Qass. Book. cRfK u. s. "SNAP SHOTS" An Independent, National, and IMeniorial Encyrlo^jedia. (AJpliahetically Arranged for Ueady Ret'creucc.) A GAZETTEER OF NATIONAL INDUSTRIES. Products, Agriculture, ISIanufacturcs, Wealth, Kelin'ious Dfuuniiiiations, etc. Great Inventions and Inventors, according to the 1890 census. NATIONAL AND STATE POLITICS, PARTIES, AND STATESMEN. Interesting Reiniuiscences. Anecdotes, Songs, Fun, AViiticisms and Slang of Famous Cani[)aigns. THE STUMP, TOKCII-LIGIIT PKOCESSION8, PAKADES. liUASS BANIJS IN POLITICS. Chronicle outline of American History fn)m 986 to 1892, with a Full AND Authentic Descjmi'tion of the WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Facts about Presidents and Biographical Stories, Anecdotes, and Remi- niscences of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential Nominees of the Republican and Democratic Parties and their Wives and Families. By OLIVER McKEE. Illustrated with many iihoto-chroinatic color plates, and over 200 Engravings and Portraits by the BEST AMERICAN ARTISTS. Px^ Copyrighted by A. M. Thayer & Co. Boston, Mass. U PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. The design of this book is to collect and group in a convenient arrangement those facts regarding the political history, the insti- tutions, the government, and the industries of the United States, which every thoughtful citizen may reasonably be expected to desire to have knowledge of. While the first aim has been to lay most stress upon the origin of political institutions, parties, laws, public questions, etc., it was felt that this purpose would not be adequately realized without giving an outline sketch of the indus- tries and conmierce of the country, so nearly related nowadays are legislation and the national material development. For this reason, descriptions are given of the States and Territories, with their industrial statistics compiled from the census of 1890, and Avith their more prominent characteristics defined. The encyclopjedic arrangement has been supplemented by an exhaustive system of cross-references, by which it is hoped that the seeker after information may obtain what he desires to know in the shortest possible time. All of the important sub-divisions of chapters are indexed in alphabetical order, and in each case are referred to the caption under which they naturally would be found. For instance, anything of a military character will be found under the head of the United States Army; subjects in any way connected with the Post-Office Department under that head, and anything relating to ships or shipping under Shipbuilding. To make the reference even more convenient, sub-heads of main heads, or, in other Avords, the essential facts in each chapter are outlined by captions to be found in close conjunction with the PREFACE. main caption itself. A glance at eacli caption, therefore, will show all that the chapter contains. It is impossible in a work of this kind that some errors, involv- ing questions of fact, should not he made. If any reader finds such errors, the publishers will be gratified if he will point them out, in order that in later editions they may be corrected. Several works of a kindred nature have been drawn upon for some of the material in tlie book, a fact which the author desires to publicly ackiunvledge. The more important of these books are Johnston's " .Vnierican Politics," Townsend's " U. S. Facts," the " Dictionary of American Politics," and John Fiske's "Civil Gov- ernment," all of which are especially valuable to any student of United States history and institutions. Abolition, AbolKioiiisls. (Stc rolitical Parties.) Aecidoiiial Pn'sidciH, The. (See Prosidcnts of tin United States.) Accidents, Kailroad. (See Railroads and IJiidoes.) AdministratiiMi Should licCondnctcd bcliiiid (wlass Doors. [See Saying^s ot" Famous .(Viiicricaiis.) Admission ol' States into the Union. — riie dates on which he thirteen original States ratilied the Constitution, and those )n which the rest have been admitted into the Union are as 'ollows : — Delaware, Dee. "7, 1787; '2'.