
 
 
 Ct4H "3 
 
 li 
 
 g 
 
 J2 QJ 
 
 ill 
 
 c. 
 
 ill 
 
 P 
 
 
 <; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =s a 
 
 O „ '- ' 3 
 
 c -s !^7 o 2 o 
 2 .^, ^ -fs .3 ^ 
 
 J3 ? 
 
 S O 
 
 ^ 
 
74 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 
 
 _g 6 g.a ^ 
 
 II 
 
 O — ' 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 6 " 
 O 
 
 •? ^ S 3 OJ 
 
 ^3 0) 
 d (3 
 
 - " A 
 
 r-* ^ C3 
 
 o o -5 
 
 S iJ 
 
 ffi S fl ra 
 
 Oh 
 C3'T3 
 
 6C2 
 
 
 S 2 
 
 3 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 !h 
 
 
 
 « g 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 0) 
 
 50 
 
 -2 
 
 -2 
 "0 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 CS lU 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 ri3 
 
 H 
 
 OX3 
 
 QJ 
 
 ^r^ 
 
 tf-( 
 
 o o 
 
 T3 cj 
 
 O PL^ 
 
 0) a 
 
 g 3' 
 
 
 — -3 "S o 
 
 o -« 
 
 O) ' 
 
 o 
 
 
 O) 
 
 o o 
 
 ■:S o ° ^ 
 
 1 ^ -3 
 I O -^ O 2 
 
 ; be "^ a 
 
 ; *^ 2<« 
 
 : aj S O 'O 
 ' 5 S a^ § 
 
 ill 
 
 ! O a; 
 1 G '^ 
 1 rt ^ 
 
 OJ Cj -li 
 
 o s 
 
 
 CD O O -g g 
 
 
 .^■B S 
 
 42 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 a'o 
 
 =« 
 
 
 
 bi3^ 
 
 
 CI. 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 ?, 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ^^ 
 
 tin 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 S 
 
 n3 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 If 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 _o 
 
 
 
 «« 
 
 
 
 
 (;j 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 OJ 
 
 c 
 
 d .^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ij 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 _bc 
 
 +^ 
 
 rt 
 
 to tf? o 
 
 O rt ~ 
 
 -. tC j3 ^ 
 
 ■5 o 
 ©■5 
 
 m O 
 
 5-3 s,- 
 
 B--3 
 
 c 
 o w 
 
 3 
 
 — ' O O cj 
 .13 -p o o 
 
 3 C S^ 
 
 C! ^ 
 
 O ' 
 
 c:2 
 
 s a 
 
 ^1 
 
 .3 '^ 
 
 o"3 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 0) 
 
 ^ 
 
 fi 
 
 
 S"3 
 
 ^■3 
 
 
 ■53 
 
 ^ a 
 
 3 3 
 
 Is 
 
 O 3 
 
 !- 5 rt 
 4J -S b: 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 •mjoE.Tq josuajxa sclaoij^ 
 
 H 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 75 
 
 C..„ 
 
 
 as e-- 
 
 S-cSiicaj (D o -t3s""S^ g^"^'* ^~§i';;s 
 
 5^ ^ CO CO . Eh ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 ^1 . 
 
 Ebo) 
 
 
 "^ <? s 
 
 ?«■£ 
 
 
 ° 6 § 
 
 ie -^ 
 
 
 -2 S g 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 S 0^ 
 
 
 fcH *^ 
 
 c S 
 
 
 l^i- 
 
 -•-^bC 
 
 
 g^l 
 
 
 o3 3 
 
 
 -s 
 
 ^;3 2 
 
 a,*, 
 
 
 "" oi n. 
 
 
 
 ■^3 'H S 
 
 a u 
 
 
 cs 2 
 
 ,>i oj 
 
 
 . .^ t*H 
 
 ""-C . 
 
 ^ 
 
 s-*- 
 
 T3 '^. 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 S 
 
 
 ^-a-JS 
 
 (D a 
 
 
 
 
 D,C3, 
 
 0-^'S 
 
 
 
 H E 
 
 
 00 6-3 
 
 ■a ^.-a 
 
 s 
 
 o ^"o 
 
 
 O > ^ ^ ^ O "tf 
 
 nOO,; rtc!25 oS — .■*^ 
 
 &<-2 rT—j >< J^ ■" nS — GCS .2 So OJ"^ — =~Sa» 
 
 -G G S cd 
 
 s si 
 
 WJcs 
 iG 0) 
 
 ■S 2 
 :G 
 
 £ ° 
 
 G ^ 
 
 
 
 ■73 
 
 
 
 .« CI, 
 
 
 0) 2 
 
 ^ -G 
 rt 
 
 one. 
 the 
 nd t 
 
 
 g 3 
 
 P QJ OQ 
 
 -*^ 
 
 
 -a " 
 
 O-^ 
 
 jj & &, 
 
 Eh H 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 p S-a 
 
 H 
 
 - ^ ~ 
 
 ro ,0 o ,,- g c. a 
 S m <V n3 OJ ag "J J3_2;„-.3Ss=' 
 
 t -3 :S » 5 o^ I "^1 -Sstfls 
 
 .2 "S "S S -£ .3t„ ^ C3 O -S-S^g^g. 
 
 -t? M P- Ph PL, fi ^ Q ■gS'i.Slf 
 
 S .2 .^ «i § ^ o „• . . . § g G § 
 
 S.2 
 2 2. 
 
 "•2|ll .1 I llv-g. 
 
 f^ O (J C3 
 
 bJD 
 
 
 53 •« "S 
 
 D, O ^ 
 
 rt 
 
 _f^ F=H S S S 
 
 o§ S g S ^.2 
 
 fo fe 
 
ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGY OP 
 
 
 I 
 
 >. 
 
 p> 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 tcp 
 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 2 £. 
 
 ^5 " 
 
 rt A 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 :^ 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 tb 
 
 i1 
 
 ci si 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tb 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 .2 
 
 'm 
 
 B 
 O 
 
 ">< 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 3 '2 
 
 o ^ 
 _ O 
 C P 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 p 
 
 
 IE to 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ;i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &, 
 
 
 
 
 
 s, 
 
 „ o 
 
 
 
 
 +2 ^ 
 
 
 'T3 — 
 
 
 p 
 
 t*-, 
 
 r. 
 
 -^ 
 
 t~t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tc 
 
 "S 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 _c ^ 
 
 
 
 
 =1 
 
 
 ri £ 
 
 . o-d 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 2 
 
 C3 
 
 1 
 
 teg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 £ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 > 
 
 "Ebq 
 -^ 
 
 111 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 GO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 &^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 EH 
 
 Eh-^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 S 
 
 'E. 
 
 .s 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 c; 
 
 O 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 <— o 
 o +^ 
 
 — ' >■ 
 
 C I- 
 
 "3 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 E 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 
 o 
 
 '3' 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 p. 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 > 
 
 1^ 
 
 — s 
 
 II 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 
 4. 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 P 
 
 £ 
 
 
 ^ -S 
 3 
 
 -S ^ 
 o o 
 
 O 
 
 1-1 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 E 
 
 Is 
 
 •- £ 
 p tH 
 
 T ^ 
 
 ^J 
 
 -1^ p 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 -a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 3 " 
 
 o 
 
 .3 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 £ 
 P 
 3 
 tc 
 
 _c 
 
 .2 
 
 6 
 
 ci 
 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 .a 
 
 c 
 
 CJ 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 p 
 
 C3 -i- 
 
 C 
 
 1-2 
 
 o 
 3 
 
 tp 
 
 p 
 
 -13 
 
 p p 
 
 -S P 
 
 o 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 m 
 g 
 
 c 
 
 CS 
 
 c 
 
 "c. 
 
 T. 
 
 _o 
 E 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 o 
 
 
 c c 
 
 ii 
 
 ■l-l 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 "3 
 
 ci 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 -a 
 
 e" 
 
 1 1 
 
 _p 
 
 |> 
 
 CI. 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 e" 
 £ 
 
 o 
 ci 
 
 c 
 
 
 c 
 
 p -i^ 
 
 P c 
 
 5 £ 
 
 c: 
 
 c tc 
 
 O 
 
 p 
 -1 
 
 o 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 "5 
 5 
 
 .2 +^ 
 
 •J go 
 
 T 
 
 -,0 >" 
 
 C £ " 
 
 S S 
 
 a p "\ 
 
 
 
 CS M 
 p %-l 
 
 
 -g 
 
 o 
 
 -; 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 £ s 
 
 o 
 
 ■*-' 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ci 
 
 ^ 
 
 'p 
 
 "^ 
 
 ''" 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 "^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 %. 
 
 — ^ 
 
 . 
 
 5 = '2 
 
 -S 
 
 
 o 
 
 -c 
 
 :i 
 
 s 
 
 
 o '♦^ 
 
 J5 
 
 ^ 
 
 :S 
 
 :~3 
 
 "o 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 'c 
 
 c 
 
 J3 
 
 o 
 
 £"0 
 
 +2 
 
 *-5 
 
 £b o £ 
 
 3 
 
 .3 -^ s 
 t* 
 
 -*^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E-1 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0!g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tp 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 42 
 
 -r-t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !E 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 _j_-, 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 ^"i 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 n 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 _>, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ C3 
 10" — 
 
 0. 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £1. 
 
 "3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 Cli 
 
 
 
 
 || 
 
 
 [£ g 
 
 — ^ 
 ^ 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ - 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 -jl 
 
 '> 
 
 
 
 "5 
 
 C 
 
 -E [tp 
 
 
 
 
 P ^ 
 
 
 3 g 
 
 v^ 3 
 
 
 'a 
 
 'o 
 
 
 
 
 c "3 
 
 ^1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 E £■ 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 t- ^ 
 
 
 
 
 C P 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 £ J 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n_ 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 
 _fi 
 
 
 
 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 < 
 
 is 
 
 o 
 S 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 5 
 
 ^ c ° 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <S 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 '£ 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 
 8 
 s 
 'Eb 
 
 CS 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 c 
 p 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 PL. 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 'i' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 1> 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 C5 
 
 »-( 
 
 6 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «* 
 
 Tj« 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 'J* 
 
 
 ^ LO 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-l 
 
 ""• 
 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 T-( 
 
 
 iH 1-1 
 
 iH 
 
■^ .s 
 
 THE HORSE. 77 
 
 2 i ■; W) = 
 
 — — ^ = '^ rt -2 
 
 § ? ji , 
 
 
 P. It^^l 5-:£:i :-§ >^^tc:: ^ .^ ^^ 
 
 ^•5 
 
 3 &^^ -5 -^-o 
 
 
 1c ii^ -51 -g is 'S'S-JS 
 
 g o^ 
 
 St^t-g S,, „ og ^ -^ oJ: 2S-2.H— -K oo^ .- 
 
 
 o o S = 
 
 ^ " S C -v^ebn "^rttoSS-— i _^ t£j3 zi •- hVti »j ~ =— i C 
 
 |^2§ -g'-g- £ i~ i^ S^, . ^ g g|^.5Pfc£2 H &>s-s 
 
 S_g3"§5H_ H H J i "^ Eh Et 
 
 ^r-5-« § 2 ^ Si~ « «§ i^ 
 
 £.5 S.= g :g § g 2|g o^ 
 
 .1 111113 I. -"^^^I II • :if i'^ 
 
 b^-£ i^i:~'^rt t;^ ^j3-gg cjt^ -gcs ^^u^ 
 
 ^|1 '.Isi| 2 §1 §^ [Ml -nt 1^ -^^ 
 
 Sis |g^|:s S| |S -S|5.r |o 5 2 ^-3 
 
 ^ ^ g.s-3 <i eg o o^ < < £ 
 
 •§i-oo Ii,;© d d -aS^ d |gi 
 
 -Si'^g^i^ g'v^ts ti * S'^ ^ ti So-; 
 
 CoOfifi ^;2op fi ft goo g |Si 
 
 ■-B 
 
 EHpj CO O Ph • — - — ■ pq 
 
78 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHTSTOLGOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 
 
 
 ^ » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 C 03 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 V< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 s 
 
 
 bb 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 bD 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 ,13 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 1c i=! 
 
 
 
 
 
 .a^ 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 1, 
 
 
 
 o i- 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ojS 
 -a — ' 
 
 X J3 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 to 
 
 e3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 'S 
 rt 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 a 
 
 cS 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 => 
 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 CC 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 'c3 
 
 0) 
 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ■a 
 
 H 
 
 ">> 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 to 
 
 
 •S;3 
 p 
 
 
 I 
 
 Vi 
 
 
 
 -»^ 
 
 OJ pl 
 — C3 
 
 bD 
 
 a 
 
 'a 
 
 
 b*D 
 
 
 
 
 a3 S 
 
 o 
 
 
 '2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 to" 
 
 
 bC S ^ .W5 
 
 CJ 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 ll 
 
 QJ 
 
 "3 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 •i. 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 5 _2 
 
 T3 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vi 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 o3 
 S 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 QJ 
 
 g 
 
 O 
 
 "*" o 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 s a 
 
 ° 
 
 i 5 
 
 c3 .a 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 O +2 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 -*^ 
 
 3 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 c 
 
 ° 2 
 
 |3 
 
 >>2^ 
 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 'a 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 a, 
 
 § 
 
 '2-S 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 be 
 
 J3 
 
 a- 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 a, 
 
 a 
 
 _o 
 
 OJ 
 M 
 
 11 
 
 OJ 
 J3 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 -a 
 
 t4H 
 
 Ci 
 
 5 OJ 
 
 C.£ 
 CJ -75 
 
 -a a '^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 O -1^ 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 -+^ 
 
 ° 
 
 +- 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 -f^ 
 
 >-< 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 c 
 1—1 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 t4-l 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 _o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "ij 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 -^XJ 
 
 .s ^ 
 
 
 
 &■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'T3-d 
 
 Oh 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 •i^ 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 E 
 
 13 J 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bJD 
 
 tJ _QJ 
 
 < 
 
 G 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 . 
 
 abD 
 
 ~ 2 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 II 
 C3 
 
 £•0 
 
 QJ 73 
 
 rg 4J 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 S QJ 
 to 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 C 
 
 &H 
 
 -^ a 
 
 
 
 _^ 
 
 +3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 -^^ &.«~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 *' D. 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 
 CI 
 
 
 
 <J 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 cc ■ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 3 
 m 
 
 <! 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 "3 6 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 «3 
 03 
 
 
 
 '0 
 
 Si 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 (^.2 
 
 a,* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •c 
 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 CJ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 vi 
 
 
 
 IB 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 < 
 
 z 
 
 p 
 
 
 C3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 "§ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 CS 
 CJ 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 v< 
 
 
 
 vt 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 -g 
 
 
 
 -S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 >-! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PLl 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 y.. 
 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 P^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 rf 
 
 
 U3 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-H 
 
 6 
 
 to 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 i> 
 
 
 
 C» 
 
 2 
 
 tH 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 t-( 
 
 
 
 tH 
 
ON DISSECTION. 
 
 No man can ever expect to become a 
 practical anatomist or pathologist, unless 
 he practise dissection. It is the only possi- 
 ble way by which he can familiarize him- 
 self with the healthy structmral organiza- 
 tion of the horse. Having made himself 
 acquainted with the healthy aspect of the 
 various parts, their uses, etc., he next is 
 able to judge of the various grades of 
 textural change which occur and exist, 
 between the part that has been studied 
 under its healthy aspect, and that which 
 has now departed from its healthy con- 
 dition. Thus, in the prosecution of the 
 study of anatomy, the student finally be- 
 comes a pathologist ; and, although he may 
 be a beginner, he places himself in a posi- 
 tion only a few removes from the old and 
 experienced practitioner, and can venture 
 to " measm-e a lance " with the renoioned 
 knights of the healing art. 
 
 DISSfiCTING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The dissector should supply himself mth 
 a beak-pointed scalpel (which is one of Ger- 
 man origin), for superficial dissection, and 
 a myology knife, strong and rounded at its 
 point. For the dissection of blood-vessels 
 and nerves, a more delicate and pointed 
 scalpel is needed. The forceps should be 
 strong, and armed at the points with teeth ; 
 two pair of scissors are needed, one 
 pointed and the other blunt; a saw and 
 blunt chisel, for opening the cranium. A 
 blow-pipe, curved needles, and a few extra 
 scalpels, are all that the student requires. 
 
 SUBJECTS SUITABLE FOR DISSECTION. 
 
 For demonstration of the muscular sys- 
 tem, a well-proportioned and fully-developed 
 subject should, if possible, be selected, and 
 
 one that has died suddenly, or been killed 
 in consequence of some accident, is to be 
 prefeiTed. For making wet and dry prepa- 
 rations, lean, emaciated subjects should be 
 selected. The lymphatic system is best 
 shown on animals of a flabby and cedema- 
 tous organization. Young animals are the 
 best subjects for dissection, in view of de- 
 monstrating the circulatory and nervous 
 systems. 
 
 RULES IN REFERENCE TO DISSECTION OF THE 
 
 MUSCLES. 
 
 As there are abundance of subjects to be 
 had in the United States, and it being in- 
 convenient for one individual to dissect a 
 whole subject, he had better divide it into 
 six parts, viz. : 1st, The head and neck. 
 2nd and 3rd, The anterior extremities, 
 wliich include the thorax, its contents, and 
 the diaphragm. 4th and 5th, The poste- 
 rior extremities, to which belong the pelvic 
 and abdominal viscera. 6th, Those viscera 
 which cannot be advantageously divided, 
 as the heart, stomach, bladder, organs of 
 generation, &c. Should the dissector de- 
 cide to commence on the whole subject, he 
 first removes the sldn, in order to expose 
 the panniculous carnosus ; this will require 
 some care, as some of the fibres of this 
 subcutaneous muscle are intimately con- 
 nected with the former. There are various 
 ways of removing the skin : the author pre- 
 fers to commence on the back, and dissect 
 off towards the feet. Supposing the sub- 
 ject to lie on the off-side, we commence an 
 incision at the anterior part of the nasal re- 
 gion, and continue the same upward until 
 we arrive at the occiput ; we then in- 
 cline the scalpel from the superior part of 
 the neck, in order to avoid the mane, and 
 
 (79) 
 
80 
 
 ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 continue the incision along the lateral part 
 of +he dorso lumbar spines until the coccyx 
 is reached; the overlapping portion can 
 then be dissected, and turned over to the 
 off-side, so as to expose the tendinous in- 
 sertions of the panniculus into the ligamen- 
 tum nuchas, etc., etc. The panniculus being 
 exposed, it may be divided into three parts, 
 viz.: 1st, The Cervical portion, \\\\ic\i com- 
 prises the head, neck, shoulders, and fore- 
 arms. 2nd, The Thoracic portion, 3rd, 
 The Abdominal portion. 
 
 Having traced the attachments of the 
 panniculus, the muscles then engage om- 
 attention ; they being composed of nearly 
 parallel fibres, the manner of displaying 
 them is indicated. The cellular tissue 
 should if possible be detached with the 
 skin and panniculus ; without this precau- 
 tion the surface of some of the coarser 
 muscles would have a mangled appearance. 
 The knife should always follow the direc- 
 tion of the muscular fibres, and the part on 
 which a muscle is to be dissected should be 
 placed, if possible, in such a situation as to 
 produce a forcible extension of that muscle ; 
 thus, in tracing the origin and insertion of 
 a muscle, the dissector becomes acquainted 
 with its use. 
 
 After exposing the external layer of mus- 
 cles they may be detached from their in- 
 sertion, or divided in their centre ; if di- 
 vided, we thus preserve the two points of 
 origin and insertion. The deeper seated mus- 
 cles may be demonstrated in the same way. 
 
 In the dissection of muscles the scalpel 
 should be used in a free and prompt man- 
 ner; the strokes should be long and bold, 
 using the little finger to steady the move- 
 ment of the hand. In making autopsies 
 and in examining the viscera, the subject is 
 generally placed on his back. 
 
 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. 
 
 It is highly important that every student 
 should be acquainted with the methods of 
 maldng wet and dry preparations, and of 
 injecting the blood-vessels; for specimens 
 of this land are the best means of familiar- 
 izing us with the structures of quadrupeds, 
 
 •and such, when properly prepared, possess 
 a real and practical value. 
 
 INJECTING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Pole describes three kinds of instruments 
 used in maldng injected preparations. 
 
 The first consists of a brass sjrringe, 
 made of various sizes ; the nozzle is adapted 
 to pipes into which the syi-inge is to be in- 
 serted ; a short pipe, with stop-cock, also 
 accompanies the syringe, which is to be 
 applied betu'een the syrmge and either of 
 the pipes. 
 
 The second is a similar instrument, only 
 much smaller ; its pipe is very minute, and 
 its piston is furnished with a ring, so that 
 the thumb may be used to throw its con- 
 tents into a vessel. 
 
 The third instrument is generally used 
 for injecting the glands and lymphatics w^ith 
 quicksilver. It consists of a glass tube, 
 terminating mth a steel end, and having an 
 extremely fine steel pipe, which screws on 
 to the latter. The syringe used by the 
 author of this work is one manufactured in 
 England (and can be found in some of our 
 agricultural stores), for the purpose of syr- 
 inging plants ; it has the most accurate 
 bore and finely-adjusted piston of any in- 
 strument now in use, and being of medium 
 size it can be used for either large or minute 
 injections. Some alterations, However, have 
 to be made in the nozzle and pipes fitted 
 accordingly. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE SYRINGE. 
 
 In using the syringe, a certain amount of 
 tact or experience is necessary, and the be- 
 ginner must not feel disappointed should he 
 fail in a first or second attempt ; for some 
 little oversight might frustrate the whole 
 process. Everything should be in readiness, 
 such as ligatures, forceps, scissors, sponge, 
 hot and cold water, etc. 
 
 The pipes should be inserted into the ves- 
 sels, and confined there by strong ligatures; 
 and, before the syringe is inti-oduced, its noz- 
 zle must be turned upwards, and the piston 
 pressed until all the air and froth are ejected ; 
 then introduce the nozzle into the stop-pipe 
 
■-< ¥ j4^ 
 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE IX. 
 
 
 OSSEOUS srm 
 
 1. 
 
 Frontal bones. 
 
 2. 
 
 Parietal. 
 
 3. 
 
 Occipital. 
 
 4. 
 
 Temporal. 
 
 5. 
 
 Nasal. 
 
 6. 
 
 Lachrjinal. 
 
 7. 
 
 Malar. 
 
 8. 
 
 Superior ma.\illarius. 
 
 9. 
 
 Anterior " 
 
 10. 
 
 Inferior " 
 
 11. 
 
 Cervical vertebrse. 
 
 16. 
 
 The true ribs. 
 
 18. 
 
 The sternum. 
 
 33. 
 
 The scapula. 
 
 34. 
 
 The humerus. 
 
 c. 
 
 The incisors. 
 
 d. 
 
 Dorsal spines. 
 
 MUSCUL.YR STRUCTURE. 
 
 ANTERIOR VIEW. 
 
 a". Trapezius. 
 c". Scalenus. 
 e". PectoraKs par\'us. 
 f". Antea spinatus. 
 g". Postea spinatus. 
 li". Teres major. 
 
 I". A portion of the triceps extensor brachii. 
 S. The fasehial covering of the splenius. 
 K. The masseter. 
 g. Levator labii superioris. 
 f. Nasalis longus. 
 e. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 c. Dilator nai-ium lateralis. 
 
 d. Dilator narium anterior. 
 
 m. I. Attolentes et abducens aurem. 
 
 b. Levator palpebral. 
 
 a. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 o". Pectoralis transversaKs. 
 
 u. Levator humeri. 
 
 V. Sterno niaxillaris. 
 
 X. Subscapulo hyoideus. 
 
 2. Maxillary vein . 
 
 3. Jugular vein. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 81 
 
 and press the piston steadily until a sensible 
 resistance is felt. If much force be used, 
 rupture of a vessel may take place. After. 
 a prudent force has been applied for some 
 time, the syringe may be withdrawn, pre- 
 viously securing the stop-cock. A steady 
 and uniform pressure on the piston will be 
 more likely to secure uniform injection than 
 force, or sudden jerks. Should the first in- 
 jection fail to fiU the vessels, it must be 
 immediately followed by a second. When 
 injecting through a very small pipe, the in- 
 jector must be patient, and steadily con- 
 tinue the pressure on the piston. 
 
 When using loarm injections, the syringe 
 must be Icept ivarm by immersing it in hot 
 water, and the part to be injected must also 
 be kept at the same temperature, by the 
 same means. 
 
 DIFFERENT KINDS OF INJEC- 
 TIONS. 
 
 There are six lands of injections now in 
 use, viz., the cold, coarse, and fine injection, 
 the minute, the mercKrial, and, finally, the 
 plaster of Paris injection. The five first 
 are most employed ; the plaster of Paris is 
 objectionable because it is easily fractured. 
 
 FORMULA FOR COARSE WARM INJECTIONS. 
 
 Red. — Beeswax, sixteen ounces; white 
 resin, eight ounces ; turpentine varnish, sLx 
 ounces ; vermilion, three ounces. 
 
 First liquify the wax, resin, and turpen- 
 tine varnish, in an earthen pot, over a slow 
 fire, or in a water bath ; then add the Ver- 
 million, previously reducing it to a fine 
 powder, so that the coloring ingredients 
 may be intimately and smoothly blended, 
 then add the same to the above ingredients, 
 and, when they have accrued due heat, the 
 injection is fit for immediate use. 
 
 Yellow Injection. — Take beeswax, eight 
 ounces ; resin, four ounces ; turpentine var- 
 nish, three ounces ; yellow ochre, one ounce 
 and a quarter. 
 
 White Injection. — Clarified beeswax, 
 eight ounces ; resin, four ounces ; turpen- 
 tine varnish, three ounces ; flake white, two 
 ounces and a quarter. 
 11 
 
 Pale Blue Injection. — Take the preced- 
 ing ingredients, and add to them a small 
 portion of indigo. 
 
 Black Injection. — Beeswax, resin, and 
 turpentine varnish in the above proportions ; 
 and add lamp-black ad libitum. 
 
 The same rules are to be observed in pre- 
 paring all the injections. 
 
 FORMULA FOR FINE INJECTIONS. 
 
 Red. — Brown and white spirit varnishes, 
 of each four ounces ; turpentine varnish, 
 one ounce ; vermilion one ounce. 
 
 Yelloiv. — Brown and white spirit varnishes, 
 of each four ounces ; turpentine varnish, one 
 ounce ; king's yellow, one ounce and a half. 
 To make a white injection, add to the last 
 formula two ounces of flake-white instead 
 of king^s yelloiv. 
 
 Blue. — Brown and white spirit varnishes, 
 of each four ounces ; turpentine varnish, one 
 ounce; Prussian blue, one ounce and a 
 half. This may be made black by adding 
 ivory black instead of Prussian blue. 
 
 FORMULA FOR MINUTE INJECTIONS. 
 
 The liquifying principle in minute injec- 
 tions is " size," which is made in the fol- 
 lowing mamier : 
 
 Take fine transparent glue, one pound, 
 break it into pieces ; put it into an earthen 
 pot, and pour on it three pints of cold water ; 
 let it stand twenty-four hours, stirring it 
 occasionally with a stick ; then set it over a 
 slow fire until it is perfectly dissolved ; 
 skim ofl" aU the scum from the surface, and 
 strain the remainder through flannel ; it 
 will then be fit for the coloring ingredients. 
 
 Minute Red Injection. — Size, one pint ; 
 vermilion, three ounces and a half. 
 
 Yellow. — Size, one pint ; king's yellow, 
 two ounces and a half 
 
 White. — Size, half a pint ; flake white, 
 one ounce and three quarters. 
 
 Blue. — Size, half a pint ; fine blue smalt, 
 six ounces. 
 
 PLASTER INJECTION. 
 
 Before mixing the plaster of Paris, the 
 pipes must be secured to the mouths of 
 
82 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 the vessels at which the injection is to 
 enter. Plaster of Paris (to which some 
 of the preceding dry coloring materials, 
 suitable to the fancy, can be added) must 
 be put in a mortar and rubbed with a 
 pestle in order to pulverize it completely ; 
 water is then to be added until the mixture 
 is of the consistence of cream ; the syringe 
 being in readiness, it is to be filled and im- 
 mediately injected into the vessels. Li the 
 author's opinion, this injection is only suit- 
 able for injecting first-class vessels, for it 
 coagulates or "sete" so quickly that it 
 cannot be used as a minute injection. It is 
 said that a small quantity of olive oil, in- 
 corporated with the liquid plaster, retards 
 its coagulation ; yet if too much were 
 added it would spoil the preparation. 
 
 The moment the parts are injected the 
 syringe should be washed out in cold 
 water, and when the injection "sets" in 
 the veins, the pipes must be removed and 
 likewise cleansed. 
 
 FORMULA FOR COLD INJECTIONS. 
 
 Dr. Parsons recommends, for coarse cold 
 injections, the following formula : Take 
 coloring matter and grind it in boiled lin- 
 seed oil, on a painter's marble, until it has 
 acquired the consistence of common white 
 lead, as sold at the stores. After being 
 finely legivated, a little lime-water, in pro- 
 portion of two table-spoonsful to a pint, is 
 to be incorporated by stuTing. At the mo- 
 ment of filling the syringe with the injec- 
 tion, there should be added to it about one- 
 thud of its measure of Venice turpentine, 
 which should be stirred in briskly and used 
 immediately, as it very soon hardens. 
 
 For a temporary cold coarse injection, 
 white lead ground in oU answers every 
 purpose ; it requires no addition of lime- 
 water, because the lead is generally adul- 
 terated with carbonate of lime, wliich 
 hardens the mixture, and it can be colored 
 to suit the taste, or the vessels can be 
 colored with a pencil brush, before varnish- 
 ing. 
 
 For filling the arteries, to dry and pre- 
 serve, red lead is the best and cheapest 
 
 material ; vennilion, however, resembles 
 more the color of arterial blood. 
 
 Whatever part we expect to inject with 
 warm injections, must be immersed in water 
 very hot, — not hot enough, however, to crisp 
 the vessels. Attention to this matter is 
 higlily important, in view of successful in- 
 jection. 
 
 THE COURSE OF INJECTIONS. 
 
 Injections must follow the course of the 
 circulation ; the arteries, however, having 
 no valves, are easily injected in any dii-ec- 
 tion ; but the veins are furnished with nu- 
 merous valves, which prevent the flow of 
 injection from the heart. Sometimes it is 
 necessary to break these valves by means 
 of a small whalebone probang. In the 
 region of valves are often found coagula- 
 tions, wliich must be washed out before the 
 injection can be introduced ; and tliis, also, 
 must be performed in the direction of the 
 circulation. Small pipes are to be intro- 
 duced, and warm water must be thrown in, 
 which can be made to escape tlirough an 
 incision made with a lancet in a region ap- 
 proaching the right amicle. The incision 
 can afterwards be closed by suture, or 
 otherwise. Many of the veins of the 
 horse, however, are destitute of valves, and 
 therefore admit of injection in a direction 
 contrary to their circulation. 
 
 To inject a portion of the animal, — the 
 knee or hock, for example, — it is necessary 
 to secure all the branches of the vessels that 
 have been divided where it is separated 
 from the body. The part is then to be in- 
 jected in the same manner as if we were 
 injecting the whole body. 
 
 QUICKSILVER INJECTION AND PREPARATIONS. 
 
 The fluid specific gravity and beautiful 
 metallic lustre of quicksilver render it val- 
 uable for displaying minute vessels. Dr. 
 Parsons remarks that the principal objec- 
 tion to its general use is the continuance of 
 its fluidity, which renders dissection, after 
 injection, almost impracticable. Yet there 
 are some very fine specimens of quicksilver 
 injections of glands and deep-seated lym- 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 phatics, in the WaiTen museum of this 
 city, tiiat cannot be surpassed by any other 
 kind of injection. ' The same authority re- 
 marks, that the specific gravity of quick- 
 silver, when supported in a column, is such 
 as to exert strong pressvn-e upon a blood- 
 vessel or lymphatic that receives it, and 
 therefore in some cases a syringe is unne- 
 cessary. It is to be borne in mind that 
 the force of the injection depends upon the 
 perpendicular height of the column, and 
 not on its diameter, and the former may be 
 such as to burst the vessel. The injections 
 should always be conducted in a shallow 
 dish or tray, so that the quicksilver may not 
 be wasted. When injecting the lym- 
 phatics, it is necessary to be provided with 
 small lancets, straight, cm"ved, and deli- 
 cately-pointed fine needles, which must be 
 armed with waxed threads. For common 
 blood-vessel preparations, glass tubes of 
 the shape of a straight blow-pipe are 
 needed. 
 
 INJECTING THE LYMPHATICS WITH MERCURY 
 OR QUICKSILVER.* 
 
 In injecting the lymphatics, our success 
 depends, perhaps, more on the body we 
 choose, than on any other circumstance : 
 bodies slightly anasarcous, if they be ema- 
 ciated, are the best. From the valvular 
 structure of the lymphatics, it is necessary 
 to inject from the extremities towards the 
 trunk. 
 
 It is almost impossible for one person to 
 succeed in injecting the lymphatics without 
 assistance ; there are so many things requi- 
 site, besides merely holding the tube in the 
 vessel, that an assistant is indispensable. 
 
 It is very necessary, before beginning, to 
 see that the injector has within his reach 
 sharp-pointed scissors, knives, forceps, lan- 
 cets, pokers for tubes, needles, and waxed 
 threads, so arranged that they can be used 
 instantly, for it will often happen that it 
 will be impossible for either the assistant 
 or the operator to take his eye for a mo- 
 ment ofl' the vessel, without losing it. 
 
 * Sir Charles Bell. 
 
 When injecting the superficial lympha- 
 tics, we first cut off a portion of skin, so as 
 to expose the loose cellular texture ; having 
 found a lymphatic vessel, it must be seized 
 by the forceps and dissected from the sur- 
 rounding substance. Having hold' of it 
 with the forcep, snip it half across with fine 
 scissors, and into the incision introduce the 
 tube containing the mercury. A poker or 
 director is often necessary for the purpose 
 of creating a vacuum ; a few drops of mer- 
 cury then introduced by the side of the 
 director wiU open the way for more ; the 
 director being withdrawn, the mercury flows 
 into the lymphatics. 
 
 If the vessel to be injected be a large 
 one, it must be secured by ligature around 
 the pipe. The quicksilver is to be pressed 
 onward, elevating or depressing the pipe 
 so as to regulate the force of the injection. 
 
 In injecting a gland, we must en- 
 deavor to find the vessel that has the most 
 influence in filfing it. Havmg found it, 
 we secure the other vessels and fill the 
 gland through the former channel. , 
 
 The vessels or glands injected with 
 mercury should be dried as quicldy as pos- 
 sible, and varnished, or else preserved in 
 spirits of terpentine. 
 
 METHOD OF INJECTING THE LACTEALS. 
 
 Take a small portion of the intestine 
 and mesentery, and make an incision in 
 one of the most conspicuous lacteals, as 
 near as possible to its origin in the intes- 
 tine ; then introduce the point of the injec- 
 ting tube, and conduct the operation agree- 
 ably to the preceding rules. When the 
 quicksilver flows out of any of the divided 
 vessels, they must be repaired by an assis- 
 tant ; when as many of the lacteals are 
 fiUed as will receive the quicksilver from 
 this orifice, introduce the pipe into another, 
 and repeat the process as before, and so 
 on, until as many of them are filled as can 
 be ; then inflate the intestine and suspend 
 it in the air to dry, after which it may be 
 preserved by varnishing both inside and 
 out. 
 
84 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 DIBECTIONS FOR INJECTING THE PAROTID 
 GLAND. 
 
 This should be injected before removal, 
 on account of the numerous vessels by 
 which it is attached to the adjacent parts. 
 Before commencing the operation, the sldn 
 over the region of the gland and duct must 
 be raised, in view of searching for the duct; 
 having found it, an opening must be made 
 into it with the point of a lancet, sufH- 
 ciently large to introduce the point of the 
 steel injecting pipe ; when introduced, con- 
 fine the duct upon it by a ligature with a 
 suigle knot, which shall serve when the 
 pipe is withdi-awn tt) secure the quicksilver 
 in the gland. The gland having been filled, 
 the pipe withdrawn, and the duct secured, 
 we proceed with all possible care to dissect 
 the gland from its situation. Any branches 
 of vessels going off to surrounding parts 
 must be secured by means of a small 
 curved needle, armed with a single ligature, 
 after which they may be divided with 
 safety. The gland being removed, and all 
 extraneous tissue dissected off, it should be 
 placed in water to extract the blood, etc. 
 This wiU require about thirty-six hours ; the 
 water, however, must be frequently changed ; 
 the gland can then be spread on a piece of 
 pasteboard and exposed to dry. It makes 
 the most beautiful preparation, when pre- 
 served in a glass vessel containing pure 
 spirits of turpentine. 
 
 BREAKING DOWN THE VALVES. 
 
 Many of the glands, the surface of the liver 
 included, can be injected contrary to the 
 circulation of the lymph. When the quick- 
 silver passes at fu'st freely into the lympha- 
 tics, and suddenly stops, it will be necessary 
 to force it forward by gentle pressure with 
 the edge of a spatula, in the direction in 
 which it seems most likely to run ; by this 
 means the valves are broken down. The 
 valves of the superficial lymphatics of the 
 liver are easily broken down in this way, 
 but the valves in some of the lymphatics 
 are much firmer, consequently not so easily 
 broken down. 
 
 WET PREPARATIONS. 
 
 PREPARATIONS BY -DISTENTION. 
 
 Hollow organs may be distended for 
 preservation with antiseptic liquids, air, 
 wool, hair, cotton, plaster, quicksilver, etc. 
 
 Wet preparations by distention, with 
 spirits of wine, oil of turpentine, etc. 
 
 The intention, in distending preparations 
 by spirits, is to give them their natural 
 figure, to exhibit more fuUy the parts of 
 which they are composed, their vascularity, 
 and occasionally some morbid or preter- 
 natural appearance. 
 
 METHOD OF DISTENDING AND PREPARING 
 THE LUNGS. 
 
 The lungs taken from a sheep or calf 
 make a very good substitute for those of 
 the horse, which are too bullvy for ordinary 
 use. 
 
 The pulmonary arteries and veins should 
 first be filled with red-colored injection ; then 
 immerse the lungs in oil of turpentine, con- 
 tained in a vessel, large enough to admit 
 them without compression; then inject into 
 the trachea such a quantity of the above 
 fluid as shall dilate them without danger of 
 rupture. Then secure the trachea by liga- 
 ture. In the same manner we proceed with 
 other parts. K a portion only of an organ 
 or a part of some viscera be required, we first 
 secure the lower orifice by ligature ; inject 
 as above, and then apply a ligature to the 
 upper opening. It can then be suspended 
 in spirits of wine or turpentine. 
 
 ANTISEPTIC MENSTRUA FOR PRESERVING 
 SPECIMENS. 
 
 Alcohol — Spirits of Wine. — This is one 
 of the principal fluids now in use for the 
 preservation of specimens. It may be used 
 of various strengths, according to the size 
 and thickness of the specimen to be pre- 
 served. 
 
 All those that are thick and bulky should 
 be put into pure rectified spirits ; smaller 
 ones may require only one half the quantity 
 of alcohol with water ; and such as are thin 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 85 
 
 and membranous, can be preserved in com- 
 , mon New England rum. 
 
 Turpentine. — This also is an excellent 
 antiseptic, and is highly recommended by 
 Parsons and others, for cartilages, fibro-car- 
 tilages, and fibrous membranes. 
 
 The acids used are, sulphuric, nitric, mu- 
 riatic, acetic and pyroligneous. Dr. Parsons 
 states that Dr. Hayden, surgeon dentist, in 
 Baltimore, has succeeded in preserving 
 anatomical preparations in a superior man- 
 ner, with pyroligneous acid. It should be 
 rectified and diluted ^vith water. Acids, 
 however, cannot be used when the prepara- 
 tion contains bone. 
 
 METHOD OF PRESERVING THE BRAIN. 
 
 The following mixture is a very excellent 
 menstruum for preserving the brain and 
 nerves : Take alcohol, eight parts by weight; 
 oxymuriate of mercury, one part. Rub the 
 oxymuriate in a mortar, and gradually add 
 the alcohol. The brain should remain in 
 this mixture for twenty or thirty days, when 
 it may be withdrawn from the liquid, dried, 
 and varnished. 
 
 METHOD OF MAKING A DRY PREPARATION OF 
 THE AIR-VESSELS OF THE LUNGS. 
 
 Throw the lungs of a horse into a barrel 
 of water and allow them to macerate for 
 several months, during the sUmmer season ; 
 then, by repeated washing, cleanse the bron- 
 chia, etc., from the parenchyma, dry, and 
 varnish them. 
 
 METHOD OF MACERATING AND CLEANING 
 BONES. 
 
 Remove as much of the flesh, ligaments, 
 etc., as can conveniently be done with the 
 knife ; then lay them in clean water, and 
 change the same daily for about a week, or 
 as long as it becomes discolored with blood. 
 They are now to remain without changing, 
 tUl putrefaction has thoroughly destroyed 
 all the remaining flesh and ligaments, which 
 will take from tliree to five months, more or 
 less, according to the season of the year or 
 temperature of the atmosphere. Li the ex- 
 tremities of large cylindrical bones, holes 
 
 should be bored, about the size of a quill, 
 
 to give the water access to their cavities 
 and a free exit to medullary substance. As 
 the water evaporates from the vessel, it 
 should be so far renewed as to keep the 
 bones under its surface, or they wiU acquire 
 a disagreeable blackness, and dust should 
 be excluded by keeping the vessel constantly 
 covered. When the white textures are de- 
 stroyed, the bones must be scraped and 
 again laid in water for a few days, and 
 well washed and . scrubbed with a coarse 
 brush ; then immerse them in lime-water, 
 or a solution of pearlash, made with two 
 ounces to the gaUon of water, and after a 
 week they are to be again washed in clean 
 water. They are then to be bleached on 
 the seashore, where they can be daily washed 
 with sea-water.* 
 
 M. Bogros approves of the above plan of 
 maceration, but at the conclusion of this he 
 directs them to be boUed four hours in a 
 strong solution of carbonate of potass, or 
 in soap suds, adding hot water as fast as it 
 evaporates. They are then to be washed 
 frequently in cold water, and dried each 
 time quickly, and then moistened (not 
 steeped) in weak muriatic acid. The com- 
 mon bleaching liquor in a diluted state will 
 whiten bones, but they should not be im- 
 mersed in it any length of time. 
 
 When bleached, they may be varnished 
 with the white of an egg.f 
 
 TO RENDER SOLID BONES FLEXIBLE AND 
 TRANSPARENT. 
 
 One-half of the inferior jaw bone, or the 
 scapula, are the most suitable bones for the 
 above purpose. Macerate either or both 
 until they are properly cleansed. Then im- 
 merse in a mixture consisting of water, 
 twenty-fiveparts ; muriatic acid, one part. If 
 the bone is kept well covered during a 
 period of about seven months, it will become 
 flexible like cartilage; but as the phosphate 
 of lime in the bone will neutralize some of 
 the acid, a minute quantity may from time 
 to time be added. 
 
 * Pole ou " Cleansing Bones." 
 
 t Parsons on "Macei-ated Preparations." 
 
86 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 When the preparation becomes flexible, 
 immerse in warm water ; then give it sev- 
 eral washings in cold water to remove the 
 acid ; dry, and immerse in a glass vessel of 
 oil of turpentine ; it will assume a beautiful 
 transparency, exhibiting the blood-vessels. 
 
 METHOD OF CLEANING AND SEPARATING THE 
 BONES OF CRANIUM. 
 
 Take the head of a young colt, remove 
 the skin and muscles, and wash out the 
 brain, previously brealcing it down with a 
 stick or probe ; macerate and cleanse it as 
 before directed ; then fill the cranial cavity 
 with dry corn from the husk, immerse it in 
 water, and the corn as it swells forces open 
 the suturuses, so that they can be readily 
 separated by the hand. Wash, dry, and 
 bleach the bones, and then cover them with 
 colorless varnish. 
 
 A BRIEF EXPOSITION OF MR. SWAN's NEW 
 METHOD OF MAKING DRIED ANATOMICAL 
 PREPARATIONS.* 
 
 The new method has been adopted by 
 Usher Parsons, M. D., Professor of Anat- 
 omy and Physiology, from whose work the 
 following selections are made : 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DfilED PREPARATIONS. 
 
 The part of a Kmb, chosen for injection, 
 must be as free from fat as possible. A solu- 
 tion of two omices of oxymuriate of mercury 
 in half a pint of rectified spirits of wine, is 
 to be injected into the arteries ; the next day 
 inject as much white spirit varnish, to which 
 one-fifth of white spii-it varnish has been 
 added, and some vermilion; the limb is 
 then to be put into hot water, where it is to 
 remain until properly heated, when the coarse 
 injection is to be thrown into the arteries 
 and veins, if required, bearing in mind the 
 course of the cii-culation ; the valves of the 
 veins can be broken down by a whalebone 
 probe, if necessary. If the vems are to be 
 injected, it is better to wash the blood out of 
 them with water before the solution of oxy- 
 
 * Professor Chaussier claims to In; the origiual (lis 
 coverer of this method. 
 
 muriate of mercury is thrown into the arte- 
 ries. 
 
 After the limb has been injected, it is to 
 be dissected. Every time it is left, and 
 sometimes during dissection, it is advisable 
 to cover those parts which have been ex- 
 posed, with a damp cloth. There are great 
 advantages to be derived from previously 
 injecting the limb in oxymuriate of mercury, 
 for a Limb thus injected undergoes very little 
 change in many days, and, when the dissec- 
 tion is recommenced, the parts will be found 
 in the same state in which they were left, 
 and destitute of any offensive odor. 
 
 The oxymuriate of mercury is the best 
 agent for arresting the putrefactive process. 
 
 After the dissection is finished, the limb, 
 or part, must be immersed in a solution of 
 oxymuriate of mercury for a fortnight or 
 more. 
 
 The solution of oxymuriate of mercmy 
 must be contained in a wooden vessel, as 
 metaUic vessels do not answer. 
 
 The limb, or part, having been in the 
 solution during the above period, it should 
 be taken out, di-ied, varnished, and, if neces- 
 sary, painted. 
 
 SOLUTION OF HARDENING THE BRAIN AND 
 OTHER TISSUES. 
 
 Take of oxymuriate of mercury, one 
 ounce ; muriate of ammonia, thirty-five 
 gi'ains ; pyroligneous acid, one pint. Rub 
 the oxymuriate of mercury and muriate of 
 ammonia together in a mortar, then add 
 half a pint pyrloigneous acid. 
 
 OXYMURIATE^OF MERCURY IS A VALUABLE 
 ANTISEPTIC. 
 
 Dr. Parsons relates, that, when a piece of 
 flesh had been immersed in a solution of 
 oxymuriate of mercury untU it was com- 
 pletely changed, and afterwards put into a 
 large vessel containing water for some days, 
 though the greater part of the oxymuriate 
 of mercury was thus washed away, it did 
 not even then appear in the least degree 
 putrid. I procured half of the head and 
 neck of a large horse, which I first injected 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 87 
 
 with the solution of oxymuriate of mercury, 
 but as the putrefactive process was not thus 
 sufficiently stopped, without dissecting off 
 the sldn I immersed it in the solution of 
 oxymmriate of mercury for several days; 
 and, as no marks of putrefaction remained 
 (the offensive smell being entirely removed), 
 I then put it into a vessel containing a 
 large quantity of water for t^vo or three 
 days more, by which means nearly aU the 
 solution was removed from it. I was thus 
 able to proceed with the dissection during 
 the hot weather, without being in the least 
 incommoded either by the smell or soreness 
 of the hands, and without finding the instru- 
 ments acted upon in any degree, that ren- 
 dered the process at all objectionable. By 
 putting a wet cloth over it when I left it, I 
 was further enabled to make a very minute 
 dissection of the nerves, which I could not 
 otherwise have done, without the use of a 
 large quantity of spirits of wine, and then 
 not with half the convenience and pleasure 
 I have thus experienced. 
 
 ON VARNISHES AND PAINTS. 
 
 The following are the recipes for the 
 manufacture of paints and varnishes : 
 
 WHITE VARNISH. 
 
 Canada balsam, spirits of turpentine, of 
 each three ounces; mastic varnish, two 
 ounces. Put them into a bottle and shake 
 them together mitil they are properly 
 mixed. 
 
 MASTIC VARNISH. 
 
 This may be made by putting four 
 ounces of powdered mastic into one pint 
 of spirit of turpentine, to be kept iia a 
 stoppered bottle. It should be shaken every 
 day untn the greater part of the mastic 
 is dissolved. 
 
 TURPENTINE VARNISH. 
 
 Turpentine varnish is made by melting 
 Venice turpentine over a slow fii-e, and add- 
 ing to it as much spirits of turpentine as 
 will reduce it to the consistence of syrup. 
 
 WHITE PAINT. 
 
 Three ounces of the best white paint, 
 and one ounce of spirit of turpentine, are 
 to be put into a bottle and shaken together. 
 When it is used with the varnish, a bottle 
 of each should be mixed together. 
 
 PAINT FOR THE MUSCLES. 
 
 This is made by grinding on a slab a 
 small quantity of " lake" with white var- 
 nish, to wliich one-foiu"th part of turpen- 
 tine varnish has been added. 
 
 Dr. Parsons directs that varnish should 
 be laid on with a fine camels'-hair pencil 
 brush, as large as occasion may require. 
 Hollow preparations should have the var- 
 nish poured into them, and, after turning 
 them about in all directions, it is to be 
 drained out as clear as possible. 
 
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 It may be observed here (as preparatory 
 to the description of this part), that, in 
 quadrupeds in general, the facial angle is 
 one of very considerable obliquity, in con- 
 sequence of the prolongation of that part 
 of the head which coiTcsponds to the face 
 in the human subject; and this develop- 
 ment of feature is in none more strildng 
 than in the horse and dog. Consequently, in 
 these animals, the nose and mouth are 
 cavities of large dimensions. And in the 
 horse, the mouth appears to have been thus 
 prolonged, not only to enable him to col- 
 lect his food with more facility, but also 
 that he might subject greater parcels of it 
 at a time to the action of the gi-inding 
 teeth, whereby the processes of mastication 
 and deglutition are gi-eatly accelerated. 
 
 " Conformation. — The mouth is con- 
 structed in part of bone, and in part of 
 soft materials. The superior and anterior 
 maxiOary and the palate bones form the 
 roof; the inferior maxilla, the lower part; 
 the incisive teeth, the front ; and the 
 molar teeth, the sides. The lips, cheeks, 
 soft palate, gums, and buccal membrane, 
 constitute its soft parts. The tongue occu- 
 pies its cavity, and the salivary glands are 
 appendages to it. 
 
 "lips. 
 
 " General Conformation. — The lips, two 
 in number, superior and inferior, are at- 
 tached to the alveolar projections of the su- 
 perior and inferior maxillfB, by the muscles 
 that move them ; by the cellular tissue en- 
 tering into then- composition; and by the 
 membrane that lines them. Their borders 
 sun-ound and bound the orifice of the 
 
 mouth, and are united together on either 
 side ; which points of union are denomi- 
 nated their commissures, or the angles or 
 corners of the month. Exteriorly, the lips 
 are creased down the middle by perpen- 
 dicular lines of division ; exhibit little 
 papillary eminences upon their stuface ; 
 and present a softer and shorter coating of 
 hair than what is found in ordinary places, 
 out of which project several long straggling 
 horse-hairs or whiskers. The inferior lip 
 is altogether smaller, and is thinner in sub- 
 stance, than the superior ; and is distin- 
 guished by a remarkable prominence about 
 its centre, from which grows a tuft of long 
 coarse hairs, vulgarly designated as the 
 beard. 
 
 " Structure. — The lips are both muscu- 
 lar and glandular in their composition. 
 Several small muscles,* arising from the 
 maxillary bones, are inserted into them, and 
 endow them with great self-mobility : one 
 alone, consisting of circular fibres, is inter- 
 woven in their substance without having 
 any other connection ; this is denominated 
 the orbicularis oris, or sphincter labiorum, 
 from its use, which is that of closing the 
 mouth. Tins muscle is an antagonist to 
 all the others ; they raise or depress the 
 lips, or draw them to one side ; but this 
 contracts them, and occasionally projects 
 them in such a manner that the horse can 
 exert with them a prehensile power, which 
 is most remarkably evinced at the time that 
 he is picking up grain from a plain surface ; 
 indeed, the act of nibbling our hands with 
 his lips demonstrates this faculty, and also 
 the force with which he can employ it. The 
 lips are lined by the same membrane that 
 lines other parts of the cavity of the mouth. 
 
 * Percivall's Hyppopathology. 
 
 (88; 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 Beneath it are seated numerous mucous 
 follicles, that elevate it everywhere into lit- 
 tle papilla, which are perforated by the 
 mouths of these follicular glands, as may 
 be readily seen with the naked eye by evert- 
 ing either the superior, or the inferior lip. 
 The skin covering the lips is extremely 
 thin, and possesses considerable vascularity 
 and sensibility. To the tenuity of it, and 
 to the shortness and scantiness of their 
 pilous covering, is to be ascribed the su- 
 perior sensitive faculty of these parts. 
 
 " CHEEKS. 
 
 " The cheeks are constituted substantially 
 of the masseter and buccinator muscles, 
 covered by the sldn upon the outside, and 
 the buccal membrane upon the inside. 
 Their internal or membranous surface is 
 studded with scattered mucous follicles, 
 whose excretory orifices may be seen by 
 everting the part. 
 
 "gums. 
 " The gums consist of dense, compact, 
 prominent, polished masses, of the nature 
 of periosteum, adhering so closely and 
 tenaciously to the teeth and the sides of 
 their sockets, that it renders the one insep- 
 arable from the other, but by extraordinary 
 mechanical force. Lilie other parts of the 
 cavity of the mouth, they receive a cover- 
 ing from the buccal membrane.- 
 
 " PALATE. 
 
 " Two distinct parts are included under 
 this head ; the hard and the soft palate. 
 The hard palate is constituted of the pala- 
 tine processes of the superior and anterior 
 maxillary bones ; and of a firm, dense, 
 periosteum-lilce substance, the vaulted, in- 
 ward part of which is elevated into several 
 semicircular ridges, vulgai-ly called the bars. 
 The fibres of tliis substance, which pos- 
 sess great tenacity, are inserted into the 
 pores of the bone in every part, but are 
 most numerous and dense along the pala- 
 tine suture : the interstices are filled up by 
 a dense cellular tissue, through the sub- 
 
 stance of which are dispersed the ramifica- 
 tions of the palatine vessels and nerves. 
 
 " The soft palate, sometimes called the 
 velum palaii, is attached to the superior or 
 crescentic border of the hard palate, the 
 border formed by the palatine bones ; from 
 which the velum extends backward and 
 downward as far as the larynx, and there 
 terminates over the epiglottis, in close ap- 
 position with that part, in a loose semi- 
 circular edge. In consequence of the 
 velum palati being long enough to meet the 
 epiglottis, the cavity of the mouth has no 
 communication with that of the nose — 
 these two parts forming a perfect septum 
 between them ; hence it is that a horse 
 cannot respire and vomit by the mouth like 
 a human being, in whom the velum is so 
 short that there is an open space left be- 
 tween it and the epiglottis, through which 
 air or ahment can pass either upward or 
 downward. The soft palate is composed 
 of extensions of membrane from the nose 
 and mouth, between which is interposed a 
 pale, thin layer of muscular fibres. 
 
 " The velum performs the office of a 
 valve : it prevents the food, in the act of 
 swallowing, from passing into the nose, and 
 it conducts the air from the windpipe into 
 that cavity, without permitting any to 
 escape into the mouth. 
 
 " OF THE TONGUE. 
 
 " The tongue, the principal organ con- 
 cerned in taste and deglutition, is lodged in 
 the mouth ; filling the interspace between 
 the branches of the inferior maxiUa. 
 
 ^^ Duplicifi/. — Like the other organs of 
 sense, it is double ; being composed of two 
 parts, whose union is marked by a longitu- 
 dinal crease along its middle, the divisions 
 having no vascular nor nervous connection 
 nor in fact any intercommunication what- 
 ever ; so that an animal has to aU intents 
 and purposes two tongues, and apparently 
 for the same reason that he has two eyes, 
 two ears, and two nostrils. Anatomy, as 
 far as we can carry our researches, demon- 
 strates this ; perhaps we have no better 
 
90 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 proof of it, however, than what happens in 
 hemiplegia, a disease in wliich only one 
 half of the body is paralytic : under these 
 circumstances, in the human subject, the 
 patient can only see with one eye, use one 
 arm, and taste with but one (and that the 
 correspondent) side of the tongue. 
 
 " Division. — The tongue, in description, 
 is commonly divided into root, body, and 
 apex : by the attachments of the two former 
 it is held in its situation ; the latter is loose 
 and unconnected. 
 
 " Attachment. — At its root, it is deeply 
 and firmly inserted by several muscles which 
 arise chiefly from the os hyoides and the 
 inferior maxUla : it is also connected with 
 the pharynx, and with the soft palate. 
 From the sides of the lower jaw, separate 
 layers of the membrane of the mouth are 
 reflected upon its body, forming by their 
 junction a sort of bridle, which is thence 
 extended to the symphysis : to this part, 
 which serves to restrain the organ in its 
 motions, the name of frcenum linguce has 
 been given. 
 
 " Papillce. — The dorsum or anterior sur- 
 face of this organ has a peculiar covering, 
 which, though it appears to be continued 
 from the buccal membrane, is a different 
 structure altogether, and serves qiute a 
 different piu-pose. The surface of it is 
 roughened, possessing a villous texture, 
 everywhere studded with numerous little 
 conical eminences, called papilla, which are 
 supposed to be formed out of the extremi- 
 ties of the nerves, and to be the especial 
 seat of the sense of taste. These papillas 
 vary in size and figure, and are more abun- 
 dant and larger upon the base and along 
 the sides of the organ. Interspersed with 
 them are a number of mucous follicles, 
 whose apertures may be seen with the naked 
 eye, through which a mucus is discharged 
 upon the papillary surface, keeping it con- 
 tinually moist, and rendering its perception 
 of taste more acute. 
 
 " Structure. — The tongue is said to pos- 
 sess a covering of common integument ; 
 and certainly its strong, compact tunic has 
 aU the appearances of skin, and presents 
 
 the common tests of it : the external layer 
 is laminated, is bloodless, is insensible ; the 
 internal or substantial part is tough, fibrous, 
 vascular, and sensitive, in fact, is like cutis ; 
 and the intermediate or connecting material 
 is delicate, soft, and reticular, and forms a 
 bed for the lodgment of the papillae. The 
 substance of the tongue itself consists of 
 an inter-union, or rather an incorporation, 
 of its muscles, the fibres of which intersect 
 one another, and take a variety of direc- 
 tions ; but intermixed with them is a fine 
 adipose tissue, to which is owing the flabby 
 softness of the organ, and the peculiar 
 aspect it exhibits when cut into. 
 
 " Use. — Though the tongue is empha- 
 tically denominated, from its essential char- 
 acter, the organ of taste, it is not the only 
 part that possesses this faculty ; for the palate, 
 the pharynx, and the oesophagus, it is be- 
 lieved, participate in it. The tongue, in 
 addition to possessing this faculty, disposes 
 of the food during manducation, and, when 
 sufficiently masticated, collects and thrusts 
 it, portion after portion, into the pharynx ; 
 and furthermore, at the time the animal is 
 drinking, it is not only employed as an in- 
 strument of suction, but also as a canal 
 along which the fluid ascends into the 
 pharynx. 
 
 " Organization. — Every part of this or- 
 gan is plentifuUy supplied with blood. Its 
 arteries are the lingual, branches of large 
 size from the external carotids. The blood- 
 vessels of either side are generally found 
 free from anastomosis with one another ; if 
 either of the arterial trunks is filled with 
 injection, it rarely happens that the opposite 
 half of the organ receives any coloring from 
 it. Its nerves are the ninth pan, which run 
 to the muscles, and a considerable branch 
 from the fifth pair, in whose extreme rami- 
 fications, which are distributed to the papillse, 
 the perception of taste is supposed to be 
 inherent. 
 
 "OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 
 
 " Number and Names. — The salivary 
 glands, properly so called, are six in number, 
 three upon each side of the head ; the 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE X. 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 (SEE PEEOEBIKQ PIAIE.) 
 
 MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 LATERAL VIE^V. 
 
 a'\ 
 
 Trapezius. 
 
 
 • 
 
 Ligamentum colli. 
 
 
 6". 
 
 Rhomboideus longus. 
 
 
 c". 
 
 Scalenus. 
 
 
 /" 
 
 '. Antea spinatus. 
 
 
 9"- 
 
 Postea spinatus. 
 
 
 h". 
 
 Teres major. 
 
 
 i". 
 
 Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 
 I". 
 
 m". n". Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 Splenius. 
 
 
 K. 
 
 Masseter. 
 
 
 a. 
 
 Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 
 c. 
 
 Dilator nai-is lateralis. 
 
 
 e. 
 
 Orbicularis oris. 
 
 
 /■ 
 
 NasaKs longus. 
 
 
 9- 
 
 Levator labii superiorus. 
 
 
 h. 
 
 Buccinator. 
 
 
 i. 
 
 Zygomaticus. 
 
 
 J. 
 
 Depressor labii inferiorus. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 Attolentes. 
 
 
 n. 
 
 Retrahentes aurem. 
 
 
 0. 
 
 Abducens vel deprimens aurem. 
 
 
 2- 
 
 r. Tendon of the splenius and compleius 
 
 major. 
 
 t. 
 
 Obliquus capitis inferiorus. 
 
 
 u. 
 
 Levator humeri. 
 
 
 X. 
 
 Subscapulo hyoideus. 
 
 VEINS. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 Temporal vein. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Facial " 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Branch of the jugular. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 Parotid gland 
 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 91 
 
 parotid, the submaxillary, and the sub- 
 lingual. 
 
 " The parotid, the largest of these glands, 
 so called from being placed near the ear, 
 lies within a hollow space at the upper and 
 back part of the head, bounded by the 
 branch of the lower jaw before, and the 
 petrous portion of the temporal bone behind : 
 it extends as high up as the root of the ear, 
 and as low down as the angle of the jaw, 
 by which latter a smaU portion of it is con- 
 cealed. This gland, like the others of the 
 same class, is enveloped in a case of dense 
 cellidar membrane, and is constituted, in 
 structm-e, of many little lobes or lobuli, con- 
 nected together by processes transmitted 
 into the interior from this cellular covering. 
 Every lobulus is composed of a distinct set 
 of secretory vessels, from which numerous 
 tubuU arise, conjoin, and at length form one 
 main branch ; these branches, which corre- 
 spond in number to the lobuli, unite and 
 re-unite until they end in one common ex- 
 cretory duct. The duct emerges from the 
 inferior part of the gland, runs along the 
 inner part of the angle of the jaw, and 
 crosses over the posterior edge of the bone 
 immediately above or behind the submaxil- 
 lary artery and vein : in the remainder of 
 its course it corresponds to the border of 
 the masseter, and, about opposite to the 
 second anterior molar tooth, pierces ob- 
 liquely the buccinator, and terminates by a 
 tubercular eminence upon the internal slu:- 
 face of the buccal membrane.* 
 
 " The submaxillary gland, of smaller 
 volume than the parotid, lies in the space 
 between the angles of the jaw, to which, and 
 to the muscles thereabouts, it, is loosely 
 attached by cellular membrane : a portion 
 of it is also generally found proceeding 
 
 * To expose this duct, at or near its issue from the 
 gland, an incision should be carried along the posterior 
 border of the branch of the lower jaw : first, dividing the 
 skin ; secondly, the panniculus ; thirdly, the cellular tissue 
 immediately covering the duct, which is readily dis- 
 tinguished by its glistening pellucid aspect. By extending 
 the incision around the angle of the jaw, directing it 
 towards the inner edge of the bone, the duct will be found 
 making its first turn : here, however, it is lodged in a 
 hollow, deeply buried in cellular tissue. 
 
 backward as far as the trachea. Its struc- 
 ture is similar to that of the parotid gland. 
 The submaxillary duct issues near the 
 centre of the gland, creeps along the under 
 and inner border of the tongue, close to the 
 lower edge of the sublingual gland, and 
 terminates by a little mammiform elongation 
 of membrane, vulgarly called the barb (bar- 
 billon) or pap, upon the frffinum linguae, 
 about half an inch above its attachment to 
 the symphysis. Among the other ridiculous 
 and mischievous practices of farriers is that 
 of snipping off these processes. They 
 were seemingly designed as valves, to pre- 
 vent the insinuation of ahmentary matters 
 into the ducts. The coats of this vessel are 
 extremely thin and translucent. 
 
 " The sublingual gland is still smaller in 
 volume than the submaxillary, though, al- 
 together, one much resembles the other in 
 figure. It lies along the under part of the 
 tongue, covered by the buccal membrane, 
 where, from the lobular unevenness it gives 
 to the surface, its situation is well marked. 
 Its ducts penetrate the membrane by the 
 side of the frsnum lingua. 
 
 " The use of the salivary glands is to 
 secrete a saline limpid fluid, called saliva ; 
 which is conveyed and poured by their 
 ducts into the mouth during manducation : 
 here it is mLxed with the food, moUifying it, 
 and rendering it more easy of digestion, and 
 at the same time facilitating the passage of 
 the alimentary bolus into the stomach. 
 
 " OF THE PHARYNX. 
 
 " The pharynx is a funnel-shaped sac, 
 lodged in the tliroat for the reception of the 
 food. 
 
 '" Situation. — The pharynx is contiguous 
 to the guttural pouches, superiorly; the 
 larynx, inferiorly ; and the anterior portions 
 of the parotid glands and branches of the 
 jaw, laterally. Posteriorly, it is continuous 
 in substance with the esophagus ; anteriorly, 
 it presents an opening to the mouth. 
 
 " Attachment. — In front, to the os hyoides 
 and palate bones ; below, to the larynx ; 
 behind, it grows narrow and ends in the 
 esophagus. 
 
92 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 " Structure. — The pharynx is in part 
 muscular, and in part membranous. Of 
 the muscles belonging to it the constric- 
 tors are those that more immediately enter 
 into its composition. They are so dis- 
 posed as to give the membrane forming 
 the sac a complete fleshy covering, which 
 is rendered the more uniform by their 
 proximate fibres being indistinguishably 
 blended: thus the muscles form the most 
 substantial part of the pharynx. The 
 lining membrane, which is of the mu- 
 cous class, is soft and thick in substance, 
 and palely tinged with red in color, and is 
 papillary and in places rugose upon its sur- 
 face ; being perforated by the ducts of 
 numerous follicles which discharge a mucus 
 that preserves glibness and moisture to its 
 interior. The membrane itself is (where it 
 meets them) continuous both with the buc- 
 cal membrane and that which lines the 
 esophagus. 
 
 " Although the pharynx is designed for 
 the reception of the food, it does not open 
 directly into the mouth ; the two cavities 
 are separated from each other by the soft 
 palate and epiglottis. Except in the act of 
 swallowing and coughing, they have no 
 communication : in the former case, the 
 velum is pressed upward by the food 
 against the posterior openings of the nose ; 
 in the latter, the larynx is depressed by a 
 convulsive action of the muscles in the 
 vicinity. Into the cavity above the velum 
 there are four openings — two of the cham- 
 bers of the nose, one of the larynx, and one 
 of the esophagus : the eustachian tubes do 
 not open into the pharynx ; they end in 
 two large membranous pouches at the 
 upper part of the fauces. The openihg 
 leading into the esophagiis is constantly 
 closed, except when alimentary matters are 
 passing to or from the stomach ; so that air 
 received into the pharynx through the nose 
 can pass nowhere else but into the wind- 
 pipe; but if food be returned from the 
 stomach, it will be regurgitated into the 
 nose ; at least, only that portion of it 
 which enters the pharynx at the moment 
 that the larynx is depressed in the act of 
 
 vomiting, can be thrown into the mouth, 
 in the same way that air is in the act of 
 coughing. 
 
 " OF THE ESOPHAGUS. 
 
 " The esophagus, or gullet, is the tube 
 through which -the food is conducted from 
 the pharynx into the stomach. 
 
 " Course. — It has its beginning from the 
 pharynx, and is there placed at the upper 
 and back part of the larynx, taking the 
 first part of its course above and behind the 
 trachea, between that tube and the cervical 
 vertebrEB. Having proceeded a short way 
 down, it incHnes to the left, and soon after 
 makes its appearance altogether on the left 
 side of the trachea, and continues so placed 
 during the remainder of its passage down 
 the neck : this explains why we look for the 
 bolus dxiring the act of swallowing on the 
 left, and not on the right side of the ani- 
 mal. In company with the trachea, the 
 esophagus enters the thorax between the 
 first tu^o ribs, at which place, running above 
 that tube, it quits its companion for the 
 superior mediastinum, which cavity it 
 traverses below and a little to the right of 
 the posterior aorta. Immediately beneath 
 the decussation of the crura, the esophagus 
 pierces the substance of the diaphragm, 
 and enters the stomach, at a right angle, 
 about the centre of its upper and anterior 
 part. 
 
 " Structure. — The esophagus presents, 
 externally, a strong, red, muscular coat ; in- 
 ternally, one remarkable for its whiteness, 
 which in its nature is cuticular. The mus- 
 cular coat is composed of two orders of 
 fibres — • a, longitudinal, forming an out- 
 ward layer ; and a circular, an inward 
 layer : the former ^vill shorten the tube, and 
 perhaps dilate it for the reception of food ; 
 the latter, by successive contractions of the 
 canal, ^vill transmit the food into the 
 stomach. The second, or internal coat, is 
 called the cuticular, from its analogy to the 
 cuticle of the skin. Although it is contin- 
 uous with the membrane of the pharnyx, 
 it is of a totally different composition : it is 
 thinner, but it is much more compact and 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 93 
 
 sti'onger in its texture, and, I believe, is 
 both insensible and inorganic. It adheres 
 to the muscular covering by a fine cellular 
 tissue, the extensibility of which gives full 
 play to the latter ; and admits, during the 
 empty or collapsed state of the tube, of the 
 former being thrown into many longitudinal 
 pliccE or folds ; as is demonstrated by mak- 
 ing a transverse section of the tube : such 
 appearances result from the contraction of 
 the one coat, and the want of proportion- 
 ate elasticity in the other. Between the 
 two tunics, imbedded amongst the connect- 
 ing cellular tissue, are numerous follicular 
 glands, whose office is to pour forth a mu- 
 cous secretion upon the internal surface of 
 the lining membrane, to render the passage 
 of food along it glib and free from any 
 friction. 
 
 " N"ASAL FOSS^.* 
 
 " The nasal fossae are the frw^o chambers 
 or lateral cavities, whose external openings 
 are the nostrils. Their walls or external 
 parietes are almost entirely osseous; and to 
 the OSSEOUS SYSTEM (page 45) the reader 
 must turn for a description of the manner 
 in which the fossae are formed, and of the 
 bones entering into their formation. But, 
 in addition to bone, they are cartilaginous 
 in their constitution. 
 
 " The cartilages of the nose are five in 
 number: — of which one (the septum nasi) 
 is situated internally; the other four (enter- 
 ing into the composition of the nosti'ils) ex- 
 ternally. 
 
 " The septum nasi is the vertical carti- 
 laginous partition interposed between the 
 nasal fossas. It exhibits four borders. The 
 inferior one is received into the groove of 
 the vomer ; while the superior presents a 
 lengthened channel between two elevated 
 edges, into which is admitted the internal 
 crest formed by the union of the nasal 
 bones. Its posterior border is affixed to the 
 ethmoidal plate : its anterior serA'es to sus- 
 tain the cartilages forming the nostrils. 
 Both its sides are completely covered by the 
 Schneiderian membrane. 
 
 * Hippopathology. 
 
 ^'■Nostrils. — Four in number: two on 
 each side, distinguished by the epithets true 
 and false. 
 
 " The true nostrils are the large, ovoid, 
 and ever-open orffices so conspicuous ex- 
 ternally. They have for the base of their 
 structure four pieces of fibro-cartUage, 
 which are involved in doublings of the 
 common integument. Each nostril is formed 
 of two flexible ala or wings : a svperior or 
 internal one, and an inferior or external. 
 The former is supported by a broad circular 
 cartilaginous plate ; the latter is crescentic 
 in shape, and forms a flexm-e outward, 
 within which is perceptible the orffice of 
 the lachrymal duct. They are attached to, 
 and supported by, the nasal peak and sep- 
 tum nasi. 
 
 " The false nostrils are tv\-o little pouches 
 or cavities (ha\Tng the semblance of culs- 
 de-sacs), situated internally, above the trae 
 nostrils, into which an external opening is 
 found within the commissive formed by the 
 union of the two alae. They are formed 
 out of duplicatures of the skin, which is 
 here thiimer, and finer, and softer in its 
 textiure ; and, except at their enti-ance, are 
 without hair upon their surfaces. Their 
 use is not luiown. 
 
 ^^Schneiderian membrane. — The cavity 
 of the nose is not only divided into the tw'o 
 nasal fossffi, but each fossa is subdivided 
 into the thi'ee meatus (for a description of 
 which, vide page 45). Every part of these 
 cavities and jDassages is covered by the 
 Schneiderian or pituitary membrane. This 
 is a membrane of the mucous class, dis- 
 tinguished for its thickness of substance, 
 for its vasculai-ity, and for its olfactory pa- 
 pilla;. It has two sm-faces: an exposed 
 or secreting one and an unexposed or ad- 
 herent one. The secreting surface is 
 smooth, and is rendered glib and sliiny by 
 the varnish it derives from the mucous 
 secretion emitted by the numerous small 
 rounded pores everyw'here visible in the 
 membrane, but more particularly upon the 
 lower part of the septum, and upon the 
 inferior tin-binated bone. This sm-face 
 exhibits a pale pink blush, the effect of the 
 
94 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 bloodvessels spread over it, which are here 
 so superficial as to owe their principal de- 
 fence to the mucous exudation : hence it 
 is that the complexion of the membrane 
 (varying with the influence of the atmos- 
 phere and other agents) is extremely fugitive 
 and uncertain. The adherent surface of 
 the membrane contracts a close and firm 
 adherence to the parts it covers, through 
 the insinuation of its fibres into them : in- 
 deed, to the bone it appears to supply the 
 place of periosteum ; to the cartilage, of 
 perichondrium. The substance of the 
 membrane exhibits a fibrous structure, in- 
 terwoven with cellular tissue ; and upon 
 that — as a substratum — is spread a glan- 
 dular and vascular apparatus, from wMch 
 issues the mucous secretion ; together with 
 numerous papiUcB, of small size, constituted 
 of the terminations of those nerves from 
 which the membrane derives ordinary sen- 
 sation, as well as those that endow it with 
 the peculiar sense of smelling. The 
 Schneiderian membrane, inferiorly, within 
 the nostrils, is continuous with the dupUca- 
 tures of skin linuig those parts ; superiorly 
 with the membrane lining the pharynx; be- 
 sides which, it is continued into the several 
 sinuses of the head, through the openings 
 leading from them into the nose, and like- 
 wise gives them a complete covering : it is 
 to be obser\'ed, however, that in the sinuses 
 the membrane is thinner, and assumes a 
 paler and more delicate aspect; its natural 
 secretion is also fomid more sparing. The 
 membrane is abundantly supplied with 
 blood-vessels, as well as nerves ; and also 
 possesses its share of absorbent vessels. 
 Its arteries, wliich ramify and anastomose 
 so as to form a spreading network upon the 
 secreting surface, are derived superiorly 
 from the lateral nasal; inferiorly from the 
 facial and palato-maxillary. Its ner\'es are 
 furnished by the fii-st and fifth pairs. 
 
 " Sinuses. — These cavities are formed in 
 the interior of several of the bones of the 
 cranium and face : in fact, with the excep- 
 tion of the membrane lining them, they are 
 entirely osseous in their composition. This 
 will account for their description having 
 
 been already given (at page 46), to which 
 we must again refer. 
 
 " Ducts. — There are tu^o ducts belonging 
 to, or connected with, the nose. One is the 
 ductus ad nasum — a tube partly osseous 
 and partly membranous in its composition, 
 commencing at the inner angle or corner of 
 the eye, within the substance of the lachry- 
 mal bone, running within a' canal continued 
 from this bone through the superior maxil- 
 lary bone, and terminating at the inner and 
 inferior part of the nasal fossa, underneath 
 the duplicatm-e of the inferior ala, upon 
 the surface of the common skin, about one- 
 fourth of an inch fi"ora its junction with 
 the Schneiderian membrane, by an orifice 
 large enough to admit a crow-quill. The 
 other duct is the ductus communis nariiim, 
 which pursues its course along underneath 
 the vomer to the,pharynx ; after arising from 
 two lateral branches springing from oblong 
 apertures in the floor of the nostrUs." 
 
 INTERNAL PARTS. 
 
 COMPREHEXDIXG THE CA^TTIES OF THE CEAXIl'M, DE- 
 BIT, NOSE, AXD MOUTH. 
 
 I. CAVITY OF THE CRANIUM, 
 
 Constructed for the lodgment of the 
 brain with its appendages, is in form ovoid, 
 flattened inferiorly, broader anteriorly than 
 posteriorly; its antero-posterior or long 
 diameter measming about seven inches ; its 
 transverse or lateral diameter about four 
 inches ; its vertical or perpendicular diameter 
 about three and a half inches. At the same 
 time it is to be observed, that, although the 
 general form of the cavity is the same, its di- 
 mensions may and do vary in dift'erent heads. 
 The eight bones composing the cranium all 
 present internally surfaces more or less con- 
 cave, which, united, form the cavity under 
 consideration ; hence it is that the interior 
 is not regular or uniform, but presents to 
 view diflerent hollows, which are adapted 
 to distinct prominences of the cerebral mass. 
 
 Division of the interior surface into roof 
 and base of the cranium : 
 
 The roof is formed by the frontal, parietal, 
 and occipital bones : its superficis is larger 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 95 
 
 than the extent of the base, and it is with- 
 out any apparently defective places, observ- 
 able in the latter. It presents — 1st. On 
 the mesian line from front to back, the sagit- 
 tal groove, for the longitudinal sinus formed 
 by the frontal and parietal crests, crossed 
 towards the front by the coronal suture, and 
 bounded posteriorly by the parietal protu- 
 berance, to which is attached the tentorium, 
 and behind which is the occipital cupula, for 
 covering the cerebellum. 2nd. On either 
 side, along the same line, the cerebral con- 
 cavities of the frontal bone; the coronal 
 suture, the boundary line between them 
 and the parietal concavities ; the transverse 
 grooves, for the lateral sinuses ; and, sunk 
 within them, the lambdoidal suture. 
 
 The base is formed by the temporal, 
 sphenoid, ethmoid, and occipital bones. It 
 presents — 1st. On the middle line, from 
 before backwards, the crista galli, and on its 
 sides the ethmoidal fossa and cribriform 
 plates, bounded laterally by the internal 
 orbital plates of the frontal bones, and there 
 pierced by the internal orbital foramina ; the 
 concave surface of the body of the ethmoid 
 bone; the optic hiatus leading to the optic 
 foramina; a transverse suture between the 
 ethmoid and sphenoid bones. Upon the 
 sphenoid bone, the pituitary fossa, bounded 
 laterally by the two optic fossae ; the latter 
 leading to the foramina lacera orbitalia, 
 over which are the spinal foramina ; a trans- 
 verse elevated line denotes the place of 
 junction of the sphenoid with the occipital 
 bone. Belonging to the occipital bone, are 
 the basilar fossce and the occipital hole. 2d. 
 On either side, in the same direction, the inter- 
 nal surface of the icing of the ethmoid bone, 
 rather more convex than concave, for the 
 support of the anterior lobe of the cere- 
 brum ; the concavity of the iving of the sphe- 
 noid bone, for the reception of the middle 
 lobe ; the concavity of the squamous part of 
 the temporal bone, for lodging the posterior 
 lobe : and the sutures bounding these three 
 cerebral surfaces. The foramen lacermn 
 basis cranii, formed between the wing of 
 the sphenoid anteriorly, the basilar process 
 of the occipital bone internally, and the 
 
 petrotis portion of the temporal bone exter- 
 nally and posteriorly : it is wide and irregu- 
 lar before, narrow behind, and is distin- 
 guished into the spheno-occipital and tempo- 
 ro-occipital hiatus. The petrous portion of 
 the temporal bone, presenting a naiTow 
 triangular surface forwards and upwards, 
 which contributes to the posterior cerebral 
 concavity ; a broad, smooth, but uneven sur- 
 face inwards, against which inclines the 
 cerebellum, and upon which we distinguish 
 — a, the orifice of the meatus auditorius in- 
 ternus ; b, a transverse prominence, and sev- 
 eral cerebral indentations ; c, an irregular 
 convexity downwards, which forms the 
 boundary wall of the labyrinth ; d, 2i fissure 
 separating it from the former. Lastly, the 
 sutures, uniting the petrous to the squamous 
 portion and to the occipital bone. Of the 
 occipital bone a part of the internal surface 
 assisting in the formation of a concavity for 
 the cerebellum, by the convolutions of which 
 it is indented ; the surface even and smooth, 
 and slightly excavated below this, for the 
 support of the medulla oblongata ; stiU 
 lower, the condyloid foramina, through which 
 the ninth pair of nerves pass out. 
 
 ■THE ORBITS, 
 
 Two in number, are formed for the lodg- 
 ment, attachment, and protection of the 
 eyes and their appendages. 
 
 Figure. — Symmetrical. The cavity, 
 which is extended horizontally backward 
 and inward, has, viewed in front, a pyra- 
 midal aspect : the base, represented by the 
 front, has four sides, and four angles ; one 
 only of the sides, however, is sufficient in 
 extent to reach the apex, the others being 
 all more or less imperfect. A line drawn 
 in a horizontal direction through the axis 
 of this figure, inclines more outwards than 
 forwards, more forwards than downwards, 
 intersecting another horizontal line projected 
 directly forward at an angle of about 70°, 
 and one extended laterally, directly outward, 
 (at right angles with the former), at about 
 20° : the incUnation downward, however, 
 will in course vary with the erect position 
 of the head. 
 
96 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOESE. 
 
 Structure. — The orbit is composed of 
 unequal portions coming from four of the 
 bones of the cranium, and from three of 
 those of the face : viz., the frontal, ethmoid, 
 sphenoid, and temporal bones; the malar, 
 lachrymal, and palate bones. 
 
 Division — Into sides, angles, base, and 
 apex. 
 
 Sides. — The superior side or roof of the 
 cavity consists only of the frontal arch; 
 which is concave and smooth internally, to 
 make room for the lachrymal gland, and 
 has anterior and posterior borders, sharp and 
 slightly curvated. The inferior side or floor 
 of the orbit is formed by the orbital surfaces 
 of the lachrymal and malar bones, is broader 
 than the roof, though, like it, is deficient as 
 a whole. It comprises the orbital portion 
 of the lachrymal suture : it is terminated in 
 front, hy a smooth, rounded, curvated border; 
 behind, nearly midway between the base 
 and apex, by a shorter and straighter border. 
 The internal or nasal side, the broadest and 
 ordy complete one, is formed principally by 
 the internal orbital process of the frontal 
 bone, into the notch of which is received the 
 QS planum: the ethmoid bone further con- 
 tributes, and also the sphenoid and palate 
 bones, the three constituting that irregular 
 termination of the cavity behind which 
 represents the apex. The frontal orbital 
 plate is smooth and slightly concave, and is 
 united below by a continuation of the trans- 
 verse suture with the lachrymal bone. Its 
 border in front, though slightly cui-vated, is 
 very irregular, having several notches and 
 one or two small foramina in it; it also 
 presents a little tubercle, to which the lach- 
 rymal caruncle is attached. The external 
 or zygomatic side is formed principally by 
 the zygomatic process of the malar bone, that 
 of the temporal conti-ibuting but little : it is 
 concave, and smooth internally, somewhat 
 broader below than upwards ; is intersected 
 obliquely by the zygomatic suture, and has 
 an interior border, smooth and curvated, a 
 posterior one, sharp and straight. 
 
 Angles. — The supero-internal angles, one 
 before, the other behind, are formed by the 
 beginning of the frontal arch, through which, 
 
 midway between them, passes the supra- 
 orbital foramen. The infero-internal angle 
 includes the lachrymal fossa. The supero- 
 external angles, one anterior, the other pos- 
 terior, are intersected by the suture uniting 
 the frontal and zygomatic arches. The 
 infero-external angles, particularly the ante- 
 rior, are rounded and smooth. 
 
 Base. — Of the circmuferent border, the 
 superior and internal parts, about two-fifths 
 of the entire circle, are formed by the os 
 frontis ; the inferior and internal parts, about 
 one-fifth, by the lachrymal bone ; and the 
 remaining two-fifths by the malar and tem- 
 poral bones, in the proportion of three parts 
 of the former to one of the latter. 
 
 The apex or back of the orbit, formed by 
 the ethmoid, spenoid, and palate bones, is 
 pierced by five foramina: the two round are 
 the internal orbital and optic, which are 
 ranged in a row with two oval and larger 
 in size, the supero-posterior and infero-pos- 
 terior orbital; the one behind is the spinal 
 foramen. 
 
 in. CAVITIES OF THE NOSE, 
 
 Comprehending the nasal fossae or cham- 
 bers, and the sinuses. These cavities occupy 
 about two-thirds of the internal space of 
 the superior maxilla, the remaining third 
 belonging to the cranium ; from which they 
 are partitioned by the cranial septum of the 
 frontal bone, in union with the cribriform 
 plates and crest of the ethmoid. 
 
 The nasal fosste may be said to include 
 about two-thirds of the entire space de- 
 voted to the olfactory cavities. They con- 
 stitute the interior of the proboscis ; have 
 four boundary walls, one above, one below, 
 and two laterally ; are separated from each 
 other by a septum ; but are open both be- 
 fore and behind. 
 
 The superior wall presents an irregular 
 concave formed by the internal surfaces of 
 the nasal bones, the cells and grooves of the 
 ethmoid, and small portions of the nasal 
 surfaces of the palate bones. 
 
 The inferior wall is horizontal ; it extends 
 forward beyond the superior, but is con- 
 siderably overreached by that waU poste- 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 97 
 
 riorly : it is formed by the palatine por- 
 tions of the anterior and superior maxillary, 
 and by the palate bones. The surface is 
 transversely concave, and presents a slight 
 eminence a little behind its middle. 
 
 Each lateral wall or side presents an 
 irregular concavity, and is formed by the 
 anterior and superior maxillary and the 
 palate bones. To it are attached the supe- 
 rior and inferior turbinated bones, by which 
 the fossa is divided into three separate pas- 
 sages or meatus. The superior meatus, 
 comprised between the nasal and superior 
 turbinated bones, extends from the angle of 
 the lateral nasal opening, passing over the 
 ethmoidal cells, to the cribriform plate, fol- 
 lowing superiorly the declination of the 
 wall. The middle meatus, included between 
 the turbinated bones, leads superiorly into 
 the ethmoidal grooves and cells, and into 
 the sinuses of the head, and ends below, be- 
 neath the termination of the superior. This 
 passage, lilvc the former one, is narrow ; but 
 its greatest diameter is, obliquely, in the 
 perpendicular direction ; whereas the other 
 measures most from side to side. It re- 
 ceives the apertures of the ductus ad 
 nasum, maxillary sinus, ethmoidal grooves, 
 and turbinated cells. The inferior meatus 
 is the most capacious as well as the most 
 direct one: it extends along the inferior 
 wall, from the anterior to the posterior 
 opening of the nose. 
 
 The septum nasi is the partition separat- 
 ing one fossa from the other. It is formed, 
 posteriorly, by the ethmoidal plate; infe- 
 riorly and posteriorly, by the vomer ; supe- 
 riorly and anteriorly, (and principally) by a 
 broad perpendicular plate of cartilage. 
 
 The openings of the nose are : the ante- 
 rior, divided by the nasal peak and septum 
 nasi into two, and formed by the superior 
 borders of the anterior maxillary bones: 
 the posterior, divided after the same manner 
 by the vomer and septum, and formed by 
 the nasal surfaces and crescentic borders of 
 the palate bones. 
 
 The sinuses of the head communicate 
 with, and may be said to constitute part of, 
 the nasal cavities. They are the frontal, 
 
 nasal, maxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal, and 
 palatine. 
 
 The frontal sinuses, formed within the 
 frontal bones, are situated so that a straight 
 line extended between the supero-internal 
 angles of the orbits passes opposite to 
 about the angular or deepest parts of then- 
 cavities. The sinus (on either side) has a 
 triangular figure. The superior side or roof 
 is flat, and (barring the septa) even upon 
 its surface ; whereas the posterior side is 
 irregular, being convex inwardly, where it 
 is formed by the cranial septum ; concave 
 outwardly, where it is opposed to the part 
 composing the temporal fossa. The infe- 
 rior side slants from behind forward, and 
 from below upward, is irregular on its sur- 
 face, and open or deficient outwardly, 
 where the cavity communicates with the 
 maxiUary sinus. Of the angles, one is 
 directed upward; another downward, ter- 
 minating in the nasal sinus, with which it 
 is conjoined, the two forming one continu- 
 ous cavity ; the third points backward, and 
 is directly opposite to the imaginary trans- 
 verse line above alluded to. The cavity is 
 traversed and divided into several unequal 
 open compartments and recesses by septa; 
 the principal of which is one extended be- 
 tween the superior and inferior sides ; it is 
 partitioned from the opposite sinus by the 
 nasal spine. The sinus is but small in the 
 young compared to its proportionate dimen- 
 sions in the adult subject : it continues to 
 increase afterwards with age, and ultimately 
 extends throughout the whole of the frontal 
 bone. 
 
 The nasal sinuses, formed by the nasal 
 bones above and the superior turbinated 
 bones behind, are nothing more than the 
 culs-de-sacs or blind terminations of the 
 frontal sinuses. 
 
 The maxillary sinuses, the largest of 
 these cavities, are spacious but very irregu- 
 larly formed. They are situated below and 
 in front of the frontal. Of this sinus, on 
 either side, the posterior and external walls 
 are formed by the malar and lachrymal 
 bones, whose orbital processes constitute a 
 tliin partition between it and the orbit ; the 
 
98 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 inferior parts consist of the excavations in 
 the superior maxillary bone ; superiorly, the 
 sinus is open, being there continuous with 
 the frontal : the boundary line between 
 these cavities is marked by the suture 
 uniting the lachrymal to the frontal and 
 nasal bones on the outer side, and by the 
 prominent crest formed by the junction of 
 the superior turbinated with the ethmoid 
 bone on the inner ; underneath which pai-t, 
 through a curved (and in the recent subject 
 sort of valvular) fissure, the sinus opens 
 into the middle meatus, between the bases 
 of the tiurbinated bones. The cavity is but 
 small, and still more irregular, in the young 
 subject, in consequence of the intrusion of 
 the yet uncut molar teeth. 
 
 The frontal sinus, then, terminates in the 
 nasal, but both discharge themselves into the 
 maxillary ; the maxillary has also a blind 
 termination, but empties itself into the pos- 
 terior part of the middle nasal meatus. 
 
 The sphenoidal sinus is situated within 
 the palatine portion of the body of the 
 sphenoid bone. It has no existence in the 
 young subject, the bone being solid through- 
 out ; but in process of growth a cavernous 
 hollow is formed, which, from the seces- 
 sion and attenuation of the laminae of the 
 bone, continues to enlarge. It communi- 
 cates, by two ovoid openings, with the eth- 
 moidal sinuses. 
 
 The ethmoidal sinuses are two cavities, 
 separated by the perpendicular plate, situa- 
 ted beneath the ethmoidal cells. They 
 have openings in front, communicating with 
 the lowermost and largest grooves of the 
 same bone, and with the palatine sinuses. 
 
 The palatine sinuses are formed between 
 the superior maxillary and palate bones ; 
 are situated below and in front of the for- 
 mer ; are separated from each other by the 
 vomer ; and open into the maxillary sinuses : 
 they are irregidar in form and cavernous 
 interiorly. They are not to be found in the 
 young subject. Some might be inclined to 
 treat them as parts of the maxillary sinuses ; 
 they are, however, as perfectly distinct from 
 the latter as the frontal are. 
 
 IV. THE MOUTH. 
 
 The mouth is the cavity included be- 
 tween the superior and inferior maxillae, 
 making (in the skeleton) one common va- 
 cuity with the inter-maxillary space. Its 
 antero-posterior dimensions can be but 
 little varied; but its supero-inferior diame- 
 ter will be increased in the ratio of the dis- 
 tance to which the inferior maxiUa recedes 
 from the superior; the cavity during the 
 distraction of the jaws assuming the figure 
 of a misplaced t> , the angle of which is 
 turned baclrward. 
 
 The mouth is formed — superiorly, by 
 the palatine and superior and anterior max- 
 illary bones ; interiorly, by the inferior 
 maxilla ; laterally, by the molar teeth ; an- 
 teriorly, by the incisive teeth. Behind, 
 through the posterior opening of the nose, 
 it communicates with the nasal fossae. 
 
 PERITONEUM.* 
 
 The whole of the viscera contained 
 within the abdomen proper, including the 
 anterior part of the rectum, bladder, and 
 vasa deferentia, are either entirely or par- 
 tially covered by or in contact with perito- 
 neum. This is a serous membrane reflected 
 also over the parietes of the abdomen, so 
 that a parietal and visceral or reflected por- 
 tion require notice. Like other membranes 
 of the same nature, it forms a closed sac, 
 which, however, is not the case in the 
 female, as its cavity communicates with 
 that of the uterus, owing to the open state 
 of the Fallopian tubes at their fimbriated 
 edges. 
 
 It is loosely connected with the abdominal 
 parietes by subserous cellular tissue, and 
 the same obtains with regard to its connec- 
 tion with the viscera. But we find some 
 parts more adherent than others, such as 
 along the linea alba and cordiform portion 
 of the diaphragm. Also on the organs it 
 is but loosely connected with them at their 
 attached border, where it forms generally a 
 triangular space, occupied simply by vessels, 
 nerves, and cellular tissue, and allowing of 
 
 * Prize Essav bv Mr. Gamgee. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 99 
 
 their distention and alteration in figure. 
 On the other hand, it is more adherent as 
 it extends over the free surface or margin 
 of the various parts it is in contact with. 
 
 The peritoneum being considered as ex- 
 tending from the .umbilicus over the ab- 
 dominal parietes towards the median line 
 of the diaphragm and spine, is found there 
 to fold on itself, and proceed from tlie latter 
 on to the intestine, forining the mesenters ; 
 and from the former on to the liver and 
 stomach, constituting ligaments. These 
 folds of peritoneum are also seen extending 
 from organs to other parts of the abdominal 
 parietes, and these also constitute ligaments. 
 Then they may be traced from one organ 
 to another, giving rise to the several omenta ; 
 all of which we shall more especially allude 
 to as we speak of the peritoneal coat of 
 each separate viscus. 
 
 STOMACH. 
 
 The stomach is the dilated portion of 
 the alimentary canal, intermediate between 
 the oesophagus and small intestine : through 
 the former it receives the ingested aliment, 
 for which it acts as a reservoir during the 
 process of chymification, the active agent 
 in which is the gastric secretion. 
 
 In the horse, as well as all other soli- 
 pedes, this viscus is exceptional in not being 
 the most capacious dilatation of the alimen- 
 tary canal. M. Colin, in a paper published 
 in the Recueil de Medecine Veterinaire 
 Pratique for Tune, 1849, states that the 
 capacity of the horse's stomach is very 
 variable. He says, that in a very small 
 horse he found it only nine quarts (accord- 
 ing to his evaluation by litre, which may 
 be considered as thirty -four fluid ounces), 
 while in one of colossal dimensions it was 
 as much as 33 3-4 quarts, both having died 
 at the college ( Alfort) infirmary. He gives 
 the average as being from 13 7-20 quarts 
 to 14 3-5. Then, considering the capacity 
 of the stomach in relation with that of the 
 intestines, he found it in a very small horse 
 as one to thirteen, while in other two cases 
 it was as one to ten. He takes the latter 
 
 as the standard relative capacity between 
 the two. 
 
 The stomach is situated transversely to 
 the long axis of the body, in the left hypo- 
 chondrium, extending into the epigastrium 
 and during repletion into the right hypocon- 
 driac region. However, its size and situa- 
 tion vary under different cfrcumstances, as 
 to whether it be full or empty, adapting 
 itself generally to its contents. 
 
 The stomach is fixed on its left side to 
 the diaphgram by the oesophagus, having 
 the spleen attached to it as well. The 
 duodenum then, by means of the lesser or 
 gastro-hepatic omentum, suspends the 
 pyloric end by getting attached to the con- 
 cave surface of the liver. 
 
 The shape of the stomach might be ex- 
 pressed as bemg that of a tube bent on 
 itself, and dilated along its convex border, 
 so as to form two cul-de-sacB ; i. e., a right 
 and a left one, whilst it has two borders or 
 curvatures, distinguished as a lesser concave 
 and a greater convex one. The stomach 
 has two smooth surfaces, the anterior one 
 being in contact with the liver and dia- 
 phragm, whilst the posterior one corresponds 
 to the convolutions of the small intestines 
 and gastric flexture of the colon. It has 
 two orifices, i. e., a left oesophageal, or com- 
 monly called cardiac, and a right intestinal 
 or pyloric one ; the latter taking its name 
 from the valve by which it is guarded. 
 
 A circular depression round the stomach, 
 midway between the cardiac and pyloric 
 orifices, most visible when the organ is 
 replete, marks the external division of the 
 stomach into a cardiac and pyloric portion, 
 coiTCsponding with the point where the 
 mucuous membrane varies in character in- 
 ternally. The sacular projection at the 
 cardiac portion takes the name of fundus, 
 owing to its greater magnitude as compared 
 with a smaller cial-de-sac at the pyloric end, 
 the analogue of which in human anatomy 
 is characterized by the appellation of antrum 
 pylori. 
 
 Having thus briefly described the striking 
 peculiarities of the stomach, I proceed 
 
100 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 with more detail to the consideration of 
 its constituent parts, such as its coats, 
 nerves and vessels. 
 
 The coats of the horse's stomacli having 
 been generally described as four, it appears 
 needless to altertheir nomenclature, although 
 the one which I shall allude to as third 
 might quite as justly be described as second, 
 or merely spoken of as connecting cellular 
 tissue, without regarding it as a separate coat. 
 
 The external peritoneal tunic is found 
 proceeding from the diaphragm on to the 
 cardiac portion of the stomach, surrounding 
 the oesophageal opening, where it is tough, 
 and forms the gastro phrenic ligament. Thus 
 we follow it on to the corresponding surface 
 of the viscus, and, firstly, more especially 
 on to the lesser curvature, where it is loosely 
 connected with the other coats, and, the 
 middle portion being more adherent, gives 
 rise to two folds laterally, which seem to 
 stretch from the cardiac to the pyloric orifices, 
 to bind the two together, necessarily leaving 
 a pit or cul-de-sac between them. At the 
 pyloric end the peritoneum comes off from 
 the concave surface of the liver on to the 
 stomach, constituting the gastro-hepatic or 
 lesser omentum, the anterior layer of which 
 comes from the anterior part of the concave 
 surface of the liver, whilst the posterior 
 layer comes from the posterior part of the 
 same, so that the two enclose the vessels 
 going to and from the porta. 
 
 Having formed a covering to the corres- 
 ponding surface of the stomach, the layers 
 of peritoneum meet at the greater curvature. 
 In following them from this point the des- 
 cription will be facilitated by alluding to 
 the two separately, as they meet to form 
 the gastro-splenic and gastro-colic omenta, 
 as well as the omental sac. In forming 
 the latter, they so blend as merely to con- 
 stitute a fine reticulated vascular layer, in- 
 separable into two, except near the magins 
 of the viscera. Distinguishing the anterior 
 or external layer as A, and the posterior or 
 internal one as B, their arrangement admits 
 of exposition in the following terms : — 
 
 A passes from the anterior surface of the 
 stomach, forms the loose omentum, and gets 
 
 on to the transverse colon and spleen. 
 Reaching the latter, it is reflected over its 
 superior surface at the posterior margin of 
 the hilus, so as to contribute to the form- 
 ation of the gastro-splenic omentum, and 
 extends round the free posterior margin of 
 the viscus on to the inferior surface, passing 
 to the right on to the left kidney, and, 
 anteriorly reaching the supero-anterior part 
 of the spleen, is reflected from it so as to 
 continue as the outer layer of the loose 
 omentum. Further to the right, A is trace- 
 able on to the inferior surface of the trans- 
 verse colon, and, extending round the pos- 
 terior part of the latter, is found to ascend 
 up to the spine, and then turn backward 
 and downward to form the mesentery. 
 
 B, or the internal layer of peritoneum, 
 passes from the posterior surface of the 
 stomach till it reaches the infero-anterior 
 border of the transverse colon, as well as the 
 hilus of the spleen. After covering the an- 
 terior surface of the colon, it ascends up to 
 the pillars of the diaphragm clothing the 
 anterior part of the pancreas, which is thus 
 held between A and B, or layers of the trans- 
 verse meso-colon. A little to the left of this, 
 B passes on to the anterior margin of the 
 hilus of the spleen, forming the inner or pos- 
 terior layer of the gastro-splenic omentum. 
 
 From this arrangement it results that the 
 peritoneum, in forming the lesser or gastro- 
 hepatic, the greater or gastro colic, and the 
 gastro-splenic omenta, closes in a space 
 termed the omental sac, the interior of 
 which is inaccessible except by an opening 
 at the posterior part of the gastro hepatic 
 omentum, whose free margin at the right 
 side marks the point where it may be pene- 
 trated ; this passage is termed the foramen 
 of Winslow. It is bovmded anteriorly by 
 the lesser omentum, above by the hver, and 
 posteriorly by the transverse colon. 
 
 Thus, supposing the inner layer of the 
 omental sac to be separable from the outer, 
 and drawn out through the foramen of 
 Winslow, the following parts would be de- 
 prived of peritoneum, i. e., the posterior 
 surface of the stomach, the gastro splenic 
 omentum of its posterior layer ; so that the 
 

 / 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XI. 
 
 MUSCXJLAE STEUCTUEE. 
 
 a". Trapezius. 
 
 6". Rhomboideus longus. 
 
 S. Splenius. 
 
 c". Scalenus. 
 
 e". Pectoralis parvus. 
 
 f". Antea spinatus. 
 
 ff". Postea .spinatus. 
 
 /*". Teres major. 
 
 i". Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 J". A portion of the serratus magnus. 
 
 k". " Humero cubital." 
 
 I", m". n". Triceps extensor brachii : magnum, medium, et parvium. 
 
 o". Pectoralis transversus. 
 
 p. Flexors. 
 
 q". Flexor metacarpi extemus. 
 
 r". " " internus. 
 
 s". Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 x". Extensor pedis. 
 
 a'. Serratus. 
 
 c'. Obliquus extemus abdominis. 
 
 d'. Obliquus internus abdominis. 
 
 g'. Region of the patella. 
 
 7j'. i. Glutei muscles. 
 
 m'. Tensor vagina. 
 
 n'. Rectus. 
 
 o'. Vastus extemus. 
 
 q'. Flexor metatarsi. 
 
 r'. Gastrocnemius externus. 
 
 t'. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 u. Sterno maxillarius. 
 
 V. Internal part of the levator humeri. 
 
 J/'. Peroueus. 
 
 x'. E.xtensor pedis. 
 
 33. Radius. 
 
 /'. Triceps. 
 
 VUINS. 
 
 3. Jugular vein. 
 
 4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein. 
 6. Saphena vem. 
 
 6. Radial vein. 
 
 D. Serratus magnus muscle. 
 
 d. Dorsal spines. 
 
 /. Ubar. 
 
 e. e. Fibula. 
 
 la. True ribs. 
 
 17. False ribs. 
 
 18. Sternum. 
 
 19. Ileum. 
 
 22. Femur. 
 
 23. Patella. 
 
 24. Tibia. 
 
 34. Os humeri. 
 
 35. Radius. 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
THE HOBSE. 
 
 101 
 
 vessels going to and from the stomach and 
 spleen would remain uncovered, the anterior 
 part of the transverse colon, the anterior 
 surface of the pancreas, and inner or pos- 
 terior layer of the gastro hepatic omentum. 
 
 Next to be described to the serous coat 
 is the muscular one, which is constitfited of 
 involuntary plain fibres, whose thickness is 
 verj- variable in different subjects, as well as 
 in different parts of the same stomach. 
 The cardiac end is more muscular than the 
 pyloric, except at the right margin of the 
 latter, where it is verj' powerful and thick, 
 as it surrounds the pylorus. The thinnest 
 part of the stomach is unquestionably the 
 convex border of the lesser cul-de-sac. 
 
 The muscular coat of the stomach is in- 
 tricately arranged, and authorities differ 
 vastly from each other in the description of 
 the several layers constituting it. The 
 number of layers entering into its compo- 
 sition is three : the outer and inner ones are 
 mostly continuations of the inner layers of 
 the oesophagus, while the middle one is pro- 
 per to the stomSch. 
 
 The outer layer is composed of the 
 longitudinal fibres of the oesophagus: as 
 these reach the cardiac end of the stomach, 
 they form a peculiar turn, whereby the dis- 
 tribution on the surfaces as a flat layer is 
 facilitated. Some of the fibres of this layer 
 dip down to join the deeper ones, while 
 others continue onwards as the longitudinal 
 fibres of the duodenum. As to the fibres 
 which proceed on to the cur\-atiires, they 
 are not so intricate, as they descend directly 
 from the portion of the oesophagus opposite 
 the part they supply, so that the only alter- 
 ation in direction is that of diverging a lit- 
 tle from each other, and pmrsuing the bent 
 course of the corresponding gastric curva- 
 ture. On the lesser one they soon become 
 scanty, and are lost in the circular fibres of 
 the body of the stomach : very few of them 
 are traced on to the pylorous. The fibres 
 proceeding on to the greater curvature are 
 mingled with other considerable bundles 
 taking the same direction, but which are not 
 traceable on to the oesophagus, as they seem 
 to pass round each side of the cardia, and 
 
 blend with the circular fibres on the lesser 
 
 curvature. 
 
 The middle layer consists of annular 
 
 fibres, which, though scanty as they encircle 
 
 the extreme left end of the stomach, increase 
 
 in bulk towards the middle part of the 
 
 organ, and are especially developed at the 
 
 lesser curvature. They again decrease over 
 
 I the antrum pylori, but are ultimately gready 
 
 j developed for the formation of a powerful 
 
 sphincter at the pylorus. 
 
 The internal or oblique fibres of the 
 
 stomach have somewhat the same arrange- 
 I 
 , ment as the deep layer of fibres of the 
 
 : oesophagus, although not perfectly identical, 
 as they are arranged like hoops placed one 
 I within the other ; but while in the former 
 j the one set enters the other without inter- 
 section, in the latter there is a partial decus- 
 ] sation by separate bundles. Thus, in real- 
 ity, the oblique fibres of the stomach are 
 ' constituted of two layers, the one proceed- 
 1 ing fi"om the left end of the stomach on to 
 \ the right, which pass internally to the next 
 I layer : this one proceeds fi'om the right of 
 I the cardia on to the fimdus. Ow"ing to the 
 scantiness of circular fibres at the base of 
 each cul-de-sac, the fibres are here in con- 
 tact with the superficial longitudinal ones. 
 I The oblique fibres are best studied by dis- 
 secting firom within, and, after removing 
 , these, the circular fibres come into ^■iew 
 [with greater ease than by attempting to 
 j expose them firom without. 
 
 The third coat of the stomach consists 
 merely of the cellular tissue existing be- 
 tween the muscular and mucus coats, as 
 well as connecting the former to the outer 
 serous tunic, in which case it is more abimd- 
 ant and firm nearest the curvatures. There 
 it is situated between the muscular and mu- 
 cus coats : it was named by the ancients, 
 on account of its white aspect, the Tunica 
 Nervosa. It is loose in some parts and 
 firm in others ; not only serving to connect 
 parts together, but also to form a medium 
 in which vessels ramify for the supply of 
 the organ. 
 
 The internal or mucus coat of the stom- 
 ach differs in the cardiac fi"om the pyloric 
 
102 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 end, as in the former it is but a mere con- 
 tinuation of the unmodified mucus lining 
 of the oesophagus, being characteristic for 
 its scantiness in gland and but limited sup- 
 ply of blood. The most marked feature it 
 possesses is that of being covered by a cuti- 
 cular layer of extreme thickness, easily 
 separable from the basement structure be- 
 neath after slight maceration or boiling. 
 The cardiac portion of the gastric mucus 
 lining is, in a healthy stomach, of a dirty 
 white, bedewed by more or less mucus, 
 and thrown into folds which have a radiated 
 arrangement at the cardiac orifice, whilst at 
 the fundus they are concentricaUy arranged. 
 This portion of the membrane is also fur- 
 nished with papUlae ; and Sprott Boyd, in 
 an Inaugural Essay on the structure of the 
 Mucus Membrane of the Stomach, pub- 
 lished in the Edinbitrgh Medical and Surgi- 
 cal Journal for 1836, describes a very marked 
 peculiarity of an interposed layer between 
 the epithelium and papiJlated surface of the 
 mucus fining. This intermediate layer, he 
 says, has a smooth equal surface, perforated 
 by numerous foramina about the 600th of 
 an inch in diameter, or perhaps a little 
 smaller, the margins of which are sUghtly 
 thickened. He afterw^ards states that he 
 has not been able to trace in the epithefium 
 of any other animal a structure similar to 
 that existing in the horse. These peculiar- 
 ities in the left pouch of the stomach cease 
 abruptly midway the length of the viscus, 
 where the cuticular lining terminates by a 
 serrated edge. 
 
 The mucus fining of the right end of 
 the stomach is normally of a reddish color, 
 and presents a villous, gfistening aspect, 
 coated thicldy with mucus, and also pos- 
 sessing a high degree of vascularity ; the 
 epithefium is here scanty, but nevertheless 
 tabular. The villous appearance above 
 referred to suggests itself also when the sur- 
 face is examined by the naked eye and by 
 the aid of a lens ; but it is deceptive, as 
 has been already remarked by Sprott Boyd, 
 who correctly refers it to the raised margins 
 of the arolae which stud the surface. This 
 portion of the gastric mucus membrane is 
 
 also thrown into folds, which become grad- 
 ually more marked towards the pylorus; 
 whereas they are susceptible of obfiteration 
 by distention, there is one circular fold at 
 the pylorus which is permanent, and so dis- 
 posed as to fulfil the office of a valve. 
 
 The' arteries of the stomach are derived 
 from the coeliac axis, whose three divisions, 
 i. e. gastric, hepatic, and splenic, all contri- 
 bute to supply blood to the viscus ; but the 
 first is specially destined to that office. The 
 gastric artery, being the smallest of the 
 three divisions, takes a course downwards, 
 forwards, and rather to the right, across the 
 pancreas, getting between the layers of the 
 gastro-hepatic omentum. Being then di- 
 rected to the left towards the lesser curva- 
 ture, it divides into an anterior left or smaUer 
 branch, and a posterior right and more 
 capacious as weU as longer one. The an- 
 terior division is destined to supply the 
 anterior surface of the stomach, and more 
 especially the left cul-de-sac, anastomos- 
 ing with branches (sometimes called vasa 
 breva), coming on to the stomach from the 
 splenic. This division of the gastic also 
 anastomoses with oesophageal twigs, which 
 are occasionally of considerable size. The 
 posterior or right division of the gastric 
 artery, destined for the pyloric end of the 
 stomach, anastomoses with some splenic 
 branches, but more especially with the py- 
 loric branches of the hepatic artery. 
 
 The veins returning the blood from the 
 stomach are the gastric and splenic, which 
 anastomose with the duodenal veins. These 
 all have a few valves, but they may be easily 
 injected from the porta into which they 
 empty, owing to their very free anastomosis. 
 
 The lymphatics of the stomach are nu- 
 merous, and in some parts very apparent, 
 entering the lymphatic glands situated along 
 the greater cruvature and around the cardia, 
 where they are numerous and large. 
 
 The stomach is supplied with nerves 
 from both the cerebro spinal and sympathetic 
 or ganlionic system. The pneumogastric 
 or par vagna nerves, arising from the me- 
 duUa oblongata, are the main conductors 
 of nervous influence to and from that vis- 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 103 
 
 cus. Their arrangement is simple, as, after 
 they have formed various plexuses •within 
 the thorax, in which they mutually inter- 
 change fibres, they reach the diapluagm, 
 and here are arranged as two nervous 
 branches, /. e., a superior and an inferior 
 one. The former is principally destined for 
 the fundus, whilst the latter supplies the 
 pyloric end, and sends branches off to the 
 duodenum, with one or two to the solar 
 plexus. 
 
 The sympathetic fibres, destined for the 
 stomach, are derived from the solar plexus, 
 descending on to the viscus, in company 
 with the vessels. 
 
 INTESTINE. 
 
 This term is applied to that portion of 
 the alimentary canal extending between the 
 pylorus and anus, destined for the temporary 
 retention of the chymous mass, so that 
 its nutrient parts may be absorbed, whilst 
 its more solid, indigestible constituents, are 
 coUeeted for excretion. 
 
 The intestine in all monogastria, but es- 
 pecially in soUpeda, occupies by far the 
 greatest part of the abdominal cavity. The 
 bonds of attachment to the various parts of 
 the latter are contracted by the intestine, 
 through its peritoneal investment, more 
 especially to the spine, constituting mesen- 
 ters, which I shall especially allude to when 
 describing with more detail each portion of 
 this capacious tube. 
 
 Not only the attachments, but also the 
 shape of the intestine, vary at different parts 
 of its course, so that it has been deemed 
 necessary to divide it, either arbitrarily or at 
 natural demarcations. Thus we speak of 
 the small and large intestine, the two being 
 separated naturally by a marked change in 
 direction, size, and confirmation. 
 
 It is also obvious that, as the situation, at- 
 tachment, and shape of each portion of the 
 intestinal canal differ, so must the relations 
 be equally distinct, and further mention of 
 them will therefore be reserved for fuUer 
 exposition elsewhere. 
 
 SMALL INTESTINE. 
 
 This, the smallest although longest, is 
 also the first portion of the intestinal tube, 
 extending from the pylorus to its sudden 
 termination into the large intestine. In it 
 the chymified mass is subjected to the modi- 
 fying influence of important secretions, 
 whereby its nutritive parts are fitted for 
 absorption by the vessels, which, for this pur- 
 pose, are arranged in this portion of the in- 
 testinal track. 
 
 The small intestine has been divided into 
 three parts: this classification is, however, 
 purely conventional. Since it does not 
 recognize anatomical differences for its basis, 
 it might justly be presumed that this dis- 
 tinction of human anatomists exhibited 
 traces of imperfection, even when applied 
 to the frame of man. Such being the case, 
 it is no matter of surprise that, in referring 
 the distinction to the intestinal canal of 
 animals, the incongruities of the system 
 should be still more apparent. 
 
 Extending from the pylorus, the first por- 
 tion is termed the duodenum, from its being 
 considered as twelve fingers' breadth in 
 length : it is, however, extended round to 
 the left side of the spine, posteriorly to the 
 anterior mesenteric artery. The middle, or 
 floating portion of gut, takes the name of 
 jejunum, and the thii-d,'or csecal portion, is 
 distinctively designated ileum. 
 
 The duodenum forms a wide curve from 
 the pylorus round to the right, being situated 
 under the concave surface of the liver, pass- 
 ing above the transverse colon, so as to 
 attain the posterior part of the mesentery, 
 and, reaching the left side of the spine, 
 comes in contact with the colon, where it is 
 said to end in the jejunum. The duodenum 
 is fixed by the gastro-hepatic omentum to 
 the concave surface of the liver, the layers 
 of which enclose the biliary and pancreatic 
 ducts, whereby this bond of union is still 
 further strengthened. The peritoneum com- 
 ing from the right and spigelian lobes of the 
 liver, as well as from the right kidney, forms 
 a loose attachment for the duodenum by 
 
104 
 
 ANATOMT Am) PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 extending on to the hepatic flexure of the 
 colon, after it has surrounded the first-named 
 gut. The next portion of intestine is at- 
 tached to the spine transversely to the long 
 axis of the body ; winding round the mes- 
 entery to the left of the aorta, it gets at- 
 tached to the gastric flexure of the colon, 
 and here it proceeds, under the name of 
 jejunum, along the free borders of the 
 mesentery. 
 
 As to the shape of the duodenum, from 
 the pylorus to the right of the porta, we 
 find its dimensions so very great as to have 
 suggested to the ancients the similitude be- 
 tween it and the stomach, of which they 
 regarded it in some degree as an analogue, 
 as testified by the appellation " Ventriculus 
 Succenturiatus," given to it by them. Fur- 
 ther from the pylorus, we find it constricts 
 and assumes a certain caliber, which it 
 maintains till it loses its name for that of 
 jejunum. 
 
 With reference to the relations of the 
 duodenum, it may be stated that they ad- 
 mit of detail on account of the fixedness 
 of that portion of the gut, an attribute with 
 which it is endowed in contradistinction 
 to the jejunum and ileum. In the first 
 portion of its course, i. e., from the py- 
 lorus to the posterior part of the right 
 lobe of the liver, the duodenum by its 
 upper surface is in contact with the con- 
 cave surface of the latter organ, crossing 
 the vena portse, near which it is pierced by 
 the billiary and pancreatic ducts, which 
 enter it at about five or six inches from the 
 pylorus, forming an acute angle \vith each 
 other. The inferior surface of the duo- 
 denum rests on the transverse colon, and 
 its superior margin is in close contact with 
 the anterior part of the head of the pan- 
 creas. 
 
 Round to the right, the duodenum is in 
 contact with the hepatic flexure of the 
 colon, right and Spigalian lobes of the liver, 
 as well as the right kidney. To reach the 
 spine it has to cross the direction of the 
 right flexure of the colon, getting behind 
 the mesentery and gastric flexure of the 
 
 colon, where it is connected with the left 
 kidney. 
 
 Alluding next to the general anatomical 
 facts as applied to the jejunum, so called 
 on account of its usual vacuity after death, 
 the limit between it and the ileum is de- 
 fined by imagining the small intestine, with 
 the exception of the duodenum, divided 
 into five equal portions, of which the first 
 two take the name of jejunum, whilst the 
 last tliree-fifths receive that of Ueum. 
 
 The jejunum is suspended superiorly 
 from the spine by an extensive fold of per- 
 itoneum, termed mesentery, wliich serves 
 also as a medium for the passage of the 
 mesenteric arteries, veins and nerves, as well 
 as for chyliferous vessels, to take their 
 course towards the receptaculum chylo, sit- 
 uated to the left of the aorta. 
 
 The ^vidth of the jejunum is far from 
 being uniform, it being more constricted at 
 some points than at others: its narrowest 
 part is that which is contiguous to the 
 ileum. 
 
 The ileum is the terminating portion of 
 the small intestine, so called from the tor- 
 tuous course it takes, emptying itself into 
 the large intestine at the junction of the 
 cfficum and colon, by an orifice provided 
 with a valve. 
 
 The first portion of the ileum is simply 
 attached by mesentery to the spine ; but, 
 in addition to this, in the last part of its 
 course, the gut is connected with the cseum 
 by a fold of peritoneum, which is not large 
 enough to prevent them deviating more 
 than an acute angle from each other. 
 
 The ileum is, on the whole, the narrow- 
 est portion of the small intestine, but the 
 thickest in its coats. 
 
 Having now especially to describe the 
 structru-e of the small intestine, it may be 
 taken as a whole, merely alluding to local 
 peculiarities. 
 
 This portion of the alimentary canal has 
 four coats, to be described in the same 
 order by those of the stomach, i. e. peri- 
 toneal, muscular, cellular, and internal 
 mucus. • 
 
THE HOHSE. 
 
 105 
 
 The first, or the peritoneal, has nothing 
 peculiar, beyond its enclosing a little trian- 
 gular space all along the upper attached 
 border of the gut. The looseness of the 
 peritoneal folds attaching the small intes- 
 tine is very marked; and Colin (Soc. cit.) 
 notes, that the mesentery is proportionately 
 larger in young than in adult quadrupeds, 
 so that the gradual shortening of this ex- 
 plains the spontaneous reduction of exom- 
 phalus or umbilical hernia. 
 
 The second, or muscular coat, is mostly 
 developed at the commencement of the 
 duodenum and terminating portion of the 
 ileum. It consists of white involuntary 
 fibres, arranged so as to form an outer 
 longitudinal layer, and an inner circular one, 
 both of which completely encircle the gut. 
 
 The third, or cellular coat, is similar to 
 that of the stomach, in being disposed in 
 two layers, so as to connect the three coats 
 together. It is especially condensed on the 
 inner surface of the muscular coat, so as to 
 take the appearance of a fibrous tunic, at- 
 tached to the mucus lining by loose cel- 
 lular tissue. ' 
 
 The fourth, or mucus, coat is thin, hav- 
 ing a velvet appearance, due to villi, pecu- 
 liarly small in the intestines of the horse, 
 but remarkably developed in other animals, 
 especially carnivora and fishes. The villi 
 may be seen by a pocket lens, on a well- 
 washed piece of intestinal mucus mem- 
 brane, and between them are seen numer- 
 ous foramina, which are the openings of 
 tubular glands, known as the crypts of Lie- 
 berkuehn. 
 
 In addition to the tubular glands, by dis- 
 secting, from without, the muscular firom 
 the mucus coat, lining the commencement 
 of the duodenum, we find clusters of vesi- 
 cles, similar to the vesicular structure of the 
 salivary and pancreatic glands. These 
 form distinct layers, provided with ducts, 
 which open on the free surface of the mem- 
 brane ; and Dr. Todd states that Brunner's 
 glands, or, as he calls them, the duodenal, 
 are more developed in the horse than in any 
 other animal he has hitherto examined them 
 in. 
 
 We have next to treat of the solitary 
 glands — glandulos solitaris — peculiar and 
 rather scanty bodies, visible at various parts 
 of the small intestine. These are vesicu- 
 lar, and without any opening when in the 
 perfect state, surrounded by villous pro- 
 cesses and Lieberkuehnian follicles. Some 
 of the villi also project from the surface of 
 the so-called glands, which are most ap- 
 parent when distended with secretion. 
 
 About the second half of the jejunum, 
 and along the whole of the ileum, we see 
 longitudinal patches, varying from half an 
 inch to even three inches in length, scat- 
 tered all over, but more especially situated 
 near the superior or attached border of the 
 small intestine, which is contrary to the 
 faulty description of some recent authors. 
 These patches, distinguished as Peyer's 
 glands or patches, also as Agminated glands 
 — Gladdulae agminatas seu aggregate — con- 
 sist of an accumulation of small bodies, each 
 resembling a glandula solitaria in miniature, 
 being also destitute of a natural aperture. 
 Colin (loo. cit.) states that they are first 
 seen at a distance of about six feet and a 
 half from the pylorus, and the least num- 
 ber of them he has ever counted has been 
 102, whilst the utmost has been 158. 
 
 The mucus membrane of the small in- 
 testine is thrown into folds, at different 
 parts, which are transverse, and scalloped 
 near the pylorus, whilst in other parts they 
 are mostly longitudinal ; these are all tem- 
 porary folds. There is no such arrange- 
 ment as the valulse conniventes in the small 
 intestines of the horse, though recent wri- 
 ters of great eminence have described them. 
 About five inches from the pylorus, at 
 the superior border of the duodenum, is a 
 semicircular fold, which, if elevated, ad- 
 mits of the finger being tluust behind it 
 into the wide biliary duct. The opening 
 of the pancreatic duct is also visible beneath 
 this fold, but it is not so capacious as the 
 one last mentioned. 
 
 LARGE INTESTINE. 
 
 The large intestine constitutes the termi- 
 nating portion of the alimentary canal, 
 
106 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGY OP 
 
 being remarkably more developed in soli- 
 pedes than in any other of our domestic 
 quadrupeds. It occupies the greater part 
 of the abdomen, and most of it is loose, 
 whilst its shape and other peculiarities vary 
 considerably at different points. 
 
 It is divided into three parts — cEBCum, 
 colon, and rectum — the precise extent of 
 each being defined by special anatomical 
 characters. 
 
 The position of the large intestine being 
 constant, it is necessary, for sake of pre- 
 cision, to speak of the whole as to the 
 course it takes in forming the three divis- 
 ions, extending thus between the small 
 intestine and anus. 
 
 The caecum, or blind pouch, is the first 
 gut, which protrudes in the middle on cut- 
 ting through the abdominal walls at the 
 linea alba. Its bend or blind extremity is 
 projecting into the left hypochondiiac 
 region ; its body crosses obliquely the floor 
 of the abdomen, to reach the right iliac 
 region, where it suddenly bends at an acute 
 angle, being rather constricted, and forms 
 the colon. At this part the latter receives 
 the ileum, and extends up the right side of 
 the abdomen to the diaphragm, where it 
 ti-averses the direction of the spine, resting on 
 the ensiforra cartilage ; turning round the left 
 side, it attains the left iliac fossa posteriorly, 
 where it forms a twist lilie a letter S, from 
 which similitude it has been termed the Sig- 
 moid Flexure of the Colon. The gut, 
 having diminished in size, retiu-ns up the 
 same side of the abdomen to the diaphragm, 
 where it again crosses the spine. Being 
 now on the right side, it continues back 
 to a point beyond the anterior mesenteric 
 ariery, where it turns upward and for- 
 ward, so as to come in front of the artery 
 in question ; then, from right to left, so as 
 to cross the spine for the third time, consti- 
 tuting the fransverse colon, which is more 
 capacious than the part preceding it. The 
 two curves which it forms, one on the right 
 and the other on the left, are respectively 
 called the hepatic and gastric flexures of 
 the colon. The gut so proceeds backward 
 along the left side of the mesentery, being 
 
 diminished again in size, and constituting 
 the single colon, till we get to the posterior 
 mesentery artery, where, unaltered in other 
 respects, it takes a straight coru"se through 
 the pelvis, out at the anus, and hence the 
 name of Rectum. 
 
 The CEBum, so called from having only 
 one outlet, being closed at its anterior part, 
 or caecum caput coli, from its being the 
 blind head of the colon, is vulgarly termed 
 the water-bag, owing to the almost invari- 
 able fluidity of its contents. 
 
 It is situated, as I have before said, ob- 
 liquely along the floor of the abdomen, ex- 
 tending backwards from left to right. 
 
 It is attached to the spine by a meso- 
 CBBum, which is a fold of peritoneum, com- 
 ing off from the spine on to the superior 
 part of the pouch. There is then the fold 
 already alluded to, which stretches from the 
 ileum on to the caecum, and, through the 
 medium of the mesentery, indirectly con- 
 necting the latter with the spine. 
 
 The caecum is cone-shaped, having an 
 apex and a broad base. The former gene- 
 rally protrudes the first, when a medium 
 longitudinal incision is made into the 
 abdominal walls, although it is situated 
 above the left portion of the double colon, 
 whilst the liver is directly in contact with 
 the floor of the abdomen. Like the other 
 divisions of the large intestine, the caecum 
 is sacculated. The bands producing this 
 appearance are three in number at the 
 apex ; but between two and three inches 
 from this, one of them bifurcates, so that 
 four bands result, which are continuous on 
 to the colon. 
 
 The colon arising from the csecum, re- 
 ceives at first the contents of the ileum, 
 being situated along and occupying the 
 greater part of the floor of the abdomen. 
 
 The colon is generally distinguished as 
 double and single. By double, is meant 
 the flexures of the gxit from its commence- 
 ment to its gastiic curve ; whilst by the 
 single colon, is understood the continuation 
 of the same intestine to the part where the 
 rectum commences. 
 
 The double colon is attached by the peri- 
 
THE H0R3E. 
 
 107 
 
 toneura coming off on to it from the cas- 
 cum, in the right iliac fossa, and continues 
 from the outer flexm-e on to the inner, so as 
 to Iceep the two in perfect apposition. Thus, 
 if the abdominal parietes are cut through, 
 the whole of the double colon may hang 
 out, with the exception of the transverse 
 portion. The latter is attached to the right 
 kidney, as well as concave surface of the 
 liver, by folds of peritoneum ; to the spine 
 by the transverse meso-colon ; and still 
 more to the left, it is loosely attached by 
 the gastrocolic omentum to the stomach 
 and spleen; besides which it has a peri- 
 toneal attachment to the left kidney. Then 
 the single colon commencing, it is loosely 
 affixed to the spine by an extensive peri- 
 toneal fold, the meso-colon, similar to the 
 mesentery, but smaller and to its left : this 
 fold is continuous posteriorly with the meso- 
 rectum. 
 
 The relations of the transverse colon are 
 important, no less than interesting, inas- 
 much as it is in close connection with the 
 most important abdominal viscera. On the 
 right, its upper surface is contiguous to the 
 right kidney, as well as to the right and 
 Spigelian lobes of the liver. In the middle, 
 its superior surface is connected princi- 
 pally with the pancreas; and to the left, 
 but stiU superiorly, it approaches the left 
 kidney and spleen. Anteriorly, the stomach 
 also touches it, especially during repletion. 
 
 The shape of the colon is very variable 
 in different parts of its course. Thus, the 
 first portion of the double colon, from the 
 right iliac fossa till it forms the signoid 
 flexure, is capacious and sacculated; the 
 latter being due to the four bands con- 
 tinuous on to it from the caecum. At the 
 signoid flexure the bands are completely 
 lost, so that the gut is smooth ; but, as we 
 extend up towards the diapliragm, the an- 
 terior band begins, and then the posterior 
 one becomes apparent; so that the .trans- 
 verse and single portions of the colon 
 are puckered by two longitudinal bands. 
 
 The Rectum, so called from its compar- 
 ative straight course through the pelvic 
 cavity, arises from the single colon, a little 
 
 anteriorly to the posterior mesenteric artery, 
 and ends at the anus, where its mucus 
 membrane is continuous with the common 
 tegumentary covering. It is attached in its 
 anterior two-thirds by a meso-rectum ; the 
 posterior third is an exception to any other 
 part of the intestinal track, in so far as it 
 is connected to adjacent parts by special 
 faschite, and at its termination by certain 
 muscles hereafter to be dwelt upon. 
 
 The size of the rectum is much the same 
 as the single colon. It is puckered in its 
 anterior part by two longitudinal bands ; 
 and the sacculi, resulting therefrom, deter- 
 mine the shape of the faecal matters. 
 
 The rectum is superiorly related to the 
 spine, whilst inferiorly it comes in contact 
 with the bladder, bulbous portions of the 
 vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, and 
 prostate. 
 
 The structure of the large intestine does 
 not vary essentially from that of the small, 
 as it possesses the four coats, i. e. peritoneal, 
 muscular, cellular, and internal mucus. 
 
 The peritoneal tunic forms an entire cov- 
 ering to the large intestine, with the excep- 
 tion of the superior surface of the trans- 
 verse colon — which is in contact with the 
 pancreas — and the terminating portion of 
 the rectum. The bands by which it unites 
 the intestine to other parts have been akeady 
 described. In addition to the peritoneum 
 formijig an entire covering to the gut, at 
 the attached margin of the flexures of the 
 colon it constitutes folds loaded with fat, 
 varying in width in difierent parts, and clus- 
 tered so as to have deserved the name of 
 appendices epiploicse. 
 
 The muscular coat of the large intestine 
 is differently developed in various parts. 
 Its fibres are of the plain variety, and ar- 
 ranged in two orders. The outer longitud- 
 inal set is scanty in some parts, but in others 
 forms the longitudinal bands above alluded 
 to. These are shorter than the actual length 
 of the gut itself, so as effectually to pucker 
 it. The number of longitudinal bands 
 vai'ies from one to four in various parts of 
 the gut, and the shape and breadth of the 
 latter is not everywhere the same. The 
 
108 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT OF 
 
 longitudinal fibres are abundant in the rec- 
 tum, but they only form bands in the ante- 
 rior two-thirds, as posteriorly to this they 
 uniformly surround the gut. The inner 
 layer of fibres encircles the whole of the 
 gut, being thickest tow-ards the apex of the 
 Cfficum, as well as in the single colon and 
 rectum ; at the end of the latter the inter- 
 nal sphincter-ani is formed by an accumu- 
 lation of the circular fibres. The circular 
 fibres of the colon are engaged in forming 
 the ileo-colic valve, hereafter to be described. 
 
 The cellular coat of the large intestine 
 resembles that of the smaU, only not so 
 abundant, except at the terminating portion 
 of the rectum, where it is much more de- 
 veloped. 
 
 The mucus lining of the large intestine 
 is continuous anteriorly with that of the 
 ileum, posteriorly with the common integu- 
 ment. It is thin, more or less coated with 
 mucus, scantier in glands than the one of 
 the small intestine ; but the orifices of the 
 Lieberkuehnian crypts are more apparent, 
 owing to the surface here being destitute of 
 villi. Saccular recesses, more or less capa- 
 cious, exist in the membrane lining the 
 large intestine. The difference in degree 
 of vascularity gives rise to difference in the 
 color of the mucus coat in various portions 
 of the gut : thus, that lining the caecum is 
 generally more deeply colored than that of 
 the colon, whilst the rectal mucus mem- 
 brane is more vascular, and hence redder 
 than the colic or caecal one. 
 
 At the termination of the ileum is the 
 ileo-colic or ileo-CEecal valve, w-hich is con- 
 stituted of two folds of mucus membrane, 
 almost parallel to each other, and horizontal, 
 leaving between them an eliptical orifice 
 when partially drawn asunder. The folds 
 consist of the circular fibres of the intes- 
 tine, lined on the iimer or ileac side by the 
 villous membrane of the small, wlulst on 
 the csBcal and colic side they are covered by 
 the mucus membrane proper to the large 
 intestine. It is worthy of notice, that 
 though muscular fibres partly enter into the 
 construction of the valve, its efficiency is 
 explicable on purely mechanical grounds, as 
 
 proved by the fact, that it is competent in 
 the dead body. 
 
 The anus is the outlet of the intestine, 
 which is perfectly closed, except during the 
 evacuation of fecident matters, and is made 
 perceptible externally by the elevation of the 
 tail, being situated in a space bounded su- 
 periorly by the sacrum and coccyx, laterally 
 by the ischial tuberosities, and interiorly by 
 the urethra in the male and vulva in the 
 female. 
 
 It is lined within by the mucus mem- 
 brane of the rectum, which is loose and of 
 a marked red color. Its external covering 
 is of common integument, destitute of hairs. 
 Lying between the skin and mucus mem- 
 brane are two circular muscles, whose office 
 is to keep the anus closed and prevent con- 
 stant evacuation of fceces, whilst there are 
 other muscular appendages situated exter- 
 nally to these, destined either to elevate or 
 retract the anus, being evidently antagonis- 
 tic to the sphincters. 
 
 The internal sphincter-ani is in contact 
 with the attached sm-face of the intestinal 
 mucus membrane, and separated from the 
 integument by the external one. It is con- 
 stituted of the pale circular fibres of the gut, 
 but towards its free edge certain colored 
 fibres are apparent on it. 
 
 The external sphincter is situated outside 
 the internal one, and within the anal integu- 
 ment: it is circular, and composed of red 
 fibres, attached superiorly under the first 
 coccygeal bone, and interiorly its fibres 
 blend in the male subject in the accelerator 
 urinffi and triangularis penis, and in the 
 female with the constrictor vaginse. 
 
 The levatores-ani are two pale muscles, 
 attached on each side of the first coccygeal 
 bones, and, spreading downward and for- 
 ward on to the rectum, form an attachment 
 for the internal spliincter, and blending with 
 the longitudinal fibres, so as to increase the 
 thickness of the muscular coat of the rec- 
 tum. The action of these muscles must 
 be that of elevating the anus, and shorten- 
 ing the rectum from before backward. 
 
 The retractors proper to the anus are one 
 on each side attached to the inner surface of 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 109 
 
 the articular extremity of the ischium. Ex- 
 tending from before bacl^ward, and rather 
 upward, they blend witli the external 
 spliincter. Their action is obviously that 
 of reti'acting the anal opening. 
 
 VESSELS, NERVES, AND LYMPHATICS OF THE 
 
 INTESTINE. 
 
 The intestinal canal, as a whole, receives 
 arterial blood from the anterior and poste- 
 rior mesenteric arteries, hepatic branch of 
 the coeliac axis, with branches from the in- 
 ternal pudic. The arteries of the small in- 
 testine are derived from the anterior mesen- 
 teric, whose divisions, varying from twenty- 
 four to twenty-eight, proceed to the small 
 intestine, with the exception of four, which 
 miuister to the nutrition and functions of 
 the large intestine. The branches extend- 
 ing from the main trunk, at acute angles, 
 proceed between the layers of the mesen- 
 tery, to \\'ithin one and a halt" or two inches 
 from the gut, where they anastomose, form- 
 ing vascular arches, from which the second- 
 ary branches arise, and, proceeding on to the 
 intestine, ramify on the several coats, espe- 
 cially the mucus one. The anterior division 
 of the anterior mesenteric artery, proceeding 
 to the duodenum, anastomoses with the duo- 
 denal branch of the hepatic artery. The 
 last iliac division inosculates with the cscal 
 and cplic branches of the same trunk. 
 
 The caecum and colon receive arterial 
 blood solely from the branches derived from 
 the anterior mesenteric, with a slight contri- 
 bution from the posterior mesenteric arteries. 
 The branches of the former originate oppo- 
 site the flexure made by "the cEecum and 
 colon. The csecal clivisions, two in num- 
 ber, proceed downward and forward till 
 they reach the gut. The posterior one 
 passes round the posterior part of the bor- 
 der of the cfEcum, to get on the under sur- 
 face of the latter, extending to the apex, in 
 somewhat a sti-aight course, and ramifying 
 collaterally ; at its termination it forms a 
 vascular network, by anastomosis with the 
 superior csecal artery. The latter one, reach- 
 ing the gut, extends directly forward towards 
 the apex, and comports itself like the former. 
 
 Thus we see the flexure, formed by the 
 CEecum and colon, is supplied by collateral 
 branches, from the superior and inferior 
 caecal mesenteric divisions, both these anas- 
 tomosing on the corresponding surfaces with 
 the colic arterial trunks. 
 
 The two branches going to the colon ex- 
 tend, about parallel to each other, down- 
 wards and forwards and to the left, the one 
 gaining the caecal end of the colon, whilst 
 the other proceeds on to the hepatic flexure. 
 Then these may be traced, the one back- 
 ward and the other forward, relatively to 
 the course of the gut, along its superior 
 border, so as to reach the sigmoid flexiure, 
 where they mutually inosculate. From the 
 mesenteric division going to the transverse 
 colon, is a branch proceeding on to the 
 single portion, which anastomoses poste- 
 riorly with the posterior mesenteric. Tills 
 vessel divides first into two branches, i. e. 
 an interior colic and a posterior rectal one. 
 The anterior colic branch is dkected for- 
 ward and downward between the layers 
 of the meso-colon, and divides into four or 
 five branches, which bifurcate and form 
 arches, like the arteries of the small intes- 
 tine, for the supply of the contiguous gut. 
 The arteries of the rectum are sometimes 
 spoken of as hsemorrhoidals, and these are 
 distinguished as anterior, middle, and pos- 
 terior. The anterior liEEmorrhoidals are 
 formed by the liindermost branch of the 
 posterior mesenteric artery, which, passing 
 into the folds of the meso-rectum, supplies 
 consecutive branches to the gut, till, poste- 
 riorly to the peritoneum, where the arteries 
 pierce the muscular coat, and, forming a 
 network of vessels, anastomose with the 
 middle haemorrhoidals, which are the ramifi- 
 cations of the internal pudic* These inos- 
 culate with the posterior heemorrhoidals 
 derived from the same source. The anus 
 is then supplied with blood from the last 
 named branches, as well as from perineal 
 twigs of the external pudic. 
 
 The veins of the intestine accompany the 
 
 * This artery sometimes, erroneously, goes by the name 
 of its lerminatiug branch — the artery of the bulb. 
 

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XII. 
 
 MUSCULAK STRUCTURE. 
 
 FORWAKD PARTS. 
 
 •. 
 
 Ligamentum colli. 
 
 a" 
 
 . Trapezius. 
 
 6'. 
 
 Rhomboideus longus. 
 
 c". 
 
 Scalenus. 
 
 g" 
 
 . Postea spinatus. 
 
 K. 
 
 Teres major. 
 
 i". 
 
 Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 v. 
 
 Scapulo ulnai-is. 
 
 m' 
 
 '. n". Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 p". 
 
 , Flexor metacarpi externus. 
 
 q". 
 
 . Flexor metacai-pi medius. 
 
 r. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi internus. 
 
 «' 
 
 '. Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 S. 
 
 Splenius. 
 
 «. 
 
 Levator humeri. 
 
 x". 
 
 Extensor pedis. 
 
 c". 
 
 Obliquus externus abdominis. 
 
 
 POSTERIOR PARTS. 
 
 h'. 
 
 i'. Gluteal muscles. 
 
 f- 
 
 Triceps. 
 
 7c. 
 
 Biceps abductor tibialis, posterior. 
 
 r. 
 
 Adductor tibialis internus. 
 
 m. 
 
 Tensor vagina. 
 
 n. 
 
 Region of the vastus internus. 
 
 r. 
 
 Gastrocnemius internus. 
 
 i. S. Gastrocnemius extenius and intemus. 
 
 X. 
 
 Extensor metatarsi. 
 
 y- 
 
 Peroneus. 
 
 i'. 
 
 Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 «'•, 
 
 g". Coccj-gcal muscles. 
 
 4. 
 
 Subcutaneous thoracic vein. 
 
 5. 
 
 Saphena vein, 
 
 6. 
 
 Radial vein. 
 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 10. 
 
 20. 21. The pelvis. 
 
 11. 
 
 Cervical vertebroe. 
 
 IS. 
 
 Coccygeal bones. 
 
 16. 
 
 The true ribs. 
 
 17. 
 
 The false ribs. 
 
 18. 
 
 Sternum. 
 
 22. 
 
 Femur. 
 
 23. 
 
 Patella. 
 
 33. 
 
 Scapula. 
 
 34. 
 
 Humerus. 
 
 35. 
 
 Radius. 
 
 d. 
 
 Dorsal spines. 
 
 f- 
 
 Ulnar. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 but bonds of connection between it and 
 other parts, such as the gastro-splenic omen- 
 tum, and the attachment to the Iddney and 
 transverse colon heretofore described. This 
 coat is smooth externally, rather closely 
 attached to the fibrous coat internally, but 
 of considerable elasticity, so as to allow the 
 spleen sufficient freedom for distention. 
 
 The second or fibrous coat, also termed 
 the albugineous or elastic coat, is that closely 
 applied to the parenchyma of the organ. 
 It consists of yellow and white fibres, and 
 in some parts, such as in the trabeculse, 
 Koelliker has found plain muscular fibres, 
 which he says do not exist in the external 
 portion of the fibrous tunic in the horse. 
 The covering not only envelopes the outer 
 surface of the organ, but sends sheaths and 
 processes into its substance. The sheaths 
 are purposed for covering vessels, whilst 
 the processes, termed also trabeculas, divide 
 the substance of the spleen into areolae or 
 interspaces, which contain a red matter, 
 easily washed and pressed out, known as 
 the splenic pulp. The trabeculae also arise 
 as processes from the vascular sheaths, as 
 well as from the external tunic. When the 
 pulp has been thoroughly washed, the outer 
 coat, with the trabeculas and sheaths, have 
 the appearance of a framework or skeleton. 
 
 The splenic pulp has a medullary aspect, 
 being composed of cells and blood vessels ; 
 and if the organ be cut clean in any direc- 
 tion, we see, besides the cut ends of vessels 
 and trabeculEB, certain pearlish looking 
 bodies, named, from their discoverer, Malpig- 
 hian Corpuscles. If divided, fluid escapes 
 from the cavity which exists in their in- 
 terior. They are perfectly visible to the 
 naked eye, being about one-thirtieth of an 
 inch in diameter ; and, with a pocket glass, 
 "they may be seen attached to the small ar- 
 terial trunks, if the pulp has been previously 
 carefully washed. 
 
 The spleen derives its arterial blood 
 through the splenic artery, which is the main 
 division of the coeliac axis. Winding be- 
 tween the folds of the gastro-splenic omen- 
 tum, it not only sends numerous branches 
 through the hUum, and on to the surface of 
 
 the spleen, but also supplies the stomach, 
 largely inosculating with the gastric artery, 
 so that the two might mutually perform 
 each other's office, if the main trunk of 
 either were obstructed. 
 
 The splenic vein is similarly distributed 
 to the artery, and it empties its blood into 
 the vena portee, just anteriorly to the pos- 
 terior mesenteric vein. 
 
 The nerves of the spleen are derived from 
 the solar plexus, and with the splenic artery 
 enter the spleen. 
 
 The lymphatics of the spleen are said by 
 Koelliker to be scanty; but Dr. Sharpey 
 tends rather to the belief that they are 
 abundant. They are arranged superficially 
 and deep, both sets anastomising freely 
 with each other, and, reaching the hilum, 
 they enter various scattered lymphatic 
 glands in the peritoneal folds, and then 
 empty into the receptaculum chyli. 
 
 LIVER. 
 
 The liver is the largest gland in the body, 
 and proportionately largest during certain 
 periods of foetal life. It is of a dark reddish 
 brown color, and destined for the office of 
 biliary secretion. 
 
 It is situated across the long axis of the 
 body, in the right hypochondriac, epigastiic, 
 and partly in the left hypochondriac regions. 
 
 It is attached to various parts by five 
 ligaments, four of which are peritoneal 
 folds, and one is the remnant cord resulting 
 from the obliteration of the unbilical vein 
 within the abdomen. These attachments 
 will be more fully described with the peri- 
 toneal tunic. 
 
 The external aspect of the liver is smooth, 
 being convex superiorly and concave inferior- 
 ly, broad posteriorly, and sharp anteriorly. 
 It has a granular appearance, and a very 
 superficial inspection clearly shoAvs that it is 
 composed of lobules, about the size of a 
 pin's head. 
 
 The hepatic substance is irregularly 
 divided into numerous segments by fissures, 
 which either extend through the gland from 
 side to side, or are mere grooves of more 
 or less depth. The different segments of 
 
112 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 the gland or lobes are three principal ones 
 — right, middle, and left — to which smaller 
 ones are appended. 
 
 The right lobe is the largest of the three, 
 situated in the right hypochondrium, being 
 thickest posteriorly and sharp anteriorly. 
 The supero-posterior part of the right lobe 
 is marked by a depression, for the adapta- 
 tion of the anterior part of the right kidney. 
 At the superior part of the right lobe is an 
 excavation for the vena cava, which extends 
 from behind forward, and marks off the 
 division between the right and middle lobe. 
 The vena cava is here more or less imbed- 
 ded in the substance of the right lobe, but, 
 generally speaking, it is superficial in the 
 horse, and only an imperfect channel is 
 formed for it. 
 
 Projecting from the inferior surface and 
 posterior part of the right lobe, is the lobulus 
 spigelii, which is of considerable size, being 
 broad posteriorly, and attached by its 
 superior and left border, so that it projects 
 anteriorly and narrows ; its apex gradually 
 tapers, and has been capriciously designated, 
 by the lovers of a quintuple hepatic arrange- 
 ment, lobulus caudatus. 
 
 The middle lobe of the liver is the smal- 
 lest of the three ; it is crossed on its inferior 
 surface by the transverse fissure or porta of 
 the liver, at which the vessels and ducts 
 enter into and issue from the gland. The 
 middle lobe in the horse is divided at its 
 anterior part into five or six portions, and 
 Mr. Percivall, in his Anatomy of the Horse, 
 at page 259, has termed it the lobulus 
 scissatus. It is traversed antero-posteriorly 
 by a channel for the remnant of the um- 
 bilical vein, which eventually joins the vena 
 porta. 
 
 The left lobe is the thinnest of the three, 
 but occupies an intermediate position in 
 length and breadth. It is very thin at its 
 left margin, and gradually thickens pos- 
 teriorly. At its posterior and left side is 
 a depression, in which the CEsophagus rests. 
 Sometimes the left lobe is divided into two 
 at its anterior part ; at others it is single. 
 
 The superior surface of the liver is convex, 
 and in contact with the pillars and expanded 
 
 portion of the diaphragm. The right as 
 well as the Spigelian lobes, are in relation 
 posteriorly with the right kidney and right 
 supra-renal capsule, interiorly with the head 
 of the pancreas, duodenum, and transverse 
 colon> The middle lobe is related interiorly 
 to the pancreas, but partially separated from 
 it by the vena porta. It also suspends the 
 duodenum, and its left edge is loose and in 
 close proximity to the flexures of the colon. 
 The left lobe is related posteriorly to the 
 oesophagus, and inferiorly to the left end of 
 the stomach. The pancreas also stretches 
 across its posterior part, partially separating 
 it from the transverse colon. 
 
 The liver receives an incomplete covering 
 of peritoneum. The latter, reflected from 
 the diaphragm on to the concave sm-face of 
 the middle lobe of the liver, forms a double 
 membranous layer, known, in accordance 
 with its shape, as the falsiform ligament, 
 and holding in its free and concave margin 
 the round ligament, the representative of a 
 fcetal structure, the umbilical vein. Fur- 
 thermore, the liver is provided with a coro- 
 nary ligament, that surrounds the foramen 
 dextrum of the diaphragm, through which 
 the vena cava passes. The lateral ligaments 
 are distinguished as right and left ; they 
 connect each lateral lobe to the diapliragm. 
 
 The only connections of the liver that 
 remain to be mentioned are the stomach, 
 duodenum, transverse colon, and pancreas 
 to its inferior sruface, and the right kid- 
 ney to the posterior part of the right lobe. 
 
 Dissecting off the serous tunic, it is found 
 connected with the biliary surface by cel- 
 lular tissue, continuous at the porta with the 
 so-called capsule of Glisson. The latter 
 extends into the liver as a common sheath 
 to blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and 
 biliary ducts. 
 
 To proceed with further description of 
 the liver would be useless, unless first ex- 
 amining the blood vessels and ducts in that 
 part of their course Avhich is external to the 
 organ. The hepatic artery is quite subor- 
 dinate in size, considering the magnitude 
 of the organ and amount of its secretion. 
 It is a branch of the coeliac axis, at first in 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 113 
 
 contact with the pancreas, and then be- 
 tween the folds of the gastro-hepatic omen- 
 tum, and it reaches the porta on the left 
 side of the portal vein. After giving off 
 pancreatic and duodenal branches, it di- 
 vides into two, a right and a left one. The 
 right, the largest and somewhat the longest, 
 penetrates into the right lobe, giving ofi" 
 collateral branches, first to the middle and 
 then to the right lobe itself. The left is the 
 smallest division, and is distributed to the 
 lobe corresponding to it in position, and also 
 to the middle one. 
 
 The liver is exceptional for having, be- 
 sides an artery, another afferent vessel — a 
 vein, known as the portal vein, formed by 
 the splenic, which also receives the gastric 
 and mesenteries, meeting each other at the 
 same spot near the posterior part of the 
 pancreas. From its origin, the portal vein 
 takes an oblique course from left to right 
 through the pancreas, and being surrounded 
 by nerves, it reaches the porta of the liver, 
 and here divides into three principal 
 branches, one for each lobe. 
 
 At the porta we also see the biliary duct 
 coming out, formed by the union of several 
 branches, corresponding in number to the 
 ramification of the blood-vessels. This 
 duct passes through the gastro-hepatic 
 omentum, meeting the pancreatic duct at 
 almost a right angle, and with it opening 
 into the duodenum about five or six inches 
 from the pylorus. 
 
 Having thus far considered the main 
 vessels, we may examine further the inter- 
 nal structure of the liver. At the porta 
 the branches of the vessels and ducts are 
 associated together, and surrounded by cel- 
 lular tissue, which sheaths grooves or canals, 
 cut in various directions in the substance of 
 the organ. These are the portal canals, 
 and the cellular tissue in question is Glis- 
 son's capsule. 
 
 The vessels and ducts ramifying on the 
 sheath acquire the name of vaginal branches, 
 and, as they are traced between the lobules, 
 they are termed interlobular. Here the un- 
 assisted eye ceases to take cognizance of 
 their further relation ; but, with careful dis- 
 
 section, and a common pocket lens, they 
 may be ti'aced to the lobules, which they 
 enter; and the blood of the hepatic artery 
 and portal vein is emptied into a common 
 set of vessels, the hepatic vein. The rela- 
 tion of these vessels in the lobules may be 
 seen on the surface in a good injected speci- 
 men of Uver, where the hepatic veins have 
 been injected one color, and the other ves- 
 sels differently. By this means the centre 
 of the lobule.is colored with the injection 
 thrown into the hepatic veins, and the cir- 
 cumference with that of the portal vein. 
 
 The hepatic veins issuing from the lo- 
 bules cross the structm'e of the liver in sep- 
 arate grooves, formed by the coalescence of 
 the hepatic particles, so that their base is in 
 contact with the veins, and hence the name 
 of the latter is that of the sub-lobular he- 
 patic veins. These empty into the posterior 
 cava by several orifices, as well as by two 
 larger ones, guarded by semi-lunar valves, 
 situated just at the foramen dextrum of the 
 diapluragm. 
 
 In addition to the blood-vessels and ducts 
 of the liver, it is supplied with nerves from 
 the solar plexus, which ramify with the ves- 
 sels. 
 
 The lymphatics of the liver are abundant, 
 and aiTanged, like in other organs, as a su- 
 perficial and deep set, which inosculate 
 freely in the substance of the organ, and, 
 uniting to form several branches, they issue 
 from the porta of the liver, passing through 
 some lymphatic glands situated round the 
 fissure, and from this they advance to the 
 receptaculura chyli. 
 
 PANCREAS. 
 
 The pancreas is a compound vesicular or 
 racemose gland, being much of the same 
 nature as the salivary glands. 
 
 The pancreas occupies the interval be- 
 tween the layers of the transverse meso- 
 colon, along the upper surface of the trans- 
 verse colon. 
 
 Its attachments are merely cellular, with 
 the exception of the pancreatic duct, which 
 attaches it pretty closely to the duodenum. 
 
 The pancreas is spoken of as having a 
 
114 
 
 ANATOMY ANB PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 body, a head, and a tail. The body of the 
 pancreas is that part stretched across the 
 middle lobe, whUe the head is longitudinally 
 extended, being almost parallel to the vena 
 portEe, and situated below and to the right 
 of that vessel. The head is broad ante- 
 riorly and rather nan'ow posteriorly, and 
 continuous from below upward, and from 
 right to left, then from behind forward, 
 to gain attachment to the body, so as to 
 form a ring for the passage of the vena 
 portsB. The part to the left of this vein is 
 termed the tail of the pancreas. 
 
 The pancreas is related by its superior 
 surface to the right, left, and Spigelian 
 lobes of the liver, also to the vena cava and 
 aorta, which separate it from the phrenic 
 crura. The posterior part of the head of 
 the pancreas is in relation with the right 
 supra-renal body. The tail of the pancreas 
 is sti-etched transversely to the branches of 
 the cceiac axis, and attached to the left 
 kidney by loose cellular tissue. The in- 
 ferior surface is in contact with the trans- 
 verse colon. 
 
 On examining carefvilly the sti'ucture of 
 the gland, it is found to consist of clusters 
 of cells, from which ducts arise, and these 
 unite to form a main trunk, that is trace- 
 able back to the tail of the pancreas, in- 
 creasing in size tUl it reaches the anterior 
 extremity of the head, where it pierces the 
 duodenum together with the hepatic duct. 
 Besides these clusters of cells and ducts, 
 the gland contains connecting cellular 
 tissue. • 
 
 The pancreas is supplied with arterial 
 blood by branches from the three divisions 
 of the cceUc axis, as well as from the an- 
 terior mesenteric. 
 
 The pancreatic veins empty themselves 
 into the splenic. 
 
 The nerves are derived from the solar 
 plexus, and the lymphatics of the pancreas, 
 on issuing from the glandular substance, 
 may be traced to the common reservoir of 
 chyle and lymph. 
 
 GENITO URIXARY APPARATUS. 
 
 Having already described the intra-abdo- 
 
 minal portion of the alimentary canal, and 
 its accessories, I proceed to the considera- 
 tion of that portion of the genito-urinary 
 apparatus as contained within the abdomen, 
 in the widest acceptation of the latter 
 term. By this I mean the kidneys, and 
 with them, for anatomical convenience, I 
 classify the siapra-renal capsules, then the 
 ureters, bladder, membranous portion of 
 the urethra, vasa deferentia, vesiculse semi- 
 nales, prostate and Cowper's glands, with 
 which I shall conclude. 
 
 The kidneys are a pair of glands, whose 
 function it is to secrete urine. They are 
 distinguished as right and left, being both 
 situated in the lumbar region ; but, so far 
 as. concerns their topographical anatomy, 
 notvvithstanding their similarity in position, 
 they need separate notice. 
 
 The right kidney is more anteriorly situ- 
 ated than the left, coming in contact with 
 the posterior part of the right lobe of the 
 liver, to which it is attached. It is also 
 fixed to the abdominal parietes by peri- 
 toneum, and to the spine by blood-vessels. 
 
 Its shape is that of a bent ovoid, being 
 more symmetrical than the left. It has two 
 surfaces and two borders. 
 
 Though differing in these marked general 
 characters, the Iddneys resemble each other 
 in several equally obvious points of their 
 general anatomy. Both kidneys have a 
 peritoneal and an albugineous coat, both 
 have an excretory duct, vessels and nerves, 
 with a structure also equal in the two, con- 
 stituting the bulk of the organ. Exter- 
 nally to the peritoneal tunic is a more or 
 less thick stratum of fat, which is more 
 abundant in old than in young animals, 
 when in a state of obesity. 
 
 The peritoneal covering of the kidneys 
 is incomplete, especially that of the right 
 one, whose inferior surface and convex 
 border are the only parts coated by it. The 
 left kidney is also covered on its superior 
 surface to a considerable extent, sometimes 
 more and sometimes less. The attachments 
 which each organ contracts through the 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 115 
 
 medium of this serous investment have al- 
 ready been described. 
 
 The albugineous tunic is fibrous, and 
 partly sub-serous. It forms a distinct cap- 
 sule, attached to the substance of the organ 
 by fibrous prolongations, which are in some 
 parts aiTanged in pits and depressions, so 
 as to mark out divisions on the surface of 
 the kidney. In addition to this, the albu- 
 gineous coat surrounds the vessels and 
 ureter at the hilus, and enters the substance 
 of the organ. 
 
 On cutting the kidney horizontally from 
 the convex to the concave border, there are 
 three different parts brought into view, to 
 be taken into consideration. Firstly, a 
 dark conteur, of about half an inch or more 
 in thickness, being generally less at the ex- 
 treme ends of the kidney than at its middle, 
 which completely encircles the central part 
 of the gland, and is termed the cortical 
 structure, fi'om its being most external. 
 This part of the kidney has somewhat a 
 granular aspect, and, when the vessels are 
 full of blood or injection, they appear more 
 or less arborescent, and clustered at innu- 
 merable minute but visible spots, to form 
 the Malpighian tufts. Next to this is a 
 lighter colored material, rather ash-colored, 
 but having a reddish hue, termed the me- 
 dullary substance. This term is not given 
 to it from the fact that it is medullary in 
 consistence, but used in the metaphorical 
 sense of being internally or centrally situ- 
 ated. 
 
 Approaching still nearer to the concave 
 border of the kidney, is a funnel-shaped 
 cavity, with its apex towards the hilus, and 
 the base bounded by the medullary sub- 
 stance, which is the pelvis. The apex is 
 tubular, and continuous with the ureter, 
 of which the cavity is but an expansion. 
 
 The walls of the cavity are lined by a 
 mucus membrane, which is loosely applied 
 to the medullary substance, and thrown 
 into folds, taking a radiated direction from 
 the mouth of the ureter. Opposite the 
 apex of the pelvis, the membrane is adher- 
 ent to a prominent border of the mediillary 
 substance, concave from before backward. 
 
 but convex from above do%\mward, and is 
 pierced by foramina, into which the hning 
 membrane of the pelvis extends, so as to 
 form the uriniferous tubes. On dissecting 
 carefully away the mucus membranes of 
 the pelvis, we reach to the fibrous tunic, 
 which is not continuous on the medullary 
 ridge, but merely attached to its sides, so 
 as to increase the length of the boundaries 
 of the cavity. 
 
 The ureter arising from this dilatation is 
 continuous outward toward the spine, and 
 then backward, being related superiorly, 
 as it issues from the liillus, with the renal 
 vein ; and then crossing the posterior part 
 of the kidney at its inferior siu-face, it gets 
 between the peritoneum and psoas muscles, 
 and is then traceable back to the bladder, 
 into which it opens. 
 
 The renal arteries, one for each kidney, 
 arise at almost right angles fi-om the aorta, 
 after the latter has given off the anterior 
 mesenteric. The right one is more ante- 
 riorly situated, and is longer than the left 
 one. After each renal artery has given ofT 
 a branch or more to the supra-renal cap- 
 sule of the same side, it divides, on reach- 
 ing the hilus, into a variable number of 
 branches, usually eight or ten, which pierce 
 the Iddney at different parts of the hilus, 
 whilst a few branches proceed along the 
 surface, supplying the capsule, and then 
 also piercing the organ. The arterial 
 branches entering the kidney have a de- 
 finite arrangement, forming a kind of arch 
 superiorly to the pelvis, from which second- 
 ary divisions emanate and pierce the organ 
 in aU du'ections, so as to reach the cortical 
 substance, abruptly dividing into numer- 
 ous branches, which eventually subdivide 
 to form capillaries. By this it is evident 
 that the cortical substance is more vas- 
 cular than the medullary ; indeed the latter 
 is very scantily supplied with arterial 
 blood. 
 
 From the arterial terminations the venous 
 origins occur, and these unite to form 
 branches, having a similar arrangement as 
 the arteries ; only as they reach the pelvis, 
 almost opposite the apex, they meet to 
 
116 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 form a wide, capacious trunk, the renal 
 vein. This is supplied \vith valves, not all 
 of which are perfect. At the opening of 
 each renal vein into the cava is a semi- 
 lunar flap, overlapping the posterior part. 
 
 The nerves of Iddneys are numerous, 
 and derived from the renal plexuses of the 
 sympathetic ; they accompany the vessels 
 with which they penetrate their respective 
 organs. 
 
 Lymphatics may be seen issuing from 
 the hiUus of the kidney ; they enter some 
 lymphatic glands there situate, and then 
 convey the lymph into the receptaculum 
 chyli. 
 
 SUPRA RENAL CAPSULES. 
 
 These bodies, also called capsulse supra- 
 renales, seu atrabilarias, are two in num- 
 ber, and belong to the class vascular 
 glands, whose office is very indefinitely 
 known. 
 
 They are situated one on each side of 
 the spine, across the direction of the renal 
 vessels. Their attachments are effected by 
 vessels, as well as by the peritoneum, on 
 their inferior surface, connecting them to 
 the corresponding kidney and around to the 
 spine. 
 
 The shape of the supra-renal bodies is 
 much the same on either side, bemg that 
 of a slightly bent ellipsis. They vary 
 from three to four inches in length, and 
 from one and a half to two inches in 
 breadth. 
 
 Their concave border corresponds to the 
 renal vessels, as well as to the anterior 
 mesenteric arteries. The convex border is 
 in contact with the inner margin of the 
 Iddney. The anterior extremity of the 
 right one is in connection mth the right 
 hepatic lobe, whilst its inferior surface is 
 in connection with the commencement of 
 the colon. The left supra-renal capsule is 
 related anteriorly to the pancreas, and infe- 
 riorly to the transverse colon. 
 
 The peritoneal coat of the supra-renal 
 capsules is merely confined to their inferior 
 surface. The proper substance of the 
 organ is enclosed in a fibrous or albugine- 
 
 ous coat, which forms a distinct covering 
 externally, and becomes continuous as 
 sheaths to vessels internally. 
 
 On cutting horizontally across a supra- 
 renal capsule, it is found to consist of an 
 outer cortical and an internal medullary 
 substance. The cortical substance is a 
 brownish yellow, due to fat contained in 
 vesicles, which, according to Professor Hein- 
 rich Frey, are smaller toward the surface 
 than more internally. The medullary sub- 
 stance has a greyish aspect, and vessels are 
 apparent in it, as also a yellow tinge, due, 
 according to the above-named author, to 
 similar vesicles, as in the cortical substance, 
 only much scantier in fat. 
 
 The arteries of the supra-renal capsules 
 are offsets of the renals and anterior mesen- 
 teric, as well as of the aorta, but very 
 variable in number and origin. They are, 
 however, always abundant, and enter the 
 organ principally at its concave border. 
 
 The veins are larger than the arteries, and 
 pour their contents on the left into the renal 
 vein, and into the vena cava on the right. 
 
 The nerves of the supra-renal capsules 
 are very abundant, and derived from the 
 renal plexvis. Professor Frey states, that 
 in the horse, gangloin corpuscles constitute 
 one of the structural elements of the nervous 
 tissue in this situation. 
 
 The ureters, one to each kidney, are con- 
 duits between the kidneys and the bladder, 
 for the passage of vuine. Their cafiber is 
 various, being about one-third of an inch 
 broad, but getting narrower posteriorly. 
 
 As the ureters issue from the Iddneys, 
 they converge towards the spine; then pro- 
 ceed suddenly backward, till they reach the 
 brim of the pelvis, having thus greatly 
 diverged ; here they converge again, passing 
 downward and backward to reach the sides 
 of the body of the bladder, which they 
 pierce. 
 
 In their course, the ureters are attached to 
 the Iddney and psoas parvus by loose cellu- 
 lar tissue, and by the peritoneum, which 
 suspends them, by being stretched across 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 117 
 
 their inferior surface. After the ureters have 
 crossed the spermatic and iliac vessels, they 
 are received witliin a fold of peritoneum, 
 constituting the false ligaments of the 
 bladder. 
 
 They pierce the muscular coat of the 
 bladder at a distance of about three inches 
 from each other, if the viscus be distended. 
 They pass between the muscular and mucus 
 coats for about an inch, being somewhat 
 diminished in caliber, when they suddenly 
 open into the cavity by an elliptical orifice, 
 so that if the bladder be distended, the sides 
 of the orifice are stretched, and thus closed. 
 
 The ureters are externally covered by a 
 ceUulo-muscular coat, consistmg of a cellu- 
 lar tissue, with muscular fibres arranged, 
 partly longitudinally and partly circularly, 
 the latter being most internally situated. 
 The ureters are internaUy lined by mucus 
 membrane, continuous anteriorly with the 
 renal pelvis, and posteriorly with the vesical 
 lining. 
 
 The membrane is loosely attached to the 
 outer coat, and thrown into longitudinal 
 eflaceable folds. 
 
 BLADDER. 
 
 The bladder is dilatable musculo-mem- 
 branous viscus, destined for the temporary 
 retention of urine. It is situated during 
 vacuity entirely within the pelvis, but when 
 distended, even moderately, its fundus en- 
 croaches on the proper abdominal space. 
 
 The bladder is held in situation by the 
 peritoneum coming off fi-om the rectum and 
 sides of the pelvis, so as to form a serous 
 fold, whicli also encloses the vasa deferentia 
 and vesiculaj seminales. Besides this, the 
 bladder is supplied w^ith true ligaments, as 
 well as bounded posteriorly through the in- 
 tervention of the urethra. 
 
 The shape of the bladder is pyriform, 
 approaching, however, to a sphere when 
 empty or partially distended. 
 
 It presents for consideration a projecting 
 anterior portion or fundus, a middle part, or 
 body, and a posterior one, or neck. The 
 fundus is globular and regular, having fixed 
 at its anterior part the two obliterated um- 
 
 bilical arteries, and the remains of the 
 urachus. The body has no precise limits, 
 but may be considered as that portion on 
 which the bulbous portions of the vasa- 
 deferentia rest. It is circular, but if the 
 bladder be much distended, it bends some- 
 what backward and upward. The cervix 
 vesicae is the most consti-icted part of the 
 organ, and marks the limit between the 
 bladder and urethra. 
 
 The bladder is related by its fundus to 
 the iliac flexures of the colon, interiorly to 
 the pudic and ischial bones, superiorly to 
 the ureters, vasa deferentia, vesiculse semi- 
 nales, and middle part of the rectum. 
 
 The bladder has three coats. The peri- 
 toneal investment is merely a partial one, 
 as it is reflected from the body on to the 
 sides of the pelvis. It covers the superior 
 sm-face almost completely, but its extent 
 gradually declines laterally and inferiorly. 
 The attachments contracted by the perito- 
 neum are termed false ones. Thus we 
 have the two umbilical arteries, one on each 
 side, enclosed by peritoneum, forming the 
 two lateral false Tigaments. Then the ves- 
 tige of the urachus is similarly enveloped 
 by peritoneum, and constitutes the anterior 
 false ligament. The peritoneum coming 
 oft" from the rectum on to the superior sur- 
 face of the bladder, gives rise to a pouch, 
 termed the recto-vesical pouch, or cul-de- 
 sac, and laterally to the triangular folds 
 limiting the latter, known as the superior 
 false ligaments. Behind the peritoneal re- 
 flection the bladder is attached to the rec- 
 tum and pelvic parietes, by a continuation 
 of the pelvic fascia, which, leaving the 
 inferior surface of the pelvis at the symphi- 
 sis pubis, comes on to the bladder, forming 
 the inferior true ligaments of the latter ; the 
 fascia is then continuous on to the rectum, 
 blending wdth the cellular coat. The pelvic 
 fascia is also traced on to the prostate and 
 sides of the bladder, from the posterior part 
 of the obturator foramen, constituting the 
 lateral true ligaments. 
 
 Beneath this fibro-serous coat are muscu- 
 lar fibres, arranged in a peculiar manner. 
 There is an outer longitudinal set, traceable 
 
118 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 from the cervix forward toward the body, 
 where the fibres diverge and become oblique, 
 and some even circular ; this layer is prin 
 cipaUy developed posteriorly. The inner or 
 circular layer is not arranged in concentric 
 rings ; but its fibres, beginning at the fund- 
 us, appear to arise from various centres on 
 the surface, and to be taldng a direction 
 more or less curved in different parts, so as 
 to get transversely to the long axis of the 
 viscus, and thus from the inner side have a 
 circular appearance. These fibres are more 
 decidedly cu-cular at the neck, and act some- 
 what lilve a sphincter. Some of the deeper 
 fibres at the neck of the bladder extend for- 
 ward to each orifice of the ureter, marking 
 the limit of the vesical trigon, whose office 
 must be that of approaching the Ups of the 
 elliptical apertitrcs. 
 
 The mucus coat of the bladder is gener- 
 ally more or less coated with mucus and 
 epithelium, which guard the structure from 
 the corroding effects of the secretion it has to 
 come in contact with. It is thrown into 
 numerous folds, taking various directions, 
 but principally concenti-ical toward the 
 fundus, and longitudinal at the cervix, aU 
 of which are eifaceable by distention of the 
 bladder, and are most prominent when the 
 latter is collapsed. At the upper part of 
 the urethral orifice of the bladder the mucus 
 lining is smooth and free from folds, mark- 
 ing out a triangidar space, bounded ante- 
 riorly by a line drawn between the orifices 
 of the ureters, and laterally by two lines 
 meeting at a spot at the superior part of 
 the vesical orifice. This is termed the 
 vesical trigon. At its apex is a projecting 
 fold of mucus membrane or uvula vesicEe, 
 which seems to moderate the flow of urine 
 into the uretlu-a. 
 
 The bladder is supplied with blood from 
 the internal pudic, and its veins empty into 
 the internal pudic vein. 
 
 The nerves of the bladder are derived 
 from the sympathetic, and partly from the 
 two last sacral pau-s which supply the neck. 
 
 The lymphatics go to glands surrounding 
 the origin of the iliac arteries, termed pelvic 
 lymphatic glands, from which vessels arise, 
 
 communicating anteriorly with the recepta- 
 culum chyli. 
 
 URETHRA. 
 
 This canal in the male subject is not only 
 purposed for the passage of urine, but also 
 transmits the products of the generative or- 
 gans. It extends from the posterior part of 
 the bladder to the glans penis ; but we shall 
 only occupy ourselves with a description of 
 the intra-abdominal or pelvic portion, which 
 terminates at the bulb of the penis or ischial 
 arch. 
 
 It is continuous anteriorly with the blad- 
 der, attached to the rectum and sides of the 
 pelvis by fascia and loose cellular tissue 
 and muscles. 
 
 The urethra is cylindrical, of considerable 
 length, and its coats of no mean thickness. 
 The pelvic portion of the urethra is gener- 
 ally about three or four inches long, taking 
 a direction backward and somewhat up- 
 ward. 
 
 It is related superiorly to the vesiculae 
 seminales, middle lobe of the prostate, and 
 posteriorly it comes in contact with the rec- 
 tum, but separated from it laterally by 
 Cowper's glands. 
 
 The first or prostatic portion of the ure- 
 thra is purely membranous, strengthened by 
 cellular tissue and a continuation of the 
 fibres of the bladder, the circular ones in 
 particular, which are abundant anteriorly. 
 The posterior two-thirds of the pelvic por- 
 tion of the m-ethra are covered by a thick 
 red muscular layer, which completely encir- 
 cles it, with the exception of that part 
 coming in contact with Cowper's glands. 
 This muscle is continuous behind with the 
 muscular fibres of the penis, which consti- 
 tute the accelerator m-inae. These fibres 
 are externally mixed with longitudinal ones, 
 a portion of which are merely the inner or 
 inferior bundles of the retractor ani, whilst 
 others are derived from the triangularis 
 penis ; both of these muscles tend to fix the 
 urethra. Postero-superiorly the fibres en- 
 circling the urethra are blended with the 
 external anal sphincter. The retractor penis, 
 which gets attached to the sacral bone, is a 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 119 
 
 white muscle also, affording fixity to the 
 pelvic portion of the m-ethra. 
 
 Beneath the muscular tunic of the urethra 
 we find a loose cellular tissue, and pos- 
 teriorly also some erectile structure continu- 
 ous on to the penis. 
 
 On slitting open the pelvic portion of the 
 urethra, to examine its mucus membrane, 
 we find that it is smooth, glistening, and 
 thrown into longitudinal folds. It is antero- 
 superiorly raised by the sub-mucus tissue 
 into a permanent ridge, termed the crest of 
 the uretlu-a or verumontanum. This has a 
 depression about its middle, and on each 
 side are the elliptical orifices of the ejacula- 
 tory ducts, surrounded by the openings of 
 the prostatic ducts. Posteriorly and later- 
 ally are little papillated projections, pierced 
 by ducts emanating from Cowper's glands. 
 These tubular processes are arranged in two 
 parallel lines longitudinally to the course of 
 the uretlu'a. 
 
 The pelvic portion of the urethra is sup- 
 plied with blood from the internal pudic, 
 and the veins empty into the vessel of the 
 same name. Its nerves are derived from 
 the two last sacral and accompanying sym- 
 pathetic filaments. 
 
 The lymphatics of the pelvic urethra are 
 similarly disposed to those of the bladder. 
 
 GENERATIVE ORGANS OF THE MALE. 
 
 The last division of our subject is that 
 of the abdominal generative organs, only a 
 part of the generative system, and consist- 
 ing in the vasa deferentia, vesiculae semin- 
 ales, prostate and Cowper's glands. 
 
 VASA DEFERENTIA. 
 
 There are two vasa deferentia, one from 
 each testicle, for the passage of semen to 
 seminal reservoirs. 
 
 The vas deferens arises from the posterior 
 part of the epididymis or globus minor, 
 passing through the inguinal canals, and 
 reaching the abdomen ; it is situated in the 
 sub-serous tissue, taldng a course upward, 
 backward, and inward, to reach the brim 
 of the pelvis ; then, crossing the course of 
 
 the ureters, it gets on to the bladder, where 
 it is dilated, and forms the biilbous por- 
 tion. 
 
 Its attachments are serous and cellular to 
 the various parts mentioned, whilst its pos- 
 terior part is connected ^vith the urethra. 
 
 The vas deferens is related, in its course 
 from the inguinal canal, to the bladder ; 
 after it leaves the constituents of the cord, 
 with the parietes of the abdomen ; crossing 
 the mider surface of the iliac vessels, and 
 reacMng the bladder on the inner side of 
 the ureter ; also lying internally to the 
 seminal vesicles, and the terminating portion 
 being covered by the prostate. 
 
 The structure of the vas deferens is simi- 
 lar throughout, with the exception of the 
 greater thickness of its coats at the bulbous 
 portion, being thinnest where it contributes 
 to form the ejaculatory duct. 
 
 This tube, of very various length, is con- 
 stituted of an outer cellular investment, not 
 requiring peculiar notice ; of an intermediate 
 contractile and elastic tunic; and, as its 
 name implies, is composed of muscular 
 fibres and elastic tissue, arranged in two 
 layers, i. e., an outer longitudinal and an in- 
 ner circular one, which are easily perceived. 
 
 The internal or mucus lining is thrown 
 into longitudinal folds, in the narrow part 
 of the duct ; but in the bulbous part it forms 
 permanent rugs, taking various directions, 
 so as to enclose irregular interspaces. 
 
 The vas deferens is supplied with blood 
 principally from the artery of the cord, al- 
 though the epigastric furnishes a twig to it 
 as well. The bulbous portion is supplied 
 also by vessels of no small calibre from the 
 iliacs. 
 
 Its nerves are from the sympathetic, as 
 well as from the second and third lumbar. 
 
 VESICUL^ SEMINALES. 
 
 The seminal vesicles are one on each side 
 of the bladder, and act as receptacles for 
 the semen. 
 
 Each seminal vesicle extends from behind 
 forward, upward, and outward, being ex- 
 ternal to the bulbous portion of the vas 
 
120 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 deferens. It is attached by peritoneum 
 coming off from the sides of the pelvis and 
 rectum on to the bladder. The posterior 
 part is fixed by cellular tissue to the pros- 
 tate and neclv of the bladder. 
 
 The seminal vesicle is pyriform, being 
 about three inches long and about an inch 
 broad at its fundus, but more constricted at 
 its neck. It is connected with the corres- 
 ponding surface of the bladder and rectum, 
 but partially separated from the latter by 
 the prostate. 
 
 The seminal vesicle has an incomplete 
 investment of peritoneum, covering only 
 the anterior part, wlulst the prostatic portion 
 is covered by an outer cellular coat. Be- 
 neath this is an intermediate tunic, partly 
 elastic and partly contractile. Lavocat 
 describes this muscular coat as easily studied 
 after maceration in dilute nitric acid, when 
 it may be found to consist of an outer 
 longitudinal and inner circular layer, most 
 developed at the fundus, but very thin at 
 the neck. 
 
 The mucus membrane is plicated, the 
 folds enclosing similar interspaces to those 
 seen in the bulbous portion of the vas 
 deferens. 
 
 The vessels are supplied by the internal 
 pudic, whilst the nerves are from the lesser 
 splanchnic and two last sacral pairs. 
 
 EJACULATORY DUCTS. 
 
 Two in number, each being the common 
 outlet to its corresponding vas-deferens 
 and seminal vesicle, so that their contents 
 may pass into the urethra by an elliptical 
 orifice each side of the depression on the 
 verumontanum. 
 
 The relations of these ducts are simply 
 to the prostate and urethra. When they 
 reach the latter, they pass between the mus- 
 cular and mucus coat for some little dis- 
 tance, so that at first sight they appear 
 shorter than what they really are. 
 
 The structure of the ejaculatory ducts 
 consists in an outer cellular and inner 
 mucus lining, both of which are very 
 thin. 
 
 PROSTATE GLAND. 
 
 The prostate belongs to the" class of 
 secreting glands. It is situated on the 
 commencement of the m-ethra and termi- 
 nation of the vesiculas-seminales, being su- 
 periorly related to the rectum. Its attach- 
 ments to these parts are merely cellular, 
 although it has some connection with the 
 sides of the pelvis, rectum and bladder, 
 thi'ough the intervention of the pelvic 
 fascia. 
 
 It is symmetrical in figure, and very vari- 
 able in size, being quite rudimentary in 
 aged geldings. It is of a gray color, 
 knotty to the feel, although spongy in tex- 
 ture. 
 
 The prostate consists of a middle por- 
 tion or body and two lateral lobes. The 
 former is in contact with the cervix of the 
 bladder and urethra, the latter with the 
 ejaculatory ducts and seminal vesicles. 
 
 This gland has a posterior convex and 
 an anterior concave margin, whilst it is 
 flattened from above downward, although 
 from its connection with other parts it is 
 rendered more or less convex from side to 
 side. 
 
 The prostate is composed of an exter- 
 nal fibrous or cellular coat, which forms a 
 complete covering to it. On cutting the 
 gland in any direction, it is observed by 
 the naked eye to have an areolar appear- 
 ance, being a net-work of variously disposed 
 fibres, the larger ones of which are found 
 to be tubular. 
 
 The prostate opens into the urethra 
 around the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts 
 by numerous apertures. 
 
 It is supplied with blood from the pudic 
 vessels, and its nerves are derived from the 
 lesser splanchnic and two last sacral pairs. 
 
 cowper's glands. 
 These also belong to the class of secreting 
 glands, and have sometimes been called the 
 lesser prostates. They are situated ante- 
 riorly to the bulb of the penis on each 
 side of the membranous portion of the 
 urethra. 
 
EXPLANATION OP FIGURE XIII. 
 
 THE SUPERFICLVL LAYER OF 5IUSCLES TAKEN FROM THE BODY OF THE HORSE, 
 SO AS TO EXPOSE THOSE MUSCLES WHICH ARE MORE DEEPLY SEATED. 
 
 THE HEAD AXD KECE. 
 
 a. Buccinator. 
 
 6. Caninus. 
 
 c. Retractor labii inferioris. 
 
 1, 1. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 2, 2, 2. Complexus major. 
 
 3, 3. Trachelo mastoideus. 
 
 4, 4. Subscapulo hyoideus. 
 
 5, Stcrno maxillaris. 
 
 6, 6. Stemo thjTo-hyoideus. 
 
 7, Jugular vein. 
 
 8, Carotid artery, with the eighth paii-, and sjinpathetic nerves. 
 
 9, Trachea. 
 10. Scalenus. 
 
 THE FORE LIMBS. 
 
 1. 
 
 Scapulo ulnarius. 
 
 2. 
 
 Caput magnum of the triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 3. 
 
 Caput medium of the same muscle. 
 
 4. 
 
 Anconeus. 
 
 5. 
 
 Flexor braeliii. 
 
 6. 
 
 Extensor metacarpi. 
 
 7. 
 
 Extensor pedis. 
 
 8. 
 
 Extensor metacarpi obliquus. 
 
 10. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi extcrnus. 
 
 11. 
 
 Perforans and perforatus. 
 
 12. 
 
 Uhiarius accessorius. 
 
 13. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi intemus. 
 
 14. 
 
 Flexor metacarpi medius. 
 
 15. 
 
 Perforans and perforatus. 
 
 16. 
 
 Extensor metacarpi. 
 
 B.. 
 
 B. Radius. 
 
 THE TRUNK AND BACK. 
 
 A. Scapula. 
 
 F. F. Longissimus dorsi. 
 
 O. Spinalis dorsi. 
 
 a, a. Intercostals. 
 
 h, b. Superficialis costarum. 
 
 e, e. Rectus Abdominis. 
 
 d, d. TransversaUs abdominis. 
 
 e, c, e. Obliquus intemus abdominis. 
 
 /. Hollow in the longissimus dorsi, which part of the gluteus maximus once filled. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIII. CONTINUED. 
 HAUNCH AND mXD EXTREMITT. 
 
 C. Ilium. 
 
 B. Ischium. 
 
 E. Tibia. 
 
 1. Sacro sciatic ligament. 
 
 2. Sjihincter ani. 
 
 3. Depressor coccygis. 
 
 4. Muscles of the tail. 
 
 5. 5. Triceps abductor tibialis. 
 
 6. Vastus externus. 
 
 7. Rectus. 
 
 8. Gastrocnemius muscles. 
 
 9. Plantarius. 
 
 10. Extensor pedis. 
 
 11. Peroneus. 
 
 12. Flexor pedis perforans. 
 
 13. Insertion of the gracilis. 
 
 14. Gastroenemii muscles. 
 
 15. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 16. Course of the perforans tendon, inside the cs cCch of the hock joint, 
 
 17. Insertion qj the gastrocnemius externus into the point of tie Ix&ck. 
 
 18. 18. Popliteus muscles. 
 
 19. Extensor pedis. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 121 
 
 Cowper's glands are covered by the tri- 
 angularis penis of each side : they are 
 about the size of a filbert. 
 
 Their structure, as apparent to the naked 
 eye, is similar to that of the prostate in 
 every respect, only the excretory ducts are 
 11 
 
 ten or t\velve in number for each gland 
 and linearly disposed on each side of the 
 pelvic urethra. 
 
 Cowper's glands are supplied with ves- 
 sels and nerves from the same source as the 
 prostate. 
 
ORGANS or GENERATION. 
 
 TESTICLES AND SCROTUM. 
 
 The preparation of the seminal fluid is 
 the office of two oval glandular bodies, called 
 the testes or testicles ; they are suspended 
 in a portion of the common integument, 
 termed the scrotum, by means of the sper- 
 matic cord and cremaster muscle. 
 
 The scrotum is composed of the common 
 integument, sub-cellular tissue, and elastis 
 muscle, (the fibres of the latter run in a lon- 
 gitudinal direction, from the cellular sub- 
 stance of the sheath, to the base of the 
 penis), and lastly the tunica vaginalis, 
 which is a prolongation of the peritoneum. 
 
 The testicle has a peritoneal covering, 
 termed tunica vaginalis testes, and also 
 another distinct tunic termed tunica albu- 
 ginea. The substance of the testicle is ex- 
 tremely vascular, and the vdtimate branches 
 of its spermatic arteries are collected into 
 small bundles of fine convaluted vessels, 
 separated from one another by septula9, or 
 membranous partitions. From these the 
 vasa seminifera, or beginnings of excretory 
 ducts, take their origin, and gradually unite 
 to form a smaller number of canals of 
 larger diameter, but exceedingly tortuous in 
 their course. The testicle is also supplied 
 with nerves and absorbents, secretory and 
 excretory vessels. 
 
 SPERMATIC CORD.* 
 
 The spermatic cord, the substance by 
 means of which the testicle is connected with 
 the abdomen, and by means of which it is 
 suspended within its scrotal cavity, is com- 
 posed in the following manner : 1st. It has 
 four coverings ; there is immediately under- 
 neath the skin the faschia superficialis ; next, 
 the cremaster muscle ; thirdly, the tunica 
 
 vaginalis; and lastly, the tunica vaginalis 
 reflexa. Within the cavity formed by the 
 vaginal tunic, it is that the intestine protrudes 
 in inguinal and scrotal hernia ; the hernial 
 coverings, consequently, exclusive of the sac, 
 will be the faschia and cremaster muscle. 
 
 2ndly. The constituent parts of the cord 
 itself, are : a. The arteries, which are two 
 in number ; the artery of the cord, a small 
 branch of the external iliac, which ramifies 
 and expands itself upon the cord ; and the 
 spermatic artery, which, as soon as it 
 reaches the internal ring, enters the inguinal 
 canal, runs down the posterior part of the 
 cord, growing tertuous as it descends, ser- 
 pentines along the superior border of the 
 testes, between it and the epididymis, winds 
 round the anterior end of the gland, and 
 lastly reaches the convex border, where it 
 becomes extremely convoluted, and whereto 
 its branches are principally distributed. In 
 its descent it detaches small unimportant 
 twigs to the adjacent parts ; and, as it ap- 
 proaches the testicle, becomes surrounded 
 by an assemblage of venous vessels, b. 
 The veuis accompany their corresponding 
 arteries, and they indeed may be said to 
 make up the principal built of the cord, 
 for they are not only numerous, but large 
 and flexuous, and, as they approach the 
 testicle, form a sort of plexus, which has got 
 the name of corpus pampiniforme : they 
 return their blood into the posterior vena 
 cava. c. The nerves, Avhich are derived 
 from the hypogastric plexus, also accom- 
 pany the spermatic artery : they are smaD, 
 but sufficiently numerous. Though the 
 testicle does not possess any very great sen- 
 sibility in health, we may vouch for its 
 being acutely sensitive in a state of disease. 
 d. Absorbents exist, both large and numer- 
 ous, in the cord. They are readily found 
 
 nam 
 
ANATOMY ANJ PHYSIOLYGY OF THE HOESE. 
 
 123 
 
 alongside of the venous trunks; and not 
 infrequently may be filled by introducing 
 mercury into the spermatic artery, e. The 
 VAS DEFERENS, though a constituent of the 
 cord, takes at first a solitary course, remote 
 from the blood vessels. The duct issues 
 from the summit of the head of the epidi- 
 dymis, beginning in a series of convolu- 
 tions gradually unvi'inding as it proceeds; 
 it takes an oblique course nearly as high as 
 the external ring, where it joins the blood 
 vessels, and continues to accompany them 
 posteriorly through the inguinal canal : at 
 the internal ring it leaves them, turns 
 inward and ascends into the pelvis, where 
 we find it creeping along the side of the 
 bladder infolded in peritoneum to get to the 
 cervix, crossing under its course first the 
 umbilical artery and then the ureter; at 
 length it terminates by rather a contracted 
 orifice within the mouth of the duct of the 
 vj^icula seminalis, just behind a little emi- 
 nence in the urethra — tlie capat galinaginis, 
 about an inch posteriorly to the cervix of 
 the bladder. Within the inguinal passage 
 the duct is accompanied by the artery of 
 the vas deferens,^, long slender branch of the 
 epigastric. Its cang-l, flexuous until the 
 duct has joined the cord, but straight in its 
 subsequent course, is not uniform through- 
 out in caliber ; the area of its tortuous part 
 is large, but as it becomes straight it grows 
 contracted: having entered the pelvis, it 
 gradually enlarges again, and acquires un- 
 usual volume in running along the side of the 
 bladder ; and the canal of the enlarged por- 
 tion presents a riticulated structure, which 
 gives its exterior an irregular, tuberculated 
 appearance ; the most contracted part is 
 that in union with the duct of the vesicula 
 seminalis, which is a comparatively small 
 cylindrical conduit. The parietes of the 
 duct are so remarkably thick and firm to 
 the feel, that we distinguish it at once by 
 the fingers from the other parts of the 
 cord : they consist of two tunics ; the ex- 
 ternal one (in which its main thickness con- 
 sists) is white, fibrous, and approaches in 
 appearance to cartilage ; the internal one is 
 thin and fine in texture, muco-membranous 
 
 in its nature, and here and there incloses a 
 reticulated structure. The different consti- 
 tuent parts of the cord are connected alto- 
 gether by cellular substance, destitute of 
 any fat ; and from the circumstance of the 
 parts in general being more bullvy below the 
 ring, the cord increases in breadth and 
 thickness as it approaches the testicle. 
 
 THE EPIDIDYMIS. 
 
 The epididymis is extended along the su- 
 perior border of the testicle, upon which it 
 rests, and to which it is connected by the 
 tunica vaginalis reflexa. Its ends are buDiy 
 in comparison to its middle : that receiving 
 the vasa eft'erentia, the smaller one, is the 
 caput or globus minor; the other, giving 
 rise to the vas deferens, is the globus major, 
 the part farriers call the nut. The interior 
 of this appendage to the testicle exhibits a 
 structure entirely vascular. The vasa ef- 
 ferentia unite and re-unite until they form 
 a single duct, of whose numberless and 
 very remarkable convolutions the globus 
 major is entirely constituted : these tortu- 
 osities (which, when squeezed, freely emit 
 semen) will admit of being unwound for a 
 considerable extent, so as to have the 
 length of the duct calculated with very 
 tolerable exactness from beginning to end, 
 which has been found to amount to several 
 yards. It is small at its formation, but grows 
 imperceptibly larger in making its manifold 
 windings and turnings, until at length it 
 assumes the size of the vas deferens, in 
 which it ends. Its various convolutions are 
 connected together by cellular membrane, 
 and are interspersed with a sparing supply 
 of blood vessels. 
 
 The course of the semen is this: It is 
 secreted by the capillary coils of the sper- 
 matic artery, from which it is received by 
 the tubili seminiferi: these tubes carry it 
 into the rete, and the rete discharges it 
 through the vasa efFerentia into the epididy- 
 mis, from which it is conducted by the 
 vas deferens into the urethra. 
 
 Formation and Descent. — It is a singu- 
 lar fact, that the organs whose structures 
 we have been investigating, are originally 
 
124 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 formed in a situation remote from that in 
 which they are destined to carry on their 
 functions; "the colt has no testicles," is 
 the common observation of the unim- 
 formed on these matters ; and we know 
 ourselves that the purse is without them, 
 bu-t we know, in addition, that they exist 
 ready-formed within the abdomen, and that 
 they will descend at a certain period of age 
 into the proper receptacle, the scrotum. 
 During the foetal state we find the testicles 
 more or less developed, tinged with a blush 
 of red, lodged beneath the psoas muscles, 
 in contact with the inferior borders of the 
 kidneys, covered and retained in their situ- 
 ations by peritoneum, and concealed by the 
 intestines around them. Here they receive 
 their arteries from the contiguous trunk — 
 the posterior aorta ; the vasa deferentia 
 run forward to them, and the cremosters 
 liltewise turn forward instead of backward ; 
 there being at this time no such tiring as a 
 spermatic cord. Thus placed, the testicle 
 may be regarded as one of the glands of 
 the abdomen ; indeed it has considerable 
 similarity to the kidney — receiving its ves- 
 sels from the same contiguous source, and 
 sending a long duct backward into the 
 cavity of the pelvis ; nor does there appear 
 any conclusive reason why it should not 
 perform the same office in that situation 
 that it does in the scrotum, and particu- 
 larly since it is known that in birds the tes- 
 ticles remain within the abdomen during 
 life. From the part where the blood ves- 
 sels enter, we find growing a whitish sub- 
 stance, extending backward, diminishing 
 in breadth as it recedes, passing through 
 the ring where the fUus of the cremoster 
 may be traced upon it, and whence it is 
 prolonged into the scrotum, growing nar- 
 rower and narrower until it vanishes ; this 
 substance, regarded by some simply as a 
 ligament, was considered by Mr. Hunter 
 as the gubernaculum or pilot, by means of 
 which the testicle is directed in its passage 
 from the abdomen into the scrotum. Quit- 
 ting the spot where it has been formed and 
 matured, the testicle gradually retrocedes, 
 guided by the gubernaculum, until it ar- 
 
 rives on the internal ring, which, at this 
 time (like every other part of the parietes) 
 is closed by peritoneum ; this temporary 
 obstruction it overcomes by drawing the 
 membrane down along with it through the 
 ring, and carrying the pouch made thereby 
 down into the scrotum ; the gubernaculum 
 at the time undergoing a complete in- 
 version. This accounts for the production 
 of the tunica vaginalis, and explains how 
 that membrane comes to be doubled or re- 
 flected; the testicle, receiving originally (as 
 an abdominal viscus) one close adherent 
 peritoneal tunic, and acquiring another 
 which forms a loose covering as it passes 
 through the ring, must necessarily have 
 two ; and since both are derived from one 
 and the same membrane, it follows that 
 one must be a continuation of the other. 
 These elongations of membrane, though 
 everywhere in contact, are prevented from 
 adhering together by a continual exhaifi- 
 tion of the natural serous secretion. Any 
 interval that might stibsist between them, 
 in course, communicates with the cavity of 
 the abdomen, through the ring, a part that 
 remains open through life : this, however, 
 is not the case with man — in his body the 
 communication is cut off, after the testicles 
 have descended, by a natural contraction 
 and obliteration both of the ring and the 
 inguinal passage. In many instances, one, 
 in soxue few, both of the testicles, are 
 known to have remained within the belly 
 through life. As we are unacquainted with 
 the immediate cause of their descent, so 
 we are unable to give any rational explana- 
 tion of this phenomenon. I have under- 
 stood, that in many of these cases the 
 glands have been found to be but imper- 
 fectly developed : this, however, is not with- 
 out exception. 
 
 Period of Descent. — Most animals have 
 their testicles within the scrotum at the 
 period of birth. In the human fcetus they 
 begin to move about the seventh month ; 
 about the eighth they reach the groins ; and 
 before birth they arrive in the scrotum. 
 In the horse, they pass through the ring 
 about the sixth or seventh month before 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 125 
 
 birth, and are found within the scrotum at 
 the period of parturition. In some cases, 
 one testicle will not make its appearance 
 for some time after the other ; and as the 
 operation for castration is seldom long de- 
 layed, this will account for the rigs (as 
 horses having but one testicle are called) 
 ■with wliich we meet every now and then. 
 Again, instances are not wanting in which 
 one testicle has descended to the ring and 
 there remained through life.* 
 
 The penis is composed of the two corpora 
 cavermosa : head, or glans penis : corpus 
 musculosum urethra, and the plexus veno- 
 sus. The corporo cavermosa make up the 
 bulk of the organ, they extend from the 
 pelvis to the glans penis ; at the ischial arch 
 they are invested with fibres of the erectors 
 penis, and are strengthened and confined to 
 the pubes by the suspensory ligaments. It 
 is supplied with blood from a branch of 
 the obturaler arter, by means of the inter- 
 nal pvidic artery. Its nerves are termed 
 pudic, so also are the veins. 
 
 The g-lans is composed of a soft spongy 
 tissue, highly elastic and distensible, and 
 remarkable as the seat of the plexus venosus 
 penis : the latter structure presents itself in 
 the form of a venous conglomeration, and 
 in the erect state of the organ constitutes 
 its chief bulk. 
 
 URETHRA. 
 
 The m-ethra is a muco-membranous canal 
 
 * In a communication I have been favored witli from 
 Mr. Brettargh (whicli I have inserted in the second vol- 
 ume of The Veterinarian), is contained the following 
 information on this subject : " Colts arc foaled with their 
 testicles in the scrotum, which remain there (in ordinary 
 cases ) until the fifth or sixth month, when they are taken 
 up between the internal and external abdominal rings, 
 and there remain until the eleventh, twelfth or thirteenth 
 month, all depeuding upon the degree of keep, as in some 
 that are well fed the testicles can at all times be found in 
 the scrotum. Were the testicles drawn up into the abdo- 
 men, they would be too large to pass through the inter- 
 nal abdominal ring at the time they are wanted to prepare 
 for secretion ; which is occasionally the case, and at once 
 accounts for our meeting with horses that are said to have 
 but one stone. I have seen one instance where both were 
 wanting in the scrotum at four years old." 
 
 averaging in length, in the unerected state 
 forty -eight inches ; it extends from the ante- 
 rior part of the glans penis to the neck of 
 the bladder ; its use is to afford a passage 
 for the urine and seminal fluid. 
 
 FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 
 
 The vulva or pudendum comprises the 
 prominence and fissure, commencing imme- 
 diately beneath the anus, and extending 
 downwards some four or five inches. The 
 fissiu'e is longest and most conspicuous in 
 breeding mares. The space between the 
 anus and vulva is termed perineum. The 
 prominences on each side of the vulva are 
 called labia frudinde. They owe their 
 bulk principally to muscular and fatty sub- 
 stance, and cellular tissue. 
 
 The commissures are the parts uniting the 
 labia above and below. The superior or 
 upper commissure is extended to a sharp 
 angle, and joins the perineum; the lower 
 portion is rounded off, and is bounded by a 
 hollow, at the bottom of which is lodged 
 the 
 
 Clitoris. — This is brought into view im- 
 mediately after staling: it bears a close 
 comparison to the head of the male penis, 
 and, like the latter, is susceptible of sensual 
 enjoyment. To the clitoris belong a pair 
 of muscles named erector clitoris. They 
 take their origin from the perineum. Their 
 ofHce is to erect that body, and proti-ude it 
 into the vagina in the act of coition. 
 
 T/ie internal parts are the vagina, uterus, 
 FaUopian tubes, fimbriae, and ovaria. The 
 vagina is a musculo-membranous canal, of 
 large dimensions, extending from the vulva 
 to the uterus or womb. 
 
 It is situated within the pelvis, having 
 the bladder below and the rectum above it, 
 to both of which it has cellular attach- 
 ments, in addition to the reciprocal connec- 
 tion with the peritoneum. To the rectum 
 it is closely and firmly attached by cellular 
 membrane. 
 
 The figure of the vagina, when it is dis- 
 tended, is that of an oblong cylinder ; but 
 in the collapsed state, its sides are in con- 
 tact, and it will vary its form according to 
 
126 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 the full or empty condition of the bladder. 
 The largest part of the canal is the poste- 
 rior ; there it exceeds the dimensions of the 
 bladder. 
 
 The length of the canal is about eighteen 
 inches. Its course is horizontal, and rather 
 shows an inclination to the curve of the 
 rectum. 
 
 The vagina, at its commencement from 
 the vulva, is much thicker in its walls than 
 elsewhere ; in composition it is partly mus- 
 cular and partly membranous. The orifice 
 of it is clothed in that strong, red, circular, 
 fleshy band, which forms the sphincter 
 vagina ; and the adjoining part of the canal 
 is also encircled by some considerable fleshy 
 covering, and thickly coated with muscular 
 fibres. Farther forward than this the vagina 
 is composed of membrane. 
 
 The Membrane of the Vagina. — The part 
 of which it is constituted is one of the 
 mucus class, and one that possesses consid- 
 erable density, extensibility, and resistance. 
 Its exterior siu-face is rough. Its interior 
 is smooth, and has a pale pinkish cast; 
 unless the mare be under the venereal oes- 
 trum, and then its redness is heightened, 
 and its secretion augmented. In the ordin- 
 ary state, this membrane is tlirown into 
 folds, larger in breeding mares than in others, 
 technically called rugas. 
 
 Considerably in advance of the clitoris is 
 an opening leading from the lower part of 
 the canal, large enough to admit with ease 
 any one of the fingers : this is the orifice of 
 the meatus vuinarius, or outlet of the blad- 
 der : it is guarded by a doubling of the 
 vaginal membrane, which hangs over it, and 
 Serves the purpose of a valve. 
 
 The large and conspicuous protuberance 
 at the bottom of the vagina, is the mouth 
 of the uterus. 
 
 The uterus, or womb, is a hollow mus- 
 culo-membranous organ, united to the ante- 
 rior part of the vagina, and is destined for 
 the reception of the foetus. We distinguish 
 the uterus by the body, horns, neck, and 
 mouth. The body is the oblong or cylin- 
 drical part, growing out of the anterior por- 
 tion of the vagina, in the centre of whicli 
 
 it is terminated internally by the os-uteri, 
 or mouth of the womb ; it gives origin, in 
 front, to the horns. This part lies wholly 
 within the pelvis, between the bladder and 
 rectum, and is entirely covered by peri- 
 toneum. 
 
 The cornua, or horns, rise from the body 
 of the uterus, and diverge towards the loins. 
 Their length and size will be much greater 
 in breeding mares than in others. In figure 
 they are cylindrical ; they bend upward in 
 their course, and terminate in round extrem- 
 ities, to ■which are loosely appended the 
 ovaries, or testicles, through the medium of 
 the Fallopian tubes. 
 
 The cervLx, or neck, of the uterus is the 
 rugose portion, protruded backward into the 
 cavity of the vagina, which has a flower- 
 like appearance, and can only be seen in a 
 virgin uterus in the undistended state ; dur- 
 ing gestation it undergoes a remarkable 
 change. 
 
 Independently of its union with the 
 vagina, the uterus is confined in its place 
 by two broad portions of peritoneum, 
 which attach it to the sides of the pelvis, 
 named the lateral ligaments of the uterus. 
 During the period of gestation, the uterus 
 experiences considerable extension. The 
 Fallopian tubes are two trumpet-shaped 
 canals, having a remarkable serpentine 
 course ; running within the folds of the 
 ligaraenta lata, from the extremities of the 
 horns to the ovaries. 
 
 The tube commences by an aperture in 
 the cornu, having an elevated whitish mar- 
 gin, which is scarcely large enough to admit 
 a small silver probe : from this it proceeds 
 forward, folded in peritoneum, and ex- 
 tremely convoluted, until it reaches the 
 ovary, to which it becomes attached ; it 
 then begins to enlarge in its diameter, 
 grows less convoluted, and serpentines along 
 the lower side of the ovary ; it afterwards 
 ends in a fringed doubling of membrane. 
 
 The internal membrane of the tubes is 
 similar to that of the uterus. 
 
 The ovari, or female testicles, are two 
 egg-shaped bodies, situated farther forward 
 than the Fallopian tubes, within the cavity 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 127 
 
 of the abdomen : they receive close cov- 
 erini^s, and are loosely attached to the 
 spuie. 
 
 These bodies are about the size of wal- 
 nuts. They are not regular oviform ; they 
 have deep fissures on their sides ; they 
 bear a resemblance, at first view, to the 
 testicles and their ducts in the male. 
 
 Internally, the ovaries are composed of a 
 whitish spongy substance, in which are, in 
 some instances, found little vesicles, con- 
 taining a yellowish glairy fluid, in others 
 one or more dark yeUow or brownish sub- 
 stances, named corpora lutea : the vesicles 
 are the ova, which, from impregnation, re- 
 ceive further development; the corpora 
 lutea denote the parts from which vesicles 
 have burst, and consequently only exist in 
 the ovaries of those mares whose organs 
 have been engaged in the generative pro- 
 cess. Prior to the age of sexual intercourse, 
 these bodies are small and white ; but, as 
 soon as the season of copulation is at hand, 
 they grow large,* redden externally, and 
 present many yellow spots or streaks 
 through their substance. 
 
 Mammre, though unconnected with the 
 uterus, anomatically speaking, are in func- 
 tion concurring to the same important end. 
 The mammffi, vulgarly called udder, are 
 two flattened oval-shaped bodies, depend- 
 ing, between the thighs, from the posterior 
 and inferior part of the belly. In quadru- 
 peds, with but few exceptions, this is the 
 situation of the mammae. 
 
 In virgin mares the- udder is so small 
 that there hardly appears to be any. In 
 mares who have had foals, the udder re- 
 mains prominent or pendulous, and has a 
 flabby feel. 
 
 Toward the latter part of gestation, this 
 part swells, and becomes distinctly visible. 
 Within a few days of foaling, the udder 
 grows tiu-gid with milli ; it does not, how- 
 ever, acquire its full distention until the 
 foal has di-awn it for a few days, from 
 which time it maintains its volume, with 
 little variation, dinging the period of suck- 
 ling. Soon after the foal begins to forsake 
 the teat, the secretion of milk diminishes, 
 and is followed by a contraction of the 
 bag, which goes on gi'adually, untU it has 
 resumed nearly, or quite, its former flat- 
 ness. 
 
 The interior of the mammae has a light 
 yellowish aspect, and evidently possesses a 
 lobulated structure, which is held together 
 by a fine cellular tissue, interspersed with 
 granules of fat. It is constituted of glan- 
 dular masses, irregular in magnitude and 
 form, and loosely connected one with 
 another, each of which masses is composed 
 of a number of lobules, closely compacted 
 and united together. These insulated lob- 
 ulous portions receive small arteries, from 
 which the milk is secreted. The former, 
 by repeatedly conjoining one with another, 
 become at length several demonstrable 
 canals, radiating from every part, and dilat- 
 ing to hold the millc. 
 
 When the udder becomes charged with 
 millv, it flows into the teat and distends it. 
 Suction is apparently an operation purely 
 mechanical. The teat is seized and closely 
 compressed by the lips of the foal ; and the 
 imbibing effort which follows has a ten- 
 dency to produce a vacuum, or raise the 
 valve at the upper part of the teat, and the 
 millc passes from the reservoirs into the 
 mouth. 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 ON THE REPRODUCTION OP ORGANIZED 
 BEINGS* ^ 
 
 " If the changes which living beings un- 
 dergo during the period of their existence, 
 and the termination of that existence by 
 the separation of their elements at a period 
 more or less remote from their first combina- 
 tion, be regarded as distinguishing them in 
 a striking and evident manner from the 
 masses of inert matter which surround them, 
 still more is thek difference manifested in 
 the series of processes wliich constitute the 
 function of Reproduction. A very unneces- 
 sary degree of mystery has been spread 
 around the exercise of this function, not 
 only by general inquirers, but by scientific 
 physiologists. It has been regarded as a 
 process never to be comprehended by man, 
 of which the nature and the laws are alilve 
 inscrutable. A fair comparison of it, how- 
 ever, with other functions, will show that it 
 is not in reality less comprehensible or more 
 recondite than any one of them; — that our 
 acquaintance with each depends upon the 
 facility with which it may be siibmitted to 
 investigation; — and that, if properly in- 
 quired into by an extensive survey of the 
 animated world, the real character of the 
 process, its conditions, and its mode of oper- 
 ation, may be understood as completely as 
 those of any other vital phenomenon. 
 