-,. rennsylvauia, Dee. 12, 1787; 24. New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787; 25. Georjiia, Jan. 2, 1788; 26. Conneeticnt, Jan. 0, 1788; 27. Massaelnisetls, Feb. 7, 1788; 28. Maryland, April 28, 1788; 29. South Carolina, May 2;5, 1788; ;)0. New Hampshire, June 21, 1788; 81. Virginia, June 2(5, 1788; o2. New York, July 2t), 1788; 83. North Carolina', Nov. 21, 1781); 34. Rhode Island, May 2!), 17!)0; 35. Vermont, March 4, 1701; 36. Kentucky, June 1, 1702; 37. Tennessee, June 1, 1706; 38. Ohio, Nov. 20, 1802; 30. Louisiana, April 30, 1812; 40. Indiana, Dee. 11, 1816; 41. Mississippi, Dec. 10, 1817; 42. Illinois, Dee. 3, 1818; 43. Alabama, Dee. 14, 1819; 44. Maine, March 15, 1820; Missouri, Aug. 10, 1821; Arkansas, ',Iune 15, 1836; Michigan, Jan. 26, 1837; Florida., IVIarch 3, 1845; Texas, Dec. 20, 1845; Iowa, Dec. 28, 1846; Wisconsin, May 20, 1848; California., Sept. 0, 1850; Minnesota,, May 11, 1858; Oregon, Feb. 14, 1850; Kansas, Jan. 20, 18()1; West Virginia, June 10, 1863; Nevada, Oct. 31, 1864; Nebraska, March 1, I8(i7; Coh)rado, Aug. 1, 1876; No. Dakota,, Nov. 3, 1880; So. Dakota, Nov. 3, 1880; JMontana,, Nov. 8, 1880; AVashington, Nov. 11, 1880; Idaho, July 3, 1800; Wyoming, July 11, 1800. Agricnltnral Wheel. (See Political Parties.) Agricnltnre. Corn, Hay, Oats, Wool, Wheat, Barley, Rye, Tobacco, Farm Animals, Cotton, Sui^ar. 34 AGRICULTURE. When Capt. John Sniitli landed in America in 1607, he found the Indians growing Corn. He thus describes the process: "They make a hole in the earth with a stick, and into it they put four grains of wheat (i. e. maize) and two of beans. These holes they make four feet from one another. Their women and children do continually keep it with Aveeding, and when it is grown middle high, they hill it about like a hop yard. In May also among their corn tliey plant pomjieons." What the Knglish explorer thus described was the Beginning of Agriculture in America. The one great need of the early colonists was live-stock. A few cows wei-e brought over to Vir- ginia in 1GU7, and by 1020 the number was 500. In 1689, the number was 30,- 000. The First Cattle were im- ported in 1623, and seven years ' later 100 cows ,V a r r i V ed . Pre- vious to this, however, cattle had been intro- duced into the Spanish settle- ments in Central America by the Spanish, and here were raised the i)i-ogenitors of the modern Texas steers, and many domestic stocks also sprang from the Spanish importations. Although in remote times The Horse inhabited America, the species was extinct by the time the colo- nists an-ived; the ancestors of the modern American Horse were imported by the Spanish, the Dutch, and the English, Wheat was imported, and was sown in an island in Buzzard's Bay by Gosnold in 1602. It was first sown in Virginia in 1611. It remained the staple crop until 1648, when it was surpassed by Tobacco. In 1622, Virginia raised 60,000 pounds of tobacco. The industry grew to such ])roportions that between 1622 and 1644 the crop aggregated 40,(100,000 pounds. Of the colonies. New Jersey was the most productive. Potatoes came from South America. By 1725, all the cereals were grown in abundance, the staple food product being the native Indian Corn, which was eaten either as hominy, hasty pudding, pone bread, or succotash (a mixture of corn and beans) and was to be found on every table between Maine and Georgia. The first attempt at Cotton Production was in AGRICULTURE. 35 South Carolina, in 1733, Avith seed imported from Smyrna, but after that seed was imported from the West Indies. Cotton was used extensively in makins; clothing for the negroes. Another ditticulty the colonists contended with was the lack of suitable tools to work with. In 1G17, Ploughs were introduced, rude affairs of wood, heavy, big, and requiring a strong team to pull them. The other farming implements were the spade, the sickle, the wooden fork, the hoe, and later the harrow. The plough was so useful STEAM PLOUGH. an implement that Thontas Jefferson thought it worth his while to try to have it improved, and he succeeded in doing so. To his efforts is due th.e introduction of the first hillside ]ilough. Reaping Machines Avere exj)erimc!ited with, both in this country and in England, about LSOO. The years from 18U0 to 1830 saw large impoi'ts of blooded cattle and sheep, Avhich were used to ext-ellent advantage for breeding purposes. About 1810 sheep were very scarce, and therefore wool was at a premium ; as high as |100 a pound in ISIO, aiul in 1812, #250 a pound being asked for the finest quality. Tlams were worth |l,000 each. The period from 1833 to 1860 was one of progress. Drain- age came into ])rominence, the h'rst real attempt at irrigation being that of the Mormons, at Salt Lake City. Iin))rovement of farm buildings and in farm impkunents was n<)ticeabk\ Farmers came to realize the value of economy in the use of manures. The cereal acreage increased with the opening of the Pacific railroads. Agriculture took a great stride forward with the invention of the McCornnick Reaper, in 1834, although its advantages were not at once appreciated. From 1860 agriculture has moved 36 AGKIOUI.TUKE. steadily forward. 