 " It may be considered as a fundamental 
 truth of Physiological Science, that every 
 living organism has had its origin in a pre- 
 existing organism. The doctrine of ' spon- 
 taneous generation,' or the supposed origina- 
 tion of organized structures de novo out of 
 assemblages of inorganic particles, although 
 at different times sustained with a consider- 
 
 * Carpenter's Physiology. 
 
 able show of argument, based on a specious 
 array of facts, cannot now be said to have 
 any claim whatever to be received as even 
 a possible hypothesis ; all the facts on which 
 it claimed to rest having either been them- 
 selves disproved, or having been found satis- 
 factory explicable on the general principle 
 omne vivum ex ovo. Thus, the appearance 
 of Animalcules in infusions of decaying 
 organic matter, the springing-up of Fungi 
 in spots to which it would not have been 
 supposed that their germs could have been 
 conveyed, the occurrence of Entozoa in the 
 bodies of various animals into which it 
 seemed almost beyond possibility that their 
 eggs could have been introduced, with 
 other facts of a like nature, may now be 
 accounted for, without any violation of 
 probability, by our increased knowledge of 
 the mode in which these organisms are pro- 
 pagated. Thus, it is now well ascertained 
 that the germs of Fungi and of many kinds 
 of Animalcules are diffused tlnrough the 
 atmosphere, and are conveyed by its move- 
 ments in every direction ; and that, if to de- 
 composing substances of a kind that would 
 otherwise have been most abundantly peo- 
 pled by these organisms, such air only be 
 allowed to have access as has been deprived 
 of its organic germs by filtration (so to 
 speak) through a red-hot tube or strong 
 sulphuric acid, no living organisms will 
 make their appearance in them ; whilst in 
 a few hours after the exposure of the very 
 same substances to ordinary atmospheric 
 air, it has been found to be crowded with 
 life.* And when it is borne in mind, in the 
 case of the Entozoa, that the members of 
 
 * Sec the experiments of Schulze, in the "Edinb. New 
 I Phil. Journal," 1837, p. 165. 
 
 (128) 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 129 
 
 this class are remarkable for the immense 
 number of eggs which most of them pro- 
 duce, for the metamorphoses which many 
 of them are known to undergo, and for the 
 varieties of form under which there is reason 
 to suspect that the same germs may de- 
 velop themselves, it becomes obvious that 
 no adequate proof has yet been afforded 
 that they have been, in any particular case, 
 otherwise than the products of a pre-existing 
 living organism. This, again, is the con- 
 clusion to which all the most general doc- 
 trines of Physiology necessarily conduct us. 
 For it is most certain that we know noth- 
 ing of Vital Force, save as manifested 
 through organized structures ; whilst, on the 
 other hand, the combination of inorganic 
 matter into organized structures is one of 
 the most characteristic operations of vital 
 force ; hence it is scarcely conceivable that 
 any operation of physical forces upon inor- 
 ganic matter should evolve a Living organ- 
 ism. Nor is such a conception more feasi- 
 ble, if it be admitted that vital force stands 
 in such a relation to the physical forces, 
 that we may regard the former as a mani- 
 festation of the latter, when acting tlirough 
 organized structures ; since no vital force 
 can be manifested (according to this view), 
 and no organization can take place, except 
 through a pre-existing organism. 
 
 " It may be further considered as an es- 
 tablished physiological truth, that, when 
 placed under circumstances favorable to 
 its complete evolution, every germ wiU de- 
 velop itself into the lOieness of its parent; 
 drawing into itself, and appropriating by 
 its own assimilative and formative opera- 
 tions, the nutrient materials supplied to it ; 
 and repeating the entire series of phases 
 through which its parent may have passed, 
 however multiform these may be.* Now 
 the germs of all tribes of plants and 
 animals whatever bear an extremely close 
 relation to each other in their earliest con- 
 dition ; so that there is no appreciable dis- 
 
 * The apparent exceptions to this rule, which have been 
 brought together under the collective term, " Alternation of 
 Generations," will be presently considered, and will be 
 shown to be only exceptional when misiutei"preted. 
 
 tinction amongst them, which would enable 
 it to be determined whether a particular 
 molecule is the germ of a Conferva or of 
 an Oak, of a Zoophyte or of a Man. But 
 let each be placed in the conditions it re- 
 quires ; and a gradual evolution of the 
 germ into a complex fabric will take place, 
 the more general characters of the new or- 
 ganism preceding the more special, as 
 already explained. These conditions are 
 not different in Idnd from those which are 
 essential to the process of nutrition in the 
 adult ; for they consist, on the one hand, in 
 a due supply of aliment in the condition 
 in which it can be appropriated; and, on 
 the other hand, in the operation of certain 
 external agencies, especially heat, which 
 seems to supply the force requisite for the 
 developmental process. Now, although we 
 may not be able to discern any such osten- 
 sible differences in the germs of different 
 orders of living beings as can enable us to 
 discriminate them from each other, yet, see- 
 ing so marked a diversity in their operations 
 under circumstances essentially the same, 
 we cannot do otherwise than attiibute to 
 them distinct properties ; and it will be con- 
 venient to adopt the phrase germinal capa- 
 city as a comprehensive expression of that 
 peculiar endowment, in virtue of which 
 each gem. ievelopes itself into a structure 
 of its own specific type, when the requisite 
 forces are brought to bear upon it, and the 
 requisite materials are supplied to it.* 
 Thus, then, every act of development 
 may be considered as due to the force sup- 
 plied by heat or some other physical agency, 
 which, operating through the organic germ, 
 exerts itself as formative power ; whilst the 
 
 mode in which it takes effect is dependent 
 
 I 
 * This term is prefeiTed to that of " germ-power " sug- 
 gested by Mr. Paget, because the latter seems to imply 
 that the force of development exists in the germ itself. 
 Now, if this were true, not only must the whole formative 
 power of the adult have been possessed by its first cell- 
 germ, but the whole formative power of all the beings 
 simultaneously belonging to any one race, must have been 
 concentrated in the first cell-germ of their original proge- 
 nitor. This seems a reductio ad absurdum of any such 
 doctrine ; and we are driven back on the assumption 
 (which all observation confirms), that the _/brc« of develop- 
 ment is derived from eocternal agencies. 
 
130 
 
 ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 upon the properties or endowments of the 
 substances through which it acts, namely, 
 the germ on the one hand, the alimentan^ 
 materials on the other, — just as an electric 
 current, transmitted through the different 
 ner\-es of sense, produces the sensory im- 
 pressions which are characteristic of each 
 respectively ; or, as the same cvtrrent trans- 
 mitted through one form of inorganic 
 matter produces light and heat, through 
 another, chemical change, or through an- 
 other, magnetism. 
 
 " In the development of any li\iing being, 
 therefore, from its primordial germ, we have 
 three sets of conditions to study — namely, 
 first, the physical forces which are in opera- 
 tion; second, the properties of the germ, 
 which these forces call into activity; and 
 third, the properties of the alimentary mate- 
 rials which are incorporated in the organism 
 diulng its development. There is evidence 
 that each of these may have a considerable 
 influence on the result ; but in the higher 
 organisms it would seem that the second is 
 more dominant than it is in the lower. For 
 among many of the lower tribes, both of 
 plants and animals, there is reason to be- 
 lieve that the range of departure from the 
 characters of its parent, which the organism 
 may present, is considerably greater than 
 that of the higher ; and that this is chiefly 
 due to the external conditions under wliich 
 it has been developed. The forms of a 
 number of species of the lower Fungi, for 
 example, appear to be in a great part de- 
 pendent on the nature of their aliment ; so 
 among the Entozoa, there seems strong 
 reason to believe that those of the Cystic 
 order are only Cestoidea, that are prevented 
 by the circumstances under which they exist 
 from attaining their full development ; and 
 the production of a fertile 'queen' or of an 
 imperfect 'worker,' among the hive-bees, 
 appears to be entirely determined by the 
 food with which the lar\-a is supplied. No 
 such variations have been observed among 
 the higher classes ; in which it would seem 
 as if the form attained by each germ is 
 more rigidly determined by its own endow- 
 ments ; a modification in the other con- 
 
 ditions, which in the lower tribes would 
 considerably afl'ect the result, being in them 
 unproductive of any corresponding change. 
 For, if such modification be considerable, 
 the organism is unable to adapt itself to it, 
 and consequently either perishes or is imper- 
 fectly developed ; whilst, if it be less potent, 
 it produces no obvious effect. Thus, a de- 
 ficiency of food in the growing state of the 
 higher animal will necessarily prevent the 
 attainment of the full size ; but it will not 
 exert that influence on the relative develop- 
 ment of different parts that it does among 
 plants, in which it favors the production of 
 flowers and fruit in place of leaves, or that 
 it seems to exercise in several parallel cases 
 among animals. So, again, a deficiency of 
 heat may slightly retard the development of 
 the chick ; but, if the egg be allowed to re- 
 main long without the requisite warmth, 
 the embryo dies, instead of passing into a 
 state of inactivity, like that of reptiles or 
 insects. The extent, indeed, to which these 
 external conditions may affect the develop- 
 ment of the inferior organisms, must not be 
 in the least judged of by that to which 
 their operation is restricted in the higher ; 
 and it is probable that we have yet much to 
 learn on the subject. At present, it may 
 be stated as a problem for determination, 
 whether, from a being of superior organiza- 
 zation, lower forms of living structure, 
 capable of maintaining an independent 
 existence, and of propagating their kind, 
 can ever originate, by an imperfect action 
 of its formative powers. Various morbid 
 growths, such as cancer ceUs, to which the 
 higher organisms are liable, have been 
 looked upon in this light ; these have cer- 
 tainly a powerful Aitality of their owti, 
 which enables them to increase and multi- 
 ply at the expense of the organism which 
 they infest ; and they have also an enargetic 
 reproductive power, by which they can pro- 
 pagate their kind, so as to transmit the 
 disease to other organisms, or to remote 
 parts of the same organism ; but such 
 growths are not independent ; they cannot 
 maintain their own existence, when de- 
 tached from the organism in which they are 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 131 
 
 developed; and they have not, therefore, 
 the attribute of a separate individuality. 
 Various phenomena hereafter to be detailed, 
 however, respecting the ' gemmiparous ' 
 production of living beings, when taken in 
 connection with that just cited, seem to ren- 
 der it by no means impossible that the in- 
 dividualization may be more complete in 
 other cases, so that independent beings of a 
 lower type may possibly originate in a per- 
 verted condition of the formative operations 
 in the higher. But no satisfactory evidence 
 has ever been atibrded by experience, that 
 such 'equivocal generation' has actually 
 taken place; and its possibility is here 
 alluded to only as a contingency wliich it is 
 right to keep in view. That no higher type 
 has ever originated through an advance in 
 developmental power, may be safely as- 
 serted ; for, although various instances have 
 been brought forward to justify the asser- 
 tion that such is possible, yet these instances 
 entirely fail to establish the analogy that is 
 sought to be drawn from them.* 
 
 * Tlius, the author of the " Vestiges of the Natural 
 History of Creation " refers to the various modifications 
 wliich have taken place in our cultivated Plants and 
 Domesticated Animals, in proof that such elevation is 
 possible ; quite overlooldng the fact that these external in- 
 fluences merely modify the development, without elevating 
 it, and that these races, if left to themselves, speedily revert 
 to their common specific t^-pe. And he adduces the 
 phenomena of metamorphosis — the transformation of 
 the worm-like larva into an insect, and of a fish-like 
 tadpole into a frog — as giving some analogical sanction 
 to the same doctrine ; totally overlooking the fact, that 
 these transformations are only part of the ordinary develop- 
 mental process, by which the complete fonn of tlie species 
 is evolved, instead of being transitions from the perfected 
 type of one class to the perfected type of one above it. 
 So, again, he quotes the transformation of the worker- 
 grub of the hive-bee into tlie fertile queen, as an example 
 of a similar advance ; \vithout regarding the circumstance 
 that the worker is physicallij higher (according to human 
 ideas, at least) than the queen, whose instincts appear 
 limited to the performance of her sexual functions ; and 
 that the utmost which the fact is capable of proving, is, 
 that the same germ may be developed into two dift'ereut 
 forms, according to the circumstances of its early growth. 
 It must always be borne in mind that the character of a 
 species, to be complete, should include all its forms, per- 
 fect and imperfect, modified and unmodified ; since in this 
 mode alone can that " capacity for variation " be deter- 
 mined, wliich is so remarkable a feature in many cases, 
 and is that which specially distinguishes the races of plants 
 and animals that have been subjected to human influence. 
 
 " The development power which each germ 
 possesses, under the conditions just now 
 detailed, is manifested, not merely in the 
 first evolution of the germ into its com- 
 plete specific type, but also in the main- 
 tenance of its perfect form, and, within 
 certain limits, by the reproduction of parts 
 that have been desti'oyed by injury or dis- 
 ease. This reproduction, as Mr. Paget has 
 pointed out,* differs from the ordinary pro- 
 cess of nutrition in this, — that ' in grave 
 injuries and diseases, the parts that might 
 serve as models for the new materials to be 
 assimilated to, or as tissue-germs to develop 
 new structures, are lost or spoiled ; and yet 
 the effects of injury and disease are re- 
 covered from, and the right specific form 
 and composition are retained ; ' — and, 
 again, ' that the reproduced parts are 
 formed, not according to any present model, 
 but according to the appropriate specific 
 form, and often with a more strildngly evi- 
 dent design towards that form, as an end 
 or purpose, than we can discern in the nat- 
 ural construction of the body.' In the re- 
 production of the leg of a full-grown 
 Salamander after amputation, which was 
 observed to take place by Spallanzani, it is 
 clear that, whilst the process was from the 
 fu-st of a nature essentially similar to that 
 by which its original development took 
 place, it tended to produce, not the leg of 
 a larva, but that of an advUt animal. Hence 
 it is obvious that, through the whole of life, 
 the formative processes are so directed as to 
 maintain the perfection of the organism, 
 by keeping it up, so far as possible, to the 
 model or archetype that is "proper to the 
 epoch of its life wliich it has attained. 
 The amount of this regenerating power, 
 however, varies greatly in different classes 
 of organized beings, and at different stages 
 of the existence of the same being; and, as 
 Mr. Paget has pointed out,f it seems to 
 
 In no instance has this variation tended to confuse the 
 limits of well-ascertained species ; it has merely increased 
 our acquaintance with the number of diversified forms into 
 which the same germ may develope itself. 
 
 * " Lectures on Reproduction and Eepair." 
 
 t Loe cit. 
 
132 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 bear an inverse ratio to the degree of devel- 
 opment which has previously taken place 
 in each case. Thus, in the Hydra and 
 other Zoophytes, it would appear (as in 
 Plants) to be almost unlimited ; for the de- 
 velopment process in them is checked at 
 such an early period, that both the form of 
 the organism and the structure of its tissues 
 retain the most simple type ; and by the 
 subdivision of one individual, no fewer 
 than fifty were produced by Trembly. Li 
 this, as probably in aU the cases in which 
 new individuals have been obtained by 
 artificial subdivision, there is some natural 
 tendency to their production by the vege- 
 tative process of gemmation ; but this does 
 not always manifest itself. It is a ciuious 
 fact, that the first attempt at regeneration, 
 in some of these cases, is not always com- 
 plete ; but that successive efforts are made, 
 each of which approximates more and 
 more closely to the perfect type. This was 
 well seen in one of Sir J. G. DalyeU's ex- 
 periments ; for he observed that, having 
 cloven the stem of a Tubularia (a Hydroid 
 Zoophyte), after the natural fall of its head, 
 an imperfect head was at first produced, 
 which soon fell off and was succeeded by 
 another more fuUy formed ; this in its turn 
 was succeeded by another ; and so on, until 
 the fifth head was produced, which was as 
 complete as the original. 
 
 " As a general statement of the amount 
 of this regenerating power, which exists in 
 most of the different classes of animals, 
 has been already given, it is unnecessary 
 here to do more than allude to some of 
 those facts which most strongly bear out 
 the doctrine just laid down. Next to 
 Zoophytes, there are no animals in which 
 the regenerative power is known to be so 
 strong as it is in the lower Articulata (as 
 the Cestoid Entozoa, and the inferior An- 
 nelida), and in the Planaria, which may 
 perhaps be regarded as rather approximat- 
 ing to the Molluscous type ; and here, again, 
 we see that a low grade of general devel- 
 opment is favorable to its exercise, and that 
 the spontaneous multiplication which occa- 
 sionally takes place in these animals by 
 
 fission or gemmation, is only another form 
 of the same process. In the higher forms 
 of both these sub-kingdoms, as we no 
 longer meet with multiplication by gemma- 
 tion, so do we find that the reparative power 
 is much more limited ; the only manifesta- 
 tion of it among the fully-formed Arrach- 
 nida and Crustacea being the reproduction 
 of limbs, and the power of effecting even 
 this being usuaDy deficient in perfect In- 
 sects. The inquiries of Mr. Newport, 
 however, upon the reproductive powers of 
 Myriapods and Insects, m different stages 
 of their development,* confirm the general 
 principle already stated; for he has ascer- 
 tained that in their larval condition. Insects 
 can usually reproduce limbs orantennEe; and 
 that Myriapods, whose highest development 
 scarcely carries them beyond the larvae of 
 perfect Insects, can regenerate limbs or an- 
 tennae, up to the time of their last moult, 
 when, their normal development being com- 
 pleted, their regenerative power seems en- 
 tirely expended. The Phas7nidce and some 
 other insects of the order Orthoptera retain a 
 similar degree of this power in their perfect 
 state ; but these are remarkable for the similar- 
 ity of their larval and imago states, the latter 
 being attained, as in Arachnida, by a direct 
 course of development, without anjrthing 
 that can be called a ' metamorphosis.' Lit- 
 tle is known of the regenerative power in 
 the higher MoUusca; but it has been 
 affirmed that the head of the Snail may 
 be reproduced after being cut off, provided 
 the cephalic ganglion be not injured, and 
 an adequate amount of heat be suppUed. 
 In Vertebrata, again, it is observable that 
 the greatest reparative power is found 
 among Batrachian Reptiles, whose devel- 
 opment is altogether lower, and whose life 
 is altogether more vegetative, than that of 
 probably any other group in this sub-king- 
 dom. In Fishes, it has been found that 
 portions of the fins which have been lost 
 by disease or accident are the only parts 
 that are reproduced. But in the Sala- 
 mander, entire new legs, with perfect bones, 
 nerves, muscles, etc., are reproduced after 
 
 * " Fhilodephical Trasaaetioiis," 1814. 
 
THE HOBSE. 
 
 133 
 
 loss or severe injury of the original mem- 
 bers ; and in the Triton a perfect eye has 
 been formed to replace one which had been 
 removed. In the true Lizards, an imper- 
 fect reproduction of the tail takes place, 
 when a part of it has been broken off; but 
 the newly-developed portion contains no 
 perfect vertebrae, its centre being occupied 
 by a cartilaginous column, like that of the 
 lowest Fishes. In the warm-blooded Ver- 
 tebrata generally, as in Man, the power of 
 true reproduction after loss or injury seems 
 limited, as Mr. Paget has pointed out,* to 
 three classes of parts, namely : (1.) ' Those 
 which are formed entkely by nutritive rep- 
 etition, like the blood and epethelia, their 
 germs being continually generated de novo 
 in the ordinary condition of the body ; (2.) 
 Those which are of lowest organization, 
 and (which seems of more importance) of 
 lowest chemical character, as the gelatinous 
 tissues, the areolar and tendinous, and the 
 bones; (3.) Those which are inserted in 
 other tissues, not as essential to their struc- 
 ture, but as accessories, as connecting or 
 incorporating them with the other struc- 
 tures of vegetative or animal life, such as 
 nerve-fibres and blood-vessels. With these 
 exceptions, injuries or losses are capable of 
 no more than repair, in its more limited 
 sense ; i. e., in the place of what is lost, 
 some lowly organized tissue is formed, 
 which fills up the breach, and suffices for 
 the maintenance of a less perfect life.' 
 Yet, restricted as this power is, its opera- 
 tions are frequently most remarkable ; and 
 are in no instance, perhaps, more strUcingly 
 displayed, than in the re-formation of a 
 whole bone, when the original one has been 
 destroyed by disease. The new bony mat- 
 ter is thrown out, sometimes within, and 
 sometimes around, the dead shaft; and 
 when the latter has been removed, the new 
 structure gradually assumes the regular 
 form, and aU the attachments of muscles, 
 ligaments, etc., become as complete as be- 
 fore. A much greater variety and com- 
 plexity of actions are involved in this 
 
 * " Lectures on Reproduction and Repair." 
 
 process, than in the reproduction of whole 
 organs in the simpler animals ; though 
 its effects do not appear so strildng. It 
 would seem that in some individuals this 
 regenerating power is retained to a greater 
 degree than it is by the class at large ; * and 
 here again we find, that in the early period 
 of development the power is more strongly 
 exerted than in the adult condition. The 
 most remarkable proof of its persistence even 
 in Man, has been collected by Prof. Simp- 
 son; who has brought together numerous 
 cases in which, after ' spontaneous amputa- 
 tion of the limbs of a foetus in utero,' occur- 
 ring at an early period of gestation, there 
 has obviously been an imperfect effort at 
 the re-formation of the amputated part 
 from the stump.f By the knowledge of 
 these facts and principles, we seem justi- 
 fied in the surmise, that the occtu-rence 
 of supernumerary or multiple parts is 
 not always due (as usually supposed) to 
 the ' fusion ' of two germs, but that it 
 may result from the subdivision of one; 
 
 * One of the most curious and well-authenticated in- 
 stances of this kind is related by Mr. Wliite, in his work 
 on the " Regeneration of Animal and Vegetable Sub- 
 stances," 1785, p. 16. "Some years ago, I delivered a 
 lady of rank of a fine boy, who had two thumbs upon one 
 hand, or rather, a thumb double from the first joint, the 
 other one less than the other, each part ha\'ing a perfect 
 nail. When he was about three years old, I was desired 
 to take oif the lesser one, which I did ; but to my great 
 astonishment it grew again, and along with it the nail. 
 The family afterwards went to reside in Loudon, where 
 his father showed it to that excellent operator, William 
 Bromfield, Esq., surgeon to the Queen's household ; who 
 said, he supposed Mr. White, being afraid of damaging 
 the joint, had not taken it wholly out, but he would dis- 
 sect it out entirely, and then it would not return. He ac- 
 cordingly executed the plan he had described, with great 
 dexterity, and turned^ the ball fairly out of the socket; 
 notwithstanding this, it grew again, and a fresh nail was 
 formed, and the thumb remained in this state." The 
 Author has been himself assured by a most intelligent 
 Surgeon, that he was cognizant of a case in which 
 the whole of one ramus of the lower jaw» had been 
 lost by disease in a young girl, yet the jaw had been com- 
 pletely regenerated, and teeth were developed and occu- 
 pied their normal situations in it. 
 
 t These cases were brought by Prof. Simpson before 
 the Physiological Section of the British Association, at 
 its meeting in Edinburgh, August, 18.50. The Author, 
 having had the opportunity of examining Prof. Simpson's 
 preparations, as well as two*Uving examples, is perfectly 
 satisfied as to the fact. 
 
134 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 for, if it be supposed that this subdivi- 
 sion has taken place when the develop- 
 mental process has advanced no further 
 than in a Hydra or a Planaria, it seems by 
 no means impossible that each part might, 
 as in those creatures, advance in its devel- 
 opment up to the attainment of its com- 
 plete form. 
 
 " There are many tribes, both of Plants 
 and Animals, in which multiplication is 
 effected not only artificially but sponta- 
 neously, by the separation of parts, which, 
 though developed from the same germ in 
 perfect continuity with each other, are capa- 
 ble of maintaining an independent exist- 
 ence, and which, when thus separated, take 
 rank as distinct individuals. This process, 
 which is obviously to be regarded, no less 
 than the preceding, as a peculiar manifes- 
 tation of the ordinary operations of Nu- 
 trition, may take place in either of four 
 different modes — 1. ti the lowest Cellular 
 Plants, and the simplest Protozoa, every 
 component cell of the aggregate mass that 
 springs from a single germ, being capable 
 of existing independently of the rest, may 
 be regarded as a distinct individual ; and 
 thus every act of growth which consists in 
 the multiplication of cells, makes a corre- 
 sponding augmentation in the number of 
 individuals. 2. Li many organisms of a 
 somewhat higher type, in which the fabric 
 of each complete individual is made up of 
 several component parts, we find the new 
 gro\\i:hs to be complete repetitions of that 
 from which they are put forth ; and thus 
 the composite organism presents the sem- 
 blance of a collection of individuals united 
 together, so that nothing ig needed but the 
 severance of the connection, to resolve it 
 into a number of separate individuals, each 
 perfect in itself The most characteristic 
 example of this is presented by the Hydra, 
 which is continually multiplying itself after 
 this fashion ; for the buds or ' geramEe ' 
 which it throws off are not merely struc- 
 turally but functionally complete (being 
 capable of seizing and digesting their own 
 prey), previously to thfeir detachment from 
 the parent. 3. In by far the larger propor- 
 
 tion of cases, on the other hand, the 
 'gemma' does not possess the complete 
 structure of the parent, at the time of its 
 detachment, but is endowed with the ca- 
 pacity for developing whatever may be 
 deficient. Thus, the bud of a Phanero- 
 gamic Plant possesses no roots, and its 
 capacity for independent existence depends 
 upon its power of evolving those organs. 
 On the other hand, the 'zoospore' of an 
 Ulva or a Conferva is nothing else than a 
 young cell, from which the entire organism 
 is to be evolved after it has been set free; 
 and, even in the ' bulbels ' of the Mar- 
 chantia, the advance is very little greater. 
 The 'bulbels' of certain Phanerogamic 
 plants, however, bear more resemblance to 
 ordinary buds. 4. In the preceding cases, 
 the organism which is developed by this 
 process resembles that from which it has 
 been put forth ; but there are many cases 
 in which the offset differs in a marked de- 
 gree from the stock, and evolves itself into 
 such a different form that the two would 
 not be supposed to have any mutual rela- 
 tion, if their affinity were not proved by a 
 knowledge of their history. Sometimes 
 we find that the new individual thus bud- 
 ded off is in every respect as complete as 
 that from which it proceeded, though de- 
 veloped upon a different type ; but in other 
 instances it is made up of little else than 
 a generative apparatus, provided with loco- 
 motive instruments to carry it to a distance, 
 its nutritive apparatus being very imperfect. 
 Of the first, we have an example in the 
 development of Medusas from the Hydroid 
 Polypes ; and of the second in the peculiar 
 subdivision of certain Annelida, hereafter 
 to be described. Now it is obvious that, in 
 this process, no agency is brought into 
 play that differs in any essential mode from 
 that which is concerned in the ordinary nu- 
 tritive operation. The multiplication of 
 individitals is performed exactly after the 
 same fashion as the extension of the parent 
 organism ; and the very same parts may 
 be regarded as organs belonging to it, or as 
 new individuals, according to their stage of 
 development, and the relation of depen- 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 135 
 
 dence which they still hold to it. The es- 
 sence of this operation is the multiplication 
 of cells by continual subdivision. 
 
 " We have now, on ihe other hand, to in- 
 quire into (he nature of the true Generative 
 process, by which the original germ is en- 
 dowed with its developmental capacity ; 
 and this we shall find to be of a character 
 precisely the opposite of the preceding. 
 For, vmder whatever ch-cumstances the 
 generative process is performed, it appears 
 essentially to consist in the re-union of the 
 contents of ti'JO cells* of which the germ, 
 which is the real commencement of a 
 ' new generation,' is the result. This pro- 
 cess is performed under the three following 
 conditions: 1. AJl the cells of the entire 
 aggregate, produced by the previous subdi- 
 vision, may be capable of thus uniting with 
 each other indiscriminately ; there being no 
 indication of any sexual distinction. This 
 is what we see in the simplest Cellular 
 plants. 2. All the component cells of each 
 organism may, in like manner, pair with 
 other cells, to produce fertile germs ; but 
 there are differences in the shares which 
 they respectively take in the process, which 
 indicate that their endowments are not pre- 
 cisely similar, and that a sexual distinction 
 exists between them, notwithstanding that 
 this is not indicated by any obvious struc- 
 tural character. This condition is seen in 
 the Zygneraa and its allies. 3. The gen- 
 erative power is restrictad to certain cells, 
 which are set apart from the rest of the 
 fabric, and destined to this purpose alone ; 
 and the endowments of the two sets are so 
 far different, that the one furnishes the 
 germ, whilst the other supplies the fertiliz- 
 ing influence ; whence the one set have 
 been appropriately designated ' germ-cells ' 
 and the other ' sperm-cells.' Such is the 
 case in all the higher Plants among which 
 a true generative apparatus has been dis- 
 covered ; and also throughout the Animal 
 kingdom. 
 
 * In vci-y rare instances, it is the re-union of the two 
 parts of ilie contents of the same cell, Avhich had pre- 
 viously tended to separate from each other, as if in the 
 process of subdivision. 
 
 " Thus, then, in the entire process in 
 which a new being originates, possessing 
 lUie structure and endowments with its 
 parent, two distinct classes of actions par- 
 tici])ate, — namely, the act of Generation, 
 by which the Germ is produced ; and the 
 act of Development, by which that germ is 
 evolved into the complete organism. The 
 former is an operation altogether sui generis ; 
 the latter is only a peculiar modification of 
 the Nutritive function; yet it may give 
 origin, as we have seen, to new individuals, 
 by the separation (natural or artificial) of 
 the parts which are capable of existing as 
 such. Now, between these two operations 
 there would seem to be a kind of antago- 
 nism. Whilst every act of Development 
 tends to diminish the ' germinal capacity,' 
 the act of Generation renews it ; and thus 
 the tree, which has continued to extend 
 itself by budding until its vital energy 
 is well-nigh spent, may develop flowers 
 and mature seeds from which a vigorous 
 progeny shall spring up. But the multipli- 
 cation of individuals does not directly de- 
 pend upon the act of generation alone ; it 
 may be accomplished by the detachment 
 of gemvice, whose production is a simple 
 act of development ; and the individuals 
 thus produced are sometimes similar, some- 
 times dissimilar, to the beings firom which 
 they sprang. When they are dissimilar, 
 however, the original type is always repro- 
 duced by an intervening act of generation ; 
 and the immediate products of the true gen- 
 erative act always resemble one another. 
 Hence the plu-ase, ' alternation of genera- 
 tions,' can only be legitimately employed 
 when the term generation is used to desig- 
 nate a succession of individuals, by what- 
 ever process they have originated ; an ap- 
 plication of it which cannot but lead to a 
 complete obliteration of the essential dis- 
 tinction which the attempt has been here 
 made to draw between the generative act 
 and the act of gemmation. For when it is 
 said that ' generation a produces genera- 
 tion B, which is dissimilar to itself, whilst 
 generation b produces generation c, which 
 is dissimilar to itself, but which returns to 
 
136 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 the form of generation a,' it is entirely left 
 out of consideration that generation a pro- 
 duces (the so-called) generation b by a 
 process of gemmation ; whilst the process 
 by which generation b produces generation 
 c is one of true generation. So generation 
 c developes d by gemmation, which resem- 
 bles B ; and d, by a true generative act, 
 produces e, which resembles a and c. This 
 distinction, although it may at first sight 
 appear merely verbal, will yet be found of 
 fundamental importance in the appreciation 
 of the true relations of these processes, and 
 of their resulting products. So, in the 
 Author's opinion, the application of the 
 term ' generation ' to the entire product of 
 the development of any germ originating 
 
 in a generative act, whether that product 
 consist of a single individual, or of a suc- 
 cession, ■wLU be found much more appropri- 
 ate, and more conducive to the end in view, 
 than the indiscriminate application of it to 
 each succession, whether produced by gem- 
 mation or by sexual re-union. It is of 
 great importance to the due comprehension 
 of certain phenomena of Reproduction, 
 which will come under consideration in the 
 Animal kingdom, that the relations of the 
 products of these two processes should be 
 rightly appreciated; and this appreciation 
 of them wiU, it is believed, be Lest gained 
 by a careful inquiry into the phenomena 
 of Reproduction in the Vegetable king- 
 dom." 
 
 EXAMINATIONS RESUMED. 
 
 GLANDULAR APPARATUS. 
 
 Q. Describe the structure of a glandular body. — A. 
 It consists of a collection of tubes, more or less convo- 
 luted, united by cellular substance into masses of a 
 rounded form, constituting a lobule ; each lobule has 
 a separate investment of membrane ; and the whole 
 aggregate of lobules is furnished with a general mem- 
 branous envelope or capsule. Each gland presents a 
 complex arrangement of nimierous arteries, veins, 
 nerves, and Ij-mphatics, and most of them are provided 
 witli an excretoiy duct, which conducts the secretion 
 prepared in the gland. 
 
 Q. ^^^lat glands are supposed to be destitute of a 
 secretory duct? — A. The pineal gland, thjioid, thy- 
 mus, and renal capsides. 
 
 Q. What function do most of the glands perform ? — 
 A. Their function is tvvo-fold, namely, the separation 
 of some material fi-om the eii-cidating fluid, wliich 
 would otherwise prove mjurious to the system, and the 
 elaboration of a product destined to renovate the tis- 
 sues. 
 
 OF THE ABDOMEN. 
 
 Q. How is the cavity of the abdomen bounded ? — 
 A. Anteriorly, by the diaphragm; posteriorly, by the 
 pelris ; superiorly, by a portion of the vertebra ; inte- 
 riorly and laterally, by abdominal muscles. 
 
 Q. Into how many regions is the abdomen divided ? 
 — A. Into nine, as follows : right and left hj^pochon- 
 driac ; right and left lumbar ; right and left iliac ; epi- 
 gastric, umbihcal, and hipogastric. 
 
 PERITONEUM. 
 
 Q. Why is the peritoneum called " serous mem- 
 
 brane?" — A. In consequence of the serous or wateiy 
 fluid with which its surface is constantly moistened. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of serous membranes? — 
 A. The same as that of the areolar tissue, haring a 
 very smooth and glistening inner sm-face, which is 
 covered with a layer of cells ; constituting a distinct 
 tissue, termed epithelium. This is in contact with the 
 primary membrane, thus isolating it fi-om the tissues 
 beneath. Sub-adj acent to this is a layer of condensed 
 areolai' tissue, wliich constitutes the chief tliickness of 
 the serous membrane, and confers upon it its strength 
 and elasticity; this gradually passes into that baser 
 variety, by which the membrane is attached to the part 
 it lines, and which is commonly known as the sub- 
 serous tissue. A fibrous tissue enters into the compo- 
 sition of the membrane itself, and its filaments inter- 
 lace in a beautiful network, which confers upon it 
 equal elasticit)- in every direction. 
 
 Q. What is the purpose of this membrane ? — A. 
 To facihtate the movements of the contained organs, 
 by forming smooth surfaces which shall fi-eely ghde 
 over each other. 
 
 Q. What efiect does the gastric fluid have upon the 
 food? — A. It is supposed to have the propertj' of dis- 
 sohing the albuminous and gelatinous constituents of 
 the food. 
 
 Q. What is the real solvent of the gastric fliud ? — 
 A. Either hydrochleric, acetic, or lactic acid. 
 
 Q. Is not the solvent action of the gastric fluid aided 
 by some mechanical means ? — A. Yes. By the move- 
 ments of the walls of the stomach, which are produced 
 by the successive contractions and relaxations of their 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 137 
 
 muscular fibres, the contents of the stomach are thus 
 kept in a state of constant agitation, which is considered 
 favorable to their chemical solution. 
 
 Q. Docs absorption of nutritious matter take place 
 in the stomach? — A. Yes. A portion of the nutri- 
 tious matter dissolved by the gastric fluid is at once 
 absorbed into the blood-vessels of the stomach, and 
 never passes into the intestinal tube, nor into the special 
 lacteal system of vessels. 
 
 Q. What term is appHed to the food after its reduc- 
 tion, in the stomach, to a pulpy mass ? — A. Chyme. 
 
 Q. Gas is frequently evolved in the stomach and 
 intestines dm-ing digestion : how do you account for 
 this ? — A. It is owing to a disturbed or morbid condi- 
 tion of that process, and by no means a necessary at- 
 tendant upon healthy digestion. 
 
 Q. Does violent exercise immediately after a feed 
 tend to retai-d the formation of chyme ? — A. It does. 
 The circumstances most favorable to perfect digestion 
 are, a short period of rest, followed by gentle exercise. 
 
 Q. Does any portion of the food ever pass unchanged 
 through the pylorus along with the chyme ? — A. Yes. 
 Whole oats are frequently found in the horse's excre- 
 ment. 
 
 INTESTIXES. 
 
 Q. The aliment now being converted into chyme, 
 and having passed the pylorus, what becomes of it ? 
 — A. It enters the duodenum. 
 
 Q. Having entered the duodenum, with what does 
 the chyme mingle? — A. The biliary and pancreatic 
 secretions. 
 
 Q. "V^Tiat effect do they have on the gastric secretion 
 and the ch)-me ? — A. The biharj- and pancreatic secre- 
 tions are supposed to contain an excess of alliali ; tliis 
 neutralizes the acid of the gastric juice, so that there is 
 no further solution of albuminous compounds, but the 
 conversion of starch into sugar, which was interrujjted 
 in the stomach, now recommences. 
 
 Q. What are the uses of the bile ? — A. The chief, 
 uses of the bile appear to be those of a chemical agent 
 promoting the decomposition of the chyme, and also 
 etimulatmg the secretion of mucus, and the peristaltic 
 action of the intestines. 
 
 Q. What eflect has the pancreatic juice on chyme or 
 the elements of digestion ? — A. It forms an emulsion 
 with oil and fat. 
 
 Q. The ch)-me, having been acted on by the preced- 
 ing secretions, what name is then given to it ? — A. 
 Chyle. 
 
 Q. Describe the properties of chyle? — A. If chyle 
 be taken from the thoracic duct of an animal a few 
 homrs after it has taken food, it has very much the 
 appearance of cream, being a thick fluid of an opaque 
 white color, without smell, and having a sKghtly acid 
 taste, accompanied by a perceptible sweetness. It 
 restores the blue color of Htmus, previously reddened 
 by acetic acid, and appears, therefore, to contain a pre- 
 ponderance of alkali. When subjected to microscopic 
 examination, chyle is found to contain a midtitude of 
 18 
 
 globules, of smaller diameter than those of the blood, 
 and corresponding in size and appearance to those of 
 miUv. Li about ten minutes after it is removed from 
 the thoracic duct, it coagulates into a stifl" jelly, which 
 in the com-se of twenty-fom- hours separates into two 
 parts, pro\iding a fii'm and contracted coagulum, sur- 
 roimded by a transparent colorless fluid. 
 
 Q. What ai'e the principal ingredients of chyle? — 
 A. A large proportion of albumen, a smaller one of 
 fibrin ; a fatty substance or emulsion, which gives to 
 chyle the appearance of milk ; and several salts, such 
 as carbonate of potassa, mmiate of potassa, and pro- 
 phospate of iron. 
 
 Q. What change does the chyle undergo in its pas- 
 sage along the various vessels ? — A. Its resemblance 
 to blood increases in each of the successive stages of its 
 progress towards the heart and lungs. 
 
 Q. How are the chemical changes, and the contents 
 of the intestines propelled through the tract of the 
 alimentary canal ? — A. By the peristaltic action of tlie 
 muscular coat of the same. 
 
 Q. What becomes of the chyle after it has been pre- 
 pared in the duodenum and fii'st intestines ? — A. It 
 is received by absorption into the lacteals, and by them 
 conveyed to the thoracic duct, which transmits it to 
 large veins in the vicinity of the heart. (See distribu- 
 tion of Ipnphatics.) 
 
 Q. What do you understand by the " absorbent sys- 
 tem?" — A. The absorbent system of vessels consists 
 of two principal divisions, wliich may be compared to 
 two sets of roots proceeding fi'om a common trunk ; 
 one of these commences upon the walls of the intes- 
 tmes, and is termed the " lacteal " system ; whilst 
 the other takes its origin in various parts of the sub- 
 stance of the organism at lai-ge, especially in the skin 
 and subcutaneous textures, and is known as the " lym- 
 phatic " system. 
 
 Q. Where do the lacteals most numerously abound ? 
 
 — ^. In the small intestines, below the point at which 
 the Uver and pancreas discharge their secretions. 
 
 Q. Where do the lacteals commence ? — A. Near 
 the free extremities of the villi of the intestines. 
 
 Q. In what way do they commence ? — A. It was 
 formerly supposed that they commenced by orifices 
 upon the internal smrface of the intestine ; but Carpen- 
 ter, and other physiologists, contend that the lacteal 
 vessels form loops by anastomosis with each other, so 
 that they have no free extremity. 
 
 Q. AVhat are the fimctions of the large intestines ? 
 
 — A. They are engaged in the conveyance and expul- 
 sion of feculent matter, and there are certain changes 
 which take place in their contents, in aid of the object 
 of nutrition, the exact nature of which has never been 
 clearly determined. According to the best authority, it 
 appears that some important changes are effected in 
 that enlarged portion of the canal, termed coecum, and 
 which has, by some, been regarded as a kind of sup- 
 plementary stomach, in which fresh chvine is formed, 
 and fi-esh nutriment extracted from the materials that 
 have passed through the small intestines. The large 
 
138 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 intestines also extract nutriment from their contents, 
 ■which is proved by the fact that nutritious matter in- 
 jected into them has been known to support life for a 
 certain time. 
 
 SPLEEN. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the spleen ? — A. It 
 serves as a kind of diverticulum, to relieve the vessels 
 of the digestive vescera when they are compressed by 
 undue accummulation of the contents of then' canities, 
 or when they are congested by obstruction to the flow 
 of blood, through the hver or heart. It may also be 
 considered as a lymphatic gland, for, in some instances 
 in which animals have been allowed to survive longest 
 after removal of the spleen, the lymphatic glands of 
 the vicinity have been found greatly enlarged and clus- 
 tered together, so as neai-Iy to equal the original spleen 
 in volume ; hence, in such case we infer that its func- 
 tion must be similar to that of the enlarged Ijmphatic 
 
 Ln-EK. 
 
 Q. What comprises the principal bulk of the hver 
 — A. It is made up of a vast number of minute lobules 
 of irregular form, but about the average size of a mil- 
 let seed ; and each of them contains the elements of 
 which the entire organ is composed, viz., a plexus of 
 biliary ducts connected with their main trunks, and a 
 mass of biliary cells ; each of which are connected in 
 like manner with the three blood-vessels which unite 
 to the circulation of this organ. 
 
 Q. What are the vessels of the hver? — A. The 
 hepatic artery, vena portse, and hepatic veins, to which 
 may be added the excretory ducts and absorbents. 
 
 Q. Of what use is the hepatic artery ? — A. It is the 
 nutrient artery of the Hver. 
 
 Q. Of what use is the vena portoe ? — A. It acts both 
 as a vein and arteiy : as a vein, it receives the blood 
 firom most of abdominal viscera ; as an artery, it rami- 
 fies through the hver for the secretion of bQe. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the hepatic veins? ---.4. They 
 return blood to the vena cava. 
 
 Q. What is the limction of the hver ? — A. It is an 
 organ of excretion, designed to remove from the circu- 
 lating fluid that portion of the products of disintegra- 
 tion, of which the principal component of the urinary 
 is the largest. 
 
 Q. Into what substance is the greater part of the 
 excrementitious matter converted ? — A. BUine. 
 
 KIDNEYS. 
 
 Q. What is the embryotic condition of the kidneys ? 
 A. The kidneys are preceded in the embryo by a sub- 
 stance first noticed by Wolff, and called after him the 
 Wolffian bodies, or false kidneys, which originally ex- 
 tend along the spine fi'om the heart to the end of the 
 intestines ; but they afterwards become shorter, and 
 after a time diminish by absorption, and wholly dis- 
 appear. 
 
 Q. TVTiat is the function of the kidneys ? — A. Their 
 principal ftmction is to separate from the blood certain 
 matters which would be injm-ious to it if retained. 
 
 Q. What does the secretory surface of the kidneys 
 consist of? — A. It is composed of epithehal cells 
 which line the tubuh lu-inifera, which draw the pecuhar 
 elements of the urinary excretion from the vascular 
 plexus wliich surrounds the exterior of the tubes, car- 
 rying ofl" the same to their terminations in the ureter. 
 
 Q. What other arrangement is provided within the 
 kidneys for the elimination of the superfluous fluid of 
 the blood ? — A. K process of transudation takes place 
 by the ftmction of malpighian bodies, whose thin- walled 
 capillaries allow the transudation of water to take 
 place, under a certain pressure, into the tubuli urinifera. 
 
 SUPRA-RENAL CAPSULES. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the supra-renal cap- 
 sules ? — A. Their function has liitherto been involved 
 in obscurity, and was supposed to be identical with 
 other glands destitute of ducts or outlets ; but, lately, 
 M. Brown Seguard has demonstrated that they play 
 a very important part in the nervous system of the 
 horse. 
 
 T.VSA DEFEEENTIA. 
 
 Q. What is the ftmction of the vas deferens ? — A. 
 It is the excretory duct of the testicle, and conveys the 
 semen to the vesiculse seminales. 
 
 The author, instead of introducing examinations on 
 the reproductive organs, has thought it best to substi- 
 tute the opinions of that eminent ph}-isologist. Dr. 
 Carpenter; and therefore the reader's attention is now 
 directed to " Physiological considerations on the re- 
 production of organized beings." 
 
REMARKS AND EXAMINATIONS ON THE EYE. 
 
 The parts which compose the eye are 
 divided into external and internal. The 
 external parts are : First, the eyelashes, or 
 cUia, which, in the horse, can scai-cely be 
 reckoned more than one, there being very 
 few hairs in the under eyelid. Secondly, 
 the eyelids, or palpebrse, upper and under : 
 where they join outwardly, it is termed the 
 external canthus, and inwardly toward the 
 nose, the internal canthus : they cover and 
 defend the eyes. The cartilaginous margin 
 or rim of the eyelid, from wliich tlie eye- 
 lashes proceed, is named tarsus. In the 
 tarsus and internal surface of the eyelid 
 there are small glands, which secrete a fluid, 
 to prevent friction of the eye and its lids, 
 and facUitate motion. Tliirdly, the lachiy- 
 mal gland, which is placed on the upper part 
 of the eyelid toward the external canthus ; 
 from this gland the tears are secreted, and 
 conveyed to the inner surface of the vipper 
 eyelid by several minute ducts, or canals, 
 named lacluymal ducts. There is another 
 small body, having a glandular appearance, 
 in the inner corner of the eye ; on each side 
 of which there are small orifices which are 
 called puncta lachrymaha: these are the 
 mouths or openings of two small canals, 
 which, joining together, form a membranous 
 tube ; and this, passing through a smaU open- 
 ing in the bone, extends to the lower part 
 of the nostril, where its termination may be 
 distinctly seen in the horse. As the lachry- 
 mal gland is constantly forming tears, it 
 must be obvious that some contrivance is 
 necessary to convey them off, and prevent 
 them flowing over the cheek : this purpose 
 is answered by the canal just described. 
 
 When any irritating matter is applied to 
 the eye, the tears are formed too abundantly 
 to be carried off in this way ; they then 
 flow over the cheek. In the human eye, 
 
 the puncta lachrymalia terminate in a small 
 sac, from which the lachrymal duct proceeds : 
 this is not the case in the horse. Li the 
 inner corner of the horse's eye is placed a 
 body commonly termed the haw, no resem- 
 blance to which is to be found in the hu- 
 man eye. The horse has the power, by 
 means of the muscles of the eye, to biing 
 the haw completely over its siu-face ; it 
 serves, therefore, as a second eyelid, and 
 effectually wipes off any dust, hay, or seeds, 
 or other matter which may have fallen upon 
 the eye. The conjunctive membrane, or 
 tunica conjunctiva, lines the inner surface 
 of the eyelids, and covers the white part of 
 the globe of the eye. This membrane has 
 numerous blood-vessels, which are conspicu- 
 ous when it is inflamed. The bulb or globe 
 of the eye is composed of several coats and 
 humors. The transparent cornea, which, 
 in the horse, forms the front part of the eye, 
 comprehends a larger part of the globe 
 than in the human subject ; on removing 
 this cornea, a fluid, which is named the 
 aqueous humor, escapes, and the iris ap- 
 pears. The iris is a. muscular curtain, 
 having a hole in the centre, which is termed 
 the pupU. This divides the fore part of the 
 eye into two parts, named chambers, wliich 
 are occupied by the aqueous humor. The 
 pupU is of a dark bluish cast ; is of an oval, 
 or rather of an oblong, form. The iris regu- 
 lates the quantity of light that is required 
 to pass through the pupil. For this purpose, 
 it is composed of two sets of muscular 
 fibres : by means of one the pupil is en- 
 larged, and by the other it is diminished. 
 Thus, if the pupil is first examined in the 
 stable, where there is a moderate light, and 
 immediately after in the sunshine, it will be 
 found quite altered; being so small, in a 
 strong light, as to be nearly closed. On re- 
 
140 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 moving the iris, the second humor, or crys- 
 talline lens, appeEirs : this is retained in its 
 situation by a transparent membrane, named 
 its capsule, between which and the lens is a 
 minute quantity of fluid. The third humor 
 of the eye is the A^treous. This humor is not 
 contained in one general sac, but in numer- 
 ous minute and perfectly transparent cells, 
 and resembles pure water : tliis humor 
 serves to produce a small degree of refrac- 
 tion iji the rays of light, and occupies and 
 distends all the posterior part of the globe 
 of the eye. The next coat to the conjmictive 
 is the sclerotica, or white of the eye, a 
 strong, thick membrane, which extends 
 from the transparent cornea to the optic 
 nerve. The next coat to the sclerotic is the 
 choroid. This is a delicate and very vascu- 
 lar membrane. In the human eye it appears 
 of a black color, and it is this which causes 
 the pupU of the human eye to appear black ; 
 but the choroid coat of the horse's eye is 
 variegated in color ; in some parts black, in 
 others blue, and in others green. The next 
 coat is the retina : this is a delicate expan- 
 sion of the optic nerve over the choroid 
 coat, which it accompanies to the margin 
 of the crystalline lens, and there terminates. 
 The use of the retina is to receive certain 
 impressions made by the light reflected from 
 objects, so as to produce in the mind an 
 idea of their figure and color; the optic 
 nerve being the medium of communication 
 between the retina and brain. From the 
 above explanation of the mechanism of the 
 eye, it wiU readily appear that many cir- 
 
 cumstances may occur to render vision im- 
 perfect, or to destroy it altogether. K the 
 transparent cornea, for example, became 
 white, light could not pass through it, and 
 the aiaimal woidd be blind, however perfect 
 the other parts of the eye might be. The 
 cornea may be either too convex or too flat; 
 in the former case, causing the animal to be 
 near-sighted ; in the latter, producing an in- 
 distinctness of vision with respect to objects 
 that are near. The iris may, in consequence 
 of disease, become fixed, or lose its power 
 of motion ; in which case, the pupU would 
 be always of the same size, and the animal 
 would not have the power of adapting it 
 to the various distances or objects; or, as 
 sometimes happens, the pupil may become 
 quite closed, by which light would be per- 
 fectly excluded from the retina. Supposing 
 the cornea and iris to be healthy, the crys- 
 talline lens, or its capstile, may become 
 opaque, and thereby cause total blindness. 
 But in this part, as in the cornea, we meet 
 with different degrees of opacity : some- 
 times it is very slight, the pupil appearing 
 of a lighter color, and unusually large : in 
 this state, the pupU is said to look duU or 
 muddy, which causes the horse to start ; 
 but when the opacity is complete, it consti- 
 tutes the disease termed cataract. There 
 is another disease, to which the reader's at- 
 tention is called ; it is named gutta serena, 
 or amaurosis. This disease is known by 
 the pupU being unusually large or open, 
 and by its continuing so when the eye is 
 exposed to a sfrong light. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS OF THE ORGANS OF SIGHT AND THEIR APPENDAGES. 
 
 Q. Where are the eyes located? — A. Within the 
 orbits. 
 
 Q. By what foraminse is each orbit perforated? — A. 
 By the optic foramen. 
 
 Q. From ■whence is the lining membrane of the orbit 
 derived ? — A. From the dura mater and periostemn. 
 
 Q. Enumerate the appendages of the eye. — A. The 
 eyeHds, eyelashes, muscles of the eyelids, tarsal carti- 
 lages, meibomian glands, timica conjunctiva, membrana 
 nictitans, laclnymal gland, puncta laclir}TnaHa, lachrj'- 
 mal sac, ductus ad nasum, and the muscles of the eye- 
 balL 
 
 EYELIDS. 
 
 Q. "What parts do the eyeUds occupy ? — A. The cir- 
 cumference of the orbits and front of the eyeball. 
 
 Q. What are the eyehds composed of? — ^. In com- 
 position they are cuticular, muscular, cartilaginous, and 
 membranous ; also glandular, vascular, and nervous. 
 
 Q. What muscle enters into the composition of the 
 eye? — A. The orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 Q. How are the Uds separated ? — A. By a transverse 
 fissure, bounded by the angles or canthi of the eye. 
 
 Q. What is, attached to the superior or temporal 
 angle ? — A. The tarsal ligament. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIV. 
 
 HINT) EXTEEMITIES. 
 
 to'. Tensor vagina. 
 
 k'. Rectus. 
 
 o'. Vastus externus. 
 
 q'. Flexor metatarsi. 
 
 )•'. r. Gastrocnemius internus. 
 
 s'. " externus. 
 
 t'. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 «'. Insertion of the gastrocnemius. 
 
 »'. Flexor metatarsi. 
 
 x'. Extensor pedis. 
 
 ^. y\ Extensors. 
 
 u. V. Tendo perforans et perforatus. 
 
 K'. K'. Abductors tibialis. 
 
 J'. J'. Triceps. 
 
 v. I'. Adductors. 
 
 Sf. Hoof. 
 
 5, 5. Saphena vein. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament. 
 1)'. (Off-hind leg.) Peroneus. 
 z. Suspensory ligament. 
 
 FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 J". Pectoralis magnus. 
 m". n". Triceps extensor brachii. 
 o". Pectoralis transversah.'!. 
 p". p". Flexor metacai'pi externus. 
 gr". " " mcdius. 
 
 r". " " internus. 
 
 s". Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 u". (At the upper pai-t of the figure.) Levator humeri. 
 
 u". u". u". u". V. (Beneath the olecranon and carpus.) Flexors perforans and per- 
 foratus. 
 x". Extensor pedis. 
 y". y. Extensor suffraginis. 
 z". Suspensory ligament. 
 i,: The hoof. 
 4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein. 
 
 6. Radial vein. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 141 
 
 Q. AVhat is fixed to the inferior angle? — A. The 
 tendon of the orbicularis. 
 
 Q. From whence is the loose portion of sldn, enter- 
 ing into the composition of the upper lid, derived ? — A. 
 It is a prolongation of the skin covering the forehead. 
 
 Q. From whence is that of the lower lid derived? — 
 A. From the mtegimients of the face. 
 
 Q. How are the internal sm-faces of the lids shaped ? 
 
 — A. Into concavities which adapt them to the convex- 
 ity of the globe of the eye. 
 
 Q. By w^hat membrane ai-o the Kds lined? — A. By 
 the conjunetirial. 
 
 T.UIS.U. C.UlTIL.iGES. 
 
 Q. "What are the tarsal cartilages ? — A. They enter 
 into the substance of the borders of the Kds, imparting 
 to them both fii-mness and elasticity. 
 
 Q. Describe the tai-sal cartilages ? — A. The superior 
 cartilage is broader and more convex than the inferior ; 
 they correspond in shape and size to their respective 
 lids ; they are convex outwardly and concave inwardly, 
 and are inserted into the rims of the orbits. 
 
 Q. What is the texture of the tarsus? — A. Their 
 texture is tibro-cartilaginous. 
 
 MEIBOMIAN GLANDS. 
 
 Q. Describe the meibomian glands ? — A. They have 
 the appearance of white follicular bodies, vertically 
 ranged m parallel lines ; they vary both in caUbre and 
 length, and are m the upper rather than the lower hd. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the meibomian glands ? — 
 A. To secrete a fluid which guai'ds against friction 
 between the eye and its appendages. 
 
 TUNICA CONJUNCTIVA. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the tunica conjunctiva ? 
 
 — A. It is the lining membrane of the eyehds, mem- 
 brana nictitans, caruncula lachrymalis, puncta lachr)'- 
 maKa, and is reflected to the globe of the eye. 
 
 Q. Describe the conjunetirial surface ? — A. The adhe- 
 rent one is rough, lax, and flocculent ; the outer surface 
 is smooth, glossy, and humid with secretion. 
 
 Q. What are the peculiarities in the organization of 
 the conjunctiva ? — A. It is a continuous membrane, yet 
 varies in textm-e, as follows : 1st. That portion which 
 gives a covering to the conjunctiva palpebralis is 
 higlily organized with blood-vessels, and is often tinged 
 a deep red color. 2d. The conjunctiva sclerotica is not 
 60 highly organized, yet has a few straggling vessels of 
 larger caHbre than those of the former, and its textm-e 
 is more dense. 3d. The conjunctiva cornea? is thin 
 and transparent, more of a homy textui'e, and has no 
 ajjpearance of vascularity. 
 
 MEMBRANA NICTIT.UCS. 
 Q. TlHiat is the common name for the above mem- 
 brane ? — A. The haw. 
 
 Q. What is its structure ? — A. Cartilaginous. 
 
 Q. What is its situation ? — A. It is located behind 
 
 the inferior canthus, between the eyeball and side of 
 the orbit. 
 
 Q. What is its figm-e ? — A. It approaches that of an 
 extended triangle, of wliich the short side is turned 
 forwards, and the lengthened angle backwards. 
 
 Q. Describe the anterior part ? — A. It is thin and 
 elastic, and bounded by a crescentic edge, tei'minating 
 in two salient angles ; it increases in substance, but 
 grows naiTow posteriorly, and there ends in an obtuse 
 conical point, which appears in the adipose tissue at the 
 bottom of the orbit. 
 
 Q. What is the form of its smfaces ? — A. Inwardly 
 concave ; outwardly convex. 
 
 Q. What is the body of the nictitating membrane 
 clothed with ? — A. By a portion of conjimctirial mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the membrana nictitans? 
 — P. To protect the eyeball, in the removal of foreign 
 bodies from its surface. 
 
 L.iCimYMjil. APPARATUS. 
 Q. What parts compose the lachmyTal apparatus? — 
 A. The lachi-ymal gland, caruncula lachrymalis, lachi-y- 
 mal puncta and conduits, lachr)-mal sac, and ductus ad 
 nasum. 
 
 LACHETJIAL CLASV. 
 
 Q. Where is the lachrj-mal gland situated? — .4. In 
 a depression, beneath the process of the orbital arch. 
 
 Q. What are its coverings, and with what is it in 
 contact ? — A. It is covered by the common aponeurotic 
 lining of the orbit ; it is in contact with the levator pal- 
 pebrae, and is enveloped m fat and cellular membrane. 
 
 Q. What is its form? — A. It is irregular, slightly 
 convex superiorly; inclining to the concave iuferiorUy. 
 It is a conglomerate gland, constituted of many lobules. 
 
 Q. Have the lobules any further organization ? — A, 
 Yes, they are composed of minute granules. 
 
 Q. What vessels do the granules receive and what 
 springs from them ? — A. They receive the terminating 
 ramifications of the supplying arteries, and from them 
 spring the radicles of the excretory ducts. 
 
 Q. What do the radicles terminate in, and where is 
 their outlet? — A. The radicles unite ■nith one another 
 into a set of tubes, which open upon the conjunetirial 
 Kning of the upper h'd m the som-ce of seven risible 
 orifices near its superior angle; this is their outlet. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the lachrjTnal gland ? — 
 A. To secrete the tears. 
 
 Q. What becomes of the superfluous teai's ? — A. 
 They either fall over the lower Hds, or pass into the 
 lachrvTnal sac ; from thence, by the ductus, to their out- 
 lets -Nrithin the nostrils, at theii- inferior parts. 
 
 CUIUNCULA LACHEYM.U,IS. 
 
 Q. What is the caruncula lachrjinalis ? — A. It is a 
 small eminence, lodged within the inferior canthus, be- 
 tween the eyeball and Hds. 
 
 Q. What is its use ? — A. It secretes a light yellow 
 unctuous matter, with which the fine hairs on its surface 
 
142 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 being coated it detains any small foreign bodies that 
 may float in the laehrj-mal secretion ; it also directs 
 the latter fluid into the puncta. 
 
 LACHRYMAL PUNCTA AND CONDUITS. 
 
 Q. What are the puncta lachrymalia ? — A. Two small 
 orifices situated on the inward margins of the two lids — 
 superior and inferior — near the radix of the caruncle. 
 
 Q. What do the puncta terminate in? — A. The 
 lacha-jTnal conduits. 
 
 Q. AVhat is theu' situation ? — A. Within the sub- 
 stance of the eyelids. 
 
 Q. How are conduits formed ? — A. A minute carti- 
 laginous circle surrounds them, and they are lined by 
 conjunctiml membrane. 
 
 Q. What do the conduits terminate in? — A. The 
 lachrymal sac. 
 
 LACHRYMAL SAC. 
 
 Q. Where is the lachrj-mal sac situated ? — A. AVith- 
 in the depression which leads into the channel of the 
 lachr)-mal bone, behind and below the small eminence 
 upon the orbital ridge of that bone. 
 
 Q. Describe the sac and its connections ? — A. It is 
 an oblong membranous bag; its front is crossed by 
 fibres of the orbicularis ; it has also a connection with 
 the tendon of that muscle. The posterior part of the 
 sac adheres fii-mly to the lachrjinal bone. It is com- 
 posed of a dense, wliite, fibrous membrane, furnished 
 with a lining from the conjuncti^'ia. 
 
 Q. By what is this sac perforated? — A. By the 
 lachi-ymal conduits. 
 
 Q. AVhat does it open into ? — A. Into the ductus ad 
 nasum. 
 
 Q. What is the function of this sac? — A. It is a 
 reservoir into wliich the tears flow from the lachrymal 
 conduits, and from thence pass into the ductus ad 
 nasum. 
 
 DUCTUS AD NASUM. 
 
 Q. AVhat is the ductus ad nasum ? — A. It is a long 
 membranous canal, commencing at the contracted por- 
 tion of the lachrjinal sac, and running ^^ith the groove 
 thi'ough the lachrjTnal bone ; then along a canal in the 
 superior maxillary bone, between it and the anterior 
 tiu'binated bone ; terminating at the inner and inferior 
 part of the nostril. 
 
 Q. What is the organization of the ductus ? — A. It 
 appears to be a continuation of the membrane com- 
 posing the lachrymal sac, wliich is strengthened by a 
 fibrous sheath ; its internal surface is probably mucous, 
 ■which protects it from the action of the tears, or 
 lachrymal secretion. 
 
 Q. Describe the course of the tears, or lachi-j-mal 
 secretion? — A. They are secreted by the lachrjinal 
 gland, and are poured by its excretorj' ducts over the 
 surface of the eyeball ; the puncta lachrj-malia absorb 
 them ; they are then conveyed by the lachrj-mal ducts 
 to the lachi'jTnal sac ; and through the ductus ad nasum 
 pass into the nostril. 
 
 THE EYEBALL AND ITS COATS. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the globe of the eye ? — A. 
 Nearly of a spherical figure. 
 
 Q. Of what is the globe of the eye composed? — A. 
 Of membranes, or coats, fiUed with humors or fluids, 
 which preserve its form. 
 
 Q. How many coats has the eye ? — A. Five : the 
 sclerotic, choroid, retuia, cornea, and iris. 
 
 Q. Does not the tunica conjunctivia enter into the 
 composition of the membranes of the eye? — A. Yes: 
 it may be considered as common to both. 
 
 Q. Where does it adhere most closely ? — A. Over 
 the cornea. 
 
 SCLEROTIC COAT. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the sclerotica ? — A. It bounds 
 the form of the eye, protects and supports the parts 
 within. 
 
 Q. What are its perceivable boundaries ? — A. It ex- 
 tends from the optic nerve to the cornea. 
 
 Q. What is mserted mto it posteriorly? — A. The 
 fleshy part of the retractor muscle. 
 
 Q. What is inserted into its anterior margins ? — A. 
 The tendons of the foiu: recti. 
 
 COKNE.V. 
 
 Q. What is the cornea ? — A. The transparent, ante- 
 rior part of the globe of the eye. 
 
 Q. How does its form compare with the sclerotica ? — 
 P. It is more convex. 
 
 Q. What covers its convex surface ? — A. The con- 
 junctiria. 
 
 Q. What is its sti-ucture ? — A. Laminated. 
 
 Q. 'WTiat is the iris ? — A . It is a circular membrane, 
 with an irregular central cavity, in the anterior chamber 
 of the eye. 
 
 Q. What is its central perforation called ? — A. The 
 pupQ. 
 
 Q. How is the periphery of the pupU bounded ? — A. 
 By several dark, colored, glandular bodies, termed cor- 
 pora nigra. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the iris ? — A. By contracting 
 it excludes all superfluous rays of light, and by expand- 
 ing admits thr-ough the pupU all that pass thi-ough the 
 cornea. 
 
 Q. What is the structm-e of the iris? — A. It is a 
 fibrous membrane, dirisable into tivo layers, pro\ided 
 with blood-vessels and nerves. 
 
 CHOROID COAT. 
 
 Q. What is the choroid coat? — -4. It is a dark- 
 colored membrane of deUcate texture, located immedi- 
 ately beneath the sclerotica. 
 
 Q. AVhat are its boundaries? — A. It extends from 
 around the termination of the optic nerve as far for- 
 ward as the edge of the cornea, and ends in the ciliary 
 circle. 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 143 
 
 Q. How is the choroid coat connected with the 
 sclerotica? — A. By cellular membrane. 
 
 Q. What is remarkable at its outer edge? — A. It is 
 throMTi into folds, called ciliary ch'cle and processes. 
 
 Q. What is the color of the choroides ? — A. Extern- 
 ally, its whole surface is black f internally, the anterior 
 parts are black, and the posterior half is of a brilliant 
 variegated green. 
 
 Q. What is the black part termed ? — A. Pigmentum 
 nigrum. 
 
 Q. What name is given to the variegated part ? — A. 
 Tapetum lucidiun. 
 
 Q. What difference do we observe in the pigment of 
 the choroid siu-faces ? — A. The inner layer is thicker 
 and more consistent than that found on the outer 
 surface. 
 
 RETINA. 
 
 Q. yVhat is the retina ? — A. It is the third or inner- 
 most tunic of the eye. It cannot, however, be con- 
 sidered as a tunic, for it pervades the interior of the 
 globular expansion without contracting any adhesions 
 until it has reached the corpus ciHare. 
 
 Q. How is the retina formed ? — A. The optic nerve, 
 hanng reached the inner and inferior part of the globe 
 of the eye, enters the sclerotic and choroid coats, and 
 in its passage thi'ough them its diameter contracts • 
 having arrived at the inner part of the globe, the neiTe 
 forms an eminence, from the circumference ofwliich 
 issues radiating fibres which form the retina. 
 
 Q. How is the retina sustained in this state of globu- 
 lar expansion? — A. By the humors of the eye, which 
 keep it in contact ■nith the choroides. 
 
 Q. The retina having radiated on the interior of the 
 globe, where is it inserted ? — A. Into the corpus ciharc. 
 
 HUMORS OF THE EYE. 
 
 Q. Of how many humors does the eye consist, and 
 what are their names ? — A. Of three ; they are called 
 aqueous, ciystalline, and v-itreous humors. 
 
 Q. What parts of the eye do they occupy? — A. 
 They occupy in succession the spaces termed anterior, 
 middle, and posterior chambers of the eye. 
 
 AQUEOUS HUMOR. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the aqueous hiunor? — A. It 
 transmits the rays of light, and aids the fi-ee motions of 
 the iiis. 
 
 Q. What are its boundaries ? — A. It fills the interval 
 between the cornea and crystalline lens. 
 
 Q. Describe the aqueous humor. — A. It is a bright 
 limpid fluid, and in properties bears some resemblance 
 to the vitreous. 
 
 Q. What is the composition of both these humors ? 
 — A. They are composed of albumen, gelatine, and 
 miuriate of soda, held in solution by an aqueous men- 
 struum. 
 
 <^. How is this fluid secreted ? — A. By secretion from 
 the transparent walls of its capsule. 
 
 CRYST.U.LINE LENS. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the crystalline lens? — A. It 
 concentrates the rays of Ught, so as to make a distinct 
 image in the posterior chamber. 
 
 Q. Where is the crj-staUine lens situated ? — A. Be- 
 tween the aqueous and vitreous humors. 
 
 Q. By what is the crystalline lens enclosed ? — A. 
 By a tunic, called tunica crj'staDina. 
 
 VITREOUS HUJIOR. 
 
 Q. ^^Tiat is the vitreous humor, and where is it situ- 
 ated? — A. It is the most bulky himior of the eye; of 
 a jelly-like consistence, yet quite transpai-ent, and occu- 
 pies that portion of the eyeball posterior to the crystal- 
 line lens. 
 
 Q. What is the use of the vitreous himior? — A. It 
 supports the form of the eye, and maintains the other 
 hum«rs in their proper positions. 
 
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 Respiration and Structure of the Lungs. — 
 The organs of respiration are the larynx, 
 the upper opening of which is named glottis, 
 the trachea or windpipe, bronchia, and the 
 lungs. 
 
 The air is displaced out of the lungs by 
 the action of the muscles of respiration ; 
 and, when these relax, the lungs expand to 
 a certain calibre by their elasticity. Tliis 
 may be exemplified by means of a sponge, 
 which may be compressed into a small bulk 
 by the hand, but, upon opening the same, 
 the sponge returns to its natural size, and 
 all its cavities become filled with air. The 
 purification of the blood in the lungs is of 
 vital importance, and indispensably neces- 
 sary to the due performance of aU the func- 
 tions. When the lungs, and muscles con- 
 nected with them, are in a physiological 
 state, the horse is said to be in good wind — 
 a very desirable state for an animal to be 
 in, whose usefulness depends on his being 
 capable of a long continuance of quick 
 motion. The trachea, or windpipe, after 
 dividing into bronchia, again subdivides into 
 innumerable other branches, the extremities 
 of which compose an infinite quantity of 
 small cells, which, with the ramifications of 
 the veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, and 
 the connecting cellular membrane, make up 
 the whole mass or substance of the lungs. 
 The internal surface of the windpipe, bron- 
 chia, and air-cell, is lined with a membrane, 
 which secretes a mucous fluid : when, in con- 
 sequence of an obstructed surface, this fluid 
 becomes abundant, it is expelled by the 
 nostrils. The whole is invested with a 
 thin, transparent membrane, named pleura : 
 the same membrane lines the internal sur- 
 face of the ribs and diapliragm, and, by a 
 
 duplicature of its folds, forms a separation 
 between the lobes of the lungs. 
 
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 The function of respiration is the conver- 
 sion of venous into arterial blood. This 
 arterialization of the venous blood is a pro- 
 cess highly essential to the well-being of 
 all animals ; more important is it than the 
 assimulation of aliment ; for a horse may 
 live several days without food, yet cannot 
 exist many minutes unless his blood be 
 arterialized. 
 
 In considering the function of respiration, 
 our attention is first turned to the mechani- 
 cal means by which the air is alternately 
 admitted and discharged from the lungs. 
 The mechanical act of respiration is divisi- 
 ble into two periods, that of inspiration, 
 during which air is drawn into the lungs so 
 as to increase its volume and distend its 
 parenchema and expiration, diuring which 
 process the air which had been so received 
 is expelled. 
 
 Inspiration is accompanied by enlarge- 
 ment of the capacity of the thorax in its 
 various dimensions. This is effected by the 
 action of different sets of muscles, operated 
 on by the nervous system. The principal 
 muscle of inspnation is the diaphragm. 
 
 Among the secondary muscles employed 
 in inspiration are those which articulate the 
 ribs, viz., the intercostales. Each rib is 
 capable of a small degree of motion on the 
 extremity by which it is articulated with 
 the vertebrae. This motion is chiefly for- 
 ward and backward ; the intercostal muscles 
 favor this motion, as they are disposed in 
 two layers, each passing obhquely, but with 
 opposite inclinations, from one to the adja- 
 cent rib. There are two ways in which the 
 
 (144 J 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP THE HORSE. 
 
 145 
 
 chest may be dilated: first, by the dia- 
 phragm ; and secondly, by the intercostales, 
 which elevate the ribs. In natural respira- 
 tion, the horse breathes cliiefly through the 
 aid of the diaplrragm. Should the respira- 
 tion become quickened, the intercostales are 
 employed, and, when the respiration is labo- 
 rious, the axillary muscles of the abdomen, 
 back, and sides, are brought into use. 
 
 The glottis is opened during inspiration 
 by the muscles of the larynx. 
 
 The expulsion of the air from the lungs 
 constitutes expiration. This takes place 
 as soon as the air which has been ex- 
 pired has parted with its oxygen, and re- 
 ceived in return a certain quantity of car- 
 bonic acid gas and vapor. In regard to the 
 elasticity of the lungs, it is now demon- 
 strated that they possess no inherent power 
 of elasticity other than that common with 
 all membranous textures. Hence, if an 
 opening be made in the sides of the chest, 
 the lobes on this side collapse inconsequence 
 of the pressure of air from without. 
 
 We have next to inquire what changes 
 have, in the meanwhile, been effected in the 
 blood by the action of the air to which it 
 has been subjected in the lungs. A visible 
 alteration, in the first place, is produced in 
 its color, which, from being of a dark pm'- 
 ple, nearly approaching to black, when it 
 arrives at the air-cells by the pulmonary 
 arteries, has acquired the bright, intensely 
 scarlet hue of arterial blood, when brought 
 back to the heart by the pulmonary veins. 
 In other respects, however, its sensible 
 qualities do not appear to have undergone 
 any material change. Judging from the 
 changes produced on the air which has 
 been in contact with it, we are warranted in 
 the inference that it has parted with a 
 certain quantity of carbonic acid and of 
 water, and that it has in return acquired a 
 certain proportion of oxygen. Since it has 
 been found that the quantity of oxygen 
 absorbed is greater than that which enters 
 into the composition of the carbonic acid 
 evolved, it is obvious that at least the excess 
 of oxygen is dh-ectly absorbed by the blood ; 
 
 anu this absorption constitutes, no doubt, 
 an essential part of its arterialization. 
 
 It has been much disputed whether the 
 combination which seems to be effected be- 
 tween the oxygen of the air and the carbon 
 furnished by the blood, occurs during the 
 act of respiration, and takes place in the 
 air-cells of the lungs, or whether it takes 
 place in the course of circulation. On the 
 first hypothesis, the chemical process would 
 be very analogous to the simple combustion 
 of charcoal, which may be conceived to be 
 contained in the venous blood in a free 
 state, exceedingly divided, and ready to 
 combine with the oxygen of the air, and 
 imparting to that venous blood its charac- 
 teristic dark color ; while arterial blood, from 
 which the carbon had been eliminated, 
 would exhibit the red color natural to blood. 
 On the second hypothesis, we must suppose 
 that the whole of the oxygen, which disap- 
 pears from the air respired, is absorbed by 
 the blood in the pulmonary capillaries, and 
 passes on with it into the systemic circu- 
 lation. The blood becoming venous in the 
 course of the circulation, by the different 
 processes to which it is subjected for sup- 
 plying the organs with the materials re- 
 quired in the exercise of their respective 
 functions, the proportion of carbon which it 
 contains is increased, both by the abstrac- 
 tion of the other elements, and by the addi- 
 tion of nutritive materials prepared by the 
 organs of digestion. The oxygen, which 
 had been absorbed by the blood in the lungs, 
 now combines with the redundant carbon, 
 and forms with it either oxide of carbon, 
 or carbonic acid, which is exhaled during a 
 subsequent exposure to the air in the lungs. 
 Many facts tend strongly to confirm our 
 belief in the latter of these hypotheses. 
 
 OF THE LARYNX.* 
 
 The larynx is the organ producing the 
 voice of the animal. 
 
 Situation. — It is joined to the top of the 
 trachea (or windpipe), and is placed in the 
 throat, between the posterior and broadest 
 
 * Percivall's Hippopathology. 
 
146 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 parts of the branches of the lower jaw; 
 having the pharynx and uppermost part of 
 the esophagus situated above it ; the supe- 
 rior portions of the sterno-hyoidei and thy- 
 roidei below it ; the tongue, with its muscles, 
 and the os hyoides, in front of it ; and the 
 trachea issuing from below and behind it. 
 
 Attachment. — The larynx is retained in 
 its place by its connection with the os 
 hyoides and pharynx ; by its muscles ; and 
 by its coalition with the trachea. 
 
 Conformation. — The larynx has so com- 
 plete a fleshy covering, that it is not until 
 it is divested of its muscles (which have 
 been heretofore described) that it is dis- 
 covered to be composed of five pieces of 
 cartilage, so joined together as to be move- 
 able on one another, and open both supe- 
 riorly and inferiorly, to admit of the passage 
 of air into and out of the trachea. These 
 cartilages have received the names of thyroid, 
 cricoid (two), arytenoid, and epiglottis. 
 
 The thyroid or shield-like cartilage, by 
 much the largest of the five, forms the 
 superior, anterior, and lateral parts of the 
 larynx. It consists of two broad lateral 
 portions, continuous and prominent at the 
 upper and anterior part of the neck, the 
 promiirence corresponding to which in 
 human anatomy has received the name of 
 pomurti Adami. Below this pomt of union 
 the divisions recede from each other, leaving 
 a triangular space between them, which is 
 occupied by a ligament denominated the 
 Ugamentum crico-thyroideum. The four 
 projecting corners from the posterior parts 
 of the thyroid cartilage are named its 
 cornua: the two superior are joined by cap- 
 sular articulations to the body of the os 
 hyoides ; the two inferior are connected by 
 very short capsular ligaments to the cricoid 
 cartilages ; the union of all wliich parts re- 
 ceives additional strength firom expansions 
 of membrane. At the roots of the superior 
 cornua are two forainina, that give passage 
 to nerves, of considerable importance, to 
 the interior of the larynx. This cartilage 
 not only constitutes by far the most exten- 
 sive part of the larynx, but, as its name in- 
 
 dicates, incloses and shields from external 
 injury all the others. 
 
 The cricoid or ring-like cartilage is placed 
 below the thyroid. In front it appears like 
 part of the trachea; but it broadens so 
 much behind, that it overlaps the first ring 
 of the w^indpipe, somewhat after the form 
 of a helmet. Upon its broad or posterior 
 part are four surfaces of articulation : the 
 two upper receive the hinder extremities of 
 the arytenoid cartilages, the two lower are 
 adapted to the inferior cornua of the thyroid 
 cartilage : they are all furnished with cap- 
 sular ligaments and synovial membranes. 
 Furthermore, it is attached by hgaraentous 
 expansions to those parts, and likewise to 
 the first ring of the trachea. 
 
 The two arytenoid, or eiver-shaped car- 
 tilages, triangular in their figure, lie over 
 the upper and back part of the trachea, 
 leaving an aperture between them leading 
 into that canal, denominated, from its prox- 
 imity to the tongue, the glottis. Their 
 inward parts are everted, and form a tri- 
 angular prominent border, over which is 
 spread the membrane of the glottis : their 
 outward surfaces are marked by concavities 
 in which are lodged the arytenoid muscles. 
 Posteriorly, they repose upon the cricoid 
 cartilage, and are connected with them by 
 capsular articulations : in front, they have a 
 membranous connection with the cartilage 
 next to be noticed. 
 
 The epiglottis, so named from being 
 raised over the glottis, and occasionedly 
 covering it like the lid of a pot, is well 
 adapted, from its heart-like shape, to the 
 rima glottidis; whose margin is completed 
 by two narrow slips of cartilage proceeding 
 from the base of the lid to the arytenoid. 
 By some, these slips of cartilage have been 
 separately considered: but in my opinion 
 improperly so ; for they are, in reality, 
 nothing more than prolongations or appen- 
 dices of the epiglottis. The surface of this 
 cartilage presented to the interior of the 
 larynx is smooth and concave, and covered 
 by an extension of membrane from the 
 glottis ; that part opposed to the tongue is 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 147 
 
 unevenly convex, and is tied to that organ, I 
 as well as to the os hyoides, by a doubling 
 of membrane infolding some muscular 
 fibres: to this musculo-membranous ligature, 
 which assists in retaining the cartilage in 
 its elevated position, the name oi frcenum 
 epiglottidis is properly given. The fraenum 
 receives co-operation in this fmiction from 
 strong elastic Ligaments connecting the base 
 of the epiglottis to the thyroid and arytenoid 
 cartilages. 
 
 If we detach the epiglottis, or raise it 
 forcibly in order to obtain a more complete 
 view of the rima glottidis, the latter will be 
 found to be stretched into an oblong quad- 
 rilateral figure, whose width gradually 
 diminishes from the middle towajrds either 
 extremity, and bears a ratio of about one 
 to six when compared to its length. The 
 sides turned forward are formed by the 
 arytenoid cartilages ; those directed back- 
 ward by two prominent folds of membrane 
 (which envelop the thyro-arytenoid mus- 
 cles), commonly described as the vocalliga- 
 ments, from their being concerned in the 
 formation and intonation of the voice. 
 Immediately over them are slit-like aper- 
 tures, opening into membranous sacs, each 
 large enough to contain a walnut ; these 
 are the ventricles of the larynx, whose use 
 is also connected with the production and 
 modulation of the voice. 
 
 The membrane lining the cavity of the 
 larynx is one of great susceptibility; on 
 which account it is kept continually moist 
 by a mucus, oozing from numerous lacuna 
 — the excretory orifices of small subjacent 
 follicles whose situation is denoted by the 
 little round eminences upon its surface. 
 This is the common seat of that species 
 of catarrh wliich is accompanied by cough. 
 
 OF THE TRACHEA. 
 
 The trachea, or windpipe, is a cartilagin- 
 ous tube extending along the neck, from 
 the larynx to the lungs, for the passage of 
 air. In horses of ordinary size, it is from 
 twenty-five to thirty inches in length. 
 
 Course. — The trachea commences from 
 the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage, 
 
 opposite to the body and transverse proces- 
 ses of the atlas ; takes its coui-se along the 
 anterior and inferior part of the neck, inclin- 
 ing to the near side, between the sterno- 
 myloidei muscles (which by their approx- 
 imation conceal the lower portion of it), 
 and enters the chest between the two first 
 ribs; wherein, under the curvature of the 
 posterior aorta, it divides into two parts the 
 bronchial tubes. 
 
 Structure. — From fifty to sixty annular 
 pieces of cartilage enter into the com- 
 position of the windpipe ; altogether con- 
 stituting a stnicture so remarkable, for the 
 inequality or asperity of its exterior, that 
 the ancients, in order to at once distinguish 
 it from aU other vessels, called it the aspera 
 arteria. No entire or undivided tubular 
 substance could have partaken of the various 
 motions of the head and neck, without 
 having suffered more or less distortion, and 
 consequent deformity and diminution of 
 cafiber, of some part of its canal, which 
 would have been attended with frequent in- 
 terruptions to the free passage of the air, 
 dangerous, and even fatal, to the respiratory 
 functions; w^hereas, constructed as it is, 
 with the aid of its muscular power, no at- 
 titude into which the animal may naturally 
 put himself will impede the freedom of pas- 
 sage tlnough it. The cartilages, or, as they 
 are commonly described, the rings of the 
 windpipe, have all a close resemblance to 
 one another : if there be any disparity be- 
 tween them worthy of notice, it consists in 
 those that form the superior part of the pipe 
 being somewhat larger and broader than 
 those nearest to the bronchial tubes.* A 
 ring is not uniform in its breadth, in conse- 
 quence of having waving or scolloped bor- 
 ders ; the advantage of which is, that a sort 
 of dove-tailed connection is effected which 
 materially contributes to the compactness 
 and strength of the entire structm-e. Its 
 front and sides measure, in the broadest 
 places, half an inch in breadth, and nearly a 
 
 * Now and then we find, at the upper part of the tube, 
 two or three or more of these rings accreted together ; it 
 gives rise to some prominence thereabouts generally, and 
 may often be detected by taction in the living animal. 
 
148 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 quarter of an inch in thickness — evidently 
 made so substantial to resist external in- 
 jury; whereas its posterior or unexposed 
 parts grow suddenly thin and yielding, and 
 taper to the extremities ; which, instead of 
 meeting and uniting, pass one over the 
 other, and thus form a shield of defence 
 behind, while they admit of a certain dila- 
 tation and conti-action of the internal 
 dimensions of the tube. These attenuated 
 ends are joined together by a ligamentous 
 expansion, mingled •with a quantity of cel- 
 lular membrane. The rings are likewise 
 attached to one another by narrow ligamen- 
 tary bands, sti'ong and elastic ; which, after 
 they have been drawn apart in certain posi- 
 tions of the head and neck, have the power 
 to approximate them ; when the pipe is re- 
 moved from the body, and suspended by 
 the uppermost ring, these ligaments coun- 
 teract the tendency its weight has to sepa- 
 rate the rings, and still maintain them in 
 apposition. The lowermost ten or twelve 
 pieces of cartilage appear on examination 
 but ill to deserve the name of rings ; indeed, 
 they are little more than semi-annular, the 
 deficiences in them behind being made 
 good by intermediate moveable pieces of 
 cartilage. These pieces, whose breadth in- 
 creases as we descend, are let into the 
 vacuities in such manner as to overlap the 
 terminations of the segments, and they are 
 confined and concealed by the same sort of 
 ligamentary and cellular investment as was 
 before noticed. 
 
 Muscle. — 'Where the outward extremity 
 of the ring suddenly turns inward, and de- 
 generates into a thin flexible flap on either 
 side, a band of muscular fibres is fixed and 
 stretched across the canal, dividing it into 
 two unequal semi-eUiptical passages. The 
 anterior one is the proper air channel ; the 
 posterior or smaller one is filled with a fine 
 reticular membrane, connecting the band to 
 the posterior part of the ring, and preventing 
 i in action, from encroaching upon the main 
 conduit. This self-acting band appears to 
 me to have been added to the tube to enable 
 it to enlarge its caliber — not to diminish it, 
 as a superficial view of these parts might 
 
 lead one to imagine ; for, in consequence of 
 the passage being natmally elliptical, and 
 the muscle being extended across its long 
 diameter, the contraction of its sides wiU 
 give the tube a circular figure, by increasing 
 the curvature of the ring anteriorly, and 
 thereby, in effect, will expand and not con- 
 tract the cafiber of the canal. I would say, 
 then, that the trachea was made muscular 
 in order that it might have the power of in- 
 creasing its capacity for the passage of air, 
 whenever the lungs were called into extra- 
 ordinary action : in addition to which, I 
 think that this band may, in some degree, 
 counteract any tendency certain positions of 
 the head and neck have to alter its shape 
 and diminish its circumference. This 
 opinion is corroborated by the circumstance, 
 that the muscle grows slender and pale as 
 we approach the lower end of the pipe, 
 where the canal itself is nearly circular, and 
 where it is placed in the least moveable 
 part of the neck.* 
 
 Membrane. — The trachea is lined by a 
 soft, pale red membrane, which anteriorly 
 has a close adhesion to the rings them- 
 selves, and presents a smooth, polished in- 
 ternal surface ; but which, posteriorly, is 
 loosely attached to the muscular band, and 
 puckered into fourteen or fifteen longitu- 
 dinal plica; or folds, that extend with regu- 
 larity from one end of the tube to the 
 other. These folds were evidently made to 
 allow of the contraction and elongation of 
 this muscular band ; for I cannot myself 
 assign any reason why they should exist in 
 its relaxed state, unless this fulness of 
 membrane be given to admit of enlarge- 
 ment of the caliber of the tube during the 
 contractions of that muscle ; if this be 
 plausible, I may adduce the corrugation of 
 the membrane as another proof that the 
 caliber of the trachea is susceptible of aug- 
 mentation. This membrane is continuous 
 with that which clothes the rima glottidis ; 
 
 * In this opinion, says Mr. Percirall, I find I am at 
 variance with Girard. The French professor ascribes to 
 it the power of contracting the caliber of the trachea. " Cetto 
 couche, bien evidemment musculeuse, pent retrecir le cal- 
 ibre de la trachee, en rapportant les extremites des seg- 
 mens." — Anat. Vet.,-p.liG et 147, torn. ii. 
 
THE HOBSB. 
 
 149 
 
 but it is paler than it, and not near so sensi- 
 tive. Its arterial ramifications, also less 
 abundant than upon the glottis, exhale a 
 vapor from its surface ; independently of 
 which, it is kept continually lubricated by 
 mucus, furnished from its numerous lacuna, 
 to defend it from anything acriminous that 
 may be contained in the breath. 
 
 Bronchial Tubes. — The trachea having 
 entered the thorax, bifurcates into the tw^o 
 bronchial tubes. Of them, the right is the 
 more capacious canal, on account of having 
 communication with the larger division of 
 the lungs ; the left the longer one, in conse- 
 quence of having to cross under the pos- 
 terior aorta, in its course to the left division 
 of the lungs. The last cartilage of the 
 main pipe has a spear-like or angular pro- 
 jection extending down between the bron- 
 chial tubes, filling up that space which 
 would otherwise be left open from the di- 
 vergent manner in which they branch off: 
 it is quite loosely attached, in order that 
 the branches may accommodate themselves 
 to the motions of the neighboring parts. 
 The bronchial tubes vary in structure from 
 the trunk that gives origin to them : instead 
 of their rings being formed of entire pieces 
 of cartilage, they are constituted of several 
 separate pieces, making up so many segments 
 of the circle, overlapping one another, and 
 united together and invested by an elastic 
 cellular substance : they also differ in hav- 
 ing no muscular band, another fact connected 
 with the physiology of that part. The bron- 
 cliial tubes, in penetrating the substance of 
 the lungs, subdivide — the right into three 
 principal branches, the left into two ; from 
 which spring innumerable others, that grow 
 smaller and smaller, untU the ramifications 
 become so reduced that they are no longer 
 traceable by the naked eye. In the larger 
 branches, we may dissect out five and even 
 six segments of cartilage, held together by 
 a thin but dense and elastic ceUular sub- 
 stance ; in the smaller divisions, only two 
 are found, and they are diminished in size ; 
 and, in the smallest visible ramifications of 
 all, cartilage is altogether wanting, though, 
 in many places, marks of the rings may be 
 
 traced upon the continuation of the lining 
 membrane, which in these intimate parts 
 compose the entire parietes of the tube. 
 In the larger branches this membrane 
 (which is continuous throughout the bron- 
 chial system) assumes a plicated disposi- 
 sition — apparently, to admit the more 
 readily of expansion. 
 
 THYROID GLANDS. 
 
 Two egg-shaped, apparently glandular 
 bodies, attached just below the larynx to 
 the sides of the trachea, and united in front 
 of that tube by an intervening portion of 
 the same substance, which, by way of dis- 
 tinction, is by some called the isthmus. 
 They are enveloped and attached in their 
 situation by cellular membrane ; are larger 
 and more vascular in the young than in 
 the old subject ; and exhibit a spongy tex- 
 ture, when cut into, which I am at present 
 ignorant of the precise nature of. They 
 are well -supplied with blood-vessels, and 
 have many small nerves going to them. 
 Their physiology still remains obscure. 
 
 OF THE LUNGS AND PLEURA. 
 
 The lungs are the essential organs of res- 
 piration : the pleura is but the membrane 
 by which they are invested. 
 
 PLEURA. 
 
 The pleiua is a fine, semi-transparent 
 membrane, lining the cavity of the chest, 
 and giving a covering to the lungs. By 
 that portion of it which is called the medi- 
 astinum, the cavity is divided into the right 
 and left sides of the thorax. 
 
 General Conformation. — If the lungs be 
 exposed, by breaking off one or two of the 
 ribs, we shall perceive that their surface, as 
 well as that of the cavity itself, is every- 
 where smooth, poKshed, and humid. This 
 is owing to the extensive investment of the 
 pleura, the surface of which is now pre- 
 sented ; so that, in reality, without break- 
 ing the surface, nothing but pleura can be 
 touched ; although, from its extreme tenuity 
 and pellucidity, the viscera appear, on a 
 superficial view, to present their own bare 
 
150 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 exterior. Its other side, on the contrary, is 
 rough, having numerous cellular flocculent 
 appendages, by which it is united to the. 
 parts it invests ; and so close and firm are 
 these adhesions, that to cleanly detach it, 
 in the recent subject, is a very difficult and 
 tedious dissection. 
 
 The pleura is a reflected membrane ; by 
 which is meant, one that not only lines the 
 cavity in which the viscera lie enclosed, but 
 by dupLicature, or what in anatomical lan- 
 guage is called reflection,, gives a partial or 
 complete covering to the contained organs 
 themselves. It is evident, therefore, that 
 such a membrane admits of division into 
 two portions — a lining or parietal, and a 
 reflected portion ; and these, with regard to 
 the pleiua, have, for the sake of more de- 
 finite description, received the names of 
 pleura costalis and pleura pulmonalis. They 
 are both, however, continuous at aU points, 
 are precisely similar in structure and func- 
 tion, and, in fact, are stUl but one and the 
 same pleura. 
 
 Mediastinum. — There is yet a third por- 
 tion of this membrane to which a distinct 
 appellation has been given, and that is the 
 mediastinum, the membranous partition be- 
 tween the cavities or sides of the thorax ; 
 it differs from both the others in being com- 
 posed of two layers, which are derived from 
 the two pleursB of the opposite sides. 
 If we conceive the pleurae of the two sides 
 of the thorax to be perfect sacs or bags, 
 with flattened sides tmrned inwardly, and 
 closely applied and united together, in such 
 a manner that the double membrane formed 
 by then- union extends through the middle 
 of the chest, from the dorsal vertebra to 
 the sternum, we shall at once have a toler- 
 ably correct idea of the formation as well 
 as situation of the mediastinum. 
 
 Structure. — The pleura, from the nature 
 of its secretion, is one of those included 
 in the list of serous membranes to which it 
 has been demonstrated also to be similar in 
 its intimate organization. Like them, it 
 presents a shining secreting surface, of a 
 whitish aspect, and considerable transpa- 
 rency, and is composed of httle else than 
 
 condensed cellular substance, whose texture 
 is penetrated by blood-vessels, absorbents, 
 and nerves : by long maceration in water, 
 indeed, it may be entirely resolved into cel- 
 lular substance. In most parts it is ex- 
 tremely thin, and by no means tough ; but 
 it is not so in all, for that portion which 
 faces the diaphragm is much denser and 
 stronger than the pulmonary or costal di- 
 vision of it. 
 
 Organization. — The arteries of the 
 pleura, which come from the adjacent parts, 
 are in the natural state exceeding small, ad- 
 mitting only the colorless parts of the blood 
 — a circumstance that accounts for its pel- 
 lucidity ; under inflammation, however, 
 they contain red blood, and such is the ex- 
 planation of that arborescent vascularity 
 upon the sides of the thorax in horses that 
 die of pnuemonia ; than which state noth- 
 ing can better demonstrate the comparative 
 number and distribution of these blood-ves- 
 sels. The majority of them terminate in 
 exhalent orifices, from which is continually 
 poured, upon the contiguous surfaces of the 
 smooth interior of the membrane, a serous 
 fluid, in the form of steam or vapor, which 
 may at any time be rendered visible by 
 opening the chest of an animal recently 
 dead. The absorbents of this membrane 
 are very numerous ; and, thoiigh their ex- 
 treme exility prevents us from demonstrat- 
 ing them in a state of health, yet may they 
 often be seen in considerable numbers in 
 horses that die of dropsy of the chest ; we 
 have also abundant proofs of their exist- 
 ence from various phenomena that occur 
 in the diseases of the part. We know, for 
 instance, that these vessels take up the 
 serous fluid effused in hydrothorax, for they 
 have been found fuU of it after death ; and it 
 is a fact that no longer admits of doubt, that 
 blood, extravasated into the chest, is absorbed 
 by the mouths of these minute vessels. 
 
 The nerves of the pleura are too small 
 to be traced by dissection ; but, though it 
 is not possessed of much sensibility in a 
 healthy state, we know, at least we presume 
 from analogy, that it is highly sensitive in 
 the diseased; for few diseases are more 
 
>'^ 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XV. 
 
 NO. 1.— FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 LATERAL VIEW OF THE OFF-FOEE LIMB. 
 
 h. Humero cubital. — Flexor brachii. 
 
 11. Tricep.s externus. 
 
 0. Pectoralis transversalis. 
 
 P". Flexor metaearpi externus. 
 
 s". Extensor metacai'pi magnus. 
 
 t'. Extensor metaearpi obliquus. 
 
 «'. Levator humeri. 
 
 X. X. Extensor pedis. 
 
 y. y. Extensor suf&'aginis. 
 
 ^•. The hoof. 
 
 NO. 2. 
 
 (VnrW AS ABOVE.) 
 
 k". Humero cubital, or flexor brachii.- 
 
 m". n". Two of the triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 p". Flexor metaearpi externus. 
 
 *. Extensor " magnus. 
 
 t. " " obliquus. 
 
 M. Levator humeri. 
 
 f'. w. Flexor tendons. 
 
 x". Extensor pedis. 
 
 y". y. Extensor sufiragims. 
 
 8. Perforatus et perforans. 
 
 4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein. 
 
 NO. 3. 
 
 
 (THE SAIIE VIEW.) 
 
 r. 
 
 m\ n'\ Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 p". 
 
 . Flexor metaearpi externus. 
 
 2- 
 
 Extensor suffi-agmis. 
 
 8. 
 
 Extensor metaearpi magnus. 
 
 u. 
 
 Flexor tendons. 
 
 x". 
 
 Extensor pedis. 
 
 z. 
 
 Suspensory ligaments. 
 
 4. 
 
 Subcutaneous thoracic vein. 
 
 
 NO. 4. 
 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 34. 
 
 Os humeri. 
 
 /• 
 
 Os ulnaris. 
 
 35. 
 
 Os Radialis. 
 
 9- 
 
 Trapezium. 
 
 36. 
 
 Ossa carpi. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XV. 
 
 CONTINUED. 
 
 37. Metacarpus magnum. 
 
 
 X. " paiyvm. 
 
 
 38. Ossa sessamoidea. 
 
 
 39. Os suffi-aginis. 
 
 
 40. Os corona. 
 
 
 41. Os pedis. 
 
 
 NO. 5. 
 
 INSIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-FOKE LEG. 
 
 o". Pectorales. 
 
 r". Flexor metacarpi intemus. 
 
 q". Flexor metacarpi medius. 
 
 s". Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 f. Extensor metacarpi obliquus. 
 
 m". v". Flexor tendons. 
 
 a;.' Extensor pedis. 
 
 v". Suspensory ligament. 
 
 6. Radial vein. 
 
 8. Bifiu'cation of the suspensory ligament. 
 
 z. Splent bone. 
 
 S,: Inferior border of the hoof. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 151 
 
 acutely painful in the human subject than 
 pleurisy, and we have every reason to be- 
 lieve that horses sutTer much from the same 
 malady. 
 
 Secretion. — It has been observed that 
 the exhalents of the pleura secrete a serous 
 fluid, which is emitted, in the form of an 
 exhalation or vapor, into the cavity of the 
 thorax ; and that it may be rendered visible 
 at any time, if an animal, recently dead, 
 be opened while yet warm ; or if an open- 
 ing be made into the chest of a live animal. 
 In either case, a whitish steam will be per- 
 ceived to issue from the interior of the 
 cavity. This vapor, shortly after death, be- 
 comes condensed and converted into a 
 liquid ; which accounts for the contiguous 
 surfaces of the pleura being moist, and for 
 a collection of more or less fluid, resem- 
 bling water, existing in the most depending 
 parts of the cavity. Li consequence of 
 every part of the membrane being bedewed 
 in this manner, the lung itself may be said 
 to be in an insulated state ; for the pleura 
 costalis does not, philosophically speaking, 
 touch the pleura pulmonalis, nor is the lat- 
 ter in actual contact with the mediastinum : 
 all friction, therefore, in the motions of these 
 parts, is by this interfluent secretion effec- 
 tually prevented. In this, then, consists 
 the chief use of the pleura, viz., to furnish 
 a secretion for the purposes of lubrication 
 and facility of motion, which it further 
 promotes by its extreme glibness of surface. 
 It is said also to answer the purpose of 
 ligaments to the contained organs, thereby 
 confining and sti-engthening them. The use 
 of the mediastinum is to divide the chest 
 into two compartments. 
 
 The lungs (by butchers called the lights) 
 are two spongy bodies formed for the pur- 
 pose of respiration. 
 
 Situation and Relation. — They are con- 
 tained in the lateral regions or sides of the 
 thoracic cavity ; separated from each other 
 by the mediastinum and heart, which occupy 
 the middle region. Prior to any opening 
 being made into the thorax, the lungs con- 
 
 tinue to liU up every vacuity : no sooner, 
 however, is a perforation made into the 
 thoracic cavity than they shrink in volume, 
 and become in appearance too small for the 
 spaces they occupy. This arises from their 
 being during life — or rather during the 
 unopened state of the thorax — in a con- 
 stant state of inflation with atmospheric 
 air, which preserves them expanded ; and 
 they suffer coUapse of substance the instant 
 air is admitted, in consequence of the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere upon them, from 
 which they were protected before by the 
 parietes of the thorax. 
 
 Division. — The lungs are two in num- 
 ber, the right and the left lung ; parti- 
 tioned from each other by the mediasti- 
 num. A further division of these organs 
 has been made into lobes. That on the 
 right side, the larger of the two, consists of 
 three lobes ; the left, only of two. These 
 lobes, which are nothing more than partial 
 divisions of the lung by fissiores of variable 
 extent through its substance, serve to adapt 
 them more accurately to the thoracic cavi- 
 ties, and, at the same time, render them 
 fitter for the purposes of expansion and 
 contraction. 
 
 Volume. — The lungs of the horse, when 
 inflated, are of great bulk ; * and the right 
 is the larger of the two : in consequence of 
 the heart being inclined to the left side, less 
 space is given for the left lung. 
 
 Attachment. ■ — The lungs are attached, 
 superiorly, to the spine (which attachment 
 is sometimes called their roots) by blood- 
 vessels, the divisions of the trachea, and the 
 mediastinal portions of the pleura : every- 
 where else, in a healthy subject, they are 
 free and unconnected. 
 
 Figure. — In form, the lungs of the horse 
 are very like those of the human subject; 
 and the latter have been compared to the 
 foot of an ox, to which the injected lung of 
 the foetus bears indeed much resemblance ; 
 for, though the two lungs are not symmetri- 
 cal, yet, both together, they put on this 
 shape, which is the counterpart of that of 
 
 * I consider, in comparison with the body, that they 
 exceed in magnitude those of the human subject. 
 
152 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGT OP 
 
 the cavity they occupy. With regard to 
 their general figure, however, the lungs may 
 be said to be conical : being broad and con- 
 cave posteriorly, where they are opposed to 
 the convex surface of the diaphragm ; nar- 
 row and somewhat pointed anteriorly, where 
 they are received into the blind pouches of 
 the pleura, in the space between the two 
 first ribs. 
 
 Color. — In color, these organs vary some- 
 what, depending upon the age of the ani- 
 mal, and upon the quantity and distribution 
 of the blood they contain. In the young 
 subject, they are of a lighter and more uni- 
 form shade than in the adult. In perfect 
 health they assume a pink hue ; which, as 
 age advances, becomes mottled with purple 
 and grayish patches. Sometimes, in the 
 dead subject, they are found of the color of 
 the darkest venous blood, which arises fi-om 
 an inordinate congestion of that fluid wthin 
 the pulmonary veins. 
 
 Structure. — The lungs are composed of 
 the branches of arteries and veins, and of 
 the ramifications of the trachea ; all which 
 vessels are connected together by an abun- 
 dant intervening ceUulai substance, known 
 by the name of parenchyma. Beneath the 
 cm-ve made within the chest by the poste- 
 rior aorta, the trachea divides into the two 
 bronchial tubes, of which the right is the 
 larger, but the shorter ; the left the longer, 
 in consequence of having to pass under the 
 aorta in order to reach the left lung. Having 
 entered the substance of the lung, the right 
 tube divides into four others ; the left only 
 into three ; which difference arises from the 
 right lung possessing an additional lobe. 
 These branches may be traced for a consid- 
 erable extent within the parenchyma, giv- 
 ing off in their passage numerous other 
 smaller tubes of similar structure ; but, as 
 we prosecute our dissection of them, we 
 shall find that, in growing smaller, they par- 
 take less and less of the nature of cartilage, 
 and that the extreme ramifications are not 
 only entirely membranous in their composi- 
 tion, but of so fine a texture as to be per- 
 fectly transparent. It wiU be remembered 
 here, that, in speaking of the trachea, a; 
 
 membranous lining to it was described of 
 the mucous kind, which, it was observed, 
 thence passed into the bronchial vessels : 
 now, it is of the continuation of this mem- 
 brane in an attenuated state that the minute 
 air-tubes appear entirely to consist ; at the 
 extremity of every one of which the mem- 
 brane is prolonged into a kind of blind bag, 
 or cul-de-sac, to which the name of air-cell 
 has been given. 
 