'Vhc eiiaotiiuMit of the liomostead law, the work of Agrieultural Colleges, the unjirovement in agrieullui-al imple- ments, the organ i/ation of the Cirange, and the cstalilishment by the government of the Departnient of Agrienlture, — these have all operated to make agrienlture a scienee wliieh is to-day belter untU'rstood and enjoys a higher state of perfection in the United [States than in any land under the sun. Drainage, irrigation, the use of fertilizers, intelligent construction of farm buiUlings, not to mention the invention ot machinery for sowing and harvesting, ha\ e made possible the raising of immense crops, and have led to the opening up antl expansion of agricultural industries Avhich heretofore ha-l been conducted only on a small scale. Among these are the butter, I'heese, and milk industries, which yield products wortli millions of dollars yearly. Of Milk, the United States now raises upwards of (>0,000,00() gallons annually, of Biilter, the product is upwards of 770,000,- 000 pounds, and of Cheese the product is oO,0(»0,000 pounds. Another immense industry allied Avith agriculture is the raising of Poultry, which exceeds 70,000,»K)0 fowls in a year; the pro- duction of Eggs is (n-er 5,000,000,000. The entire agricultural product is worth over $4,000,000,000 in 5,0 0,000, 10,000,IM)0. duct w a s a vear. The farms inunber over the farmers and farm laborers over Wheat.— In iSOO, the wheat pro- oO!),-JO-J,000 bushels, with an acre age of 30,087,154 acres. The product Avas valued at 'S3o4,- 773,078. The Dakotas led with 40,411,000 bus ]Minnesota being stHond with 3S,;;50,000 bushels. In wheat ])roduction the Uinted Statvs leads all the nations of the earth, France being sectMid Avith 3*25,000,000 bushels, India third, with 235,000,000, and Austria-lluiiiiarv fourth with 217,000,000. Corn.— In iSiiO, tlie yield of corn Avas 1,480,970,000 bushels, from 71,07(t,70o acres; the jtrod net Avas valued at $754,433,451. Iowa led Avith 232,439,000 bushels. Oats, Rye, and Barley. — Of rve in 1890, the yield was 28,415,000 bushels ; of barley, 63,884,000 ; of oats, 523,621,000. TOBACCO CCLTCRE. AOKTCItl-TURK, 37 'I'lie total are:i growinjjf t-crcals was 1 40, 'JS 1,000 acres. The value of the product was !ii?l,;i'J0,Uf)5,o98. Hay. -Of hay in 1888, the i)ro(liict Avas 46,643,094 tons, \ ahicd at -t40S,4i)l»,r)6r), ( For P^xports of Cereals see Kx{)oi-ts aiul Impoits.) Potatoes. — Tlie ))otato crop aogri'L^alcd 'i02,;>6r),0(H) bushels, valued at $81,41 3,58!) ; tlie acreao-o t\)r ])otatoes was 2,5o3,-JS(). Wool. -The product of wool in 1890 was 276,000,000 pounds, which was an average yield; imported, 105,431,281 pounds; domestic wool exported, 231,0 12 pounds; foreign wool exported, 3,288,467 pounds; retained for honic consumption, 3(56,911,772 pounds. Sugar.— Tlu' sugar producers in the applications for licenses announci'd theii* |)rospective production as follows (year ending dune 30, 1891) : Cane sugar, 447,157,709 pounds; beet sugar, 7,971,777 pounds; sorghum sugar, 57,132,044 pounds; total, 512,261,530 pounds. This abnormally large production is due to the srauting of bounties to sugar manufacturers under the act of UARVESTING THE HVK CROP, Oct. 1, 1890, the enti-ance tVee of duty of beet sugar machinery, and to other favoring circumstances. The consumption of sugar per capita in 1891 was 62 jtounds, as against 77.8 pounds per capita in England, Cotton. — In 1891, the cotton crop aggregated 8,655,518 bales, the largest ever grown. The exports of cotton in 1890-91 were 5,750,443 bales, for home consumption, 2,642,912 liales. Tobacco. — The prodiu-tion of tobacco in 1888 (JSecretary of Agriculture's IJeport ) was 565,795,000 pounds, valued at 143,- 666,665. Kentucky grew the largi>st crop, 283,306,000 pounds, valued at !|i521, 247,971. The production of the other chief to- bacco-growing States was, in jjounds, as follows: Connecticut, 9,603,000; Illinois, 2,947,000; Indiana, 16,153,000 ; Maryland, 14,017,000 ; Massachusetts, 3,898,000 ; Missouri, 13,109,000 ; New 38 ALABAMA. York, 6,488,000 ; North Carolina, -25,755,000; Ohio, 35,195,000 ; Pennsylvania, 24,180,000; Tennessee, 45,641,000; Virr^inia, 64,034; West Virginia, 4,406,000 ; Wisconsin, 12,840,000. ' The tobacco crop in 1890 aggregated over 600,000,000 pounds. Farm Animals in the United States. — The Department of Agriculture reported the following farm animals in the Ihiited States in 1891 : Horses, 14,056,750, value, $941,823,222 ; mules, 2,296,532, value, 1178,847,370 ; milch cows, 16,019,591, value, 1346,397,900 ; oxen aiid other cattle, 36,875,648, value, |;544,- 127,908; sheep, 43,431,136, value, Ji;l08,3;)7,447 ; swine, 50,625,- 106, value, !|210,193,923. Total value of farm animals, .