 From the arborescent ramification and 
 pecuhar mode of termination of the bron- 
 chical tubes, some anatomists have com- 
 pared them, and the cells at their extremities, 
 to a bunch of grapes — supposing the stalks 
 to represent the ramifications of the former, 
 and the grapes connected with them the 
 air-cells; others have described them as 
 having resemblance to a honeycomb : and 
 so far as the knife, with the aid of glasses, 
 can develope their intimate structure, the 
 first is an apt comparison, insomuch as it 
 relates to the disposition of their cells ; 
 the last, insomuch as it conveys an 
 idea of their ready inter-communication. 
 For, though they do not communicate 
 but tlurough the ramifications of the' bron- 
 chial tubes, this is a medium of inter- 
 course at once so general and free, that 
 numbers of them are inflated at the same 
 time by impelling air into any one of the 
 larger branches. With the parenchymatous 
 substance, however, they have no commu- 
 nication whatever.* 
 
 The blood-vessels that enter into the com- 
 position of the lungs are denominated the 
 pulmonary. The pulmonary artery, having 
 taken its origin from the right ventricle of the 
 heart, winds upward to the root of the left 
 lung, and there divides into the right and 
 left pulmonary arteries, which divisions 
 
 * If the substance of tlie lungs be lacerated or rent 
 asunder, the sui'face will be found to present a tabulated 
 aspect. Introduce a blow-pipe into one of these lobuli, 
 and all the other lobules — the entire lung — may be in- 
 flated from this one ; showing the free communication ex- 
 isting between them. The same may be effected by in- 
 jecting quicksilver. You may do the same with the inter- 
 stitial substance ; but in this case you do not fill the lobules. 
 In fine, the lungs with tlTeir cells resemble a sponge ; only 
 that the connecting tissue has no communication with the 
 sponge. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 153 
 
 enter their correspondent lungs. The rami- 
 fications of these vessels (which differ from 
 other arteries in having no anastomotic 
 communications one with another) accom- 
 pany those of the bronchial tubes, and, 
 like them, divide and subdivide, grow 
 smaller and augment in number, as they 
 approach the air-cells ; upon the internal * 
 surfaces of which they become capillary, 
 and assume a texture of correspondent 
 thinness and pellucidity with the cells them- 
 selves. Through these minute vessels every 
 particle of blood is impelled every time it 
 is circulated over the system, as was stated 
 when on the blood : a remarkable change 
 of color is thereby effected in it, and we 
 have now an opportunity of seeing in what 
 manner this fluid is exposed to the influence 
 of atmospheric air for the purpose. It is 
 evident that no immediate contact can hap- 
 pen between the air and the blood, for the 
 thin, transparent side of the vessel, if not 
 that of the air-cell likewise, must ever be 
 interposed ; so that, whatever this influence 
 be, it must take effect through one or other 
 or both of these membranes. We might 
 conceive, indeed, that such minute vessels 
 could not transmit through them such a 
 body of fluid as the blood ; but, when we 
 look at the volume of the lungs, and con- 
 sider the incalculable number of air-ceUs 
 they must contain, the globular surface of 
 every one of which is furnished with an ex- 
 pansion of pulmonary vessels, we shall feel 
 more surprise and admiration at the extreme 
 division and diffusion of this fluid in order 
 to receive the necessary change, than that 
 such a prodigious number of capillaries 
 should be equal, in their united caliber, to 
 the- pulmonary artery itself. 
 
 From the extremities of the arteries, upon 
 the surface of the air-cells, arise the pul- 
 monary veins. These, by repeated union 
 with one another, form themselves, first, into 
 visible branches, which subsequently become 
 branches of larger size, until at length they 
 end in eight pulmonary venous trunks, 
 which proceed to, and by four openings ter- 
 
 * Some say, "upon the external surfaces." 
 
 minate in, the left auricle of the heart. The 
 ramifications of these veins, unliive the 
 generality of others, are not more numerous 
 than those of their coiTespondent arteries : 
 and the reason for this is obvious ; for, here, 
 one set of vessels are not more subject to 
 compression than the other, nor does the 
 heart (which is so proximate to them) re- 
 quire any such aid as an additional number 
 of veins affords to carry on the circulation. 
 The pulmonary veins have only to convey 
 the blood back to the heart, after it has 
 received its due change within the capil- 
 laries upon the air-ceUs. 
 
 Organization. — Besides the pulmonary 
 blood-vessels, there are two others, named 
 bronchial arteries. They come off, by one 
 trunk, from the posterior aorta, and each 
 of them enters a division of the lungs, in 
 the substance of which it branches forth, 
 and takes the course of the bronchial tubes. 
 These tubes they supply, as weU as the coats 
 of the pulmonary vessels, and the paren- 
 chyma of the lungs, with blood: in fact, 
 they may be regarded as the nuti-ient ves- 
 sels of these organs. It has been, ho^vever, 
 and stiU remains, a subject of dispute, 
 whether these vessels do exclusively nourish 
 the substance of the lungs or not ; some 
 say that they do ; whUe others assert that 
 they are assisted in this function by the ptd- 
 monary artery, with some of the branches 
 of which they anastomose. The latter 
 opinion certainly does not appear to be sup- 
 ported by facts of much weight; on the 
 contrary, the blood which the pulmonary 
 arteries contain is dark-colored, and unfit 
 for the nutriment of any organ ; and as for 
 anastomosis, we have no demonstrative 
 proof of its existence. The bronchial veins 
 end in one trunk, which returns the blood 
 into the vena azygos. 
 
 The nerves of the lungs are derived prin- 
 cipaUy from a large plexus within the chest, 
 constituted of the par vagum and sympa- 
 thetic. They enter the pulmonary structure 
 in company with the bronchial tubes and 
 blood-vessels, and continue their course 
 with them, to be dispersed upon the bron- 
 chial membrane and parietes of the air-cells. 
 
154 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The absorbents of the lungs are large and 
 numerous, particularly the deep-seated : and 
 of the superficial, we may often succeed in 
 injecting considerable numbers, by intro- 
 ducing a quicksilver-pipe under the pleura 
 pulmonalis. They aU pass through the 
 absorbent glands situated around the roots 
 of the broncliial tubes. 
 
 Parenchyma. — The connecting medium 
 of the various constituent parts of these 
 organs, or, as it is termed, their parenchyma, 
 appears to consist of little else than cellular 
 tissue, without any intermLxture of adipose 
 matter : it admits of the free diffusion of 
 any fluid that may be extravasated into it 
 — of air that may have escaped from the 
 air-cells, or of serous fluid poured out when 
 the lungs become anasarcous ; but, as was 
 observed before, there is no intercommuni- 
 cation between it and the cells or vessels, as 
 long as the organs preserve their integrity 
 of structure. 
 
 Specific Gravity. — The lungs, when 
 healthy, are exceeding light in comparison 
 to their volume ; so that, if they be immersed 
 in water, unlike most other parts, they will 
 float upon the surface, — a fact familiar to 
 every one who has seen the liver and lights 
 of an animal thrown into a pail of water 
 to be washed : indeed, the name of lights 
 itself seem to have been given to them from 
 this very property. If the festal lungs, how- 
 ever, be so treated, they will instantly sink 
 to the bottom of the vessel : and this ex- 
 jjrrimental result at once shows why those 
 ol an animal that has once breathed should 
 swim ; for, in the one instance they contain 
 
 air, in the other they are wholly free from 
 it. They are not to be regarded as respi- 
 ratory organs in the foetus. It is evident, 
 therefore, that the lungs owe their property 
 of lightness to the air they contain ; and, as 
 a further proof of it, if that air be by any 
 means absorbed or pressed from them, and 
 their bulk diminished by collapse of the 
 air-cells, like other viscera, they will prove 
 heavier than an equal volume of water: 
 hence it is that the lungs of a horse that 
 has died of hydrothorax, even though they 
 be sound, are of a greater specific gravity 
 than those of one in health. It occasionally 
 happens, however, that these viscera evince, 
 in this particular, the properties of airless 
 lung, while their natural volume and general 
 appearance remain the same : there must be 
 present interstitial deposition. 
 
 BRONCHIAL GLANDS. 
 
 Small, oval-shaped, glandular-looldng 
 bodies, situated about the roots of the lungs, 
 adhering more particularly to the bottom 
 of the trachea and the bronchial tubes. 
 They exhibit a dii'ty French gray hue, inter- 
 spersed with dark blueish spots, and are 
 about the volume (though this varies much) 
 of a tick-bean. For a long time the nature 
 of these bodies remained obscure : of late, 
 sldlful injections have clearly shown them 
 to be absorbent glands. They possess their 
 capsules, and, when cut open, exhibit a cel- 
 lular structure. They contain a dark fluid, 
 which will soil anything it touches ; whose 
 principal ingredient chemists have found to 
 be carbon. 
 
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS (oN*" THE BLOOD, 
 ETC.). 
 
 The appearance of blood is familiar to 
 most persons. It contains the elements for 
 building up and nourishing the whole ani- 
 mal structure. On examining blood with a 
 microscope, it is found full of little red glo- 
 bules, which vary in their size and shape in 
 different animals, and are more numerous 
 in warm than in cold-blooded animals; 
 probably this arises from the fact that the 
 latter absorb less oxygen. If the blood of 
 one animal be transfused into another, it 
 will frequently cause death. 
 
 When blood stands for a time after being 
 di'awn, it separates into two parts. One is 
 called serum, and resembles the white of an 
 egg ; the other is the clot or crassamentum, 
 and forms the red coagulum, or jelly-like 
 substance : this is accompanied by whitish, 
 tough threads, called fibrine. When blood 
 has been drawn from a horse, and it as- 
 sumes a cupped or hollow form, if serum, 
 or buffy coat, remain on its surface, it de- 
 notes an impoverished state ; but if the 
 whole, when coagulated, be of one uniform 
 mass, it indicates a healthy state of this 
 fluid. The blood of a young horse gen- 
 erally coagulates into a firm mass, while 
 that of an old or debilitated one is gen- 
 erally less dense, and more easily divided or 
 broken down. The power that propels the 
 blood into the different ramifications of the 
 animal, is a mechanico-vital power, and is 
 accomplished through the medium of the 
 heart and lungs ; the latter is a powerful 
 muscular organ contained in the chest. 
 From certain parts of it arteries arise ; in 
 others the veins terminate ; and it is princi- 
 pally by its alternate contractions and ex- 
 pansions, aided as already stated, that the 
 circulation of the blood is carried on. The 
 
 heart is invested with a membranous sac, 
 called pericardium, which adheres to the 
 tendinous centre of the diaphragm, and to 
 the great vessels at the base of the heart. 
 The heart is lubricated by a serous fluid 
 within the pericardium, which guards 
 against friction. In dropsical affections, 
 the quantity of this fluid is considerably in- 
 creased, and constitutes a disease called hy- 
 drothorax. The heart is divided into four 
 cavities, viz., t\vo auricles, named from 
 their resemblance to an ear, and two ventri- 
 cles, forming the body. The left ventricle 
 is smaller than the right ; but its sides are 
 much thicker and sti-onger : it is from this 
 part that the grand trunk of the arteries 
 proceeds, called the great aorta. The right 
 cavity, or ventricle, is the receptacle for the 
 blood that is brought back by the veins 
 after going the rounds of the cu-culation ; 
 which, like an inverted tree, become larger 
 and less numerous as they approach the 
 heart, where they terminate in the right 
 auricle. The auricle on the left side of 
 the heart receives the blood that has been 
 disti-ibuted through the lungs for purifica- 
 cation. Where the veins terminate in auri- 
 cles, there are valves placed. The coronary 
 vein, which enters the right auricle, has its 
 mouth protected by a valve called semi- 
 lunar, or half-moon shape, which opens only 
 toward the heart, and prevents the blood 
 taking a reti-ograde course. The different 
 tubes coming from and entering into the 
 heart are also provided with valves to pre- 
 vent the blood from returning. For exam- 
 ple, the blood proceeds out of the heart, 
 along the aorta ; the valve opens forward or 
 upward, the blood also moves lapward, and 
 pushes the valve asunder, and passes 
 through ; the pressure from above effec- 
 tually closes the passage. The valves of 
 
 (155) 
 
156 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 the heart are composed of elastic cartilage, 
 which enables them to work with ease. In 
 some diseases, however, they become ossi- 
 fied. This, of course, is fatal. The heart 
 and its appendages are also subject to other 
 diseases, called dilatation, softening, hard- 
 ening, etc. Now, the blood, having been 
 brought from all parts of the system by the 
 veins, enters into the vena cava ascending 
 and descending portion, which empty them- 
 selves into the right auricle ; and this, 
 when distended with blood, contracts, and 
 forces its contents into the right ventricle, 
 wliich, contracting in its turn, propels the 
 blood into the pulmonary arteries, whose 
 
 numerous ramifications bring it in con- 
 tact with the air-ceUs of the lungs. It 
 then assumes a crimson color, and is then 
 adapted to build up and supply the waste. 
 Having passed through the vessels of the 
 lungs, it continues on, and passes into 
 the left auricle: tliis also contracts, and 
 forces the blood through a valve into the 
 left ventricle. This ventricle then con- 
 tracts in its turn, and the blood passes 
 through another valve into the great aorta, 
 from which it is distributed into the whole 
 arterial structure : after going the rounds of 
 the circulation, it is again returned to the 
 heart by the veins. 
 
 EXAMINATIOXS OX THE NATUEE AND PROPERTIES OF BLOOD. 
 
 Q. What are the properties of blood? — A. In 
 health, it is a smooth homogenous fluid, of unctuous 
 adhesive consistence, of a slightly saline taste, and of a 
 specific gravity somewhat exceeding that of water. It 
 exhales a vapor which has a peculiar odor ; this, how- 
 ever, differs in various animals. 
 
 Q, Does the blood always preserve the same den- 
 sity P * — A. No. Its density is hable to great variations, 
 under the states of rest, labor, disease, and health. 
 
 Q. What do you understand by the " crassamentum " 
 of the blood? — A. It is supposed to consist chiefly 
 of fibrin. 
 
 Q. How is it colored ? — A. It owes its peculiar color 
 to what is termed the red globules, which are entangled 
 in it during its coagulation. 
 
 Q. How can this be demonstrated ? — A. By long 
 continued ablution in water, the red particles are hber- 
 ated ; and we have remaining a white, soKd, and elas- 
 tic substance, which has all the properties of fibrine, 
 and is almost exactly similar to the basis of muscle. 
 
 Q. By what name was fibrine formerly known ? — A. 
 Coagulable Ij-mph. 
 
 Q. What is the form of the red globules of the 
 blood? — A. The Abbe de la Torre, who examined 
 them under microscopes of considerable j)Ower, states 
 that they obtained the appearance of flattened annular 
 bodies, with a depression, sometimes perforation, in the 
 
 *Dr. B. Babington is of opinion that the blood, whilst circulating 
 in the vessels, consists of two parts only — a fluid which he calls liquor 
 sang^Hi'nys, and red globules; and he is induced to believe, from his 
 experiments, that fibrin and serum do not exist as such in the circu- 
 lating fluid, but that the hquor sanguinis, when removed from the 
 vessels, and no longer subjected to the laws of life, has then, and not 
 before, the property of separating into fibrin and serum, hhd. Chi- 
 rvrg. Transact, vol. xvi. pt. 2. Lond. 1S31, and art. DIood (morbid 
 conditions of the), in Cyclop, of Anat and Physiol. Lond. 1836. 
 
 centre, but they differ in size and shape in various 
 animals. 
 
 Q. By what means is the blood colored? — A. By 
 means of n-on and oxygen. 
 
 Q. Describe the properties of the serum ? — A. It is 
 the yeUow fluid pait that is left after the separation of 
 the crassamentum ; it is of a saline taste, and homoge- 
 nous, adhesive consistence. 
 
 Q. What effect has a temperature of 160° on it? — 
 A. The whole is converted into a firm white mass, per- 
 fectly analagous to the white of an egg wliich has been 
 hardened by boihng. 
 
 Q. Can any liquor be extracted fi'om the serum afler 
 ha'\ing been coagulated by heat? — A. Yes. If the 
 coagulum be cut into slices, and subjected to gentle 
 pressure, an opaque liquor drains from it, which is called 
 the serosity. 
 
 PEEICAEDIUSI. 
 
 Q. By what is the heart surroimded? — A. The 
 pericardium. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of this? — A. It is a fibro- 
 serous membranous bag, composed of two coats ; one 
 fibrous, the other serous ; these are united by cellular 
 tissue. 
 
 Q. What are its connections? — A. It is attached to 
 the sternum, pleura, diaphragm, and to the roots of 
 the large blood-vessels at the base of the heart. 
 
 Q. AVhat is the function of the serous sm-face of the 
 pericardium? — A. To secrete the liquor pericai-dii. 
 
 Q. What is the use of this liquor ? — A. It serves to 
 protect its own sm-face, and that of the heart, from 
 friction. 
 
 Q. What office does the pericai-dium perform? — A. 
 It sustains the heart in its proper situation. 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 157 
 
 Q. What is the form of the heart? — A. Its form is 
 conoid, yet somewhat flattened on the anterior surface 
 and rounded on the other. 
 
 Q. Where is the heart situated? — A. Within the 
 thorax, in the region of the fourth, fifth, and sLxth 
 dorsal vertebra;; bounded on tlie sides by the lungs 
 and walls of the thorax ; posteriorly, by the dia- 
 phragm; Inferiorly and anteriorly, by the sternum. 
 
 Q. How is the body of heart di\ided ? — A. Into a 
 base and apes. 
 
 Q. Wliat are the divisions internally? — A. It is 
 di\ided into foiu' cavities, \t2 : two auricles, or anterior 
 cavities ; two ventricles, or posterior eanties. 
 
 Q. Wliat commimications exist between the cavities 
 of the heart ? — A. Between the two auricles there is 
 no commxuiication, nor between the two ventricles ; 
 but the right aiu-icle opens into the right ventricle, and 
 a similar opening exists between the left auricle and 
 ventricle. 
 
 Q. How do veterinarians describe the relative situa- 
 tion of the cavities of the heart ? — A, The amides are 
 described as anterior and posterior, because the right 
 auricle forms the upper and fore part, and the left is 
 in a posterior dii-ection ; the ventricles being located 
 under then- respective auricles ; thus we have the ante- 
 rior and posterior ventricles. 
 
 Q. How is the exterior sm'face of the heart pro- 
 tected ? — By a dupHcature of the pericardium. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the am-icles? — A. To 
 receive the blood from the various vessels and transmit 
 it to the ventricles. 
 
 Q. What is the function of the ventricles? — A. 
 One propels the blood to the lungs, for pm-ification ; 
 the other distributes it through the arterial ramifi- 
 cations. 
 
 Q. Name the venous vessels which terminate in the 
 right auricle. — A. Three venous vessels terminate in 
 it, riz : the vena cava, anterior and posterior, and the 
 coronary vein; the vena azygos forms a junction with 
 
 the anterior cava, just as the latter pierces the walls of 
 the auricles. 
 
 Q. How are the auricles dirided ? — A. By the sep- 
 tum am-icularum. 
 
 Q. Describe the internal mechanism of the right 
 ventricle? — A. It has within it numerous fleshy pil- 
 lars, longitudinally distributed; also, three fleshy 
 prominences, termed carnea columnse, from which sev- 
 eral tendinous cords proceed to the edges of those 
 membranous and fibrous productions ; these close the 
 auriculo-ventricular opening; the apparatus alto- 
 gether forms vahida tricupsis. Other cords, similar to 
 the cordis tending, pass between the outer wall and 
 the septum. 
 
 Q. Where is the origin of the right pulmonary ar- 
 tery ? — A. It emerges from the upper and back part 
 of the ventricle. 
 
 Q. How is the mouth of this artery protected ? — A. 
 By three semilimar valves, wliich present Uttle pouches 
 within its cavity ; these valves consist of doublings of 
 the Hning membrane of the -parts. 
 
 Q. Describe the left ventricle? — A. Its cavity is 
 smaller than that of the right, and its wall is tliicker. 
 Its muscuU pectinati appear mostly upon the septum, 
 within the apex and mider the valves ; it has two, in- 
 stead of thi-ee, carna; columnse ; they are more bulky, 
 and project more into the carity than those of the 
 right. 
 
 Q. From whence does the aorta arise ? — A. From 
 the upper and fore part of the left ventricle. 
 
 Q. What is remarkable about the mouth of the 
 aorta ? — A. It has three semilunar valves, similar to 
 those at the origm of the pulmonary artery. 
 
 Q. By what are the ventricles cUrided ? — A. They 
 are divided by a fleshy partition called septum ventric- 
 uloi-um. 
 
 Q. How is the circidation of the blood cfiected ? — 
 A. By the alternate contraction of the auricles and 
 ventricles, called the dyastole and systole of the heart. 
 
 Q. By what vessels is the heart itself supplied with 
 blood ? — A. By the coronary arteries. 
 
ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 The blood is propelled by the heart 
 through the great aorta, which rises out of 
 the base of the left ventricle, in the space 
 between the left auricle and the pulmonary 
 artery. The branches furnished by the 
 main trunk are the coronary arteries. The 
 right coronary artery emerges from between 
 the pulmonary and right auricle, winds round 
 the fissure separating that cavity from the 
 right ventricle, and turns down under the 
 termination of the vena cava; and distri- 
 butes ramifications in its course, which 
 penetrate the substance of the parietes, 
 and end in spiral branches. The left coro- 
 nary artery, in passing out between the 
 pulmonary artery and left auricle, sends 
 off a large branch, which encircles the 
 other auricle ; it then takes its course down- 
 ward, and ends in spiral ramifications. 
 
 ANTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 This is a shorter division of the main 
 trunk. The course of this vessel is under 
 the windpipe ; it gives origin to those large 
 arteries which are distributed over the 
 breast, head, neck, brain, and anterior ex- 
 tremities. It divides, at a short distance 
 from the heart, into the right and left ar- 
 teria innominata ; the right is considerably 
 longer than the left, and measures nearly as 
 much again in circumference ; it forms the 
 ti-unk from which the two carotid arteries 
 spring; the left terminates in the following 
 vessels : * 
 
 1. The dorsal artery. 2. Posterior cervi- 
 cal. 3. Vertebral. 4. Internal pectoral. 
 5. External pectoral. 6. Inferior cervical. 
 
 * The vertebral artery, forming the basilar, gives off 
 tlie posterior cerebellal, anterior cerebellal, posterior cere- 
 bral, and the circular arteriosus. 
 
 7. Axillary. Each of these arteries ramify 
 and anastomose with others, and are dis- 
 tributed to muscular and adipose substance. 
 From the axillary artery spring all the ar- 
 teries of the fore extremity. This vessel 
 can only be seen by detaching the shoulder 
 from the body. It arises within the chest, 
 from the arteria innominata ; gains exit by 
 making a sudden turn around the first rib, 
 rather below its middle, crossing the lower 
 border of the scalenus in the turn; it is 
 first directed outward in this flexure, and 
 then backward, and at length reaches the 
 inner part of the head of the humerus, 
 where it makes another turn backward, and 
 afterwards takes the name of the brachial 
 artery. Its branches are — 1. The external 
 thoracic. 2. The internal thoracic, which 
 runs to the point of the shoulder, and gives 
 its branches to the levator humeri and 
 shoulder joint. 3. The dorsalis scapulae 
 ascends, in a flexuous manner, to the 
 shoulder joint, crossing the insertion of the 
 subscapularis. It runs for a short distance 
 along the ribs. 4. The subscapularis, a 
 large artery, which also arises from the 
 upper part of the trunk, but near to its ter- 
 mination. It passes along the ribs, screened 
 from view by the edges of the subscapu- 
 laris and teres major, to both of which 
 muscles it detaches several small branches, 
 and ends near the lower angle of the bone ; 
 it also gives off several branches to the 
 triceps and panniculus. 5. The humeral. 
 
 The humeral artery descends from the 
 inner and back part of the head of the os 
 humeri, in an obUque direction on the body 
 of the bone, where it divides into the ulnar, 
 spiral, and radial arteries. On its inner 
 side, it has the spiral and ulnar ner^'es ; in 
 front, the radial nerve; and behind, the 
 
 (158) 
 
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOL YGY OF THE HORSE, 
 
 159 
 
 humeral veins; and it is covered inter- 
 nally by the large pectoral muscle, to which 
 it sends some small branches. But its prin- 
 cipal branches are — 1. One near its origin, 
 which crosses the bone to get to the flexor 
 brachii, and sends twigs to the shoulder- 
 joint. 2. A posterior branch, arising a lit- 
 tle lower down, which enters the muscle 
 called triceps. 3. Near its termination, 
 another branch to the flexor brachii. Where 
 the artery divides, it is covered by the hu- 
 meral plexus of veins, and by the absorbent 
 glands of the arm. 
 
 The ulnar artery consists of a common 
 root, from which spring three or four ves- 
 sels of considerable size, running in waving 
 lines upon the inner side of the lower end 
 of the humerus. The upper one is directed 
 to the ulnar, splitting before it reaches the 
 bone, and sending one branch upward upon 
 the elbow, and another downward to the 
 heads of the flexors ; to which muscles 
 the other branches of tliis vessel are dis- 
 tributed. 
 
 The spiral artery, the outermost division, 
 turns round the os humeri, passing under 
 the flexor brachii, and sending a recurrent 
 branch to it, to arrive at the front of the 
 radius, where it splits into several branches, 
 of which — 1. Some run into the elbow 
 joint. 2. Others, larger and more numer- 
 ous, penetrate the heads of the extensors. 
 3. Two long, slender ones descend upon the 
 radius, and give branches, in their course, 
 to the extensor muscles as low as the knee, 
 and there end in ramifications about and 
 into the joint, joining with others coming 
 from the radial. 
 
 The radial artery, the principal division 
 humeral, continues its descent along the 
 radius, about the middle of the arm ; the 
 nerve accompanies it first on its outer side, 
 and subsequently behind it. A short way 
 above the knee, it splits into the metacarpal 
 arteries. 
 
 The small metacarpal artery descends, 
 within a cellular sheath, along the inner and 
 back part of the knee. It continues its 
 descent along the metacarpal vein (which 
 runs to its inner side), tUl it gets below the 
 
 knee, and then transmits its divisions down 
 the front of the suspensary ligament ; be- 
 tween it and the canon bone, it sends off" 
 branches over the front of the knee, the 
 canon, and suspensaiy ligament. 
 
 The large metacarpal artery, a continua- 
 tion of the radial trunk, continues its course 
 down the leg, by the side of the tendo per- 
 foratus, passing under the posterior annular 
 ligament, approaches the fetlock just above 
 the joint, and then splits into three vessels ; 
 from the middle division three recuiTcnt ar- 
 teries are given out ; the side divisions be- 
 come the plantar arteries. From the arch 
 below come off" tw^o other branches, which 
 descend into the joint. The plantar arte- 
 ries, external and internal, in the fore ex- 
 tremity, result from the fork of the meta-. 
 carpal ; in the hind, from that of the 
 metatarsal. (Their general distribution is 
 the same, both in the hind and fore feet.) 
 They descend the fetlock upon the sides of 
 the sessamoids, in company with the veins 
 which run in front of them, and with 
 the plantar nerves which proceed behind 
 them ; the artery then passes down to, 
 and into, the substance of what is caUed 
 the " fatty frog ; " it next passes the inner 
 and upper extremity of the coffin bone, and 
 afterwards to the foramen of the posterior 
 concavity of the bone. The branches of 
 the plantar artery are many and important. 
 After detaching some small ramifications 
 inwardly to the fetlock, posteriorly to the 
 ffexor tendons, and anteriorly to the ex- 
 tensor tendon, it then sends off" — 1. The 
 perpendicular artery. 2. The transverse 
 artery. 3. The artery of the firog. 4. The 
 lateral laminal artery. 5. The circulus ar- 
 teriosus. From the latter arise two prin- 
 cipal sets of vessels — 1. The anterior 
 laminated arteries. 2. The inferior com- 
 municating arteries, "thirteen, and some- 
 times fourteen, in number." 3. The circum- 
 flex artery. Then, again, from this vessel 
 spring the solar arteries, which may be so 
 named from their radiated arrangement. 
 These latter are destined for the supply of 
 the sole, upon which they run in radii at 
 equal distances, whose common centre is the 
 
160 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 toe of the frog, where they end in commu- 
 nications with the arteries of that body. 
 
 THE CAROTID ARTERY. 
 
 The right arteria innominata, having de- 
 tached seven important branches, which 
 vary but little in their mode of origin, 
 general course, and distribution, from the 
 several arteries into which the left division 
 resolves itself, become the common carotid 
 — a large vessel emerging through the up- 
 per opening of the chest ; it divides, as it 
 quits the chest, into two branches, called 
 the right and left carotids. These arteries 
 ascend, and having reached the top of the 
 larynx, the carotid of either side branches 
 into three divisions — the external and inter- 
 nal carotids, and the ramus anastomoticus -. 
 here, though the trunk itself becomes deeply 
 lodged in soft parts, its situation is well in- 
 dicated by the larynx, with which it is in 
 contact. This vessel detaches — 1. Several 
 unimportant muscular branches in its pro- 
 gress up the neck. 2. The thyi-oideal 
 artery, which furnishes the laryngeal, a 
 small artery that perforates the ligament 
 uniting the cartilages of the throat. 
 
 Tlie external carotid artery is the large 
 division, which may be regarded as the con- 
 tinuation of the carotid itself. This artery 
 is imbedded in glandular substance, sur- 
 rounded by venous and nervous trunks, and 
 protected by bony prominences and muscles. 
 The first branch of the external carotid is 
 the submaxillary artery ; it comes off behind 
 the horn of the ox hyoides, just as the 
 carotid makes its second curve, and ranks 
 next in size to the trunk itself. After reach- 
 ing the lower jaw (about one-thu-d of its 
 length downwards), it arrives upon the face; 
 here it becomes subcutaneous, ending in an 
 equal division, called the facial and inferior 
 labial arteries. Its branches are, the ascend- 
 ing laryngeal, pharyngeal : smaller branches 
 go to parotid gland, and a large branch, 
 called the lingiial. The latter detaches a 
 few twigs into the submaxillary space ; it 
 then branches into two arteries, the ranine 
 and the sublingual. The ranine, apparently 
 a continuation of the lingual, passes along 
 
 the under part of the tongue, and transmits 
 branches to the interior, and continues of 
 large size even to the tip of the organ, 
 wherever its extreme ramifications are ex- 
 pended. The sublingual artery winds along 
 the under and outer border of the tongue, 
 preserving a more superficial course than 
 the former. It supplies the sublingual 
 gland, and distributes branches over the 
 membrane of the tongue. The submental 
 artery leaves the submaxillary, follows the 
 course of the branch of the jaw, and de- 
 taches twigs to muscles ; it then transmits 
 its ramifications into the gums internally. 
 The anterior masseter branches pass on the 
 external side of the jaw. 
 
 The inferior labial artery courses the side 
 of the jaw, invested in the cellular and 
 fleshy substance belonging to the buccinator. 
 It gives off slender ramifications to the in- 
 vesting cellular substance, also the buc- 
 cinator arteries ; the buccal twdgs bifurcate, 
 sending their divisions respectively to the 
 upper and under Ups ; these form the supe- 
 rior and inferior coronary arteries of the lips. 
 
 The facial artery ascends upon the side 
 of the face, crosses the buccinator, then, 
 having run as high as the bony ridge from 
 whence the masseter arises, it detaches a 
 large branch, and then expands upon the 
 upper and fore part of the face; its termi- 
 nating ramifications are in the cellular sub- 
 stance and skin covering the fore part of 
 the face. 
 
 • The posterior auricular gives branches to 
 the parotid gland, and to the different mus- 
 cles of the ears. 
 
 The teviporal artery, i\ie anterior auricular, 
 and the internal maxillary, may be con- 
 sidered as the terminating branches of the 
 external carotid. The internal maxillary 
 gives off deep temporal branches, long 
 slender twigs, to the soft palate, to the ear, 
 and to the articulation of the jaw; the facial 
 artery also gives off the inferior maxillary, 
 the supra-orbitar, the ocular, the infra- 
 orbitar, and the palate maxiUary. The 
 second and smallest division of the carotid 
 is the 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XYI. 
 
 XO. 1. 
 
 FROXT AND SIDE MEW OF THE NEAR-HIND LEG. 
 
 </. Ligaments of the patella. 
 
 J". Triceps. 
 
 ni\ Tensor Tagina. 
 
 n'. Rectus. 
 
 o'. Vastus externus. 
 
 q". y'. Extensor suffraginis. 
 
 X. X. Extensor pedis. 
 
 7. Slieath and penis. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament. 
 if. The hoof. 
 
 NO. 2. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 22. Fenuu-. 
 
 23. Patella. 
 
 24. Tibia. 
 e. Fibula. 
 
 25. Os calcis. 
 
 26. Astragalus. 
 
 27. Inferior tarsus. 
 
 28. Metacarpus magnum. 
 *. " par\'us. 
 
 29. Sessamoids. 
 
 30. Os suf&aginis. 
 
 31. Os corona. 
 
 32. Os uedis. 
 
 NO. 3. 
 
 OUTSIDE VIEW OF THE NEAR-HI>D LEG. 
 
 K. Abductors. 
 
 J". Triceps. 
 
 m\ Tensor vagina. 
 
 m'. Rectus. 
 
 o'. Vastus externus. 
 
 )•'. Gastrocnemius externus. 
 
 V. s'. Peroneus. 
 
 u\ Gastrocnemius externus. 
 
 «'. u'. Flexor pedis. 
 
 X. Extensor pedis. 
 
 y. y. Extensors. 
 
 «. V. Flexor tendons. 
 
 §-. The hoof. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of suspensory ligament. 
 
 No. 4 is nearly the same as No. 3, and therefore ueeds no further description. 
 z. Suspensory ligament. 
 
EXPLANATION OP FIGUKE XVI. CONTINUED. 
 NO. 5. 
 
 f. Abductor tibialis. 
 
 q. Glans penis. 
 
 r. Gastrocnemius extemus. 
 
 t'. Flexor pedis accessorius. 
 
 «'. Lisertion of the gastrocnemius. 
 
 x'. X. q. Extensor pedis. 
 
 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament 
 ^-. The hoof. 
 
 9. Flexor metatarsi. 
 5. The saphena vein. 
 
 z. Suspensory ligament. 
 
THE HOKSE. 
 
 161 
 
 RAMUS ANASTOMOTICUS. 
 
 It leaves " the trunk of the carotid, joins 
 the vertebral, and from it arises the occipital 
 artery, which gives off twigs to be dispersed 
 upon the dm-a mater, temporal muscle, and 
 muscles of the occiput. 
 
 INTERNAL CAROTID. 
 
 This vessel, whose calibre is not more 
 than half that of the external carotid, 
 ascends to the base of the skuU : at its en- 
 trance into the skull, a vessel comes off 
 named the arteria communicans : after 
 having given off tliis vessel, the internal 
 carotid pierces the dura mater, takes its 
 course up near the optic nerve, and branches 
 into four divisions, wliich supply the cere- 
 brum with blood. 
 
 The remaining vessels of the brain are 
 derived from the vertebral artery, which 
 gives off posterior arteries to the dura mater, 
 and ramifications to the medulla oblongata. 
 
 The basilar artery sends off branches to 
 the cerebellum. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR AORTA. 
 
 Considerably longer and larger than the 
 anterior is the main trunk, from which are 
 derived the artery of the abdomen, pelvis, 
 and posterior extremities, in addition to the 
 posterior intercostals, and some few of the 
 thoracic arteries. It commences opposite 
 the fourth dorsal vertebrae : from its origin 
 it courses first upward, and then backward, 
 having the pulmonary artery on its left, the 
 termination of the windpipe on its right, 
 then takes a course along the spine, inclin- 
 ing to the left side. From the inferior part 
 of the curvatme of the aorta arise the right 
 and left bronchial arteries: these vessels 
 penetrate the lungs in company with the 
 bronchia, to the branches of which they 
 cKng in the course of their ramifications 
 within the substance of the lungs. 
 
 The esophageal also spring from the con- 
 cavity of the arch near to the former, and 
 proceed backward to the esophagus, where 
 it divides into an inferior and superior artery. 
 The intercostal, the remainuig branches, 
 come off in pairs from the sides of the ves- 
 
 sel, to supply aU those intercostal spaces 
 posteriorly to the last. These arteries ma 
 along the lower borders of the ribs, and end 
 about the inferior parts of the chest and 
 abdomen. They furnish, near their origin, 
 small branches, which enter the vertebral 
 canal. Having detached these small ves- 
 sels, the posterior aorta continues its pas- 
 sage into the abdomen. In maldng its 
 exit from the chest, it gives off the phrenic 
 or diaplnragmatic arteries. 
 
 Witliin the abdomen, the aorta continues 
 to be firmly fixed to the spine, by its several 
 cellular attachments, as far as the lumbar 
 vertebra, under the body of which it branches 
 into four large arterial trunks. Prior to this 
 division, the abdominal aorta gives off the 
 cceliac artery, which is nothing more than 
 the common root of the splenic, gastric, and 
 hepatic — arteries that in some instances 
 have separate origins. 
 
 The splenic artery, after passing between 
 the stomach and spleen, ends in the left 
 gastric artery. In its course it gives off 
 several branches to the pancreas, caUed pan- 
 creatic arteries. 
 
 The gastric artery, the smallest of the 
 cceliac divisions, ruiis forward to the small 
 curvature of the stomach, between the layers 
 of the omentum, branching, before it reaches 
 this organ, into two vessels, called inferior 
 and superior gastric, which finally ramify 
 upon the upper and under surface of the 
 stomach. 
 
 The hepatic artery, the largest of the 
 cceliac division, proceeds before the pancreas 
 to the right side of the cavity, and passes 
 over the pyloric end of the stomach, and 
 gives off smaU -branches to the pancreas. 
 Near the pylorus, it sends a branch to the 
 duodenum, which, as soon as it reaches the 
 intestine, divides : one division — ■ the duo- 
 denal — retrogrades along the gut, and ends 
 in anastomosis, with branches coming from 
 the anterior mesenteric ; the other — the 
 right gastric — crosses the gut, proceeds to 
 the great curvature of the stomach, where 
 it inosculates with the left gastric. The 
 hepatic artery itself is continued forward to 
 the porta of the fiver, where it divides 
 
162 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 into the right and left hepatic ; the right, — 
 the larger and shorter one, — after giving off 
 a considerable branch to the portio media, 
 turns back to reach the right lobe ; the left, 
 after giving off a branch or two to the mid- 
 dle portion, penetrates the left lobe. 
 
 The anterior, or great mesenteric, is the 
 next vessel to the cceliac, and arises from 
 the under part of the posterior aorta. From 
 its origin, it passes downward within the 
 layers of the mesentery, detaching some 
 small twigs to the pancreas ; it then sepa- 
 rates into larger vessels (commonly from 
 eight to twelve in number), from which are 
 derived a branch that runs to the duode- 
 num ; several other branches encircle and 
 ramify on and around the intestines. 
 
 The renal or emulgent arteries leave the 
 aorta at right angles just below the preced- 
 ing vessel ; they each pass into the respect- 
 ive kidneys, and therein divide into branches 
 that penetrate the glandular substance. 
 
 The spermatic arteries, right and left, 
 originate from the under part of the aorta ; 
 they pass out of the abdomen, at the ab- 
 dominal ring, to the testicles. In the female, 
 they pass to the ovaries, fallopian tubes, 
 and horns of the uterus. 
 
 The posterior aorta also gives off the 
 small mesenteric, and five or six pairs of 
 lumbar arteries. Under the last lumbar 
 vertebrsE, the aorta gives off two pairs of 
 arterial trunks, called the external and inter- 
 nal iliacs. 
 
 The internal iliacs give off a branch 
 called the artery of the bulb, and afterwards 
 branches into three divisions — the obtura- 
 tor, gluteal, and lateral sacral arteries. 
 
 The artery of the bulb passes to the bulb 
 of the penis, where it terminates. In the 
 female, this artery sends its terminating 
 branches to the vagina. It gives off the 
 fcetal umbilical artery. In leaving the pel- 
 vis, the prostatic artery, which detaches 
 twigs to the vesiculEB seminales, also distri- 
 butes its ultimate ramifications to the pros- 
 tate gland. It also gives off divers branches, 
 anal and perineal, to the posterior portion 
 of the rectum, anus, and parts comprising 
 the perineum. 
 
 The obturator artery is the lowest of the 
 divisions of the internal iUac. Its branches 
 are the arteria innominati, and ramifications 
 to the obturator muscles and ligaments. Its 
 divisions are the ischiatic, which distributes 
 its branches to the triceps ; next, the pubic : 
 the internal pubic artery gives tw^o sets of 
 branches, which pass to the penis. 
 
 The gluteal artery is destined principally 
 to supply the gluteal muscles. 
 
 Tlie lateral sacral artery, having reached 
 the coccyx, divides into two branches. It 
 furnishes the sacro-spinal branches, five 
 or six in number, and the perineal artery. 
 It soon divides into several ramifications, 
 of which many run into the gluteal mus- 
 cles ; others descend on the back of the 
 thigh, and others are distributed to the anal 
 muscles, and to the skin and ceUular sub- 
 stance of the perineum. The lateral sacral 
 also furnishes the lateral coccygeal, and 
 the inferior coccygeal. 
 
 TJie external iliac artery, right and left, 
 results from a branch of the posterior aorta, 
 which takes place under the body of the 
 last of the lumbar vertebrae, and passes 
 into muscles, forming the inside of the 
 thighs. The vessel gives off the circumflex 
 artery of the ileum, the artery of the cord, 
 and the arteria jDrofunda : the latter, having 
 reached the posterior quarters, it sends its 
 ramifications into the biceps. Before this 
 vessel dips into the substance of the thigh, 
 it gives rise to a large branch called the 
 epigastic artery. 
 
 The epigastric artery, in passing the mar- 
 gin of the internal ring, forms a branch 
 which divides into several small arteries ; of 
 these a twig runs to the groin, and ramifies 
 among the adipose membrane and absorbent 
 glands ; then, next, a slender branch to the 
 cremaster, and subcutaneous twig to the 
 thigh, and, lastly, the external pudic artery. 
 
 The fenwral artery. — Regarding the pro- 
 funda femoris as a limb of the external 
 iliac, we descend to the femoral artery, the 
 subsequent continuation of the same trunk. 
 This artery proceeds in an oblique direction 
 down the haunch, preserving nearly the line 
 of its middle ; opposite to the head of the 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 163 
 
 tibirf, it branches into the anterior and pos-' 
 terior tibial arteries ; the anterior tibial gives 
 ofl' the inguinal artery, also tlnree or four 
 branches to thft sartorius, and one to the 
 side and front of the stifle. Its posterior 
 branches are a large artery to the gracUis 
 (wliich detaches twigs to the long and short 
 heads of the triceps), also one to the biceps. 
 At the back of the stifle come off the pop- 
 liteal branches, four or five in number, 
 taking opposite directions, which are des- 
 tined for the supply of the joint ; one runs 
 down upon the posterior tibial muscles; 
 another — the recurrent branches — climbs 
 the back of the os femoris, and anastomoses 
 with the descending ramifications of the 
 profunda femoris. 
 
 The tibial arteries are a continuation of 
 the femoral trunk, which branch off into 
 tibial arteries at the head of tibia. 
 
 The posterior tibial artery, the smaller of 
 the two, passes along the posterior deep 
 region of the thigh, to the hock, where it 
 
 ends in bifurcation. Its branches are, one 
 that runs into the flexor pedis ; another to the 
 upper and back part of the tibia ; and small 
 twigs to both the flexgrs. There are several 
 terminating branches, some ramifying sub- 
 cutaneously, others continuing down the leg 
 internally over the tendon of the flexor 
 pedis, and ending at the lower part of the 
 canon in divers small ramifications. 
 
 The anterior tibial artery, after leaving 
 the trunk, passes down the fore part of the 
 thigh to the hock and metatarsal bone, 
 where it becomes the me+atarsal artery. 
 
 The metatarsal artery pursues its course 
 downwards to about two-tliirds the length 
 of the leg ; it then gains the posterior part 
 of the latter ; a Httle above the fetlock, it 
 divides into three vessels : one forms an arc, 
 (as in the fore extremity), from which come 
 off" the recurrents, and they anastomose 
 with the posterior tibial artery ; the lateral 
 divisions become the plantar arteries. 
 
164 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 REMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 
 
 Aorta 
 
 Anterior Aorta 
 
 The preceding is a brief sketch of the arterial structure, and the professional man 
 will perceive that we have not named the whole of the arteries ; therejpre, in order to 
 supply this deficiency', the author here introduces a table of the arteries, constructed by 
 Mr.*Percivall. 
 
 TABLE OF THE ARTERIES. 
 
 Anterior Aorta. 
 
 Posterior Aorta. 
 
 Right Arteria Lmominata. 
 
 Left Arteria Innominata. 
 
 ''Dorsal. 
 
 Posterior Cervical. 
 
 Vertebral, forming the Basilar. 
 
 Internal Pectoral. 
 
 External Pectoral. 
 
 Inferior Cervical. 
 
 _ Axillary. 
 
 ('External Thoracic. 
 Internal Thoracic. 
 Axillary < Dorsalis Scapulse. 
 Subscapular. 
 1^ Humeral, 
 f Ulnar. 
 Spiral 
 
 Radial. . . i Small Metacarpal. 
 Larare ditto. 
 
 Left Arteria 
 Innominata 
 
 ('Posterior Cerebellal. 
 J Anterior Cerebellal. 
 ] Posterior Cerebral, 
 l^^ Circular Arteriosvis. 
 
 Humeral 
 
 Large Metacarpal | 
 
 External Plantar. 
 ) Internal ditto. 
 
 f Perpendicular. 
 Transverse. 
 Plantar < Artery of the Frog. 
 Lateral Laminal. 
 (^Circular Arteriosus. 
 
 Ant. Laminal. 
 
 Inf. Communicatuig. 
 
 Circumflex. . . • ^ Solar. 
 
 The Right Arteria Innominata sends off' branches correspondent to those on the left 
 side ; and, in addition, the 
 
 Right Carotid J External Carotid. 
 Left ditto. > Ramus Anastomoticus. 
 ) Internal Carotid. 
 ' Ascending Pharyngeal. 
 
 Common Carotid 
 
 External Carotid < 
 
 Submaxillary. 
 
 Parotideal. 
 Int. Pterygoid. 
 Post. Masseter. 
 Post. Auricular. 
 Temporal. 
 Ant. Auricular. 
 Int. Maxillary. 
 
 Pterygoid. 
 Lingual. . . . 
 
 Inferior Labial. 
 
 Facial. 
 
 \ Ranine. 
 I Sublingual. 
 ( Buccinator. 
 I Angular Oral. 
 ^ Masseter. 
 J Buccal. 
 I Sup. Labial. 
 I False Nasal. 
 
 'Deep Temporal. 
 
 Palatine. 
 
 Inf. Maxillary. 
 
 Supra-Orbitar. 
 
 Ocular. 
 
 Infra- Orbitar. 
 ^Palato Maxillary. 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 165 
 
 Dm-a Matral. 
 Ramus Anastomoticus [• Occipital. ^ Temporal. 
 
 Nuchal. 
 
 {Ai-teria Communicans. 
 Anterior Dura Matral. 
 Anterior Cerebral. . . <( Ophthalmic 
 IVIiddle Cerebral. 
 Lateral Cerebral. 
 
 PosTERiou Aorta 
 
 Thoracic Division. 
 Abdominal ditto. 
 
 Bronchial 
 
 Thoracic Division < 
 
 Right Broncliial. 
 Left ditto. 
 Superior Esophageal. 
 Inferior ditto. 
 
 Abdominal 
 Division 
 
 Esophageal. 
 
 Intercostals. 
 Phrenic. 
 
 S Pancreatic Branches. 
 Splenic Branches. 
 Left Gastric, 
 j Superior Gastric. 
 I Inferior ditto: 
 ' Pancreatic Branches. 
 Duodenal. 
 Right Gastric. 
 Right and Left Hepatic. 
 Duodenal Branches. 
 SmaU Mesenteric. 
 Coecal Branches.' 
 Anterior Colic Branches. 
 Right Renal. ) External Branches. 
 Left ditto. \ Capsular Renal; 
 Spermatic <( Right and Left, 
 
 „ , . n/r i ■ i Posterior Colic. 
 Posterior Mesenteric j -p , . 
 
 ^ Lumbars — five or six pairs. 
 
 Bifurcation of the Posterior Aorta into External and Internal Iliac Arteries. 
 
 (Umbilical. 
 Vesical Branches. 
 Prostatic. 
 Anal and Perineal Branches. 
 Arteria Innominata. 
 Foraminal Branches. 
 Ischiatic. 
 
 r 
 
 Splenic 
 CffiUe <^ 
 
 Gastric 
 
 Hepatic 
 
 Anterior Mesentric 
 
 Renal 
 
 Internal 
 Iliac. 
 
 Obdurator 
 
 Pubic 
 Int. Pubic 
 
 Branches to the Crus Penis. 
 Ditto Corpus Cavernosuni. 
 Ditto Dorsum Penis. 
 Ditto Glans Penisi 
 Cutaneous Branches. 
 
 The Middle Sacral issues at the Bifurcation of the Trunk. 
 f Circumflex of the Heum. 
 r^ . , T1- Artery of the Cord. 
 
 External Hiac -^ ArWa Pmfnndn J 
 
 Arteria Profunda. -{ Epigastric. 
 Femoral. 
 
 Branch to the Groin. 
 Branch to the Ring. 
 External Pudic" 
 
166 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 Femoral - 
 
 Inguinal. 
 
 Muscular Branches. 
 Stifle Branches. 
 Muscular Branches. 
 Popliteal, -j Recurrent. 
 
 Anterior Tibial 
 
 Posterior Tibia 
 
 ' Recurrent Articular. 
 Muscular Branches. 
 Cutaneous Branches. 
 Metatarsal Branclies. 
 Metatarsal Ai-tery. . 
 Muscular Branches. 
 Medullary. 
 Tarsal. 
 Internal Metatarsal. -{ RecuiTcnt. 
 
 Recurrent. 
 External Plantar. 
 Internal Plantar. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF VEINS IN 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 The two main venous trunlvs, the vence 
 cava, anterior and posterior, correspond to 
 the anterior and posterior aortas. 
 
 THE ANTERIOR VENA CAVA 
 
 Forms the main trunk of the veins, re- 
 turning the blood from the head, neck, chest, 
 and fore extremities. It is principaDy formed 
 by the concurrent union of the jugular and 
 axillary veins, and is situated at its forma- 
 tion in the space between the two first ribs, 
 about midway between the sternum and 
 vertebras ; it also receives the pectoral, ver- 
 tebral, dorso-cervical, and inferior cervical 
 veins, and the vena azygos. 
 
 THE JUGULAR VEIN. 
 
 It passes behind the condyle of the lower 
 jaw, under the parotid gland, and joins the 
 external carotid artery, and continues its 
 course down the neck with the latter. It 
 now receives the auricular veins, anterior 
 and posterior, and also internal. The next 
 is the temporal, the third is the internal 
 maxillary ; the latter in its course receives 
 the blood of many small veins, — the palato- 
 maxillary, infra and supra orbitar, ocular, 
 inferior maxillary, and deep temporal ; the 
 fourth branch, received by the jugular vein, 
 is the parotideal, and the last branches from 
 the masseter muscles. 
 
 THE OCCIPITAL VEIN 
 
 Descends from the head, along with the 
 
 occipital artery. It brings blood from the 
 occipital sinuses, receives veins from the 
 posterior lobes of the cerebrum and cere- 
 bellum ; also from the dura mater. 
 
 The submaxillary vein is a large branch of 
 the jugular. It is formed upon the side of 
 the face by the concurrence of the facial, 
 labial, and varicose veins. It joins the 
 trunk by the side of the trachea, just below 
 the parotid gland. In its course it receives 
 a number of veins ; the principal are — the 
 submental, sublingual, lingual, pharyngeal, 
 and superior laryngeal veins. The facial 
 vein results from an expansion of small 
 veins upon the side of the face, one of 
 which is the varicose from the masseter. 
 The labial vein is formed by the union of 
 a plexus of venous branches, coming prin- 
 cipally from the angle of the mouth, joined 
 by others both from the upper and lower 
 Ups. The varicose vein is buried in the 
 masseter. 
 
 The jugular trunk having received the 
 submaxillary, proceeds down the neck, and 
 terminates in the anterior vena cava, withiu 
 the space between the two first ribs. Near 
 the junction of the submaxillary the jugu- 
 lar receives the small thyroideal, cutaneous, 
 muscular, and tracheal veins. Near its 
 termination it receives a branch of the 
 superficial brachial, and plait or plat vein. 
 
 The vertebral vein runs the same course 
 as the artery, through the foramina, in the 
 transverse processes of the cervical verte- 
 brse, with the exception of the last. This 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 167 
 
 vein has communications with the occipital 
 sinus and posterior cerebral veins, medulla 
 oblongata, and spinal marrow ; it also re- 
 ceives vessels from the deep-seated mus- 
 cles in the vicinity, and ends in the an- 
 terior vena cava, just behind the first rib. 
 
 The axillary vein returns the blood dis- 
 tributed by the axillary artery to the va- 
 rious parts of the fore extremity ; there is a 
 superficial and deep-seated set; the former 
 run under the skin, the latter among the 
 muscles. The plantar veins are an intri- 
 cate network of small veins, and cover the 
 foot with a venous netting. The veins 
 of the sole pour their blood into the veins 
 of the lamina ; the latter increase in size 
 towards the coronet, and gradually unravel 
 themselves, so as to collect in a great many 
 branches ; these run upward, through the 
 substance of the coronary ligament, and 
 form the superficial coronary vein ; from 
 them other branches proceed and join the 
 deep coronary, and afterwards unite in 
 a single vein opposite the pastern joint. 
 
 The veins of the frog, oiiex ramifying in 
 the form of networlc over that body, ascend 
 into the heel, growing larger as they leave 
 the foot ; they make a single branch at the 
 pastern joint, then unite wdth the vein com- 
 ing from the laminae, thereby forming the 
 plantar vein. The plantar vein ascends, 
 unites with other vessels, and becomes 
 metacarpal. 
 
 The vietacarpal veins, two in number, 
 result from the union of the plantar ; these 
 veins pursue their course up the leg, one on 
 either side, to the back of the knee, where 
 they end in anastomosis. The internal 
 metacarpal vein preserves the line of the 
 splint bone. These vessels receive in thefr 
 course cutaneous veins from the front of 
 the canon, and one or two descending 
 veins from the back of the leg; it after- 
 wards forms the deep-seated veins of the 
 arm. 
 
 The superficial brachial vein ascends 
 along the inner side of the radius to the 
 elbow-joint ; here it crosses over to the front 
 of the biceps and pursues its ascent upon 
 that muscle toward the point of the shoul- 
 
 der, and then passes inward to the jugular 
 vein. In its com'se to the latter, it receives 
 numerous cutaneous and muscular branches, 
 communicates with the humeral vein, and 
 anastomoses with other veins of the arm. 
 
 The radial veins, two in number, arise 
 from the junction of the metacarpal veins 
 above the loiee ; they take the course of 
 the radial artery, and receive anastomosing 
 vessels as they ascend from the ulnar and 
 superficial veins. 
 
 The ulnar veins (witii one exception) 
 end in the common trunk of the humeral 
 vein. 
 
 The humeral vein accompanies the ar- 
 tery ; it receives small veins from the mus- 
 cles. 
 
 Tlie axillarij vein is the continuation of 
 the humeral, augmented by the accession 
 of the triceps vein. Its branches are, the 
 subscapular vein, and dorsalis scapular; 
 the latter terminates about midway be- 
 tween the chest and shoulder. The re- 
 maining branches of this vein are the 
 humeral thoracic, and the external thoracic ; 
 it also receives other small veins, which 
 contribute more or less to its volume. 
 
 The pectoral vein runs the course of the 
 pectoral artery. It originates in branches 
 from the abdominal parietes, continues to 
 receive accessory vessels in its course, and 
 ascends along the inner and lower border 
 of the first rib. 
 
 The dorso-cervical vein consists of two 
 divisions, ramifying mth the dorsal and 
 posterior cervical arteries ; it receives the 
 anterior intercostal vein. 
 
 The inferior cervical vein rmis down the 
 lower part of the neck in company with the 
 artery ; the principal branches are muscular, 
 though some come from the skin and ab- 
 sorbent glands in the vicinity. 
 
 Tlie vena a-ygos ends just as the trunk 
 opens into the auricle ; it returns the 
 blood from the lower intercostal veins. 
 
 THE POSTERIOR VENA CAVA. 
 
 This is the corresponding venous trunk 
 to the posterior aorta, retiu-ning the blood 
 from the parietes of the abdomen and pel- 
 
168 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 vis, the urinary and genital organs, and the 
 posterior extremities. It takes its course 
 imder the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, 
 runs along the great fissure of the liver, 
 perforates the cordiform tendon, and pur- 
 sues its way directly across the cavity of 
 the chest to the lower part of the right auri- 
 cle : in its passage it is joined by the lum- 
 bar spermatic, renal, hepatic, and diaplnagm- 
 atic veins. 
 
 The common iliac veins are formed under 
 the sacro-iliac, symphysis, by the union of 
 the external and internal iliacs ; they re- 
 ceive a vein from the psoas and Uiacus, cir- 
 cumflex vein of the ileum, middle sacral, 
 and azygos. 
 
 The ischiatic vein, situated upon the side 
 of the pelvic cavity, midway between the 
 external iliac and lateral sacral veins ; ex- 
 ternal and internal branches unite to form 
 it.. The internal comprise veins coming 
 from the bladder, anus, perineum, and, in 
 the male, from the bulb and prostate: in 
 the female, fr'om the vulva and body of the 
 vagina. The external come principally 
 from the gluteal and obturator muscles. 
 
 The lateral sacral vein comes from the 
 tail, formed by coccygeal veins ; it runs 
 forward to the sacrum, and receives in 
 its course the permeal and sacro-spinal 
 branches. 
 
 The external iliac vein takes the same 
 course as the artery ; as it departs from the 
 belly, this vessel receives 
 
 The inguinal vein (coming fi-ora the 
 groin), also a superficial or cutaneous 
 abdominal vein, known as the milk vein in 
 cattle. 
 
 The femoral vein is the continuation of 
 the iliac trunk below the brim of the pelvis ; 
 and is the main channel into which the 
 deep-seated veins of the hind extremity 
 
 poiu their blood. We commence the de- 
 scription, as in the fore extremities, at the 
 leg. 
 
 The large metatarsal vein ascends the 
 canon by the side of the flexor tendons, 
 and passes over the front and inner part of 
 the hock ; it sends out branches, from which 
 result the 
 
 Ajiterior tibial veins, which run between 
 the tibia and fibula to the back and lower 
 part of the os femoris, and then are joined 
 by the posterior tibial vein, and all three 
 tmite to form the femoral. 
 
 2%e posterior tibial vein is a continua- 
 tion of the smedl metatarsal vein, and cor- 
 responds in size to the small metacarpal. 
 It runs in company with the posterior tib- 
 ial artery, receiving various muscular 
 branches in its course, also the medullary 
 vein of the tibia. 
 
 The femoral vein results from the t\\'o 
 last-named vessels ; runs behind the femoral 
 artery, and ends in the external iliac vein. 
 It receives muscular veins, as well as veins 
 from the stifle joint, and the medullary vein 
 of the OS femoris ; also, about two-thirds of 
 its length upwards, it is joined by the saph- 
 ena vein. 
 
 The vena saphena major results from the 
 large metatarsal vein ; at the hock it anas- 
 tomoses with the anterior tibial vein; it 
 also receives cutaneous and muscular 
 branches in its course. 
 
 The vena saphena minor springs from the 
 small metatarsal vein ; it runs up the back 
 of the hock, over the root of the os calcis, 
 and ultimately reaches the femoral vein. 
 
 The vena porta circulates the blood 
 through the liver, and is principally formed 
 by the union of the splenic and mesenteric 
 veins. 
 
THE HOUSE. 
 
 16J> 
 
 bo ( 
 
 ^^^:n 
 
 f^ != 2 £ 
 »: ." 5 o o 
 
 .2 i- S S S 
 
 !S n^ ^ •! ^ 
 
 5 ?1 S ^-S 
 t5 .2 a e ^ 
 
 -g •X3 g 5 5 
 
 d 
 
 o o 
 
 H r^S 
 
 t; -Q :^ G 
 
 13 c3 
 
 -3 be 
 
 ;a.<0 
 
 o S c g ? 3 
 
 „ w w »w C3 r- 3 .~ ^ ^ 
 
 ►::;Q fe i-^ > co CO J Ph m 
 
 o <^ o 
 
 .5 .2 
 '3 lo 
 
 
 <iS 
 
 <^H 
 
 
 > 
 
170 
 
 A^■ATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 g o "-B o o S 
 D O 5 ri o o 
 OOOPh Op5 
 
 S§ 
 
 = =3 1;; P_ 
 
 §g 
 
 ■^ c c; C rt 
 
 I " 5 S 
 
 
 .2 •" 
 
 'rt H 
 
 Ph K p3 
 
 O <! 
 
 SO 
 
 ^> 
 
EXPLANATION OP PIGURE XVII. 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTUKE. 
 
 1. Frontal bones. 
 
 3. Occipital. 
 
 4. Temporal. 
 
 8. Superior maxillaris. 
 
 10. Inferior " 
 
 11. Cervical vertebrse. 
 14. The sacrum. 
 
 16. The false ribs. 
 
 18. The sternum. 
 
 19. The ileimi. 
 
 20. The ischium. 
 
 21. Pubis. 
 
 22. Femur. 
 
 23. Patella. 
 
 24. Tibia. 
 
 c. Fibula. 
 
 25. Os calcis. 
 
 26. Tarsal bones. 
 
 27. The mferior tarsal bones. 
 
 28. Metatarsus magnum. 
 
 29. Sessamoides. 
 
 30. Os suf&aginis. 
 
 31. Os corona. 
 
 32. Os pedis. 
 
 33. Scapula. 
 
 34. Os humeri. 
 
 35. Radius. 
 f. Os uhiaris. 
 
 36. The carpal bones. 
 
 37. Metacarpus magnum. 
 
 38. Scssamoida. 
 
 39. Os corona. 
 
 40. Os sufh-aginis. 
 
 41. Os pedis. 
 
 d. Dorsal spines. 
 
 MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 a. Orbicularis palpebrarum, 
 
 c. Dilator naris lateralis. 
 
 e. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 f. Nasalis longus. 
 li. Buccmator. 
 
 j. Depressor labii. 
 
 k. Masseter. 
 
 10. Region of the parotid gland. 
 
 o. Adducens Tel deprimens aurem. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGUKE XVII. CONTINUED. 
 
 THE NECK. 
 
 6". Cen-ical ligament. Ligamentum colli, 
 c". Trachelo subscapularis, scalenus. 
 s. Splenius. 
 
 r. t. Tendon of the splenius and scalenus. 
 u. Levator humeri. 
 
 6UPERI0E PART OF THE SHOCLDEK AND BACK. 
 
 i". Latissimus dorsi. 
 m". Trapezius. 
 
 SHOULDER AND FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 g. Ji". Spinatus muscles. 
 
 I", in', n'. Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 s". x". Extensors metacarpi. 
 
 p". q". Flexors externus et Intemus. 
 
 It. u. u. u. Flexors perforans et perforatus. 
 
 8. The pastern. 
 
 S,-. &{. Hoofs. 
 
 ABDOMINAL REGION. 
 
 c". Abdominis transversalis externus. 
 4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein. 
 
 POSTERIOR E-KTREMITIES. 
 
 «'. Erector coccygis. 
 
 g". Compressor coccygis. 
 
 i'. Glutei. 
 
 J'. Triceps. 
 
 h'. Biceps abductor. 
 
 v. Abductor tibialis intemus. 
 
 r'. r. s'. Gastrocnemi. 
 
 t!. Peroncus. 
 
 g'. Extensor metatar-si internus. 
 
 w. Insertion of the gastrocnemius. 
 
 V. Flexor perforans et perforatus. 
 
 a;, y. Fleshy belly of the extensors. 
 
 8. The pastern. 
 
 if. «,'. Hoofs. 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 171 
 
 THE BRAIN AND ITS APPEN- 
 DAGES. 
 
 The cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla 
 oblongata, and medulla spinalis are invested 
 with three membranes : the dura mater, pia 
 mater, and tunica arachnoides. Of these 
 the exterior is the dura mater ; which, 
 though called a membrane, is of a dense, 
 tough, and inelastic texture. It is so firmly 
 adherent, by means of numerous little 
 prominences, to the sutures of the cranium, 
 that it is diSicult to separate them ; this 
 membrane is to the internal cranium what 
 the pericraninm is externally. The inner 
 surface of the dura mater is lubricated by 
 a fluid furnished by its own blood-ves- 
 sels. 
 
 The pia mater is that membrane which 
 closely envelopes the substance of the 
 brain, and dips down between its convolu- 
 tions, and adheres to its surface by num- 
 berless minute blood-vessels. It differs in 
 its appearance and texture from the dura 
 mater; presenting a smooth surface exte- 
 riorly, but a rough and villous one next to 
 the brain, and being composed of a beauti- 
 ful network of blood-vessels united together 
 by a delicate cellular tissue. 
 
 The third membrane has been compared 
 to a spider's web, in allusion to which the 
 name of mcmbrana arachnoides has been 
 given to it. 
 
 The arteries which supply the brain with 
 blood are the two vertebrals, besides two 
 other branches called the internal carotids. 
 Its blood is returned from the sinuses of 
 the dura mater by the vertebral and jugular 
 veins. 
 
 It is on the supply of the vertebral ar- 
 teries, however, that the brain mainly de- 
 pends for its supply, for, if ligatures are 
 placed on these arteries, the animal dies; 
 whereas, both the carotids may be tied 
 without occasioning any apparent ill effects. 
 If our memory serves us. Dr. J. C. Warren, 
 of this city, has performed the latter 
 operation on the human subject with suc- 
 cess. 
 
 In raising the bony covering of the brain, 
 
 we meet with two processes, called the 
 falx, or longitudinal process, and the ten- 
 torium, or transverse process. The former 
 resembles the blade of a scythe, hence its 
 name. These processes are formed from 
 duplicatures of the dura mater; the first 
 descends for a short distance between the 
 lobes of the cerebrum. It takes its rise 
 from the crista galii, and terminates on the 
 OS occipitis. 
 
 The tentorium is extended from the inner 
 plate of the os occipitis along the sides 
 of the cranium to its base, whence it may 
 be traced to the sphenoid bone, and is 
 lost in the common covering of the dura 
 mater. It is composed of two laminae : one 
 is continuous with the falx : the other forms 
 that portion of the membrane which covers 
 the cerebellum. The tentorium is equally 
 divided by the fabc into two lateral por- 
 tions. 
 
 T/ie sinuses. — The superior, or longitu- 
 dinal sinus, riins within the duplication of 
 the faLx, along its superior border. 
 
 The tivo lateral sinuses are formed within 
 the duplicature of that part of the tento- 
 rium which is attached to the temporal and 
 occipital bones ; one extending to the right, 
 and the other to the left. They receive 
 veins both from the cerebrum and cerebel- 
 lum. 
 
 The cavernous sinuses, so named from the 
 cavernous appearance of their interior ; 
 they receive some important nervous trunks 
 in their passage from the brain, and for 
 lodging the terminations of the internal 
 carotid arteries. They commonly commu- 
 nicate with the sub-occipital sizius ; these 
 are also of membranous formation, and are 
 found upon the cuneiform process of the os 
 occipitis, running longitudinally to the fora- 
 men magnum. They receive veins from 
 the cerebellum and posterior parts of the 
 cerebrum. 
 
 Cerebrum. — The largest portion of the 
 cerebral mass, and that which presents it- 
 self to our view in raising the skidl, is the 
 cerebrum. It is equally divided by a longi- 
 tudinal fissure along its middle, into which 
 the fabc cerebri descends ; and its divisions, 
 
172 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 which are symmeti'ical, both internally and 
 externally, are denominated hemispheres. 
 
 Cerebellum. — The cerebellum is at once 
 distinguished from the cerebrum by its 
 being only one-sixth the size of the latter. 
 Its figure is irregular : it has two oval ends, 
 and its lateral dimensions exceed its longi- 
 tudinal. It is divided into three oblong 
 lobes — a middle and two lateral. 
 
 Medulla oblongata, the smallest division 
 of the cerebral mass. It rests on the cunei- 
 form process of the occipital bone, and is 
 continued upward and backward to the 
 foramen magnum. 
 
 The upper surface of the medulla oblong- 
 ata forms, with the tuber annulare, the 
 floor of the fourth ventricle. 
 
 Pituatary gland, a red body, of an egg 
 form, seated upon the sella tursica, within 
 a fold of the dura mater. It has a mem- 
 branous capsule, surrounded by cellular ad- 
 hesions, by which it is firmly retained in its 
 place. 
 
 Medulla spinalis. — The spinal marrow 
 is that extended portion of brain-like sub- 
 stance which is continued from the poste- 
 rior part of the medulla oblongata through 
 the entire length of the spinal canal. It is 
 inclosed in the same membranes that en- 
 velop the brain ; but, in addition to them, 
 the superior ligament of the spine serves as 
 a covering and defence to it below. To 
 this, and to the periosteum lining the 
 canal, its proper theca is loosely attached 
 by cellular, adipose, and gelatinous matter. 
 Its dura mater is derived from that which 
 covers the brain: in being continued through 
 the foramen magnum, the membrane is 
 contracted into a cylindrical sheath which 
 loosely encases the marrow, and is generally 
 described under the denomination of theca 
 vertebralis. The arachnoid membrane and 
 pia mater have the same relation to the 
 marrow that the same membranes have to 
 the brain, of which they may be considered 
 prolongations. 
 
 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 
 
 The nerves, being symmetrical in number 
 and distribution on either side of the body. 
 
 take their origin in pairs, and these pairs 
 are numbered, and so distinguished from 
 one another, according to the order in 
 which they arise. There are forty-six pairs 
 of nerves ; ten, coming from the brain, are 
 distinguished as the cerebral nerves ; thirty- 
 six, from the spinal marrow, denominated 
 the spinal nerves. 
 
 CEREBRAL NERVES. 
 
 First pair, or olfactory nerves, arise from 
 the corpora strata, along the posterior bor- 
 ders of which bodies the medullary bands 
 or roots of them may be traced as high up 
 as the middle lobes of the cerebrum. These 
 are the largest of the cerebral nerves, are 
 bulbous at their origin, pulpy in texture, and 
 exhibit, when cut into, comparatively to 
 their size, large cavities, which are walled 
 in by a layer of medullary matter, enclosed 
 wthin a thinner one of cortical substance. 
 
 Second pair, or optic nerves, arise from 
 the thalamia nervorum. They leave the 
 cranium through the optic foramen, and 
 pass to enter the globe of the eye, within 
 the interior of which it expands, and forms 
 the retina. In its whole course, it is en- 
 closed within a sheath prolonged from the 
 dura mater. 
 
 Third pair, or mofores ocidorum, take 
 their origin by several filaments, from the 
 inward parts of the crura cerebri. The 
 trunk of the nerve first runs obliquely out- 
 ward, across the back of the crus, then 
 turns downward and enters the cavernous 
 sinus, on through the foramen lacerum-or- 
 bitale. In entering the cavity, the nerve 
 divides into two branches. The smaller 
 is generally received by the levater oculi. 
 The larger branch subdivides into several 
 others ; the longest of these runs round the 
 eyeball, and penetrates the oblique muscle. 
 Two or three others run to the abductor 
 and depressor muscles. 
 
 Fourth pair of pathetic. — These take a 
 filamentous origin, and pass the border of 
 the tentorium, entering the cavernous sinus, 
 from thence to the orbit. Its destination 
 is the superior oblique muscle of the eye. 
 
 Fifth pair, or par trigemini. — These are 
 
THE HOESE. 
 
 173 
 
 the largest nerves of the brain. They take 
 thek origin by filaments from the crura cere- 
 belli, and pierce the dura mater. Each 
 nerve appears to form a ganglion; from 
 this ganglion we say that three nerves de- 
 part. One is called the ophthalmic; the 
 second, the anterior maxillary ; the third is 
 the posterior maxillary nerve. The oph- 
 thalmic nerve is the smallest of the three 
 divisions ; as it emerges from the orbit, it 
 divides into three branches, caUed the 
 lachrymal, the super-orbitar, and the lateral 
 nasal branch. 
 
 Tlie second division, or anterior maxillary 
 nerve, leaves the cranium thi'ough the hole 
 called foramen rotundum, of the sphenoid 
 bone, and takes its passage through the 
 inferior orbital canal, whence it emerges, 
 covered by the levator labii superioris, 
 upon the face : here it splits into several 
 large branches, denominated the facial 
 nerves. But prior to its entering this canal 
 it detaches several important branches to 
 the eyelid, lachrymal duct ;. also several 
 long filaments, which descend on the tube- 
 rosity of the anterior maxiUa, penetrate the 
 bone, and furnish twigs to the antrum, and 
 the two superior molar teeth. The largest 
 branch is the spheno-palatine, or lateral 
 nasal nerve, to which the foramen spheno- 
 palatine gives passage into the nose, 
 wherein it divides into two sets of fila- 
 ments. One of these is spread over the 
 lateral parietes of the nasal cavity; the 
 other ramifies over the sinuses, and sends 
 a filament to the lower border of the sep- 
 tum. A branch also goes to the velum 
 palati, and another branch accompanies the 
 palatine blood-vessels, and ranaifies over the 
 soft palate. 
 
 The facial branches of this division ter- 
 minate on the front and sides of the face, 
 and receive communicating filaments from 
 the anterior facial branch of the portio 
 dura, and with them form a plexus. 
 
 The third division, the posterior maxillary 
 nerve, gives off" a branch which runs up in 
 front of the parotid gland, and joins the 
 portio dura ; also branches called the buc- 
 cal nerve, pterygoideus, and gustatory. The 
 
 latter descends by the side of the tongue, 
 penetrates that organ about its middle, and 
 vanishes in its tip. It also sends ramifica- 
 tions to the roots of the incisive teeth, and 
 to the under lip. 
 
 Sixth pair, or ahducentes, arise by means 
 of filaments from the medulla oblongata ; 
 this nerve gives ofl^ two or three filaments 
 to the retractor oculi ; but its principal des- 
 tination is to the abductor, along the fasci- 
 cula of which, its ramifications are equally 
 distributed. 
 
 Seventh pair, or auditory nerves. — This 
 pair includes two separate nerves on either 
 side ; one, from its remarkable softness, is 
 denominated the portio moUis; the other, 
 in conti-adistinction, the portio dura. The 
 portio mollis enters the organs of hearing, 
 and is distributed to the labyrinth. 
 
 The portio dura arises from the medulla 
 oblongata, and passes to the internal part 
 of the ear, the tympanum, and eustachian 
 tube. It is also distributed to the temples, 
 eyelids, nose, lips, cheek, and neck. 
 
 Eighth pair, or par vagum. — At its 
 commencement it consists of two separate 
 portions ; the first called the glosso-pharyn- 
 geal nerve, and the second the true par va- 
 gum. They arise from the corpora olivaria, 
 and make their exit through the base of the 
 cranium. The glosso-pharyngeus gives off 
 branches, which join the portio dura, to the 
 constrictors of the pharynx, and form 
 branches which ramify in the base of the 
 tongue. 
 
 The proper par vagum, having disunited 
 from the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, proceeds 
 downwards to join the carotid artery, and 
 takes its com'se along the neck to the chest. 
 Its filaments are — 1. To the cervical gan- 
 glion. 2. The pharyngeal branch, whose 
 filaments pass to the esophagus and larynx. 
 3. Two slender branches to the carotid ar- 
 tery, which form a plexus. 4. The laryngeal 
 branch. 
 
 At the back part of the neck the pai- 
 vagum inclines upwards, and is found 
 above the carotid artery ; it then passes 
 between the two first ribs into the chest. 
 Having entered the thoracic cavity, it runs 
 
174 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT OF 
 
 witliiii the superior mediastinum ; the right 
 nerve adheres to the trachea, crosses above 
 the root of the right lung, alongside of the 
 esophagus, and gains the under side of 
 that tube before it leaves the chest. On the 
 left side the nerve accompanies the anterior 
 aorta, and crosses the root of the posterior 
 aorta, and also reaches the esophagus. Its 
 branches mthin the chest are fUaments to 
 the tracheal and cardiac plexuses ; also, a 
 branch called the recurrent nerve ; branches 
 to the pulmonary plexus, and also t^vo 
 cords that branch out and penetrate the 
 walls of the amides. The recmTent nerve 
 of the left side originates from the par 
 vagum, by the side of the anterior aorta, 
 and coils round the root of the posterior 
 aorta. 
 
 The recun-ent nerve, so denomuiated from 
 its retrogi'ade course, passes upwardly and 
 outwardly, and is fomid between the caro- 
 tid artery and the trachea ; having reached 
 the top of the latter, it spreads into fine ter- 
 mmating branches, several of which run to 
 the muscles of the laiyixs and thyroid carti- 
 lage, and end in ramifications upon the 
 membrane of the glottis. Its branches are 
 filaments to the pulmonary plexus, cardiac 
 plexus, posterior cervical ganglion, and 
 branches to the esophagus and ti-achea. 
 
 The par vagum runs to the stomach. 
 The left nerve sends filaments to the heart, 
 and others along the small cm'vature, which 
 communicates with the ramifications of the 
 right nerve ; the other crosses to* the left 
 side, and joins the great semilunar ganglion. 
 The right nerve, as soon as it reaches the 
 heart, divides into numerous branches, 
 which join the left, and spread their ramifi- 
 cations upon the under part of the heart ; 
 some run to the pylorus, and others join the 
 hepatic plexus. 
 
 Accessory nerves to the eighth. — These 
 nerves are considered as accessory to the 
 eighth, in consequence of their being found 
 in close connection in issuing from the 
 cranium; it originates in the vertebral canal, 
 by the union of several fUaments. In its 
 course into the cranium it receives many 
 other fine threads, and in that cavity joins 
 
 the par vagum. Beneath the atlas, the 
 accessory nerve divides ; the front division 
 runs downward, and penetrates the beUy, 
 transmitting side twags in its course. The 
 posterior division turns round the transverse 
 process of the atlas to the scapula, near 
 which it is lost in muscular substance. 
 The branches of the accessory pass to the 
 par vagum, anterior cervical ganglion, and 
 communicate with the sub-occipital nerve. 
 
 Ninth pair, or linguales, arise behind the 
 eighth pair, from the corpora olivaria ; it is 
 found in company with the par vagum, near 
 the coronoid process. The nerve passes 
 down the lower jaw, between the muscles 
 forming the root of the tongue, and ends in 
 the tip of the latter. It sends branches to 
 the lingual muscles and to the hyo-glossus 
 longus. 
 
 Tenth pair, or sub-occipital nerves. — They 
 arise from the meduUa oblongata, and be- 
 ginning of the spinal maiTOw; they pass 
 out through a hole in the fore part of the 
 body of the atlas. It then branches into a 
 superior and inferior division. The superior 
 is distributed to the extensor muscles of the 
 head and neck. The inferior branch goes 
 to the trachea, lymphatic glands, and mus- 
 cles of the neck. 
 
 CERVICAL NERVES. 
 
 These consist of seven pairs, originating 
 from the cervical portion of the spinal mar- 
 row. Each nerve, as soon as it issues from 
 the spinal canal, forms two nervous fila- 
 ments, one superior, the other inferior. 
 
 The first cervical nerve makes its exit be- 
 tween the first and second cervical vertebree. 
 It sends branches to diiferent muscles, and 
 communicates with the 
 
 Second cervical nerve, which makes its 
 appearance between the second and third 
 vertebrae. Its superior filament sends 
 branches to the muscles of the neck, and 
 levator humeri, communicates with the ac- 
 cessory ner\'e, and 
 
 Third cervical. — This also sends branches 
 and twigs to the different muscles of the 
 neck, and communicates with the fourth. 
 
 The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 175 
 
 pass from the spine, between their respec- 
 tive vertebrEB, and send branches to the 
 phrenic nerve, and ramifications to the mus- 
 cles, sympathetic nerve, and unite with the 
 dorsal. 
 
 THE DIAPHRAGMATIC OR PHRENIC NERVE. 
 
 This is formed by branches from several 
 of the cervical nerves. It takes its course 
 down along the inferior border of the scale- 
 nus muscle. It terminates by numerous 
 ramifications on the tendinous parts of the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 DORSAL NERVES. 
 
 These consist of eighteen pairs. They 
 pass from the vertebral canal in the same 
 manner as the cervical, having superior and 
 inferior branches. The inferior branches 
 foUow the course of the intercostal blood- 
 vessels, and are called intercostal nerves. 
 The superior branches are distributed to 
 the back and loins. 
 
 LUMBAR NERVES, 
 
 Consist of five pairs (corresponding to 
 the number of the lumbar vertebras). 
 
 The first nerve ends in ramifications near 
 the stifle, and gives off" branches to the last 
 dorsEd nerve, to the sympathetic, and to the 
 second lumbar nerve. 
 
 The second nerve has communication 
 with the first nerve, and sympathetic ; also 
 the crural. It sends one division to the fore 
 part of the haunch, where it becomes sub- 
 cutaneous, and ramifies over the stifle. The 
 other division crosses the ilio-lumbar artery, 
 just below its origin, and takes nearly a 
 similar course to the inward part of the 
 haunch, and then ramifies upon the skin; in 
 its way it detaches a considerable branch, 
 called the spermaticus externus, which passes 
 through the abdominal ring, and sends 
 twigs, in the male, to the scrotum and tes- 
 ticle ; in the female, filaments go fi-om it to 
 the uterus, udder, and external labia. 
 
 The third nerve contributes to form the 
 crural and obturator. It sends small 
 branches to the sympathetic, psoas, and 
 obturator nerves. 
 
 Tlie fourth nerve sends a branch to the 
 sympathetic, conti-ibutes to the production 
 of the crural ; and also sends a branch to 
 the obtm-ator. 
 
 The fifth nerve communicates with the 
 sympathetic, craral, and sciatic plexus. 
 
 SACRAL NERVES, 
 
 Consist of five pairs; a superior and ir- 
 ferior fascicula. The superior make thej 
 exit through holes upon the upper part o 
 the sacrum, and are there bmied rmder a 
 thick mass of muscle, and become cutane- 
 ous upon the outer part of the haunch. 
 
 The inferior fascicida. — The first nerve 
 largely contributes to the origin of the 
 sciatic plexus, and sends a branch to the 
 gluteal ner\'e ; also to the sympathetic and 
 second lumbar nerves. The second nerve 
 communicates Avith the tliird and sympa- 
 thetic, and sends branches to the surround- 
 ing muscles and sciatic plexus. The third 
 and fourth have similar connections. The 
 fifth passes into the coccygeal muscles. 
 
 COCCYGEAL NERVES. 
 
 These issue from the spine, in the same 
 manner as the last described. They com- 
 municate with one another, ai-e distributed 
 to muscles in the vicinity, and end in fila- 
 mentous ramifications at the end of the tail. 
 
 NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. 
 
 The fore extremity receives its nerves 
 from the axillary or humeral plexus, and 
 this plexus is formed by the union of por- 
 tions of the sixth and seventh cervical 
 nerves, and a division of the first dorsal 
 ner\'e. 
 
 The external thoracic nerves, sLx or seven 
 in number, arise from the humeral plexus, 
 and are distributed to the pectoral, triceps, 
 and other muscles ; they finally ramify into 
 the skin. 
 
 Tlie scapular nerves are called anterior, 
 posterior, and sub-scapular. The former 
 sends its ultimate filaments to the triceps. 
 
 Tlie posterior scapular nerve sends 
 branches to the sub-scapularis, triceps, teres 
 
176 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHrSIOLOGV OP 
 
 minor, and shoulder joint, and ends in the 
 insertion of the levator humeri. 
 
 The subscapular nerves run upward be- 
 tween the shoulder and chest, and enter the 
 subscapularis. 
 
 The spiral or external ciBaneous nerve is 
 furnished by the axillary plexus ; arises be- 
 hind the humeral artery, and passes between 
 the OS hiimeri and the head of the triceps, 
 througji the extensors, to the external flexors 
 of the canon. It gives off several branches 
 to the triceps, ramifies on the fore and out- 
 ward part of the knee, and sends branches 
 to the heads of the extensor muscles. 
 
 The radial nerve descends with the 
 humeral artery to the inward side of the 
 elbow joint, and runs along the back part 
 of the radius to the knee; passing under 
 the annular ligament, it descends to the leg, 
 and takes the name of the internal metacar- 
 pal nerve. It gives off numerous twigs to 
 the muscles, and finally becomes subcutane- 
 ous. 
 
 The ulnar nerve origmates from the 
 humeral plexus. It passes down the radius, 
 under the annular ligament, to the tendo 
 perforans, and there becomes the external 
 metacarpal nerve. It gives off internal 
 cutaneous and subcutaneous branches, rami- 
 fies into cellular substance, penetrates the 
 heads of the flexors, and finally disperses 
 its ramifications in front of the leg. 
 
 The metacarpal nerves continue down 
 the leg, over the fetlock joint, where they 
 become the plantar nerves ; these pursue 
 their course behind their corresponding 
 blood-vessels to the back part of the foot, 
 which they penetrate to the inner side of 
 the lateral cartilages. 
 
 The plantar nerve detaches a branch from 
 the fetlock to the lateral cartilage ; another 
 passes to the fatty frog. The final branch 
 enters a hole in the back and lower part of 
 the coffin bone, in company with the plan- 
 tar artery, and there divides and distributes 
 its ultimate branches around the edges of 
 the sole. 
 
 NERVES OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. 
 
 The crural nerve is derived partly from 
 
 the second, third, fourth, and fifth lumbar 
 nerves. It makes its appearance under the 
 transverse process of the loins, and proceeds 
 in a line with the external iliac artery. It 
 gives off filaments to the psoas magnus, 
 niacus, rectus, and vastus internus muscles. 
 It also gives off cutaneous filaments ; one 
 runs to the stifle, and ends in ramifications 
 upon the fore part of the thigh. The other 
 continues down the leg, and can be traced 
 as low as the fetlock. 
 
 The obturator nerve, contiibuted to by 
 thnd and fourth lumbar nerves, sweeps 
 round the brim of the pelvis, and detaches 
 tsvigs to the obturator muscles. Its ultimate 
 filaments are expended on the triceps and 
 gi'acilis. 
 
 The gluteal nerve, after leaving the cavity 
 of the pelvis, accompanies the gluteal artery, 
 and passes into the substance of the gluteal 
 muscles. 
 
 The sciatic nerve derives its origin from 
 the sacral and last of the lumbar nerves ; 
 after leaving the cavity of the pelvis, passes 
 between the hip joint and the tuberosity of 
 the ischium, and plunges into the substance 
 of the haunch. Here it divides into branches 
 called the popliteal nerves. At the hock its 
 principal branch separates into the external 
 and internal metatarsal nerves ; the former 
 runs over the flexor pedis to the os calcis. 
 Their subsequent course and ultimate dis- 
 tribution are the same as those of the plan- 
 tar nerves of the fore extremity. The second 
 popliteal nerve passes between the bellies 
 of the gastrocnemii, above the first, detach- 
 ing twigs to them in its passage, and then 
 spreads into many branches, which pene- 
 trate the heads of the flexor muscles of the 
 foot, and send filaments into the stifle joint. 
 
 SYMPATHETIC NERVE. 
 
 Tills nerve derives its name from the uni- 
 versal influence which it has on the nervous 
 system. It communicates with the head, 
 neck, chest, pelvis, and abdomen, by its fre- 
 quent intercourse and connection with their 
 respective nerves. It is supposed by some 
 writers to be a nervous system of itself 
 It has, at different distances, a great number 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 177 
 
 of gangliform tubercles, from which ramifi- 
 cations proceed forward, as well as filaments 
 backward, to the ganglia of the nerves of 
 the medulla spinalis. It is considered gen- 
 erally as beginning from a branch of the 
 fifth and sixth pair, given off at the base of 
 the cranium. The ganglionic structures 
 and the different plexuses are named from 
 their form, location, and distribution ; hence 
 we have the cervical ganglion, semilunar, 
 sacral, etc. From the semilunar ganglion 
 nervous filaments shoot in various direc- 
 tions, which, from their being compared to 
 the rays of the sun, are denominated the 
 solar plexus. From the divergent filaments 
 of the latter, the several smaller plexuses 
 of the abdomen may be said to derive 
 their formation, taking names according to 
 the viscera they are particularly designed to 
 furnish with nerves ; hence we have the 
 splenic plexus, that sends filaments to the 
 
 spleen, the hepatic plexus, mesenteric, aortic, 
 hypogastric, and renal plexuses. The sym- 
 pathetic nerve in the abdomen travels over 
 the sides of the bodies of the lumbar verte- 
 brae, below the articulations of the ribs, and 
 pursues its course into the pelvis. Here, 
 also, it forms ganglia, which correspond in 
 number to those of the lumbar nerves : and 
 from every ganglion come off two filaments: 
 one which runs to the corresponding lumbar 
 nerve ; the other crosses the aorta, and, by 
 joining the aortic plexus, communicates 
 with nerves coming from the sympathetic 
 of the other side. 
 
 From the loins, the sympathetic descends 
 into the pelvis, and takes its course along 
 the side of the sacrum, and forms five gan- 
 glia, corresponding to the sacral nerves ; it 
 finally terminates by forming a union with 
 its fellow. 
 
 EXAJnNATIONS ON NEUROLOGY. 
 
 Examinations on Neurology, which will include the 
 names of parts not alluded to in the preceding 
 summary of the nervous system. 
 
 yiERTES. 
 
 Q. What are nerves ? — A. Long, firm, and wliite 
 chords, which ramify- after the manner of blood-vessels, 
 and are distributed to all parts of the horse's body. 
 
 Q. Where do they arise? — A. From the brain, 
 medulla oblongata, and medulla spinalis. 
 
 Q. What communications have the different nerves 
 with each other? — A. They anastomose: forming 
 sometimes a plexus; at others, a knot or ganglion, 
 from wliich other branches arise. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of nerves? — A. They 
 consist of fascicuh, or bundles, of distinct longitudinal 
 fibres, closely connected together by cellular substance. 
 
 Q. What are the coverings of nerves ? — A. Contin- 
 uations of those which envelop the brain and spinal 
 marrow, termed nemilcma. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of ganglions ? — A. They 
 are formed by a close intermLxtiu-e of filaments. 
 
 BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 
 
 Q. Where is the brain situated? — A. It occupies 
 tlie cranial canity. 
 
 Q. How is the brain divided? — ,-1. Into cerebrum, 
 cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. 
 
 Q. By what membranes is the brain enveloped ? — 
 A. By three membranes, or meninges : 1st, The dura 
 mater ; 2d, Pia mater ; 3d, tunica arachnoides. 
 
 DUIl.4 MATER. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the dura mater? — A. 
 It is the external covering of the brain. 
 
 Q. How does it differ from the other coverings of the 
 brain? — A. It is more dense, tough, and inelastic. 
 
 Q. How is it retained mthin the cranium ? — A. It 
 is fu-mly adherent to the interior of the cranium, more 
 particularly to the depressions between the teeth of the 
 cranial sutures. 
 
 Q. How does the internal differ from the external 
 surface ? — A. It has a smooth, pohshed, and lubricated 
 surface. 
 
 Q. Is the dura mater supphed with nerves? — A. 
 Being composed of tendinous fibre, it is supposed to be 
 destitute of nerves. 
 
 Q. How are the processes of the dura mater 
 formed ? — A. By duphcatures. 
 
 Q. What are the use of the processes? — A. They 
 steady and protect the various dinsions of the brain. 
 
 Q. By what names are the processes known ? — A. 
 The longitudinal process is called falx cerebri, and the 
 transverse ditto is called tentorium. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the falx cerebri ? — A. 
 It forms a partition under the anterior and superior 
 parts of the cranial cavity extending from the crista 
 galU to the occiput, and ends in contmuity with the 
 tentorium. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the tentorium cerebelU ? 
 — A. It is extended, after the manner of an arch, from 
 the cerebral plate of the occipitis along the sides of 
 
178 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP 
 
 the craniiun to its base ; whence, greatly diminished in 
 breadth it continues onward to the os sphenoides. 
 
 SDTDSES OF THE DUKA MATER. 
 
 Q. What are the names of the principal sinuses of 
 the dura mater? — A. The superior or longitudinal 
 sinus; two lateral, cavernous, and sub-occipital sinuses. 
 
 PIA MATER. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the pia mater ? — A. It 
 surrounds and closely invests the convolutions of the 
 brain, and passes into the ventricles, furnishing them 
 with an internal membrane. 
 
 Q. What is the structure of the pia mater? — A. It 
 presents a smooth exterior surface ; next the brain it 
 is rough and villous, and is composed of a network of 
 blood-vessels, which are united together by a delicate 
 cellular tissue. Being highly vasciJar, it is supposed 
 that the blood-vessels of the brain ramiiy- in it before 
 entering the latter. 
 
 AR.\CirXOID MEMBRANE. 
 
 Q. Where is the tunica arachnoidea situated ? — A. 
 It is a delicate and transparent membrane, spread 
 uniformly over the surface of the brain. 
 
 CEREBRUM. 
 
 Q. Where is the cerebrum situated? — A. It occu- 
 pies the superior part of the cranium. 
 
 Q. What is its form, and how is it dinded ? — A. It 
 is oval, convex above and concave below, and is divided 
 by a longitudinal fissure along its middle, into which 
 the falx cerebri descends. Its divisions are denom- 
 inated hemispheres. 
 
 Q. What is the appearance of the sm-face of the 
 cerebrum? — A. It is covered with eminences called 
 convolutions. 
 
 Q. Of what is the substance of the brain supposed to 
 consist ? — A. Of two kinds of matter ; the external is 
 called cortical or cineritious, and the internal is termed 
 medullary. 
 
 Q. What is the color of the cortical? — A. Red- 
 dish-ash. 
 
 Q. What is the color of the medullary portion? — 
 A. Of a milk-wliite hue. 
 
 CORPUS CALLO.SUM. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the corpus callosum ? — 
 A. It is an oblong wliite body, located at the bottom of 
 the fissure which divides the two hemispheres of the 
 brain. ' 
 
 Q. What does the corpus callosum join on each 
 side? — A. Its edges blend mth the medullary sub- 
 stance of the two hemispheres of the cerebrum. 
 
 Q. What name is given to the medullary substance 
 of both hemispheres, together with the corpus callosum, 
 when the usual anatomical section is made? — A. By 
 cutting off the hemispheres of tlie cerebrum nearly 
 even with the corpus callosum, there is seen a large 
 
 oval mass of medullary substance, called the centrum 
 ovale. 
 
 LATERAL \'ENTRICLES. 
 
 Q. What are the lateral ventricles ? — A. Two ca^-i- 
 ties situated beneath the corpus callosum and medullary 
 arches of the cerebrum. 
 
 Q. What di^■ides the lateral ventricles from each 
 other ? — A. The septum lucidum. 
 
 Q. Name the parts which are generally considered as 
 the contents of the lateral ventricles. — A. They are 
 the corpora striata, the hippocampi, plexus choroides, 
 fornix, and the thalami nervorum opticorum. 
 
 Q. What is the situation and form of the corpora 
 striata? — A. They are found on the lower and back 
 parts of the ventricles, projecting into the centre of 
 the cavities, where they expand as they approach the 
 septum ; grow narrower and recede from each other 
 above ; below, they extend to the anterior cornua. 
 
 HIPPOCAMPI. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the hippocampi? — .4. 
 They occupy the superior spaces of the ventricles in 
 contact with the septum. 
 
 Q. From whence do they originate ? — A. From the 
 centres of the hemispheres. 
 
 Q. AVhat is their structure? — A. They consist of 
 alternate lamina; of medullary and cortical matter. 
 
 PLEXUS CHOROIDES. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the plexus choroides ? — 
 A. They are situated in the chaunel between the 
 corpus striatum and hippocampus. 
 
 Q. Describe the appearance of the same? — A. It is 
 a soft vascular substance, consisting of a plexus of 
 minute blood-vessels; it makes its appearance from 
 behind the fornix, and ends abruptly in a round bulbous 
 mass. 
 
 FORNIX. 
 
 Q. Describe the fornix audits situation? — A. The 
 fornix is that part wliich receives the posterior border 
 of the septum lucidum. It is extended after the 
 manner of an arch, between the corpora stratia below 
 and the heads of the liippocampi above, where it forms 
 a junction with the corpus callosum. 
 
 Q. Describe the processes or crura of the formx ? — 
 A. The two inl'erior crura spring from the corpus 
 albicantium, at the base of the brain, and finally unite ; 
 thus united, they appear inthin the ventricles and con- 
 stitute the body of the fornix. The superior crm-a 
 proceed from the upper end of the fornix, and descend 
 into the superior cornua of the lateral ventricles, and 
 end in sharp, pointed extremities. 
 
 TH.U..«IIA. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the thalamia nervorum 
 opticorum ? — A. They form the upper and back parts 
 of the lateral ventricles. 
 
 Q. Describe the thalamia. — A. They have a wliite 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 179 
 
 appearance, conoid in form, narrow and approximated 
 inferiorly ; broad superiorly ; they finally contract into 
 medullary bands, the tractus optici, which turn round 
 the crura cerebri to the base of the brain. 
 
 Q. How are the thalami distinguished from the 
 corpora striata ? — A. They are more dense and firmer 
 in composition. 
 
 T-HNU. 
 
 Q. "Whut is the situation of the taenia? — A. They 
 are located in the groove between the thalamus and 
 corpus striatimi, partly covered by the plexus choroides. 
 
 COMMISUEES. 
 
 Q. Name the commisures of the brain. — A. 1st, 
 commissm-a mollis ; 2d, commisura inferior cerebri ; 
 3d, commism-a superior cerebri. 
 
 Q. How is the commisura mollis formed? — A. By 
 contiguous parts of the thalami, which are united by 
 cortical matter. 
 
 Q. How is the commisiu-a inferior cerebri formed ? 
 — By a connection between the hemispheres of the 
 brain. 
 
 Q. Where is the superior commissure located ? — A. 
 Above the commissura mollis ; it has the appearance of 
 a short medullar)- chord. 
 
 FORAMEN. 
 
 Q. What is the foramen? — A. It is a triangular 
 depression under the arch of the fornix, into which the 
 lateral ventricles open. 
 
 VEXTEICLES. 
 
 lEemai'ls. — Having put the usual question regarding 
 the lateral ventricles, which may be numbered 1 and 
 2, we now come to the tliird ventricle, which is not so 
 well marked as in the human subject.] 
 
 TnlRD \-EXTRICLE. 
 
 Q. How is the third ventricle formed ? — A. By a 
 mere fissure existing between the thalami. 
 
 [Remarks. — The fourth ventricle, being located in 
 the cerebellum, will be considered under this head.] 
 
 INTTINDIBtJLUM. 
 
 Q. Where is the infundibulum located ? — A. At the 
 inferior part of the third ventricle. 
 
 PDTEAL GLANT). 
 
 Q. Where is the pineal gland located? — A. Be- 
 tween the summits of the thalami, over the third 
 ventricle, and above and before the superior com- 
 missure. 
 
 Q. Describe the pineal gland. — A. It is a small 
 conoid body, of grajish color, marked by a slight 
 depression along its centre. 
 
 Q. What are its attachments ? — A. It is attached 
 by means of the pia mater to the thalami and tuber- 
 cula quadragemina. 
 
 Q. What is the internal structure of the pineal 
 gland ? — A. It consists of cortical and granular 
 matter. 
 
 NATES AND TESTES. 
 
 Q. Where are the nates and testes situated ? — A. 
 Above the third ventricle, behind the pineal gland, and 
 immediately over and within the third and fourth ven- 
 tricles. 
 
 Q. How do the nates differ from the testes? — A. 
 The former are larger than the latter, and are separated 
 by a groove from the testes, and by a deep perpendicular 
 fissure from each other. 
 
 Q. What is their form ? — A. Semi-oval. 
 
 Q. What is their composition? — A. They are com- 
 posed of cineritous and meduUai-y matter. 
 
 CEKEBELLtni. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the cerebellum ? — .4. In 
 the inferior and posterior parts of the cranium. 
 
 Q. How does the cerebellum compare in size vvith 
 the cerebrum? — A. The former is only about one- 
 sixth the volume of the latter. 
 
 Q. Describe the appearance of the cerebellum ? — A. 
 Its surface is lobular and convoluted ; its form is 
 irregular, ha\ing two oval ends placed transversely, 
 united in the centre by a broad vermiform belt; its 
 lateral dimensions exceed its longitudinal. 
 
 Q. How is the cerebellum di\ided? — A. Into three 
 lobes, a central and two lateral. 
 
 Q. How does the composition of the cerebellum 
 difier from that of the cerebrum ? — A. In the former 
 the cortical substance exceeds the medullar)-, and, 
 instead of forming the bulk of the outer parts, as is 
 the case in the cerebrum, it pervades the inner. 
 
 FOURTH \-ENTRICLE. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the fom-th ventricle ? — 
 A. It is situated between the cerebellum, tuber annu- 
 lare, and medulla oblongata. 
 
 Q. Where is the choroid plexus of the cerebellmn 
 situated ? — A. Within and across the posterior part 
 of the fourth ventricle, between the cerebellum and 
 medulla oblongata. 
 
 Q. How is the choroid plexus of the cerebellum dis- 
 tributed ? — A. It is ilistributed into three divisions : 
 one lies in the middle of the calamus ; the two latter 
 are found within fissui'es in the cerebellum, occupjing 
 the spaces between it and the tuber annulare. 
 
 BASE OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 Q. How is the base or posterior part of the cerebrum 
 di\ided? — A. It is divided into six lobes. 
 
 Q. Describe their divisions. — A. There are two 
 anterior or inferior, resting upon the wings of the 
 ethmoid bone ; two middle, upon those of the sphenoid j 
 and two superior or posterior, lodged in the fossa of the 
 squamous portions of the temporal bones. 
 
 Q. What name is given to two broad, smooth promi- 
 nences which appear over the middle lobes at the base 
 of the brain ? — A. These are the corpora striata. 
 
 Q. "What nen-es originate from this vicinity? — A. 
 The olfactorv nenes. 
 
180 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Q. What lobes rest on the wings of the sphenoid 
 bone? — A. The crura cerebri. 
 
 Q. From whence do they arise ? — A. From the in- 
 ferior and middle lobes of the cerebrum, and are con- 
 tinueSKnto an ovoid protuberance above them, named 
 tuber annulare. 
 
 Q. What is observable between the crura cerebri ? 
 — A. A small hemispherical medullary eminence, 
 called corpus albicantium. 
 
 Q. Where are the tractus optioi situated ? — A. They 
 wind obliquely downward around the crura. 
 
 Q. Where do they proceed from ? — A. From the 
 terminations of the thalami. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the crura cerebelli ? — A. 
 They are located higher up and in a more outward 
 direction than the crura cerebri. 
 
 Q. Describe the crura cerebelU. — A. They are two 
 cylindroid, medullary chords, which join the lateral 
 lobes of the cerebellum to the tuber annulare. 
 
 Q. What does"" the tuber annulare rest upon ? — A. 
 On the cuneiform process of the posterior occipital 
 bone. 
 
 Q. Where are the foruminss caeca situated ? — A. 
 Above and below the tuber. 
 
 Q. What is their appearance? — A. They are 
 described as little, round depressions, or blind holes. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XYJU. 
 
 [from BI^rNE's ■* OCTLIXES.'*] 
 
 A. The skull, face, and upper jaw, in one piece. 
 
 B. Lower jaw. 
 a. Incisor teeth. 
 6. Tushes. 
 
 c. Molares, or grinders. 
 
 d. Peak formed by the extremities of the nasal bones. 
 
 e. Zygomatic spine, to the bottom of which the masseter takes its origin. 
 /. Orbit. 
 
 g. Ca\-itv above the orbital arch. 
 
 A. Pole.' 
 
 i. Zygomatic arch. 
 
 j,j. Styloid processes for the attachment of the muscles. 
 
 it. Joint formed by the upper and lower jaws. 
 
 I. Meatus auditorius, or opening to the internal ear. 
 
 C. C. Marks the extent of the cervical vertebrse. 
 
 D. Dentata. 
 m. Atlas. 
 
 n. AVing of the atlas. 
 
 0, Large superior spine of the dentata. 
 p. Body of the dentata. 
 
 q. Liferior spine of the dentata. 
 
 s, s, s, s, s. Superior spines of the five remaining cer\-ical vertebrse. 
 
 r, r, r, r, r. Oblique processes of the five last cervical vertebrte. 
 
 u, ti, II, u, u. Transverse processes of the same bones. 
 
 t, t, t, f, t. Inferior spines of the five last cervical vetebrae. 
 
 THE THORAX. 
 
 V, V. Cariniform process of the sternum. 
 
 w, w, 10, w, w, w, w. Cost« or true ribs. 
 
 y< y< 11' y> t/' V' y> V' H' y- ^^^ ^^ distinguished fi-om the costce. 
 
 X, X, X, X, X, X, X, X, X. Cartilages by means of which the ribs are attached to the sternum. 
 
 z, z, z, z, z, z, z. Heads of the ribs. 
 
 1, 1, 1, 1, 1. Superior spines of the first five dorsal vertebras, the fifth being generally the longest spine in the 
 
 body. 
 
 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2. Superior spines from the sixth to the thirteenth, towards which they slope downward; 
 
 the thirteenth is generally the most upright spine in the dorsal region. 
 
 3, 3, 3, 3, 3. Last five of the superior of the back spines, which have an inclination forward. 
 