^2,329,- 787,770. In the numher of sheep in 1891, Texas led the States, having 4,990,272; Ohio wiis second, having 3,712,310; New Mexico third Avith 3,123,66:5; Oregon fourth with 2,431,759; Michigan fifth with 2,263,249 ; JNIontana sixth with 2,089,337 ; and Utah seventh M'itli 2,<»55,900. In 1888, South Amerii-a had 99,928,607 sheep; Australasia, 86,245,520; liussia in Europe, 46,724,736 ; British India, 30,453,724 ; Ureat Britain and Ireland, 29,401,750 ; South Africa, 23,746,179 ; France, 22,688,230 ; Germany, 19,189,715; Spain, 16,939,288; total in foreign lands, 423,907,Y41. Agriculiuro, Department of. (See Feilei-al Government.) Alabama. — Tiie State was founded at Mi>l)ile, by the French, in 1702. A hundred and hfty years before that the Spaniards entered the region in search of gold. At this time they were attacked by the natives and fought with tiienx a bloody battle. Alabama did not unite with tl»e thirteen colonies in their conflict with England. The Spaniards retained their power at Mobile until it was broken by Gen- eral Wilkinson's arin}^ from New Orleans in 1S13. In 1817 Congress organized the territory, and two years later it became a State with besides the Indians. Cahaba became the capital in 1820; Tuskaloosa, in 1>*26; Montgomery, in 1847. The Indians since then have been icmoved to the Indian Terri- tory. Agriculture in Alabama employs 400,000 persons on 140,000 farms, with 180,000,000 worth of land and buildings, and $25,000,- 000 in live stock, the yearly products being valued at $57,000,000. GREAT SEAL OF ALABAMA. about 127',000 iidiabitants ALABAMA. 89 The largest erop is of Cotton, which averages 700,000 hales; of tohacco, the average is 450,000 lbs. ; of riee, .Sid, ()()() lbs. ; of cereals, 40,000,000 1)Us1r'1s ; of hay, 52,000 tons. In cotton pro- duction, Alabama is the Fourth State. The develoj)ment of the mineral regions has of late years be- come an important industiy. There are extensive ccKil-fields and iron-beds, and iron-mannfacturing has attaiiuMl immense pro))or- tions. Within fifteen years the Output of Pig-iron has increased MONTGOMERY, ALA., SUOWINO STATE CAPITOL. SO that the State now ranks next to Pennsylvania and Ohio- There are 52 blast-furnaces in operation, producing, in 1889> 890,432 tons of pig-iron. A fine quality of steel is also produced, the product being verj' large. The coal yield has risen to 340,- 000 tons. Alabama is also noteil for its mineral springs, and has numerous health resorts. The (State supports a University at Tuskaloosa in which military trainiiig is a prominent feature. There is also an agri- cultural and mechanical college, at Auburn, a Methodist P]piscO' pal church college, Howard College for Ba])tists, S))ring Hill College (Catholic), and other sectarian institutions and a medical college. There are 35 academies, with 6,000 students, including 9 colleges for women. There are four Normal Schools for Colored Students, for which the State makes yearly appro- priations. The population of Alabama in 1880 Avas 1,262,505, in 1890, 1,518,017, of whom 662,185 were white, and 681,431 colored. The net ])ublic debt was |11,992,()19. There were in 1890 3,813 miles of railroads, ajid 1,933 post-oHices, and in 1892 there were 40 ALABAMA. 180 newspapers. Mt. Vernon Barracks, a United States garri- son, is situated 28 miles nortli of Mobile. Mobile, the cliief city, with a populatioji in 1800 of 31,076, is a vast cotton exporting centre. Birnunghani (poj)ulation, 26,178) has extensive rolling mills, and many factories ]iroducing a variety of manufactures. It lias the largest iron mainifacturing business of any city outside of Pennsylvania. JMontgomery (population, 21,888) is a manufacturing and cotton centre. The Governor of Alabama is Thomas G. Jones (Democrat), whose term expires Dec. 1, 1892. The State is Democratic. Alabama Claims. — The fact that in English ports during the Civil War Confederate .rz- .._ t, ,>i^.j-ii) cruisers were allowed to be built, and that Confede rate vessels were a 11 o w ed to coal and arm there while at tlie same time neutrality was strictly e n - forced against ITnittMl States ships, led to the display of nnu-h })itterness toward the English goveriuncnt on the part of the F'ederal governnient. Chief among the cruisers which were built or equipped in England Avere the Florida, the Georgia, the Shenandoah, and the Alabama; the last-named because of her esi>ecially destructive career gave her name to the claims which arose from tlu^ depredations of all such vessels on the conunerce of the United States. As a result of Great Britain's action in .these matters, the United States Claimed Damages from her for " direct losses in the capture and destruction of a large number of vessels, with their cargoes, and in the heavy national expenditures in the pur- suit of the cruisers ; and indirect injury in the transfer of a lai-ge part of the American commercial marine to the British flag, in the enhanced payment of insurance, in the prolongation of the war, and in the aildition of a large sum to the cost of the war and the su])pression of the IJebellion." The dispute between the two govennnents stood unsettled until after the war. In 1866, this goverinnent offered to submit the dispute to arbitration ; England MUSCLE SHOALS AND CANALS, ALABAMA. ALASKA. 