 THE LOWS, OR LtJlIBAR REGION. 
 
 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4. Superior spines of the lumbar region, thicker than the dorsal spines, and having a decided in- 
 
 cluiation forward. 
 
 5, 5, 5, 5. Projecting transverse processes of the loins. 
 
 THE SACRITM. 
 
 6, 6, 6, 6, 6. Superior spines of the sacrum leaning decidedly backward, thus leaving a large space between the 
 
 points of the last lumbar and the first sacral spLue, at which place occm-s the great hinge of the back. 
 
 8, 8, 8, 8. Bodies of the sacral vertebrse. 
 
 THE T.UL. 
 
 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7. Coccygeal bones. 
 
 THE PELVIS. 
 
 E. Ossa innominata, consisting of three bones upon each side. 
 a. Ilium. 
 
 6. Pubis. 
 
 c. Ischium : the three bones unite at the cavity which receives the head of the thigh bone. 
 
 9, 9. The inferior spines of the ilium. 
 
 10, Superior spine, which partly covers the first sacral spine. 
 c. r. Ischiatic spines. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XVIII. OONTINUED. 
 
 THE THIGH AND STIFIJ: JOINT. 
 F, F. Femurs. 
 
 d. Round head of the boue. 
 
 e. Short neck of tlie femur. 
 P. Great trochanter. 
 
 g. Small external trochanter. 
 
 h. Small internal trochanter. 
 
 i, i. Sulcus whence the gastrocnemii muscles originate. 
 
 J, J. Posterior condyles of the femur. 
 
 h, k. Anterior trochlea over which the patella glides. 
 
 0, 0. Patellas : the interarticular cai'tilages of the stifle joint, as well as the cartilages tipping the dorsal 
 
 lumbar sacral spines, and the su])erior margin of the blade bone or scapula, ai-e necessarily omitted in 
 this delineation, which is admirably drawn from a macerated skeleton. 
 
 THE TIBIA AND FIBULA, OK LEG BONES, AND THE HOCK JOINT. 
 
 H, H. Tibias. 
 
 1, I. Heads of the bones. 
 m, 711. Fibulas. 
 
 n, n. Inferior head of the tibia. 
 
 I, I. Hock joint. 
 
 o, 0. Asti'agalus. 
 
 p, ]}■ C'alcis forming the point of the hock. 
 
 THE POSTEKIOR SHANK BONES. 
 
 K, K. Canons, metatarsals, or shank bones. 
 L, L. Splint bones. 
 
 THE BONES OF THE PASTERNS, AND FEET, OF THE POSTERIOR LIMBS. 
 
 M, M. Sessamoids. 
 It, N. Large pastern bone. 
 O, O. Smaller pastern bone. 
 p, p. Pedal bones. 
 
 BONES OF THE ANTERIOR EXTREMITY. 
 
 Q. Scapula or blade bone. 
 
 a. Suijcrior margin whence the cartilage has been removed- 
 
 b. Spine of the scapula. 
 
 c. Anterior fossa of the scapula. 
 
 d. Posterior fossa. 
 
 e. Shallow cup which receives the head of the humerus : the cartilage, which is situated around the margin 
 
 of this cup, and which serves to deepen it, has been destroyed by maceration. 
 
 f. Tuberosity termuiating the spine of the scapula, whence the flexor brachii originates. 
 It. Humerus or arm bone. 
 
 g. Head of the bone. 
 
 h. Smooth cartilaginous and synovial pulley over which the tendon of the flexor brachii plays. 
 
 i. F.xternal trochanter of the himierus. 
 
 j. Inferior head of the humerus. 
 
 Ic. Pit into which the ulna is received. 
 
 S, S. Ulna, the top of wliich is termed the olecranon. 
 
 T, T. Radius. 
 
 I. Head of the bone. 
 
 m. Inferior head of the bone. 
 
 TJ, V. Carpus or knee joint, consisting of two rows of bones. 
 
 n. Trapezium, which gives security to the great flexors, and attachment to several of the lessor flexors of the 
 
 fore leg. 
 V, V. Canon or shanlc bone. 
 
 o, 0. Head of the bone receiving the lower row of the bones of the knee. 
 W, W. Splmt bones. 
 p. Inferior head of the canon bone. 
 X, X. Sessamoid bones. 
 Y, Y. Large pastern bone. 
 Z, Z. Small pastern bones. 
 P. Pedal or coffin bone. 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF THE LYMPHATICS. 
 
 Mr. Percivall remarks, in his lectures, 
 that " no English veterinarian has, up to 
 the present day (1820), been at the pains 
 to demonstrate, practically, the particular 
 distribution of the absorbing vessels of the 
 horse. Professor Girard, whose ' Traite 
 d' Anatomie Veterinaire ' does no less credit 
 to the talent and industry of its author than 
 honor to the veterinary school over which 
 he presides, has presented us with an arti- 
 cle on the ramification of the lymphatics, 
 wliich I shall translate. 
 
 " THE THORACIC DUCT. 
 
 " The largest, longest, and most remark- 
 able of the lymphatic vessels, in which 
 terminate the majority of the lymphatics 
 of the body, is situated within the thorax, 
 on the right side of the dorsal vertebrae, be- 
 tween the aorta and vena azygos; It re- 
 ceives the lymphatics from the posterior 
 extremity, pelvis, parietes, and viscera of 
 the abdomen, head, neck, withers, and left 
 anterior extremity. 
 
 " It takes its origin under the loins, in a 
 dilation or sinus situated at the root of the 
 great mesenteric artery, and is named the 
 receptaculum chyli : it directs its course 
 forward, enters the thoracic cavity 'by the 
 aortic perforation through the diaphragm, 
 extends along the bodies of the dorsal ver- 
 tebrae, until it arrives opposite the base of 
 the heart, where it curves downward to 
 cross over to the left side in its way to the 
 anterior opening of the thorax ; as it leaves 
 the spine for this purpose, it runs over the 
 trachea and esophagus ; having reached 
 the left side, it stretches forward to the 
 beginning of the anterior vena cava, and 
 terminates in the base of the left axillary 
 vein. Not unfrequently, it ends in the right 
 axillary; in some instances, even in the be- 
 
 ginning of the anterior cava. At its termi- 
 nation, it dilates and forms a sinus, whose 
 mouth opens into the vein, is guarded by a 
 broad valve, so disposed as to prevent any 
 reflux of blood into the duct* It has also 
 a ligamentous band around it, at this part, 
 wliich confines it to the vein receiving its 
 contents. 
 
 "the RECEPTACULUM CHYLI.f 
 
 " This reservoir forms the point of general 
 confluence of all the lymphatics of the pos- 
 terior limbs and abdomen, and from which 
 originates the thoracic duct. It is main- 
 tained by the aorta on one side, the vena 
 cava posterior on the other, and is formed 
 by the union of five or six large lymphatics, 
 of which two or tlu-ee come from the en- 
 trance of the pelvis, two or three others 
 from the iiicoeiiterj, a single one from the 
 environs of the stomach and liver." 
 
 The Professor here makes a classification 
 of the lymphatics of the body. 
 
 LYMPHATICS DISCHARGING THEIR CONTENTS 
 INTO THE ABDOMINAL PORTION OF THE 
 THORACIC DUCT. 
 
 " 1. Lymphatics of the Posterior Extremi- 
 ties. — These are distinguishable into the 
 superficial and deep-seated. The first origi- 
 nate from the skin and subcutaneous cel- 
 lular tissue. They form divers ramifica- 
 tions, which accompany the superficial 
 veins; of which the most remarkable at- 
 tend the vena saphena major, firequently 
 anastomosing with one another, and form- 
 ing an anastomotic network. All these 
 lymphatics run to the subcutaneous ingui- 
 
 * Notwithstanding this valve, blood often gains admis- 
 sion into the canal ; this is observable in all cases of vio- 
 lent death, or in which struggles and convulsions attend 
 expiration. 
 
 t Pei'civall's Lectures. 
 
 (181) 
 
182 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF 
 
 nal glands, which are lodged upon the 
 superior and anterior part of the thigh. 
 
 " The deep-seated lymphatics take their 
 rise from the foot, ascend along with the 
 plantar veins, continue upward among the 
 muscles, in company with the deep-seated 
 veins, corresponding in their principal di- 
 visions to those vessels, and proceed to the 
 inguinal glands. 
 
 "All the lymphatics of the posterior 
 limbs assemble at these glands, and here 
 form a plexus, from which several large 
 branches depart and traverse the iliac 
 glands, clinging to the sides of the iliac 
 vessels, and discharge their contents into 
 the pelvic branch, contributing to the recep- 
 taculum chyli. 
 
 " 2. Lymphatics of the Pelvis. — The 
 vessels coming from this cavity run in 
 part to the inguinal glands, and in part 
 to the internal pelvic glands. The su- 
 perficial lymphatics about the pubes and 
 the outlet of the pelvis run and join those 
 of the extremities ; those of the perineum 
 and anus enter the cavity, and are accom- 
 panied by those coming from the croup and 
 tail, both proceeding to the glands ^vithin 
 the interior of the pelvis. All the deep- 
 seated lymphatics accompany the veins, 
 make for the pelvic glands, form union with 
 the others, and run and empty themselves 
 into the main pelvic branch, wherem their 
 lymph mixes with that coming from the in- 
 guinal glands. 
 
 " The lymphatics of the urinary and 
 genital organs, included in the pelvic cavity, 
 also traverse the glands lodged therein, and 
 unite with those of the parietes of the pel- 
 vis. Those of the scrotum enter the in- 
 guinal glands, as also do those belonging 
 to the sheath and penis. The ramifications 
 derived from the testicle and spermatic 
 cord take the course of the veins, and pene- 
 trate one or two of the lumbar glands 
 lodged at the entrance of the pelvis. The 
 lymphatics of the mammae, which are also 
 divisible into superficial and deep-seated, 
 run to the inguinal glands, and anastomose 
 with the superficial set belonging to the in- 
 ferior parietes of the abdomen ; but, before 
 
 they reach these last glands, they pervade 
 those of the mammae. 
 
 " 3. Lymphatics of the Parietes of the Ab- 
 domen. — These vessels, in general but little 
 developed, for the most part run to the in- 
 guinal glands. The superficial set of the 
 lower parietes accompany the cutaneous 
 inguinal vein, anastomose with the lympha- 
 tics of the scrotum and mammas, and tra- 
 verse the glands in the groin : some of them 
 direct their course forward, along with the 
 cutaneous external thoracic veins of the 
 thorax, unite with the superficial lymphatics 
 of that part, and proceed to the axillary 
 glands. The deep-seated vessels of the 
 belly run in company with the epigastric 
 vein, and go to the inguinal glands, or else 
 they accompany the pectoral vein, and per- 
 vade the glands in front of the thorax. 
 
 " The superficial or subcutaneous l)mi- 
 phatics of the loins join either those of the 
 croup or those of the flanks : the deep- 
 seated, which spring from the peritoneum, 
 muscles, or spinal canal, perforate one of 
 the lumbar glands, and pass onward to ter- 
 minate in the main pelvic branch. 
 
 " 4. Absorbents of the Mesentery. — The 
 mesenteric branches, ordinarily two or 
 three in number, the most considerable 
 of which is constantly united to the great 
 mesenteric artery, receive aU the vessels 
 continued from the mesenteric glands, as 
 well as those coming from the mesentery 
 and intestines. 
 
 " The mesenteric absorbents, extremely 
 numerous, are sustained between the layers 
 of the mesentery, where they form a vascu- 
 lar network ; many of them issue from the 
 exhalent surface of the mesentery and in- 
 testinal tube ; others take their rise from 
 the interior of the intestines, from which 
 they imbibe chyle. All these vessels con- 
 verge towards the lymphatic reservoir, 
 clinging in their passage around the mesen- 
 teric veins ; some, however, taking a solitary 
 course at a greater or less distance from any 
 blood-vessel. Having arrived at the root of 
 the mesentery, they pass through one or 
 two, sometimes three, of the mesenteric 
 glands, and afterwards join the principal 
 
THE HORSE. 
 
 183 
 
 lumbar lymphatics. The absorbents of the 
 colon and ccEcum caput coli run to the 
 glands set at intervals along the intestinal 
 tube, whence they proceed to the recepta- 
 culum chyli. 
 
 " 5. Lymphatics of the Liver, Stomach, 
 Spleen, and Omentum. — The hepatic trunk 
 comprises the lymphatics issuing from the 
 above viscera. This branch of the recepta- 
 culum chyli not uncommonly consists of 
 two divisions, and receives in addition to the 
 above-mentioned vessels many ramifications 
 from the crura of the diaplnragm. 
 
 " The lymphatics of the pancreas, lilie 
 the above, also run with the divisions of 
 its veins, and join either those of the liver 
 or those of the spleen : some proceed di- 
 rectly to the common hepatic trunk. 
 
 " II. RAMIFICATIONS TERMINATING IN THE 
 THORACIC PORTION OF THE MAIN COMMON 
 DUCT. 
 
 "1. Lymphatics of the Parietes of the 
 Thorax. — The superficial absorbents of 
 the chest take their ri^ either from the sur- 
 face of the skin or else from the subcuta- 
 neous muscles ; they form several large 
 branches which accompany the thoracic 
 cutaneous vein, unite with the superficial 
 lymphatics coming from the anterior parie- 
 tes of the abdomen, and proceed to the 
 axillary glands. 
 
 " The deep-seated set take divers direc- 
 tions, and pass through the different sets of 
 glands. The pectoral, which anastomose 
 with ramifications from the abdomen, fol- 
 low the pectoral vein, and reach one or two 
 glands at the entrance of the chest. The 
 intercostal spring from the pleura and in- 
 tercostal muscles, accompany the intercos- 
 tal veins, pervade the internal dorsal glands, 
 and terminate by several branches in the 
 thoracic duct. 
 
 " The lymphatics of the fleshy part of 
 the diaphragm unite, some with the poste- 
 rior intercostal, others with pectoral ; those 
 coming from the crura run to the dorsal 
 glands, where they anastomose with the 
 intercostal : those from the cordiform ten- 
 don anastomose with the deep hepatic, run 
 
 forward between the layers of mediasti- 
 num, nearly to the heart, and enter the car- 
 diac glands. 
 
 " 2. Lymphatics of the Thoracic Viscera. 
 — The absorbents of the difl'erent organs 
 contained within the thorax traverse one or 
 several of the bronchial or cardiac glands, 
 and afterwards form divers branches, which 
 end in the thoracic duct. The pulmonary 
 lymphatics, very numerous, are distin- 
 guished into superficial and deep-seated. 
 The first take their rise from the surface of 
 the lungs, creep along under their envelop- 
 ing membrane, and make for one or more 
 of the bronchial glands. The deep set, 
 which originate from the air-cells and from 
 the parenchymatous tissue, follow the di- 
 visions of the pulmonary veins, run to the 
 roots of the bronchia ; there miite with 
 the superficial, and perforate one or two of 
 the bronchial glands. 
 
 " The cardiac lymphatics derive their 
 origin either from the surfaces (both exte- 
 rior and interior) of the heart, or from the 
 muscular substance of the organ ; they 
 mount upon the curvature of the posterior 
 aorta, and disappear in the cardiac glands. 
 
 " The lymphatics of the superior part of 
 the mediastinum, and of the esophagus, 
 join, some the intercostal, and others the 
 bronchial ; those coming fi-om the anterior 
 part of this membranous partition, from 
 the thymus, trachea, and esophagus, unite, 
 either with the pectoral, or close with the 
 cardiac and anterior intercostal. 
 
 " 3. Lymphatics of the Head. — The 
 lymphatics of the head form two planes, 
 a superficial and a deep one. The super- 
 ficial pursue the course of the cutaneous 
 veins, and run in part to the sublingual 
 and utteral glands. The deep vessels, 
 which come from the nostrils, fauces, palate, 
 etc., also run to the gutteral and sublingual, 
 in which they unite with the superficial. 
 From these two groups of glands, through 
 which pass the lymphatics of the head, de- 
 part several large branches, two or three of 
 which descend upon the anterior face of the 
 trachea; others follow the course of the 
 deep-seated and cutaneous veins, unite with 
 
184 
 
 ANATOMT AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE. 
 
 those of the neck, and descend to the front 
 of the chest. Almost all these vessels ter- 
 minate in the thoracic duct; some few 
 alone, on the right side, ending in the right 
 axillary trunk. 
 
 "4. Lymphatics of the Left Fore Extrem- 
 ity. — The lymphatics of this member present 
 the same disposition as those of the poste- 
 rior limbs, and are divided into superficial 
 and deep-seated. The former, consisting 
 of diverse ramifications, accompany the 
 superficial veins ; the more considerable of 
 them forming a plexus, which accompanies 
 the cutaneous (superficial brachial) vein 
 of the limb. The deep vessels originate 
 from the foot, muscles, and bones, pursue 
 the divisions of the deep veins, and plunge 
 
 into the axillary glands, wherein they mite 
 with the superficial, and whence they ex- 
 tend to the thoracic duct. 
 
 " The Right terminating Trunk of the 
 Lymphatics. — This very short lymphatic 
 canal is obliquely situated at the entrance 
 of the thorax, upon the transverse process of 
 the last vertebrse of the neck, extending in 
 a direction from above downward, and from 
 without inward, and terminating most com- 
 monly in the right axillary vein ; though, in 
 some instances, it joins the thoracic duct. 
 This trunk is formed by the lymphatics 
 coming from the right axillary glands, and 
 some from the right lung, and right side of 
 the neck and trachea." 
 
 (See Appendix.) 
 
 EXAMINATIONS ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LYMPHATICS. 
 
 Q. What is the character of the fluid found in the 
 lymphatics ? — A. It resembles dilute, liquor sanguinis, 
 or the Uquid portion of the blood in which the cor- 
 puscles float. 
 
 Q. What finally becomes of the lymphatic fluid ? — 
 A. It was formerly supposed that the lymphatic fluid 
 was eliminated from the system; but Carpenter and 
 other physiologists now contend that this is not the 
 case ; that the same is poured into the common recep- 
 ticle with the nutrient materials newly imbibed from 
 the food, whence both ai-e propelled together into the 
 general current of the circulation ; and thus, instead of 
 being eliminated, the lymphatic fluid is employed in the 
 formation of new tissues. 
 
 Q. From whence is the Ij-mphatic fluid derived? — 
 A. 1st, from the residual fluid, which, ha^'^ng escaped 
 from the blood-vessels into the tissues, has furnished the 
 
 latter with the materials of their nutrition, and is now 
 to be returned to the current of the circulation. 2d, 
 from the particles of the solid frame-work which have 
 lost their vital powers, and* are therefore unfit to be 
 retained as components of the h\ing system; they 
 therefore reenter the circulation, to be again submitted 
 to the assimulating process, so that nothing shall be 
 lost. 
 
 Q. By what process do fluids enter the cutaneous 
 IjTnphatics ? — A. By a process of imbibation. 
 
 Q. What fluid is more readily absorbed than some 
 others? — A. Milk. 
 
 Q. What authority have you for this ? — A. Schoeger, 
 in the coui-se of his experiments, found that the lympha- 
 tics of a limb, long immersed in milk, became tinged 
 with it, while none of it could be detected in blood 
 drawn from the veins. 
 
^kMrg 0f f d^rmarg Cei:|mtrii&s. 
 
 (185) 
 
A GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abdomen. — The posterior part of the body of the horse. 
 
 Ahdominalis. — Pertaining to the abdomen. 
 
 Abdominal Regions. — The divisions of the exterior of 
 the abdomen. 
 
 Abductor. — Muscles are named abductors which draw 
 parts from the axis of the body, or given centres. 
 
 Abnormal. — Unnatural, irregular. 
 
 Accelerator. — A muscle of the penis. 
 
 Acetabulum. — A name given to the cavity in which the 
 head of the thigh bone articulates. 
 
 Achillis Tendo. — The tendon of the muscle inserted 
 into the hock. 
 
 Acuminated. — Pointed, like a needle. 
 
 Adductor. — Muscles which draw parts toward the axis 
 of the body. 
 
 Adipose. — Fatty matter. 
 
 Adventitious. — Accidental. 
 
 Afferent. — A term used to designate the structures 
 which convey fluids to different parts. 
 
 Ala:. — Wings. 
 
 Albumen. — An element which constitutes the chief part 
 of the white of an egg. 
 
 Alimentary Canal. — The passage which commences in 
 the oesophagus and ends in the anus. 
 
 AU-eolus. — The bony sockets of the teeth. 
 
 Anal. — Relating to the anus. 
 
 Anatomy. — To cut, with a view of displaying the struc- 
 ture, relations, and uses of parts. 
 
 Animus. — The principle of vitality. 
 
 Annular. — A ring-like ligament, found at the posterior 
 part of the knee of the horse. 
 
 Antagonist. — A term applied to counteracting muscles 
 or tendons. 
 
 Anterior. — A term applied to what may be situated 
 before another part of the same kind. 
 
 Anti. — A prefix, signifying against. 
 
 Antilabium. — Against the lips. 
 
 Antrum. — Cavity in bones. 
 
 Anus. — The posterior extremity of the rectum. 
 
 Aorta. — The largest artery of the body. 
 
 Aortic. — Pertaining to the aorta. 
 
 Apex. — The pointed end of an organ. 
 
 Aponeurosis. — A tendinous expansion of fibre. 
 
 Arachnoid. — A membrane of the brain. 
 
 Arch of the Colon. — Transverse portion of that intestine. 
 
 Areola. — The spaces between fibres composing an 
 organ. 
 
 Arterial. — A property belonging to arteries. 
 
 Arterialization. — The change which occurs in venous 
 blood when brought in contact with air in the lungs. 
 
 Artery. — The name of blood-vessels which distribute 
 arterial blood. 
 
 Articular. — Belonging, or relating, to joints. 
 
 Articulation. — {From articidus.) A joint. 
 
 Asperity. — A roughness. 
 
 Astragalus. — The bone beneath the os calcis. 
 
 Atlas. — The anterior bone of the neck. 
 
 Attollens. — A name given to muscles which lift, or raise, 
 the parts. 
 
 Auditory. — Muscles and parts connected with the ear. 
 
 Auricular. — Relating to the ear. 
 
 Auricles. — The anterior cavities of the heart. 
 
 Axilla. — The part between the superior region of the 
 arm and the chest. 
 
 B. 
 
 Biceps. — (From, bis — twice, and caput — ahead; two 
 heads.) The term is applied to muscles, having two 
 distinct heads, or origins. 
 
 Bifurcate. — (Bifurcas; from bis, twice, and furca, a 
 fork). A blood-vessel or muscle is said to bifurcate when 
 it divides into two branches. 
 
 Bilary. — Relating to the bile. 
 
 Brachial. — Of, or belonging, to the arm. 
 
 Bronchia. — Bifurcations of the windpipe. 
 
 Bronchial. — Relating to the bronchia. 
 
 Buccal. — (From bucca, the cheek. ) Belonging to the 
 cheek. 
 
 Buccinator. — A muscle of the cheek. 
 
 Bulb. — A dilated portion of the tube at the base of the 
 penis. 
 
 Bursce. — Sacs, or bags. 
 
 Bursce Mucosa. — Sacs found in the region of joints. 
 
 Bursal. — Relating to bursse. 
 
 C(Ecum. — The blind gut. 
 
 Ccecal. — Pertaining to the cajcum. 
 
 Calcis Os. — The prominent bone of the hock. 
 
 Cancelli. — Cellular structure of bones. 
 
 Canine Teeth. — The eye-teeth, cuspidati. 
 
 Canthus. — The angle of the eye. 
 
 Capillary. — Hair-like vessels which are found between 
 the arterial and venous vessels. 
 
 Capside. — A membranous sac. 
 
 Capsular. — A term applied to ligaments which surround 
 articulations. 
 
 Caput. — The head. 
 
 Cardia. — The heart. 
 
 Cardiac. — Pertaining to the heart. 
 
 Carotid. — The name of the principal arteries of the 
 neck. 
 
 Carpus. — The bones of the knee. 
 
 Caruncle. — A small fleshy excrescence. 
 
 Carunculce Lacrymalis. — Small fleshy bodies found in 
 the angle of the eye. 
 
 (187) 
 
188 
 
 GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES, 
 
 Caarfa. — The taU. 
 
 Cava. — The largest vein in the body of the horse. 
 
 Cavity. — A hollow part; the abdominal cavity, for 
 example. 
 
 Cellular. — Composed of cells. 
 
 Centrum Ovale. — The appearance of the brain, when a 
 horizontal section is made on a level with the corpus cal- 
 losum. 
 
 Centrum Tendinosum. — Tendinous centre of the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 Cephalic. — Pertaining to the head. 
 
 Cerebellum. — Inferior lobe of the brain. 
 
 Cerebrum. — Superior lobe of the brain. 
 
 Cerebral. — Relating to the brain. 
 
 Cerebrospinal. — Pertaining to both the brain and spinal 
 cord. 
 
 Cervical. — Pertaining to the neck. 
 
 Cervix. — The neck or contracted portion of an organ. 
 
 ChorcB Tendince. — Part of the internal structure of the 
 heart. 
 
 Choroid. — The inner tunic of the eye. 
 
 Chyle. — A fluid found in the thoracic duct and lacteals. 
 
 Chyme. — A name given to the food after it has passed 
 the pylorus. 
 
 Cilia. — The eyelids, hair of the same, etc. 
 
 Cineritious. — A term applied to that part of the brain 
 which is of an ash color. 
 
 Circuhis. — A ring. 
 
 Clitoris. — A part of the pudendum of the mare corres- 
 ponding to the glans penis of the horse. 
 
 Coccyx. — The bones of the tail. 
 
 Cochlea. — The spiral cavity of the ear. 
 
 Cascum. — (Sometimes spelt ca;cura.) The blind gut. 
 
 Cosliac. — Prolongation of the solar plexus, an artery 
 and vein of the abdomen. 
 
 Colon. — The largest and most dilated portion of the 
 intestines. 
 
 Cobimnce Camas. — A muscular arrangement within the 
 ca-rity of the heart. 
 
 Commisure. — A suture, junction, or joint. 
 
 Complexus. — To embrace or smround. 
 
 Concha. — External cavity of the ear. 
 
 Conduit. — A canal. 
 
 Condyle. — An irregular process or enlargement. 
 
 Condyloid. — A tubercle, wart-like. 
 
 Conglobate. — Ball-shape. 
 
 Conglomerate. — An assemblage of glands. 
 
 Conjunctivia. — External coat of the eyeball, and inter- 
 nal lining of the eyelids. 
 
 Conoid. — Conc-likc. 
 
 Constrictor. — Muscles that are bound together are thus 
 named. Tlie office is to close an outlet. 
 
 Continuity. — Idcntitj- of parts, having direct connection. 
 
 Convolute. — Rolled up. 
 
 Coracoid. — Like a crow's beak ; a process of the 
 scapula. 
 
 Cornea. — Anterior coat of the eye. 
 
 Cornu. — A horn. 
 
 Corona. — A crown, the superior pastem is thus named : 
 OS coronse. 
 
 Coronal Suture. — The uniting medium between the 
 frontal and parietal bones. 
 
 Coronary. — Arteries and veins, proper to the heart, are 
 thus named. 
 
 Coronoid. — Processes of bones are thus named when 
 they form an eminence. 
 
 Corpora. — A term applied to numerous prominences in 
 the brain and elsewhere. 
 Corpus. — A body . 
 
 Corpora Striata. — Striped eminences in the brain. 
 Corpuscle. — A minute body. 
 
 Corrugator. — A muscle which wrinkles the surrounding 
 parts. 
 
 Cortical. — Resembling bark. 
 Costa. — A rib. 
 
 Costal. — Pertaining to the region of the ribs. 
 Costalis Pleura. — That portion of the plem-a which 
 lines the interior of the chest. 
 Cotyloid. — Cup-shaped. 
 Cranium. — The skull. 
 
 Crassamentum. — The clot, or red globules, of the blood. 
 Cremaster. — A muscle of the testicle. 
 Crest of the Ileum. — The anterior, superior parts of the 
 pelvis. 
 
 Cricoid. — Ring-like. 
 Crista. — A crest. 
 Crucial. — In the form of a cross. 
 Crural. — Belonging to the thigh. 
 Crystalloid. — Resembling a crystal. 
 Cuboides. — One of the bones of the knee, which resem- 
 bles a cube, or die. 
 
 Cuneiforme. — A bone of the knee, in form resembling a 
 wedge. 
 
 Cuspidata. — The tushes of the horse are thus named . 
 Cutaneous. — Belonging to the skin. 
 Cuticle. — The scarf skin. 
 Cyst. — A bladder or sac. 
 
 D. 
 Dartos. — A name given to the muscle which corragates 
 the scrotum. 
 Deferens. — The excretory canal of the testes. 
 Dentatus. — A tooth-liko process on the second cervical 
 vertebra. 
 Denies Incisors. — The twelve front teeth of the horse. 
 Denies Molares. — The twenty-four grinders. 
 Depressor. — A muscle is so named when it depresses 
 the part on which it acts. 
 
 Diaphragm. — The muscle which separates the thorax 
 from the abdomen. 
 Diastole. — Periodic dilation of the heart. 
 Dilator. — A name given to muscles which dilate certain 
 parts. 
 
 Diploe. — The cellular structure, which separates bony 
 tablets. 
 
 Diverticulum. — A blind tube, diverging from the course 
 of a larger one. 
 Dorsal. — Pertaining to the back. 
 Ducts. — Orifices of various canals. 
 Ductus. — A canal for conveying fluids. 
 Duplicate. — Doubled. 
 
 DupKcalure. — Reflection of a membrane upon itself. 
 Dura Mater. — The outermost tunic of the brain. 
 
 E. 
 
 Efferent. — Vessels are thus named wliich convey fluids 
 from glands. 
 
 Elevator. — A muscle is so called when it lifts or elevates 
 the parts to which it is attached. 
 
GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES. 
 
 189 
 
 Encephalon. — The brain. 
 
 Ensiform. — Sword-like. 
 
 Epididymis. — An appendage to the testicle. 
 
 Epigastrium. — Region of the stomach. 
 
 Epiglottis. — Cartilage at the root of the tongue. 
 
 Epiphysis. — A union of bones by means of cartilage. 
 
 Epithelium . — A transparent membrane covering rarious 
 internal parts. 
 
 Erector. — A name given to certain muscles, which raise 
 or erect the parts. 
 
 Eroded. — Rough and jagged. 
 
 Esophagus. — The gullet. 
 
 Ethmoid. — Sieve-like. 
 
 Ecito-Motary. — The true spinal nerves. 
 
 Excretory. — Vessels and ducts are thus named which 
 discharge fluids. 
 
 Expiration. — The act of expelling air from the lungs. 
 
 Extensor. — To stretch out; a name given to several 
 muscles and tendons. 
 
 Extremity. — The enJ. 
 
 F. 
 
 Facial. — Belonging to the face. 
 
 Falciform. — Scythe-shaped. 
 
 Falx. — The scythe process of the dura mater. 
 
 Fascia. — The tendinous expansion of muscles. 
 
 Fascicular. — Fibres arranged in bundles. 
 
 Fauces. — Posterior part of the mouth. 
 
 Femoral. — Of, or belonging to, the thigh. 
 
 Fenestra. — Part of the internal ear. 
 
 Fibre. — A thread or filament. 
 
 Fibrous. — Composed of fibres. 
 
 Fibula. — A small bone attached to the posterior part of 
 the tibia of the horse. 
 
 Filament. — A minute fibre. 
 
 Filiform. — Thread-like. 
 
 Fimbria. — A fringe. 
 
 Fissure. — A crack or groove. 
 
 Flavus. — Yellow. 
 
 Flexor. — A name given to numerous muscles and ten- 
 dons which bend the limbs. 
 
 Foliatus. — Leaf-form. 
 
 Follicle. — A minute sac or bag. 
 
 Foramen. — An opening. 
 
 Fornex. — Arch or vault ; one of the structures of the 
 brain. 
 
 Fossa. — A shallow cavity or depression. 
 
 Frcenum. — A ligament which restrains motion. 
 
 Frontal. — Belonging to the anterior part of the cranium. 
 
 Function. — Any action by which vital phenomena are 
 produced. 
 
 Fundus. — The base or bottom. 
 
 Funis. — The umbilical cord. 
 
 G. 
 
 Ganglion. — A knot or enlargement in the course of a 
 nerve. 
 
 Gastric. — Pertaining to the stomach. 
 
 Gastric Juice. — A secretion, peculiar to the walls of the 
 siomach. 
 
 Gastrocnemii. — The tendinous portion of muscles in- 
 serted into the OS calcis, or point of the hock, are thus 
 named . 
 
 Gemini. — Twins : two organs precisely alike are thus 
 named. 
 
 Gestation. — Pregnancy. 
 
 Gland. — An organ of secretion. 
 
 Glandula. — A small gland. 
 
 Glandular. — Resembling a gland. 
 
 Glenoid. — The name of articulating cavities. 
 
 Glissons Capsule. — The fibrous envelope of the liver. 
 
 G/o6a<c. — Globe-like. 
 
 Globides. — Red particles of the blood. 
 
 Globuline. — Albuminous constituent of the blood. 
 
 Glomerate. — Congregated. 
 
 Glossa. — The tongue. 
 
 Glottis. — Upper opening into the windpipe. 
 
 Gluteal. — Belonging to the haunch. 
 
 Gracilis. — A muscle on the inner part of the thigh. 
 
 Granule. — A small grain. 
 
 Gutteral. — Belonging to the throat. 
 
 H. 
 
 Ilepatic. — Belonging to the liver. 
 
 Hiatus. — An aperture or foramen. 
 
 Hippo. — A horse ; a prefix. 
 
 Hippocampus. — Two eminences in the lateral ventricles 
 of the brain. 
 
 Homo. — A prefix designating similarity. 
 
 Humerus. — The bone beneath the shoulder blade. 
 
 Hi/o. — Names compounded with this prefix relate to 
 muscles situated near the root of the tongue. 
 
 Hyoides. — Bone at the root of the tongue. 
 
 Hypochondrium. — A region of the abdomen. 
 
 Hypogastric. — Relating to the hypogastric region of the 
 abdomen. 
 
 I, J. 
 
 Heo. — A prefix, the ileum or bone of the pelvis. 
 
 Ileum. — A portion of the intestinal tube. 
 
 Iliac. — Region of the flanks. 
 
 Incisors. — The twelve front teeth, or nippers, of the 
 horse are thus named. 
 
 Incus. — A bone of the ear. 
 
 Infra. — Under ; a prefix to the name of several muscles. 
 
 7n/ra.— Without. 
 
 Infundibulum. — A funnel or duct. 
 
 Inguinal. — Pertaining to the groin. 
 
 Inguinal Ligament. — Pouparts ligament. 
 
 Innominatum. — Without a name. 
 
 Innominatum Os. — Union of the ileum, ischium, and 
 pubic bones. 
 
 Inosculation. — Union of the extremities of vessels. 
 
 Insertion. — Attachment of a muscle or tendon to the 
 part which it moves. 
 
 Integuments. — The skin and sub-tissures. 
 
 Interarticular. — Between the joints. 
 
 Interosseous. — Muscles and ligaments situated between 
 bones are thus named. 
 
 Interseptum. — The uvula. 
 
 Interstitial. — A term applied to substances occupying 
 the spaces between contiguous pai-ts. 
 
 Interspinales. — Between the spines of bones. 
 
 Intertransversales. — Muscles located between the trans- 
 verse processes of bones. 
 
 Intervertebral. — The articular cartilages between the 
 vertebra! are thus named. 
 
 Intestinal Canal. — The interior of the duodenum, jeju- 
 num, ileum, csecum, colon, and rectum, comprises the in- 
 testinal canal. 
 
190 
 
 GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES. 
 
 Intra, — Within. 
 Intestines. — The bowels. 
 
 Invertebrata. — Animals vrithout internal bony structui-e. 
 Ischium. — A part of the bones of the pelvis. 
 Isthmus. — A narrow passage. 
 
 Jejunum. — A term applied to that portion of tlie intes- 
 tine which is generally found empty. 
 Jugular. — Belonging to the neck. 
 
 L. 
 
 Laborium. — Eclating to the lips. 
 
 Labia. — The lips. 
 
 Lachryma. — A tear. 
 
 Lachrymal. — Structures concerned in the secretion and 
 transmission of tears. 
 
 Lacteals. — Absorbent vessels of the lymphatics. 
 
 Lactiferous. — Vessels conveying milk. 
 
 Lacunce. — Ducts issuing from small glands. 
 
 Lamella. — Thin plates. 
 
 Lamina. — A series of plates. 
 
 Laminated. — Leaf-like. 
 
 Laryngeal. — Relating to the larynx. 
 
 Larynx. — The superior part of the windpipe. 
 
 Lata. — Broad. 
 
 Lateral. — Pertaining to the side. 
 
 Latissimiis. — A term applied to a muscle in consequence 
 of its great breadth. 
 
 Lens. — A crj-stalline body; a lentil. 
 
 Lenticular. — Shaped like the lens. 
 
 Levator. — A term applied to muscles which raise the 
 parts to which they are attached. 
 
 Ligament. — A tendinous cord. 
 
 Linea. — A white line ; thread-like. 
 
 Liiiea Aspera. — A rough projection. 
 
 Linea Semllunarcs, or semi-circularis. — Lines on each 
 side of the linea alba, formed by the termination of the 
 fibres of the abdominal muscles. 
 
 Linea Transversalis. — Lines crossing the recti muscles 
 of the abdomen. 
 Lingual. — Pertaining to the tongue. 
 Lingualis. — A muscle of the tongue. 
 Liquor Sanguinis. — The fluid clement of the blood. 
 Lobe. — A division of an organ. 
 Lobus. — A lobe. 
 Local. — Confined to a part. 
 Loins. — The posterior part of the back, 
 Longissimus. — The longest. 
 Longus. — Long, lengthy. 
 Lumbar. — Belonging to the loins. 
 Lumbrici. — Worms. 
 Luna. — The moon. 
 Lunare. — A bone of the knee. 
 Lymph. — A fluid found in the lymphatics. 
 Lymphatic. — Of the nature of lymph. 
 
 M. 
 
 Major. — The greater. 
 Malar. — Belonging to the check. 
 Malleus. — A hammer or mallet. 
 Malphigian Bodies. — Dark points of the kidneys. 
 Mamma. — The udder. 
 Mammary. — Belonging to the udder. 
 Masseter. — A muscle of the jaw. 
 Mastoid. — Processes of bones presenting the form of a 
 nipple are thus named. 
 
 Mater. — A mother. 
 
 Maxilla. — Bones of the jaw. 
 
 Maxillary. — Pertaining to the jaw. 
 
 Meatus. — A passage. 
 
 Meatus Urinarius. — The internal auditory passage of 
 the ear. 
 
 Meatus Urinorious. — The orifice of the urethra. 
 
 Median. — Central, the central line. 
 
 Mediastinum. — The partition which divides the thorax. 
 
 Medulla. — The medullary substance of the brain is thus 
 named. It signifies marrow or pith. 
 
 Medulla Spinalis. — The spinal marrow. 
 
 Membranes. — Tissues. 
 
 Membranous. — Having the texture of membranes. 
 
 Meninges. — Membranes of the brain. 
 
 Meningial. — Relating to the membranes of the brain. 
 
 Mesenteric. — Pertaining to the mesentery. 
 
 Mesentery. — Membranes uniting the intestines. 
 
 Mesian Line. — The middle line. 
 
 il/eso. — Words compounded of meso signify the middle. 
 
 il/rfacarpo?. — Relating to the knee of the horse. 
 
 Metacarpus. — The bones of the knee. 
 
 Molar. — The grinders. 
 
 Motor. — To move ; the nerves of voluntary motion are 
 thus named. 
 
 Mucus. — Animal mucilage. 
 
 Mucous. — A term applied to the mucous tissues. 
 
 Muscular. — Belonging to a muscle. 
 
 Muscle. — Flesh; a bundle of muscular fibres. 
 
 My/o. — Names compounded of this word relate to 
 muscles located in the region of the root of the tongue. 
 Myology. — A description of the muscles. 
 
 N. 
 A'ares. — The anterior cavity of tlie nostrils. 
 Nasal. — Belonging to the nose. 
 Navicular. — Boat-shaped. 
 Neurilema. — The sheath investing the nerves. 
 Nidus. — Naked. 
 
 Nucha. — A part of the superior region of the neck. 
 Nucha Ligamentum. — A ligament of the spine. 
 Nympha. — Internal labice of the -vulva. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oblique. — A term applied to muscles that h.ive an 
 oblique direction. 
 
 Obturator. — Name of muscles, foramina, etc. 
 
 Occipital. — Connected with the occiput or posterior 
 part of the cranium. 
 
 Occipito Atloid. — That which has reference to the occi- 
 put and alias. 
 
 Occipito Frontalis. — A muscle which reaches from the 
 occiput to the forehead. 
 
 Ocular. — Belonging to the eye. 
 
 Odontoid. — Tooth-Uke. 
 
 (Esophagus. — The gullet. 
 
 Olecranon. — Point of the arm, formed by the ulna. 
 
 Olfactory. — Relating to the sense of smeU. 
 
 Olivaris. — Resembling the olive. 
 
 Omentum. — The caul. 
 
 Omo. — Names compounded of this word signifv mus- 
 cles which are attaclied to the scapula. 
 
 Opaque. — Not transparent. 
 
 Optic. — Relating to vision. 
 
GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES. 
 
 191 
 
 Orhicular. — Spherical-circnlar. 
 
 Orbicularis Oris. — Muscle of the lips. 
 
 Orbicularis Palpebrarum. — Muscle of the eyelids. 
 
 Orbiculare. — The smallest bone of the internal ear. 
 
 Orbit. — The bony socket of the eye. 
 
 Orbitar. — Pertaining to the orbit. 
 
 Organ. — A part having a distinct office to perform. 
 
 Organism. — Vital organization. 
 
 Organized. — Possessed of organs ; endowed with life. 
 
 Orifice. — An aperture. 
 
 Origin. — The fixed point or commencement of a muscle. 
 
 Os. — A bone. 
 
 Osseous. — Bony. 
 
 Ovaria. — The female testes. 
 
 Ovum. — An egg. 
 
 Palatine. — Relating to the palate. 
 
 Palate. — The roof of the mouth. 
 
 Palate Os. — Bone of the palate. 
 
 Palpebrcs. — The eyelids. 
 
 Paries. — A wall. 
 
 Parietes. — The walls of the abdomen and thorax, etc. 
 
 Parotid. — Name of the gland beneath the ear. 
 
 Parotid Duct. — Opening into the cheek from the parotid 
 gland. 
 
 Patella. — The stifle bone. 
 
 Pectinated. — Shaped like the teeth of a comb. 
 
 Peduncle. — A stalk. 
 
 Pellicle. — A thin membrane. 
 
 Pelvis. — The cavity formed by the innominata and 
 sacrum. 
 
 Penis. — The principal organ of generation in the male. 
 
 Perforans. — Perforating; the name of part of the flexor 
 tendons. 
 
 Perforatus. — Perforated for the transmission of the 
 preceding tendon. 
 
 Peri. — Around an envelope. 
 
 Pericardium. — The sac containing the heart. 
 
 Pericranium. — The membrane investing the skull. 
 
 Perineum. — The part between the anus and organs 
 of generation. 
 
 Periosteum. — Membrane investing bones. 
 
 Periphery. — The circumference. 
 
 Peritoneum. — The serous membrane which lines the in- 
 terior of the abdomen and is reflected on its contents. 
 
 Peroneal. — Relating to the fibula. 
 
 Petaloid. — Shaped like a petal. 
 
 Petrosum Os. — Rough portion of the temporal bone. 
 
 Peyer's Glands. — Clustered mucous glands of the in- 
 testines. 
 
 Phartjngial. — Relating to the pharynx. 
 
 Pharijnx. — Superior part of the gullet. 
 
 Phrenic. — Belonging to the diaphragm. 
 
 Pia Mater. — A thin membrane investing the brain . 
 
 Pigmentum Nigrum. — Black pigment upon the choroid 
 coat of the eye. 
 
 Pilus. — Hair. 
 
 Pineal. — Shaped like the fniit of the pine. 
 
 Pisiform. — Shaped like a pea. 
 
 Pituitary Membrane. — The schneiderian membrane of 
 the nostrils. 
 
 Placenta. — The afterbirth. 
 
 Plantar. — Relating to the feet. 
 
 Pleura. — The serous membrane which lines the cavity 
 of the chest, and is reflected on the contents of the same. 
 
 Plexus. — A network of nen-es or vessels. 
 
 Plica. — A Mi. 
 
 Pons. — A bridge. 
 
 Pons Varolii. — A part of the brain. 
 
 Popliteal. — Muscles, neri'es, and vessels in the region 
 of the hock. 
 
 Pores. — Extremities of the cxhalents of the skin. 
 
 Porta. — A door or gate. 
 
 Portio. — A portion or branch. 
 
 Posterior. — Behind. 
 
 Posticus. — Situated behind. 
 
 Prcecordia. — The anterior part of the chest. 
 
 Primes Vice. — First passages of the alimentary canal. 
 
 Process. — The projecting eminence on a bone. 
 
 Profundus. — Deep-seated. 
 
 Pronatus. — Muscles of the fore limbs. 
 
 Prostate. — A gland near the neck of the male bladder. 
 
 Pseudo. — False ; a term applied to spurious membranes. 
 
 Psoa. — The loins. 
 
 Psoas. — Belonging to the loins. 
 
 Pterygoid. — Shaped like a wing. 
 
 Pubes. — The junction of the pelvic bones at their in- 
 ferior parts. 
 
 Pubic. — Pertaining to the pubes. 
 
 Pudendum. —The external parts of the female organs 
 of generation. 
 
 Pudic. — Belonging to the pudenda. 
 
 Pulmonary. —Belonging to the lungs. 
 
 Puncta. — Lachrymalia. The tear-ducts within the eye- 
 lids. 
 
 Punctum. — A point. 
 
 Pylorus. — The outlet of a horse's stomach. 
 
 Pyriform. — Shaped like a pear. 
 
 Quadratus. — Square in fonn or figm-e. 
 
 R. 
 Radial. — Belonging to the radius. 
 Radiated. — Diverging from the centre like the sun's rays. 
 Radicles. — Germs of the roots. 
 Radius. — Bone of the fore exti'emity. 
 Ramify. — To branch out, or from. 
 Ramose. — Branched. 
 Ramus. — A branch. 
 Ranine. — Vessels under the tongue. 
 Rapa^. — The central line of the scrotum. 
 Rectum. — The posterior termination of the intestines. 
 Rectus. — Sti'aight. 
 
 Recurrent. — Running in a backward direction. 
 Reflection. — A duplicature. 
 Regions. — Divisions of the body. 
 Renal. — Belonging to the kidneys. 
 Rete. — Net-work. 
 Retiform. — Net like. 
 Retina. — Expansion of the optic nerve. 
 Retractor. — Muscles thus named draw backwards. 
 Retrahens. — Drawing back. 
 Rima. — An opening or fissure. 
 Rotator. — A name given to muscles that rotate or re- 
 volve a part. 
 Rotundus. — Circular, round. 
 
192 
 
 GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES. 
 
 Ruga. — A wi-inkle. 
 Rugose. — Wrinkled. 
 
 S. 
 
 (Sijc. — A bag or cyst. 
 
 Saculated. — Encysted. 
 
 Sacral. — Belonging to the sacrum. 
 
 Sagittal. — Arrow-shaped . 
 
 Salivary. — Relating to the saliva 
 
 Sanguis. — Blood. 
 
 Saphena. — A vein of the hind extremities. 
 
 Scaphoid. — Shaped like a boat. 
 
 Scapula. — Shoulder blade. 
 
 Scrotal. — Relating to the scrotum. 
 
 Scrotum. — Tb& sac in which the testicles are con 
 tained. 
 
 Sebaceous. — Resembling suet. 
 
 Secernent. — Secretory. 
 
 Semen. — Secretion peculiar to the testes. 
 
 Semi. — One-half. 
 
 Septum. — A partition or division. 
 
 Serrated. — Resembling the teeth of a saw. 
 
 Serum. — The fluid portion of the blood. 
 
 Sessamoid. — Like seeds. 
 
 Sigmoid. — Flexure. 
 
 Sinew. — A tendon. 
 
 Sinus. — A long cavity. 
 
 Spermatic. — Belonging to the testicles. 
 
 Sphenoid. — Wedge-like. 
 Sphenoidal. — Belonging to sphenoid bone. 
 Sphincter. — Circular muscles, which close an opening, 
 are thus named. 
 Spinal. — Belonging to the spine. 
 Spinal Marrow. — Medulla spinalis. 
 Spine. — The vertebral column. 
 Spinus. — Thorn-like. 
 Splanchic. — Belonging to the intestines. 
 Squamous. — Resembling scales. 
 Stapes. — A stin'up ; bone of the ear. 
 Sternal. — Belonging to the breast bone. 
 Sternum. — Breast bone. 
 Striated. — Marked with long lines. 
 Styloid. — Shaped like a pointed pencil. 
 Sub. — Under; beneath. 
 
 Sublimus. — This term is applied to a muscle when 
 seated more superficially than another of the same kind. 
 Sublingual. — Beneath the tongue. 
 Submaxillary. — Under the inferior jaw. 
 Subscapular. — Inner side of the shoulder blade. 
 Super. — Above. 
 
 Superficial. — Upon or near the surface. 
 Superior. — The upper part. 
 Suture. — Junction or union. 
 Sympathetic. — Associated in function. 
 Symphysis. — A connection of bones by an intervening 
 Bubstanco. 
 
 Synovia. — Tho lubricating fluid of joints, sometimes 
 called joint-oil. 
 Systole. — Contraction of the heart. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tahula. — An extended surface. 
 Tarsus. — The hock. 
 Tegumentary. — Relating to the skin. 
 Temporal — Relating to the temporal regions of the 
 cranium. 
 
 Tendon. — The extremity of a muscle. 
 Tendo Achillis. — The tendon of the gastrocnemii, in- 
 serted into the hock. 
 
 Tensor. — A name given to muscles which stretch or ex- 
 tend parts. 
 
 Tentorium. — A membranous partition of the brain. 
 Teres. — Round ; cylindrical. 
 Testes. — The testicles. 
 
 Thalami Nervoi-um Opticorum. — Sapi>osei origin of 
 the optic nerves. 
 
 Thalamus. — A bed or origin of certain parts. 
 Theca. — A sheath. 
 
 Thoracic. — Belonging to the thorax or chest. 
 Thoracic Duct. — The ti-unk of the absorbents. 
 Tliorax. — The chest. 
 
 Thyro. — Names compounded with this word belong 
 to muscles which ai-o attached to the thyroid cartilage. 
 Thyroid. — Resembling a shield. 
 Tibia. — The bone beneath the femur. 
 Tibial. — Belonging to the tibia. 
 Tinea. — The name of a fish ; the tench. 
 Tissue. — An organized structure. 
 Trachea. — The windpipe. 
 Tracheal. — Pertaining to the windpipe. 
 Trachelo. — Names compounded with this word belong 
 to muscles located in the region of the neck. 
 Transversalis. — Having a transverse direction. 
 Transversus. — Placed across. 
 
 Trapezium.— A four-sided-figure, bone of the horse's 
 knee. 
 
 Trapezoides. — A bone which in figure somewhat re- 
 sembles the preceding ; it also enters into the composition 
 of the horse's knee. 
 
 Trapezius. -'Eora square; a muscle placed over the 
 region of the withers. 
 
 Triangularis. — Triangular. 
 Triceps. — Three-headed. 
 
 Tricuspid. — Having three points ; a name applied to 
 a valve in the right rentricle. 
 Tri^rf. — Three-cleft. 
 Trigastnc. — Having three bellies. 
 Trisplanchic Nerve. — The great sympathetic or gan- 
 glionic nerve. 
 TrocAan^er. —Eminences or tuberosities on the bones. 
 Tuba. — A tube. 
 
 Tuber. — A solid roundish substance. 
 Tuberosity. — Protuberance or projection. 
 Tubular. — Tube-like. 
 Tunic. — A membranous covering. 
 Turbinated.— Shajped like a sugar-loaf. 
 Turgid. — Swollen. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulna. — Bone of the fore extremity, termed point of 
 the elbow. 
 
 Ulnar. — Pertaining to the ulna. 
 
 Umbilicus. — The navel. 
 
 Uncifiirm. — Shaped like a hook. 
 
 Ureter. — A tubular connection between the kidneys 
 and bladder. 
 
 Urinal. — Pertaining to the urine. 
 
 Uterine. — Relating to the womb. 
 
 Uterus. — The womb. 
 
 Uvula. — A pendulous body, posterior to the soft palate. 
 
GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES. 
 
 193 
 
 Vagina. — A sheath; the cavity between the pudenda 
 and womb. 
 
 Vaginal. — Pertaining to the vagina. 
 
 Valvular. — Valve-like. 
 
 Vas. — A vessel. 
 
 Vas Deferens. — Excretory duct of the testicle. 
 
 Vasa. — The plural of vas ; vessels. 
 
 Vascular. — Highly organized with blood-vessels. 
 
 Vascular System. — The heart and its vessels. 
 
 Vastus. — Relates to size ; large, thick and fleshy mus- 
 cles of the thigh. 
 
 Vena. — A vein. 
 
 Vena Cava. — The great vein. 
 
 Vena Porta. — The largest vein of the liver. 
 
 Venter. — The belly. 
 
 Ventricles. — A term applied to the cavities of the brain 
 and heart. 
 
 Vermiform. — Shaped like a worm. 
 
 Verlebrce. — Bones of the spinal column; 
 
 Vesical. — Foi-med like a bladder ; pertaining to the 
 bladder. 
 
 Vesicles Graafian. — Small bladders or cysts found in 
 the ovaria (female testes). 
 
 Via. — Way or passage. 
 
 Villous. — Velvet-like, applied to the villous coat of a 
 horse's stomach. 
 
 Viscera. — Internal organs. 
 
 Visceral. — Eclating to a viscus. 
 
 Viscus. — An organ within the body. 
 
 Vital. — Life-like. 
 
 Vitreous. — Glassy ; transparent. 
 
 Vivisection. — Surgical operations on living subjects. 
 
 Vivus. — Living; life-like. 
 
 Vulva. — The pudendum. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zoology. — The science of animals. 
 Zootherapeutics. — Relates to the curative action of med- 
 icines. 
 Zootomy. — Comparative anatomy. 
 Zygoma. — An arch or yoke. 
 Zygomatic. — Belonging to the zygoma. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIX. 
 
 OSSEOUS STRUCTURE. 
 
 1. Frontalis. 
 
 ^ Parietalis. 
 
 3. Occipital. 
 
 5.' Nasal. 
 
 6. ^ Lachmyral. 
 
 8. Superior maxillaris. 
 
 5. Anterior " 
 
 10. Inferior or lower jaw. 
 
 11. Cervical vertebrae. 
 
 16. True ribs. 
 
 17. False ribs. 
 
 18. Sternum. 
 19; Ileum. 
 22. Femur. 
 23'. Patella. 
 
 24. Tibia- 
 
 25. Os calcis. 
 
 26. Astragalus. 
 21, Tarsal bones. 
 
 28. Metatarsus magnum. 
 
 29. Sessamoids. 
 
 30. Os sufEraginis. 
 
 31. Os coroiia. 
 
 32. Os pecb's. 
 S3. Scapula. 
 34i Os humeri. 
 
 35. Radius. 
 
 36. Carpus. 
 
 37. Metacarpus magntun. 
 
 39. Os suffraginis. 
 
 40. Os corona. 
 
 41. Os pedis. 
 
 MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 
 
 FOEWAED PARTS. — THE HEAD. 
 
 a. Orbicularis palpebrarimi. 
 
 6. Levator palpebrte. 
 
 c. Bilalor nans lateralis. 
 
 d. " " anterior. 
 
 e. Orbicularis oris. 
 
 f. Nasalis longus. » 
 
 g. Levator labii superiorus. 
 r. Buccinator. 
 
 J. Retractor labii inferiorus. 
 
 Jc. ^lasscter. 
 
 m. Attolentes et abduoens aurem. 
 
 2. Facial vein. 
 
 THE KECK. 
 
 c". Trachelo subscapularis. — StSenus. 
 6. Rliomboideus longus. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIX. CONTINDF.D. 
 
 f. Splenius. 
 
 o. Abducens vel depiimens aiirem. 
 
 r. t. Tendon of the sijlenius and complexus major. 
 
 V. Sterno maxillaris. 
 
 X. Subscapido hyoideus. 
 
 THE SHOULDER, ANTERIOR MUSCLES, AND FORE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 a. Trapezius. 
 
 6'. Teres. 
 
 e". Pectoralis parvus. 
 
 f. Antea spinatus. 
 
 g". Postea spinatus. 
 
 I", i: Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 o". Pectoralis transversalis. 
 
 >■". Flexor metacarpi internus. 
 
 s". s". Extensor metacai'pi magnus. 
 
 t. t. Extensor metacarpi obliquus. 
 
 u. Tendons perforatus and jjerforans. 
 
 u. (At the humeral region.) Levator humeri. 
 
 x". x". Extensor tendons. 
 
 8. The hoof. 
 
 THE ABDOMEN .VND POSTERIOR PARTS. — ABDOMINAL REGION, AND OF HIE COSTA. 
 
 a". Serratus lumborum. 
 
 o". Obliquus externus abdomini.s — (beneath the dotted line). 
 
 D. Serratus magnus. 
 
 POSTERIOR PARTS. 
 
 g". Ligameuts of the patella. 
 
 /t. d. e. Glutei. 
 
 k. Extensor metatarsi internus. 
 
 m. Tensor vagina. 
 
 m". Rectus. 
 
 o". Vastus externus. 
 
 u. Gastrocnemius internus. 
 
 V. V. Flexor pedis. 
 
 It. Flexors ])erforatus and perforans. 
 
 x". x". Fleshy belly of the extensor. 
 
 X. X. Extensor tendons. 
 
 8. The hoof. 
 
^dmnarj C0nc0liJ5itaI C^art. 
 
 (195) 
 
A VETERINARY TOXICOLOGICAL CHART, 
 
 CONTAINING THOSE AGENTS WHICH ARE KNOWN TO CAUSE DEATH IN THE HORSE; 
 WITH THE SYMPTOMS, ANTIDOTES, ACTION ON THE TISSUES, AND TESTS. 
 
 BY W. J. T. MORTON, 
 
 Lecturer on Veterinary, Materia Medico, etc. 
 
 "Poisons are substances which are capable of altering or destroying, in a majority of 
 cases, some or all of the functions necessary to the support of the vital principle." — 
 Fmdere. They are derived both from the organic and inorganic kingdoms ; and their 
 action is either local or remote. Local action is referrable to, 1st, Chemical Decomposi- 
 tion; 2d, Irritation and Inflammation; 3d, Nervous Impression. Remote action is 
 effected by, 1st, Absorption ; 2d, Sympathy. Animal Poisons rank first in potency; next 
 to these, the Mineral ; and lastly, the Vegetable. Aerial poisons are, perhaps, the most 
 insidious. 
 
 The manner in which poisons are introduced into the System varies. The Alimen- 
 tary Tube, the Skin, the Circulation, and the Lungs, are the media. 1st, They may be 
 taken into the Stomach inadvertently with the food, or they may be maliciously or acci- 
 dentally administered. They may also be thrown up as Enemata. 2d, They may be 
 placed underneath the Skin ; or injected into the Circulation ; or they may be absorbed 
 from Wounds. 3d, K gaseous, they may be inhaled, and enter the blood during its 
 transit through the Lungs. They are generally arranged according to the effects which 
 they produce upon the Animal Economy. The great end of Toxicological Science is 
 to counteract their influence, which may be accomplished by chemically decomposing 
 them, by their expulsion from the System, and by restoring the Function of the Organ 
 of which they have caused derangement. As comparatively large quantities of the 
 Poisons are required to destroy Life in the Horse, the niceties of chemical manipulation 
 in the application of Tests are uncalled for. It wUl generally be sufficient to collect 
 some of the contents of the Stomach and Litestines, add distilled Water to them, filter and 
 to the Solution apply the Test or Re-agent. Sometimes they require the influence of 
 heat ; and, when the contents are not attainable, portions of the Alimentary Tube which 
 have been most acted upon by the Agent are to be boiled in distilled Water, and similarly 
 treated. • 
 
 L — IRRITANT POISONS. 
 
 These produce their action upon some part of the Alimentary Canal, particularly the Stom- 
 ach and Intestines; and by absorption they are often carried to other Organs. The 
 principal Symptoms are those of Irritation and Inflammation. 
 
 AGENTS. 
 
 ACIDUM SULPHURICUM. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 ACIDUM NITRICUM. 
 
 Nitric Acid. 
 
 ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid. 
 Symptoms. — The liquid mineral acids 
 
 axe the most powerful of aU local irritants. 
 Indications of their action are uneasiness, 
 frequent pawing and shifting of the posi- 
 I tion, increased secretion of saliva, which is 
 sometimes viscid and fetid, the mouth in- 
 flamed, difficulty in swallowing from corro- 
 sion of the lining of the esophagus, acute 
 gastric irritation extending to the intestines, 
 and giving rise to symptoms resembling a 
 
 (1971 
 
198 
 
 TOXICOLOGICAL CHAET. 
 
 most violent attack of colic ; pain on pres- 
 sure being applied over the abdomen ; fre- 
 quent attempts to dung and stale ; and, after 
 the fsBces have been voided, a discharge of 
 mucus streaked with blood takes place : 
 tenesmus, pulse quick and feeble, prostra- 
 tion of strength, profuse perspiration, cold- 
 ness of the body, and death, after the ani- 
 mal has endured excruciating agonies. 
 
 In one case related to me, nitric acid was 
 poured into the ear, and death took place 
 from inflammation extending to the mem- 
 branes of the brain. 
 
 Treatment. — As the general symptoms 
 of poisoning by the liquid mineral acids do 
 not materially differ, neither wiU the general 
 treatment. This will consist, 1st, In dilut- 
 ing the agent by throwing into the stom- 
 ach large quantities of water by means of 
 Read's pump. 2d, In neutralizing it, by 
 suspending in the water chalk, magnesia, or 
 soap ; or, in the absence of these, the plaster 
 from the walls. 3d, In allaying the su- 
 pervening inflammation by means of blood- 
 • letting, should the urgency of the symp- 
 toms demand it ; and also by the adminis- 
 tration of opium, and a free use of demul- 
 cents. The subsequent nervous debility 
 and prostration of strength are to be com- 
 batted by the milder vegetable tonics, and 
 a gradual return to liberal diet. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The mouth, pha- 
 rynx, and esophagvTS, present traces of the 
 action of the peculiar acid. The stomach 
 is distended with gas, and occasionally 
 lined with its disorganized tissue, which is 
 eroded in patches, and so deeply ulcerated 
 as to form perforations. Intense inflam- 
 mation often exists in this viscus, which 
 extends throughout the whole of the intes- 
 tinal tube, involving its peritoneal tunic; 
 this last circumstance has been thought to 
 be distinctive between poisoning by acids 
 and metallic compounds ; this cannot, how- 
 ever, be relied upon. The blood in the 
 larger vessels sometimes forms a firm clot. 
 These appearances will not be so marked 
 when an acid has been given in small doses 
 for some time, or if much diluted we may 
 
 then expect to find the coats of the stom- 
 ach and intestines thickened and contracted, 
 the result of chronic inflammation, with 
 here and there eroded spots, but not of any 
 depth. 
 
 Tests. — General. — Sour taste — neu- 
 tralization by the alkalies — effervescing 
 with the carbonates — reddening of litmus 
 paper. 
 
 Particular. — Sulphuric Acid. — The parts 
 with which it comes in contact are first 
 whitened, and then changed to a brownish 
 color. By macerating them or the con- 
 tents of the stomach in distilled water, fil- 
 tering, and adding a solution of the nitrate 
 of barytes, an insoluble precipitate, the sul- 
 phate of barytes, is obtained. 
 
 Nitric Acid. — The tissues changed of a 
 yellow color, which is heightened by am- 
 monia. The filtered solution boiled on 
 copper filings in a test tube emits orange- 
 colored fumes of nitrous acid. Potassa be- 
 ing added to it, by evaporation a salt is ob- 
 tained, which deflagrates ; or a piece of 
 bibulous paper may be satmrated with the 
 solution, dried, and inflamed. 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid. — Tissues blanched. 
 Its fumes are rendered more manifest by a 
 rod dipped in ammonia being held in them. 
 This test, however, we are rarely able to 
 avail ourselves of. On the addition of 
 nitrate of silver to the solution, it gives a 
 white precipitate, the chloride of silver. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 ACIDUM OXALICUM. 
 
 Oxalic Acid. 
 
 Symptoms. — Instances are recorded of 
 horses having been poisoned by this acid, 
 but whether maliciously given, or adminis- 
 tered by mistake for the sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, I cannot say. The symptoms atten- 
 dant on its action, when a concentrated 
 solution is given, will not be dissimilar to 
 those produced by the mineral acids. When 
 dUuted, however, it is said to cause death 
 by palsying the heart and nervous system, 
 or by inducing tetanus or narcotism ; but I 
 
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 199 
 
 am not aware that such action has been ob- 
 served in the horse. 
 
 Treatment. — Avoid large quantities of 
 water, as it favors the absorption of the 
 acid. Throw into the stomach a mixture 
 of chalk, or of magnesia and water, partic- 
 ularly the former ; or lime from the walls 
 may be used ; either of wliich will form an 
 insoluble salt. The alkalies are inadmissi- 
 ble, because they form soluble salts. De- 
 mulcents to be freely employed, and the 
 remaining irritation to be allayed by opium- 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — None recorded 
 in the horse. In other animals the stom- 
 ach has been found to contain black extra- 
 vasated blood, its inner coat being of a 
 cherry-red color; in some places the siu:- 
 face is brittle, and the subjacent stratum 
 gelatinized. The intestines are usually in- 
 flamed throughout. When its influence 
 has been through the medium of the blood 
 on remote parts, the heart has been found 
 to have lost its contractility, and to contain 
 arterial blood. 
 
 Tests. — Acid reaction on litmus paper. 
 A concentrated solution with ammonia 
 forms a salt whose crystals radiate, the ox- 
 alate of ammonia. 
 
 Hydrochlorate of Lime throws dowia a 
 white precipitate which is soluble in nitric 
 acid, the oxalate of lime. 
 
 Sulphate of Copper yields a blue or green- 
 ish-white precipitate, the oxalate of copper. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver causes a dense white 
 precipitate ; also an oxalate which, when 
 dried and heated, fulminates. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 ACIDUM ARSENIOSUM. 
 
 Arsenious Acid, 
 White Arsenic. 
 
 Symptoms. — Intense pain, resembling 
 acute enteritis; belly tympanitic, with a 
 rumbling noise in the intestines ; the dejec- 
 tions oflensive, and mixed with mucus ; 
 pulse quick and feeble, becoming scarcely 
 perceptible at the jaw ; respiration labori- 
 ous; surface of the body covered with an 
 extremely cold, clammy sweat ; extremities 
 
 cold; efforts to vomit; countenance anx- 
 ious, and indicative of great torture ; mu- 
 cous tissues injected ; mouth hot ; increased 
 secretion of saliva, which is singularly fetid ; 
 delirium from pain which has become con- 
 tinuous; exhaustion; death. The action 
 of tliis poison is not merely as a local irri- 
 tant, it being often conveyed to remote 
 parts through the medium of the circula- 
 tion, thus causing death. Even as an 
 external applicant it has been known to pro- 
 duce much general derangement of the sys- 
 tem, independent of its influence as an 
 escharotic, which is powerful. On this 
 account, when the methods usually resorted 
 to have failed to demonstrate its existence 
 in the contents of the stomach and intes- 
 tines, Orfila has succeeded in detecting it 
 in the organic tissues, particularly the liver. 
 
 Treatment. — A free use of diluents, or 
 of lime water; avoid blood-letting, as this 
 promotes the absorption of the poison ; 
 give large doses of the hydrated peroxide 
 of iron precipitated by ammonia from a 
 solution of the sulphate of iron, so as to 
 form an insoluble arsenic of iron, which 
 may be expelled by the action of active 
 piu-gatives. The subsequent inflammation 
 is to be combatted by the ordinary antiphlo- 
 gistic remedies ; while the debility which 
 supervenes, and wliich is often great, is best 
 counteracted by the vegetable tonics and 
 judicious dieting. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The stomach and 
 intestines, especially the latter, highly in- 
 flamed and ulcerated in patches. The 
 caecum and colon present the most marked 
 action, the villous coat being black from an 
 effusion of altered blood, and the peritoneal 
 tunic involved. Congestion of blood in the 
 lungs, liver, and kidneys; redness of the 
 lining membrane of the windpipe, extend- 
 ing to the air-passages generally ; conjunc- 
 tival membrane highly injected, and the 
 blood in a fluid state throughout the body. 
 Ecchymosis in the heart. 
 
 Tests. — Ist, by Reduction. — The sus- 
 pected powder, being dried, is to be mixed 
 with twice its weight of newly-burnt and 
 pulverized charcoal, and introduced into a 
 
200 
 
 TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 test-tube : the heat of a spirit lamp is now 
 to be applied ; first to the upper part of the 
 mixture, and afterguards steadUy to the bot- 
 tom of the tube, when, if arsenious acid is 
 present, the metal arsenicum will be sub 
 limed, and, encoating the tube, form a ring 
 of a polished-steel lustre, the inner surface 
 of which is crystalline. The little watery 
 vapor, which wiU be condensed within the 
 tube before the metallic crust begins to ap- 
 pear, is to be removed by a roll of bibulous 
 paper. 
 
 2d, by Liquid Re-agents. — The contents 
 of the stomach, or such parts of that viscus 
 as have been acted upon, being boiled in 
 distilled water, the solution is to be filtered. 
 The ammoniacal sulphate of copper added to 
 this gives an apple-green precipitate, the ar- 
 senite of copper. The ammoniacal nitrate of 
 silver, a lemon-yellow precipitate, changing 
 to a dark brown on exposure to light, the 
 arsenite of silver. Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 
 — generated by the action of dilute suphu- 
 ric acid on suphm-et of iron, in a flask, hav- 
 ing an emerging tube bent at a double right 
 angle, — passed up through the solution for 
 ten or fifteen minutes, gives a sulphur yel- 
 low precipitate, the sulphuret of arsenicum. 
 Water impregnated with this gas affords 
 the like compound. The solution for tliis 
 test must be perfectly neutral. This pre- 
 cipitate may be aftenvards subjected to re- 
 duction. 
 
 3d, by Nascent Hydrogen. — This is ef- 
 fected in Marsh's tube. The fluid con- 
 tents of the stomach, or the filtered solution 
 before spoken of, being introduced into it, 
 zinc and sulphuric acid are added, and the 
 arseniuretted hydrogen as it escapes from 
 the jet inflamed, when luater and metallic 
 arsenic will be condensed upon the glass 
 disc held above it. The former will be dis- 
 sipated by the heat, «,nd around the latter 
 a ring of arsenious acid may be seen. In 
 the absence of a Marsh's tube, a common 
 two-ounce wide-mouthed vial, with a cork 
 perforated by a piece of glass tube or evea 
 tobacco-pipe, may with care be made to an- 
 swer all the purpose. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDUM. 
 
 Bichloride of Mercury, 
 Corrosive Suhlimate. 
 
 Symptoms. — The effects which follow 
 the administration of large doses of this 
 salt, resemble those which supervene when 
 the mineral acids liave been given, except 
 that, generally, super-purgation is present, 
 and the fcecal matter is profuse and highly 
 offensive. Its solubility renders it more 
 energetic than arsenious acid, although it is 
 not so frequently had recourse to for poi- 
 soning. 
 
 The protochloride of mercury, calomel, 
 when incautiously given, has also caused 
 death, by inducing inflammation of the mu- 
 cous lining of the intestines, accompanied 
 with violent purging and tenesmus. 
 
 Treatment. — The white of eggs suspend- 
 ed in water, the albumen of which renders 
 the bichloride of mercury insoluble ; or large 
 quantities of wheat-flour, or milk. Iron 
 filings have also been advocated, which, 
 reviving the metallic mercury, may be ex- 
 pelled by piu-gatives ; a free use of dilutents. 
 The treatment of the salivation, which 
 sometimes supervenes, consists in exposure 
 to cool air, the exhibition of saline purga- 
 tives, and nourishing diet. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — These would 
 closely resemble the effects produced by the 
 above agent, tho mucous lining of the ali- 
 mentary canal being intensely inflamed 
 throughout, its textmre destroyed, and in 
 parts corroded. The disorganized tissue 
 often contains the poison, which it yields 
 by analysis. 
 
 Tests. — Lime-ivater, which throws down 
 an orange yellow precipitate, the h yd rated 
 binoxide of mercury. 
 
 Iodide of Potassium, which gives a beau- 
 tiful scarlet compound, the biniodide of 
 mercury. 
 
 Protochloride of Tin, which first aflbrds 
 a whitish precipitate, the protochloride of 
 mercury ; and, on adding more of the test 
 a grayish-black powder is formed, which 
 
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 201 
 
 consists of minutely di\ided metallic mer- 
 cury. 
 
 Sulphurelled Hydrogen, which gives a 
 blackish compound, a sulphuret of mercury. 
 
 To these may be added the test by re- 
 duction, the reducing agent being the pro- 
 tochloride of tin, assisted by heat. 
 
 Albumen is not now relied on as a re- 
 agent. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRAS. 
 
 Potassio- Tartrate of Antimony, 
 Emetic Tartar. 
 
 Symptoms. — Violent gastric iiTitation; 
 nausea ; efforts to vomit ; profuse perspira- 
 tion; catharsis, accompanied with colicky 
 pains and much flatus ; increased secretion 
 of urine ; the heart's action at. first much 
 quickened, and afterwards scarcely joercep- 
 tible ; labored respu-ation ; injection of the 
 mucous tissues ; extreme distress ; death. 
 
 Treatment. — • The yellow bark, or any 
 other astringent vegetable that contains 
 tannin, to be administered both in powder 
 and decoction ; a free use of dilutents, olea- 
 ginous purges, and opium, should then be 
 had recourse to for the purpose of aUaying 
 the irritation. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The stomach 
 highly inflamed, and eroded patches on the 
 mucous coat, which are of a deeper color 
 than the surrounding parts ; intestines red- 
 dened, encoated -with slimy mucus, and 
 thickened ; lungs gorged with blood ; and 
 general inflammation of the whole system 
 consequent on its absorption. 
 
 Tests. — Caustic Potass and Lime-ivater, 
 which precipitates the oxide of antimony. 
 The carbonate of potass acts with still 
 greater delicacy. 
 
 Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids also 
 afford the like precipitate. A strong infu- 
 sion of the gaU-nut gives a dirty, yeUo\\ash 
 white precipitate, the gallate of antimony. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen throws down an 
 orange-red precipitate, the red sulphuret of 
 antimony, which is so peculiar as to be al- 
 ways distinguished ; and the reduction of 
 
 tills precipitate by hydrogen at once dissi- 
 pates aU doubt. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 SALTS OF COPPER. 
 
 Symptoms. — The salts of copper are 
 rarely employed as poisons to the horse. 
 Large doses of the sulphate improperly 
 given have sometimes caused much intes- 
 tiiral irritation, followed by colicky pains 
 and diarrhoea ; and, in one instance, death 
 from gastro-enteritis. Doubtless inordinate 
 quantities would always destroy life, when 
 symptoms similar to those caused by any 
 other erodent would be manifested, it being 
 a local irritant. The same, perhaps, may 
 be said of the impure acetate of copper. 
 
 Li the neighborhood of works for smelt- 
 ing of copper, horses are frequently attacked 
 with diseases of the joints, indicated by 
 swelling, bursal distension, exostosis, and, 
 ultimately, anchylosis, arising either from 
 the state of the herbage or the impregnation 
 of the air by the vapors disengaged. 
 
 Treat merit. — Give a solution of the fer- 
 rocyanide of potassium, or of soap. Albu- 
 men is also an antidote, and metallic iron, 
 which latter precipitates the copper. This 
 is to be expelled by oleaginous purgatives. 
 Tepid water rendered slightly alkaline may 
 also be freely given ; and opium, to allay 
 irritation. A free use of demulcents, as 
 gruel, infusion of linseed, etc., is indicated. 
 
 For the local affection, punctm-e the bur- 
 sal distention, and, after the evacuation of 
 the cyst, apply an elastic bandage, giving 
 gentle compression. Remove the animal 
 to another locality. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — Stomach ulcer- 
 ated where the agent has adliered, and gen- 
 eral inflammation of its mucous lining 
 and that of the intestines, with here and 
 there spots of erosion. Li the instance ad- 
 verted to of the sulphate of copper causing 
 death, there was an engorgement of the 
 blood-vessels of the lungs. 
 
 Copper is with extreme difficulty detected 
 in any of the secretions. It, however, has 
 been found in the organic tissues, particu- 
 
202 
 
 TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 larly the liver after incineration, and also in 
 the blood. 
 
 Tests. — Water of Ammonia affords an 
 azure-colored precipitate, or a violet-colored 
 solution, the ammoniuret of copper. 
 
 Ferrocyanide of Potassium causes a 
 brown precipitate, the ferrocyanide of cop- 
 per. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen throws down a 
 blackish compound, the sidphurct of copper. 
 
 A piece of polished iron introduced into 
 the solution is soon covered with metallic 
 copper. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 SALTS OF LEAD. 
 
 Symptoms. — Of these, like the above, 
 comparatively large quantities are required 
 to cause death. Violent spasms, tremors, 
 obstinate constipation of the bowels, fol- 
 lowed by paralysis, partial or complete, are 
 the usual indications. 
 
 In the neighborhood of lead works ani- 
 mals are often thus affected, when, in addi- 
 tion to these symptoms, there is a depraved 
 appetite present: the stomach after death 
 being found filled to repletion with strange 
 and incongruous substances. 
 
 Treatment. — Solutions of the sulphate 
 of magnesia or soda, combined with croton 
 or linseed oil ; afterwards allaying the irri- 
 tation by means of opium. 
 
 The phosphate of soda has also been ex- 
 tolled as an antidote. 
 
 The ti-eatment for the paralysis wliicli 
 remains consists in judicious dieting and 
 exercise. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The lining mem- 
 brane of the stomach and intestines is 
 sometimes inflamed, sometimes blanched; 
 the caliber of the latter is diminished, and 
 its coats corrugated ; the muscular tissue 
 throughovit the body has lost its power of 
 contractility ; the buccal membrane is pale, 
 and the blood of a brighter color than nat- 
 ural. 
 
 Tests. — Chromate of Potass throws down 
 a yellow precipitate, the chromate of lead. 
 
 Iodide of Potassium likewise gives a yel- 
 low precipitate, the iodide of lead. 
 
 Sidphuretted Hydrogen causes a black 
 precipitate, the sulphitret of lead. 
 
 A rod of Zinc introduced into it causes 
 a deposition of metallic lead in a crystalline 
 form. 
 
 The alkaline carbonates and sulphates, 
 although they give white precipitates with 
 lead, have been objected to as tests. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 POTASS^ NITRAS. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash, 
 A^itre. 
 
 Symptoms. — Much uneasiness ; cholicky 
 pains ; pulse feeble, quick, and irregular ; 
 respiration accelerated; mouth hot; mu- 
 cous lining of the eyelids and nostrils 
 highly injected ; increased secretion of 
 vuine ; frequent voiding of feeces. If the 
 qiiantity given is very great, the abdominal 
 pains are -more intense ; the breathing more 
 labored; the pulse quicker; inefTectual ef- 
 forts to stale are made ; the extremities are 
 cold; and the prostration of strength is 
 extreme. If not, after manifesting much 
 uneasiness, the faeces are frequently voided ; 
 diuresis supervenes ; and relief is obtained. 
 
 Treatment. — A free use of demulcents; 
 oleaginous purgatives ; hot rugs to the ab- 
 domen, and over the loins ; opiate enemata ; 
 if necessary, the abstraction of blood ; with 
 hand-rubbing, and bandages to the extremi- 
 ties. Possibly a mustard cataplasm or a 
 sheepskin over the loins will be of service. 
 Such counter irritants as are likely to be 
 carried to the kidneys are to be avoided. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The villous coat 
 of the stomach highly inflamed and studded 
 with dark spots resembling ecchymosis, 
 varying in size and running into patches ; 
 they are easily scraped off, and contain a 
 deposit of serum. The cuticular coat is 
 also inflamed, but not so highly, and its 
 texture is much weakened ; the small intes- 
 tines are pervaded with an inflammatory 
 
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 203 
 
 blush ; the lungs and heart are congested, 
 and the venous blood is of a brighter color 
 than usual. Constriction and inflamma- 
 tion of the neck of the bladder have also 
 been observed. 
 
 Tests. — From the fluid contents of the 
 alimentary tube, or from the urine, the salt 
 may be obtained by evaporation and crystal- 
 lization. It is known by deflagi-ating when 
 thrown on a piece of ignited charcoal, of 
 which it animates the combustion ; and by 
 yielding nitric acid when distilled with sul- 
 phuric acid. Heat also disengages oxygen 
 /rom it. 
 
 Chloride of Platinum added to its solu- 
 tion gives a yellow precipitate. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 CANTHARIS. 
 
 Tlie Blistering Fly. 
 
 Symptoms. — Much uneasiness ; intesti- 
 nal irritation ; frequent attempts to stale ; 
 strangury ; bloody urine ; accelerated pulse 
 and respiration ; continual pain, with much 
 coflstitutional disturbance. These symp- 
 toms increase in urgency, until death closes 
 the scene. 
 
 Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent 
 from out of the alimentary tube by brisk 
 purgatives ; oil is objectionable, on account 
 of the solubity of the active principle of 
 the cantharides in it. A free use of dilu- 
 ents ; opium may be given, and oleaginous 
 and demulcent injections thrown into the 
 bladder. Sheepskins over the loins ; hot 
 rags over the abdomen. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The mucous lin- 
 ing of the alimentary canal throughout in 
 a high state of diffused inflammation ; but 
 the lurinary organs are principally affected : 
 the blood-vessels of the kidneys, bladder, 
 and urethra, are much engorged, and the 
 
 lining membrane of the latter has in some 
 places a sphaceletic appearance. 
 
 Tests. — Washing of the contents of the 
 stomach and alimentary tube will develop 
 portions of the beautiful green case-wings 
 of the fly, which appear not quickly to un- 
 dergo decomposition ; Orfila having detected 
 them in a body some months after death. 
 
 AGENTS. 
 
 BITE OF THE VIPER, 
 
 STING OF THE HORNET, WASP, ETC. 
 
 Symptoms. — Subcutaneous inflamma- 
 tion, indicated by swelling and increased 
 heat, with effusion into the cellular tissue, 
 which sometimes goes on to gangrene; 
 pain ; constitutional excitement ; quickened 
 and irregular pulse ; rigors. 
 
 The bite of a viper has been known to 
 cause cerebral derangement and death, by 
 its influence on the nervous system. 
 
 Treatment. — Removal of the stings ; 
 counter-irritants, as liniment of ammonia 
 or turpentine, which, if sufficient, are to be 
 followed by scarification, the use of emol- 
 lients, and the general antiphlogistic reme- 
 dies, such as bleeding, fomentations, and 
 laxatives, with opium to allay the general 
 irritation. The virus of the tooth of the 
 viper may be extracted by cupping, or, 
 which is preferable, let the part be excised, 
 and the nitrate of silver freely appfied 
 afterwards. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — But few instances 
 of death are recorded. If it takes place, it 
 is probably the result of sympathetic and 
 general excitement of the whole system ; 
 the usual indications, therefore, of increased 
 nervous and vascular action may be ex- 
 pected to be met with. 
 
 Tests. — None. 
 
204 
 
 TOXICOLOGICAL CHART 
 
 II. — NARCOTIC POISONS. 
 
 These produce Stupor, Delirium, and other affections of the Brain and Nervous System, 
 
 foUoioed by Death. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 OPIUM. 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse will bear large 
 doses of this ch'Ug ; the quantity necessary 
 to destroy life is consequently great. Sup- 
 posed instances are recorded of its causing 
 death when given in doses of a few drachms 
 in order to check superpurgation ; also when 
 the annual has been debilitated by disease, 
 when symptoms of enteritis have shown 
 themselves, accompanied with a torpitude 
 of the bowels, and much sufTering previous 
 to death. Much larger quantities have, 
 however, often been given with impunity, 
 and frequently with advantage. 
 
 Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent 
 from out the alimentary tube by means of 
 oleaginous purgatives, eneiiiata, venesec- 
 tion, and a free use of demulcents, with 
 fomentations to the abdomen, and counter- 
 irritants to the extremities. 
 
 Should a state of stupor prevail, exercise 
 may be given, and cold water dashed over 
 the head. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The mucous lin- 
 ing of the stomach and intestines inflamed, 
 and easily torn asunder, the inflammation 
 being diffused. This has been thought to 
 be a distinctive between the effects induced 
 by mineral and vegetable poisons ; but it 
 cannot be relied upon, as repeated small 
 doses of an erodent will induce the like 
 appearances, only there will be more thick- 
 ening of the tunics. 
 
 Tests. — Odor, which is characteristic. 
 To the suspected matter add distilled water 
 acidulated with acetic acid ; agitate for a 
 few minutes, filter and evaporate to the con- 
 sistence of syrup ; boil tliis in alcohol, and 
 again filter and evaporate ; dissolve the re- 
 siduum in distilled water, and add to the 
 solution acetate of lead, which leaves mor- 
 
 phia in solution : this being heated with 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, any remaining lead 
 will be precipitated. On niti-ic acid being 
 added to the morphia obtained by evapora- 
 tion, it dissolves with cfTervescence, and 
 becomes of an orange-red color. Suspended 
 in water and treated with a drop or two of 
 the permuriate of iron, it is also dissolved, 
 and forms a greenish-blue solution. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 TAXUS BACCATA. 
 
 The Teio. 
 
 Symptoms. — Effects variable ; large quan- 
 tities have sometimes failed to cause any 
 injm-y, wliile at others comparatively small 
 quantities have destroyed life. It would 
 appear to be very insidious in its influence, 
 as the animal generally drops down dead 
 without indicating any previous suffering. 
 In some instances slight convulsions have 
 preceded death. The partially dried leaves 
 appear to be more energetic than the green 
 leaves, probably from greater quantities be- 
 ing partaken of. 
 
 Treatment. — Usually no oppoiiiinity is 
 afforded for the employment of remedies. 
 Should it, however, be the case that the 
 leaves of yew are suspected to have been 
 eaten, I am not aware of any method which 
 could be adopted but that of endeavoring 
 to expel them from the system as quicldy 
 as possible, which may be effected by active 
 purgatives. The after-treatment will de- 
 pend upon the symptoms which may pre- 
 sent themselves. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The alimentary 
 tube distended with fsecal matter in a semi- 
 fluid state, and highly fetid gases. 
 
 The mucous lining inflamed throughout, 
 particularly of the larger intestines, with 
 here and there patches of extravasated 
 blood. 
 
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 205 
 
 In some few cases scarcely a trace of 
 diseased action in the tissues could be 
 found. 
 
 Tests. — Portions of the vegetable in the 
 stomach and intestines mixed with the in- 
 gesta. 
 
 The active principle of the poison is 
 imknown, hence the difficulty in the treat- 
 ment. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM. 
 
 Hydrocyanic Acid, 
 Prussic Acid. 
 
 Symptoms. — Its influence is sudden, and 
 that of a powerful sedative to the system, 
 and, when the quantity is not large, evanes- 
 cent: otherwise it is followed by marked 
 cerebral derangement, manifested by giddi- 
 ness and coma; the breathing becomes 
 laborious ; the nostrils expanded ; the pulse 
 quickened and fluttering ; much debility is 
 present, with loss of power : to these suc- 
 ceed tetanic spasms ; the muscles become 
 rigid ; the jaws locked, and the membrana 
 nictitans is forced over the eye, which is 
 prominent, and has a glassy appearance ; 
 profuse perspiration covers the body, accom- 
 panied by violent convulsions and intense 
 suffering. These effects are succeeded by 
 a remission for a time, during which the 
 animal appears to be in a state of partial 
 insensibility ; but the exacerbations return 
 again and again, and then the paroxysms 
 become less and less powerful, until at 
 length, all action disappearing, the animal 
 is left in a state of exhaustion, the vital 
 powers being much depressed. Li what- 
 ever way the agent is introduced into the 
 system, the effects are similar. The most 
 active form of the poison is that of vapor. 
 
 When the dose is sufficiently large to 
 cause death, it is unaccompanied with suf- 
 fering. 
 
 Treatment. — Cold affusions over the 
 body ; the inhalation of dilute ammoniacal 
 and chlorine gases, particularly the latter. 
 
 The coma may be removed by blood- 
 letting; and diflusible stimulants, such as 
 
 ammonia, may be administered, combined 
 with tonics to rouse the depressed vital 
 powers. 
 
 Of course this treatment will only be of 
 service when the drug has been too fre- 
 quently given, or administered in too large 
 quantities. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The inner tunic 
 of the stomach and intestines sUghtly in- 
 flamed; 'the vessels of the lungs gorged 
 with blood; the parenchyma natural; the 
 lymphatics containmg red blood ; the heart 
 inflamed, and spots of ecchymosis on its 
 lining membrane ; the vessels of the brain 
 highly injected, particularly those of the 
 medullary portion, in which organ the odor 
 of the acid is easily recognized, as well as 
 throughout the body, and particularly in the 
 halitus from the blood. The eyes are gfis- 
 tening and prominent. 
 
 Tests. — Render fluid the contents of the 
 stomach, and distil an eighth part over, when 
 the following tests will be available : The 
 odor, which resembles that of bitter al- 
 monds, and impresses the throat and nos- 
 trils with a peculiar acridity. 
 
 Sulphate of Copper, the solution being 
 rendered alkaline by potass, throws down a 
 green precipitate, which becomes neai-ly 
 white on adding a little hydrochloric acid, 
 the cyanide of copper. 
 
 Sulphate of the Protoxide of Iron, simi- 
 larly employed, gives a gi-eenish precipitate, 
 which becomes of a deep blue color on the 
 addition of sulphuric acid, the ferrocyanate 
 of the protoxide of iron. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver throws down a white 
 precipitate, the cyanide of silver, which is 
 soluble in nitric acid only at its boifing 
 temperature, and which, when dried and 
 heated in a tube, emits cyanogen gas, which 
 burns with a rose-colored flame. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID. 
 
 Symptoms. — Instances are known of 
 horses having been suffocated during fires, 
 arising from the disengagement of this gas, 
 with, perhaps, some of the compounds of 
 
206 
 
 TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 hydrogen. Its sources otherwise are abund- 
 ant. In a state of dilution it causes coma ; 
 when pure, spasm of the glottis, and death 
 by asphyxia. 
 
 Treatment. — Removal to the ak ; cold 
 affusions over the body ; bloodletting ; dif- 
 fusible stimulants. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — Engorgement of 
 the vessels of the lungs with black blood. 
 The v-cssels of the brain and of the heart 
 are in a similar state. The bronchi and 
 trachea filled with frothy mucus. 
 
 Tests. — The tests for carbonic acid gas 
 are simple enough, but here they are inap- 
 plicable. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 
 
 Symptoms. — This gas, given off fi-om 
 cesspools and other places, has been at 
 times the cause of death. It is rapidly ab- 
 
 sorbed by the blood, and produces coma 
 and tetanic convulsions. Sometimes death 
 takes place from asphyxia. 
 
 Treatment. — The same as the above ; 
 to which, perhaps, may be added the inha- 
 lation of dilute chlorine. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The muscles have 
 lost their power of contractility. The 
 blood-vessels are gorged with fluid black 
 blood; the bronchial tubes inflamed, with 
 increased secretion of mucus both in them 
 and the ti'achea ; the odor from the body is 
 highly offensive. 
 
 Tests. — Carbonate of Lead on a piece 
 of card paper, exposed to an atmosphere 
 impregnated with this gas, is turned black 
 by the formation of the sulphur et of lead; 
 but as the body when undergoing decom- 
 position emits the same kind of gas, this 
 test can only be accepted as a corrobora- 
 tive proof. 
 
 III. — NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS. 
 
 Tliese cause Death, either by irritation or narcotism, and sometimes by both combined. 
 Their influence is first local and then remote, impressing the Nervous System. They 
 are principally derived from the Vegetable Kingdom. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 NUX VOMICA ET STRYCHNIA. 
 
 Vomic Nut and Strychnia. 
 
 Symptoms. — The vomic nut induces a 
 quickened and kritable pulse, highly la- 
 bored respiration, snortings, tetanic spasms, 
 loss of muscular power, injection of the 
 mucous tissues, extreme thirst, and death 
 from asphyxia ; previous to which there is 
 intense suflering. The action of its alka- 
 loid, strychnia, is more energetic. It is 
 shown by tremors, followed by a quickness 
 of the pulse and labored respiration, ex- 
 treme irritability, loss of power in the ex- 
 tremities, tetanic convulsions increasing in 
 violence, the legs being thrust from the 
 body, the muscles rigid, opisthotonus, pro- 
 fuse perspiration, insensibility, and the 
 
 pulse and respiration being scarcely percep- 
 tible ; the paroxysm exists for a few min- 
 utes only, and is followed by a remission 
 of the symptoms, leaving the animal much 
 exhausted and extremely irritable. The 
 exacerbations, however, continue until death 
 takes place from suffocation. 
 
 Treatment. — From the tenacity with 
 which the powder of the nut adheres to the 
 stomach and intestines, it is with difficulty 
 dislodged. Its removal may be attempted 
 by means of active purgatives, or antidotes 
 may be thrown in ; these consist of chlo- 
 rine and of iodme, which form inert com- 
 pounds with the active principle, strychnia ; 
 but, as the action of the alkaloid is on the 
 spinal marrow and the brain, little good can 
 be hoped to be obtained when a dose suf- 
 ficiently large to destroy life has been given, 
 
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 207 
 
 unless active measures be immediately 
 adopted. If the dose be not sufficiently 
 large for this purpose, there will be a suc- 
 cession of paroxysms, leaving behind them 
 much debility, which is to be counteracted 
 by tonics and diffusible stimulants, with, 
 perhaps, counter-irritants along the course 
 of the spine, lest effusion should take 
 place. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — Mucous lining of 
 the alimentary tube inflamed, lungs gorged 
 with blood, and the vascular system through- 
 out the body in a state of congestion. The 
 spinal canal much inflamed. Efl'usion of 
 bloody serum into the theca vertebraUs ; 
 motor division of the spinal cord more in- 
 jected than the other, and the nerves taking 
 their origin from it inflamed. The mem- 
 branes of the brain have been found in- 
 flamed, with effusion on the surface of the 
 cerebellum, and a softening of the whole 
 cortical portion of the brain. Rigidity of 
 the muscles of the body. Rapid decompo- 
 sition, accompanied with much fcetor. 
 
 Tests. — The powder of the nut has a 
 greenish-gray color, an intensely bitter taste, 
 and the odor of liquorice. Being collected, 
 it is to.be boiled in water acidulated wath 
 sulphuric acid, filtered, and the solution 
 neutralized by carbonate of lime and evap- 
 orated to dryness. The dry mass being 
 acted upon by successive portions of alco- 
 hol, these are to be evaporated to the con- 
 sistence of syrup, when the product will be 
 found to have an intensely bitter taste, and 
 it becomes of a deep orange-red color with 
 nitric acid, which color is destroyed by the 
 protochloride of tin. Sometimes it de- 
 posits crystals of strychnia on standing. 
 These tests will also be available for the 
 alkaloid ; to which may be added its spar- 
 ing solubility in water, the alkaline reaction 
 of its alcoholic solution, and its forming 
 neutral and crystallizable salts with acids. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 SEMEN CROTOXI. 
 
 Croton Seed. 
 Symptoms. — This purgative, when in- 
 cautiously administered, has produced death 
 
 by inducing violent inflammation of the 
 intestinal canal, followed by superpurga- 
 tion ; the alvine dejections being profuse, 
 watery, and offensive. 
 
 Treatment. — A free use of demulcents, 
 with astringents, as catechu, opium, and 
 challi. Bloodletting ; opiate enemas. Hot 
 rugs to the abdomen, counter irritants, etc. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — Violent inflam- 
 mation of the intestines, particularly the 
 caecum and colon, involving all the tunics, 
 the mucous lining being easily torn. Fae- 
 ces abundant and semi-fluid. Lungs in a 
 state of congestion. 
 
 Tests. — None definite. 
 
 A GENT. 
 
 DIGITALIS PURPUREA. 
 
 Fox Glove. 
 
 Symptoms. — Languor, gastric irritation, 
 coldness of the body and extremities, pale- 
 ness of the mucous tissues, cold and clam- 
 my perspiration, quickened and feeble pulse, 
 death. 
 
 When it accumulates in the system, af- 
 ter having been repeatedly given in compar- 
 atively small doses, it produces loss of 
 appetite, nausea, languor, a quick and irreg- 
 ular pulse, followed by purgation, and the 
 effects then gradually disappear. 
 
 Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent by 
 means of a solution of aloes, combined 
 with linseed oil. The free use of demul- 
 cents; diffusible stimulants; counter-irri- 
 tants. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — Depending upon 
 the condition and previous state of the 
 animal. If much debilitated, inflammation 
 of the mucous lining of the stomach and 
 alimentary tube may be seen to exist. At 
 other times no trace of its influence on any 
 of the tissues can be detected, and it is then 
 supposed to cause death by exhaustion of 
 the nervous energy. 
 
 Tests. — None definite. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 VERATRUM ALBUM. 
 
 White Hellebore. 
 Symptoms. — Efforts to vomit, acceler- 
 
208 
 
 TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 
 
 ated piilse, untranquil respiration, intestinal 
 in-itation, which, if followed by purging, 
 affords relief; if not, these symptoms be- 
 come more m-gent, the Ijody is covered with 
 perspiration, saliva is secreted in increased 
 quantities, the legs become deathly cold, 
 inflammation of the bowels supervenes, and 
 death. 
 
 Treatment. — A free use of demulcents. 
 Milk has been strongly advocated ; on what 
 grounds beyond that of its being a bland 
 fluid, I am at 'a loss to conjecture. Olea- 
 ginous purgatives ; counter-irritants. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — The villous coat 
 of the stomach will be found inflamed; the 
 intestines also in a high state of inflamma- 
 tion, particularly the csecum and colon ; the 
 heart pale and flabby ; and the lungs con- 
 gested. 
 
 Tests. — None definite. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 NICOTIANA TABACUM. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Symptoms. — Nausea, giddiness, coma, 
 feeble and irritable pulse. Sometimes gen- 
 eral excitement of the system, profuse per- 
 spiration, labored respiration, pulse much 
 quickened, partial insensibility. 
 
 Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent by 
 purgatives ; diffusible stimulants when coma 
 exists : demulcents. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — I am not ac- 
 quainted with an instance of death having 
 taken place, although this agent is fre- 
 quently given as a vermifuge in very large 
 quantities. 
 
 Tests. — None definite. 
 
 AGENT. 
 
 JUNIPERUS SABINA. 
 
 Savin. 
 
 Symptovis. — This, like the preceding 
 agent, is given as a vermifuge, and some- 
 times incautiously. Gastric irritation is 
 then evinced, the animal refuses food, and 
 is languid ; this is followed by diuresis, and 
 sometimes by purging ; the pulse becomes 
 irregular and full, and the respiration hur- 
 ried. 
 
 Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent 
 from out the alimentary canal by oleagi- 
 nous purgatives ; demulcents. 
 
 Morbid Appearances. — Esophagus and 
 stomach inflamed, particularly the villous 
 portion of the latter viscus, on which patches 
 of extravasated blood are seen to exist ; the 
 small intestines contain much mucus, and 
 are slightly inflamed ; lungs congested ; 
 larynx and trachea of a rusty yello\y color ; 
 glands at the root of the tongue much 
 enlarged. 
 
 Tests. — The -partially digested vegeta- 
 ble matter found in the alimentary tube, 
 which may be distinguished by its odor. 
 
 Under the head of Narcotico- Acrid Poisons, perhaps, should be placed the Atropa 
 Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade, which, in large doses, induces singultus, a dilatation 
 of the pupils, feeble and initable pulse, and a relaxed state of the bowels. Also many 
 of the umbelliferous order of plants, as Conium Maculatum, Common Hemlock, the 
 influence of which is probably that of a Narcotic ; Cicuta Virosa, Water Hemlock, 
 which, to some animals proves an energetic Poison ; with a few of the natural family 
 of the Ranunculacae, as the Aconitum Napellus, Monkshood, and Helleboris Niger, 
 Black Hellebore, which cause death by irritation, producing gastro-enteritis, followed by 
 delirium; lilcewise Delphinium Staph vsagria, Stavesacre ; Bryonia Alba, Wild-vine 
 or Bryony, and Felis Foemina, Female Fern; of which latter very large quantities are 
 required to efiect any marked change in the animal system ; and, indeed, it may be said 
 of the Vegetable Poisons generally, that the Horse is enabled to resist the influence 
 
TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 209 
 
 of comparatively immense doses of them, which in all probabiiitj- arises from the 
 peculiar structure of his stomach. 
 
 Wheat and Barley have been designated as poisons to this animal ; and occasionally 
 they have proved to be so, by setting up acute gastritis. A very common sequela of 
 poisoning by Wheat is inflammation of the laminae, the result of metastasis ; and of 
 Barley, a depilation of the skin. We are, however, in want of more correct information 
 than at present we possess, before anything definite can be laid down under this head, 
 as both wheat and barley, given in moderate quantities and with judgment, often prove 
 beneficial. 
 
 I am induced to pass the agents above enumerated thus cursorily over, my object 
 having been to give a condensed and tabular view of such substances as are known to 
 destroy life in the horse when incautiously or maliciously administered, and to elucidate 
 a Thesis on Poisons which I had the honor to read before the Members of the Veteri- 
 nary Medical Association in 1836 : at the same time, I hope that this attempt may 
 prove of some use to the Student of Veterinary Medicine. 
 
 27 
 
k M 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XX. 
 
 THE HEAD. 
 
 a. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 
 
 6. Levator palpebroe. 
 
 c. Dilator naiis lateralis. 
 
 d. Dilator nans anterior. 
 
 e. e. Orbicularis oris, the circular muscle of the mouth ; the letters are rather too 
 
 low to indicate the muscle- 
 
 f. Nasalis longus. 
 
 g. Levator labii superioris. 
 k. Masseter. 
 
 m. Attolentes et abducens aurem. 
 
 THE NECK, 
 c". Trachelo subscapularis. — Scalenus. 
 s. Splenius. 
 . r. t. Tendon of the splenius and complexus major. 
 M. Levator humeri. 
 
 V. Sterno maxillaris. The jugular vein is here shown between the two preceding 
 muscles. 
 
 THE SHOULDER AND POKE EXTREMITIES. 
 
 e". 
 
 Sterno scapulari. — Pectoralis parvus. 
 
 /" 
 
 '. Antea spinatus. 
 
 </". 
 
 Postea spinatus. 
 
 li. 
 
 Teres major. 
 
 m" 
 
 . n". Triceps extensor brachii. 
 
 I. 
 
 Scapulo ulnaris. 
 
 o". 
 
 Pectoralis transversalis. 
 
 P" 
 
 . u". Flexor metacarpi extemus. 
 
 r. 
 
 " " internus. 
 
 r". 
 
 Knee joint. 
 
 y. 
 
 5. Extensor metacarpi magnus. 
 
 t 
 
 Extensor metacarpi obliquus. 
 
 u'. 
 
 b". v. Tendons perforans and perforatus. 
 
 y"- 
 
 y". Extensor sulfi-aginis. 
 
 z". 
 
 z". Pastern joint. 
 
 8. 
 
 8. Extensor tendons. 
 
 6. 
 
 Radial vein. 
 
 9- 
 
 Flexor pedis. 
 
 
 ABDOMINAL REGION. 
 
 b. 
 
 Intercostales. 
 
 c. 
 
 Transversalis abdominis extemus. 
 
 d. 
 
 " " intemus. 
 
 D. 
 
 , Serratus magnus. 
 
 J. 
 
 Pectoralis magnus. 
 
 7. 
 
 The sheath. 
 
 4. Superficial thoracic vein. 
 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XX. CONTINUED. 
 POSTERIOR EXTREMITLES. 
 
 «'. Erector coccygis. 
 
 9. Compressor coccygis. 
 
 v. i. The three glutei. 
 
 J'. Triceps. 
 
 k'. k. Biceps abductor tibialis. 
 
 5. Tibia. 
 
 6. X. X. g. Fleshy belly of the extensors. 
 V. Peroneus. 
 
 n'. Rectus. 
 
 0'. Vastus externus. 
 
 r. Gastrocnemi internus. 
 
 uTu. u. 11. Gastrocnemi. 
 
 y. X. X. 8. Extensor tendons. 
 
 X. u. (Off leg.) Flexors perforans et perforatus. 
 
DICTIONARY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 MANY PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS, 
 
 OF MUCH IMPORTANCE TO 
 
 HUSBANDMEN AND HORSE OWNERS. 
 