41 objected, and proposed instead a joint commission to settle this and other disputes, "^rhe Commission met and signed the Treaty of Washington, in 1871, the residt of which was an Arbitration Commission, whicli met at (Geneva, Switzerland, and on Sept. 14, 1H72, awarded to the llnited States damages amomiting to $15,500,000, wliich was paid. (See Geneva Award.) Albany Regency. (See Political Parties.) Alaska.-- Navigators sailing under the Russian Hag in 1741, were the first to land on the shores of Alaska. In 1799, the Emperor Paul of Ilussia granted a charter to the Russian- Amei'ican Company, who conquered the country as far as Sitka, penetrated to California, and opened ti-ade with China and the Spanish colonies. Priests of the Greek church, acting with the Russian government. Christianized thousands of the natives. Following the advice of Seward and Sumner, in 1867 this government bought Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. The Climate of southern Alaska is moderated by the influence of the ocean. The mean temperature of Sitka is 54 degrees in summer and 31 degrees in winter. The government consists of a governor, a district judge, and a district attorney, besides a collector of customs, several commissioners, and a marshal. Education is under the direction of the United States Commis- sioner of Education. There are eighteen day schools supported by the government. The Fisheries of Alaska are of enormous value ; upAvards of fifty American vessels come to the fishing grounds annually, getting $1,500,000 a year in ivory, bone, and oil. The yearly yield of furs has reached 100,000 fur seals, 5,000,000 otters, 10,000,000 beavers, 12,000,000 foxes, and 20,000,000 martens. The value of Fur-Seal skins shipped from Alaska and sold in the London markets since the Territory came into the possession of the United States is given as nearly $33,000,000, and of other furs as $16,000,000. With regard to the fisheries, the value of the product of the salmon canneries alone from 1884 to 1890 is reported at nearly $7,000,000, and of salmon salted at $500,000. In 1890 over 3,000,000 salmon weie taken at Karluk, where the largest cannery in the world is situated, and no fewer than 200,- 000 cases of salmon were canned at this place last year, 1,100 fishermen and packers being employed therein. The Herring fishery at Killisnoo yields annually over 150,000 gallons of oil and nearly 1,000 tons of fertilizing material, and the value of the cod- fish catch in Alaskan waters since 1868 is stated to be fully $3,000,- 000. The whale fisheries of the Arctic Ocean in 1890 yielded 42 ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS. 226,402 pounds of whalebone, worth from 12.50 to 18.50 per pound ; 3,980 pounds of ivory, worth 50 cents per pound, and 14,567 barrels of oil, worth from 30 to 60 cents per gallon. The total value of the precious metals exported from Alaska up to the ])resent time approaches $4,000,000, the annual production of gold dust and bullion being now 1700,000. The United States Government has received in income from the Seal Islands more than it jjaid for the Territory. The Capital of Alaska is Sitka, which had a population in 1890 of 1,188. Metlakahtla, on Annette Island, is the home of 1,000 semi-civilized Indians from British Columbia. The popu- lation of the Territory in 1880 was 33,426, of whom 430 were white; in 1890 the population was 30,329, of whom 4,419 were white. The area of Alaska is 531,000 square miles; there are 320 towns and villages, 50 government and mission schools, and four newspapers. The governor of Alaska is Lyman E. Knapp (Rep.), whose term expires January 9, 1893. Alexander, tlie Coppersmith. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Alien and Sedition Laws. — When the trouble between the United States and P^ ranee arose in 1797, the Federalists attempted to strengthen themselves by the enactment of certain laws which Avere very unjjopular with the people. ( See X. Y. Z. Mis- sion.) The Alien Law authorized the President to order such aliens as he regarded as dangerous, to quit the country, and to fine and imprison such as refused. The law also lengthened the period of residence necessary for naturalization to fourteen years. The Sedition Law i)unished with fine and imprisonment all persons who combined or conspired to oppose the government, or who produced or circulated any false, scandalous, or malicious writing against the government, or the President, or Congress. This law was the result of the attacks made upon the government's policy in its attitude toward France. Intense feeling against the Federalists was engendei-ed by these laws, and in 1798, Kentucky and Virginia legislatures adopted resolutions, in effect that by these laws the Constitution had been violated, that the laws were Unconstitutional, that the Federal government had overstepped the boundary of its delegated authority, that the laws abridged liberty of speech and of the press, and that in such a case of abuse of power, the States should interpose. The Kentucky resolutions even went so far as to declare that "Nullification " in this extremity was the "rightful remedy," AMENDIMENTS TO THE COJfSTITUTIOX. 