 SELECTED FKOM VARIOUS SOURCES, WITH ADDITIONS. 
 
 (211) 
 
A DICTIONARY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 
 
 Abdomen. — That part of the animal 
 usually denominated the belly. This cavity 
 contains the intestines, or bowels, liver, 
 spleen, pancreas, kidneys, etc., and is sepa- 
 rated from the thorax, or chest, by the 
 diaphragfti. 
 
 Abortion. — Our attention was called, a 
 short time ago, to a mare, about eight years 
 old, said to be laboring under colic. She 
 had been driven very fast during the early 
 part of the day ; and about noon, when we 
 saw her in the stable, she seemed to mani- 
 fest considerable uneasiness. The surface 
 of the body was cold, pulse small and in- 
 termittent. The genitals were considerably 
 swollen, and a slight discharge from the 
 vagina was observed. She had occasional 
 uterine pains, which, however, were very 
 feeble. 
 
 "We immediately gave the following dif- 
 fusible stimulant : 
 
 Powdered grains of paradise, 1 drachm. 
 
 " bethroot (irillium pwpureum) i drachm. 
 
 Hot water, 1 quart. 
 
 This was administered from a bottle. In 
 a few minutes, the parturient process com- 
 menced, and she shortly gave birth to a 
 dead foetus. The mare was in her fifth 
 parturient month. She was put on a gen- 
 erous diet, and rapidly convalesced without 
 any after treatment. 
 
 Remarks. — Great care and gentleness 
 should be exercised toward mares diuring 
 pregnancy. Hard work in harness, over 
 bad roads, is likely to produce attortion ; 
 and mares that have once aborted are liable 
 to a recurrence of the same. Light work 
 and moderate exercise, however, are essen- 
 tial to their general health. 
 
 When the period of foaling draws nigh, 
 the mare should be separated from her com- 
 panions. Having foaled, she should be 
 
 turned into a pasture, where there is a barn. 
 The foal may be weaned at six months ; if 
 it should die, or be taken from the dam, 
 humanity would suggest the propriety of a 
 few weeks' rest, to enable the mother to re- 
 cover from the effects of parturition. 
 
 Miscarriage, slipping, or slinking foal or 
 caff, IV ar ping. — In mares, miscarriage is 
 very generally caused by over-exertion dur- 
 ing the latter period of gestation. It is not 
 unfrequently brought about by accidents at 
 grass, such as falling in a ditch or hole, and, 
 struggling violently to extricate themselves. 
 Kicks on the belly are by no means an un- 
 common cause of miscarriage ; for which 
 reason, a mare, when near her time, should 
 be kept by herself: after foaling she will 
 require a few weeks' rest, in order to re- 
 cover from the effects of parturition ; and, 
 when first brought into work again, the 
 services required of her should be very 
 slight. Exposure to wet and cold will oc- 
 casion miscarriage ; also, high feeding and 
 want of proper exercise. Abortion is of 
 more frequent occurrence in sheep than in 
 mares, and is caused by fright, overdriving, 
 and being worried by dogs, and by being 
 kept in cold, damp situations, and on im- 
 proper food. 
 
 Cows are particularly liable to the ac- 
 cident of warping, or slinking the calf. 
 The common cause of abortion is improper 
 feeding. The filthy, stagnant water they 
 are often compelled to drink is likewise a 
 serious cause, not only of abortion, but 
 also of general derangement of the animal 
 functions. Dr. White states that " a farm 
 in Gloucestershfre had been given up three 
 successive times in consequence of the loss 
 the owners sustained by abortion in their 
 cattle : at length the fourth proprietor, after 
 suffering considerably in his live stock for 
 
 (213) 
 
214 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 the first five years, suspected that the water 
 of his ponds, which was extremely filthy, 
 might be the cause of the mischief; he 
 therefore dug three wells upon his farm, and, 
 having fenced round the ponds to prevent 
 his cattle fi-om drinking there, caused them 
 to be supplied wdth the well-water in stone 
 troughs erected for the purpose ; and from 
 this moment his live stock began to thrive, 
 and the quality of the butter and cheese 
 made on his farm was greatly improved. 
 In order to show," says the same author, 
 " that the accident of warping may arise 
 firom a vitiated state of the digestive organs, 
 I will here notice a few circumstances tend- 
 ing to corroborate this opinion. In 1782, all 
 the cows in possession of farmer D'Euruse, 
 in Picardy, miscarried. The period at 
 which they warped was about the fourth or 
 fifth month. The accident was attributed 
 to the excessive heat of the preceding sum- 
 mer; but, as the water they were in the 
 habit of drinking was extremely bad, and 
 they had been kept upon oat, wheat, and 
 and rye straw, it appears to me more prob- 
 able that the great quantity of straw they 
 were obliged to eat, in order to obtain suf- 
 ficient nourishment, and the injury sustained 
 by the third stomach, in expressing the fluid 
 parts of the masticated or ruminated mass, 
 together with the large quantity of water 
 they drank, while kept on this dry food, was 
 the real cause of their miscarrymg. 
 
 " A farmer at Chareton, out of a dairy 
 of twenty-eight cows, had sixteen slip their 
 calves at different periods of gestation. 
 The siunmer had been very dry, and, during 
 the whole of this season, they had been 
 pastured in a muddy place, which was 
 flooded by the Seine. Here the cows were 
 generally up to their knees in mud and 
 water. In 1789, all the cows in a village 
 near Mantes miscarried. All the land in 
 this place was so stiff as to hold water for 
 some time ; and, as a vast quantity of 
 rain fell that year, the pastures were for a 
 long time completely inundated, on which 
 account the grass became bad : this shows 
 that keeping cows on food that is deficient 
 in nutrition, and difficult of digestion, is 
 
 one of the principal causes of miscarriage." 
 It is supposed that the sight of a slipped 
 calf, the smell of putrid animal substance, 
 is apt to produce warping. Some curious 
 cases of abortion which are worthy of notice 
 happened in the dairy of a French farmer. 
 For thirty years his cows had been subject 
 to abortion. His cow-house was large and 
 well ventilated ; his cows were in apparent 
 health ; they were fed like others in the vil- 
 lage ; they drank the same water ; there 
 was nothing different in the pasture; he 
 had changed his servants many times in the 
 course of thirty years ; he pulled down the 
 barn or cow-house, and bmlt another, on a 
 different plan ; he even, agreeably to super- 
 stition, took away the aborted calf through 
 the window, that the curse of future abor- 
 tion might not be entailed on the cow that 
 passed over the same threshold. To make 
 aU sure, he had broken through the waU at 
 the end of the cow-house, and opened a new 
 door. But still the trouble continued. 
 Several of his cows had died in the act of 
 abortion, and he had replaced them by others: 
 many had been sold, and their vacancies 
 filled up. He was advised to make a thor- 
 ough change. This had never occurred to 
 him ; but at once he saw the propriety of 
 the counsel. He sold every beast, and the 
 pest was stayed, and never appeared in his 
 new stock. This was owing, probably, to 
 sympathetic influence ; and the result of 
 such influence is as fatal as the direct con- 
 tagion." (See Youatt.) 
 
 The usual symptoms preceding abortion 
 are a sudden filling of the udder, and a 
 loose, flabby, and sometimes swollen ap- 
 pearance of the genitals, which discharge a 
 little red-colored fluid. The lancet and 
 medicine have been resorted to with very 
 little success. Both of them are decidedly in- 
 jurious ; the animal should be put into some 
 dry, sheltered place, by herself, and kept on 
 boiled mashes and gruel for a few days. 
 
 Absorbents. — Medicines which are giv- 
 en in view of absorbing gas or neutralizing 
 acidity in the digestive cavity. 
 
 Absorbent Vessels. — (See Lacteals, 
 part first.) 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 215 
 
 Absinthium. — Common wormwood, used 
 for the purpose of reducing swellings that 
 have resulted from violence. Two ounces 
 of wormwood are steeped in one quart of 
 New England rum ; if a limb of the ani- 
 mal is involved, the wormwood is then 
 bound on with bandages, and the parts 
 occasionally wetted with the fluid. 
 
 Acacia. — Gum arable, used as a demul- 
 cent and lubricant. In poisoning, it is use- 
 ful to sheathe the membranes of the stomach 
 and alimentary canal, and wiU defend them 
 from the action of drastic purges. 
 
 Acacia Catechu. — Gum catechu. This 
 is a powerful astringent : it is obtained from 
 a tree that grows in Japan. 
 
 Acetabulum. — The socket in which the 
 head of the thigh bone is lodged. 
 
 AcETATED Liquor of Ammonia. — This 
 has been long known by the popular term 
 of Mindererus' spirit, and is made by pour- 
 ing any quantity of acetic acid, diluted with 
 seven times its amount of water, upon car- 
 bonate of ammonia, until all fermentation 
 ceases, or until a neutral solution has been 
 formed. It is useful in horse practice ; it 
 gently invigorates, is diaphoretic, and some- 
 times it proves mUdly diuretic. It princi- 
 pally shows its salutary effects in the com- 
 mencement of the febrile stage, or at the 
 close of lingering febrile diseases, particular- 
 ly of influenza. In the more early stages of 
 epidemic catarrh, it may also be exhibited : 
 the dose is from four ounces to an almost 
 unlimited quantity. The author used this 
 preparation with remarkable success in the 
 treatment of influenza, winch prevailed, in 
 Massachusetts, in the fall and winter of 
 1855. The dose for horses and cattle is 
 from three to four fluid ounces. It is gen- 
 erally given diluted with an equal quan- 
 tity of water. 
 
 Acids. — Are distinguished by their sour 
 taste ; they readily combine with alkalies, 
 producing eflervescence. Those commonly 
 used in veterinary practice are : sulphuric, 
 nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic. They are all 
 more or less corrosive, and decompose the 
 vital tissues, by uniting with their serous, 
 albuminous, and saline constituents. There- 
 
 fore, when administered to the horse, they 
 should be diluted with water. 
 
 Aconita. — Wolfsbane. — A powerful 
 sedative ; it moderates the action of the 
 heart, and produces depression of the vital 
 energies. It is generally used in the form 
 of tincture. Dose, from ten to fifteen drops. 
 
 Action. — The gait of a horse ; which de- 
 pends on his powers and the mode of 
 training. 
 
 Action of Medicines.* — Every medi- 
 cine is endowed with certain inherent char- 
 acteristic actions, which distinguish it as 
 decidedly as its physical and chemical pro- 
 perties. Thus, some medicines act on the 
 bowels, causing purgation ; others on the 
 kidneys, stimulating the secretion of urine ; 
 and others on the brain and nervous sys- 
 tem, causing insensibility ; in fact, there 
 is no part or organ of the body, except the 
 spleen and pancreas, which is not influ- 
 enced, and that often in several different 
 ways, by some medicinal agent. It is im- 
 possible, however, to explain why a medi- 
 cine should act in one way rather than in 
 another ; why, for example, aloes is purga- 
 tive, and not diiuretic, narcotic, or anaesthetic ; 
 or why chloroform is anaesthetic, and not 
 vesicant, diuretic, or purgative. The stu- 
 dent must therefore endeavor to conceive of 
 these actions, or dynamical effects of medi- 
 cines, in the same manner as he does of 
 their more familiar properties of color, odor, 
 taste, or density. 
 
 Some medicines, as demulcents, caustics, 
 and astringents, have merely a local or topi- 
 cal action — soothing, irritating, corroding, 
 or altering the animal tissues, but not ex- 
 tending their influence beyond the part to 
 which they are first applied. Others, either 
 with or without such a local effect, have a 
 remote or indirect action on organs at a 
 distance from the part with which they are 
 first brought in contact. Medicines which 
 act thus remotely or indirectly are thought 
 to produce their effects in either or both of 
 the two following ways: (a) They are 
 absorbed into the circulation, and carried 
 by the blood to remote organs ; or (b), The 
 
 * Finlay Duu. 
 
216 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 impression, which they produce on the parts 
 with which they are first brought in contact, 
 is transmitted along the nerves to other 
 parts. The latter mode of operation is 
 sometimes called action by sympathy. 
 
 (a.) The great majority of medicines ap- 
 pear to act in the former of these two ways, 
 being taken up by the blood-vessels from 
 the surface of the mucous membranes, skin, 
 or other part to which they have been ap- 
 plied. Thus, most medicines given by the 
 mouth, after having, if solid, undergone 
 solution in the acid gastric juice or alkaline 
 bile, pass, by a process of endosmose, into 
 the capillary veins which ramify on tlie sur- 
 face of the stomach and intestines, enter 
 the general circulation by the mesenteric 
 and portal vessels, and are thus carried to 
 aU parts of the body, altering, it may be, 
 the nutritive processes of various organs 
 and tissues, and at length expelled through 
 some of the excretory channels, as the skin, 
 kidneys, or bowels. The rapidity with 
 which most substances are thus absorbed, 
 and make the round of the circulation, is 
 almost incredible. Professor Hering, of the 
 Veterinary College, Stuttgardt, found that 
 yellow prussiate of potash injected into one 
 of the jugular veins of a horse appeared in 
 the other in twenty-five seconds, and was 
 exhaled from the mucous and serous mem- 
 branes in a few minutes ; and also that 
 chloride of barium injected into the jugular 
 vein of a dog reached the carotid artery in 
 seven seconds. Dr. Blake observed that 
 chloride of barium and nitrate of baryies 
 traversed the whole circulation of a dog in 
 nine seconds, and that of a horse in twenty 
 seconds; and a similar rapidity of distri- 
 bution doubtless obtains with substances 
 which cannot easily be detected in the blood. 
 
 (b.) The other hypothesis, regarding the 
 action of medicines, is that they owe the 
 development of their effects to the produc- 
 tion of some nervous impression on the 
 part to which they are first appKed, and its 
 subsequent transmission to remote organs 
 by means of the nervous system. A recent 
 modification of this theory, advanced by 
 Messrs. Morgan and Addison, assumes that 
 
 the nervous impression is produced, not 
 upon the part with which the medicine is 
 first brought in contact, but on the interior 
 of the blood-vessels after partial absorption. 
 Part of the evidence in support of these 
 hypotheses is derived from the fact that 
 some poisons operate with such extreme 
 rapidity as to render it doubtful whether 
 there could be time for their being absorbed 
 and making the round of the circulation. 
 Thus: anhydrous prussic acid, conia the 
 alkaloid of hemlock, and aconita the alka- 
 loid of aconite, when injected into the 
 veins, applied to the cellular tissue, or given 
 by the mouth, produce almost instantaneous 
 effects, and death in a few seconds. It ap- 
 pears, however, that the strongest evidence 
 in favor of the theories under consideration 
 consists in the effects of local injuries in 
 producuig constitiational disturbance. For 
 example, a blow on the region of the 
 stomach sometimes causes fatal swooning ; 
 distention of the stomach often produces 
 hiccough ; the presence of worms in the 
 intestines sometimes induces epilepsy ; and 
 a local injury frequently causes fever and 
 constitutional disturbance of all the more 
 important organs of the body. In such 
 cases the connection between cause and 
 effect obviously depends on the transmis- 
 sion of nervous impressions only. And if 
 topical causes are thus productive of remote 
 effects, it is siurely fair to infer that medi- 
 cines and poisons may operate in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 In fine, although it would appear that 
 most medicines are absorbed and actually 
 conveyed to the parts on which they act, 
 and that such absorption and actual con- 
 tact are essential to their action, yet it is 
 higlily probable (though not yet positively 
 ascertained) that some substances, espe- 
 cially the more active poisons, astringents, 
 and emetics, owe their effects to the pro- 
 duction of a nervous impression, and its 
 propagation to remote organs. Nor is it at 
 all improbable that, under different modify- 
 ing influences, certain substances will oper- 
 ate sometimes in one and sometimes in 
 the other of these two ways. 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 217 
 
 Actual Cautery. — Red-hot iron. (See 
 Firing.) 
 
 Acute. — A term applied to those diseases 
 which are sudden in their attack and vio- 
 lence, accompanied with great pain. 
 
 Acute Indigestion in Cattle, called 
 Hove, or Blown. — When cattle have be- 
 come fatigued by driving or by long fasting, 
 and suddenly find themselves with plenty 
 of food before them, particularly such as 
 requires little mastication, as chaff, bran, 
 grains, etc., etc. ; and also at all times 
 when they meet with food they have long 
 been deprived of, as various artificial grasses, 
 particularly red clover, they are apt to eat 
 greedily, and omit to stop for the purposes 
 of rumination ; by which means the rumen 
 or paunch becomes so distended as to be 
 incapable of expelling its contents. From 
 this, fermentation begins to take place, and 
 a large quantity of gas escapes, which in- 
 creases the distention, until the stomach, 
 by its pressure on the diaphragm, suffocates 
 the animal. 
 
 The symptoms are uneasiness and distress, 
 with quickened respiration ; sometimes there 
 is a degree of phrensy present. When it is 
 occasioned by green food, the evolution of 
 gas is enormous, and the tympanitis gives 
 a drum-like distention to the belly; but 
 when dry food, as chaff, bran, etc., etc., has 
 been taken, the impacted matter does not 
 distend so quickly, and the symptoms are 
 less acute ; they resemble those of constipa- 
 tion ; and sounding the side gives back a 
 response as though a solid matter were hit 
 against. It is thought to be more likely to 
 occur in warm and wet weather than in any 
 other ; and, if such be the case, it must arise 
 from the state of the vegetable matter and 
 the surrounding warmth both being favor- 
 able to fermentation. 
 
 The treatment ^vill consist in attempting 
 to lessen the distention by evacuating the dis- 
 tending gas, or otherwise trying to neutralize 
 it. Purgatives have little or no effect. The 
 evacuation of the gases is effected by the 
 introduction of a probang, which is passed 
 down the esophagus ; or it is brought 
 about by puncturing the side, when the dis- 
 
 tention is urgent, or the want of assistance 
 renders it imperative to evacuate the gas 
 immediately, to prevent suffocation ; a 
 puncture is therefore at once made into it, 
 which, among graziers, is called paimching. 
 When nothing better is at hand, this may 
 be performed with a lancet, or even a pen- 
 knife ; the wound made being kept open by 
 the introduction of a piece of hollow elder 
 or common wood; the place of puncture 
 being midway between the ileum or haunch- 
 bone and the last rib, a span below the 
 transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrse 
 on the left side, to which the first stomach 
 or paunch inclines. A cattle trocar will, 
 however, permit the gas to escape with cer- 
 tainty and speed, and should always be 
 used to make the punctm'e, in preference to 
 any other instrument. As soon as the air 
 is perfectly evacuated, and the paunch is 
 observed to resume its office, the trocar 
 may be removed ; the wound being care- 
 fully closed by a pitch plaster, or other ad- 
 hesive matter. It is necessary to observe, 
 that this operation is so simple and safe, 
 that, whenever a medical assistant cannot 
 be obtained, no person should hesitate a 
 moment about doing it himself. The do- 
 mestic remedies for lessening the distention, 
 by condensing the gas, have been various ; 
 as oil of turpentine, and particularly am- 
 monia, a strong solution of which in water 
 has been found serviceable. The alkalies 
 generally have long been used with variable 
 success. Vinegar, in the Qiiarterhj Journal 
 of Agriculture, is strongly recommended; 
 but, as it is observed that the elastic fluids 
 developed are not always alUie, so the effects 
 resulting from the most reputed agents have 
 too often failed. Mr. Youatt recommends 
 the introduction of chlorinated lime, given 
 in doses of from 3ij to 3iv suspended in 
 water. 
 
 But it is to a foreign veterinarian we are 
 indebted for the best agent for neutralizing 
 the gases given off when the rumen is dis- 
 tended. M. Charlet has recommended the 
 chloride of potash, which substance has a 
 great affinity for the compounds of hydro- 
 gen that usually form the major portion of 
 
218 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 those which exist in the stomach. This 
 substance is to be given in doses of an 
 ounce to a horse, half an ounce to a cow, 
 and three drachms to a sheep. Occasion- 
 ally, however, irom the contents of the 
 stomach being in a state of fermentation, 
 no gas wiU escape, upon the probang or 
 trochar being introduced. The chloride of 
 potash is then to be poured down the pro- 
 bang or trochar, which ever may be used ; 
 and this substance must not be mixed with 
 either mucilage or aromatic bitters, but sixl- 
 phuric ether and cold water may be joined 
 to it without injuring its effects. 
 
 .i3Ether Nitrosus. — Sweet spirit of 
 nitre. Sweet spirit of nitre is stimulant, 
 anti-spasmodic, diuretic, and diaphoretic. 
 The dose is from one to two ounces, diluted 
 with water. 
 
 Age. — The age of a horse may be known 
 by marks in the front teeth and tusks of 
 the under jaw, until he is about eight years 
 old, after which period it is a matter of 
 guess-work ; yet those who are expert can 
 tell very near the exact age. There are 
 many circumstances which tend to show 
 whether a horse be old or not. The num- 
 ber of a horse's teeth is forty, — twenty-four 
 grinders, and sixteen others, — by some of 
 which his age may be known up to a certain 
 period. Mares have only thirty-six teeth, 
 as in them the tushes are usually wanting. 
 A few days after birth, the colt puts forth 
 two small front teeth in the upper and un- 
 der jaws, and soon after two more : these 
 are called nippers. The next four shortly 
 afterwards make theii- appearance. The 
 four corner teeth — as they are termed — 
 come a few months after the last named. 
 These twelve teeth, in the front of the 
 mouth, are small and white, and continue 
 without much alteration until the colt is 
 about two years and a half old, when he 
 begins to shed them. The two teeth that 
 first make their appearance are the first that 
 are lost, and are replaced by two others, 
 called horse's teeth, considerably stronger 
 and larger than those that have made way 
 for them. Between the third and fourth 
 year, the two teeth next the first fall out. 
 
 and are in like manner replaced by horse's 
 teeth. Between the fourth and fifth year, 
 the corner teeth are changed; the tushes 
 make their appearance. About the fifth 
 year, the horse is said to have a full mouth. 
 After this period, up to the eighth year, the 
 age of a horse can, with some degree of 
 certainty, be known by the cavities in the 
 teeth, which at first are deep, but are gradu- 
 ally, by the process of mastication, worn 
 down, and about the eighth year disappear. 
 After the fifth year, the above criterion of 
 age may be corroborated by the grooves in 
 the tushes of the male, which are inside ; 
 they are two in number. At six, one of 
 these cavities, viz., the one next the grinder, 
 disappears ; at seven, the other is consider- 
 ably diminished ; and at eight is almost, 
 but not always, entirely gone. After this 
 period, the tushes become more blunt and 
 round. The marks in the upper teeth are 
 by some considered indicative of the horse's 
 age ; those in the two front teeth disappear- 
 ing at eight, in the two next at ten, and in 
 the corner teeth at twelve. The marks in 
 the lower teeth will disappear about the 
 eighth year. 
 
 As a horse, grows old, he generally turns 
 more or less gray ; the cavities above the 
 eyes become deeper ; the under lip falls ; 
 the gums shrink away from the teeth, giving 
 them the appearance of a greater length ; 
 the back becomes hoUow, or curved. 
 
 Age of Neat Cattle is known by their 
 horns. At the age of about two years, 
 they shed their first fore teeth, which are re- 
 placed by others, larger and more prominent ; 
 about five, the early teeth are all replaced 
 by the permanent ones. As the animal ad- 
 vances in years, these teeth wear down, the 
 enamel disappears, and they assume a black 
 or brown appearance. When three years 
 old, a change takes place in the structure 
 of the horns ; after which period these ap- 
 pendages, lilce the permanent teeth, preserve 
 the same character. After the third year, 
 the horns continue to grow as long as the 
 animal lives, and the age is indicated by 
 the rings, or prominences, which are easily 
 distinguished on the horn, and by which the 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 219 
 
 age of the creature may be nearly ascer- 
 tained, by adding three years to the number 
 of rings. 
 
 Airing, in the management of horses, 
 implies exercising tliem in the open air. 
 
 Albumen. — That part of the white of an 
 egg which coagulates into a solid mass 
 when boiled ; it abounds in the bones, 
 muscles, cartilage, hoof, hair, etc. 
 
 Alcohol. — Rectified spirit. Tliis is ex- 
 tensively used in medicine for maldng tinc- 
 tures. With an equal quantity of water it 
 is termed New England rum. Alcohol is a 
 powerful irritant and caustic poison, to 
 whatever part of the horse it is applied. If 
 applied externally, it causes swelling, pain, 
 and imtation ; if given internally, it absorbs 
 from the living parts the serous or watery 
 portion, and condenses the fibrous struc- 
 ture. Alcohol, diluted in any form, acts on 
 the horse as a diuretic, causing the kidneys 
 to secrete a large amount of urine, in con- 
 sequence of which they become overworked, 
 and finally diseased. It is used as a diffu- 
 sible stimulant. The best substitute is 
 warm ginger tea. 
 
 Aliment. — That which nourishes the 
 system. 
 
 Alimentary Canal. — The interior of 
 the stomach and intestines! 
 
 Alkalies. — There are different sorts: 
 soda, potash, and ammonia, are alkalies. 
 
 Aloes. — Obtained from the aloe plant. 
 The aloes now in use as a cathartic for 
 horses, cattle, and sheep, are the Barbadoes. 
 Pure Barbadoes aloes are of a dark brown 
 color, present a rough appearance when 
 broken, and have a rather pleasant aroma. 
 (See Purgatives.) 
 
 Alteratives. — A class of medicines 
 that act gradually and permanently upon 
 the horse, by increasing the tone and vigor 
 of the secreting, excreting, and absorbing 
 system, without diminishing or destroying 
 their power. 
 
 Althea. — Marsh mallows. This plant 
 is generally used in the formation of emol- 
 lient drinks, as it contains a large amount 
 of mucilage. 
 
 Alum. — A mineral astringent, used to 
 destroy proud flesh. " Alum is a powerful 
 astringent, whether administered internally 
 or applied externally. It may be given to 
 the horse in doses of from 3ij to 3iv, and 
 its employment has been attended with 
 some benefit in obstinate cases of diabetes, 
 also in diarrhoea, the primee viaj having 
 been previously emptied by means of lax- 
 atives. It has lilvewise been found useful 
 in dysentery and lead colic. For either of 
 these diseases it may be advantageously 
 conjoined with opium and aromatics." 
 (Morton's Pharmacy.) 
 
 Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena.* — This 
 disease, known by the term glass eyes, 
 from the pecuHar glassy appearance the 
 organs assume, is generally considered 
 as dependent on a paralytic state of the 
 optic nerves, or of their expansions, the 
 retinsB. By others, it is, however, thought 
 to arise from the effects of inflammation, 
 by which coagulable lymph is placed over 
 the optic nei-ve, rendering the retina inac- 
 cessible to the stimulus of light ; this can 
 hardly be an occasional, and is certainly not 
 the usual, cause. The disease, however, is 
 liliely to arise from any imtation of the 
 brain ; thus, it is found to follow staggers 
 and the loss of large quantities of blood ; 
 which last-mentioned cause especially af- 
 fects the nervous system. The veterinarian 
 should make himself familiar with the ap- 
 pearances of this complaint, otherwise he 
 may lie open to serious imposition. In 
 amaurosis, a horse presents indications of 
 blindness in his manner, though but little in 
 his eyes ; he seems cautious in stepping ; 
 lifts his legs high, and moves his ears 
 quickly, as though endeavoring to make up 
 by sound the intelligence lost by the depri- 
 vation of sight : but, above all, a hand 
 moved close to tlie eye occasions no wink- 
 ing, unless held near enough for the motion 
 to influence the air around, which an artful 
 person might manage with ease. When 
 this Idnd of eye is examined closely, the 
 pupil will be found of one invariable size 
 
220 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 and unvarying hue ; it will not enlarge and 
 diminish as in a healthy horse, when re- 
 moved farther from, or nearer to, the light ; 
 for the retina, ceasing to be influenced by 
 the luminous ray, no longer controls the 
 movements of the ms. It is, therefore, from 
 the peculiarities in the manner of the horse, 
 the invariable size of the pupil, and a green- 
 ish glassy cast in such eyes, that these cases 
 may be distinguished. As it has hitherto 
 proved incm'able, we shall waste no time on 
 its treatment. 
 
 Ammonia. — This is a volatile alkali ; is 
 rapidly absorbed by water ; and, by imion 
 with acids, forms several salts. The com- 
 pounds of ammonia employed medicinally 
 are: hydrochlorate of ammonia, sesqui-car- 
 bonate, and solution of the aceiate of 
 ammonia. The aromatic spirit of anuuonia 
 is a valuable stimulant and anti-spasmodic 
 in colic or hoven. For the preparation of 
 the latter, ]\Ir. Morton gives the following 
 formula : 
 
 Take of spirit of ammonia, 8 fluid ounces ; volatile 
 oil of lemons, 1 fluid drachm ; volatile oil of rosemary, 
 14 fluid drachm. Dissolve the oil in the spirit by 
 agitation. 
 
 Anasarca. — That form of di'opsy that 
 affects the whole, or nearly the whole sys- 
 tem, or, in other words, an effusion of serum 
 into the meshes of the cellular tissue. ^ 
 
 Anasarca, (Edema, and Water Farcy.* 
 — We need make no distinction between 
 these terms, particularly the two first. As 
 generally accepted, csdema carries probably 
 rather a more local definition with it ; thus, 
 we say an oedematous swelling : but ana- 
 sarca is more frequently used to designate 
 an extensive dropsy of the cellular mem- 
 brane. Both, however, have the same 
 origin, and are accompanied by the same 
 symptoms. It differs from ascites princi- 
 pally in its external seat, which is some- 
 times partial and sometimes general. It 
 also appears under different forms, as it has 
 different origins ; and its terminations are 
 also under the influence of these circum- 
 stances. A debility of the absorbent system 
 
 is usuaUy observed in the spring and au- 
 tumn. There is, however, some general 
 atony of the whole system, and the oedema 
 disappears as the constitution establishes 
 itself. At other times anasarca and cedema 
 appear as accompaniments or sequelaB to 
 acute diseases that have disturbed the func- 
 tions generally, in the which case the 
 absorbents become irritated ; or to the 
 oedema is added tumefied lymphatics. 
 
 Anjisthetics. — Agents which produce 
 insensibility to external impressions and to 
 pain. The author uses, for inhalation, tliree 
 parts of sulphuric ether to one of chloroform. 
 In allusion to the use of anaesthetics, 
 Mr. Morton wiites : " Anaesthetics are less 
 used in surgical and other painful operations 
 in the lower animals than in man, on account 
 of the larger quantities required, the diflH- 
 culty of administration, and the undue pro- 
 longation of the preliminary stage of 
 excitement. They have been used in par- 
 turition, and afford, as in the human subject, 
 immunity from pain, but without apparent 
 interference with the force or irequency of 
 the involuntary contractions of the uterus. 
 They have further been used for relieving 
 the irritability and pain of such diseases as 
 peritonitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia ; for 
 removing the spasms of tetanus, coUc, and 
 asthma ; and for alleviating, by local appli- 
 cation, the in-itability of severe wounds. 
 For aU such purposes then- use might, \\dth 
 advantage, be much extended." 
 
 Anastomosis. — The communication of 
 blood-vessels with each other, or their open- 
 ing one into the other, by which means, 
 when the passage of blood thi'ough an 
 artery or vein is prevented by ligature, com- 
 pression, or any other cause, the cuculation 
 is still kept up by means of the anastom- 
 osing vessels. 
 
 Anatomy. — The science that teaches 
 the structure of the animal economy. 
 
 Analysis. — The resolution of compound 
 bodies into their original or constituent prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 Anchylosis. — The loss of motion in a 
 joint. There are two kinds, called com- 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 221 
 
 plete and incomplete. In the former, the 
 joint has grown together so as to be immov- 
 able ; in the latter, some motion remains, 
 and the rigidity is owing to the contraction 
 and thickening of the ligaments. Anchy- 
 losis in the horse is not unfrequently a con- 
 sequence of wounds or bruises ; the latter, 
 causing an absorption of the fluids that 
 nom-ish the joint, anchylosis is the result. 
 In bad spavins and ringbones, there is fre- 
 quently anchylosis of the hock and pastern 
 joints. The author's attention has lately 
 been called to a case of ringbone that had 
 been operated upon by some person totally 
 unacquainted with the nature of the disease. 
 The operation was performed in the most 
 cruel and barbarous manner. The operator 
 having never studied the anatomy of the 
 parts, it could not be otherwise expected. 
 On an examination of the animal, ossific 
 or bony deposits were found inside the hind 
 legs, in the form of a spavin ; deposits also 
 existed on the canon bones, and on the 
 pasterns, thus proving that the disease was 
 incurable ; the general health was impaired, 
 the knees sprung, and the animal was pro- 
 nounced by the owner to be worthless ; yet 
 this specimen of inhumanity, the self-styled 
 " doctor," had the audacity to state that he 
 could perform a cure for the trifling sum of 
 five dollars. The fact of his attempting to 
 cure a constitutional disease by local means, 
 under such unfavorable circumstances, 
 shows that he was an ignoramus ; and the 
 barbarous manner in which he performed 
 the operation, shows that he was destitute 
 of every particle of humanity. The author 
 has digressed merely for the purpose of 
 warning owners of domestic animals 
 against trusting them, when diseased, in 
 the hands of those who are unacquainted 
 with their mechanism. 
 
 Aneurism. — A tumor filled with blood, 
 communicating with an artery. It usuaUy 
 occurs from rupture of one of the coats of 
 the artery, and dilitation of the cellular coat : 
 it is then denominated true anemism. 
 When an artery is wounded, and the blood 
 escapes into the smTounding tissues, it is 
 called false aneurism. 
 
 The general mode of curing aneurism is 
 by tying a ligature around the artery ; the 
 coats of the artery become united, and part 
 of the artery obliterated ; the circulation is 
 carried on by anastomosing vessels. (See 
 Anastomosis.) Some aneurisms have been 
 known to undergo certain natm-al changes, 
 by which they have been spontaneously 
 cured, thus proving that the vital power is 
 more efficient " than an evil system of med- 
 ication." 
 
 Anise Seed. — A mild carminative. It 
 is much used in veterinary practice, and is 
 one of the ingredients in cordial balls. 
 
 Anodynes. — Medicines that relieve pain, 
 procure sleep, and lessen the irritability of 
 the nervous system. 
 
 ANTACIDS. ALKALIES. 
 
 Anthelmintics. — Medicines that are said 
 to destroy worms, and are supposed to cause 
 their expulsion from the animal. Many of 
 the remedies recommended by some writers 
 would be more likely to kill the horse, in- 
 stead of the former. The proper method 
 of preventing the generation of worms in 
 the afimentary canal, is to pay attention to 
 feeding, watering, etc., and give cathartics. 
 
 Antimony. — A mineral poison. It has 
 been extensively used in veterinary practice. 
 There are numerous preparations of anti- 
 mony, but they are all more or less objec- 
 tionable. Large quantities of this mineral 
 have been used on horses ; yet, in some 
 cases, where there is vital power enough in 
 the animal to dispossess it from the system, 
 no immediately unfavorable results were 
 observed. Yet it is an agent of such diver- 
 sified therapeutical powers, that the wisest 
 of the faculty have never ventured to pre- 
 scribe and fix limits to its action. (See 
 ToxicoLOGiCAL Chart.) 
 
 ]\'L-. Finlay Dun, of the Edinburgh college, 
 has lately made a series of experiments 
 with tartar emetic, on horses, and he speaks 
 very highly of it as antiphlogistic. The 
 dose for a horse is from one to four drachms, 
 either in bolus or solution, repeated as oc- 
 casion may require. 
 
 Antidotes. — See Toxicological Chart. 
 
222 
 
 A DICTIONARV. 
 
 Antiseptics. — Medicines that correct 
 and prevent putridity. The best and most 
 efficient are charcoal, Peruvian baik, acetic 
 acid, and bayberry bark. 
 
 Anti-spasmodics. — Medicines that are 
 employed in spasmodic and convulsive dis- 
 orders. The most efficient are assafoetida, 
 pennyroyal, or any of the mints. The most 
 powerful in spasm, or lockjaw, are lobelia, 
 warmth and moisture, castor, musk, gin- 
 seng, and Indian hemp, or milk weed. 
 
 Apoplexy. — A lesion of some of the 
 vessels of the brain. 
 
 Arm. — A term applied to the upper part 
 of the fore leg. 
 
 Aromatics. — Medicines that have a 
 warm, pungent taste, and fragrant smell ; 
 of this kind are cardamom seeds, cloves, 
 and nutmegs, sweet flag, etc. 
 
 Arsenic. — A destructive mineral poison. 
 It has been used, in many diseases of the 
 horse, without the slightest benefit. Dr. 
 White states, " So various are its effects, 
 that he has known a very small quantity to 
 terminate fatally." 
 
 Arteriotomy. — When blood is taken 
 from an artery, the process is called arteri- 
 otomy. The proper place for punctming 
 the temporal artery, is at the precise spot 
 where this vessel leaves thfe parotid gland 
 to curve upwards and forwards around the 
 jaw, which is just below its condyle. The 
 operation should be performed with a lan- 
 cet. 
 
 Arterio- Phlebotomy is sometimes re- 
 sorted to for the abstracting blood from 
 the roof of the mouth and the toe of the 
 foot ; in such cases, however, a want of 
 knowledge, as regards the anatomy of the 
 parts, may occasion a serious hasmoiThage. 
 
 Ascites. — Dropsy of the abdomen. 
 
 Asthma. — Supposed to originate in the 
 muscles of respiration. (See Cough, Roar- 
 ing, etc.) 
 
 Astringents. — Medicines that contract 
 and condense muscular fibre. The princi- 
 pal are kino, catechu, oak bark, nutgalls, 
 and bayberry bark. 
 
 Atmosphere. — The name given to an 
 elastic invisible fluid which surrounds the 
 
 globe ; it is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, 
 and a small portion of carbonic acid gas. 
 In stables that are not ventilated, the vapor 
 arising from the dung and urine combine 
 with it, and render it unfit for respiration. 
 
 Atlas. — The first vertebra, or bone of 
 the neck. 
 
 Atrophy. — A wasting of the body. 
 
 Auricles. — The two small cavities of 
 the heart. 
 
 Backgalled. — When accidents of this 
 kind occur, the saddle or harness should be 
 padded, or chambered, so as to remove 
 pressure from the part ; sometimes they are 
 difficult to heal, owing to the presence of 
 morbific matter in the system. 
 
 Backraking. — This is a name given by 
 farriers to the operation of introducing the 
 hand into the fundament, and emptying the 
 rectum of its contents. The use of injec- 
 tions will, ere long, supersede this beastly 
 practice. The most suitable injection to 
 soften the faeces is warm soapsuds. 
 
 Back Sinews. — The flexor tendons of 
 the fore and hind legs are so named. They 
 are frequently strained, or otherwise injured, 
 by over exertion or accidents. 
 
 Ball. — Bolus, or large pill. The mode 
 of giving a ball is by di-awing out the 
 tongue to the right side, and holding it in 
 the left hand, while an assistant stands on 
 the left side and holds the mouth open. 
 The ball is to be held by the finger and 
 thumb of the right hand, drawn into as 
 small a compass as possible, and passed as 
 far as the horse's throat. This must be 
 done by a quick motion of the hand, which 
 should be kept toward the roof of the 
 mouth, as there is more room for it in that 
 direction. 
 
 Balsam. — A name apphed to several 
 resinous substances, such as balsam of tolu, 
 Peruvian balsam, balsam copaiba, etc., 
 Canada or fir balsam ; the medicinal prop- 
 erties are stimulant and diuretic. 
 
 Balsam Copaiba, or Capivi, is used for 
 chronic cough ; the dose is about one ounce. 
 
 Balsam of Sulphur. — A preparation 
 made liy boifing sulphur and olive oil to- 
 gether, until united in the form of a dark- 
 
A DICTIONAET. 
 
 225 
 
 colored tenacious mass. This has been 
 much esteemed by old farriers in obstinate 
 coughs. When mixed with a small propor- 
 tion of oil of anise-seed, it has been thought 
 more efficacious, and is then named anis- 
 ated balsam of sulphur. 
 
 Bandage. — Strips of linen, cotton, or 
 flannel, abovit three or four inches wide. 
 They are serviceable in habitual swellings 
 of the legs, or weakness of the fetlock joint. 
 They are likewise used for the purpose of 
 keeping on di-essings, or assisting in uniting 
 parts that are cut or lacerated ; they assist 
 by pressure in expelling matter, or pre- 
 venting the descent of ruptures, and as 
 compresses for resti'aining bleeding or hem- 
 orrhage. The mode of applying the bandage 
 to the leg is as follows : the material, after 
 being cut the proper width, must be rolled 
 up, and the bandage fixed by taking two or 
 three turns in the same place ; after which, 
 the roUer may be carried round spirally, 
 taking care that every turn of the bandage 
 overlaps about two-thirds of the preceding 
 one. When the inequality of the parts 
 cause the margin to slack, it must be re- 
 versed, or folded over; that is, its upper 
 margin must become the lower, etc. A 
 bandage should be moderately tight, so as 
 to support the parts without intercepting 
 the circulation, and should be so applied as 
 to press equally on every part. In band- 
 aging a horse's leg, the roller should be 
 applied from the upper part of the hoof to 
 the knee ; in every case it is advisable to 
 bandage from joint to joint, thus leaving 
 the joint at liberty. When it is found 
 necessary to bandage a joint, the bandage 
 should be put on in the form of a figure 8. 
 
 Barb. — A general name for horses im- 
 ported from Barbary. The barb, one of 
 the most celebrated of the African races, is 
 to be met with izi Barbary, Tripoli, and 
 Morocco ; he seldom exceeds more than four- 
 teen hands and a half in height. The barb 
 requires more excitement to call out his 
 powers than the Arabian ; but, when suf- 
 ficiently excited, his qualities of speed and 
 endurance render him a powerful antagonist 
 to the Ai'abian. 
 
 Bark. — This name is generally applied 
 to several different species of Peruvian 
 bark, the yellow and the red. The active 
 principle of the yellow bark is an alkaloid 
 principle, called quinse, combined with a 
 peculiar acid, called kinic, or cinchonic, in 
 the state of an acid salt ; besides these, it 
 contains an oily and a yellow coloring mat- 
 ter, tannin, kinate of Ume, and woody fibre. 
 Then- value in ti'eating diseases of the horse 
 consists in their tonic and astringent prop- 
 erties. It should be given to the horse in 
 the form of infusion ; one ounce of pow- 
 dered bark to a quart of boiling water. It 
 is also useful to restore indolent ulcers to a 
 healthy state. The best tonic for a horse is 
 hydrastis Canadensis (golden seal). 
 
 Bar Shoe. — A particular land of shoe, 
 which is sometimes used to protect the frog 
 from injury; also in corns. 
 
 Bars of the Foot. — (See Foot, part 
 first.) 
 
 Bars of the Mouth. — Transverse ridges 
 on the roof of the mouth ; they are most 
 conspicuous, or fuU, in a young horse. 
 When swollen, or fuller than usual, the 
 horse is said to have the lampas. 
 
 Basilicon. — A digestive ointment, com- 
 posed of equal parts of olive oil, yellow 
 beeswax, and common resin (or rosin). 
 These are to be melted over a slow fire, 
 and stirred until the mixture is quite cool. 
 
 Bay. — A bay color, in horses, is so 
 named from its resemblance to dried bay 
 leaves. 
 
 Biceps. — The biceps is a double-headed 
 muscle, which serves to bend a limb. 
 
 Bile, or Gall. — A bitter, greenish fluid, 
 secreted by the liver for the purpose of as- 
 sisting digestion. In the horse there is no 
 gall bladder, or receptacle for the bile ; it 
 passes directly into the duodenum, or first 
 part of the small intestines, a few inches 
 from the stomach. 
 
 Bilious. — Diseases are called bilious 
 when they depend on a morbid state of the 
 liver. 
 
 Bits. — There are various kinds of bits 
 in use ; among them are the snaflle and 
 curb. A snaffle may be either plain, or 
 
224 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 twisted, but the latter is apt to make the 
 mouth callous ; it consists of two pieces, 
 having a sort of hinge joint in the centre. 
 When used for the purpose of breaking 
 young colts, it should be made large, so as 
 not to hurt the mouth. The form of the 
 curb bit resembles somewhat the letter H. 
 The bridle is fastened to the side pieces, 
 which act as levers of different powers, ac- 
 cording to the distance from the cross-bar, 
 to which the bridle is attached. The hu- 
 mane man will never inflict unnecessary 
 severity on the horse, and will avoid contin- 
 ual sti-ain on the reins or bridle, which, 
 aside irom the torture they inflict, tend to 
 render the horse's mouth callous. The best 
 form of bit, and the most simple, is the stiff, 
 arched bit. The author has seen a very fine 
 specimen of this article, manufactm-ed by 
 Messrs. Hannaford & Usley, of this city. 
 The centre piece is large and cru"ved ; the 
 checks are movable, and their upper ends 
 curved outwards, which prevents their injur- 
 ing the cheek bones. It is very important 
 that a horse should be properly bitted; 
 many docile horses are rendered stubborn 
 and unmanageable, by having a bit that is 
 too narrow. Many young horses are injured 
 while they are teething, and the mouth is 
 tender, by bearing too hard on the rein. 
 The author would suggest a trial of an 
 Lrdia rubber centre piece, in such cases. 
 
 Bite of any Rabid Animal. — In most 
 works on veterinary science, the writers re- 
 commend excision, or cutting out the bitten 
 part, and afterwards cauterizing with the 
 firing iron ; but this method is very unsatis- 
 factory, and only puts the animal to unne- 
 cessary torment. The morbid matter from 
 a rabid animal is generally taken up by the 
 absorbents, sometimes in a few seconds, 
 and the operation of cauterizing would then 
 be of no avail. The treatment we recom- 
 mend is, to dose the animal with a tea of 
 lobelia ; half a pound of the herb and seed 
 may be steeped in two quarts of scalding 
 water, and given in doses of half a pint, at 
 intervals of an hour. A large poultice of 
 the same should be bound on the bitten 
 part, and kept in contact with the parts by 
 
 bandages, and the poultice renewed every 
 six hours, until all signs of poisoning disap- 
 pear. The animal should be kept on scalded 
 shorts, in moderate quantities. 
 
 Bladder. — The bladder is a musculo- 
 membranous bag, situated, when empty, in 
 the cavity of the pelvis. Its use is to con- 
 tain the urine, which flows into it through 
 the ureters, from the kidneys. It is divided 
 into three jiarts, viz., the fundus or bottom, 
 the body, and the neck. When full, the 
 fundus of the bladder protrudes out of the 
 pelvis, into the abdominal cavity ; it then 
 receives a covering from the peritoneum. 
 Its other coats are an internal mucous mem- 
 brane, and an external muscular coat, formed 
 of two distinct sets of fibres ; the one lon- 
 gitudinal, and the other circular. The 
 former are thickest about the fundus, the 
 latter about the neck or cervix, — which, by 
 this arrangement, is always kept closed, 
 except during the time of voiding the urine. 
 On opening horses that have died from 
 accident, we sometimes find the bladder 
 empty, and its muscular fibres so condensed 
 that it appears like a solid mass of small 
 dimensions ; such is the contractile power 
 of its muscular coat, by which, with some 
 assistance from the abdominal muscles and 
 diaphragm, the urine is expelled. The 
 author has opened several horses that have 
 died from lockjaw, and found the bladder 
 distended to its utmost capacity, containing 
 about a gallon and a half of dark-colored 
 fluid, resembling coffee-grounds. In one 
 case, the muscular fibres about the neck 
 of the bladder were lacerated by the over- 
 distention and spasm of the ^neck of that 
 organ. When horses are accustomed to 
 di-ink too much water, without being al- 
 lowed to stale often enough at work, the 
 bladder becomes over-distended, and often 
 paralysis, weakness, or local debility sets 
 in, and the neck of the bladder becomes at 
 length so relaxed as to be unable to offer 
 sufficient resistance to the muscles that pro- 
 pel the urine into the urethra, so that it is 
 constantly diibbling off as fast as it is 
 secreted. Tiiis is termed incontinence of 
 luine. 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 225 
 
 Sometimes the irritability of the bladder, 
 ill the latter case, depends on the acrimony 
 of the urine ; and, whenever this is the case, 
 attention to feeding, watering, etc., will 
 remove it. Diseases of the kidneys and 
 bladder are accompanied with tenderness 
 over the loins, and a remarkable stiffness of 
 the hind legs. Whenever the bladder is 
 distended with m-ine, recourse should be 
 had to the catheter. 
 
 Palsy, or paralysis, of the bladder, is 
 sometimes dependent on functional de- 
 rangements, as stomach staggers, or injuries 
 to the brain and spinal marrow. 
 
 Blasting. — When cattle or sheep are 
 first turned into luxuriant pasture, after be- 
 ing poorly fed, they frequently gorge them- 
 selves with food, which, fermenting in the 
 rumen, or paunch, so distends it with gas 
 that the animal is often in danger of suffo- 
 cation. The symptoms are most disti-essing; 
 and, unless relief be speedily afforded, death 
 very commonly ensues. If the symptoms 
 are very alarming, a flexible tube may be 
 passed down the gullet : this will generally 
 allow the gas to escape, and afford tempo- 
 rary relief, until more efficient means are 
 resorted to ; these will consist in arousing 
 the stomach and digestive organs to action, 
 by stimulants and carminatives, and coun- 
 teracting the tendency to putrescence by 
 doses of charcoal or lobelia. Some prac- 
 titioners recommend puncturing the rumen, 
 or paunch ; but there is always great dan- 
 ger attending it, and, at best, it is only 
 palliative, and the process of fermentation 
 will proceed ; the gas may escape, but the 
 materials that furnished it stiU remain. 
 Youatt states : " A cow had eaten a large 
 quantity of food, and was hoven. A neigh- 
 bor, who was supposed to know a great 
 deal about cattle, made an incision into the 
 paunch ; the gas escaped, a great portion 
 of the food was removed with the hand, 
 and the animal appeared to be considerably 
 relieved, but rumination did not return : on 
 the following day the animal was dull ; she 
 refused her food, but was eager to drink. 
 Slie became worse and worse, and on the 
 
 29 
 
 sixth day she died ; " thus proving that the 
 remedy was worse than the disease. 
 
 When animals are blasted in a moderate 
 degree, the carminative drink, and decoction 
 of lobelia, will prove effectual. In all cases 
 of hove, it will be advisable to give injec- 
 tions of warm water, to which add a hand- 
 ful of salt, and the same quantity of 
 charcoal. As a means of preventing the 
 blast, it may be remarked, that animals 
 should never be turned into any nutritive 
 pasture while the dew is on the ground, or 
 after rain. 
 
 Bleeding. — The practice of abstracting 
 blood has received the seal of antiquity, yet 
 that is no argument in favor of its useful- 
 ness ; and, in view of improving in the 
 future, the author here introduces an article 
 on the subject, by Professor Buchanan : 
 
 " We affirm that bleeding is a barbarous 
 and unscientific remedy, and deny that it is 
 ever necessary. In this matter we take our 
 stand upon the facts recognized by the high- 
 est authorities in medical literature. We 
 refer to the most recent and accurate re- 
 searches in chemistry and pathology ; to the 
 experimental investigations of Andral, Ma- 
 gendie, Louis, Simon, and many others, 
 which have settled, beyond all doubt, and 
 placed among the permanent facts of medi- 
 cal science, to be received by all medical 
 schools of whatever therapeutic faith, the 
 phenomena of the blood, when its composi- 
 tion has been affected by hemorrhage, by 
 bleeding, and by various other agencies. 
 
 " It is indisputably established that bleed- 
 ing produces a special change in the com- 
 position of the blood. The change which 
 it produces is not a removal of any effete or 
 morbid materials, — not a removal of any 
 element which tends to create or aggravate 
 disease, — but a removal of the most neces- 
 sary and healthy portion, upon the presence 
 of which we depend for the maintenance of 
 health and vigor. Bleeding inevitably re- 
 duces the red or globulous portion of the 
 blood, because it removes or destroys a 
 certain amount of the red globules, and the 
 loss wluch it produces is readily supplied by 
 
226 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 absorption of water and of comparatively 
 crude materials, while the highly-organized 
 globules are regenerated with great slow- 
 ness and difficulty. 
 
 " It is a well-established fact, that the red 
 globules of the blood are essential to life, 
 and that their abundance or scarcity is a 
 criterion of the vital force and activity of 
 the constitution. As the proportion of the 
 red globules increases, the general vital 
 power rises, and the activity or energy of all 
 the organs increases ; while a diminution of 
 their ratio enfeebles or disorders the various 
 organs, and predisposes to nervous and 
 tuberculous disorders, and to the whole 
 range of adynamic and cachectic diseases. 
 If the ratio is diminished as much as one- 
 seventh, general debility is the consequence, 
 predisposing to disease and diminishing the 
 power of recovery ; if as much as one-fourth 
 or more, this reduction of vital power is 
 incompatible with health, and inevitably 
 results in some form of disorder. 
 
 " Is it not, then, exquisitely absurd to 
 adopt, as a remedy in disease, a measure 
 which, even in the most vigorous health, 
 tends directly, with rigorous precision, to 
 destroy the vital powers and bring on 
 disease ? Yet this measure has been, and 
 still is, sustained by many medical men, 
 although clinical experience, as well as 
 chemical science, has shown its injurious 
 effects, and thousands in America and 
 Europe have been, and are now, demon- 
 strating that all forms of disease may be 
 better treated without bloodletting than 
 with it. 
 
 " We affirm that, in disease, the patho- 
 genetic elements of the blood should be 
 removed, instead of its healthful and neces- 
 sary constituents. Natm'e has provided for 
 the removal of all noxious materials, by 
 numerous appropriate outlets, which dis- 
 charge every thingthat is injurious to human 
 health. It is the duty of the physician to 
 aid nature by such medicines and means as 
 will rouse the secretions and excretions, and 
 thus insure the restoration of the blood to a 
 perfectly healthy condition. When, for 
 want of knowledge how to accomplish this. 
 
 he destroys with unnatural violence a large 
 portion of the vital blood itself, which is as 
 necessary to the body as its solid tissues, he 
 acts with as much scientific precision as the 
 savage, who would treat a case of convul- 
 sions, not by removing its causes, but by 
 cutting out a portion of the convulsed 
 muscles." 
 
 It wiU be very difficult, however, to con- 
 vince some of the " older heads" and the 
 world in general, that bleeding can be dis- 
 pensed with ; therefore the veterinarian must 
 be prepared to please his employer, and do 
 just as his superiors have done, — or else 
 " loose caste " and practice. 
 
 Blemishes. — They consist of broken 
 knees, loss of hair, cracked heels, false quar- 
 ters, splents, windgalls, spavins, etc. 
 
 Blind, Moon. — A disease of the horse's 
 eyes, which is supposed to be the forerunner 
 of cataract, and often ends in total blindness. 
 
 Blister Fly. — Cantharides, or Spanish 
 fly. The object in applying a blister is to 
 promote absortions and to combat deep- 
 seated inflammations. 
 
 Bloodroot. — Sanguinaria Canadensis, 
 used to prevent the gi'owth of fungus, or 
 proud flesh ; a substitute for caustic. 
 
 Blood Spavin. — Enlarged bursae. 
 
 BoTS. — Short reddish worms, which are 
 often found attached to the horse's stomach. 
 Mi\ Clark says " that bots are not, properly 
 speaking, worms, but the larvae of the gad- 
 fly, which deposits its eggs on the horse's 
 coat in such a manner as that they shall be 
 received into his stomach, and then become 
 bots. When the female fly has become im- 
 pregnated, and the eggs are sufficiently ma- 
 tured, she seeks among the horses a subject 
 for her pmpose, and, approaching it on the 
 wing, she holds her body nearly upright in 
 the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for 
 the pm'pose, carried inwards and upwards. 
 In this way she approaches the part where 
 she designs to deposit the eggs ; and, sus- 
 pending herself for a few seconds before it, 
 suddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg 
 adhering to the hair by means of a gluti- 
 nous liquor secreted with it. She then 
 leaves the horse at a small distance, and pre- 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 227 
 
 pares the second egg ; and, poising herself 
 before the part, deposits it in the same way ; 
 the liquor dries, and the egg becomes firmly 
 glued to the hair. This is repeated by va- 
 rious flies, till four or five hundred eggs are 
 sometimes deposited on one horse. They 
 are usually deposited on the legs, side, and 
 back of the shoulder, — those parts most ex- 
 posed to be liclced by the animal : in lick- 
 ing, the eggs adhere to the tongue, and are 
 carried into the horse's stomach in the act 
 of swallowing. The bots attach them- 
 selves to the horse's stomach, and are some- 
 times, though less frequently, found in the 
 first intestine. The number varies consid- 
 erably ; sometimes they are not half a dozen, 
 at others they exceed a hundred. They 
 are fixed by the small end to the inner coat 
 of the stomach, to which they attach them- 
 selves by means of two hooks. The slow- 
 ness of their growth, and the pmity of their 
 food, which is supposed to be the chyle, 
 must occasion what they receive in a given 
 time to be proportionably small ; from 
 which, perhaps, arises the extreme difficulty 
 of destroying them by any medicine or poi- 
 son thrown into the stomach." A large 
 amount of opium, tobacco, and corrosive 
 sublimate, sufficient to destroy the horse, 
 have from time to time been given ; and, on 
 opening the stomach, these animals have 
 been found uninjured. " The presence of 
 bots in the horse's stomach is not easily 
 ascertained, as it is certain that great num- 
 bers have been found after death in the 
 stomach, without appearing to have pro- 
 duced any land of inconvenience to the ani- 
 mal while aUve. It does not appear that 
 any eftectual remedy has yet been discov- 
 ered for bots." Mr. Blaine says, "that he 
 has kept them alive for some days in olive 
 oil, and in oil of turpentine, and that even 
 the nitrous and sulphuric acids do not im- 
 mediately destroy them. At a certain sea- 
 son of the year, they detach themselves from 
 the stomach, and pass off with the excre- 
 ment." A run at grass is the most effec- 
 tual remedy. 
 
 Compound for Bots. — Persons desirous 
 
 of treating a horse for bots, can use the fol- 
 lowing : 
 Powdered poplar bark, ... 4 ounces. 
 
 " mandrake 2 ounces. 
 
 " balmony (snakehead), . . 4 ounces. 
 
 " wormseed, . . . . 2 oimces. 
 
 " golden seal, .... 1 ounce. 
 
 " slippery elm, . . . . 4 ounces. 
 
 Mix. Di^^de into sixteen powders, and give one, night 
 and morning, in the food. 
 
 Regimen. — The animal should be kept 
 on a generous diet ; green food or succulent 
 and agreeable vegetables will effect a change 
 and assist to detach the bots. If, however^ 
 such articles cannot be procured, let the 
 horse have a mess of scalded shorts every 
 night. 
 
 Bow-legged. — Defective conformation 
 of the legs. 
 
 Box, Loose. — A loose box, as it is gen- 
 erally called, is a place wherein a horse is 
 turned without being fastened to the man- 
 ger or rack : such a place is useful to turn a 
 horse into when he is sick, or when the mare 
 is about foaling. 
 
 Brain. — The connection that exists be- 
 tween the brain and stomach, by means of 
 the eighth pair of nerves, or par vagum, is 
 the cause of this important organ being 
 often disturbed in its function. Thus it is 
 that, when the stomach is loaded with food, 
 its function becomes deranged, and the brain 
 is affected sympathetically. A diseased 
 action is then set up, and all the functions 
 become more or less deranged. A horse in 
 this case will become dull and languid, and 
 sometimes labor under symptoms of apo- 
 plexy. In consequence of this nervous 
 communication between the stomach and 
 brain, the latter organ is sometimes affected 
 by the irritation of bots in the stomach. 
 The best way to prevent apoplexy, staggers, 
 etc., is, by attention to diet, exercise, etc. 
 
 Dropsy of the brain does not often occur 
 to horses or cows ; but sheep appear to be 
 more liable to the disease than other quad- 
 rupeds. The symptoms of the disorder in 
 horses are variable. " In one case there 
 was a considerable degree of dulness and 
 heaviness about the head; the pulse was 
 
228 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 not much affected, but there was loss of ap- 
 petite. The animal appeared as if suffering 
 much pain in the head, generally keeping it 
 lower than the manger. These symptoms 
 were foUovved by deUrium, convulsions, and 
 death. In another case, when probably the 
 water had accumulated very gi'aduaUy in 
 the ventricles of the brain, the horse ap- 
 peared to be free from pain, except when 
 the circulation was hurried by brisk motion, 
 when he would faU down in violent spasms, 
 the fit seldom lasting but a few minutes. 
 This horse, being of scarcely any value, was 
 destroyed, and, upon opening the brain, 
 about six ounces of water escaped." Sir 
 George Mackenzie has described two kinds 
 of this disease which sometimes happen to 
 sheep : " The first consists of an accumula- 
 tion of water in the ventricles of the brain ; 
 the other — which is most common — arises 
 from animalculae, called hydatids. In this 
 case, the water is contained in cysts, or bags, 
 unconnected with the substance of the brain, 
 on wliich it acts fatally by pressure. Very 
 soon after water has begun to collect, either 
 in the ventricles or cysts, the animal shows 
 evident and decisive symptoms of the dis- 
 ease. He starts, looks giddy and confused, 
 as if at a loss what to do ; retires from the 
 flock, and sometimes exhibits a very affect- 
 ing spectacle of misery." 
 
 Breaking. — The breaking of young 
 horses is a matter of great importance, and 
 should never be intrusted to any one of a 
 cruel or harsh disposition, as, under such a 
 master, the very best-tempered horse may 
 be rendered vicious. They are often broken 
 when much too young ; they are often found 
 racing at tlu-ee, and in constant work before 
 they are four years old. This is one of the 
 causes of contracted feet and lameness, that 
 are continually presenting themselves to our 
 notice. Farmers in general put their colts 
 to work too young ; and, although exercise 
 may improve their growth and constitution, 
 yet this advantage is more than counter- 
 balanced by their being shod at a period 
 when their feet are tender. 
 
 Bridle Hand. — The left is called the 
 
 bridle hand, in contradistinction to the right, 
 which is termed the whip hand. 
 
 Broken Wind. — The origin of broken 
 wind is supposed to be a morbid secretion 
 from the membrane lining the windpipe, 
 bronchial tubes, and ramifications ; the air- 
 cells are somewhat ruptured, and the air is 
 entangled in the cellular substance, or com- 
 mon connecting membrane. The buUi of 
 the lungs is greatly increased, while their 
 capacity for containing air is diminished. 
 It is stated in Rees' CyclopcBdia, under the 
 head of broken wind, " that, after opening 
 more than ten broken-winded horses, their 
 lungs were uniformly found emphysemat- 
 ous. (See Emphysema.) This complaint 
 is generally considered incurable ; but it 
 may often be alleviated by constant atten- 
 tion to diet." The animal should be fed on 
 shorts, and green food if it can be procured, 
 and boiled carrots. When used, his exer- 
 cise should at first be moderate, and he 
 should never be exercised immediately after 
 feeding. If the horse shows any disposition 
 to eat the litter, a muzzle must be provided. 
 
 According to Rlr. Richard Lawrence, 
 " the most common appearance of the lungs 
 in broken-winded horses is a general thick- 
 ening of their substance, by which their 
 elasticity is in a great measure destroyed, 
 and their weight specifically increased. At 
 the same time, their capacity for receiving 
 air is diminished." Dr. White writes, "that 
 he has examined the lungs of broken-winded 
 horses without obser^ing this general thick- 
 ening of their substance ; on the contrary, 
 they have appeared superficially lighter and 
 larger than in their natural state. Two 
 horses were purchased for the purpose of 
 making experiments, and so badly broken- 
 winded as to be useless. Li the first, the 
 lungs were unusually large, and there was 
 a considerable quantity of air in the cellular 
 membrane ; but it was not ascertained 
 whether the air had escaped from the air- 
 cells, or had been generated within the 
 common cellular membrane. The other 
 horse was kept about a month in a field 
 where there was no water and very little 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 229 
 
 grass. When taken up, he appeared per- 
 fectly free from the disorder. He was shot ; 
 and, upon examining the lungs, they had 
 not the slightest appearance of disease." 
 This proved the superiority of nature's 
 remedies over those of man. The same 
 author relates that he purchased a broken- 
 winded horse that was incapable of work- 
 ing. By allowing him only a small quan- 
 tity of hay, sprinlded with water, giving 
 mashes, mixed with a small quantity of 
 oats, and only a small quantity of water, 
 taking care at the same time that he had 
 regular and moderate exercise, his wind be- 
 came gradually better, and he afterwards 
 was perfectly free from the complaint. 
 
 The author has examined the lungs of 
 two horses which were said to be afflicted, 
 for some time previous to death, with bro- 
 ken wind, without detecting a loss of con- 
 tinuity in their strvicture ; neither was their 
 specific gravity diminished. 
 
 Bronchia. — (See Windpipe.) 
 
 BKONcnoTOMY. — The operation of open- 
 ing the windpipe for the purpose of produc- 
 ing artificial respiration, or to remove any 
 substances that may have lodged in the 
 upper part of the larynx. 
 
 Burns are best treated by a mixture of 
 equal portions of lime-water and linseed 
 oil, the parts being frequently anointed with 
 the mixture. 
 
 BuKs^E Mucosa. Mucous Bags, or Sacs. 
 — These are described as membranous sacs, 
 containing a fluid similar to synovia, or 
 joint oil, and interposed between tendons 
 and the parts on which they move. In 
 violent exertions these vascular membranes, 
 ■\\-hich secrete and confine the synovia, are 
 injured ; hence we have windgalls, bog- 
 spavin, etc. 
 
 BuTTERis. — An instrument used by 
 horse-shoers for paring the horse's hoofs. 
 
 C^cuM. — The blind gut. So named 
 because it is open at one end only. In the 
 horse this part of the intestines is remark- 
 ably large. 
 
 Calf, Diseases of. — Many of the dis- 
 eases of calves originate in a disordered 
 state of the stomach, either from taking too 
 
 much milk at a time, or from the milk not 
 being sufficiently fresh, or being taken from 
 a cow whose health is impaired. When- 
 ever the stomach is disordered, either by the 
 quantity or quality of the milk, it causes a 
 variety of disorders, such as scouring, want 
 of appetite, costiveness, coUc, yellows, con- 
 vulsions, etc. 
 
 Calkins. — A name given to the promi- 
 nences on horses' shoes, which are turned 
 downward for the purpose of preventing 
 their slipping. 
 
 Calving. — At the end of nine lunar 
 months the period of the cow's gestation is 
 complete ; but the parturition does not ex- 
 actly take place at that time, — it is some- 
 times earUer, at others later. " One hun- 
 dred and sixteen cows had their time of 
 calving registered : fourteen of them calved 
 from the two hundred and forty-first day to 
 the two hundred and sixty-sixth day, — 
 that is, eight months and one day to eight 
 months and twenty-six days ; three on the 
 two hundred and seventieth day ; fifty-six 
 from the two hundred and seventieth to the 
 two hundred and eightieth day ; eighteen 
 from the two hundred and eightieth to the 
 two hundred and ninetieth day ; twenty on 
 the three hundredth day ; five on the three 
 hundred and eighth day ; consequently there 
 were sixty-seven days between the two ex- 
 tremes. Immediately before calving, the 
 animal appears uneasy; the tail is elevated; 
 she shifts about from place to place, and is 
 frequently lying down and getting up again. 
 The labor pains then come on, and, by the 
 expulsive power of the womb, the foetus, 
 with the membranes enveloping it, is pushed 
 forward. At fii-st the membranes appear 
 beyond the vagina or shape, in the form of 
 a bladder of water: this soon bursts, the 
 water is discharged, the head and fore feet 
 of the calf are protruded (in natural labor) 
 beyond the shape. The body next appears, 
 and the delivery is complete. In a Uttle 
 time afterwards, some trifling pains take 
 place, which separate the afterbirth, or 
 cleansings ; and, these being expelled, the 
 process is finished. 
 
 When the membrane breaks, and the 
 
230 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 fluid escapes early in calving, and before 
 the mouth of the uterus is sufficiently ex- 
 panded, the process is often slow, and it is 
 a considerable time before any part of the 
 calf makes its appearance. The practice 
 of hurrying the process by introducing the 
 hand, or di'iving the animal about when 
 symptoms of calving appear, is very impro- 
 per. It has been known in many instances 
 to cause the animal's death. It sometimes 
 appears that a wrong presentation takes 
 place, and renders the calving impracticable 
 without assistance. Li such cases it is 
 necessary to introduce the hand in order to 
 ascertain the position of the calf, and change 
 it when it is found unfavorable. When, 
 for example, the head presents without the 
 fore legs, which are bent under the breast, 
 it cannot, in this position, be well drawn 
 away without danger. In this case the calf 
 should be gently pushed back in the uterus, 
 placing the cow in the most favorable 
 position, and taking the opportunity for so 
 doing while there are no pains nor straining. 
 When the calf is pushed back, the fore legs 
 are to be carefully drawn downward, in a 
 line with the head, and brought out into the 
 vagina. The author has known several 
 cases, where parturition was seemingly dif- 
 ficult, of a resort to force in extracting the 
 calf; but it should be recollected that nature 
 is never to be interfered Vidth in the process 
 of delivery, or in any of her operations, 
 unless it is clearly ascertained that assist- 
 ance is necessary. When much force is 
 used in drawing the calf, and especially if 
 the animal be rather fat, a disease of the 
 womb is apt to follow, puerperal fever sets 
 in, which often proves fatal. Great mis- 
 chief is also done by endeavoring to extract 
 the calf without regard to its position in the 
 uterus : it is sometimes so placed that de- 
 livery is not practicable until the position 
 of the calf is shifted. When much force 
 is used in drawing the calf, it sometimes 
 happens that the womb falls out or is in- 
 verted, and great care is requu-ed in putting 
 it back, so that it may remain in its situa- 
 tion. In doing so, there is an advantage 
 derived from placing the cow in such a 
 
 position that the hind parts may be higher 
 than the fore. If any dust or straw remain 
 about the womb, they should be carefully 
 removed before the womb is put back. A 
 linen cloth is then to be put under the 
 womb, which is to be held by two assistants. 
 The cow should be made to rise, that being 
 the most favorable position, and the opera- 
 tor is then to grasp the mouth of the womb 
 with both hands, and gently return it. 
 When so returned, one hand is to be im- 
 mediately withdrawn, while the other re- 
 mains to prevent that part from falling 
 down again. The hand at liberty is then 
 to grasp another portion of the womb, which 
 is to be pushed into the body lilie the former, 
 and retained with one hand. This is to be 
 repeated until the whole of the womb is 
 put back ; if the womb does not contract, 
 friction with a brush around the belly and 
 back may excite the muscles to contraction: 
 should this fail, the animal may have an 
 astringent and aromatic drink, made by in- 
 fusing three ounces of ground poplar bark 
 in about three pints of hot water; when 
 cool, administer with a horn or bottle, taking 
 care, while pouring down the oesophagus, 
 to let it fall gently and gradually ; by that 
 means it will pass over the pillars of the 
 oesophagean canal, and on to the third 
 stomach ; otherwise it would fall into the 
 rumen, and defeat the object in view. 
 
 Camphor. — A narcotic vegetable concre- 
 tion. This medicine, says Dr. White, " is 
 employed both internally and externally. It 
 is given inwardly as an anti-spasmodic, as 
 in lockjaw, when it is commonly joined with 
 opium ; and as a febrifuge, or fever medi- 
 cine, joined with nitre and antimonial 
 powder." Mr. Morton writes : Camphor 
 has been occasionally given in tympanitis, 
 and it has been supposed to act by rousing 
 the vital energies. In a state of fine powder 
 it is sometimes sprinkled over a linseed- 
 meal poultice, when it has been found to 
 allay irritation ; although, as a sedative, thus 
 applied, it is not equal to the extract of the 
 deadly nightshade. 
 
 On account of its sedative influence, it 
 may be advantageously combined with 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 231 
 
 1 part, 
 8 parts. 
 
 1 part. 
 
 opium or digitalis for clironic coughs. 
 Given for any length of time, it pervades 
 the system, and is excreted by the lungs and 
 kidneys. 
 
 Canthakides. — Spanish Fly.* — Several 
 preparations of cantharides are now in use 
 for example. 
 
 Vinegar of Cantharides. 
 Take of Catharides in powder, 
 " Diluted acetic acid. 
 Macerate for fourteen days, and filter. 
 
 Oil of Cantharides. 
 Cantharides in powder, 
 
 Olive oil 8 parts. 
 
 Digest in a water bath for tivo horu's, and filter for use. 
 
 Ointment of Cantharides. 
 Take Cantharides in powder, . 1 part. 
 
 " " Hogs lard, . . 6 parts. 
 
 Digest in a water bath and filter tlu'ough paper. 
 
 Capped Hock. — A swelling on the point 
 of the hock, generally occasioned by blows; 
 they seldom cause lameness ; but, as they 
 are a considerable blemish, an attempt 
 should be made to reduce them by counter- 
 irritants ; friction is also useful. 
 
 Capsicum. — In its pure state it contains 
 tonic and stimulant properties. It increases 
 the physiological or healthy action of the 
 system. 
 
 Capsular Ligament. — The ligament by 
 which two bones are joined together. It 
 forms a complete sac round them, and serves 
 to confine the synovia, or joint oil. 
 
 Caraway Seeds. — These are cordial 
 and carminative. The dose is from one to 
 two ounces. 
 
 Carbon. — Pure charcoal, unmixed with 
 any foreign body. It is antiseptic and 
 absorbent ; useful as a poultice for putrid 
 sores. 
 
 Carditis. — Inflammation of the heart. 
 
 Caries. — Ulceration or rottenness of a 
 bone. 
 
 Carminatives. — Medicines that correct 
 flatulency, or expel -wdnd ; the principal of 
 these are the caraway and fennel seeds. 
 
 Carotid Artery. — A large artery, that 
 runs on each side of the neck, near the 
 windpipe. The jugular vein runs immedi- 
 
 * Morton's Manual. 
 
 ately over the artery. Yet at the upper part 
 of the neck they are at such a distance that 
 there is no danger of wounding the latter in 
 bleeding. 
 
 Cartilage. — Gristle. A smooth, elastic 
 substance attached to bones. Cartilages 
 are situated in parts where elasticity is 
 required ; they render the parts connected 
 with them capable of slight changes of form, 
 and instant recovery, to accommodate them- 
 selves to accidents and circumstances, with- 
 out serious injury to themselves. There are 
 also inter-articular cartilages ; that is, flat, 
 smooth cartilages, between the ends of two 
 bones. These, being covered with synovia, 
 or joint oil, serve to facilitate the motion of 
 the joint. 
 
 Castor. — A peculiar matter found in 
 sacs, near the rectum of the beaver. It is 
 used as an anti-spasmodic, in doses of two 
 drachms (for a horse), mixed in thin gruel. 
 
 Castration. — An operation often per- 
 formed on horses, and other domestic ani- 
 mals. The best method of performing it is 
 by means of the clams, and ligature. 
 
 Cataplasm, or Poultice. — This appli- 
 cation, when designed to promote suppura- 
 tion, or formation of matter, is best made 
 by mixing together equal parts of slippery 
 elm and flax-seed, pouring a sufficient 
 quantity of boiUng water on the mixture, to 
 make it of the consistence of mush, and 
 binding it on the part ; the bandage should 
 not be so tight as to interfere with the 
 retm-n of blood by the veins. A poultice 
 should always be renewed every twelve 
 hours. 
 
 Cataract. — A disease of the horse's 
 eye. A cataract may be partial or total. 
 The partial cataract is known by specks in 
 the pupil, which interrupt vision in propor- 
 tion to their size, and according to their 
 situation. In the total or complete cata- 
 ract, the whole of the pupil becomes of a 
 white or pearl color. A horse's sight is least 
 injured by partial cataract, when the speck 
 is most remote from the centre of the pupil, 
 and near to the upper margin. When a 
 complete cataract takes place in one eye, 
 the strength of the other becomes estab- 
 
232 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 lished, so that the horse soon accommo- 
 dates himself to the loss. 
 
 Catarrh, or Cold. — This is, perhaps, a 
 disorder more common in horses than any 
 other. The author attributes some colds (in 
 this city) to the bountiful use of Cochituate 
 water. When the horse has just arrived 
 from a journey, or is in a state of perspira- 
 tion, the showering process, so much in 
 fashion just now, is decidedly injurious. If 
 the legs of the animal are sluiced \\'ith water, 
 and he is afterwards suffered to stand where 
 a current of air blows on him, he is likely to 
 take cold. Horses accustomed to warm 
 clothing and warm stables are, of course, 
 most liable to cold. The symptoms are 
 cough, dulness, want of appetite, discharge 
 from the nostrils, frequently accompanied 
 by sore throat and difficulty of swallowing. 
 
 Catarrh, Epidemic. — The epidemic ca- 
 tarrh is so named from its spreading over a 
 country as a general disorder, often for a 
 considerable time. When the disease is so 
 prevalent, it is supposed to depend on a cer- 
 tain state of the atmosphere. 
 
 Catheter. — A gum elastic tube, for the 
 purpose of di'awing off the urine. The one 
 used for the horse is about four feet in 
 length. 
 
 Caustics.- — Preparations that destroy 
 the part to which they are applied. 
 
 Cellular Membrane. — The substance 
 by which various parts of the body are 
 united to each other. The cells of which 
 this structure is composed communicate 
 with each other; which is proved by mak- 
 ing a small opening in the skin of an ani- 
 mal, introducing a blow-pipe, and blowing 
 through it, by which the adjacent skin will 
 puff up ; if sufficient power were employed, 
 the air may be thus forced all over the body. 
 
 Cerebellum. — The small brain. It is 
 situated immediately behind the cerebrum, 
 or large brain, and upon the origin of the 
 spinal marrow. 
 
 Chest Founder. — (See Founder.) 
 
 Chronic. — A term used to denote a dis- 
 ease of long standing, unaccompanied by 
 fever or inflammation. 
 
 Chyle. — A milky fluid, formed by the 
 
 action of the gastric, pancreatic, and bilious 
 fluids. Chyle is absorbed and carried by 
 the lacteals to the thoracic duct; but, pre- 
 vious to its arrival there, it passes through 
 the mesenteric glands, where, probably, it 
 undergoes some change. 
 
 Cicatrix. — The mark that remains after 
 a sore, wound, or ulcer has been healed. 
 
 Circulation of the Blood. — (See 
 Heart.) 
 
 Clipping. — Cutting the long, rough hair 
 of a horse. It is cliiefly done to improve 
 the appearance of the horse. The author 
 doubts its utility. (See article Hair, part 
 first.) 
 
 Clothing. — A pernicious custom is 
 often adopted of keeping horses clothed in 
 the stable ; making no difference in the 
 warmth of the clothes, whatever the season 
 of the year or the state of the weather may 
 be. (This custom is not so prevalent here 
 as in England.) In a good stable, it is 
 probable that even in winter it might be dis- 
 pensed with ; and a horse will then be much 
 less liable to take cold, when he happens to 
 stand in a cold wind or rain. When a horse 
 is moulting, or shedding his coat, light cloth- 
 ing might be useful ; and, at such periods, 
 showering, or standing out in the rain, 
 would be very injm-ious. In summer, the 
 horse should have a net thrown over him to 
 protect him from the flies. 
 
 Clysters, or Glysters. — A liquid 
 preparation, forced into the rectum by means 
 of a syringe. 
 
 Coffin Bone, or Os Pedis. — The bone 
 which is inclosed by the hoof. 
 
 Coffin Joint. — (See Hoof.) 
 
 Colic — A very common disease in 
 horses. It begins with an appearance of 
 uneasiness ; he paws his litter ; sometimes 
 makes ineffectual attempts to stale ; stamps 
 with his feet ; gathers up his legs, and lies 
 down heavily ; groans, and looks round to 
 his flank ; lies down heavily again, as before, 
 and rolls on his back. The body sometimes 
 swells. If relief is not promptly afforded, 
 all the above symptoms gradually increase ; 
 the pulse becomes quick, the breathing dis- 
 turbed, and the pain is so great that a vio- 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 23c 
 
 lent perspiration breaks out, and the horse 
 becomes ahnost delirious, throwing himself 
 about the stall, so that it is dangerous to 
 come near him. 
 
 Condition. — This term is used to imply 
 a horse being in perfect health. 
 
 Conjunctiva. — The external coat or 
 membrane of the eye. (See Eve, part first.) 
 
 Consumption. — In consumption there is 
 a gradual loss of flesh and strength, while 
 the appetite is seldom impaired in the early 
 stages. It is sometimes accompanied by a 
 discharge from one or both nostrils, and a 
 swelling of the glands under the jaw ; such 
 cases are often mistaken for glanders. Con- 
 sumption does not often take place sud- 
 denly, but is very insidious in its attack ; 
 and it often happens, that the complaint is 
 not much noticed till tubercles are formed 
 in the lungs, and the mesenteric glands are 
 diseased. When a horse is observed to lose 
 flesh, his coat staring, his skin feeling as if 
 fast to the ribs, he should be warmly 
 clothed, and fed on scalded shorts, oats, and 
 boiled carrots ; by proper attention to stable 
 management, he may gain flesh and strength, 
 his coat will become smoother, and his skin 
 looser. Should it now be the season of the 
 year when good grass can be procured, this 
 wUl perfect the recovery. The best medi- 
 cines are cod liver oil and phosphate of lime. 
 
 Contagion. — The mode in which a dis- 
 ease is communicated from one animal to 
 another. It is derived from the word contact, 
 or touch, and is used in contradistinction 
 to infection, which implies the commu- 
 nication of disease by unwholesome mias- 
 mata, sometimes spreading to a very con- 
 siderable distance. 
 
 Convalescence. — A state of recovery 
 from illness, or an approach to a state of 
 health. 
 
 Convulsions. — Under this name, Gib- 
 son has classed lockjaw and staggers. 
 Modern writers treat of these diseases under 
 their respective heads. Calves are subject 
 to convulsive diseases, from indigestion, and 
 the consequent formation of acid in the 
 stomach. It is often occasioned by some 
 
 30 
 
 bad quality in the miUc they drinli, when 
 fed by hand. Taking too much milk will 
 often bring on the disorder. Carminatives 
 and tonics generally afford rehef; after 
 which, it is necessary to be inore attentive 
 to the futm-e mode of feeding, giving a little 
 gruel occasionaUy. 
 
 Cordials. — Medicines are thus termed 
 that possess warm and stimulating proper- 
 ties, such as ginger, caraway seeds, anise 
 seeds, etc. 
 
 Cornea. — The outer transparent part of 
 the eye. 
 
 Corner Teeth. — The outermost of the 
 front teeth are thus named. 
 
 Corns. — Corns generally appear at the in- 
 ner angles of the fore feet, from injuries, etc. 
 
 Coronet Bone. — Os corona. The sec- 
 ond of the consolidated phalanges of the 
 horse's foot. 
 
 Coronet. — The upper part of the hoof, 
 where the horn terminates. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate. — Among the 
 poisons that are given, with a view of 
 curing disease, corrosive sublimate seems to 
 stand foremost in the destruction of vitality, 
 and the production of incurable diseases. 
 Dr. White remarks : " It is necessary to 
 observe carefully its effects ; for, whenever 
 it takes off the appetite, or causes uneasi- 
 ness of the stomach or bowels, it should be 
 immediately discontinued. A solution of 
 corrosive sublimate in water has been em- 
 ployed as a lotion in mange, but is gener- 
 ally considered dangerous ; a fatal disorder 
 of the bowels having in several instances 
 followed its use. Five cows, that were 
 bathed with a solution of corrosive subli- 
 mate in tobacco water, died soon after. 
 
 Cough. — A cough is sometimes the first 
 symptom of a cold, or catarrh ; but there 
 is another kind of cough, which accompa- 
 nies indigestion. Horses that eat too much 
 hay, and drink a large quantity of water, 
 often have chronic cough. This can be 
 removed by proper attention to feeding. 
 
 Cows, Disease of. — The disorders of 
 cows are not so numerous as those of the 
 horse ; they are often brought on by feeding 
 
234 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 on improper food, or by being kept on low, 
 marshy grounds. Cattle that are brought 
 from a warm to a colder climate, and such 
 as are naturally of weak constitution, are 
 most liable to disease. 
 
 Cramp. — A spasmodic affection of the 
 muscles, either of a particular part, or of the 
 whole body. In lockjaw, for example, the 
 muscles of the jaw are at first chiefly affect- 
 ed ; but, gradually, unless relief is afforded, 
 the spasm, or cramp, generally extends to 
 the neck, limbs, and at length t6 all parts 
 of the body. 
 
 Crassamentum. — Red globules, or color- 
 ing matter, of the blood, mixed with coagu- 
 lable lymph. 
 
 Cremaster. — A muscle which sun-ounds 
 the spermatic cord, as it passes out of the 
 belly into the scrotum. Its use is to sus- 
 pend and draw up the testicle. 
 
 Crib Biting. — A disagreeable and in- 
 jurious habit, which some horses acquire ; 
 it consists of laying hold of the manger 
 with their teeth. It generally proceeds from 
 indigestion. 
 
 Cropping THE Ears. — The ear may be 
 inclosed between the two parts of a car- 
 penter's rule, which can be adjusted and 
 held so as to give the ear any shape that 
 may be required. All that part outside the 
 rule is then cut off with one stroke of a 
 sharp knife, and then bathed with tincture 
 of m}"rrh. 
 
 Crupper. — A strap affixed to the saddle, 
 with a loop at the end, for the purpose of 
 admitting the horse's tail. 
 
 Cud. — The food contained in the first 
 stomach, or rumen, of a ruminating animal, 
 which is returned to the mouth to be chewed 
 at the animal's leisure. 
 
 Cumin Seeds. — A carminative, or cordial. 
 
 Curb. — A swelling of the horse's hock, 
 generally caused by blows or strain. 
 
 Cutaneous Diseases. — Diseases whose 
 seat is in the skin, as the mange, for ex- 
 ample. They are generally dependent on 
 a vitiated state of the secretions, and a dis- 
 ordered state of the bowels. 
 
 Cuticle, or Scarf Skin. — A thin, in- 
 sensible membrane, which covers and de- 
 
 fends the true skin. It is this which forms 
 the bladder raised by blistering. 
 
 Cutis. — The skin, or hide, which lies 
 under the cuticle. Besides the cuticle and 
 skin, horses and other large animals have a 
 muscular expansion, which lies immediately 
 under the latter, called the fleshy pannicle, 
 by which the skin is moved, so as to shake 
 off dust or flies, or anything that hangs 
 loose upon the hair. 
 
 Cutting. — A horse is said to cut, when 
 he strikes the inner and lower part of the 
 fetlock joint, in travelling. The usual mode 
 of correcting this, is to make the outer side 
 of the shoe liigher than the inside. 
 
 Debility. — Debility may be permanent 
 or temporary. In the first, the constitution 
 is naturally weak, or has been rendered so 
 by improper treatment, or sickness ; the 
 second generally arises from over-exertion, 
 and, if the exciting cause be frequently re- 
 peated, terminates very commonly in a total 
 decay of the constitution. Rest and kind 
 treatment are the best cure for weakness in- 
 duced by fatigue. The greatest attention 
 should be paid to the degree of work that 
 a horse is capable of enduring, as what 
 may be salutary for him at one period may 
 greatly exceed his strength at another; and 
 this generally depends on the mode of sta- 
 ble management. The common practice 
 of working horses too early frequently 
 results in debility. 
 
 Decoction. — The process of extracting 
 the virtues of a substance by boiling it in 
 water. The liquid so prepared is termed 
 decoction. Almost all the medicinal prop- 
 erties of plants may be extracted by pour- 
 ing boiling water over them. In boiUng 
 they lose their volatile properties. 
 
 Deglutition. — The act of swallowing. 
 The power of swallowing is often impeded 
 in the horse by sore throat, distemper, etc. 
 This impediment is only of a temporary 
 nature ; but there is another, which is of a 
 more serious kind, and interferes with mas- 
 tication as well as with swallowing. The 
 grinding teeth of horses often wear down 
 in such a manner, that the outside edge of 
 the upper grinders irritates or wounds the 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 235 
 
 cheek, and the inside of the lower grinders 
 acts similarly upon the tongue, or the skin 
 connected with it. Whenever a horse is 
 observed to void unbroken oats with his 
 dung, the teeth and cheeks should be ex- 
 amined. It will often be found necessary 
 to rasp the outside edges of the upper 
 grinders, and sometimes the inner edges of 
 the lower ones. 
 
 Demulcents. — Medicines of a mucila- 
 ginous kind, which sheath the mucous 
 membranes when they are tender and irri- 
 table, and defend them from the action of 
 what would otherwise injure them. Of 
 this kind are marsh mallows, linseed tea, 
 solution of gum arable. 
 
 Dentition. — The act of changing the 
 teeth, which is going on from the second to 
 the fifth year. During this period, the horse's 
 mouth is apt to become tender, which ren- 
 ders it necessary to keep him for a short 
 time on scalded shorts, or boiled carrots. 
 
 Diabetes. — An excessive discharge of 
 urine, accompanied by thirst and debility. 
 There are three outlets for the fluids of the 
 body, — the surface, the limgs, and the 
 urinary passage. When either is deficient 
 in action, one or both of the others must 
 make up that deficiency ; so, excess in one 
 produces deficiency in the others ; hence, in 
 diabetes we often find a dry skin and stare- 
 ing coat ; and in excessive perspiration, the 
 urine is scanty, whatever be the organs 
 affected or whether the one or the other be 
 excessive or diminished. The indications 
 are, to equalize the action of these opposing 
 or sympathizing surfaces, by restoring the 
 diminished secretions, and cleansing and 
 toning the organ whose action is excessive. 
 AU direct efiorts to produce specific effects, 
 without regard to a balance of action 
 through the whole animal, do more harm 
 than good. 
 
 Diaphoretics. — Medicines that promote 
 insensible perspiration, or excite moderate 
 sweating. Of this class are lobelia and 
 emetics, given in infusion. 
 
 Diaphragm, Midriff, or Skirt. — A mus- 
 cular and tendinous expansion, which divides 
 
 the cavity of the chest firom the abdomen, 
 or belly. 
 
 DiARRHCEA, or Purging. — Li Professor 
 PercivaU's lectures on diarrhoea, he states 
 that, " for the majority of cases brought to 
 us, we are indebted to the groom, the f?ir- 
 rier, and stable-keeper, who used to kill 
 many horses by literally purging them to 
 death. Thirty years ago, an ounce and a 
 half or two ounces of aloes, occasionally 
 combined with one or two drachms of 
 calomel, composed the common purge ; and 
 even now, among these people, nine, ten, 
 and eleven drachms are by no means un- 
 usual doses. Young horses, on their first 
 arrival in the metropolis, are all physicked ; 
 they have given to them, indiscriminately, 
 doses of aloes, every one of which would 
 be sufficient to purge two of them ; the re- 
 sult is, that the light-carcassed, irritable 
 subject is carried off at once by superpurga- 
 tion, while another, or two, may linger in 
 misery and pain from a dysentery that wiU 
 end in gangrene and death, or be rendered 
 more speedily fatal by the doses of opium, 
 or some other powerful astringent, which 
 are so perniciously resorted to on these 
 occasions. There is another not uncommon 
 cause of this disease, and that is, continuous 
 and excessive exertion. After having been 
 ridden for many hours, a horse wiU often 
 express irritation in the bowels, by fre- 
 quently voiding his excrement, which ^vill 
 be fomid to be enveloped in a sfimy or 
 mucous matter, that is called by some 
 molten grease." 
 
 DiLUTENTs. — Those substances that in- 
 crease the fluidity of the animal economy. 
 Water may be justly considered as the only 
 dUutent. 
 
 Director. — A grooved instrument, made 
 for the purpose of conducting the knife in 
 open sinuses, and in several other opera- 
 tions of surgery. 
 
 Dislocation. — A displacement of a 
 bone from its socket. A dislocation of the 
 fetlock joint may be replaced, and kept in 
 its position by bandages ; the horse should 
 not take any exercise until it is completely 
 
236 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 healed. A dislocation of the stifle, or 
 patella, must be reduced by bringing the 
 horse's leg under the belly, and then depress- 
 ing the outer angle of the patella, or stifle 
 bone, with the hand, v/hich gives the 
 muscles the power to draw the bone into its 
 place. Generally speaking, dislocations are 
 rare. 
 
 Distemper. — This name is applied to 
 diseases that prevail at particular periods, 
 and spread to a considerable distance. 
 (See Epidemic.) 
 
 Docking. — ■ Cutting off part of the tad. 
 If this is ever necessary (and the author 
 doubts it), then the operation should be 
 performed before the animal is two years 
 old. 
 
 Drastic — A term applied to purgatives 
 that operate powerfully. 
 
 Drenches, or Drinks. — When it is 
 necessary that any medicine should operate 
 speedily, this is the best form in which it 
 can be given. A bottle with a short neck is 
 the best drenching instrument. In giving a 
 drench, the tongue should be at liberty, the 
 head moderately elevated ; the drench is 
 then poured down moderately. The head 
 is to be kept in an elevated position until 
 the drench is swallowed. If the animal 
 happens to cough while the drench is in his 
 throat, the head should be immediately let 
 down. 
 
 Dressing. — A term employed to desig- 
 nate medical applications to a wound, or 
 ulcer, and the operation of cleaning a horse. 
 
 Dropsy. — This disease consists in a col- 
 lection of serous or watery fluid, either in 
 cavities, as the chest, belly, or ventricles of 
 the brain, or in the cellular membrane under 
 the skin. Dropsy is more a symptom of 
 disease than a disease itself; but some- 
 times, on account of the violence and danger 
 of the symptom, it is often treated as a 
 disease. The proximate cause is a check to 
 perspiration ; the remote cause is bleeding, 
 or any thing that can debilitate the general 
 system. 
 
 Dropsy of the Chest. — This is some- 
 times a consequence of disease of the lungs ; 
 and, when it happens, those important 
 
 organs generally are so far disorganized, or 
 injured, that there is very little chance of the 
 animal's recovery. 
 
 Dropsy of the Belly, or Ascites. — 
 The causes are the same as above ; the only 
 difference is, that, from circumstances pre- 
 disposing, the fluid is determined on the 
 peritoneum (see Peritoneum) instead of 
 the pleura. 
 
 Duct. — A membranous tube, or canal, 
 through which certain fluids are conveyed. 
 Thus the lachrymal duct conveys tears from 
 the eyes to the nose. 
 
 Dung. — By examining a horse's dung, 
 we are enabled to judge of the state of his 
 health. When the dung is hard, and in 
 small knobs, and covered with slime, laxa- 
 tive medicines are beneficial ; and when it 
 is passed in too great quantities, it com- 
 monly arises from too liberal allowance of 
 food. If oats are voided whole, it will 
 generally be found to be caused either 
 by a defect of the teeth, or by a too 
 voracious appetite, occasioning the food 
 to be swallowed without mastication ; in 
 which case the animal should be fed on 
 shorts, or scalded food. 
 
 Duodenum. — The first intestine that 
 comes from the stomach. (See Intes- 
 tines.) 
 
 Dura Mater. — A strong membrane that 
 invests the brain and divides it into two 
 lobes. It likewise separates the large brain 
 (cerebrum) from the small, or cerebellum. 
 
 Ear. — The horse's ear is merely an organ 
 for collecting sound; consequently he has 
 complete power over the muscles attached 
 to them, and can turn them in different 
 directions. 
 
 Effluvia. — Invisible vapors that arise 
 from bodies. 
 
 Effusion. — The oozing out of serum, or 
 coagulable lymph, from the blood-vessels. 
 
 Embrocation. — A liquid preparation for 
 rubbing upon the skin, and generally used 
 for strains, bruises, and enlarged glands. 
 
 Embryotomy.* — When, from weakness, 
 a very narrow pelvic opening on the fore part 
 of the mother, or monstrosity on the part of 
 * BUaine. 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 237 
 
 the foal, no efforts can bring the fa3tal mass 
 away entire, it must be dismembered. A 
 knife made for the purpose, having the blade 
 concealed, with the haft lying within the 
 hollow of the hand, is to be taken up into 
 the vagina. We are told that, occasion- 
 ally, hydrocephalus in the colt prevents 
 the head from passing. Such a case 
 will detect itself by the volume that will 
 be felt on examination, and which will 
 be easily lessened by plunging the point of 
 the knife in the forehead, and evacuating the 
 contents by pressing the skull in ; when, 
 laying hold of the muzzle, the head may be 
 brought through the pelvic opening. But it 
 is usually the natural size of the head which 
 forms the obstruction ; in which case the 
 head itself must be removed. When the 
 head has been dissected off and brought 
 away, it will be necessary probably to con- 
 tract the volume of the chest; which will 
 not be difficult, by cutting the cartilaginous 
 portions of the ribs, detaching the thoracic 
 viscera, and then crushing, or rather mould- 
 ing, the empty thorax together ; after which 
 the rest of the body ^vill offer little obstruc- 
 tion. When the head cannot be got at, the 
 limbs must, one by one, be detached : after 
 which the body, and at last the head, may 
 be drawn out either entire, or lessened con- 
 siderably. 
 
 Emetic, Tartar. — Tartarized antimony. 
 A corrosive metallic poison. Dr. White 
 relates : " From examining the stomachs of 
 horses that have taken this mineral, I am 
 satisfied that irreparable mischief may be 
 done with it, and certain it is that a vast 
 deal of unnecessary pain has been thus 
 inflicted." 
 
 Emphysema. — Swellings which contain 
 air. Such swellings are known by a kind of 
 crackling noise, or sensation, when they are 
 pressed with the finger. 
 
 Emulgent Arteries. — The arteries 
 which convey blood to the kidneys. 
 
 Encanthis. — A disease of the inner 
 corner of the eye. 
 
 Encysted. — A term applied to tumors 
 which consist of a solid or liquid substance, 
 contained in a sac, or cyst. 
 
 Enteritis. — Inflammation of the bowels. 
 This is a very serious form of disease, and is 
 the result of plethora, or the sudden applica- 
 tion of cold to the surface. It is sometimes 
 owing to an overloaded state of the stom- 
 ach and bowels. Obstinate spasm will also 
 produce it. 
 
 Epidemic. — Diseases which spread over a 
 whole country, at certain seasons, are thus 
 named. If many suffer in the same manner, 
 it is called epizootic. There are very few 
 diseases which assume, in its latter or earlier 
 stages, such a variety of forms; perhaps 
 depending on the location, and the peculiar 
 state of the constitution. Youatt writes : 
 " In 1711, an epidemic commenced, which, 
 although it sometimes suspended its ravages, 
 would visit new districts ; it also appeared 
 in a certain district, and confined itself to 
 that location. In 1747, it appeared, and 
 would seem as if there was a strange caprice 
 about it. It would select its victims, the 
 best of the herd, around a certain district, 
 and confine itself to that location for a short 
 time ; then disappear for several months, 
 return, and pounce upon this privileged spot. 
 In some districts, it would attack the mouth 
 and throat; commencing with a loss of 
 appetite and difficult respiration, terminat- 
 ing mth a discharge of blood from the 
 anus. Sometimes the animals will eat and 
 work until they suddenly expire ; others will 
 linger in dreadful agony." It appears that 
 this malady is not infectious ; for the same 
 author writes: " Cattle were in the same 
 barn as those infected ; they ate of the same 
 fodder that the distempered beasts had 
 slavered upon, drank after them, and con- 
 stantly received their breath and odor, 
 without being the least affected. In 1756, 
 it assumed a different form ; some cattle 
 were taken aU at once with violent trem- 
 bling of every limb, and blood ran from the 
 nose, and bloody slime from the mouth, and 
 the animals died in a few hours." 
 
 Epiglottis. — The cartilage which covers 
 the larynx, or top of the windpipe, at the 
 time food or water is passing into the gullet. 
 
 Epilepsy. — -The falling sickness; fits. 
 Horses, cats, and dogs are subject to fits, 
 
238 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 which often depend upon an accumulation 
 of water in the ventricles of the brain, or 
 upon the irritation of worms in the stomach 
 or bowels. During the present year, the 
 author's attention was called to a horse, 
 (the property of Mr. Downs, of this city ;) 
 the horse was lying down, and at times 
 appeared insensible ; convulsive struggling 
 would take place occasionally. The mus- 
 cles of the eye were affected by spasm, and 
 distorted; the duration of the fit varied. 
 As the disease progressed, the hind extremi- 
 ties were paralyzed, and the horse would 
 struggle violently at intervals of fifteen 
 minutes. On an examination, after death, 
 nearly a peck-measure-full of the long round 
 worm was found in the small intestines. 
 The author examined the brain of a horse 
 that was said to die in a fit, and found about 
 five ounces of water in the ventricles of the 
 brain. These fits in horses do not exactly 
 resemble those occurring in man. 
 
 Epistaxis. — Bleeding at the nose. This 
 sometimes occurs in glanders, and denotes 
 a considerable ulceration within the nostrils. 
 When it happens to a horse in health, it 
 shows an unequal circulation of the blood. 
 
 Epsom Salts. — Sulphate of magnesia. 
 A neutral salt, often employed as an aperi- 
 ent for cattle ; but it is very uncertain in 
 horses, and is apt to gripe them. 
 
 Eschar. — A slough formed by the appli- 
 cation of caustic. 
 
 Excrescence. — Any preternatural for- 
 mation on any part of the body, as warts, 
 wens, etc. 
 
 Exostosis. — An osseous tu.mor originat- 
 ing from a bone ; such as splent, spavin, 
 ringbone, etc. Perhaps no animal is more 
 subject to this disease than the horse ; and 
 in no department of the veterinary science 
 is there a greater need of reform than in the 
 treatment of the disease now under con- 
 sideration. Almost every man who knows 
 anything about a horse can detect a 
 spavin, etc. ; but not one in a hundred can 
 tell anything about the true nature of the 
 malady, or the indications to be fulfilled in 
 the treatment ; and in consequence of a lack 
 of knowledge on this subject many a poor 
 
 animal has suftered immensely, who, if he 
 was not deprived of the power of speech, 
 would make the ears of his oppressors tingle 
 with a tale of man's barbarity and inconsis- 
 tency. 
 
 The bony structure, being composed of 
 vital solids, although studded with crystal- 
 lizations of saline carbonates and phos- 
 phates, is liable, like other parts of the struc- 
 ture, to take on preternatural or morbid 
 action, and may result from or accompany 
 constitutional idiosyncrasies, resulting from 
 hereditary taints on the side of the dam or 
 stallion. The most frequent causes of 
 splent, spavin, etc., are undue acts of exer- 
 tion on hard pavements, and the imposition 
 of weight disproportioned to the strength of 
 the animal: young horses are particularly 
 liable to exostosis when severely worked or 
 over-burdened. Any sudden or extraordi- 
 nary efforts in backing or suddenly pulling 
 up at full speed, racing before the horse shall 
 have arrived at maturity, while the joints 
 are yet in a state of imperfection, very fre- 
 quently lay the foundation of exostosis. 
 The parts being sprained and taxed beyond 
 endurance, disease is excited in the liga- 
 mentous substance, and extendsitself to the 
 periosteum and bones ; the ligaments often 
 become ossified, and are rendered fixtures ; 
 the periosteum, being raised by bony ac- 
 cumulations, presents itseK in the situation 
 of splents, spavin, or ringbone. 
 
 Sir A. Cooper divides exostosis, in refer- 
 ence to its seat, into two Idnds, periosteal 
 and medullary ; and again, as to its nature, 
 into cartilaginous and fungous. " But," 
 says Mr. Percivall, " it is to that kind only 
 which is situated between the shell of the 
 bone and the periosteum covering it, that 
 we have to attend in veterinary practice. 
 On dissection we find the periosteum thicker 
 than usual, with cartilage beneath it, and 
 ossific matter within the cartilage, extend- 
 ing from the shell of the bone nearly to the 
 internal surface of the periosteum, still 
 leaving on the surface of the swelling a thin 
 portion of cartilage unossified." 
 
 When the accretion of these swellings 
 ceases, and the disease has been of long 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 239 
 
 standing, they are found to consist on their 
 exterior surface, of a shell of osseous matter 
 similar to that of the original bone ; conse- 
 quently, when an exostosis has been formed 
 in the manner here described, the shell of 
 the original bone becomes absorbed, and 
 cancelli are desposited in its place. 
 
 " In the mean time, the outer surface of 
 the exostosis acquires a shell resembling 
 that of the bone itself. When the exostosis 
 has been steeped in an acid, and by tliis 
 means deprived of its phosphate of lime, 
 the cartilaginous structure remains of the 
 same form and magnitude as the diseased 
 deposits ; and, as far as I have been able to 
 discover, it is effused precisely in the same 
 manner as healthy bone. 
 