43 liut (lid not use the Avord in the upidication of its later relation to the doctrine of State rights. Alien Contract Labor. (See Immigration, Restriction of.) Alien Land Owners. (See Public Lands and Land (4rants.) Alinnde Joe. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Allei?iance. — The doctrine of allegiance is tliat ever}'^ citizen of the United States owes paramount allegiance to the national government. All Qniet Alonis; the Potoni m. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) All We Ask Is To Be Let Alone. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Amendments to the Constitntion. — There have been fifteen in all, the first ten of which were adopted in 1789, and were intended to guarantee freedom of religion, speech, person, and property. The eleventh was adopted in 1794, and secured States against suits in United States Courts, thus enabling, since then, many States to repudiate their debts. The twelfth, adopted in ISOo, shaj)ed the manner of electing Presidents as it is to-day. The thirteenth, adopted in 1864, was proposed for the purpose of making emancipation universal in the nation, and prohibiting si i very forever. The fourteenth amendment, adopted in 1865, injected into the Constitution the principle of the Civil Kights Bill, which gave citizenship to 4,000,0(10 freed men. All the Confederate States except Tennessee at once refused to ratify it, l)ut afterwards ratified it as the condition of re-admission into the Union. The fifteenth amendment, adopted in 1869, supple- mented the fourteenth, guaranteeing the right of suffrage, with- out regard to race, color, or previous condition of servitude. American Caesar, The. (See Presidents of the L'^nited States.) American Carrying Trade. (See Shipbuilding.) American Cato. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) American Chatham. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) American Fahiiis. (See Presidents of the United States.) American Fiai?. (See Flags of the United States.) American Knights. (See Political Parties.) American Lonis Phillipe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Americans Must Light the Lamps of Industry and Econ- omy. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) 44 ARIZONA. American Party. (See Political Parties.) Ancestry, etc., of Presidents. (See Presidents of the United States.). Ancient Mariner of the Wabash. (See Nicknames of Fa- mous Americans.) Another Connty Heard From. (See Slang of Politics.) Anti-Federalists. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Masonic Party. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Monopoly Party. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Nebraska Party. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Poverty Society. (See Political Parties.) Anti-Slavery Party. (See Political Parties.) Arbor Day. (See Forestry.) Area of the United States, and of States. (See Popula- tion and Area.) Aristocrats. (See Political Parties.) Arizona. — Arizona was part of the Mexican cession and the Gadsden purchase. It was settled in 1<)85, by tlie Spainards. It was annexed to the United States in 1848. It is remarkable for vast plateaus, 3,000 to 7,000 feet high, for deep canons and arid plains. The Colorado River, which separates Arizona from California, is a mighty stream having a channel 1,100 miles long, and passing through a series of deep chasms, Avith walls of mar- ble and granite from 1,000 to (>,.500 feet high. The State has many Natural Wonders, and is a favorite resort of those who are in search of the wild and picturesque in nature. The Chief Resources are mineral. The output of her mines has exceeded 180,000,000 ; the output of silver has been over $5,000,000 yearly. The silver nunes of Tombstone have produced $33,000,(l0"(» in the metal, since 1878. There are rich copper deposits, the exports having reached ^4,000,000 in a j^ear. The agriculture of Arizona is conducted by means of artificial irrigation. The fruit product includes oranges, lemons, peaches, limes, figs, olives, and dates. The Population in 1880 was 40,440 ; in 1890, it was 59,691. The territorial debt was $769,000 ; the value of assessed property was $26,000,000. PluiMiix, the capital, is situated in an oasis made by ii-rigation. There were in 1890, 1,097 miles of railroads, and the school attendance was 4,702, There were 26 newspapei-s. The chief cities are Tucson, with 5,095 inhabitants ; Phcenix, with 4,000 ; and Tombstone, Avith 2,000. The Governor of the Territory is John N. Irwin, whose terra expires September 1, 1894. ARKANSAS. 45 GREAT HEAL OE ARKANSAS. Arkansas. — The region was iirst visited by white men belong- ing to De Soto's expedition in 1541. Frenchmen established the first settlement at Arkansas Post, 1686. It was pai-t of tlie Lonisiana Pur- chase and was ;;|,dmitted as a State in 1836. Eastern Arkansas is fiat, while the western part is an elevated plain. The Arkansas River, rising in the Rockies, fiows through Colo- rado and Kansas, and thence south- east througli the Indian Territory and Arkansas, to its junction with the Mississip])i at Napoleon. Jt has a course within the State of five hundred miles. The Red, St. Francis, White and Ouachita rivers are all large streams and of much service in commerce. Tlie Mississippi, here of great width, washes the eastern boundary of Arkansas, and gives it an addi- tional water frontage of nearly four hundred miles. Steamboating is carried on on all the rivers, the navigable lengtli of which is over 3, "200 miles. Agriculture is tlie chief industry, there being upwards of 10(1,000 tarms, producing 500,000 bales of cotton, 800,000 bushels of sweet potatoes, 1,200,000 pounds of tobacco, 40,000,000 bushels of corn, 1,800,000 bushels of wheat, and 4,500,000 ])ushels of oats. Sorghum, molasses, and truit are also produced. The live stock is woith over $20,000,000, including 700,000 cattle, 275,000 sheep, 1,500,- 000 swine, and 300,(>00 horses and mules. The Timber Lands cover nearly 30,000 square miles, yielding yellow-pine, poplar, walnut, cypress, oaks, hickory, cheri-y, etc., the product being worth $20,000,000 in a yeai-. The minerals have not yet been developed, but are found in great variety. The output of coal is about 300,000 tons in a year. Building stones, zinc, mai'l)les, manganese, some copper, and other minerals are found. The most notable feature of the State are the Hot Springs, which lie in a gorge in the mountains two hours' ride from l.,ittle Rock. The Arkansas Industrial University at Little Rock provides for beneficiary students of botli sexes, having several hundred scholars. ^Nfanual and military training is an important branch of tlu' curriculum. There are u])war(ls of a dozen other higher educational institutions. The a])]iroj)riations for schools aggre- gate $l,0ir),0O0, the average daily atteii(Kance being 148,714. Tlie jiopulation of Arkansas in 1880 was 802,525, of whom 210,666 were colored; in 1890, the population was 1,125,385. 46 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. The real property was valued (1S88) at 178,000,000. The personal property at $48,000,000 ; the manufactures were valued at $7,000,000, the farm lands (12,001,000 acres) were valued at $74,240,000, their products at $45,000,000; there were in 1890, 2,195 miles of railroad and in 1892, 198 newspapers. Little Rock, the chief city and the cai)ital, has a business- like appearance, broad streets well paved, several fine buildings, and has a trade aggregating $25,000,000 in a year. The State House, Little Rock University, the United States Court House, the Post-Office and Custom House, and tlie Arsenal are the more notable buildings. The population in 1890 was 22,430. Fort Smith (population 11,291) is the second city. It is on the Upper Arkansas, and is a railroad centre. Pine Bluff is a shipi)ing centre on the Arkansas River, with a population of 9,952. Tlie Governor of Arkansas is James P. Eagle (Democrat). His term expires Jan. 15, 1898. The State is Democratic. Arin-iii-Arin Coiiveiltioil. (See Political Parties.) Army, the United States. Departments, West Point Academy, Soldiers' Homes, U. S. A. Commanders, Organization, National Cemeteries, ind Army, Salaries, Militia, headquarters of the United States army are at hington, D. C. The President of the* United ■states is Commander-in-Chief. The rank of C4eneral, which is the highest possible rank, was bestowed upon General Grant after he had been Lieutenant-General. Lie.ut.-Gen. Pliilij) H. Slieridan was also made a general, l)ut the title expired on the death of Sheridan in 1888. The officer commanding the army in 1892 ^r}: is Maj.