 " An exostosis, abstractedly considered, 
 does not appear to occasion much incon- 
 venience to the animal, except in the early 
 stages. A ringbone, confined to the pastern 
 bones, is of little consideration ; but, should 
 it show itself at or near the joint, it seldom 
 fails to produce lameness, which is often of 
 a permanent nature. Lameness, therefore, 
 is not an invariable symptom of exostosis ; 
 for most splents, and many ringbones, and 
 even spavins, exist without lameness. 
 When this disease invades ligamentous 
 structure, however, lameness generally ac- 
 companies it, — an effect we would refer to 
 the excessive tenderness of the part. Should 
 the tumor interfere, either from its bulk or 
 situation, with the motions of joints, mus- 
 cles, or tendons, lameness is a concomitant, 
 and often irremediable, symptom." 
 
 It appears that various constitutional and 
 local remedies have been tried for the pre- 
 vention and dispersion of exostosis, viz., 
 " the actual cautery, ammonia, cantharides, 
 caustic, and setons." The constitutional 
 remedies are of the same destructive nature, 
 and have but too often aggravated that 
 which they were intended to relieve : we do 
 not believe that any specific treatment has 
 ever had the honor of curing these forms of 
 disease ; that course of treatment we have 
 ever found the most satisfactory that is cal- 
 culated to promote the general health by 
 sanative means; we cleanse the system, 
 
 equalize the circulation, and excite healthy 
 action to the parts by stimulants and coun- 
 ter-m-itation (if the parts are inactive) ; 
 poultices, fomentations, etc., if there is pain, 
 or increased action. If tliis is done early, 
 exostosis is easily arrested, unless an hered- 
 itary taint is manifest. 
 
 The removal of exostosis by an operation, 
 we are told, has been performed with suc- 
 cess, and no doubt there are cases in which 
 it may safely be performed ; yet it cannot 
 be successful on spavined horses, the nat- 
 ural termination of spavin being anchylosis 
 of the bones of the hock and inter-articular 
 cartilage. A knowledge of this fact has led 
 men to suppose that Nature has turned a 
 summerset ; and they endeavor to set her 
 right with the firing iron and the imple- 
 ments of death ; whereas, if her intentions 
 were aided, the result would prove more 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Extravasation. — The escape of blood 
 or other fluids from their proper vessels. 
 
 Eye. — (See part first.) 
 
 Falling of the Yard or Penis. — This 
 disease sometimes happens to horses and 
 bulls, in consequence of swelling, excres- 
 cence, and ulceration of the parts, some- 
 times of an obstinate or malignant nature. 
 It may also be occasioned by too frequent 
 sexual intercourse. It may also depend on 
 weakness of the part ; and, when this is the 
 case, there is no ulceration nor excrescence 
 about it. If it depend on debility, then 
 tone up the whole animal, and wash the 
 parts, first with castile soap, then with cold 
 water. If it result from ulceration, wash 
 with weak vinegar and water, afterwards 
 with a mixture of powdered charcoal and 
 water. The latter may be thrown up the 
 sheath with a common syrLnge or injection 
 pipe. 'When the ulcers show a disposition 
 to heal, a little powdered bayberry bark 
 will generally complete the cure. When 
 excrescences form on the sheath or inside 
 of it, they should be taken 'off by applying 
 a ligature tight around their base. 
 
 False Quarter. — This can hardly be 
 considered as a distinct complaint, but, 
 more properly, as a consequence resulting 
 
240 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 from some one of the former diseases ; in 
 which, from the injury done to the coronary 
 vascular ligament, it can never afterwards 
 secrete horn ; but the break or interruption, 
 produced by the interposition of a portion 
 of non-secreting substance, causes a part of 
 the outer crust of the wall to be absent. 
 Such a blemish is called a false quarter ; 
 and it is evident that it inust greatly tend 
 to w'eaken the hoof. It likewise sometimes 
 produces the same unpleasant effects as a 
 sand-crack, by the separation of the under 
 layer of the wall admitting the vascular 
 laminsB between the opening. The treat- 
 ment can be only palliative. Keep the neigh- 
 boring horn always thin : use a bar shoe, 
 and " lay off" (as a smith calls it) the de- 
 ficient quarter. This may be done either 
 by paring the crnst, or by an indentation in 
 the shoe ; the choice of which is left to the 
 prudence of the operator, with this excep- 
 tion, that, in a weak, thin foot, the alteration 
 should always be made in the shoe, and in 
 a strong one, in the crust. 
 
 Farcy. — A disease of the lymphatics or 
 absorbent vessels. Its most usual form is 
 that of small tumors, or buds, as they are 
 termed, w^hich make their appearance in 
 different parts of the surface, gradually be- 
 come soft, or suppurate, and burst, and be- 
 come a foul ulcer. Its cause may be found 
 in anything that w^Ul derange the general 
 system, or produce debility ; its proximate 
 cause is immoderate work, inattention to 
 diet, hot unhealthy stables, sudden changes 
 of temperature, standing on filthy litter, etc. 
 
 Fauces. — That part of the throat which 
 lies behind the tongue. 
 
 Femoral Artery. — The principal ar- 
 tery of the thigh. 
 
 Femur, or Os Femoris.- — The thigh bone. 
 
 Fetlock. — A lock of hair at the'lower 
 part of the fore and hind legs. 
 
 Fever is a powerful effort of the vital 
 principle to remove all obstructions to or- 
 dinary and proper action. The reason why 
 veterinary practitioners have not ascertained 
 tliis fact heretofore, is, because they have 
 been guided by the false principle ih^X fever 
 is disease. Let them but receive the truth 
 
 of the definition we have given, then the 
 light wall begin to shine, and medical dark- 
 ness will be rendered more visible. 
 
 Fever, as we have said, is an effort of the 
 vital power to regain its equilibrium of 
 action through the system, and should never 
 be subdued by the use of agents that de- 
 prive the organs of the power to produce it. 
 Fever will be generally manifested in one 
 or more of that combination of signs com- 
 monly given as a description of fever, viz : 
 increased velocity of the pulse, heat, red- 
 ness, pain and swelling, thirst, obstructed 
 surface, etc., some of which will be present, 
 local or general, in greater or less degree, in 
 all forms of disease. In what is called 
 acute attacks these signs are very manifest : 
 in chronic cases, they are often faint ; but 
 still they exist. When an animal has taken 
 cold, and there is power enough in the sys- 
 tem to keep up a continual warfare against 
 obstructions, the disturbance of vital action 
 being unbroken, the fever is called pure, or 
 unbroken. The powers of the system may 
 become exhausted by efforts at relief, and 
 the fever will be periodically reduced : this 
 form of fever is called remittent. It would 
 be as absurd to expect that the most accu- 
 rate definition of fever would correspond, in 
 all its details, with another case, as to ex- 
 pect all animals to be afike. 
 
 There are many agents that obstruct 
 vital action, and many an organ to be 
 obstructed, which some have classed as dis- 
 tinct fevers ; for example, milk fever, puer- 
 peral fever, symptomatic, typhus, inflamma- 
 tory, etc. Our system teaches us that there 
 is but one cause of fever, viz., the natural 
 motive power of the system, and but one 
 fever itself, viz., accumulated vital action; 
 hence the treatment must be physiological. 
 
 Veterinary Surgeon Percivall,in an article 
 on fever, says: " We have no more reason, 
 nor not near so much, to give fever a habita- 
 tion in the abdomen, as we have to enthrone 
 it in the head ; but it w^ould appear, from 
 the full range of observation, that no part 
 of the body can be said to be insusceptible 
 of inflammation [local fever] in human 
 fever, though, at the same time, no organ is 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 241 
 
 invariably or exclusively affected. All I 
 wish to contend for is, that both idiopathic 
 and symptomatic fevers exhibit the same 
 form, character, and species, and the same 
 general means of cm-e ; and that, were it 
 not for the local affection, it would be 
 difficult or impossible to distinguish them. 
 When we come to examine the accounts 
 of different authors on fever, and compare 
 them one with another, we can hardly re- 
 frain from coming to the conclusion that 
 their descriptions were originaOy derived 
 from human medicine, and have been but 
 variously modified to suit the prevailing 
 doctrines of the day ; they have gone through 
 a system of imaginary fevers, and regularly 
 transferred the observations and language 
 of ancient authors upon diseases of the 
 human species to the constitution of quad- 
 rupeds." 
 
 In the treatment of disease, and when 
 fever is present, manifested by a determina- 
 tion of blood to the head, the object is to 
 invite the blood downward and outward; 
 or, in other words, equalize the circulation 
 by warmth and moisture externally, as in 
 lockjaw. 
 
 In neat cattle, should fever be present, 
 the eyes appear dull and watery, the inuzzle 
 dry, and rumination has ceased ; then the 
 blood, for want of room in the nutritive tis- 
 sues, is forced upon the lungs, liver, spleen, 
 brain, or other glandular tissues, and men 
 have named the disease congestive fever. 
 The author advises the reader not to feel 
 alarmed about the fever, but set to work 
 and relieve the congestion. Disease of the 
 bowels, garget of the teats and udder, will 
 require fomentation and stimulants to the 
 parts. 
 
 Filly. — A name given to a mare until 
 she is two or three years old. 
 
 Film. — Opacity of the cornea. 
 
 Filtration. — Straining liquids through 
 imsized paper ; also through sand or porous 
 stone. 
 
 Firing. — A severe operation, often per- 
 formed on horses, for spavins, curbs, ring- 
 bones, etc. Such barbarity should never be 
 practised : it is a disgrace to this age of im- 
 
 provement. When discoveries are leaping 
 on discoveries, and medical reform has ger- 
 minated, shall we not permit the poor dumb 
 brute to share the benefits of our investiga- 
 tion ? Every man who loves a horse, or 
 wishes well to the cause of horse-manity, will 
 say that a more safe and effectual system of 
 veterinary practice is necessary to rescue 
 from the torture of the firing iron one of the 
 noblest and most valuable quadrupeds in 
 the world. 
 
 " The rage of firing is very generally, and 
 much too frequently, adopted, and no doubt 
 upon most occasions, hurried on by the 
 pecuniary propensity and dictation of the 
 interested operator, anxious to display his 
 dexterity, or, as Scrub says, 'his newest 
 flourish' in the operation; and when per- 
 formed, and the horse is tiorned out to gi-ass, 
 if taken up sound, I shall ever attribute 
 much more of the cure to that grand speci- 
 fic, rest, than to the effects of his fire." 
 (See Taplin's Farriery, p. 83.) Hence the 
 firing iron, like all other destructive agents, 
 excites the system to rally her powers and 
 resist the encroachments of disease ; yet the 
 process is like talting a citadel by storm ; 
 the breaches that are made by the weapons 
 of warfare (such as the firing iron, scalpel, 
 lancet, and poison) can be traced, and leave 
 unmistakable evidences of their encroach- 
 ments. Instead of provoking the vital 
 powers to action by such destructive en- 
 ginery, we should afford Nature all the aid 
 we can, but never interfere with her opera- 
 tions. 
 
 Fistula of the Withers. — "An ob- 
 stinate disease of the horse's withers, or 
 points of the shoulder, commonly produced 
 by a bruise of the saddle." No wonder 
 Dr. White calls it "obstinate," when the 
 following treatment is recommended by 
 him: "The scalding mixture — it consists 
 of any fixed oil (as lamp or train oil), spirit 
 of turpentine, verdigris, and corrosive sub- 
 limate. These are put into an iron ladle, 
 and made nearly boUing hot ; and in this 
 state the mLxture is to be applied to the 
 diseased parts, by means of a little tow 
 fastened to the end of a stick ! It is neces- 
 
242 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 sary to prevent the mixture from flowing 
 over the sound parts, as it would not only 
 take off the hair, but cause ulceration of the 
 skin." If this mixture wiU produce diseased 
 action in the sound parts, we need not ask 
 what wiU be the result when applied to 
 parts already diseased. The author has 
 cured many cases of fistula, by treating 
 them as common abscesses, with the appli- 
 cation of stimulating antiseptic and tonic 
 poultices (see Poultices), and by a puri- 
 fying course of treatment, with proper 
 attention to diet, etc. 
 
 Fleam. — An instrument with which 
 horses and cattle are bled. 
 
 Flesh. — A common name for the mus- 
 cles of the body. 
 
 Flexor. — The flexors are those that 
 bend one bone upon another. The tendons 
 that serve to bend the leg, for example, are 
 named flexors. 
 
 Foaling. — The bringing forth young in 
 mares is not so often attended with difficulty 
 as in cows, and they have seldom occasion 
 for assistance. They should be placed in a 
 situation where they may have shelter, and 
 where they are free from danger. 
 
 Fomentations. — Fomentations are gen- 
 erally made by pourmg boiling water on 
 camomiles, burdock, poplar bark, etc. For 
 an emollient fomentation, ground slippery 
 elm is preferred. In inflammation of the 
 bowels, for example, the parts may be 
 fomented with flannels wrung out in a thin 
 mixture of slippery elm. 
 
 Foot. — (See part first.) 
 
 Foot Rot. — This name is applied to a 
 disease in the feet of sheep. This disease 
 often happens to such as are fed in low 
 meadows, or where the grass holds the frost 
 or cold dews for a considerable time. Prob- 
 ably a ford habit of body may be a predis- 
 posing cause. In the treatment of foot rot, 
 we should endeavor to find out the cause, 
 or causes, of the disorder, and change the 
 food or location of the sheep. If the disease 
 has spread under the horny covering, all the 
 superfluous horn should be carefully pared 
 away, so that the dressing may be applied 
 to the whole of the affected parts. The 
 
 dressing is composed of powdered lobelia, 
 formed to the consistence of paste, with 
 honey. 
 
 Foul Feeders. — Horses are so named 
 that have depraved or vitiated appetites, 
 eating foul litter and earth from the ground. 
 
 Founder. — A term expressive of the dif- 
 ferent forms of rheumatism and ruin in the 
 horse. Veterinary writers describe three dif- 
 ferent forms of this disease, viz., founder of 
 the body, chest, and feet. This is one and the 
 same disease, only located in different parts, 
 and may arise from the same general causes; 
 which consist in chUling the animal when 
 exhausted, by which means the perspiration 
 is obstructed, by much fatigue, and by vio- 
 lent and long-continued exertion : exposing 
 the animal to cold wind or rain, or washing 
 his legs and thighs, and sometimes his body, 
 is often the cause of founder. Dr. White 
 calls " founder, a term expressive of the 
 ruined state of the horse." And weU he 
 might call it " ruined." How many thou- 
 sand animals have been ruined, not by the 
 disease, but by the treatment I Here is a 
 specimen of it. Dr. White says: " The 
 horse was bled before I saw him : five quarts 
 of blood were taken off". I desired he might 
 be bled again, when half a pailful ntiore was 
 abstracted. In less than an hour I saw him 
 again, and, finding that he was not relieved, 
 took another half-pailful, amounting in all 
 to four gallons ! The horse was sent home, 
 and seemed to be doing weU in a straw yard, 
 though very weak and thin. [ No wonder, 
 after such a loss sustained by the vital 
 powers. ] At the end of tliree or four months 
 he began to lose his fore hoofs, and, after de- 
 clining some time longer, he died" — a 
 victim to science. It is evident, from expe- 
 rience and facts, that the above treatment 
 renders the disease incurable, and is the true 
 cause of death ; therefore, not suitable to 
 the true ends to be accomplished. What, 
 then, are the true ends to be accomplished ? 
 To relax muscular structure, determine 
 action to the surface, improve the secretions, 
 and remove obstructions which disturb or 
 repel vital action. This will equalize the 
 circulation of the blood, ivhen it will be 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 243 
 
 found that there will be no necessity for 
 diminishing its quantity. The inflamma- 
 tion, as it is termed, is always sufficiently 
 controlled when the circulation of the blood 
 is free and universal. Therefore, instead of 
 withdrawing vital action, promote its equal 
 and universal diffusion. 
 
 Frog. — The posterior part of the horse's 
 foot. 
 
 Galbanum. — A gum resin, sometimes 
 employed as an expectorant and anti-spas- 
 modic ; the dose, three or four drachms. It 
 is used, also, in the composition of warm 
 adhesive plasters, such as gum and diachy- 
 lon plaster. 
 
 Gall. — A common name for bile. 
 
 Gall. — A sore produced by pressure, or 
 chafing, of the saddle or harness. 
 
 Gall Bladder. — The horse has no gall 
 bladder, or reservoir for bile. A consider- 
 able quantity of bile, however, is formed by 
 the horse's liver, and is conveyed by the 
 hepatic duct into the first intestine, or duo- 
 denum. Li the cow and sheep, the gall 
 bladder is of considerable size. 
 
 Ganglion. — This term is applied to a 
 natural enlargement, or knot, in the course 
 of some of the nerves. 
 
 Gangrene. — An incipient mortification. 
 In this stage of the disease, there is gener- 
 ally absence of pain ; the part is deprived 
 of vital force, by causes inducing a loss of 
 tone. 
 
 Garlic. — It operates upon the horse as 
 a diffusible stimulant and expectorant ; 
 possessing, also, diuretic properties. The 
 author considers garlic a valuable remedial 
 agent in the treatment of any disease where 
 the constitution has suffered through hard 
 work, or ill usage. It is a general custom, 
 on the eastern coast of China, to allow cattle 
 to eat as much as they choose. They are 
 never known to suffer any inconvenience 
 from it ; on the contrary, they appear to 
 thrive, and are scarcely if ever sick. The 
 only objection to its long-continued use in 
 cattle is, that it imparts an impleasant flavor 
 to the meat. It is considered by Gibson to 
 be a valuable remedy in coughs. He advises 
 two or three of the cloves or kernels, cut 
 
 small, to be given in each feed, and observes 
 that, by continuing this practice, with right 
 and well-timed exercise and careful feeding, 
 he has known many horses to recover, even 
 when there has been a suspicion of their 
 Avind. 
 
 Gastric Juice. — A juice formed in the 
 stomach for the purpose of digestion. 
 
 Gastritis. — Inflammation of the stom- 
 ach. 
 
 Gaunt-Bellied. — A term applied to a 
 horse when he is drawn up in the* flanlt. 
 
 Gelatine. — A component part of ani- 
 mal matter. 
 
 Gelding. — A castrated horse. Such 
 horses are not so vigorous as stallions ; the 
 latter are freer from disease than geldings, 
 and will do more work, and keep a better 
 appearance, as to coat and flesh, upon the 
 same quantity of food. 
 
 Gentian Root. — A good tonic for a 
 horse : the dose is two or three drachms. 
 
 Gestation. — Being with young. The 
 time of gestation in the mare is eleven 
 months; in the cow, nine months. 
 
 Ginger. — An aromatic root, possessing 
 stimulant and carminative properties. 
 
 Glanders. — A contagious disease pecu- 
 liar to the horse, the ass, and the mule. 
 Many persons suppose that glanders and 
 farcy are the effect of a specific poison in 
 the blood ; but this theory is exploded. 
 The following will tlu"ow some light on the 
 subject, for which we are indebted to R. 
 Vines, V. S. : " All the symptoms of disease 
 which constitute glanders and farcy invari- 
 ably depend on the unhealthy state of the 
 system into which it is reduced or brought, 
 and not, as is supposed, from a specific 
 poison contained in the blood; and these 
 symptoms of disease are found to depend 
 on, and arise from, a variety of causes ; 
 whether they occur at the latter states or 
 stages of common inflammatory diseases, 
 such as strangles, common cold, distemper, 
 disease of the Imigs, dropsy, etc., or whether 
 they arise independently of such causes ; 
 for, when the system is brought into an un- 
 healthy state, and is more or less debilitated, 
 from neglect, or by the improper treatment 
 
244 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 of any of these diseases, [many of them are 
 improperly treated], farcy, or glanders, is 
 the result. The disease of every animal 
 will, therefore, assume a character accord- 
 ing to the state of the system." Mr. Perci- 
 vall, V. S., says : " The state of the body, or 
 constitution, will always have considerable 
 influence on the character and tendency of 
 disease. In horses whose bodies are, and 
 have long been, in an unthriving and un- 
 healthy condition, a common swollen leg 
 will occasionaOy run into farcy ; and a com- 
 mon cold or strangles, or an attack of influ- 
 enza, be followed by glanders. Li other 
 cases, such unfortunate sequels will super- 
 vene without any ostensible or discoverable 
 cause." The great fault of those who have 
 employed their talents in the investigation 
 of the subject (glanders) is, that they take 
 hold of the wrong end of it : they are 
 engaged in attempting to discover the 
 " specific poison," where none exists, when 
 their time would be more profitably engaged 
 in studying the principles of a system of 
 medication that would rid the system of 
 these early exciting causes, viz., common 
 colds, etc., and thus prevent this great bug- 
 bear, glanders. The author can at any 
 time, within a period of a few months, and 
 without the assistance of " specific poison," 
 manufacture a case of genuine glanders out 
 of the following materials : A horse would 
 be selected — and many such could be found 
 in the city of Boston — whose general health 
 shall be impaired ; let the surface be ob- 
 structed by standing in a shower of rain, 
 without anything to protect the animal 
 from the pelting storm ; then put him into 
 a stall near the door, where a current of 
 cold air will pass the hind extremities : he 
 remains in this situation during the night. 
 On the following morning, the animal ap- 
 pears dull, and is off" his feed. It is soon 
 ascertained that he has taken cold; now 
 treat him according to the kiU-or-cure prac- 
 tice : " If there is difficulty of breathing, and 
 the throat is sore, — or, in other words, the 
 usual symptoms, — the first thing to be 
 done is, to bleed largely, until the horse 
 faints. He should then be put into a cool 
 
 place. It is often necessary to repeat the 
 bleeding two or three times. If the throat is 
 very sore, blister the part." (See Canthar- 
 iDEs.) The secretions now become im- 
 paired, there is loss of appetite, the coat 
 stares ; there is a dull, sleepy appearance 
 about the animal ; the discharge from the 
 nostrils now assumes an acrimonious and 
 putrid character, which, acting chemically 
 on the membrane of the nose, constitutes 
 ulceration : the latter corrode the cartilage 
 and bones, and glanders is the result. Now 
 we will view it in another form. The ani- 
 mal has taken cold (see Catarrh) ; the 
 lungs — from previous disease, and the sub- 
 sequent inhalation of impure air in a hot 
 and crowded stable — are incapacitated, 
 and their power to purify and vitalize the 
 blood is destroyed; hence we have deposits 
 of morbific matter on the mucous mem- 
 brane, which corrode, ulcerate, and finally 
 attack the substance of the lungs, and 
 tubercle is the result, which may terminate 
 in glanders. The expectoration, or passage 
 of acrimonious humors through the nostril 
 of the horse from the lungs, does, in its pas- 
 sage, irritate the schneiderian membrane at 
 a point where it is in immediate contact 
 with ossific or cartilaginous structure, and 
 sufficiently accounts for the ulcers found in 
 the nostrils in the above case. We do not 
 hesitate to say that glanders can be pro- 
 duced loithout infection, or contagion, and 
 that a common cold or catarrh, neglected or 
 improperly treated, will often terminate in 
 glanders. Mr. Vines, V. S., states "that 
 the practice of physic ing horses, and expos- 
 ing them to wet and cold, when they have 
 common catarrh, wUl produce confirmed 
 glanders." 
 
 According to the testimony of Mr. G. 
 Fenwick, V. S., of London, " Glanders is 
 a symptom of tubercles in the lungs in nine 
 times out of ten ; " hence, when a horse 
 has taken cold, and the surface is obstructed, 
 the prudent owner will endeavor to force a 
 crisis ; that is, to open the pores of the sldn, 
 and promote perspiration. This can be 
 done by the use of warmth and moisture 
 externally, and the administration of warm, 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 245 
 
 anti-spasmodic drinks. This will relieve 
 the stricture of the surface, and permit the 
 egress of morbific matter, which would 
 otherwise be thrown on the lungs, or kid- 
 neys. If there is not sufficient power in 
 the system to determine action to the sur- 
 face, then administer diffusible stimulants. 
 JMr. Youatt remarks : " Improper stable 
 management is a more frequent cause of 
 glanders than contagion. The air which is 
 necessary to respiration is changed and em- 
 poisoned in its passage through the lungs ; 
 and a fresh supply is necessary for the sup- 
 port of life. That supply may be sufficient 
 barely to support life, but not to prevent 
 the vitiated air from again and again pass- 
 ing to the lungs, and producing irritation 
 and disease. The membrane of the nose, 
 possessed of extreme sensibility, is easily 
 irritated by this poison. Professor Cole- 
 man relates a case which proves to demon- 
 stration the rapid and fatal agency of this 
 cause. ' In the expedition to Quiberon, the 
 horses had not been long on board the 
 transports, before it became necessary to 
 shut down the hatchways : the consequence 
 of this was, that some of them were suffo- 
 cated, and that all the rest were disem- 
 barked either glandered or farcied. In a 
 close stable, the air is not only vitiated by 
 breathing, but there are other and more 
 powerful sources of mischief. Tiie dung 
 and the urine are suffered to remain, fer- 
 menting and giving out injurious gases.' " 
 
 Glands. — Soft, spongy substances in 
 various parts of the body, which serve to 
 secrete particular humors from the blood. 
 They are vulgarly called kernels. 
 
 Gleet. — A discharge of a mucous fluid 
 from the urethra, vagina, or nostrils. 
 
 Glottis. — The upper part of the larynx, 
 or top of the windpipe. The sensibility of 
 this part is so great, that, if any substance 
 happen to fall into the larynx, the most 
 painful and distressing symptoms are pro- 
 duced ; and, unless the extraneous matter be 
 expelled by coughing, or removed by an 
 operation (bronchotomy), a fatal termina- 
 tion will be the consequence. 
 
 Gorged. — A term applied to cattle with 
 
 an overloaded stomach. When they are in 
 this state, they are said to be blasted, blown, 
 or hoven ; probably from the quantity of 
 carbonic acid gas that is generated, and by 
 which the stomach is so distended that cat- 
 tle often die in consequence of it. When 
 cattle are put into a pasture, which abounds 
 in nutritious food, to which they have been 
 unaccustomed, or have an improper quan- 
 tity given them, they frequently fill the 
 paunch to such an extent that they are in- 
 capable of ruminating : hence, the food re- 
 maining in a warm situation, the combined 
 action of heat and moisture generates the gas. 
 
 Granulations. — A terra applied to the 
 little, red, grain-like, fleshy bodies, which 
 arise on the surface of ulcers and suppinrat- 
 ing sores. Their use is to fill up cavities, 
 and approximate the sides. 
 
 Grease. — A sweUing of the horse's 
 heels, and discharge of stinking matter. 
 
 Gripes.* — (See Colic) 
 
 Gristle. — A name commonly given to 
 cartilage. (See Cartilage.) 
 
 Grogginess. — A horse is said to be 
 groggy, when he has a tenderness, or stiff- 
 ness, about the feet, which causes him to 
 go in an uneasy, hobbling manner. 
 
 ♦Scientific Treatment of Colic, or Gripes. — 
 " On the 5th Sept., 1824, a. young bay mare was admitted 
 into the infirmary, with symptoms of colic, for which she 
 lost eight pounds of blood before she came in. The fol- 
 lowing drenclFwas prescribed to be given immediately : 
 laudanum and oil of turpentine, of each, three ounces, 
 with the addition of six ounces of decoction of aloes. In 
 the course of half an hour this was repeated ! But, shortly 
 after, she vomited the greater part by the mouth and nos- 
 trils. No relief having been obtained, twelve pounds of 
 blood were taken from her, and the same drink was given. 
 In another hour this drench was repeated ; and for the 
 fourth time, during the succeeding hour ; both of which, 
 before death, she rejected, .is she had done the second 
 drink. Notwithstanding these active measures were 
 promptly taken, she died about tlu'ce hours after her ad- 
 mission." (See Clarke's Essay on Gripes.) It appears 
 that the doctors made short work of it. Twelve ounces 
 of laudanum, and the same of turpentine, in three hours ! 
 But this is secundum artem. This is called skilful treat- 
 ment, and justifiable in every case where the symptoms are 
 urgent. 
 
 Uad the relaxing and stimulating plan, practised by us, 
 been resorted to, and in a proper time and manner, it 
 would probably have saved the poor brute. We have at- 
 tended a large number of the same sort of cases, and have 
 not yet lost the first. 
 
246 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 Gullet, or CEsophagus. — A muscular 
 and membranous tube, by which the food, 
 etc., is conveyed from the mouth to the 
 stomach. The upper part, or funnel-lilic 
 cavity, is named pharynx. The gullet 
 passes down the neck behind the windpipe, 
 along the neck, tlirough the diapluragm, and 
 terminating in the stomach. 
 
 Gums. — The fleshy parts of the sockets 
 of the teeth. 
 
 Habit. — By this term is meant the dis- 
 position, or temperament, of the body or 
 constitution, whether natural or acquired. 
 The term habit is also applied to any vice, 
 as starting, kicking, rearing, etc. AU bad 
 habits, whether of the body, constitution, 
 temper, or disposition of animals, may be 
 in some measure corrected, if not entirely 
 put a stop to, by proper attention to break- 
 ing, breeding, and stable management. 
 
 Halter Cast. — Owing to the improper 
 length of the halter, the horse is apt to get 
 his fore leg across it, falls down, and some- 
 times injures himself considerably. 
 
 Ham. — This is the name given to the 
 muscular part of the hind leg, terminating 
 in the great tendo AchUlis, or hamstring. 
 
 Hand. — The division in the standard for 
 measuring horses is thus named. A hand 
 is foiu" inches. 
 
 Haw. — (See Eye, part first.) 
 
 Heart. — (See part first.) 
 
 Heel. — A term applied to tlfe back part 
 of the termination of the hoof. 
 
 Hemlock. — A narcotic vegetable poison, 
 deriving its deleterious properties from an 
 alkaline principle, called conia. It has been 
 known to kill many horses who have par- 
 taken of it. 
 
 Hemorrhage. — A flow of blood from 
 any part of the body, in consequence of 
 the rupture of an artery or vein. Hemor- 
 rhage, from external injury, is most readily 
 stopped by taking up the bleeding vessel, 
 and tying it with saddler's silk ; but, when 
 this cannot be done, the bleeding may gen- 
 erally be stopped by pressure, or styptics. 
 
 Hepatitis. — Inflammation of the liver. 
 
 Hide-Bound. — When horses are out of 
 condition, and have harsh dry coats, the 
 
 skin wiU be contracted, and found tight 
 about the ribs. It is a symptom of disease, 
 and shows that the general health is im- 
 paired. 
 
 Hip-sHOT. — This is known by one of the 
 hip bones being lower than the other. It 
 generally depends on a fracture of the os 
 innominatum, or part of the pelvis ; the part 
 having formed an irregular Idnd of union, 
 so that the bone on that side is shorter than 
 the other. 
 
 Hock. — The horse's hock is composed 
 of six bones. These bones are all con- 
 nected together by very strong ligaments, 
 which prevent dislocation, but allow a 
 slight degree of motion among them. The 
 surfaces that are opposed to each other 
 are tliickly covered by elastic cartilage, and 
 by a membrane secreting the synovia, or 
 oily fluid, which guards against friction. 
 These bones are so strongly bound together 
 as almost to defy dislocation. 
 
 HooF-BOUND. — A dry, brittle, and mor- 
 bid state of the foot. A want of vital 
 action, occasioned, says Dr. White, " by in- 
 flammation," which he calls disease. Now 
 it is evident that no vital action, as that of 
 fever and inflammation, can be properly 
 termed disease. The only action that can 
 be properly termed disease, is the chemical 
 action manifested in suppuration and gan- 
 grene. This is the great popular eiTor that 
 we are laboring to overcome. It is that of 
 attributing disease and death to the action 
 of the powers of life. When a part has be- 
 come diseased, especially the foot (for from 
 it the blood has a kind of up-hill work to 
 perform, in returning to the heart by the 
 veins), there is a low state of vitality ; very 
 little can be accomplished by the vital pow- 
 ers, amounting only to a low form of in- 
 flammation. And, of course, the chemical 
 power of decomposition, always present 
 and never tired, gets the advantage and 
 decomposes the part ; we then have thrush, 
 which, if improperly treated, the hoof faUs 
 off by the process of decomposition, or, in 
 other words, mortification. It becomes sep- 
 arated from the living parts, for want of 
 inflammation, or vital supremacy, over 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 247 
 
 chemical agency ; and then the loss of the 
 hoof is strangely attributed to inflamma- 
 tion, or the vital power, which did all it 
 could to prevent such a termination. 
 
 Hoof-Casting. — A partial or complete 
 separation of the horse's hoof from the sen- 
 sitive foot. 
 
 HoosE. — A term used by cow doctors. 
 It signifies a cough, either chronic or acute, 
 with which cattle are affected, from expos- 
 ure to cold winds or rain. 
 
 HoREHOUND. — A bitter vegetable, used 
 in horse practice as a tonic and expectorant. 
 
 HovEN. — (See Blasted.) 
 
 Hydatid. — A thin bladder, containing a 
 fluid resembling water, and nearly trans- 
 parent. It is fomid in dilferent animals. 
 Li sheep, it occasions a disease named gid, 
 or giddiness; the hydatid being found in 
 one of the ventricles of the brain, or in its 
 convolutions. On account of the pressiure 
 it makes on the brain, it disturbs the func- 
 tions of that important organ, especially 
 when the sheep are hun-ied or driven. 
 
 Hydrocele. — Dropsy of the testicle and 
 its appendages. 
 
 Hydrophobia. — Canine madness. 
 
 Hydrothorax, or Dropsy of the Chest. 
 — Mr. Percivall informs us, " that the ob- 
 jects to be pursued in the treatment of 
 hydrothorax are twofold : first, we are to 
 diminish any excess of action that may 
 show itself in the sanguineous system,* and 
 
 * In plain English, abstract blood. This not only di- 
 minishes the sanguineous system, but eveiy other function 
 or system. The regulars have tried blood-letting to their 
 hearts' content ; theii- patients have been rowelled, blis- 
 tered, calonielized, turpentinized, and liellebored, yet they 
 have never been able to preserve life, " except two solitary 
 cases in Mi'. Sewell's practice ; " for Mr. Percival tells us, 
 in his lectures, that " he never saw a case terminate favor- 
 ably." Is not this a proof that our brethren are on the 
 ■wrong track 1 We are told that the proximate causes 
 of dropsy are " debility and an obstructed perspiration ; " 
 and that it may result from "loss of blood, diarrhcEa, dia- 
 betes, and other circumstances that rapidly exhaust the 
 system." Hence the processes of cure are just the means 
 calculated to produce the disease. The true indications 
 in the treatment are, to warm and relax the surface, and 
 promote perspiration; for whatever checks it stops the 
 egress of morbific matter from the system, and, of course, 
 determines it upon the internal surfiices. Diffusable stim- 
 ulants may be given, to keep up tlie action on the suri'ace. 
 The geueral health must be improved. 
 
 thereby lessen the effusion of fluid into the 
 chest ; and secondly, by increasing the ac- 
 tion of the absorbent system, effect the 
 removal of what is already accumulated." * 
 Most surgeons recommend early tapping in 
 dropsy. The operation may be performed 
 with the common trocar and canula. The 
 best place for the introduction of the instru- 
 ment is the space between the eighth and 
 ninth ribs, close to their cartilages ; not be- 
 tween the latter, lest the pericardium be 
 punctured. Here, making the sldn tense 
 with the fingers of the left hand, the instru- 
 ment, with its point dh-ected upwards and 
 inwards, may, with a little rotary move- 
 ment, gradually be thrust in, until the re- 
 sistance to its entry suddenly ceases ; when 
 the trocar should be ^\'ithdl•awn, and the 
 canula at the same time pushed onwards, 
 lest it slip out. If the flow of water sud- 
 denly ceases, a small whalebone probe 
 should be introduced through the pipe. 
 
 Ichor. — A thin, acrimonious discharge 
 from ulcers, or diseased parts. 
 
 Icterus. — Jaundice, or yellows. 
 
 Idiosyncrasy. — A peculiar constitution, 
 or temperament. 
 
 Ileum. — The last portion of the small 
 intestine. It terminates in the large intes- 
 tine, or blind gut, named csecum. 
 
 Imposthume. — A collection of matter, or 
 pus, in any part. 
 
 Incontinence of Urine. — A continual 
 drippmg of the urine from a horse's sheath. 
 
 Inflammation. — Inflammation and fever 
 are one and the same thing. When fever 
 is confined to a small part, it is called in- 
 flammation. (See Inflammation, part 
 first.) Dr. White, although an advocate of 
 the popular error, viz., blood-letting, makes 
 some very sensible remarks on the subject. 
 If men generally would carry out these 
 
 * The action of the absorbent system never was, nor 
 never can be, excited when the lancet is cooperative. Ab- 
 sorption is a physiological result, and cannot be excited by 
 agents that act pathologically. The balance between ex- 
 halation and absorption is lost, iu consequence of which, 
 more fluid is poured out than is taken up : hence, if we 
 excite the exhalents to throw off the morbid fluids from 
 the surface, there will be less for the absorbents to take up, 
 and the chances of success will be greater. 
 
248 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 principles, they would prevent a great loss 
 of property. " It must be obvious, that 
 v^rhen an animal is laboring under general 
 inflammation, or fever, in consequence of 
 a suppression of the natural discharges, 
 whether it be perspiration, urine, or dung, he 
 cannot be cured merely by the abstraction 
 of blood ; for, however large the quantity 
 abstracted, that which remains will be im- 
 pure, or acrimonious, and unfit for carrying 
 on a healthy action. It is absolutely neces- 
 sary to restore the natural discharges by 
 means of suitable medicines, unless that be 
 effected by an effort of natiu-e, which is not 
 an uncommon occurrence, especially when 
 the animal is supplied with some bland 
 fluid, such as bran water, or thin bran 
 mashes. The morbid matter sometimes 
 runs off" by the nostrils, sometimes by the 
 kidneys or bowels, and sometimes by a gen- 
 eral relaxation of the skin, and the body is 
 thus restored to health." From the above 
 we are led to the conclusion that, after all, 
 Natiore is the most efficient doctor, and that 
 man should be her servant, to procure what 
 she wants, merely to be used in her own 
 way. 
 
 Influenza. — Epidemic catarrh. Ca- 
 tarrhs, or violent colds, attended with sore 
 throat, and a thin, watery discharge from 
 the eyes and nose. It appears to be infec- 
 tious, seldom making its appearance with- 
 out attacking several horses in the same 
 stable. The horse should subsist on warm 
 gruel, and have a blanket thrown over him, 
 and a diink of hyssop tea. As soon as the 
 surface of the body is relaxed, and becomes 
 moist, the catarrh wLU disappear. 
 
 Injection. — A term sometimes applied 
 to clysters. 
 
 Inosculation. — The running of arteries 
 and veins into one another, or the inter- 
 union of the extremities of arteries and 
 veins. 
 
 Inspiration. — The act of drawing air 
 into the lungs. 
 
 Integument. — Any common covering of 
 the body : it generally includes skin, muscle, 
 and membrane. 
 
 Intercostal. — A term given to parts 
 
 situated between the ribs : thus, we have 
 intercostal muscles, etc. 
 
 Intermittent. — A name given to dis- 
 orders that appear to go off" at certain peri- 
 ods, and return after some interval. 
 
 Intestines. — The horse's intestines are 
 about ninety feet in length. 
 
 Intus-susception. — This is occasioned 
 by one portion of the bowels being drawn 
 within the other. 
 
 Iris. — That part of the eye by which 
 the light admitted to the retina is regu- 
 lated. 
 
 Irritability. — All muscular parts pos- 
 sess the property of contracting, or shrink- 
 ing, when u-ritated, and are therefore en- 
 dowed with irritability. 
 
 Issues.- — (See Rowels.) 
 
 Itching. — Itching in horses is generally 
 a consequence of foul feeding, and may be 
 occasioned by mange. 
 
 Jaundice. — In jaundice, the natural 
 course of the bile is perverted, and re-ab- 
 sorbed into the circulation. 
 
 Jaw-Locked. — (See Lockjaw.) 
 
 Jejunum. — Part of the small intestine is 
 thus named, from its being generally found 
 empty. 
 
 Joints. — A joint is formed, generally 
 spealdng, by the heads of two or more 
 bones. These ends are covered by a layer 
 of cartUage or gristle, which is of a yielding 
 nature. There is formed within the joint a 
 shppery fluid, called synovia, or joint oil. 
 The ends of the bones, thus covered with a 
 smooth, yielding surface, so slippery that 
 they move freely on each other without suf- 
 fering from friction, are then firmly tied to- 
 gether by a strong substance, named liga- 
 ment, which completely surrounds the head 
 of the bones : this is termed capsular liga- 
 ment. In some joints we find an additional 
 ligament within the capsular ligament, or 
 cavity : thus, in the hip joint, a strong lig- 
 ament connects the head of the thigh bone 
 with the socket that receives it. 
 
 Joints are subject to disease, either from 
 external injury, or from long-continued ex- 
 ertion of them. In the former, the capsular 
 ligament is penetrated, and a discharge of 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 249 
 
 synovia ensues. Mr. Percival remarks I 
 " that, in many cases of open joint (com- 
 monly called so), there is no division nor 
 injiory whatever of the capsular ligament ; 
 but merely the exposure of some bursa mu- 
 cosa placed between the joint and the ex- 
 ternal wound : the discharge is of the same 
 kind as in the former case, and we can only 
 determine which it is by carefully probing 
 the wound. Most of all, we are likely to 
 make this mistake in the shoulder joint and 
 hock, when heat and swelling are present. 
 From the acute sensibility of ligamentous 
 parts when inflamed, the system quickly, 
 and almost invariably, sympathizes ; so that, 
 in all severe cases of this nature, symptom- 
 atic fever supervenes, the pulse becomes 
 accelerated, the horse heaves at the flanks, 
 refuses his food, and shows symptoms of 
 the most affecting suffering. It must be 
 borne in mind that, although a joint be not 
 open in the first instance, subsequent slough- 
 ing may expose its cavity. Now, the ordi- 
 nary effects of disease in the synovial 
 membrane are, first, a preternatttral secre- 
 tion of synovia, — hence the profuse dis- 
 charge observed in these cases ; second, an 
 effusion of adliesive matter into the cavity 
 of the joint; third, a thickening of the 
 synovial membrane, a conversion of it into 
 a substance resembling gristle, and an effu- 
 sion of adhesive matter, and probably 
 serum, into the cellular substance around, 
 by which the external parts and those of 
 the joints are firmly cemented together. 
 Li the latter stage the disease commonly 
 extends itself to the cartilaginous surfaces ; 
 they exfoliate, leaving the extremities of the 
 bones denuded, to grate on each other as 
 often as the joint is moved. The bones, in 
 their turn, throw out deposits from their 
 ends around the joint, — a process that ulti- 
 mately ensues, and anchylosis is the result." 
 The indication to be fulfilled is to pro- 
 mote adhesion by bringing the edges to- 
 gether and confining them in contact, either 
 by taking a few stitches, or shaving the hair 
 off around the parts and applying strips of 
 adhesive plaster. The parts may have a 
 pledget of lint bound on, moistened with 
 
 healing balsam ; and, if the limb will admit 
 of it, a splint may be bound to the back part 
 of it, so as to prevent all possibility of flex- 
 ion. K union cannot be produced by this 
 means, the parts may be poulticed with 
 astringents. The object is to close the 
 joint, and promote gramilation. If the 
 parts are inactive, sprinkle the surface of 
 the poultice with charcoal and capsicum. 
 In a case that came under the author's 
 care in this city, and one in which there 
 was no hope of its healing by the first in- 
 tention, the tincture of capsicum was daily 
 injected : this, together with tonic, stimulat- 
 ing, astringent poultices and fomentations, 
 completed the cure. In cases where the ex- 
 ternal wound is large, and there is much 
 heat, pain, and loss of motion, poultices of 
 a relaxing and lubricating nature should be 
 used ; such are lobelia and slippery elm. A 
 severe injury of this land may be converted 
 into a simple wound by the combined influ- 
 ence of these remedies. The horse should 
 be kept at rest, on a light diet of scalded food, 
 and an occasional dose of alterative medi- 
 cine. 
 
 When lameness is manifest without heat 
 or swelling, and there is reason to suppose 
 that the animal has been overworked, rest 
 and proper attention to diet will be all that 
 is necessary. When the case is one of long 
 standing, a run at grass may effect a cure, 
 unless there is reason to suppose that the 
 articulatory surfaces of the bones are dis- 
 eased; we are not supposed to do more 
 for these subjects than alleviate their suf- 
 ferings, or, what amounts to the same thing, 
 diminish their lameness. 
 
 Jugular Veins. — The large veins of the 
 neck, where a horse is bled. 
 
 Kernels. — A common name for glands : 
 thus, the parotid glands, situated beneath 
 the ear, are termed the kernels under the 
 ear. 
 
 Kino. — An astringent gum resin. 
 
 Lacteals. — Absorbent vessels, which 
 convey the chyle from the bowels into the 
 thoracic duct. 
 
 Lameness. — The cause of lameness in 
 horses is often very obscure, and can only 
 
250 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 be discovered by a patient and careful ex- 
 amination. A islight degree of lameness 
 often passes unnoticed ; or, if it be observed, 
 the owner too often persuades hypself that 
 it will pass off. It is always the most pru- 
 dent plan to lay up a horse the moment he 
 is observed to be lame, and submit to the 
 inconvenience of doing without his services 
 until he is cured. When lameness is caused 
 by wounds or bruises, the injm-ed part is 
 generally discovered without difficulty, 
 though pricldng, in shoeing, is not always 
 so easily seen. All lameness from injuries 
 within the hoof is often detected with diffi- 
 culty. Slight lameness is most readily seen 
 by making the horse trot gently, without 
 giving any support to the head by the bridle 
 or halter, and without urging him with the 
 whip : the lameness is then seen by his 
 dropping harder and dwelling longer on the 
 sound leg than on the lame one, in order to 
 favor the latter ; and this, when the lame- 
 ness is at all considerable, is attended with 
 a corresponding motion of the head, which 
 drops a little whenever he steps on the sound 
 limb. An experienced observer can at any 
 time distinguish lameness merely by seeing 
 a horse walk out of the stable. It often hap- 
 pens, in very severe lameness of one or both 
 fore feet, that the horse, when led out, will 
 appear to be lame in the hind feet also : this 
 is occasioned by the animal endeavoring to 
 favor the fore foot or feet by throwing the 
 bulk of his weight on the hind legs. In aU 
 cases of lameness, miless the cause is so evi- 
 dent as to render it unnecessary, it is proper 
 to examine the foot carefully in the first 
 place ; and it shoidd never be forgotten that 
 swelling, heat, and tenderness of the fetlock 
 joint, or even the leg, may arise from an in- 
 jury to the foot. In lameness of the foot, 
 the affected foot will be warmer than the 
 other. Considerable relief may almost 
 always be afforded in foot lameness by keep- 
 ing the feet moist, or pasturing the animal 
 in soft meadow land, or by stopping the 
 bottoms of the feet with a wet sponge, by 
 paring them when necessary. We some- 
 times find, on examining a lame foot, that 
 there is an enlargement immediately above 
 
 the coronet, at the heels and quarters, and that 
 this enlargement feels hard and bony. This 
 is termed ossification of the lateral carti- 
 lages ; it is more distinctly seen by compar- 
 
 ; it with a sound foot. In lameness of 
 the foot, there is sometimes a crack in the 
 horn towards the heels, extending from the 
 coronet a little way down the hoof: this 
 happens sometimes after a horse has been 
 travelling. This is named a sand-crack. 
 When the seat of lameness is in the fetlock 
 joint, some degree of heat or swelling will 
 be perceived. As the horse stands, he will 
 be observed to favor the joint. Lameness 
 of the back, sinews, or flexor tendons of the 
 leg, is easily perceived by the heat and ten- 
 derness of the part. 
 
 Lampas. — A swelling and sometimes ten- 
 derness of the roof of the mouth, adjoining 
 the front teeth. When the part is tender, 
 and prevents the horse from feeding, he 
 should be fed on scalded shorts for a few 
 days ; during that time, the mouth may be 
 washed twice a day with an infusion of 
 powdered bayberry bark. Two ounces of 
 bark may be infused in one quart of boiling 
 water : after macerating for one hovu:, it will 
 be fit for use. 
 
 Larynx. — The upper part of the trachea 
 or windpipe. 
 
 Lax. — (See Scouring.) 
 
 Laxative. — Medicines that purge gen- 
 tly ; the most simple and safe is aloes. 
 
 Ligaments are strong, elastic membranes, 
 connecting the extremities of the movable 
 bones. 
 
 Ligature. — Twine, thread, or sUk, 
 waxed, for the purpose of tying arteries, 
 veins, or other parts. 
 
 Lights. — A common name for lungs. 
 
 Lily. — The root of the white lUy is fre- 
 quently used for poulticing. 
 
 Linseed, or Flaxseed. — An excellent 
 emollient drink is made by pouring two 
 quarts of boiling water on four ounces of 
 Linseed, and suffering it to stand in a warm 
 place for a short time. It is useful in cold, 
 catai-rh, and in diseases of the kidneys or 
 bladder. 
 
 Liquorice. — The root, dried and pow- 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 251 
 
 dered, is used for the same purpose as the 
 last article. 
 
 Lobe. — A portion of the lungs and liver 
 is thus named. 
 
 Lockjaw. — This disease is too well 
 known to require a particular description. 
 It is evidently a disease of the spinal sys- 
 tem, — other parts becoming sympatheti- 
 cally affected, — and often arises from a 
 wound of a tendon, or nerve : it occasion- 
 ally follows nicking, or docking. Mr. You- 
 att tells us, " This is one of the most fatal 
 diseases to which the horse is subject." 
 For the information of ovir readers, we wiU 
 detail the treatment recommended by the 
 above author. We presume that every man 
 of common sense will come to the conclu- 
 sion that the disease could not be otherwise 
 than fatal under such unwarrantable bar- 
 barity. We have no personal disrespect for 
 Mr. Youatt. It is the system of treatment 
 recommended by him that we war against ; 
 a system that has killed more than it ever 
 cured. Mr. Youatt observes : " The rational 
 method of cure would seem to be, first to 
 remove the local cause ; but this will seldom 
 avail much. The irritation has become 
 general, and the spasmodic action constitu- 
 tional. The habit is formed and will con- 
 tinue. It will, however, be prudent to en- 
 deavor to discover the local cause. If it be 
 a wound in the foot, let it be touched with 
 the hot iron, or caustic, and kept open with 
 digestive ointment. If it follows nicking, 
 let the incision be made deeper, and stimu- 
 lated by digestive ointment ; and, if it arise 
 from docking, let the operation be repeated 
 higher.* Li treating the constitutional 
 
 * " Fu-5t, to remove the local cause ; but this will sel- 
 dom avail much." Then wliy torture the poor brute? 
 We need not trouble ourselves about the particular ner\'e 
 affected to enable us to relieve a sympathetic disease, 
 when we have a medicine — lobelia and milkweed, or Indian 
 hemp — that will relax every nerve in the animal. " If it 
 be a wound in the foot, let it be touched mth the hot iron." 
 This is a means better calculated to injure than relieve. 
 We should apply, at once, the means that are known to 
 act on the whole nervous stnicture. " If it follows nick- 
 ing, let the incision be made deeper ; and if it arise from 
 docking, let the operation be repeated higher." What 
 beautiful philosophy this is ! — make one disease to cure 
 another. Is it strange that " this is one of the most fatal 
 
 disease, efforts must be made to tranquillize 
 the system ; and the most powerful agent is 
 bleeding. [Yes, most powerful to kill.] 
 Twenty pounds of blood may be taken away 
 with manifest advantage. There is not a 
 more powerful means of allaying general 
 irritation ; the next thing is to resort to phy- 
 sic. Here again that physic is best which 
 is speediest in its operation ; the Croton nut 
 has no rival in this respect; the first dose 
 should be half a drachm, and the medicine 
 repeated every six hours, in doses of ten 
 grains, untU it operates.* The bowels, in 
 all these nervous affections, are very torpid. 
 
 " Then, as it is a diseased action of the 
 nerves, proceeding from the spinal marrow, 
 the whole of the spine should be bUstered 
 three or four inches wide. (See Canthar- 
 iDEs.) Having bled largely, and physiced, 
 and blistered, we seek for other means to 
 luU the irritation ; and we have one at hand, 
 small in bulk and potent in energy, — 
 opium ! f Give at once a quarter of an 
 ounce, and an additional drachm every six 
 hours." 
 
 The best method we know of, in the 
 treatment of lockjaw, is, first, to apply a 
 poultice to the foot (if it has been wounded), 
 consisting of about six ounces of lobelia, 
 four ounces of slippery elm, two ounces 
 
 diseases 1 " Is it not a wonder that any live ? Must not 
 their escape be attributed to the conservative power of the 
 system, in spite of the violence done 1 When 51r. Youatt 
 recommends cutting the tail a little higher, to cure a dis- 
 ease that was produced by the same operation, — viz., 
 docking, — he puts the author in mind of the man who 
 filed the edge of his razor to sharpen it. 
 
 * In the first part of this paragraph, JIi-. Youatt ob- 
 serves, "the most powerful agent to tranquillize the sys- 
 tem is bleeding." So say the butchers when they bleed 
 the ox, and conduct the process till no blood remains. 
 
 t This is a narcotic, vegetable poison, and, although large 
 quantities have lieen occasionally given to the horse with- 
 out apparent injury, experience teaches us that poisons 
 in general — notmthstanding the various modes of their 
 action, and the difterence in their symptoms — all agree in 
 the abstraction of vitality from the system. Dr. Eberle 
 says, " Opiates never faU to operate perniciously on the 
 whole organization." Dr. Gallup says : " The practice of 
 using opiates to mitigate pain is greatly to be deprecated. 
 It is probable that opium and its preparations have done 
 seven times the injury that they have rendered benefit on 
 the great scale of tlie civilized world. Opium is the most 
 destructive of all narcotics." 
 
252 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 of capsicum, powdered ; mix them with a 
 suitable quantity of meal sufficient for two 
 poultices, which should be renewed every 
 twelve hours. After the second application 
 examine the foot, and, if suppuration has 
 taken place, and the matter can be felt, or 
 seen, a small puncture may be made, talcing 
 care not to let the instrument penetrate 
 beyond the bony part of the hoof. Next 
 stimulate the surface to action, by warmth 
 and moisture, as follows : take about two 
 quarts of vinegar, into which stir a handful 
 of lobelia; have a hot brick ready {the 
 animal having a large cloth, or blanket, 
 thrown around him), pour the mixture gradu- 
 ally on the brick, which is held over a 
 bucket to prevent waste ; the steam arising 
 will relax the surface. After repeating the 
 operation, apply the following mixture 
 around the jaws, back, and extremities : 
 chloroform, and olive oil, equal parts ; rub 
 the mixture well in with a coarse sponge ; 
 this will relax the jaws a trifle, so that the 
 animal can manage to suck up thin gruel, 
 which may be given warm, in any quantity. 
 This process must be persevered in ; al- 
 though it may not succeed in every case, 
 yet it will be more satisfactory than the 
 blood-letting and poisoning system. No 
 medicine is necessary ; the gruel will soften 
 the faeces sufficiently ; if the rectum is 
 loaded with faeces, give injections of an in- 
 fusion of lobelia. 
 
 Lumbar Muscles. — Muscles of the loins 
 within the body, and in the region of the 
 kidneys. These muscles are sometimes in- 
 jured by violent exertions, and the kidneys 
 often participate in the injury. 
 
 Lungs, or Lights. — The organ of res- 
 piration. (See Respiration, part first.) 
 
 Luxation. — A partial displacement of 
 the bones forming a joint. 
 
 Lymph. — (See Blood.) 
 
 Lymphatics. — (See part first.) 
 
 Macreation implies soaking or steeping 
 any substance in water, or other fluids, so 
 as to soften, dissolve, or separate it from 
 some other parts with which it is combined. 
 
 Mallenders. — A scurvy kind of eruption 
 on the back part or bend of the knee joint. 
 
 Mange. — A disease which manifests it- 
 self in the skin, and causes a horse to be 
 perpetually rubbing himself. Cattle, sheep, 
 and dogs are also subject to mange. It is 
 a well known fact, that horses are very apt 
 to become mangy, if kept long in the stable 
 withovTt grooming ; yet the disease may 
 arise from causes independent of a neg- 
 lected skin, though it seldom attacks a well- 
 cleansed animal. Mr. Percivall observes : 
 " It seems that mange may be generated 
 either from immediate excitement to the 
 skin itself, or through the medium of that 
 sympathetic influence which is known to 
 exist between the skin and the organs of 
 digestion. We have, it appears to me, an 
 excellent illustration of this in the case of 
 mange supervening upon poverty, — a fact 
 too notorious to be disputed, though there 
 may be different ways of theorizing upon 
 it." 
 
 Mr. Blaine says, " Mange has three 
 origins — filth, debility, and contagion." 
 
 Owners of horses must bear in mind, that 
 mange can be communicated by the brush 
 or comb used about a mangy subject ; the 
 pustules on the surface contain acari or 
 nites. The author has been very success- 
 ful in the treatment of this disease, by the 
 daily use of sulphur and soda. 
 
 Marasmus. — A decay or wasting of the 
 whole body. 
 
 Marsh Mallows. — A plant used for 
 making emollient drinks and fomentations. 
 
 Mash. — A mash is made by pouring 
 boiling water on bran, or shorts, then cov- 
 ering the bucket until sufficiently cool for 
 use. Mashes are excellent for sick and 
 convalescent horses, and such as have not 
 sufficient exercise to keep them in health. 
 
 Masseter. — The name of a muscle of 
 the cheek, by which mastication is per- 
 formed. 
 
 Mastication. — (See part first.) 
 
 Materia Medica. — A catalogue and 
 description of the various articles used in 
 medicine. 
 
 Maxilla. — The jaw. 
 
 Maxillary. — Belonging to the jaw; as 
 the maxillary arteries and glands. The 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 253 
 
 glands under the jaw are named sub-max- 
 illary glands. 
 
 Mediastinum. — A duplicature of the 
 membrane, named pleura, by which the 
 cavity of the chest is divided into two 
 parts. 
 
 Medicine. — Mr. Clark, veterinary sur- 
 geon of Edinburgh, says : " Medicine is often 
 given to the poor brutes unnecessarily, and, 
 of course, mischievously. K a man, or 
 horse, be in a state of health, what more is 
 required, or how can they be rendered bet- 
 ter ? Health is the more proper state of 
 the animal body, and it is not in the power 
 of medicine to make it better, or to preserve 
 it in the same state." 
 
 Dr. White says : " The custom of giving 
 medicines too frequently, is a bad one ; the 
 constitution adapts itself to it, which cir- 
 cumstance renders medicine inefficacious 
 when necessary, or, at least, it greatly re- 
 duces the effects." 
 
 If a horse is in health, the proper way to 
 promote it is to proportion the food to the 
 labor. 
 
 Dr. White continues : " Medicines are 
 given to the horse under the title of alter- 
 atives. These alteratives are composed of 
 antimony, mercury, sulphur, nitre, aloes, 
 salts" {generally altering bad for ivorse). 
 
 Mr. Clark says, " That sulphur not only 
 opens the body, but the skin also, and there- 
 fore should be used with caution, as horses 
 are very apt to catch cold on too liberal a 
 use of it." 
 
 Salts bring on gi'eat sickness, and some- 
 times violent purging, and, instead of pro- 
 moting the secretions, occasion gi-eat dryness 
 of the skin. 
 
 " Aloes given in small quantities, by way 
 of alteratives, and too frequently repeated, 
 weaken the stomach, so as to bring on a 
 lax, or what is called a washy, habit of 
 body. 
 
 " Antimony should always be rejected, if 
 coarse and black, like gunpowder." (See 
 White's Farriery, p. 559.) 
 
 The above author says : " It is amazing 
 what different kinds of trash are forced down 
 
 horses' throats. The following is a strUdng 
 instance : A gentleman, in London, was 
 greatly prejudiced in favor of vinegar, as a 
 cure in many diseases. His favorite horse 
 was taken ill in very warm weather, and, 
 as he thought vinegar was a cooling arvicle, 
 he ordered a pint to be given to his horse at 
 once. It was no sooner given, than the 
 horse lay down, stretched himself out, and 
 died." 
 
 Medulla Oblongata. — The commence- 
 ment of the spinal marrow, within the cra- 
 nium. 
 
 Membrane, Mucous. — This membrane 
 is folded into all the orifices of the animal, 
 as the mouth, eyes, nose, ears, lungs, intes- 
 tines, bladder, etc. ; in fact, into every cavity 
 that has a direct communication with the 
 external surface. Its structure of arterial 
 capillaries, venous radicles, nervous projec- 
 tions, etc., is similar to the skin, and is 
 considered a duplicate of the external sur- 
 face. Its most extensive surfaces are those 
 of the lungs and intestines. This mem- 
 brane furnishes from the blood a fluid called 
 mucus, to lubricate its own surface, and 
 protect it from the action of materials taken 
 into the system. The sldn and mucous 
 membrane are a counterpart of each other. 
 If the action of the sldn is suppressed, the 
 mucous membrane performs a part of its 
 office ; thus, a cold, which closes the pores 
 of the skin, stops perspiration, which is now 
 forced through the membrane, producing 
 discharges at the nose, eyes, etc. 
 
 Serous MEMBRANE.-Of this kind are 
 the pleura and peritoneum : they are dis- 
 tributed in all parts of the system, Lining 
 muscles, tendons, and tendinous sheaths, 
 the ends of movable bones, etc. ; in short, 
 wherever there is need of the protection of 
 parts against friction. They secrete from 
 the blood a fluid called serum, for the pur- 
 pose of affording this protection. The 
 excessive discharge of fluids into cavities 
 lined by serous membrane, constitutes the 
 different forms of dropsy. There are other 
 membranes, viz., adipose, which secrete the 
 fat of the body; synovial, which secrete 
 
254 
 
 A DICTIONARr. 
 
 synovia, or joini oil; and cellular mem- 
 brane, or tissue, is the common connecting 
 substance of most parts of the body. 
 
 Mesentery. — A thin membrane by 
 which the bowels are held together, and 
 over which the lacteals, or chyle vessels, 
 pass. Besides the chyle vessels, there are 
 considerable veins and arteries passing over 
 the mesentery. The arteries are distributed 
 to the bowels, and the veins terminate in 
 the vena porta, or great vein of the liver. 
 
 Metacarpus. — The metacarpus of the 
 horse consists of one great bone, commonly 
 named the canon, shank bone, or fore leg, 
 and two small bones, or splent bones, at- 
 tached by ligaments to the back part of the 
 canon bone, rather towards the sides. The 
 suspensory ligament passes down on the 
 back part oi the canon bone, and between 
 the two splents. The flexor tendons, or back 
 sinews, pass down over the suspensory lig- 
 ament. When the bones only of the fore 
 leg are spoken of, they are termed meta- 
 carpus. They begin at the knee, and end 
 at the fetlock joint. 
 
 Metatarsus. — The hind leg, between 
 the hock and fetlock joints. 
 
 Metatarsal Bones. — The hind canon, 
 or shank bone, with the two small splent 
 bones attached to it. The large blood- 
 vessels and nerves, in this situation, are also 
 named metatarsal. 
 
 Miasmata. — Poisonous effluvia. 
 
 Midriff. — (See Diaphragm.) 
 
 MoLARES. — The name of the grinding 
 teeth. 
 
 Molten Grease. — A name which Mr. 
 Blaine has given to dysentery. 
 
 Morbid Displacements of the Intes- 
 tines, ETC. — Rupture, or Intestinal Hernia* 
 Hernia, in its strict sense, is a protrusion of 
 any viscus out of its natural cavity ; hence 
 we have hernia of the bram, of the lungs, 
 and of the various viscera of the abdomi- 
 nal regions. Hernia, as we propose to 
 consider it, is a displacement of the intes- 
 tines from the abdominal cavity, either 
 through some of the natural openings, or 
 
 * "Blaine's Outlines," by Mahew. 
 
 through artificial ones, the effects of acci- 
 dent. When such protrusion takes place 
 through a moderate opening, and the por- 
 tion of gut can be readily returned, it is 
 called a reducible hernia ; but when it oc- 
 curs through a small opening, and the in- 
 testine cannot be replaced, it is termed an 
 irreducible hernia. If the mouth of the 
 opening, round the intestine, constringe, 
 and prevent the return of the bowel, it then 
 forms a strangulated hernia, and usually 
 proves fatal, unless relief be promptly ob- 
 tained. 
 
 The hernia, by far the most common in 
 the horse, is the inguinal, of which the 
 scrotal, or when the bowel descends into 
 the scrotum, is most frequently observed in 
 the staUion. Bubonocele, or that of the 
 groin, is a very rare form of disease, but it 
 is occasionally witnessed in geldings. In 
 the former, the intestine accompanies the 
 spermatic cord by the inguinal canal 
 through the abdominal rings into the scro- 
 tum : in the latter, the bowel alone lodges 
 in the groin. The ruptures we have named 
 may be considered as the only ones com- 
 mon to the horse. Some of them are very 
 rarely seen : hernia is more frequently on 
 the right than on the left side ; and scarcely 
 ever appears in mares. However, ventral 
 hernia, or rupture of the muscles of the 
 abdominal sides, and protrusion beneatii 
 the skin of a portion of intestine, is some- 
 times beheld in either sex, and perhaps, of 
 the two, is more frequently witnessed in 
 the female. 
 
 The causes which produce hernia are 
 various, but all arise from violence of exer- 
 tion, or the effects consequent upon external 
 injuries. With us the efforts used in racing, 
 and the leaps taken in hunting, are causes, 
 as we may readily suppose ; when we con- 
 sider that the dilatation of the abdomen, 
 restrained as it is by weight and tight girth- 
 ings, must press backwards the intestinal 
 mass. Rearing and kicking also, and being 
 cast for operations, particularly the rising 
 up after castration, have all brought it on. 
 Blows with a thick stick, or from the horn 
 of a cow, may likewise induce it. 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 255 
 
 The symptoms of strangulated hernia are 
 very similar to those of acute enteritis ; 
 there is the same uneasiness, shifting of 
 position, getting up and lying down again. 
 The horse rolls in the same manner, and in 
 turning on his back sometimes seems to 
 get a momentary respite from pain ; yet it 
 is but momentary, for the suffering is not 
 one of remission ; it is constant ; tliis wiU 
 serve as one distinguishing mark between 
 it and spasmodic colic, with which it has 
 been confounded. In stallions, a pathog- 
 nomonic symptom is, that the testicle on 
 the hernial side is drawn up to the abdo- 
 men, and is retained there, with only mo- 
 mentary fits of relaxation ; toward the last, 
 the pulse is quick and wiry ; the horse 
 paws, looks at his flanks, but seldom kicks 
 at his belly. We assure ourselves of her- 
 nia by an oblong tumor in the groin, of 
 larger or smaller bulk ; hard or soft, as it 
 may contain either faeces or gas, in which 
 latter case it will also be elastic. When 
 the tumor is raised by the hand, or pressed, 
 a gurgling sound is emitted ; or, if the horse 
 be coughed, it will be sensibly increased in 
 dimensions. 
 
 The treatment of strangulated hernia. — 
 The horse suffering under the affection we 
 will suppose to be a stallion, and then de- 
 scribe the various manipulations for his 
 relief : firstly, the examination into the state 
 of the hernia ; secondly, the application of 
 means preparatory to the application of 
 pressure ; thirdly, the application of pres- 
 sure itself ; also, the operation of removing 
 the stricture ; and, likewise, the application 
 of the various processes to hernia in the 
 horse. 
 
 The treatment of hernia in a stallion. — 
 First, the examination of the hernial sac. 
 In this manipulation both hands are em- 
 ployed ; one is introduced into the rectum, 
 the other into the sheath. The one within 
 the rectum must seek the internal ring; 
 while the other, pursuing the course of the 
 cord on the side affected, is to be pushed up 
 to the external ring ; and thus, in the nat- 
 ural state, the opposed fingers may be made 
 nearly to meet, and so estimate the size of 
 
 the opening. However small the protruded 
 portion of gut, the practitioner wiU be able 
 to detect, and even to reduce it. This ex- 
 ploration may be made in the standing pos- 
 ture ; but it will be conducted loith more 
 facility and certainty if the animal be cast, 
 ivhich is the preferable mode of proceeding. 
 
 Secondly, the application of means pre- 
 paratory to the taxis : these are said to be 
 bleeding, and partially paralyzing the parts 
 by administration of chloroform ; or lessen- 
 ing the volume of distention by dashing 
 the part with cold water ; or, if the horse 
 be already cast, by spreading ice over the 
 beUy. 
 
 Thirdly, the manual efforts to return the 
 displaced gut. To fulfil this indication, we 
 are, with the same hope, at once to proceed 
 thus; The horse is to be thrown upon the 
 opposite side to that disordered ; and, after 
 one hind leg has been drawn and fixed for- 
 ward, as for castration, he is to be turned 
 upon his back, and in that position main- 
 tained by trusses of straw, whUe other 
 trusses are placed under him to raise the 
 croup. With both arms weU oiled, or cov- 
 ered with some mucilaginous decoction, 
 the operator wiU now commence his explo- 
 ration, taking the precaution of emptying 
 the rectum as he proceeds. AS soon as he 
 shall have ascertained that it is a case of 
 hernia, — have assvired himself the gut pro- 
 truded through the ring is undergoing 
 neither strictm-e nor strangulation, — he may 
 endeavor to disengage the hernial part, by 
 softly drawing it inward within the cavity, 
 at the same time pusliing it in the like 
 direction with the hand within the sheath. 
 Should he experience much difficulty in 
 these attempts, he is to desist ; violence 
 being too often the forerunner of strangu- 
 lation and gangrene. He must bear in 
 mind, also, that, although the reduction is 
 effected, unless it be followed by immediate 
 castration, it does not always prove to be a 
 cure : the protrusion recurs after a time, 
 and occasionally even the moment the ani- 
 mal has risen. K the taxis should be fortu- 
 nate enough to reduce the hernia, and it be 
 not intended to castrate the horse, apply a 
 
256 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 well-wadded pledget, or folded cloth, to the 
 part ; this may be retained with a bandage 
 crossed between the legs from side to side, 
 and fastened by one part under the belly to 
 a girth ; and also passing between the legs, 
 it may be again made fast to the back por- 
 tion of the same girth ; the intention of 
 this is, to prevent the protrusion of the 
 gut by the exertion of rising, and conse- 
 quently it should be removed as soon as 
 that danger is over. If a radical cure were 
 attempted, of course the clams would su- 
 persede tills, either in the stallion or gelding. 
 
 And concerning the treatment of strangu- 
 lated hernia in geldings. Liguinal hernia, 
 taking the same course, is susceptible of 
 the same terminations, and requires the 
 same treatment as in stallions. The taxis 
 is to be employed, and will be used with 
 most effect, the operator (the horse lying 
 upon his back) extending the hernial sheath 
 with one hand, while he manipulates with 
 the other ; or, should this fail, by instructing 
 his assistant to hold up the hernial mass 
 from the beUy, so as to take its pressure off 
 the ring, and thus give him an opportunity 
 to renew his eflbrts with more effect. In 
 some cases, the introduction of one hand 
 into the rectum becomes necessary. The 
 reduction of the hernia should be followed 
 up immediately by the application of the 
 clams, if we unite with the reduction an 
 attempt at permanent cure of the hernia ; 
 taking care, at the time, to draw out the 
 part of the scrotum to which the vaginal 
 sheath is adherent, and to push up the 
 clams as close as possible to the belly ; they 
 are then to be closed, as for castration. 
 
 Of congenital hernia, our limits allow of 
 little more than the mention; nor need 
 more be detailed, as its consequences are 
 seldom injurious. It appears that inguinal 
 hernia commonly exists in the foetus in 
 utero. M. Lineguard, V. S., of Normandy, 
 where breeding is very extensively pursued, 
 has ascertained that enterocele is invariably 
 present at birth ; even in abortions, and in 
 subjects still-born. The congenital enter- 
 ocele is an attendant on birth, increasing up 
 to the third or sixth month, but afterwards 
 
 diminishing, and ultimately vanishing. 
 Should it continue beyond a year or eight- 
 een months, it is to be regarded as a chronic 
 or permanent hernia. Chronic or perma- 
 nent hernia, it may be remarked, our obser- 
 vations being so much limited to geldings, 
 we see little of. Castration, however, with 
 the armed clams, is the evident cure. 
 
 Strangulation of the Intestines, or Morbid 
 Displacement of the Intestines. The intes- 
 tines, in consequence of their peristaltic 
 motion, become sometimes entangled to- 
 gether, and a fatal strangulation takes place ; 
 this happens, occasionally, from some of 
 the mesenteric folds entwining them ; some- 
 times by their rupturing the mesentery, and 
 becoming strangulated by passing through 
 the opening they have made : but it is much 
 oftener the consequence of spasmodic ac- 
 tion, and during colic these inversions, invo- 
 lutions, invaginations, and introsusceptions 
 occur. When thus affected, it is not un- 
 usual for the ileum to become reversed in 
 its usual course ; in which case, a portion, 
 then contracted by spasm, becomes forced 
 into a part less constringed, and an impen- 
 etrable obstruction thence is formed. We 
 may draw a practical inference from these 
 cases, — that in spasm we should attempt 
 an early relief; and likewise that we should 
 endeavor, in all cases of failure in bowel 
 affections, invariably to make a, post-mortem 
 examination : and this we may do on the 
 ground that repeated cases may enable us 
 accurately to interpret symptoms ; then, al- 
 though we cannot relieve, we may offer 
 such an opinion as will convince our em- 
 ployers it is not our ignorance of the signs, 
 but our circumscribed means, which is the 
 cause of our inability to afford assistance.* 
 
 Mortification. — A part deprived of 
 vital force, by causes inducing a loss of tone. 
 
 Moulting. — Casting the coat. In spring 
 the old coat is shed, or thrown off, and the 
 horse gradually improves in spirit and in 
 appearance ; but, during the change, he is 
 more liable to take cold. In the latter part 
 of the year, the coat becomes longer and 
 
 *Blaines' "Outlines." 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 257 
 
 coarser, and loses its healthy gloss ; at the 
 same time, the horse often becomes weak, 
 sweats readily upon moderate exercise, and 
 is often incapable of performing his usual 
 labor. This is more especially the case 
 with horses that have been hard worked 
 and badly fed. At both these periods it is 
 necessary to take particular care of horses, 
 and work them moderately. A horse, when 
 moulting, should not be exposed in the 
 stable to a current of air, but kept in a ven- 
 tilated stable. Warm clotliing is improper. 
 
 Mucilage. — A solution of gum, or any- 
 thing that partakes of the nature of gum. 
 Gummy or mucilaginous drinlis are useful 
 in internal disease ; the cheapest is an in- 
 fusion of linseed or marsh-mallows ; but the 
 best, perhaps, is a solution of gum arable. 
 
 Mucous Membranes. — (See Membrane.) 
 
 Mucous.— Many of the secretions of the 
 body are of a mucous nature. 
 
 Mucus. — A fluid secreted by mucous 
 surfaces. 
 
 Muscle. — The parts that are usually in- 
 cluded under this name consist of distinct 
 portions of flesh, susceptible of contraction 
 and relaxation. 
 
 Musk. — A powerful odorous substance, 
 whose medical virtiies are chiefly anti-spas- 
 modic. 
 
 Myrrh. — A gum resin of a fragrant 
 smell and bitter taste. It is given internally, 
 as a tonic, in doses of one or two drachms. 
 Tincture of myrrh is sometimes applied to 
 wounds, ulcers, and sinuses. 
 
 Nag. — A name sometimes applied to 
 road horses, and such as have been docked, 
 in contradistinction to those that have long 
 tails, or are used in harness. 
 
 Narcotics. — Medicines which stupefy, 
 relieve pain, and promote sleep. There 
 are, however, two different ways to effect 
 these objects, and, of course, two different 
 characters of remedies to be used for the 
 purpose. The popular method is to ad- 
 minister opium, whose natural tendency is 
 to depress the vital powers, and deprive 
 them of sensibility. All mixtures, in any 
 form, that contain opium, though soothing 
 for the present, are ultimately and surely 
 
 pernicious. The true plan is to give anti- 
 spasmodics. (See Anti-spasmodics.) 
 
 Nares. — The nostrils. 
 
 Necrosis. — The mortification and sepa- 
 ration of a portion of dead bone from the 
 other parts of the bone. 
 
 Nephritics. — Medicines that act on the 
 kidneys. 
 
 Nerving, Nerve Operation. — It con- 
 sists of cutting out a portion of the nerve 
 which supplies the foot, either just above 
 the fetlock joint, which is named the high 
 operation, or in the pastern, which is called 
 the low operation. In the former the sen- 
 sibility of the foot is supposed to be entirely 
 destroyed, and in the latter only partly so. 
 Dr. White observes, serious mischief, such 
 as the loss of the hoof, has sometimes fol- 
 lowed the higher nerve operation. 
 
 " After the division of a nerve, the ex- 
 tremities of the divided portion retract, 
 become enlarged and more vascular; but 
 especially the upper portion; and coagu- 
 lable lymph is effused, which soon becomes 
 vascular. In a few days the coagulable 
 lymph from each portion becomes united, 
 and anastomosis forms between the blood- 
 vessels ; the lymph gradually assumes a 
 firmer texture, and the number of the blood- 
 vessels diminishes, and the newly-formed 
 substance appears to contract, like all other 
 cicatrices, so as to bring the extremities of 
 the divided portions nearer and nearer to 
 each other. It is difficult to determine, 
 from an experiment on the limb of an 
 animal, the exact time at which the nerve 
 again performs its functions after being 
 divided. In eight weeks after the division 
 of the sciatic nerve, I have observed a rab- 
 bit to be in some degree improved in the 
 use of its leg ; but at the end of eighteen 
 weeks it was not perfect. When the nerves 
 of the leg of a horse are divided just above 
 the foot, they are sufficiently restored to 
 perform their functions, in some degree, in 
 six or eight weeks ; but it must be observed 
 that these nerves are only formed for sensa- 
 tion., and it is very different with the nerves 
 of nutrition, voluntary motion, etc.; the re- 
 union is sometimes accomplished by gran- 
 
258 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 Illations. Secondly, I would observe, that 
 punctures and partial divisions of nerves 
 heal in the same way as when there has 
 been a total division ; and that, even on 
 the first infliction of the wounds, the func- 
 tion of the nerves is very little impaired." 
 (See Swan's work on morbid local affec- 
 tions.) 
 
 Mr. SeweU finds " that, in cases of entire 
 section of a nerve, sensation returns in 
 about two months ; but in others, in which 
 a portion of nerve has been exercised, that 
 the period of restoring feeling can by no 
 means be foretold : in one of his own 
 liorses, he ascertained that there was no 
 sensibility in the foot, even at the expiration 
 of three years ; and in some others, after a 
 longer interval, the organ appeared to be 
 whoUy destitute of feeling." 
 
 Nicking. — An operation often performed 
 on horses, to raise the tail, and make them 
 carry it more gracefully, or rather to suit 
 the taste of man. 
 
 Nippers. — The front teeth, above and 
 below, have been thus named. 
 
 Nitre. — IVIr. Morton writes : " Nitre 
 given internally is a febrifuge and diuretic. 
 The dose is from two to four drachms. Li 
 order to obtain its fuU effect as a febrifuge, 
 it should be exhibited in the form of ball, so 
 that it may undergo solution in the stom- 
 ach ; but as a diuretic, it is best given in 
 solution. It passes to the kidneys un- 
 changed, and its presence may be readily 
 detected in the urine by means of bibulous 
 paper immersed in it, which, on being 
 dried, deflagrates ; or, if the quantity given 
 be great, it may be procrued in crystals 
 from the urine. Very large doses of this 
 salt act as an irritating poison. Two 
 pounds being given in sLx: pints of water to 
 a horse, apparently in health, within half an 
 liour irritation of the mucous lining of the 
 alimentary canal began, evidenced by the 
 faeces being voided frequently and in small 
 quantities. The kidneys were soon after 
 excited into increased action, tlie urine being 
 forcibly expelled, and the act accompanied 
 with uneasiness. In about four hours after, 
 the pulse had risen to nearly double the 
 
 number of beats, and the visible mucous 
 membranes were highly injected. Blood 
 being withdrawn from the jugular vein, it 
 presented all the appearances of arterial 
 blood. In the serum the existence of the 
 salt could be detected, but it was obtained 
 in abundance from the urine. From this 
 period the symptoms became less urgent, 
 and the pulse gradually regained its healthy 
 standard ; but the dung and urine continued 
 to be passed more frequently than natural 
 throughout the day. 
 
 Externally applied, nitrate of potassa is a 
 valuable stimulant to wounds, and it may 
 be employed with much benefit when gan- 
 grene has taken place. For this purpose, 
 a saturated solution is ordered to be kept in 
 the pharmacy. 
 
 Oats. — According to Sir H. Davy's 
 analysis, oats contain 742 parts of nuti-itive 
 matter out of 1000, which is composed of 
 641 mucilage, or starch, 15 saccharine 
 matter, and 87 gluten, or albumen. New 
 oats are difficult of digestion. 
 
 Oblique Muscles. — The muscles of 
 the abdomen, or belly, are thus named. 
 There are four of them ; two external and 
 two internal. Some of the muscles of the 
 eye are also named oblique muscles. 
 
 Occiput. — The back part of the head. 
 
 CEdeiia. — A watery or dropsical swell- 
 ing. 
 
 CEsoPHAGUs, or Esophagus. — The tube 
 passing from the mouth to the stomach. 
 
 Ointments. — Unctuous substances of 
 the consistence of butter ; when made con- 
 siderably thinner by the addition of oil, 
 they are termed liniments ; but when their 
 solidity is increased by wax, rosin, etc., 
 they are termed plasters. 
 
 Olecranon. — The head of the bone 
 named ulnar (see cut), in the horse ; it 
 affords a powerful lever for the triceps ex- 
 tensor cubiti muscle to act upon, in straight- 
 ening the fore arm ufjon the humerus. 
 (See Skeleton.) 
 
 Olfactory Nerves are spread over aU 
 the interior of the nostril, and constitute 
 the sense of smell. 
 
 Omentum. — The omentum, or caul, is a 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 259 
 
 double membrane, containing ■within its 
 folds a considerable quantity of fat, in the 
 human body and many animals. But in 
 the horse this is never seen ; nor does the 
 omentmn contain much fat ; what there is 
 lies in the region of the stomach. 
 
 Opacity. — A want of transparency in 
 those parts of the eye named pupil, or 
 cornea. 
 
 OPERATIONS. 
 
 Of surgical operations,* and the vari- 
 ous RESTRAINTS IT IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY 
 TO PLACE THE HORSE UNDER FOR THEIR PER- 
 FORMANCE. — " When it is necessary to per- 
 form any painful operation on so powerful 
 an animal as the horse, it is of consequence 
 to subject him to a restraint equal to the 
 occasion. Horses are very dissimilar in their 
 tempers, and bear pain very differently ; but 
 it is always prudent to prepare for the worst, 
 and few important operations should be at- 
 tempted without casting. Humanity should 
 be the fundamental principle of every pro- 
 ceeding, and we ought always to subject 
 this noble animal to pain with reluctance ; 
 but when circumstances absolutely caU for 
 it, we should joyfully close our hearts to all 
 necessary sufferbig. The resistance of the 
 horse is terrible, and it is but common pru- 
 dence to guard against the effects of it. The 
 lesser restraints are various : among them 
 may be first noticed the twitch. The twitch 
 is a very necessary instrument in a stable, 
 though, when frequently and officiously 
 used, it may have the ill effect of rendering 
 some horses violent to resist its application. 
 In many instances blindfolding will do more 
 than the twitch ; and some horses may be 
 quieted, when the pain is not excessive, by 
 holding the ear in one hand, and rubbing 
 the point of the nose with the other. A 
 soothing manner will often engage the atten- 
 tion and prevent violence ; but it is seldom 
 that either threats or punishment render an 
 unruly horse more calm. Inexperienced 
 persons guard themselves only against the 
 hind legs; but they should be aware that 
 some horses strike terribly with their fore 
 * BLiines' "Outlines." 
 
 feet: it is prudent, therefore, in all opera- 
 tions, to blindfold the animal, as by this he 
 becomes particularly intimidated, and if he 
 strikes he cannot aim. When one of the 
 fore extremities requires a very minute ex- 
 amination, it is prudent to have the oppo- 
 site leg held up ; it may, in some cases, be 
 tied : and when one of the hinder feet is the 
 object of attention, the fore one of the same 
 side should be held up, as by this means the 
 animal is commonly prevented from strik- 
 ing. If this precaution be not taken, still 
 observe to keep one hand on the hock, while 
 the other is employed in what is necessary ; 
 by which means, if the foot become elevated 
 to kick, sufficient warning is given, and the 
 very action of the horse throws the operator 
 away from the stroke. Without the use of 
 these arts the practitioner will expose him- 
 self to much risk. The trevis is the very 
 utmost limit of restraint, and is seldom used 
 save by smiths, to shoe very violent and 
 powerful horses : whenever recourse is had 
 to it, the greatest caution is necessary to 
 bed and bolster all the parts that are likely 
 to come in contact with the body. On the 
 Continent we have seen horses shod in this 
 machine, and apparently put into it from no 
 necessity greater than to prevent the clothes 
 of the smith from being dirtied. Horses 
 have been destroyed by the trevis, as well 
 as by casting ; or their aversion to the re- 
 straint has been such, they have died from 
 the consequences of their own resistance. 
 The side-line is now very generally used, not 
 only in minor operations, but also in those 
 more important. Many veterinarians do not 
 use any other restraint than this, in which 
 they consider there is safety both to the 
 horse and to the pperator. It is applicable 
 to such horses as are disposed to strike be- 
 hind ; and consists in placing a hobble strap 
 around the pastern of one hind leg, and thea 
 carrying from a web collar passed over the 
 head the end of a rope through the D of the 
 hobble, and back again under the webbing 
 round the neck. A man is then set to puU 
 at the free end of the rope, by which the 
 hinder leg is drawn forAvard without elevat- 
 ing it from the ground. By this displace- 
 
260 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 ment of one leg the horse is effectually 
 secured from kicking with either. Occasion- 
 aUy it is thus applied : hobbles are put 
 on both hind legs, and the rope is passed 
 through each of the rings. According to 
 this last method, the horse is actually cast, 
 as he must fall when the ropes are pulled. 
 Take a long rope, and tie a loop in the mid- 
 dle, wliich is to be of such a si^e as it may 
 serve for a collar ; pass the loop over the 
 head, letting the knot rest upon the withers ; 
 then take the free ends, pass them through 
 the hobbles, and bring it under the loop. 
 Let two men pull at the ropes, and the hind 
 legs wUl be drawn forward. 
 
 " Casting: — The objections to this prac- 
 tice arise from the dangers incurred by forc- 
 ing the horse to the ground. Rlr. Bracy 
 Clark simplified casting, by inventing some 
 patent hobbles, having a running chain in- 
 stead of rope, and whicli, by a shifting D, 
 made the loosening of aU the hobbles, for 
 the purpose of getting at a particular leg, 
 unnecessary. These were still fiuther im- 
 proved by Mr. Budd, so as to render a 
 release from all the hobbles at once practi- 
 cable. Hobble leathers and ropes should be 
 kept supple and pliant with oil, and ought 
 to be always examined previous to using ; 
 nor should the D or ring of the strap be of 
 any other metal than iron. Brass, however 
 thick, is brittle, and not to be depended on. 
 To the D or ring of one pastern hobble, a 
 chain of about four feet long is attached ; to 
 this a strong rope is well fastened, and, ac- 
 cording to the way the horse is to be tin-own, 
 this hobble is to be fixed on the fore foot of 
 the contrary side : the rope is then passed 
 from the hobble on the fore foot to the D of 
 the hind foot of that side, then to the other 
 hind foot, and, lastly, through the D of the 
 other fore foot. After this, much of the ease 
 and safety of the throio depend on bringing 
 the legs as near together as possible. This 
 should be done by gradually moving them 
 nearer to each other, without alarming the 
 horse; which will very much facilitate the 
 business, and is really of more moment than 
 is generally imagined. A space sufficiently 
 large shoxild be chosen for the purpose of 
 
 casting, as some horses struggle much, and 
 throw themselves with great violence a con- 
 siderable way to one side or the other ; and 
 they are able to do this if the feet have not 
 been brought near together previous to at- 
 tempting the cast. The place should be also 
 very well littered do^^m. The legs having 
 been brought together, the assistants must 
 act in concert; one particularly should be 
 at the head, which must be carefully held 
 throughout by means of a strong snaffle 
 bridle ; another should be at the liind part 
 to direct the fall, and to force the body of 
 the horse to the side which is requisite. 
 Pursuing these instructions, the animal may 
 be at once rather let down than thrown, by 
 a dexterous and quick drawing of the rope ; 
 the whole assistants acting in concert. The 
 moment the horse is down, the person at the 
 head must throw himself upon that mem- 
 ber, and keep it secure ; for all the efforts of 
 the animal to disengage himself are begun 
 by elevating the head and fore parts. The 
 rope is tightened. The chain is fixed by 
 inserting a hook tlirough one of the links, 
 of sufficient size not to pass the hobbles. 
 When the operation is over, the screw which 
 fastensthe chain to the hobble, first put upon 
 one fore leg, is withdi-awn. The chain then 
 flies through the D's of the other hobbles, 
 and all the legs are free, save the fore leg 
 first alluded to ; the strap of this has to be 
 afterwards unbuckled. There are also other 
 apparatus used in casting, as a strong 
 leathern case to pass over the head, serving 
 as a blind when the animal is being thrown ; 
 and as a protection against his rubbing the 
 skin off his eyes when down. Then a sur- 
 cingle is also used. This is fastened round 
 the horse's body, and from the back hangs a 
 broad strap and a rope : the strap is fastened 
 to the fore leg of that side which it is de- 
 sired should be uppermost ; the line is given 
 to a man who stands on the opposite side 
 to the generality of the pullers. On the 
 signal being given, the men having hold of 
 the hobble rope pull the legs one way, while 
 he who has hold of the rope attached to the 
 surcingle pulls the back in a contrary direc- 
 tion, and the horse is immediately cast 
 
A DICTIONARY, 
 
 261 
 
 " Slinging' is a restraint which horses 
 submit to with great impatience, and not 
 without much inconvenience, from the vio- 
 lent excoriations occasioned by the friction 
 and pressure of the bandaging around his 
 body. Graver evils are also brought about 
 by the abdominal pressure : some horses 
 stale and dung ^\dth difficulty when sus- 
 pended; and inflammation of the bowels 
 has not unfrequently come on during sling- 
 ing. The slings are, however, forced on us 
 in some cases, as in fractured bones, the 
 treatment of open joints, and some other 
 womids where motion would be most un- 
 favorable to the cm-ative treatment. Sus- 
 pension may be partial or complete. Sus- 
 pension of any kind will require the appli- 
 cation of pulleys and ropes affixed to the 
 beams, that the whole body of the horse 
 may be supported. A sling may be formed 
 of a piece of strong sacking, which is to pass 
 under the belly, the two ends being fastened 
 firmly to pieces of wood ; each of about 
 three feet long, and which are to reach a 
 little higher than the horse's back : to the 
 pieces of wood, cords and pulleys are to be 
 firmly attached, by which means the sacking 
 can be lowered or raised at pleasure. To the 
 sacking, also, are to be sewn strong straps, 
 both before and behind, to prevent the horse 
 sliding in either direction, without carrying 
 the sacking with Mm. Upon this so-formed 
 cradle he is to recline. If horses when they 
 are fresh should be placed in this machine, 
 most of them would either injure themselves, 
 or break through all restraint. However, by 
 tying up their heads for three or four nights, 
 their spirit is destroyed. The slings may 
 then be applied without the fear of resist- 
 ance : it is the best method not to piJl the 
 canvas firm up, but to leave about an inch 
 between the horse's belly and the cloth, so 
 that the animal may stand free, or throw his 
 weight into the slings when he pleases. In 
 this fashion a horse may remain for months 
 in the slings, and at the end of the time dis- 
 play none of the wear and tear so feelingly 
 described by old authors. 
 
 " Castration. — This practice is of very 
 ancient origin ; and is as extensive as ancient. 
 
 It is founded on the superior placidity of 
 temper it gives. The castrated horse no 
 longer evinces the superiorities of his mas- 
 culine character, but approaches the softer 
 form and, milder character of the mare. 
 Losing his ungovernable desires, he submits 
 to discipline and confinement -^dthout resist- 
 ance; and, if he be less worthy of the paint- 
 er's delineation and the poet's song, he is 
 valuable to his possessor in a tenfold degree. 
 In England, where length in the arms and 
 of the wide spread angles of the limbs is ab- 
 solutely necessary in the horse to accomplish 
 the rapid travelling so much in vogue among 
 us, the exchange of the lofty carriage and 
 high action of the stallion is absolutely 
 necessary ; and, when we have added the 
 lessened tendency of the gelding to some 
 diseases, as hernia, founder, cutaneous 
 affections, etc., we may be content to leave 
 the sexual type with the racer for his breed ; 
 also with the drayhorse for his weight, and 
 the fancy of his owner. Supposing it, 
 therefore, eligible to castrate our horses, 
 what is the proper age for the operation? 
 What are the relative advantages and dis- 
 advantages of the different methods of per- 
 forming it ? The proper age to casti-ate 
 the young horse must depend on circum- 
 stances ; as on his present appearance, his 
 growth, and the future purposes we intend 
 him for ; observing, generally, that the more 
 early it is done, the safer is the operation : 
 for, until these organs begin to secrete, they 
 are purely structural parts, and as such are 
 not so intimately connected with the sym- 
 pathies of the constitution. Some breeders 
 of horses castrate at twelve months ; others 
 object to this period, because they think the 
 animal has not sufficiently recovered the 
 check experienced from weaning, before this 
 new shock to the system occurs. In the more 
 common sort of horses used for agricultural 
 purposes, it is probably indifferent at what 
 time the operation is performed ; tliis con- 
 sideration being kept in view, that the 
 earlier it is done the lighter will the horse 
 be in his fore-hand; and the longer it is 
 protracted the heavier wUl be his crest, and 
 the greater his weight before, which in 
 
262 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 heavy draught work is desirable. For car- 
 riage horses it would be less so, and the 
 period of two years is not a bad one for 
 their casti-ation. The better sort of saddle- 
 horses should be well examined every three 
 or four months ; particularly at the ages of 
 twelve, eighteen, and twenty-four months ; 
 at either of which times, accordmg to cir- 
 cumstances or to fancy, provided the fore- 
 hand be sufficiently developed, it may be 
 proceeded with. Waiting longer may 
 make the horse heavy ; but, if his neck ap- 
 pear too long and thin, and his shoulders 
 spare, he will assuredly be improved by be- 
 ing allowed to remain entire for six or eight 
 months later. Many of the Yorkshire 
 breeders never cvt tOl tsvo years, and think 
 their horses stronger and handsomer for it : 
 some wait even longer, but the fear in this 
 case is, that the stallion form will be too 
 predominant, and a heavy crest and weighty 
 fore-hand be the consequence ; perhaps also 
 the temper may suffer. Young colts require 
 little preparation, provided they are healthy 
 and not too full from high living ; if so, 
 they must be kept somewhat short for a few 
 days ; and in all, the choice of a mild season 
 and moderate temperatiue is proper. When 
 a full grown horse is operated on, some fur- 
 ther preparation is necessary. He should 
 not be in a state of debility, and certamly 
 not in one of plethora : in the latter case, 
 lower his diet, and it would be prudent to 
 give him a purgative. It is also advisable 
 that it be done when no influenza or stran- 
 gles rage, as we have found the effects of 
 castration render a horse very obnoxious to 
 any prevalent disease. The advanced spring 
 season, previous however to the flies becom- 
 ing troublesome, is the proper time for the 
 performance of the operation upon all valu- 
 able horses ; and be careful that it be not 
 done until after the wdnter coat has been 
 shed, which will have a favorable effect on 
 the future coating of the horse, independent 
 of the circumstance, that at a period of 
 change the constitution is not favorable to 
 any unusual excitement. 
 
 " Castration is performed in various ways, 
 but in all it expresses the removal of the 
 
 testicles; there are methods of rendering 
 the animal impotent without the actual de- 
 struction of these organs ; for if by any 
 other method the secretion of the spermatic 
 glands is prevented, our end is answ'ered. 
 
 " Castration by cauterization is the method 
 which has been principally practised among 
 us. But this by no means proves it the best ; 
 on the contrary, many of our most expert 
 veterinarians do not castrate by this method. 
 Mr. Goodwin, and many other practitioners 
 of eminence, never castrate by cautery. 
 
 " A preliminary observation should be 
 made previously to casting, to see that the 
 horse is not suffering from a rupture : such 
 cases have happened ; and as in our method 
 we open a direct communication with the 
 abdomen, when the horse rises it is not im- 
 probable that his bowels protrude until they 
 ti'ail on the ground. Hernia as a conse- 
 quence of castration may easily occur by 
 the uncovered operation; for, as already 
 obsen-ed, it makes the scrotal sac and ab- 
 dominal cavity one continuous opening. 
 It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if the 
 violent struggles of the animal should force 
 a quantity of intestine through the rings 
 into the scrotal bag. Should we be called 
 on to operate on a horse which aheady had 
 hernia, it is evident we ought not to proceed 
 with it, unless the owner be apprised of the 
 risk, and willing to abide by it. In such 
 case we would recommend that the method 
 of Girard be practised, i. e. to inclose the 
 tunica vaginalis within the clams (suffi- 
 ciently tight to retain them, but not to pro- 
 duce death in the part) pushed high up 
 against the abdominal ring, and then to re- 
 move the testicle, being very careful to 
 avoid injimng any portion of intestine in 
 the operation. When a discovery is made 
 of the existence of hernia after an opening 
 has been already made for the common pur- 
 pose of castration, should the operator con- 
 tinue his process, and castrate ? We should 
 say, by no means ; but, on the contrary, we 
 would greatly prefer the method recom- 
 mended by Mr. Pervicall, — firmly to unite 
 the lips of the external wound by suture, 
 allowinsr the testicle itself to assist in block- 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 263 
 
 iiig up the passage ; with a hope also that 
 the inflammation caused by the excision 
 might altogether stop up the scrotal com- 
 munication with the abdomen. But, in the 
 appalling case of immense protrusion of 
 intestine, what is to be done ? ]Vlr. Cole- 
 man, in such a case, proposes to make an 
 opening near the umbilicus, large enough 
 to introduce the hand, and thus di-aw in the 
 bowels. jNIr. Percivall would prefer dilating 
 the external ring : but the testicle must be 
 very firmly retained, and even permanently 
 fixed against the dilated ring, or the bowels 
 would again descend. The intestines 
 probably would become inflated in any 
 such case. 
 
 " As unbroken young horses are the most 
 usual subjects of this operation, and as such 
 often have not yet been bridled, if a colt 
 cannot be enticed with oats, etc., he must 
 be driven into a corner between two steady 
 horses ; where, if a halter carmot be put on, 
 at least a running hempen noose can be got 
 round his neck ; but, which ever is used, it 
 should be flat, or the struggles, which are 
 often long and violent, may bruise the neck, 
 and produce abscess or injury. When his 
 exertions have tired him, he may be then 
 led to the operating spot ; here his attention 
 should be engaged while the hobbles are 
 put on, if possible ; if not, a long and strong 
 cart-rope, having its middle portion formed 
 into a noose sufficiently large to take in the 
 head and neck, is to be slipped on, with the 
 knotted part applied to the counter or breast ; 
 the long pendant ends are passed back- 
 ward between the fore legs, then carried 
 round the hind fetlocks ; brought forward 
 again on the outside, run under the coUar- 
 rope ; a second time carried backward on 
 the outer side of all, and extended to the 
 full length in a direct line behind the animal. 
 Thus fettered, Mr. PercivaU says his liind 
 feet may be drawn under him toward the 
 elbows ; it has been, however, often found 
 that, at the moment the rope touches the 
 legs, the colt either kicks and displaces the 
 rope, or altogether displaces himself; but 
 his attention can generally be engaged by 
 one fore leg being held up, or by having his 
 
 ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch ; 
 if not, the rope may be carried actually 
 round each fetlock, which then acts like a 
 hobble ; and this rope may be gradually 
 tightened: tliis last, however, is a very ques- 
 tionable method, and the others therefore 
 ought to be long tried before it is resorted 
 to ; in this way people have succeeded with 
 very refractory colts ; but it requires very 
 able assistants, and, if possible, the man 
 who has been used to the individual colt 
 should be present. In either way, as soon 
 as the rope is fixed, with a man to each end 
 of it behind the colt, let them, by a sudden 
 and forcible effort in concert, approxunate 
 Ms liind legs to his fore, and thus throw 
 Mm. Before the colt is cast, however, it 
 should be endeavored to ascertain that he 
 is free from strangles and herma. 
 
 " Being satisfied that no hernia exists on 
 either side, proceed to cast the colt, tm-ning 
 him, not directly on the left side, but prin- 
 cipally inclining that way ; and, if possible, 
 let the croup be very slightly elevated ; it is 
 usual to place him directly flat on the left 
 side, but the above is more convenient. 
 Next secure the near Mnd leg with a piece 
 of hempen tackle, having a running noose ; 
 or, in default of tMs not being at hand, 
 make use of the flat part of a hempen hal- 
 ter, which should for safety be put on be- 
 fore the hobble of that leg is removed ; as 
 may be readily done, if the hobbles having 
 shifting or screw D's, as described in cast- 
 ing, are made use of. Every requisite being 
 at hand, the operator, having Ms scalpel 
 ready, should place himself behind the 
 horse, as the most convenient way to per- 
 form his mampulations ; and, firmly gi-asp- 
 ing the left testicle with his left hand, and 
 drawing it out so as to render the scrotum 
 tense, he should make an incision length- 
 ways, from the anterior to the posterior 
 part of the bag. The resistance of the 
 cremaster muscle has to be overcome be- 
 fore the testicle can be forced to the bottom 
 of the scrotum ; and this is the more readily 
 accomplished if the anrnmal's attention be 
 engaged. The incision may be earned at 
 once through the integuments, tlie tMn dar- 
 
264 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 tos expansion, and the vaginal coat of the 
 testicles, with a sweep of the scalpel : but 
 with one less dexterous at the operation, it 
 win be more prudent to make the first in- 
 cision through the scrotum and dartus only, 
 to the required extent ; and then to do the 
 same by the vaginal coat, thus avoiding to 
 wound the testicle, which would produce 
 violent resistance, and give unnecessary 
 pain. We, however, take this opportunity 
 of noting, that cases have occurred, when 
 the tunica vaginalis was divided, no testicle 
 followed ; firm adhesions between this tuiric 
 and the tunica albviginea having retained it 
 fast. In such cases the scalpel must be 
 employed to free the testicle, by dissecting 
 it away from the vaginal sac. When no 
 such obstruction occurs, the testicle, if the 
 opening be sufficiently large, will sUp out ; 
 but the operator must be prepared at the 
 moment of so doing to expect some violent 
 struggles, more particularly if he attempt 
 to restrain the contractions of the cremas- 
 ter, and by main force to draw out the tes- 
 ticle. Preparatory to this, therefore, the 
 twitch should be tightened ; the attendants, 
 especially the man at the head, must be on 
 the alert ; and the testicle itself, at the time 
 of this violent reti'action of the cremaster, 
 should be merely held, but not dragged in 
 opposition to the contraction. If the clams 
 have been put on over the whole, according 
 to Mr. Percivall's method, they will assist 
 in retaining the retracting parts ; but they 
 must not be used with too much pressiue. 
 The resistance having subsided, the clams 
 must now be removed ; or, if they have 
 not been previously in use, they must now 
 be taken in hand, and, having been prepared 
 by some tow being wound round them, 
 should be placed easily on the cord, whUe 
 time is found to free from the grip of the 
 pincers the vas deferens, or spermatic tube, 
 which is seen continued from the epididy- 
 mis. The Russians, Mr. Goodwin informs 
 us, cut it through when they operate. Hu- 
 manity is much concerned in its removal 
 from pressure, because of the excess of 
 pain felt when it is included. It is neces- 
 sary, before the final fLxing of the clams, to 
 
 determine on the part where the division of 
 the cord is to take place. To use Mr. Per- 
 civall's words, ' K it be left too long, it is 
 apt to hang out of the wound afterward, 
 and retard the process of union;' on the 
 other hand, if it be cut very short, and the 
 arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has 
 been released from the clams, the operator 
 will find it no easy task to recover it. The 
 natural length of the cord, which will mainly 
 depend on the degree of the descent of the 
 gland, will be our best guide in this partic- 
 ular. The place of section determined on and 
 marked, close the clams sufficiently tight to 
 retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectu- 
 ally stop the circulation within it. There 
 are now two modes of making the division : 
 the one is to sever it with a scalpel, and 
 then to sufficiently sear the end of it as to 
 prevent a flow of blood. The other, and 
 in some respects the preferable method, is 
 to employ a blunt-edged iron, which is to 
 divide by little crucial sawings, so that, 
 when the cord is separated, it shall not pre- 
 sent a uniform surface, but ragged edges, 
 which will perfectly close the mouths of the 
 vessels. This done, loosen the clams suf- 
 ficiently to observe whether there be any 
 flow of blood ; gently wipe the end of the 
 cord also with the finger, as sometimes an 
 accidental small plug gets within the vessel; 
 this had better be removed at the time. 
 Retain a hold on the clams a few minutes 
 longer ; and, whUe loosening them gradu- 
 ally, observe to have an iron in readiness 
 again to touch the end of the cord, if any 
 blood makes its appearance. Satisfied on 
 this point, sponge the parts with cold water ; 
 no sort of external application is necessary, 
 still less any resin seared on the end of the 
 cord, which can only irritate, and will never 
 adhere. On the after-treatment much dif- 
 ference of opinion has existed, and even yet 
 exists. The powerful evidence of accumu- 
 lated facts has now convinced us of the 
 necessity and propriety of some motion for 
 the newly castrated horse, as a preventive 
 of local congestion ; such practice is com- 
 mon in most countiies, and seems salutary 
 in all. Hurtrel d'Arboval, thus impressed, 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 265 
 
 recommends the horse, immediately after 
 the operation, to be led out to walk for an 
 hour ; and it is a general plan in France to 
 walk such horses in hand an hour night and 
 morning. IVIr. Goodwin, in proof of its 
 not being hurtful, informs us that whole 
 studs of horses, brought to St. Petersburg!! 
 to be operated on, are immediately travelled 
 back a certain portion of the distance, night 
 and morning, until they arrive at home. 
 We have, therefore, no hesitation in recom- 
 mending a moderate degree of motion in 
 preference to absolute rest. 
 
 " The French method of castration is advo- 
 cated by Mi\ Goodwin ; and it is sufficient 
 that it receives his recommendation to en- 
 title it to attention ; it is rendered the more 
 so, as he observes on the method in general 
 use among us, ' that the operation per- 
 formed by the actual cautery always in- 
 duces, more or less, symptoms that often 
 become alarming; and that it cannot be 
 performed on the adult without incumng 
 more swelling and severer consequences 
 than attend other methods of operation. If 
 J ever use the actual cautery, it is for the 
 sake of expedition, and then only on a 
 yearling, or a two-year old ; but I am re- 
 solved never to employ it again on an 
 adult.' These observations, as emanating 
 from such a source, must be deemed im- 
 portant. Ml-. Goodwin then offers the de- 
 scription of the French method of operating, 
 from Hurti-el d'Arboval. ' Castration, by 
 means of the clams, is the method in gen- 
 eral use, if not the only one now employed ; 
 it is the most ancient, since it was recom- 
 mended by HierocUus among the Greeks. 
 It is performed in two ways, the testicle 
 being covered or uncovered. In the former, 
 the exterior of the scrotum, formed by the 
 skin and dartos muscle, is cut through, and 
 the testicle is brought out by dissecting 
 away the laminated tissue, the gland being 
 covered by the tunica vaginalis ; the clam 
 is then placed above the epididymis, outside 
 the external peritoneal covering, of the cord. 
 In the uncovered operation, the incision is 
 made through the servus capsule of the tes- 
 ticle ; the tunica vaginalis being divided. 
 
 the testicle presents itself, and the clam is 
 placed well above the epididymis, on the 
 cord. The operation, performed in either 
 way, requires us to provide ourselves with a 
 scalpel, a pair of clams, a pair of long pin- 
 cers, made purposely to bring the ends of 
 the clams together, and some waxed string. 
 The clams may be formed of different lands 
 of wood ; but the elder is considered the 
 best, and generally made use of. To make 
 a clam, we procure a branch of old and dry 
 elder, whose diameter should be about an 
 inch, and whose length should be from five 
 to six inches : of course, the dimensions 
 must at all times be proportioned to the 
 size of the cord we have to operate on. At 
 the distance of half an inch from each end, 
 a small niche, sufficiently deep to hold the 
 string, must be made, and then the wood 
 should be sawed through the middle length- 
 ways. Each divided surface should be 
 planed, so as to facilitate the opening of 
 the clams, either when about to place them 
 on or take them off. The pith of the wood 
 is then to be taken out, and the hollow 
 should be filled with corrosive sublimate and 
 flour, mixed with sufficient water to form it 
 into a paste. Some persons are not in the 
 habit of using any caustic whatever ; then, 
 of course, scooping out of the inside of the 
 clam is not necessary : notwithstanding, the 
 caustic, inasmuch as it produces a speedier 
 dissolution of the parts, must be useful, and 
 ought not to be neglected.' The addition 
 of the caustic, however, Mr. Goodwin ob- 
 jects to with great reason, remarking, that 
 unless it be a very strong one, and therefore 
 dangerous to employ, it cannot be of any 
 use to parts compressed and deprived of 
 circulation and Life. He further informs us 
 that he has operated in six cases in succes- 
 sion with the same effect, without any es- 
 charotic matter whatever. An experimental 
 case of Mr. PercivaU's terminated fatally: 
 by the use of caustic the cord was greatly 
 inflamed, as high as the ring, and which 
 unquestionably produced the unfortunate 
 result. ' The covered operation,' continues 
 Mr. Goodwin, ' is the one that I am about 
 to advocate, and which differs only inso- 
 
266 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 much, that the scrotum and dartos muscle 
 must be cautiovisly cut through, without 
 dividing the tunica vaginalis. It was Mon- 
 sieur Berger, who was accidentally at my 
 house when I was about to castrate a horse, 
 and who, on my saying that I should prob- 
 ably do it with the cautery, expressed his 
 surprise that I should perform the operation 
 in any other way than on the plan generally 
 approved of in France. Being a stranger 
 to it, he kindly consented to preside at the 
 operation, and, after seeing liim perform on 
 the near testicle, I did the same on the 
 right, but, of course, not with the same fa- 
 cility. After opening the scrotum, and 
 dissecting through the dartos, which is very 
 readily done by passing the knife lightly 
 over its fibres ; the testicle, and its covering, 
 the tunica vaginalis, must be taken in the 
 right hand, while the left should be em- 
 ployed in pushing back the scrotum from 
 its attachments ; and, having your assistant 
 ready, as before, with the clam, it must be 
 placed well above the epididymis, and great- 
 er pressure is, of course, necessary, as the 
 vaginal covering is included in the clam.' 
 
 " Mr. Goodwin further observes, that in 
 Russia he has seen hundreds of horses op- 
 erated on, even after the human fashion, 
 with safety ; and, he remarks, it certainly 
 produces less pain, the animal loses less 
 flesh and condition, and is sooner recovered 
 than when operated on by the actual cautery. 
 
 " Castration by ligature is a painful, bar- 
 barous, and very dangerous practice : and 
 consists in inclosing the testicles and scro- 
 tum within ligatures, until raortj|ication oc- 
 ciu-s, and they drop off. It is practised by 
 some breeders on their young colts, but it 
 is always hazardous, and disgracefully cruel. 
 The substance of the testicle in some coun- 
 tries is also broken down either by rubbing, 
 or otherwise by pressure between two hard 
 bodies : this is practised in Algiers, instead 
 of excision, and tetanus is a frequent con- 
 sequence of it. In Portugal they twist 
 round the testicle, and thus stop the circu- 
 lation of the gland. Division of the vas 
 deferens has been performed, it is said, with 
 success, on many animals ; and is proposed 
 
 as a safe and less painful process than the 
 emasculation of the horse. It consists in a 
 longitudinal section through the scrotum, 
 dartos, and vaginal sheath, so as to expose 
 the cord, from which the vas deferens is to 
 be separated and severed from the artery and 
 vein. There is a certain consent of parts, 
 by which the sympathy of an organ remains 
 after its functional offices are apparently 
 destroyed. There can be little doubt but 
 the nervous excitement would continue, the 
 vein and artery remaining entire. There 
 are certain nice conditions of the organ 
 necessary for propagation ; thus, the horse 
 who retains his testicles within his abdo- 
 men, possesses all the roguish qualities of 
 him with one perfectly evolved : he is lust- 
 ful, and can cover, but is seldom fruitful. 
 Of the morbid consequences of castration 
 we have little to say : by early evacuations, 
 green food, a loose box, a cool air, moderate 
 clothing, but particularly by walking exer- 
 cise, swellings of the parts may be prevent- 
 ed : if not, bleed and foment ; should sup- 
 puration follow, and sinuses form, ti-eat as 
 directed under those heads ; and if tetanic 
 symptoms start up, refer to that article. 
 There has been lately practised in India a 
 novel mode of castration, which is said to be 
 the invention of a Boer settled at the Cape 
 of Good Hope. The cord is exposed in the 
 usual manner ; from the cord the artery is 
 singled out ; this vessel is scraped through 
 with a coarse-edged blunt knife, when the 
 other constitutents of the cord are cut away, 
 and the operation is finished. This method 
 is much praised by those who have adopted 
 it, and is said to be always attended with 
 success. 
 
 "Lithotomy. — Hru'trel d'Arboval's ac- 
 count of the progress of lithotomy in veteri- 
 nary practice commences in 1774. The 
 second case was successfully operated on in 
 1794 ; and at later periods other veterinary 
 surgeons have also performed it. ' In mo- 
 nodactyles there are two methods of oper- 
 ating for the stone ; one through the rectum, 
 the other through the bladder. The first, 
 which consists in lying open the bladder by 
 a longtitudinal incision made through the 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 267 
 
 parietes of the part of the rectum adherent 
 to it, by means of a straight bistoury, is 
 easily practised ; but in its consequences is 
 dangerous in the extreme : in fact, it is an 
 operation never to be adopted but in a case 
 where the magnitude of the stone precludes 
 its extraction through the neck of the blad- 
 der. In all other cases, lithotomy by the 
 urethra is to be pursued. For its perfor- 
 mance, are required a straight probe-pointed 
 bistoury, a whalebone fluted staff, and a 
 pair of forceps curved at the extremities. 
 The animal should, if practicable, be main- 
 tained in the erect posture. The tail plaited 
 and carried round on the right quarter, the 
 operator feels for the end of the staff intro- 
 duced up the urethra, and makes an incision 
 directly upon it, from above downwards, an 
 inch and a half or two inches in length. 
 Next, he introduces the sound, and passes 
 it onward into the bladder. Now, placing 
 the back of the bistoury within the groove 
 of the sound, by gliding the knife forwards, 
 the pelvic portion of the urethra, and also 
 the neck of the bladder, become slit open ; 
 the latter in two places, in consequence of 
 a second cut being made in withdrawing 
 the bistoury. The opening made being 
 considered of sufficient dimensions, the oper- 
 ator introduces the forceps into the bladder, 
 and seizes the calculus, one hand being up 
 the rectum, to aid him in so doing. The 
 forceps clasping the stone are now to be 
 withdrawn, but with gentleness ; and with a 
 vacillating sort of movement of the hand 
 from side to side, in order more easily to 
 surmount any difficulties in the passage, and 
 the more effectually to avoid contusion or 
 laceration. M. Girard tells us, ' That the cut 
 through the pelvic portion of the urethra 
 ought always to be made obliquely to one 
 side ; the operator should hold his bistoury 
 in such a direction that its cutting edge be 
 turned toward the angle of the thigh. By 
 this procedure we shall gain easier access to 
 the bladder ; and not only avoid wounding 
 the rectum, but also the artery of the bulb, 
 as well as the bulb itself, and suspensory 
 ligaments of the penis.' The parts cut 
 through in the operation are, 1st, the fine 
 
 thin skin of the perineum, smooth externally 
 and marked with a raphe ; densely cellular 
 internally : 2ndly, adhering to the tissue, 
 the faschial covering, derived from the fas- 
 chia superficialis abdominis, wliich has here 
 become fibrous : it forms the common en- 
 velope to the parts vmderneath, and is closely 
 connected with the corpus musculosum ure- 
 thrse : 3rdly, the corpus musculosum urethrce, 
 that penniform band of fleshy fibres which 
 springs by two branches from the ischiatic 
 tuberosities embracing the sphincter ani, and 
 concealing the arteries of the bulb ; whence 
 they unite, and proceed to envelop the 
 urethra: 4thly, the corpus spongiosum ure- 
 thrce, the part immediately covered by the 
 muscular envelope, and which here is bulb- 
 ous. It is more particularly worthy our 
 remarlv, from two arteries penetrating the 
 bulb, which come from without the pelvis, 
 ascending obliquely outward to reach the 
 part : 5thly, the suspensory ligaments of the 
 penis, pursuing the course of, and adhering 
 to, the tendinous union of the erectores. 
 An attention to the relative position of these 
 parts will demonstrate the advantages of 
 the lateral oblique incision over one made 
 directly along the raphe : by pursuing the 
 latter, we necessarily cut through the sus- 
 pensory ligaments and into the bulb, wound- 
 ing thereby the arteries ; whereas, by the 
 former, all this danger is avoided, besides 
 that it renders the operation more simple 
 and facile. 
 
 " Tracheotomy. — Cases occur when this 
 operation is required ; as in strangles, when 
 the tumors tlureaten suffocation, or when 
 any substance has remained unswallowed 
 in the oesophagus, the pressure of which ob- 
 structs respiration. In a distressing case of 
 gunpowder bursting immediately under a 
 horse's nose, the eflects of which tumefied 
 his mouth and nostrils, so as to prevent free 
 inspiration, the animal owed his life en- 
 tirely to our excising a portion from the 
 tracheal rings, about ten inches below the 
 angle of the throat. The operation is a very 
 simple one, and may consist either in a 
 longtitudinal section made through two or 
 three of the rings, or a portion, occupying 
 
268 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 about an inch round, may be excised from 
 the anterior cartilaginous substance. The 
 proper mode, when it can be done, however, 
 is to make a circular opening with a very 
 nan'ow knife, removing a portion of two 
 cartilages, or taking a semicircular piece from 
 each ; and this last, although it is seldom 
 performed, is by far the best method : the 
 integuments should be first divided in the 
 exact centre of the neck, three or four inches 
 below the obstruction; then the skin and 
 tissues should be sufficiently separated to 
 allow a tube adapted to the size of the tra- 
 chea to be introduced ; the tube having an 
 acute turn and a rim, which must be fur- 
 nished with holes for the adaptation of tapes 
 to secure it around the neck. There are 
 several instruments of this sort in use, of 
 which that adopted by the French, or the 
 one invented by ]\Ii". Gowing of Camden- 
 Town, is to be preferred. The operation 
 has been also performed in cases of roaring, 
 under an idea of dividing the stricture which 
 impeded respiration ; but, unless the exact 
 situation of this were discovered, it would 
 be but an experimental attempt. 
 
 " (Esophagotomy. — It was long thought 
 that a wound in the CEsophagus must be 
 necessarily fatal, but we have now sufficient 
 proofs to the contrary on record; so that 
 we are not deterred from cutting into the 
 esophageal tube when it is necessary ; but 
 it is an operation requiring skill and anato- 
 mical knowledge ; and its future results are 
 sometimes very serious. The cases that 
 call for esophagotomy are the lodgment of 
 accidental substances within the tube. An 
 apple once so lodged was removed by inci- 
 sion by a veterinary surgeon at Windsor. 
 Carrots, parsneps, beets, etc., are liable to 
 produce such obstruction when not sliced. 
 Too large a medicinal mass also has lodged 
 there ; and a voracious eater has, by at- 
 tempting to swallow too large a quantity of 
 not saUvated bran or chaff, produced an ob- 
 struction which pressed on the trachea and 
 threatened suffocation. In all cases of ob- 
 struction of this kind we wUl suppose that a 
 probang well oiled has been previously at- 
 tempted to be passed, and has completely 
 
 failed. The probang for the horse, however, 
 differs materially from that used for the cow. 
 It is formed after the fashion of the one 
 adopted by the human practitioner, consist- 
 ing of a pliable piece of whalebone, having 
 a sponge tied to one end. The operation 
 being determined on may be practised stand- 
 ing ; if the swelling be large, no fear need be 
 entertained about cutting important organs, 
 as the enlargement will push them on one 
 side. Cut down, therefore, directly upon 
 the centre of the impacted substance. If 
 the horse be cast, which is quite unnecessary, 
 have him of course thrown with his left side 
 uppermost. It will also be necessary to 
 command a good light. The part of the 
 neck chosen for the opening must of course 
 be governed by the obstructing mass. A 
 section should be made throiigh the integu- 
 ments and cellular tissue beneath them, 
 right into the oesophagus, if possible with 
 one cut, and into the centre of the pipe. If 
 this be not done at once, and it requires some 
 dexterity so as to effect it, mind to make all 
 future incisions in a line with the first open- 
 ing ; as it is important that the cellular tis- 
 sue should be little interfered with. The 
 oesophagus, fairly cut into the impactment, 
 should jiimp forth ; should it not do so, do 
 not manipulate, or attempt to force it out, 
 but enlarge the opening, and the substance 
 will come through when that is long enough ; 
 but no fingering could compel its exit while 
 the opening is too small. The end gained 
 for which the incision was made in the 
 oesophagus, the wound may be then closed 
 by the interrupted sutures, each holding a 
 small piece of tow above the orifice, and 
 having their ends hanging out of the exter- 
 nal opening, which should also be brought 
 together by sutures. The after-treatment 
 should be, to interdict all dry food ; the ani- 
 mal ought to subsist on very thick gruel for 
 three, foiar, or five days. If the condition 
 appears to suffer much, allow malt mashes, 
 and when so doing watch the wound ; and 
 if the matters taken in are seen to ooze out, 
 wash them away frequently with warm 
 water, to prevent lodgment, which might 
 encourage sinuses to form ; and after each 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 269 
 
 washing, syringe with some very mild stimu- 
 lant, as a very weak solution of sulphate of 
 zinc {icliite vitriol), etc. etc. 
 
 " Neurotomy. — Division of the sentient 
 nerves of the foot. — Neurotomy has now 
 stood the test of very extensive application : 
 our writers offer innumerable proofs of its 
 restoring almost useless animals to a state 
 of much utility. And, if there are chances 
 that it may occasion such injury as to 
 hasten the end of some horses, it is usually 
 in such as the disease would have done the 
 same for at no distant period. Having 
 stated thus much in its favor, it must not 
 be supposed that we recommend it as an 
 unqualified benefit, even where it succeeds 
 best. No neurotomized horse ever after 
 goes with the same freedom, nor with equal 
 safety, as he did before the operation was 
 performed : indifference to the nature of the 
 ground gone over, is said to have fractured 
 legs ; it is quite common to batter the feet 
 to pieces ; and, although horses have hunted 
 afterwards, and hackneys have carried their 
 riders long distances, yet it is more calcu- 
 lated to prove beneficial to carrriage than 
 to saddle horses. This we believe to be a 
 just statement of its merits ; but there are 
 benefits which it offers to the animal of a 
 more extensive and constitutional kind. 
 Those gained by the bodily system gener- 
 ally have been in some cases very marked: 
 thus, an aged and crippled stallion, from the 
 irritatioa constantly kept up, became so 
 emaciated as to be unable to fecundate ; 
 but, being relieved from a constant state of 
 suffering by neurotomy, improved in health 
 and condition, and was again used to cover. 
 It happened, also, that a mare similarly cir- 
 cumstanced ceased to feel oestrum ; but 
 after neurotomy it again returned, and she 
 resumed her character of a brood mare. It 
 appears to act with most certainty when a 
 portion of the irritated nerve is excised. 
 One case has actually occurred where the 
 tetanus, occasioned by a wound in the 
 foot, was arrested and removed by neuroto- 
 my. It also promises much in the painful 
 state of some cankers, where the irritation 
 has rendered the application of dressings 
 
 almost impossible : here, by depriving the 
 foot of sensibility, we deprive the horse of 
 that which is injurious to him : the sore it- 
 self is often amended by it ; but in every 
 instance the dressings can be effectively 
 applied, and the healthy processes cannot 
 be at all suspended. 
 
 " With respect to whether the lower or 
 upper incision ought to have the preference, 
 the decision should be guided by the cir- 
 cumstances, as regards the intensity and 
 the seat of the disease. The operation 
 commonly leaves, for a considerable time, 
 some enlargement around the spot, the 
 effects of the adhesive matter interposed 
 between the severed portions of nerve ; and 
 which can be remedied by no application 
 of bandages. This bulging remains so 
 long as life continues ; and, however cun- 
 ningly the incision be concealed, this can 
 be felt with ease, and tells the truth ever 
 after the operation has been performed. 
 Such a circumstance has, however, led 
 some practitioners, when it has been wished 
 to make the upper section, and yet to avoid 
 the chance of detection, to operate on the 
 metacarpal nerve on the outside, and on the 
 pastern or plantar nerve on the inside. 
 
 "Mode of performing the operation. — The 
 situation of the section through the sldn 
 being determined on, a guide to which may 
 be gained from the perforatus tendon, and 
 having firmly secured the leg to be first 
 operated on, cut the hair from the part. 
 This being done, and the exact course of 
 the artery being ascertained by its pulsa- 
 tion, make a section close to the edge of 
 the flexor tendon. Let the cut be near, but 
 rather behind, the artery, if below the fet- 
 lock joint. The cellular substance being 
 cleared away will bring the vessels into 
 view, and the nerve will be readily dis- 
 tinguished from them by its whiteness. 
 Elevating it from the vessels, and its mem- 
 branous attachments, by means of a crooked 
 needle armed with thread, pass a bistoury 
 under it, as near to the upper angle of the 
 section as possible. The violent spasm the 
 division of the nerve produces may be 
 somewhat lessened by pressing the nerve 
 
270 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 between the finger and the thumb ; when 
 an opportunity may be taken, either with 
 the scalpel or scissors, of dividing it ; then, 
 taking hold of the lowermost portion be- 
 tween a pair of forceps, excise about three- 
 fourths of an inch of its trunk. Having 
 finished, if both feet are affected, proceed 
 to operate upon the contrary side of the 
 other leg ; after which turn the horse, and 
 repeat the operations on the like parts of 
 each leg as they come in succession. The 
 integuments may be now drawn neatly 
 together, and seciured by a twisted suture, 
 the whole being properly covered by a 
 light compress. Tie up the head for a day 
 or two, after which put on a cradle ; keep 
 the horse very quiet and low ; give mashes 
 to open the bowels ; but we should avoid 
 phi/sickinsc, from the fear that gripmg might 
 occur, which would make him restless, or 
 probably require exercise. 
 
 " Periosteotomy. — This operation consists 
 in having the horse thrown upon his side, 
 and the leg to be operated upon released 
 from the hobble, and extended upon a sack 
 filled with refuse hay or straw : this is done 
 by means of a piece of webbing passed 
 round the hoof, and the end given to a man 
 to hold, who pulls rather violently at the 
 member. The operator then kneels down 
 and feels for the exostosis he intends to per- 
 form periosteotomy upon. This may be a 
 splint or a node, and commonly exists upon 
 the metacarpal portion of the fore limb. 
 The operator having foimd the excrescence, 
 snips just below it with a pair of rowelling 
 scissors. He then takes a blunt seton nee- 
 dle and drives it through the cellular tissue, 
 and immediately over the enlargement. 
 Next, another slit in the skin, above the 
 exostosis, is made with the rowelling scis- 
 sors, and through this last opening the 
 point of the seton needle is forced and then 
 withdrawn. Into the free space thus made 
 a curved Imife is introduced : the point of 
 this knife is blunt, and the blade curves up- 
 ward, the cutting part being below. Some 
 persons use a very diminutive blade, but the 
 editor prefers a rather large instrument, as 
 being more under the command of the hand. 
 
 Having introduced tins knife, he turns the 
 cutting edge downward, and with it incises 
 the enlargement, sending the blade right 
 through the periosteum, and also tlirough 
 the substance of the exostosis, if it be not 
 too solid for the knife to penetrate. This 
 latter fact is only to be ascertained by ac- 
 tual experience, and no opinion formed 
 after an external examination can be of any 
 value ; such being much more the guess of 
 a pretender than the judgment of a surgeon. 
 The age of the animal may be some guide, 
 but even this it is better not to depend upon 
 too entirely. It is tru.e that young horses 
 freely cast forth exostoses, which aged ani- 
 mals mostly absorb ; but this rule, though 
 very general, has exceptions, and by no 
 means is to be absolutely depended upon. 
 
 " The enlargement being cut through, next 
 take a seton needle armed with a tape, and 
 draw it through the channel already made : 
 tie a knot "at either end of the tape, large 
 enough to prevent its being pulled through 
 the opening at either end, and the business 
 is over. The affair is very simple, and the 
 horse may be at once let up. It is, how- 
 ever, in some cases, and only in some, of so 
 much benefit that the horse, being thrown 
 ' dead lame,' gets up and trots off quite 
 sound. However, ere you adopt the opera- 
 tion, apprise the owner of the risk incurred, 
 and that it is by no means a certain cure. 
 Leave the choice with him, but be sure and 
 tell him the openings made for the entrance 
 and exit of the seton commonly leave a 
 blemish behind them ; and where the seton 
 travelled, often there remains a thickening, 
 which it may require months to obliterate. 
 
 " The after part of the treatment consists 
 in merely having the seton daily moved to 
 and fro : though some persons apply an 
 active blister all over the parts immediately 
 in the neighborhood of the seton ; under 
 the idea that the vesicatory renders the 
 operation of greater efficacy, which how- 
 ever is very questionable. When perioste- 
 otomy acts at all, it mostly does so at once ; 
 and when its benefits are not immediate, it 
 is better to withdraw the seton to prevent 
 after blemish, rather than hazard further and 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 271 
 
 useless treatment by the application of a 
 stimulant to skin already deprived of any 
 connection with the deeper seated structures. 
 
 '■'■Division of the flexor tendon. — There 
 are so many accidents and diseases that 
 may produce contraction of the flexor ten- 
 dons, that we only wonder we do not more 
 often meet with them ; which we should 
 certainly do, but that the attendants, de- 
 spau-ing of being able to aflbrd relief, ad- 
 vise their destruction. The operation con- 
 sists in making a longitudinal incision of 
 about three inches in length along the inner 
 lateral edge of the tendon ; dissecting each 
 portion from its cellular attachments, so as 
 to expose the nerve, artery, and tendons. 
 This opening will allow the perforans to be 
 freed from the perforatus, when a division 
 should be made by a scalpel applied to its 
 surface. It is evident that this should take 
 place below any thickening, or adhesions 
 which may have permanently connected the 
 tendon with the neighboring parts ; any 
 lesser attachments will be broken through, 
 by forcing back the foot to the just position. 
 By Mr. Dick this was done 'by placing his 
 knee against the front or projecting part of 
 the pastern, at the same time laying hold 
 of the foot with one hand and the upper 
 part of the leg with the other, and using 
 considerable force : and this appears to be 
 necessary, in order to break any adhesions 
 that may have formed.' The limb should 
 now be placed in a poultice ; and, if any 
 fear of future contraction should arise dm-- 
 ing the cure, lengthen the toe of the shoe 
 proper to the foot operated on. Some slow 
 exercise after the first week may be allowed, 
 but previously to that the horse should be 
 confined to a stall, during which the bowels 
 must be kept open with mashes. 
 
 ^^Amputations. — These have been hitherto 
 confined principally to the tail, the ears, and 
 other parts of minor importance in the 
 animal frame ; but veterinary surgery now 
 takes a wider field, and the extremities are 
 amputated with a certainty of making 
 horned cattle still serviceable for the pur- 
 pose of yielding milk ; and, without doubt, 
 the same might be done with the brood 
 
 mare, or stallion, particularly in fractures 
 of the fore extremities. Professor Dick, of 
 the Edinburgh Veterinary College, furnishes 
 a case sent to him by one of his pupils, to 
 the following effect : ' I performed amputa- 
 tion upon the cow on the 7th of July ; after 
 having properly secured the animal, and 
 applied a tourniquet above the carpus, I 
 made a circular incision through the integ- 
 uments round the leg, a little below the 
 carpus ; and, having separated the skin so as 
 to allow of its being pushed up a little, I 
 cut through the sinews, and lastly sawed 
 off* the stump : the parts are now com- 
 pletely whole, although she has been going 
 at gi'ass aU the time ; and, now that she has 
 got the advantage of a cork stump, makes 
 a wonderful shift for herself, and yields a 
 good supply of millv to her owner.' Mr. 
 Dick also notices another case of amputation 
 of the fore leg of a two-year-old heifer ; and 
 of a third, where the hind leg was removed 
 above the tarsus. Such operations have 
 occasionally occurred from time immemo- 
 rial, with a few enterprising characters. 
 We have heard of them, but they were 
 mostly regarded as mere matters of curiosity 
 or wonder ; and therefore were not imitated. 
 We shall, however, probably ere long have 
 them more common, in cows at least ; for, 
 occurring below the carpus and tarsus, they 
 are as easily performed as nicking or dock- 
 ing : and there is no doubt but, were a hol- 
 low padded stump applied, such low opera- 
 tions might be prudent in many cases. 
 Fractures, with great comminution of bone, 
 considerable ravages of disease within the 
 foot, or extensive gangrene, are the cases 
 which might call for amputation. Of the 
 method of amputation little need be added 
 to the above. The principal practical points 
 are, the fixing of a tourniquet of sufficient 
 force, which should be padded to make its 
 principal pressure on the leaduig arterial 
 trunks, while its general circumference wiU 
 act on the smaller vessels : a ring should be 
 cut lightly below the intended place of opera- 
 tion, only through the integuments ; which, 
 when separated from their cellular ad- 
 hesions for about six inches, should be 
 
272 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 turned back ; and a cii'cular incision may 
 then be made through the muscles, etc., 
 talcing up by ligatiire such vessels, both 
 venous and arterial, as display a disposition 
 for much hemorrhage. The section thus 
 made, free the bone from the soft parts by 
 the scalpel, where the adtierences are very 
 intimate ; and having by means of a crucial 
 bandage retracted the soft parts altogether 
 above the bone, saw it through. Finally, 
 effectually secure the principal vessels, 
 when, bringing the soft parts and sldn over 
 the bone, retain them there by proper band- 
 aging, which suffer to remain without dis- 
 turbance until the third or fourth day. 
 
 ^^ Amputation of the Penis. — Amputation 
 of the penis is not unknown among us : it 
 has been performed several times, and it is 
 found that no canula is necessary to keep 
 open the m-ethra : the force of the urinary 
 flow brealdng down any incipent cicatriza- 
 tion of its orifice. The sheath is first forced 
 back, and the penis brought forw^ard to its 
 gi-eatest possible extent : whatever portion 
 it is intended to remove is now cut through 
 by means of an amputating knife ; when 
 the remainder is retracted within the sheath, 
 and little haemorrhage has afterwards oc- 
 cmTed, except at the time of passing the 
 urine ; but there appears to have been no 
 alarming quantity of blood lost. 
 
 '■^Amputation of the Tail, or Docking. — 
 We are most happy to state this filthy and 
 iinnecessary operation is now discarded. It 
 never consisted of more than the cutting off 
 a portion of the stump with brute force, and 
 the cruel application afterwards of a hot 
 iron to the small artery of the taU. 
 
 " Nicking. — We should be grateful that 
 this barbarous and dangerous process is no 
 longer numbered among the necessary oper- 
 ations. It is so beset with accidents which 
 no skill or prudence can prevent, that no 
 one who has a free will ought to mutilate a 
 horse by nicldng. 
 
 ^'■Firing. — The practice of firing was not 
 always confined to quadrupeds ; on the con- 
 trary, it probably was first used on man ; 
 and to this day in many counti'ies it is a 
 very popular remedy among human sur- 
 
 geons. In India it is applied over the abdo- 
 men for the cure of sciiThosity of the liver. 
 Fii'ing in veterinary practice has, by Mr. 
 Coleman's pupils, been justified as only men 
 wiU justify a favorite operation, the vhtues 
 of which have been impressed upon their 
 ininds by an eloquent teacher. When Cole- 
 man was the chief of the veterinary profes- 
 sion, firing under his rule was used for any 
 and every occasion. It was ridiculously 
 supposed to act as a permanent bandage ; as 
 if a few stiokes with a heated iron could 
 destroy the elastic property inherent in the 
 skin. It was the favorite styptic of these 
 practitioners, and was applied to arteries (as 
 of the tail), as though it possessed udthin 
 itself some medicinal virtue. It was used 
 to promote absorption, as in callus ; and was 
 lilvcwise resorted to to check absorption, as 
 in ulceration. It was called into action to 
 promote granulation, in broken knees ; and 
 was also a favorite agent to check granula- 
 tions, when they were too luxuriant. In 
 short, there was no folly which a hot iron did 
 not cover. It has now happily fallen into 
 disuse. Most modern practitioners will 
 now confess that their chief reason for exer- 
 cising the iron is to satisfy the proprietor, 
 not to benefit the animal. After such an 
 acknowledgment, who would submit to have 
 his patient servant's sliin scored and burnt 
 with red hot metal? 
 
 " The mode of cauterization differs accord- 
 ing to circumstances. As a general rule it 
 ought, of course, to be applied in the direc- 
 tion of the hair, by which the blemish is 
 lessened : but this rule cannot be arbitrarily 
 followed, although it ought to do away with 
 all the false pride of displaying the taste in 
 the figures scored upon a prostrate beast. 
 The Veterinary College recommends that 
 the limbs be always fired in perpendicular 
 lines ; others advocate aU manner of fanci- 
 ful marks. Some cast the horse ; many 
 surgeons perform standing. The irons used 
 are of various shapes and dimensions. 
 Some recommend the firing of aU things to 
 be very light ; others persist there is no vir- 
 tue in hot iron unless it burns very deep. 
 The operation consists in having irons of 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 273 
 
 some substance made red hot, and then 
 drawing them mechanically along, or twist- 
 ing them about upon the skin. The figures 
 are various, so is the depth of the incision. 
 Both must be decided by the taste, judg- 
 ment, or heartlessness of the operator. 
 
 '■'■Blistering. — This is an operation of veiy 
 great utility, and is, perhaps, compared with 
 its benefits and importance, the safest that 
 is performed. When a vesicatory becomes 
 absorbed through the pores of the skin, it 
 inflames the sensible cutis underneath ; the 
 consequence of which is, an effusion of serum 
 through the part, which, in the human sub- 
 ject, elevates the cuticle into a bladder equal 
 to the surface inflamed, but in the horse, from 
 the greater tenacity of the cuticular connec- 
 tions, it becomes separated in the form of 
 small distmct vesicles only. If the irritating 
 cause be quickly removed, the serum may be 
 re-absorbed, and the surface restored by a 
 slight effort of adhesive inflammation. If 
 the irritant act in a still minor degree, it sim- 
 ply irritates the vessels of the cutis to an in- 
 filtration of fluid through the sensible pores, 
 but produces no desquamation of cuticle : 
 such has been called, a sweating blister. 
 But when, by continued irritation, the cutis 
 is exposed, suppuration succeeds, and the 
 part is fully blistered. The salutary action 
 of blisters is exerted in several ways ; in pro- 
 moting absorption ; in combating deep- 
 seated inflammations, and in aiding others. 
 As a stimulus to the absorbents, they act 
 beneficiaUy in the removal of injinious 
 deposits, as the coagula remaining after 
 inflammatory lessons. But it is to be re- 
 marked, that when any existing deposit is of 
 long continuance, or is osseous, it requires 
 that the action of the vesicatory be kept up. 
 Mercurial blisters have been thought to have 
 a superior influence in accelerating absorp- 
 tion. Mercurials, rubbed in some weeks or 
 days previously to blistering, are certainly 
 great assistants, and should always be em- 
 ployed in the treatment of obstinate osseous 
 or ligamentry enlargements. Blisters are 
 very important aids, in inflammatory affec- 
 tions, as counter-irritants, derived from a law 
 in the animal economy, that two inflamma- 
 
 tions seldom exist in the vicinity of each 
 other ; therefore, when such an affection has 
 taken place in any part, and we wish to re- 
 move it, we attempt to raise an artificial in- 
 flammation in the neighborhood by means 
 of blisters ; which, if persevered in, destroy, 
 or at least lessen, the original one. Occa- 
 sionally also we blister the immediate in- 
 flamed part, with an intention to hasten the 
 suppurative process by increasing the ac- 
 tivity of the vessels ; as in deep-seated ab- 
 scesses and also in those which attack glan- 
 dular parts. We therefore employ blisters, 
 to hasten the maturation of the tumors in 
 strangles. When the flagging powers 
 vacillate between resolution and suppura- 
 tion, as they often do in the phlegmonous 
 inflammations of glandular or of deep- 
 seated parts, blisters may either hasten the 
 resolution, or they may add their influence 
 to the attempted suppuration, and thus 
 bring it to maturity. But we carefully 
 avoid, in other cases, applying a vesicant to 
 a part immediately in a state of active in- 
 flammation: particularly we should avoid 
 what is too often done, that of blistering 
 over the tendons, ligaments, and articula- 
 tory surfaces of a tumid limb, laboring 
 under a congested state of the parts from 
 excess of vascular action. Here we should 
 do great injury were we to blister, by caus- 
 ing a greater deposit of lymph, and by has- 
 tening its organization into an injurious 
 bond of union between the inflamed parts. 
 The vesicatory or blister, for general use in 
 veterinary medicine, as a simple stimulant, 
 should be principally composed of Spanish 
 flies. Cheaper substitutes are used, but 
 they irritate violently : in extensive inflam- 
 matory afl'ections, they are on this account 
 perfectly inadmissible ; and wherever a case 
 requires anything more it will be noted. 
 The mode of blistering with the Spanish 
 fly is sufficiently known. The hair should 
 be cut or shorn as close as possible from 
 around the part ; the blistering matter 
 should then be well rubbed in for ten or 
 fifteen minutes. If the pasterns and fet- 
 locks are the parts to be bfistered, previous 
 to rubbing in the ointment, smear some lard, 
 
274 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 tallow, or melted suet, over the heels, and 
 within the hollow at the back of the small 
 pastern. This wiU often prevent some 
 troublesome sores forming, from the blister- 
 ing ointment falling on these sensitive parts. 
 While a blister is acting, the litter should 
 be removed from under the feet, or it will 
 ticlde the legs, and irritate ; but, above all, 
 the head ought to be most carefully secured, 
 for two days and nights, to oppose lying 
 down, more especially to prevent the horse 
 biting the blistered part. On the third 
 evening he may be permitted to repose ; 
 but a prevention should even then l;e con- 
 tinued, by means of what is called a cradle. 
 This apparatus may be bought at every 
 turning shop ; or may be made of eight or 
 ten pieces of round wood, an inch and a 
 half in diameter, and two feet long : these 
 are strung at each end on a rope, and fas- 
 tened around the neck. When it is in- 
 tended to blister repeatedly, the efiects of 
 the first shoidd have subsided before the 
 second is applied : the scurf and scabs also 
 be cleared away, and the part well washed 
 with soap and water. In all cases, the third 
 or fourth day after the application the part 
 should be thoroughly painted over by 
 means of a long haired brush (such as are 
 in use with pastry-cooks to glaze their 
 crusts) with lead liniment, which should be 
 repeated every day; and when it is proposed 
 to tiurn a horse out, it should never be done 
 until the whole blistered surface be quite 
 healed ; otherwise dirt, flies, etc., may prove 
 hurtful. It remains to observe, that, instead 
 of repeated active blistering, it is in some 
 cases preferable to keep up a continual 
 slight irritation on the original blister by 
 means of stimulants, as iodine ointment, 
 mild blistering applications, etc. ; caution is 
 however necessary to avoid forming an 
 eschar, and thereby a permanent blemish ; 
 but when a blemish is not of consequence 
 this plan will be found often more effica- 
 cious than firing, as in splints, spavins, etc. 
 Some practitioners blister mildly one day, 
 and on the next wash off the blistering 
 matter, thereby saving loss of hair. But 
 there is more of apparent than real good in 
 
 this plan. K a blister be necessary, it re- 
 quires all its activity. 
 
 '^ Aminoniacal blister. — Spanish flies are 
 only efficacious when the animal can afford 
 to wait their action, which is rather slow. 
 In most of the acute diseases, the horse 
 would perish before the blister began to 
 rise, wherefore resort has been had to boU- 
 ing water and red-hot iron. The action of 
 these last coarse and brutal measures was 
 alone controlled by the violence of the in- 
 ternal inflammation ; and, if the practitioner 
 was mistaken in his estimate of the imme- 
 diate danger, extensive and lasting blemish 
 was the consequence. We have in the 
 liquor ammonia an agent quite as formida- 
 ble as boiling water or heated iron, but it is 
 rather longer in displaying its force ; where- 
 fore, it allows time for watching its action, 
 and of checking it the instant it has suffi- 
 ciently blistered the skin. It is true the 
 fiquor ammonia upon the skin cannot be 
 removed, neither need it be counteracted. 
 Ammonia is like steam, only powerful 
 when confined. The ordinary soap lini- 
 ment, if covered over, would, because of the 
 ammonia it contains, produce a lasting 
 blemish ; but every veterinary surgeon knows 
 how very harmless a i^reparation that is 
 when simply rubbed upon the surface. So, 
 when we desire the active effects of liquor 
 ammonia, we double a blanket or rug four 
 or five times and hold it over the liquid. 
 It takes from ten to twenty minutes to raise 
 a blister, and it consequently can from time 
 to time be observed ; and, when its action 
 has reached the wished-for point, all we 
 have to do, effectually to stop it, is to take 
 away the rug or blanket. That removed, 
 the free surface and the heat of the body 
 occasions the ammoniacal vapor to be dis- 
 persed, and the animal is safe. 
 
 " RoivelUiig. — Rowels act as foreign sub- 
 stances within the body ; they cause irrita- 
 tion and suppuration, whereby more deep- 
 seated inflammations are supposed to be 
 removed ; they are, however, often very 
 convenient, because they stand as sign- 
 boards to show the proprietor that some- 
 thing has been done. The common mode 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 275 
 
 of making a rowel is after the following 
 manner : a slit is first made by means of 
 the rowel scissors, on any part of the integ- 
 uments held between the finger and thumb; 
 with the handle of the scissors separate 
 from its cellular connections a circle of two 
 or three inches in diameter, into which in- 
 troduce something to prevent the reunion 
 of the skin. A piece of circular leather, 
 tolerably stifl", with a central hole, is a very 
 common substance used, but is objected to 
 by some on account of the difficulty of 
 changing it without injuring the skin : tow, 
 as more pliant, is irequently introduced into 
 this cavity. If the rowel runs freely, it 
 should be dressed every day, by changing 
 the plug, if of tow, and by cleansing it, if 
 of leather. No rowel should go mrdressed 
 beyond the second day, for the comfort of 
 the horse. They are very favorite applica- 
 tions with farriers, and therefore are fre- 
 quently abused, by being employed in aU 
 cases indiscriminately ; they are now, how- 
 ever, falling into disuse, setons having almost 
 superseded them. 
 
 " Setons, in their action, resemble a very 
 mild form of rowel, but are more conven- 
 ient in their application. There is hardly 
 a part of the body where a seton may not 
 be conveniently placed : they have been put 
 around the eye ; they have also been entered 
 at the withers, and brought out between 
 the humerus and the sternum, — so exten- 
 sive or so diminutive can they be made. 
 In sinuous ulcers of the withers and of the 
 neck, they may be placed; through the 
 heels, in foot diseases, they have been in- 
 serted. In cavernous sores, they are en- 
 tered at the superior part, and are brought 
 out at an inferior, so as to form a depending 
 orifice. The formation of a seton is very 
 simple : a skein of thread, or a piece of tape 
 of a convenient size, may be used : at the 
 one end place a large knot; arm the eye 
 of a corresponding-sized seton needle with 
 the free end of the tape ; introduce this into 
 any proposed part, and, bringing it out at 
 some other, either make a second knot, or 
 tie the two ends of the tape together ; which 
 
 last method of fastening is, however, often 
 objected to, from the danger of its catching 
 in something, and being torn out, to the 
 disfigrurement of the horse. "When a seton 
 is placed in a sinuous track, for the purpose 
 of inflaming, it is moved twice a day fre- 
 quently, and moistened each time with some 
 stimulant, as oil of turpentine, tincture of 
 aloes and of benjamin. All setons require 
 daily cleaning and moving. When they 
 are required to act more quicldy, the tape 
 is infused in terebinthinate of cantharides, 
 or small pieces of black hellebore are sewn 
 within it. An old material, composed of 
 woollen, flax, or cotton, and hair, is also 
 used instead of tape. Setons, however, are 
 of small service in acute cases. They are 
 chiefly in use for disturbances of a chronic 
 description. 
 
 " Abstraction of Blood, or Bleeding. — 
 Artertotomy. — Blood is abstracted by open- 
 ing the conducting vessels, arterial and ve- 
 nous. When taken from arteries, the 
 process is called arteriotomy ; when by the 
 latter, phlebotomy. Some bleedings include 
 both these operations, as general scarifica- 
 tions of the soft parts ; bleeding at the toe 
 point ; divisions of the vessels of the cornea, 
 etc., etc. Blood-letting is called local when 
 it is practised on or veiy near the affected 
 part ; and it is supposed to act more im- 
 mediately than general bleeding, because it 
 produces more effect with the loss of less 
 blood. Local bleeding is therefore usually 
 practised on the minor branches of the 
 arteries and veins, as on the temporal artery, 
 the plate vein, the vena saphena, etc. 
 Leeches are a means of local bleeding not 
 often used by us in veterinary practice ; but 
 there is no reason whatever why they should 
 not be employed ; when applied to the eye, 
 and occasionally to other parts also, they 
 adhere readily, absti'acting blood rapidly, 
 and therefore might be valuable aids in 
 violent local inflammation. Cupping is 
 also practised in France and other parts of 
 the Continent with very large glasses, and it 
 is there supposed to act remedially in many 
 local inflammations. By general bleeding 
 
276 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 we understand the depletion of the system 
 at large ; and this we practice in extensive 
 inflammations. 
 
 " Division of the temporal artery. — The 
 proper spot for either its puncture or divi- 
 sion is directly where the vessel leaves the 
 parotid gland, to curve upward and forward 
 around the jaw, a little below its condyle. 
 When it is punctured, it usually affords 
 much blood ; and in such case, enough hav- 
 ing been obtained, divide the trunk ; when, 
 the receding portions becoming pressed by 
 the integuments, and lessening by then- 
 own contractility, the hemorrhage is stopped. 
 It should be punctm-ed by a lancet ; a fleam 
 may fix itself in the bone. Its division can 
 be readily made also either by a lancet or 
 scalpel. 
 
 " Bleeding by the palate is also a species 
 of arterio-phlebotomy, and is a very favorite 
 spot for abstracting blood with most igno- 
 rant persons,who vehemently recommend it 
 in spasmodic colic or gripes, and in megrims. 
 In such cases, however, a want of knowl- 
 edge of the anatomy of the parts has occa- 
 sioned a serious hemorrhage to occur ; it 
 may prove a fatal one, if the artery proper 
 to the part be divided incompletely. The 
 palatine artery and nerve run near each 
 other, on each side of the roof of the mouth, 
 so as to divide the inner surface of the hard 
 palate into three nearly equal portions. No 
 other than a direct division of the vein 
 should ever be made : therefore, when bleed- 
 ing is determined on at this place, do it by 
 phmging a lancet or even a penknife in a 
 direct line across the rugae, one inch luithin 
 the mouth, exactly betioeen the middle aiid 
 second nippers ; there these vessels form a 
 curve, which curve will then be divided, and 
 will then yield tines or foiu" pints of blood. 
 K the insti'ument enter too much on one 
 side, as about the middle of the second 
 nipper, then a partial and longitudinal divi- 
 sion of the artery may be made, and an 
 alarming hemorrhage may follow. In this 
 case, the section must be enlarged and deep- 
 ened inwardly, that is, away from the teeth, 
 which completely severs the vessel, and its 
 retraction will stop the hemorrhage. A 
 
 moderate or slight flow of blood from the 
 palate may be obtained by light scarifica- 
 tions of the rugSB : but all bleedings here, 
 except under circumstances of the most 
 urgent necessity, had better be avoided. 
 
 " Bleeding by the toe is also arterior-phle- 
 botomy. By no means cut out a portion 
 of the sole at the point of the frog, wliich 
 frequently occasions abscess ; but with a 
 very fine drawing-knife cut down exactly in 
 the line of union between the crust and the 
 sole ; then, by punctm-ing the part with a 
 lancet, a vast flow of blood may be ob- 
 tained, the benefits of which in some cases 
 are very marked, particularly in acute 
 founder. If the blood should not flow with 
 sufficient freedom, place the foot in warm 
 water : the bleeding finished, cover the punc- 
 tm-e with some tow and a little tar, and 
 lightly tack on the shoe. There are, how- 
 ever, other methods of bleeding from the 
 toe. Ml". Maver uses a drawing-lmife 
 with a long curve, so that one sweep of 
 the blade may cut a piece out of the 
 foot. This appears to us bad practice 
 as it leaves nature a space to fUl up, 
 instead of a simple incised wound to heal. 
 Others take away none of the horn, but 
 merely make a slit through the outer cover- 
 ing on to the vascular portion of the foot. 
 The flap of horn they hold up so long as 
 they desire blood, by the insertion of a piece 
 of wood ; and when they have obtained 
 blood enough, they take out the wood so as 
 to let the horny flap down. This last 
 method, of all others, appears to us the 
 easiest and the best. 
 
 " Sometimes the plantar vein is opened as 
 a substitute. Scarifications are also occa- 
 sionally practised, which, of course, divide 
 both venous and arterial branches. In 
 France extensive scarifications used to be 
 made into indiuations before the suppura- 
 tive process had commenced, which in some 
 cases prevented that from going on; and 
 the remedial wounds made were healed by 
 adhesive inflammation, or by healthy gran- 
 ulation; the same method has also been 
 occasionally practised here, but it is not 
 now often attempted. 
 
A DICTIONAEY. 
 
 277 
 
 " Phlebotomy, or the puncture of a venous 
 branch, is the most usual mode of drawing 
 blood in veterinary practice, and may be 
 employed on any point of the body ; but 
 some vessels are much more frequently 
 opened than others, and most of all the 
 jugular. — Bleeding by the thig-h vein. The 
 saphena is a prominent vein, continued from 
 the inner part of the hock, and may be 
 opened by the fleam; but with much greater 
 safety and propriety by a lancet. The 
 opposite leg being held up, the operator 
 placing himself in front of the thigh, and 
 steadying himself and the horse by placing 
 one hand on the hock, may fix the vein 
 with the little finger of the other; while the 
 lancet held between the thumb and fore 
 finger punctures it. This vein should never 
 be opened, save upon absolute necessity, as 
 it is often ti'oublesome to pin up. A horse 
 has been cast for the trivial matter of stop- 
 ping the haemorrhage. — Bleeding from the 
 plate vein. This vein is frequently opened 
 to abstract blood after injuries of the fore 
 extremities. — The superficial brachial vein 
 is a continuation of the superficial division 
 of the metacarpal veins, and in the passage 
 upwards receives more than one branch ; its 
 principal trunli ascends along the inner side 
 of the radius. It may also be well to re- 
 mark, that, when taking blood fi-om the 
 superficial veins of the arm or fore-arm, if 
 any difficulty is experienced in obtaining a 
 sufficient flow, the lifting up of the other 
 leg, by throwing the muscles of the jwmc- 
 tured one into action, will force the blood 
 from the inner to the outer set ; and an in- 
 creased quantity may be obtained. The 
 plate vein, or external thoracic, is often 
 opened, as it emerges from behind the anu, 
 and is pinned up without any difficulty. 
 
 " Bleeding by the jugular vein. — The situ- 
 ation of this important vessel is well known, 
 but its internal connections are not so 
 familiar, though such knowledge is essen- 
 tial to the ■uniform safety of the operation. 
 The horse has only external jugular veins, a 
 right and a left one : as each emerges from 
 the chest, it is found deep-seated, and ap- 
 proaching the trachea ; it then passes for- 
 
 wards in company with the external ceurotid 
 artery : toward the middle of the neck it 
 becomes more superficial, and is now dis- 
 tinctly seen progressing rather above and 
 loithout the carotid artery and trachea, or 
 windpipe. The carotid, therefore, in the 
 future coiu-se of the jugular, is situated a 
 little beloiu and more deep-seated than the 
 vein. The jugular is also separated from 
 the carotid by a slight muscular band, de- 
 rived froiu the levator humeri. Its further 
 track is marked in the hollow formed by 
 the inferior edge of the levator humeri, 
 where it is covered by the panniculus car- 
 nosus and integuments only ; when, having 
 nearly reached the jaw, it makes its well- 
 known division into two portions. Bleeding 
 by the jugular is usually practised with a 
 lancet or with a fleam. The proper spot 
 for the puncture may be found anywhere 
 between tw^o inches and six from the division 
 of the vein : this latitude is here mentioned, 
 because it is prudent to avoid punctiuing 
 directly over a former bleeding-place, known 
 by the scar and enlargement : it should also 
 be avoided where a fittle knot in the course 
 of the vein will sometimes denote the exis- 
 tence of one of the venous valves. But in 
 all ordinary cases, where these hindrances 
 do not appear, operate at two or three 
 inches from the division of the vein ; which 
 will be sufficiently evident when it is pressed 
 on below the place punctm-ed. Avoid 
 operating low down in the neck, as there 
 the vessel is deeper seated, and near to im- 
 portant parts. 
 
 " First moisten the hair and smootli it 
 down; then, steadying and enlarging the 
 vessel with one hand, with the other plunge 
 the point of the lancet into the integuments, 
 so as just to punctiue them and the vein ; 
 then, by a sUght turn of the wrist, carry the 
 instrument obliquely forward to finish the 
 cut. For opening the smaller veins, the 
 lancet should always be used. In all but 
 the practised hand, the fleam is the safest 
 for bleeding from the jugular ; it is always 
 prudent to have the eye of the horse cov- 
 ered : unless the eye be covered, the horse 
 will be likely to ffinch at the moment of 
 
278 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 the stroke, and the puncture may be made 
 in any place but where we wish. The hair 
 being first wetted and smoothed, and the 
 fleam being retained in the left hand, the 
 unemployed fingers pressing on the vein so 
 as to fix and swell the vessel ; let the point 
 rest exactly in the middle of the swelling ; 
 strike the fleam sufficiently hard to penetrate 
 the skin and vem. A blood-stick is prefer- 
 able for the purpose of striking the fleam : 
 there is a vibration between two hard bodies 
 when they meet, which, in this instance, is 
 favorable to a quick and moderate puncture 
 of the vein. After the vein has been 
 opened, moderate pressure with the edge of 
 the can which catches the blood is sufficient 
 to keep up the flow: it may also be en- 
 couraged by putting a finger within the 
 horse's mouth. The requisite quantity of 
 blood being drawn, remove the can. The 
 remaining process of securing the vessel is 
 of equal importance. The sides of the 
 orifice are first to be brought in apposition, 
 without pincliing them, and without draw- 
 ing them from the vein : the same cautions 
 should also be observed when the pin is in- 
 troduced : let it be small, with an irregular 
 point, and when inserted wrap round it a 
 few liairs or a Little tow. 
 
 " Common, however, as this operation is, 
 and qualified as every one thinks himself 
 to perform it, yet there are very serious acci- 
 dents which do arise occasionally. It has 
 occun-ed that the carotid artery has become 
 penetrated. When the puncture has been 
 made through the vein, the accident is 
 known immediately by the forcible and 
 pulsatory gush of florid arterial and dark 
 venous blood together. In one instance of 
 this Idnd, which occurred to a French prac- 
 titioner, he immediately thrust his finger 
 into the opening through the vein, and 
 thus plugged up the artery, intending to 
 wait for assistance. In this state he re- 
 mained, we believe, an hoiur or more ; when, 
 removing his finger, to his surprise, he found 
 the haemorrhage had ceased, and did not 
 again return. In another case, where an 
 English practitioner accidentally opened 
 the carotid, he placed a compress on the 
 
 orifice, and had relays of men to hold it 
 there for eight-and-forty hours ; when it was 
 found the bleeding had stopped. The 
 admission of air is also another serious ac- 
 cident that now and then attends bleeding : 
 it sometimes happens from the sudden re- 
 moval of the fingers or blood-can, or what- 
 ever was used to distend the vessel by ob- 
 structing the return of the blood : this being 
 suddenly taken away, allows the escape of 
 the blood toward the heart, and occasions 
 a momentary vacuum, the air being heard 
 to rush with a gurgling noise into the vein 
 through the orifice ; it then mixes with the 
 blood, and occasions, in some instances, al- 
 most immediate death. The animal begins 
 to tremble ; he next staggers, and finally 
 falls in a state of convulsion : if the quan- 
 tity of air taken in has been considerable, 
 death ensues. The remedy must, therefore, 
 be instantaneous, and consists in again 
 opening the orifice, or making a new one, 
 to gain an immediate renewed flow of 
 blood, which will, in most cases, renovate 
 the horse, who has been found after%vards 
 to be tormented with an intolerable itclung. 
 
 Opiates. — (See Narcotic) 
 
 Opium. — A narcotic vegetable poison. 
 Mr. Coleman " thought, from some experi- 
 ments made at the veterinary college, that 
 opium has no apparent influence over the 
 nervous system of the horse, and that it 
 does not alleviate pain." Dr. White says, 
 " I think that opium, as to its effect on the 
 horse, does not possess that soothing ano- 
 dyne and soporific quality for which it is 
 justly distinguished in himian medicine." 
 Opium always tends to depress the vital 
 organs in proportion to its quantity. 
 
 Opodeldoc, or Soap Liniment. — A so- 
 lution of soap and camphor in spirits of 
 rosemary. 
 
 Optic Nerve. — The nerve on wluch 
 sight depends. 
 
 Orbit. — The socket of the eye is thus 
 named. 
 
 Organic. — A disease is said to be or- 
 ganic when any particular organ of the body 
 is affected. 
 
 Ossification. — Ligaments and cartila- 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 279 
 
 ges sometimes become bony, especially 
 those ligaments which unite the splent to 
 the canon bones, and the lateral cartilages 
 of the foot. 
 
 Ovaries. — Two appendages to the womb, 
 or uterus, which are cut out in the operation 
 of spaying. 
 
 Overreach. — A horse is said to over- 
 reach, or overlash, when he wounds the fore 
 heel with the hind foot. 
 
 Overwork. — Many of the diseases of 
 horses originate in overwork. 
 
 Pace. — The peculiar manner of motion, 
 or progression. The natural paces of the 
 horse are, the wallv, trot, and gallop, to 
 which some add the amble. 
 
 Palate. — The upper part or roof of the 
 mouth. 
 
 Palliative. — Medicines and operations 
 by which diseases appear to be relieved, but 
 not cured. However desirable palliatives 
 may be in the diseases of the human body, 
 they are seldom satisfactory in the diseases 
 and lameness of horses. 
 
 Palpitation. — Beating of the heart 
 against the breast-bone or ribs. 
 
 Palsy, or Paralysis. — A loss of muscu- 
 lar power, or an inability to move any part 
 of the body. 
 
 Pancreas, or Sweetbread. — A gland- 
 ular substance situated in the abdomen, near 
 the stomach. It secretes the pancreatic 
 juice. 
 
 Panniculus, or Fleshy Pannicle. — A 
 thin muscular covering attached to the skin 
 of brute animals, by means of which they 
 are enabled to shake it, and get rid of flies, 
 etc. 
 
 Panton Shoe. — A contrivance for ex- 
 panding contracted feet ; but, like all other 
 mechanical contrivances, they are useless or 
 pernicious. 
 
 Paps. — When young horses are cutting 
 their teeth, and sometimes after that period, 
 the excretory ducts of some of the salivary 
 glands under the tongue become enlarged. 
 These are named paps. They should be 
 touched with a solution of alum, and the 
 animal fed on mashes. (See Mash.) 
 
 Papillary. — Pap-like; or rather like 
 
 small or minute paps. A term applied to 
 small elevations on different parts of the 
 body, whether morbid or natural. Those 
 little eminences on the internal surface of 
 the leaves, or laminae, of the cow's third 
 stomach, or manyplus, are termed papil- 
 lary. 
 
 Par Vagum. — The eighth pair of nerves 
 are thus named. 
 
 Paracentesis. — The operation of tap- 
 ping, for the purpose of giving vent to water 
 collected in the chest, abdomen, etc. It has 
 frequently been performed on animals with- 
 out any benefit. 
 
 Parietal. — The bones that form the 
 sides of the skull are thus named. 
 
 Paring. — Cutting the hoof in order to 
 prepare it for the shoe. 
 
 Parotid Glands. — Two large glands 
 situated under the ears ; they secrete saliva, 
 which is conveyed by a duct into the 
 mouth. 
 
 Paroxysm. — The periodical accession, 
 or the periodical increase, of a disorder. 
 
 Parturition. — The act of bringing forth 
 young. 
 
 Pastern. — The part between the fetlock 
 joint and the hoof. (See cut of the foot, 
 part first.) 
 
 Pastern Nerve. — The nerve from which 
 a portion is cut out in the operation of 
 nerving. 
 
 Pasture. — Pastures in elevated situa- 
 tions are the best for horses. 
 
 Patella. — The knee-pan of the human 
 body, and the stifle of the horse. (See 
 Skeleton.) 
 
 Pathology. — The doctrine of diseases. 
 
 Paunch. — The common name for the 
 first stomach of the cow. 
 
 Pectorals. — Medicines that relieve 
 cough, and other diseases of the lungs. 
 
 Pectoral Muscles. — The muscles of 
 the breast. 
 
 Pelvis. — The basin, or that cavity 
 wherein is lodged the bladder, uterus, and 
 the rectum. 
 
 Penis. — The yard or male genital or- 
 gan. 
 
 Perforans Tendon. — The innermost 
 
280 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 of the back sinews, or that which goes to 
 the OS pedis. 
 
 Pericardium. — The heart bag. (See 
 Heart, part first.) 
 
 Pericranium. — The membrane that is 
 closely connected with the bones of the 
 head. 
 
 Periosteum. — The investing membrane 
 of the bones. 
 
 Peristaltic Motion. — That motion of 
 the muscular coat of the bowels which 
 causes the food and excrement to pass 
 through them. 
 
 Peritoneum. — The membrane which 
 forms the external coat of the bowels, and 
 some other of the viscera of the abdomen; 
 it is, therefore, named the peritoneal coat 
 of the bowels. It lines, also, the internal 
 surface of the belly. 
 
 Peritonitis. — Inflammation of the peri- 
 toneum. Diseases of the peritoneum are 
 very rare in horses, and, when treated on 
 the depleting, antiphlogistic principles of 
 allopathy, generaUy terminate fatally. When 
 the physiological equilibrium is interrupted, 
 and inflammation of the peritoneum ensues, 
 the available vital force is concentrated 
 upon a small region of the body. The true 
 indication is, to invite tliis force away from 
 that region, and to distribute it over the 
 general system, that it shall not be excessive 
 anywhere. Tliis mode of relief we call 
 equalizing the circulation ; the allopaths 
 term it counter-irritation ; they concentrate 
 it in one spot, in the form of rowel and 
 blister, their own works wUl show with what 
 success.* Our principles teach us to accom- 
 
 *Mi-. Percivall details a case of peritonitis, after the 
 usual sjTuptoms in the early stage had subsided. " The 
 horse's bowels became much relaxed : suspecting that 
 there was some disorder in the alimentary canal, and that 
 this was an effort of nature to get rid of it, I promoted 
 the diarrhoea by giving mild doses of cathartic medicine, 
 in combination with calomel ! 
 
 " On the third day from this, prolapsus ani (falling of 
 the fundament) made its appearance. After the return 
 of the gut, the animal grew daily duller and more de- 
 jected, manifesting evident signs of considerable inward 
 disorder, though he showed none of acute pain. The 
 diarrhoea continued ; swellmg of the belly and tumefac- 
 tion of the legs speedily followed. Eight pounds of blood 
 were drawn, and two ounces of oil nf turpentine were 
 
 plish the object by the stimulating influence 
 of medicated vapor, enemas, nervines, and 
 a mucilaginous diet. Whenever the disease 
 is treated by the abstraction of blood, it 
 generally terminates in dropsy. 
 
 Perspiration. — The fluid which is se- 
 creted by the vessels of the skin. Perspira- 
 tion is a highly important discharge in 
 horses and other animals. The best medi- 
 cine to promote sweating in the horse is a 
 tea composed of lobelia, capsicum, and pen- 
 nyroyal. 
 
 Pharynx. — The upper part of the oesoph- 
 agus, or gullet. 
 
 Phlegm. — A mucous liquid thrown up 
 from the lungs. 
 
 Phrenic Nerve. — A nerve that passes 
 through the thorax, over the heart, to the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 Phrenitis. — Inflammation of the brain. 
 
 Physic. — In stable language, the term 
 is applied to purgative medicines. 
 
 Physiology. — That branch of medical 
 science which describes the functions of 
 every part of the body. 
 
 PiA Mater. — A delicate membrane, 
 that closely invests the brain. 
 
 Pitch, Burgundy. — A resin obtained 
 from fir ; it is used in the composition of 
 plasters and charges. 
 
 Placenta. — The afterbirth. 
 
 Plate Vein. — A large vein that runs 
 from the inside of the fore leg to the chest. 
 
 Plethora. — A fulness of vessels. Horses 
 are often brought into this state from over- 
 feeding, and want of sufficient exercise. It 
 is known by heaviness, dulness, unwilling- 
 ness to work. The urine is high-colored, 
 and the dung generally hard and slimy. 
 The cure consists in the reduction of the 
 quantity of food, warm mashes, and regular 
 exercise. 
 
 given internally, and in spite of another bleeding, and 
 some subordinate measures, carried him off [the treat- 
 ment, we presume] in the course of a few hours. 
 
 " Dissection : a slight blush pervaded the peritoneum, 
 at least the parietal portion of it, for the coats of the stom- 
 ach and intestines preserved then- natural whiteness. 
 About eight gallons of water were measured out of the 
 belly. The abdominal viscera, as well as the thoracic, 
 showed no marks of disease." 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 281 
 
 Pleura. — The membrane which covers 
 the lungs so closely as to appear a part of 
 their substance. 
 
 Pleurisy, Pleuritis. — Inflammation of 
 the pleura. 
 
 Plexus. — A net\vork of blood-vessels or 
 nerves. 
 
 Pneumonia. — A general term for inflam- 
 mation of the lungs. 
 
 Poisons. — Articles which impede or de- 
 stroy the vital operations. Some people 
 proclaim that all food is poison ; that the 
 difference in the effect produced lies in the 
 qtiantity given. We deny this : good corn, 
 oats, and hay, whose nature is to nourish 
 and support the animal, can never be a legit- 
 imate cause of disease. Its excess in quan- 
 tity, and its chemical decomposition for 
 want of digestive power, are aU of true food 
 that can prove injurious. On the other 
 hand, experience teaches us that opium, 
 arsenic, corrosive sublimate, tobacco, and 
 calomel are inimical to the animal organ- 
 ization, and will never change their chemi- 
 cal equivalents. A grain of arsenic will 
 always be a grain of that poison, and can 
 be detected after death : the same applies 
 to opium. A very few grains of opium in- 
 jected into the carotid artery of a dog 
 killed him in four minutes ; when the same 
 quantity was injected into a vein, the ani- 
 mal lived twenty-five minutes. "When 
 injected into the bladder, it required a 
 larger quantity to destroy life. 
 
 Again: one drop of the oil of tobacco 
 applied on the tongue of a rabbit killed him 
 instantly; one drop applied to the same 
 organ of a cat, threw her into convulsions ; 
 two drops placed on the tongue of a squirrel 
 killed it instantly. Hence, it does not re- 
 quire much penetration in order to decide 
 what is and what is not poison. Animals 
 often get, apparently, well, although large 
 quantities of the above poisons have been 
 given. This is no proof that the poisons 
 cured them. In the early stage of the dis- 
 ease, the constitution can bear more vio- 
 lence — blood-letting and poisoning — than 
 when it becomes debilitated. This explains 
 the reason why large quantities of opium 
 
 may be given to a horse at a certain time, 
 without any perceptible effect ; at another 
 time, one-half the quantity will destroy 
 him. 
 
 Poll-Evil. — An obstinate disease, which 
 often happens to horses. It generally pro- 
 ceeds from a blow received upon the poll 
 or back part of the head. 
 
 Porta. — The name of the great vein of 
 the liver. 
 
 Poultice, or Cataplasm. — The emol- 
 lient poultice may be composed of equal 
 parts of slippery elm and flaxseed. The 
 intentions to be answered by poultices are 
 relaxation and stimulation. To relax a part, 
 add to the above emollient, lobelia ; when it 
 is necessary to stimulate, use cayenne. 
 Poultices that are designed for foul ulcers, 
 in addition to the above articles, should 
 contain at least one-third powdered char- 
 coal. 
 
 Prevention of Disease. — It is an old, 
 but true saying, that prevention is better 
 than cure, and, we may safely add, less ex- 
 pensive. 
 
 Pricks, or Pricking. — In shoeing a 
 horse, the nail is sometimes driven in a 
 wrong direction, and the sensible parts are 
 wounded ; he is then said to be pricked. 
 When a horse has been slightly pricked, 
 and the nail immediately withdrawn, it may 
 not be followed by lameness ; but, when 
 the wound is considerable, matter will form ; 
 if the matter is not let out by paring away 
 the horn, it quickly spreads under the horny 
 sole, and upwards through the laminated 
 substance of the foot, and breaks out at 
 the coronet. (See Coronet.) To prevent 
 this, the parts, as soon as the accident has 
 happened, should be bathed with healing 
 balsam. If the horse goes lame for several 
 days, a poultice must be applied to promote 
 suppuration. 
 
 Primje Vi^. — The first passages, or 
 stomach, and first intestines. 
 
 Probang. — Ail instrument for removing 
 any obstruction in the oesophagus or gullet. 
 It consists of a rather flexible rod, covered 
 with leather, with a round, smooth knob at 
 one end. 
 
282 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 Probe. — An insti-ument for examiiiing 
 wounds. 
 
 Prolapsus. — The falling down of a part, 
 as of the uterus or fundament. 
 
 Psoas Muscles. — The muscles that lie 
 under the loins. These muscles are some- 
 times injured in strains of the loins. 
 
 Pulmonary Diseases. — Diseases of the 
 lungs. 
 
 Pulmonary Vessels. — The blood-ves- 
 sels and air-vessels of the lungs, which con- 
 sist of the pulmonary artery and vein, and 
 the bronchia, or branches of the windpipe. 
 
 Pulse. — The beating of the arteries. 
 The horse's pulse is most conveniently felt 
 in that part of the carotid artery which 
 passes under the angle of the lower jaw. 
 
 Puncta Lachrymalia. — Two orifices 
 near the inner corner of the eye, through 
 which the tears pass. 
 
 Pupil. — A part of the eye. 
 
 Pus. — The white matter formed by the 
 process of suppuration. 
 
 Pylorus. — The inferior portion of the 
 stomach. 
 
 Quarter III, or Quarter Evil. — 
 There is a variety of names given to this 
 disorder, such as joint murrain, or gar- 
 get, black quarter, quarter evil, black leg, 
 etc. The true causes of this disease are 
 generally too liberal an allowance of food, 
 or a sudden transition from poor keep to 
 luxurious and nutritious diet. In some 
 cases the energy of the body is lessened by 
 exposure to cold and wet ; hence the quar- 
 ters and feet sweU, and it is this circum- 
 stance which has given rise to the name 
 by wliich the disorder is commonly known. 
 The approach of this complaint is generally 
 indicated by the animal separating himself 
 from his companions; by his appearing 
 dull, listless, and heavy, and by his refusing 
 food. The more immediate symptoms are 
 lameness and swelling of the hind quarters, 
 and occasionally of the shoulders or back. 
 These swellings, when pressed, make a 
 crackling noise. (See Emphysema.) The 
 mouth and tongue are frequently found 
 blistered in this disease. A spare diet, and 
 keeping the animal in a dry barn, are strictly 
 
 to be attended to, with an occasional dose 
 of nitrate of potassa, and clysters of thin 
 gruel and common salt. By this means 
 the disease may be subdued. If the dis- 
 ease first appears in the foot, a charcoal 
 poultice must be applied. 
 
 Rack Bones. — The vertebrse of the 
 back. 
 
 Radius. — The bone of the fore-arm. 
 
 Raking. — (See Back Raking.) 
 
 IJ.ECTUM. — (See Intestines.) 
 
 Red-Water. — This disease often attacks 
 cows, and is named from the red appear- 
 ance of the urine. 
 
 Respiration. — The act of breathing; 
 which includes inspiration, or the taking in 
 of air by the lungs, and expiration, or the 
 act of discharging it. 
 
 Ringbone. — A bony excrescence on the 
 lower part of the pastern, generally, but not 
 always, causing lameness. 
 
 Roaring. — A disease which takes its 
 name from the wheezing noise the horse 
 makes in breathing, when put into quick 
 motion. It is supposed by most veterinary 
 writers to be caused by an effusion of lymph 
 in the windpipe. Our own view of the 
 subject is, that it is owing to a contraction 
 of the respiratory tubes. 
 
 Rosemary. — The essential oil of this 
 shrub is a useful ingredient in stimulating 
 liniments. 
 
 Rot. — A disease of sheep, resembling 
 pulmonary consumption, compKcated with 
 dropsy. Its causes are flooded lands and 
 unsubstantial food. 
 
 Rowels. — These are considered as arti- 
 ficial abscesses, or drains. They act on the 
 principle of making one disease to cure 
 another. 
 
 Rumination. — Chewing the cud. 
 
 Rupture. — A swelling caused by the 
 protrusion of some parts of the bowels out 
 of the cavity of the abdomen into a kind 
 of sac, formed by that portion of the peri- 
 toneum (which see) which is pushed be- 
 fore it. 
 
 Sacrum. — That part of the back bone 
 from which the tail proceeds. 
 
 Saliva. — Spittle. 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 283 
 
 Salivation. — A profuse and continued 
 flow of saliva. 
 
 Sand Crack. — A perpendicular crack on 
 the side or quarter of the hoof. 
 
 Sanies. — A bloody or greenish matter, 
 which is sometimes discharged from foul 
 ulcers. 
 
 Sarsaparilla. — An infusion of equal 
 parts of sarsaparilla and sassafras is useful 
 for animals when the blood is loaded with 
 morbific agents. 
 
 Scapula. — The shoulder blade. 
 
 Scarf Skin. — (See Cuticle.) 
 
 Scarification. — An incision of the skin 
 with a lancet. 
 
 SciRRHus. — An indolent, hard tumor. 
 
 Sclerotic Coat. — (See Eye.) 
 
 Scouring. — A scouring, or purging, is 
 common among all our domestic animals. 
 It is not a disease, but only a symptom of 
 a loss of equilibrium, which may proceed 
 from improper food, exposure to the cold and 
 rain, which, of course, includes a loss of 
 caloric, or heat. There is no general rem- 
 edy, or one more speedy and effectual in 
 the onset than mucilaginous drinks com- 
 posed of slippery elm, combined with injec- 
 tions of the same. Warmth and moisture 
 to the surface, and antispasmodics (which 
 see), combined with astringents (bayberry 
 bark is the best, in doses of half a table- 
 spoonful every six hours), will seldom fail 
 to effect a cure. 
 
 Scratches. — Troublesome sores about 
 the heels, depending on morbific agents in 
 the system ; for the cure of which, see 
 " Modern Horse Doctor." 
 
 Scrotum. — The bag or covering of the 
 testicles. 
 
 Secretion. — The word secretion is used 
 to express that function. 
 
 Serum. — The watery part of the blood. 
 
 Sessamoid Bones. — Two small bones on 
 the back part of the fetlock joint. 
 
 Sinew-Sprung. — A term sometimes ap- 
 plied to strains in the back sinews. 
 
 Sitfast. — A horny kind of scab, which 
 forms on the skin in consequence of a 
 saddle-gall. 
 
 Skin. — (See Cutis.) 
 
 Slipping. — (See Abortion.) 
 
 Sole. — (See Foot, part first.) ^ 
 
 Spasm. — An involuntary and continued 
 contraction of muscles ; thus, lockjaw de- 
 pends on a spasmodic contraction of mus- 
 cles. 
 
 Spavin. — A disease of the horse's hock, 
 which generally causes lameness. Spavins 
 are of two kinds : the bone, and the bog or 
 blood, spavin. The former consists of a 
 bony enlargement of the inside of the hock 
 joint, towards the lower part ; the latter, of 
 a soft but elastic tumor, towards the bend 
 of the joint. Mr. Percivall remarks: " Not- 
 withstanding our confessed inability to cure 
 this disease, we are often called on to treat 
 it, as to the removal of it by means of a 
 chisel, file, or saw. Although the practice 
 is exceedingly commendable in cases of 
 common exostosis, it is not so well adapted 
 to spavin ; those who employ such means 
 seldom fail to leave the parts ultimately in 
 a worse state than they found them. Om- 
 most successful remedies are such as come 
 under the denomination of counter-irri- 
 tants." 
 
 Spermatic Cord. — The vessels, etc., by 
 which the testicles are suspended, consist- 
 ing of the spermatic artery and vein, the 
 vas deferens, or seed duct, cremaster mus- 
 cle, and cellular membrane. 
 
 Sphincter. — A name given to muscles 
 whose fibres are arranged in a circular di- 
 rection, and whose office is to shut up the 
 parts to which they are attached ; such are 
 the sphincter of the neck of the bladder, 
 and the muscles which close the funda- 
 ment. 
 
 Spine. — The spine of the neck and back 
 is composed of many small bones named 
 vertebrae. Seven belong to the neck, eight- 
 een to the back, six to the loins, five to the 
 sacrum, and in the tail there are about thir- 
 teen. 
 
 Spleen, or Milt. — A soft substance, of 
 a long, oval form, and purple color. It 
 seems to be a reservoir for the blood that 
 may be designed for the secretion of bile in 
 the liver. 
 
 Splents. — These are bony excrescences, 
 
284 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 which grow on the inside of the shank 
 bone. 
 
 Staggers. — This is named from the 
 staggering gait of the animal. It may be 
 br6ught on by the horse eating too greedily, 
 swallowing Ms food when imperfectly 
 chewed, or eating freely of food that is dif- 
 ficult of digestion. Horses of rather an ad- 
 vanced age, and weak digestive organs, 
 when improperly fed, or when a large quan- 
 tity of meal is allowed, are very liable to 
 apoplexy, or staggers. The disease is gen- 
 erally symptomatic of derangement of the 
 stomach, indigestion, and over-distention of 
 the digestive organs. 
 
 Sternum. — The breast bone. 
 
 Stifle Joint. — This joint is composed 
 of the bones called os femoris, tibia, and 
 patella. (See Skeleton.) 
 
 Stopping. — A mixture of clay and cow- 
 dung is employed for the purpose of stop- 
 ping horses' feet, and keeping them moist. 
 
 Strains. — For all kinds of strains, rest 
 is the best remedy ; sometimes they require 
 poultices, fomentations, etc. The .latter 
 will be indicated by pain and swelling. 
 
 Stubs. — When a horse is wounded by 
 a splinter of wood, about the foot or leg, he 
 is said to be stubbed. 
 
 Styptics. — Medicines which stop bleed- 
 ing. The most effectual method of stopping 
 bleeding is to tie the wounded vessel. 
 
 SuDORiFics. — Medicines which excite 
 sweating. It is very difficult to sweat a 
 horse, except the process be assisted by 
 warmth and vapor -externally. Lobelia, 
 pennyroyal, and capsicum, promote the in- 
 sensible perspiration ; they must be given 
 in infusion to the amount of half a gallon 
 or more. 
 
 Sulphur. — Used in cutaneous diseases, 
 as an alterative. 
 
 Sweetbread. — (See Pancreas.) 
 
 Synovia, Joint Oil. — A mucilaginous 
 fluid formed -wdthin joints, to render motion 
 easy, or diminish friction. 
 
 Tansy. — A medicine used to expel 
 worms. 
 
 Tar. — Common tar is used as an astrin- 
 gent for horses' feet. 
 
 Tartar, Cream of. — Used on horses to 
 promote the secretion of m'ine. 
 
 Tenaculum. — A kind of hook, for taking 
 up an artery. 
 
 Tendo Achillis. — The great tendon, 
 which is fixed or inserted into the calca- 
 neum, or projecting bone of the hock. 
 
 Tendon. — The white shining extremity 
 of a muscle. 
 
 Tenesmus. — Continual efforts to void 
 dung, withoxat any discharge. 
 
 Tent. — A piece of lint, or tow, smeared 
 with ointment, and thrust into a sore, in 
 order to prevent a too hasty and superficial 
 healing. 
 
 Thoracic Duct. — The trunk of the ab- 
 sorbents. (See Absorbents, part first.) 
 
 Thrush. — A disease has lately prevailed 
 to a great extent in the New England States, 
 which deserves some consideration. It is 
 called thrush, and is supposed to be a dis- 
 ease of the horse's frog, consisting in a dis- 
 charge of matter from its cleft, or division ; 
 sometimes the other parts of the frog are 
 also affected, — become soft, ragged, and 
 incapable of affording protection to the 
 sensitive frog, which it covers. We cannot 
 agree with many writers, that thrush is a 
 strictly local disease ; for, after it has passed 
 through the different stages; viz., inflamma- 
 tion, suppuration, etc., the whole system 
 takes up the diseased action, either by sym- 
 pathy or irritation. Hence the reader will 
 see the folly of depending on local agents, 
 in the form of ointments, for the cure of the 
 disease, in which all the organs are more or 
 less concerned. 
 
 The internal remedies we recommend, 
 are alteratives; remove the cause, if any 
 exist, ill the form of bad ventilation, poor 
 diet, hard work, partial grooming, or the 
 sluicing of cold water on the legs. Let 
 the animal have bran mashes, with a few 
 boiled carrots, every night. 
 
 The local remedies consist in paring 
 away the ragged or uneven parts of the frog ; 
 then wash the surface with castile soap and 
 lukewarm water ; afterwards with a solution 
 of common salt, in the following propor- 
 tions : one tablespoonful Liverpool salt to 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 285 
 
 a pint of rain water ; then apply linseed 
 oil, spirits of turpentine, pyroligneous acid, 
 — equal parts, — in the cleft of the frog ; 
 let the whole surface be covered with tow, 
 then upon the tow place a flat piece of 
 wood, about the width of the frog, — one 
 of the ends passing under the toe of the 
 shoe, the other extending to the back part 
 of the frog, and bound down by transverse 
 slips of wood, the ends of which are to be 
 placed under the shoe. The moderate pres- 
 sure thus applied will contribute materially 
 to the cure and to the production of solid 
 horn. This dressing must be repeated daily. 
 If, after this treatment, matter should dis- 
 charge, the heel contract, and the horn 
 soften, then apply a poultice of Indian meal, 
 with half a tablespoonful of cayenne pep- 
 per on the surface, washing the foot, as 
 above, every night. 
 
 Tibia. — The bone of the horse's thigh ; 
 that is, the bone between the hock and the 
 stifle. 
 
 Ticks. — Insects that infest sheep and 
 other animals. A strong infusion of lobe- 
 lia will destroy them. 
 
 Tongue. — The tongue is a muscular 
 substance, composed of fibres variously ar- 
 ranged, by which it is rendered capable of 
 that diversity of action which we observe ; 
 it has also several muscles attached to it. 
 The small bone, to which it has a muscular 
 attachment, is named os hyoides. 
 
 Tonics. — Medicines that augment the 
 strength of the body, such as gentian, wild 
 cherry, poplar bark, etc. 
 
 Training. — By the word training is 
 meant, putting a horse in that state in 
 which aU the functions of the body are in 
 equilibrium. In order to bring a horse into 
 this desirable state, we refer the reader to 
 the " Modern Horse Doctor." 
 
 Tubercles. — Small tumors that some- 
 times suppurate and discharge pus ; they 
 are often found in the lungs. 
 
 Tumor. — A swelling on any part of the 
 body. Tumors are of various kinds : some- 
 times caused by bruises, or other accidents ' 
 at others, arising without any visible cause. 
 
 Tunic. — A coat, or membrane, investing 
 
 a part ; such as the tunica vaginalis of the 
 testicles. 
 
 TuRGESCENCE. — All over-fulucss of the 
 vessels in any part. 
 
 Tumeric. — Tumeric root, an aromatic 
 stimulant, sometimes used in jaundice or 
 yellows. 
 
 Twitch. — An instrument made by fix- 
 ing a noose, or cord, to the end of a stick ; 
 this is put on the horse's upper lip and 
 twisted rather tight, which makes him stand 
 quiet during an operation. 
 
 Tympany. — A distention of the abdo- 
 men by air. 
 
 Typhus. — Putrid fever. 
 
 Udder. — The udder is a glandular body, 
 whose office is to secrete milk. It is di- 
 vided, in the cow, into four quarters ; each 
 of which has an excretory duct, or teat, 
 whose office is to facilitate the extraction 
 of milk. At the extremity of each teat is 
 a contrivance for the purpose of retaining 
 the ffuid contained in the udder, until it be- 
 comes much distended ; when, if not drawn 
 off", it flows spontaneously, and the animal 
 is thereby partly relieved of her burden. 
 Sometimes the udder swells and becomes 
 sore, as is often caused by improper feed- 
 ing. As there is great sympathy existing 
 between the stomach and udder, whatever 
 deranges the former will also affect the lat- 
 ter, through the medium of sympathetic 
 action. In this case, the cow should be 
 drenched with a tea of pennyroyal and thor- 
 oughwort, and fed on gruel. The udder 
 should be fomented with an infusion of 
 muUen leaves. Should the swelling con- 
 tinue, and appear painful, the following 
 embrocation may be used : linseed oil and 
 lime-water, equal parts, mix. K an abscess 
 forms, and matter can be felt, it should be 
 opened at its most depending part, so that 
 the matter may run freely off". 
 
 Ulcers. — There are quite a variety of 
 ulcers to be found in animals ; the most of 
 them will heal by the application of' a mild 
 astringent, or tonic, such as an infusion of 
 bayberry bark, or the tincture of capsicum. 
 If it be foul or callous in any part, then 
 powdered bloodroot will be proper. 
 
286 
 
 A DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ureters^ — Two small tubes by which 
 the larine is conveyed from the kidneys to 
 the bladder. 
 
 Urethra. — A membranous and muscu- 
 lar tube by which the urine is conveyed from 
 the bladder ; it is of considerable length in 
 the horse. 
 
 Urine, Excessive Discharge of. — (See 
 Diabetes.) 
 
 Urine, Incontinence of. — (See Incon- 
 tinence.) 
 
 Uterus. — The womb. The uterus of 
 the mare is very unlike that of the human 
 subject, in whom it consists of one bag, 
 rather of an oval shape, somewhat resem- 
 bling a pear; but in the mare and other quad- 
 rupeds it has a body and two branches, 
 called its horns. The uterus terminates in 
 the vagina by a narrow portion, called the 
 neck or mouth of the womb. The extrem- 
 ities of these horns have tubes attached to 
 them, which, from the name of the discov- 
 erer, are called Fallopian tubes ; one end 
 of each is expanded, and has a fringed land 
 of edge : this is named the fimbria of the 
 Fallopian tube. The Fallopian tube is 
 very tortuous in its form ; and that end 
 which proceeds from the horn of the uterus 
 is extremely small ; but the other, which is 
 slightly attached to the ovarium, is consid- 
 erably larger. The ovarium is an oblong 
 body, about the size of a small hen's egg. 
 The ovaria — for there are two of them — 
 are composed of a number of transparent 
 vesiculae, called ova (eggs) ; each ovum is 
 surrounded with cellular membrane ; and 
 when the ovum is impregnated and passes 
 into the uterus, it leaves a mark which is 
 named corpus luteum. 
 
 Uvula. — In the human subject, the 
 small flesh-like substance hanging in the 
 middle and back part of the throat, is thus 
 named. In the horse, this is of a very dif- 
 ferent form. The uvula completely closes 
 the opening to the pharynx, though it read- 
 ily yields to the passage of food, or any 
 liquid, toward the gullet ; it prevents, also, 
 the retmrn of anything to the mouth, even 
 the air which is exph-ed from the lungs, un- 
 less it be thrown aside by a violent effort. 
 
 as in coughing. It is on this account that, 
 when the horse is affected with nausea, or 
 has the action of the stomach biverted, — 
 which sometimes happens, though very 
 rarely, — the contents of the stomach will be 
 discharged through the nostrils ; but if the 
 horse happens to cough during the process, 
 some part will be discharged by the mouth. 
 
 Vagina. — The passage from the external 
 pudendum, or shape, to the mouth of the 
 womb. 
 
 Valerian.— The root of valerian is used 
 as an antispasmodic ; its virtues have been 
 underrated by writers on veterinary medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Veins. — The motion of the heart is 
 known to communicate momentum to the 
 blood through the veins. Mr. Percivall 
 says : " We are not to reject the power of 
 the heart altogether, merely because the 
 blood flows ^vith a uniform stream in the 
 veins ; for the absence of pulsation in them 
 is no proof that the motion of the blood is 
 not influenced by the contractions of the 
 heart ; the extreme division which this fluid 
 undergoes in its circulation through the 
 capillaries, and the tortuosity and complica- 
 tion of the numberless small veins, account 
 for the regular and uninterrupted stream 
 which we meet with in the larger branches. 
 To prove that this is the explanation of the 
 fact, if you open a vein jthat has free and 
 direct communication with the extremity 
 of an artery (its capillary structure), the 
 blood will flow from it with the same pul- 
 satory motion as if the artery itself had 
 been penetrated : but if the vein be one of 
 large size, remotely situated from any arte- 
 rial communication, or if it be one that 
 springs from the union of numerous capil- 
 laries, that smooth and even stream, with 
 which the blood circulates in the trunks, 
 wiU be observable here. These facts, then, 
 lead us to conclude that the force of the 
 heart is not suflicient of itself to propel 
 blood through the venous system." 
 
 From the collected accounts of writers 
 on this subject, it seems highly probable, 
 that the blood flowing in the veins receives 
 additional momentum from the reaction of 
 
A DICTIONARY. 
 
 2§1 
 
 the capillaries, and that it is further urged 
 on by some contractile force resident in 
 these vessels themselves. That the blood 
 is advanced in its course by the action of 
 those muscles contiguous to veins furnished 
 with valves, is, without doubt, well founded, 
 as far as an occasional auxiliary is con- 
 cerned, as the common operation of bleed- 
 ing demonstrates ; for it is in consequence 
 of muscular pressure upon the veins about 
 the head, that the motion of a horse's jaw 
 accelerates the flow of blood through the 
 jugular vein: as such, however, it cannot 
 be ranked among the essential causes of 
 the blood's motion in them. 
 
 Ventricle. — One of the cavities of the 
 heart. (See Heart.) 
 
 Vermifuge. — Medicines that destroy or 
 expel worms. 
 
 Vertebra. — The bones of the neck 
 and spine. 
 
 Vertigo. — A slight degree of apoplexy. 
 
 Viscera. — The plural of viscus, a term 
 applied to the internal organs, as the lungs, 
 bowels, etc. 
 
 VivES. — A swelling of the parotid gland, 
 which is situated between the ear and the 
 angle of the jaw. 
 
 Vulva. — A name given to the external 
 parts of generation in females. 
 
 Wall Eyes. — A horse is said to have 
 a wall eye, when the iris is of a light or 
 white color. 
 
 Warbles. — Small, hard swellings on the 
 horse's back, caused by the pressure, or 
 heat, of the saddle. 
 
 Warts. — Spongy excrescences which 
 arise in various parts of the body. 
 
 Wens.- — Hard ttimors, of various sizes, 
 in different parts of the body. The most 
 effectual method of removing them is to dis- 
 sect them out, together with the cyst, or 
 bag, in which they are formed. The skin 
 is then to be sutured, and treated as a com- 
 mon wound. 
 
 Whirl Bone, or Round Bone. — The 
 hip joint is thus named. 
 
 Wind. — The most effectual method of 
 bringing a horse to his wind, is to give him 
 regular exercise. 
 
 Windgalls. — Elastic tumors on each 
 side of the back sinews, immediately above 
 the fetlock joint ; they are often caused by 
 hard work, or trotting on hard roads, at too 
 early an age. There are various operations 
 recommended, such as firing, blistering, etc.; 
 but the remedy is generally worse than the 
 disease. Rest, bandaging, and the occa- 
 sional use of liniment, is all that can be 
 done with safety. 
 
 Withers. — The part where the mane 
 ends is thus named in the horse. 
 
 Worms. — The stomach and bowels of 
 horses are liable to be infested with different 
 kinds of worms ; but as the same treatment 
 is proper, of whatever kind they may be, it 
 is needless to enter into a particular descrip- 
 tion of them. Many articles are recom- 
 mended by veterinary writers, for the pur- 
 pose of ridding the animal of these pests, 
 viz., antimony, calomel, turpentine, either of 
 which would be just as likely to kill the 
 horse as the worms. The true indications 
 to be fulfilled are to tone up the stomach 
 and digestive organs.* 
 
 Yard, Fallen. — (See Falling of the 
 Yard.) 
 
 Yard, Foul. — The horse's penis some- 
 times requires to be washed with soap and 
 water, in order to free it from mucous 
 matter and dirt. 
 
 Yellows. — This disease is indicated by 
 a yeffowness of the membranes that line 
 the eyelid, and the inner parts of the lips 
 and mouth. In this disease, the natural 
 course of the bile is perverted ; it becomes 
 absorbed into the cii'culation, and thus 
 tinges the membranes and fluids of a yel- 
 low color. The excrement is generally of a 
 lighter color than usual. The disease may 
 be produced by a want of tone in the liver, 
 caused by obstructing the surface. 
 
 * Dr. J. Hinds says, " Since the worms are not always 
 to be killed, even by strong poisons (calomel), nor brought 
 away by brisk purgatives, reason dictates and nature 
 beckons us to follow her course in affording to the horse a 
 run at grass ; if that is impossible, adopt the means nearest 
 thereto that lie within our reach." If calomel is a poison, 
 — and thousands declare it is, — then it must entail a 
 disease more fniTnidalile than the one it is intended to cure. 
 
APPENDIX TO PART FIRST. 
 
 LIGAMENTARY MECHANISM OF 
 ARTICULATIONS. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS OF THE TRUNK. 
 
 Ligaments of the spine. — Those between 
 the head and first and second vertebrae are : 
 
 Lateral ligaments, one on each side, that 
 run from the coronoid processes of the occi- 
 pital bone to the fore part of the atlas, and 
 are fixed in the roots of the transverse pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 Suspensory ligament of the head is a broad 
 ligament enclosed within the capsular. It 
 proceeds from the body of the atlas to the 
 occipital bone. 
 
 Capsular ligament is attached to the occi- 
 pital bone, around the roots of the condy- 
 loid process, and to the anterior articular 
 processes of the atlas. 
 
 Superior ligament runs from the long ring 
 of the atlas to the spine of the vertebra 
 dentata. 
 
 Odontoid ligaments are three in number : 
 the two long pass from the sides of the 
 process dentata to the occipital condyles ; 
 the last runs from the point of that process 
 to the anterior and inferior parts of the 
 atlas. 
 
 Inferior ligament runs from the inferior 
 spinous process of the fii-st to the second 
 vertebra. 
 
 The ligaments common to the spine are : 
 
 Intervertebral ligaments. — They are the 
 chief bond of union by which one vertebra 
 is bound to another. 
 
 The common inferior and superior Hga- 
 vients. — The former passes obliquely along 
 the inferior parts of the vertebrEe, and the 
 latter runs within the spinal canal. 
 
 Capsular ligaments surround the smooth 
 
 37 
 
 cartilaginous surfaces of the articulatory 
 processes. 
 
 Intertransverse ligaments fix the trans- 
 verse processes of the dorsal vertebrae to- 
 gether. 
 
 Interspinous ligaments are found between 
 the spinous processes of the back and loins. 
 
 Ligamentum subflavum (or nuchse) ex- 
 tends from the occipital bone to the tail. It 
 covers and connects the spmous processes 
 of the back, loins, sacrum, and coccyx. 
 This ligament forms a strong connecting 
 medium between the spines of the ver- 
 tebrae. 
 
 Ligaments of the pelvis. — Two superior 
 transverse ligaments are fixed to the trans- 
 verse processes of these bones above ; two 
 inferior, below, run from the fom-th and fifth 
 transverse processes of the loins to the crest 
 of the ileum. Sacro-iliac symphysis con- 
 sists of a cartilago-ligamentous substance 
 interposed between, and fii-mly adherent to, 
 the transverse processes of the sacrum and 
 the inward part of the ileum. This union 
 is strengthened by ligamentary bands, which 
 run from the posterior spine, and border of 
 the ileum, to the transverse process of the 
 sacrum. 
 
 Sacro-sciatic ligaments are broad expan- 
 sions stretched across the sacro-sciatic 
 notch. They arise from the transverse pro- 
 cesses of the sacrum, and those of two or 
 three uppermost bones of the coccyx, and 
 are extended to the posterior parts of the 
 Ueum and ischium, and to the tuberosity 
 of the latter. 
 
 Obturator ligament is an expansion, thin- 
 ner than the last, wliich passes across the 
 foramen magnum ischii. 
 
 Ligament of the symphysis is the carti- 
 
 (289 > 
 
290 
 
 APPENDIX TO PAET FIRST. 
 
 lago-ligamentous substance which unites the 
 pubic bones. 
 
 Ligaments of the ribs. — Every rib is con- 
 nected to two vertebra by four ligaments, 
 viz., two capsular, internal and external lig- 
 aments. 
 
 Capsular ligament of the head invests and 
 holds it within the vertebral socket. Two 
 articular cavities are found \\dthin it, one 
 with each vertebrae, which have separate 
 synovial linings. 
 
 Capsular ligament of the tubercle sur- 
 rounds it at its articulation with the trans- 
 verse process of the vertebra. 
 
 External and internal ligaments consist 
 of strong fibres, which connect the neck of 
 the rib, above and below, to the spine. 
 
 Intercostal ligaments are broad fibrous 
 bands which run obliquely across the inter- 
 costal spaces, and hold the ribs and their 
 cartilage firmly together. 
 
 Sternal ligaments. — These several pieces 
 of the breast bone are united to each other 
 by intervening cartilaginous substance ; in 
 addition to which they are connected by 
 ligamentary bands, both inwardly and out- 
 wardly. The fore part of it is surmounted 
 by a broad portion of cartilage, which runs 
 along its under part. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. 
 
 Shoulder joint. — The capsular ligament 
 around this joint is strengthened in many 
 places by additional fibres dispersed upon 
 its exterior. It is fixed to the rough margui 
 of the glenoid cavity, and to the neck of 
 the OS humeri. A synovial membrane lines 
 it, which may be followed upon the carti- 
 laginous surfaces of the bones. Externally, 
 this ligamentous capsule is clothed on every 
 side by muscles, and to them is attributed 
 the main strength of the joint. 
 
 Elbow joint. — The ligaments of it are 
 two lateral and a capsular. 
 
 Knee joint. — In the knee there are five 
 distinct articulations ; one between the ra- 
 dius and the three small bones of the upper 
 row ; a second between the small bones, 
 above and below ; a thud betAveen those 
 of the lower row and the metacarpal bones; 
 a fourth between the os trapezium and the 
 
 OS cuneiforme; and a fifth between the os 
 pisiforme and os trapezoides ; they have all 
 separate capsular ligaments and synovial 
 linings. 
 
 The ligaments of the knee, and the ten- 
 dons passing over it, are gu-t by broad, 
 glistening, ligamentous bands, which retain 
 the latter in their places, and render the 
 joint stronger and more compact. Between 
 these ligaments, fascia, and the extensor 
 tendons, are some small bursse. 
 
 External lateral ligament runs from a 
 tubercle upon the radius to the head of the 
 external metacarpal bone. 
 
 Internal lateral ligament consists of two 
 parts, which proceed from a similar tubercle 
 upon the inside, and from the body of the 
 radius. The longer is fixed to the inner 
 head of the metacarpal bone, and the 
 shorter to the fore part, of the metacarpal. 
 
 Ligamentum annulare passes from the os 
 trapezium to the ossa scaphoides and cunei- 
 forme : it confines the flexor tendons. 
 
 Fetlock joint. — Capsular ligament is at- 
 tached to the articulatory sm-faces of these 
 bones; and the synovial membrane, after hav- 
 ing lined it, is reflected upon their cartilages : 
 it ig guarded in front by the extensor tendon. 
 
 Long lateral ligament is fixed to a projec- 
 tion upon the side of the metacarpal bone, 
 and to the os suffraginis. 
 
 Short lateral ligament runs underneath 
 the latter. These Ligaments prevent motion 
 sideways. 
 
 The ligaments of the sessamoid bones 
 are seven, viz.: superior suspensory, the 
 long inferior, the short inferior, the two lat- 
 eral, and the two crucial. 
 
 Pastern joint is formed by the adaptation 
 of the ossa suffraginis and corona. It has a 
 capsular, and two pairs of lateral ligaments. 
 
 The capsular ligament is inserted into the 
 smooth cartilaginous ends of these bones : 
 it is blended vnih the extensor tendon in 
 front, and behind with the long inferior lig- 
 aments of the sessamoids. 
 
 The lateral ligaments are inserted on the 
 sides of the os coronse and suffi-aginis, 
 
 Cojfm joint is made up of three bones : 
 the os corona, pedis, and naviculare. 
 
LIGAMENTAET SYSTEM. 
 
 291 
 
 Capsular ligament envelopes the articula- 
 tory surfaces, and is inserted beyond their 
 limits ; in front it is united with the exten- 
 sor tendon ; behind, it is sh-engthened by 
 the tendo perforans. Li addition to the 
 capsular, there are three pairs of ligaments. 
 
 Tlie first pair passes from the superior 
 edges of the os pedis to the lateral parts of 
 the OS corona, and are inserted about its 
 middle. 
 
 The second pair is sti-etched from the ex- 
 tremities of the OS pedis to the os corona, 
 and are fixed below and behind the first. 
 
 Third pair arise from the sides of the 
 coronal process, and terminate in the car- 
 tilages. 
 
 The ligaments of the os naviculare are 
 four, viz. : t\vo single, and one pafr. 
 
 Superior ligament runs fi-om its upper 
 and posterior part to the tendo-perforans. 
 
 Inferior is a very broad ligament, arising 
 from the whole of the lower edge of the 
 bone, and thence extending to the os pedis, 
 above the long extensor tendon. 
 
 Lateral ligaments fix the os naviculare, 
 by its two ends, to the sides of the os 
 corona. 
 
 ARTICULATIONS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. 
 
 The thigh joint is formed by the reception 
 of the head of the os femoris into its socket. 
 
 Capsular ligament is attached aromid the 
 cervix of the os femoris and the margin of 
 the acetabulum ; it is thickly clothed on 
 every side by muscle, which assists to main- 
 tain its position. 
 
 The acetabulum is surrounded by the 
 circular ligament, whose border turns in- 
 ward to embrace the cartilaginous head of 
 the OS femoris. 
 
 The notch in this cavity, to its inward 
 side, is crossed by the transverse ligament, 
 which here makes up for the deficiency in 
 the bone. 
 
 Ligamentum teres consists of a bundle of 
 ligamentous fibres inclosed in a sheath 
 which proceed from a pit in the inner and 
 upper part of the ball to a similar one in 
 the roof of the socket. Another portion of 
 it leaves the cavity under the transverse 
 ligament, and is implanted in the pubes. 
 
 The synovial membrane lines the socket, 
 and is reflected over these parts. 
 
 Stifle joint is composed of the os femoris, 
 the tibia, and patella. 
 
 Ligamenta patella are composed of four 
 strong cords, which descend over the con- 
 dyles of the OS femoris, and are inserted 
 into the tubercle of the tibia. The external 
 one passes upon the outer and anterior 
 part of the external condyle ; the internal, 
 upon the inward part of the internal con- 
 dyle ; and the middle one, between them. 
 They approach each other in their descent. 
 Concealed by the external one is the fourth 
 ligament of the patella ; it runs to the out- 
 ward part of the tibia. 
 
 The patella, with its articulatory surface 
 of the condyles in front, forms a joint of its 
 own, perfectly distinct from that between 
 the tibia and os femoris. 
 
 Its capsular ligament is fixed to its sur- 
 rounding border. 
 
 Internal lateral ligament descends from 
 the internal condyle to the ixmer and upper 
 part of the tibia. 
 
 External lateral ligament — stronger than 
 the internal — runs from the external con- 
 dyle to the upper end of the fibula. 
 
 Crucial ligaments, short and strong, and 
 deeply buried within the joint, run from the 
 space within the condyles to the tibia. 
 
 The synovial membrane, after having 
 lined the capsule, is reflected upon the car- 
 tilages and ligaments included within it. 
 
 Hock joint has four lateral ligaments, 
 two on each side, called internal and exter- 
 nal. 
 
 Capsular ligament includes the lower end 
 of the tibia, and the pully-Hlce part of the 
 asti'agulus ; to both of wliich, and the lat- 
 eral ligaments, and to the os calcis, it is 
 firmly attached. 
 
 The OS calcis forms a joint with the os 
 cuboides, and the ossa cuneiforme are also 
 a joint, and the middle and small bones 
 make joints with the cuboid above, and the 
 metatarsi below ; hence, there are sLx artic- 
 ulations in addition to what we commonly 
 understand by the hock joint, that between 
 the tibia and astragulua. 
 
LEMy'08 
 
 K 82 6 
 
 »^