-Gen. John M. Schofield, head- quartei's at Washington, 1). C. There are by law two other major-generals, Oliver O. Howard, commanding the' Department of the East, headquarters at Governor's Island, in New York Harbor, and Nelson A. Miles, com- manding the Department of the Missouri, headquarters at Chicago, 111. There are six brigadier-generals, as follows: — Thomas II. linger. Department of Califor- nia ; Wesley Merritt, Department of Dakota ; David S. Stanley, Department of Texas ; John R. Brooke, Depart- ment of the Platte ; A. McD. MeCook, Department of Arizona ; A. V. Kautz, Department of the Columbia. THE GARRISON FLAG ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 47 The other principal officers are : — Adjutant-Geaeral, Brigadier-General, John C. Kelton. Quartermaster-General, ,, liicliard X. Bachelder. Paymaster-General, ,, William Smith. Commissary-General, ,, Beekman Du Barry. Surgeon-General, ,, C. Sutherland. Chief Signal Officer, ,, Adolphus W. Greely. Chief of Engineers, ,, Thomas L. Casey. Inspector-General, ,, Jos. C. Breckinridge. Acting Judge Advocate-General, Colonel, Guido N. Lieber. Salaries. — The salaries of army officers are as follows : — Pay During First 5 Years Maximum of Service. Fay. Lieutenant-General $11,000 .fl5,400 Major-General 7,500 10,500 Brigadier-General 5,500 7,700 Colonel 3,500 4,500 Lieutenant-Colonel 3,000 4,000 Major 2,500 3,500 Captain, mounted 2,000 2,800 Captain, not mounted 1,800 2,520 First Lieutenant, mounted . 1,600 2,240 First Lieutenant, not mounted 1,500 2,100 Second Lieutenant 1,400 1,960 The pa}' is graded, according to years of active service, being increased at the rate of ten per cent, for every five years of service nntil after twenty years' service the maximum is reached ; in the case of colonels and lieutenant-colonels the maximum is fixed somewhat lower. Officers are allowed mileage at the rate of eight cents a mile for every mile travelled under orders. The pay of the men is graded froni $V^ a month and rations, for the first two years, to |21 a month and rations after twenty years' service. The retired list of the arni}^ is limited to four hundred, officei's, four of whom are major-generals, and thirty-four are brigadier-generals. Organization of the Army. — The army of the United States, in 1S90, consisted of the foUowing forces, in officers and men : — Otticers. Enlisted Men. Aggregate. Ten cavalry regiments 432 6,050 6,482 Five artillery regiments .... 282 3,675 3,957 Twenty-five infantry regiments . 877 12,125 13,002 Engineer Battalion, recruiting par- ties, ordnance dejjartment, hos- pital service, Indian scouts. West Point, Signal detachment, and general service 579 3,370 3,949 Total 2,170 25,220 27,390 48 ARMY OK THK UNITED STATES. The United States are diA'ided into eight military departments, as follows: — Department of the East: New England States, New York, New Jersey, rennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, P'lorida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, and the District of Columbia. Department of the Mis- souri : Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Kan- sas, Arkansas, Indian and ()klahoma Territories. Department of California : California (excepting that poition south of the o5th parallel) and Nevada. Department of Dakota : Min- nesota, South Dakota (excei)ting so much as lies south of the 44th parallel). North Dakota, JMontana, and the post of Fort Yellow- stone, Wyo. Department of Texas : State of Texas. De- partment of the Platte : Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, and W^'oming (excepting the post of Fort Yellowstone, Wyo.), ^m ^jzzzjzffl L^^^^S Hfe-^^-z^d No. 8. SHOULDER STRAPS OF UNITED STATES ARMY. No. 1. — General of tbe Army. No. 2. — Lieutenant-General. No. 3. — Major-General. No. 4. — Brigadier-General. No. 5. — Colonel. No. (i. — Lieutenant-Colonel (silver leaf) and Major (gold leaf V No. 7. — Captain. No. 8. —First Lieutenant. No. 9. —Second Lieutenant. Utah, part of Idaho, and so much of South Dakota as lies south of the 44th parallel. Department of Arizona : Arizona and New Mexico, and California south of the o5th parallel. De- partment of the Columbia : Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Alaska, excepting so nuich of Idaho as is embraced in the Department of the Platte. West Point Military Academy. — The United States Mili- tary Academy at West Point (New York) has graduated 3,500 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. 49 officers for the army. Post-graduate schools for officers are in opej-ation at Fort Monroe, Virginia (for artillery), and at Fort Leavenwortii, Kansas (for cavalry and infantry). Up to the year 1861, West Point had graduated 1,966 officers, of whom 1,249 were then living. Three fourths of these fought in the armies of the Union, including 162 from the insurgent South (nearly half of the Southern graduates). West Point was chosen by Washington for the site of a National Military School, which opened in 1812. Every Congressional district is entitled to send here one youth, physically perfect, and well grounded in elementary studies. Cadets receive $540 a year for four years, with a discipline and instruction unequalled elsewhere in America for exaction and thoroughness. The graduates enter upon the rank and pay of second lieutenants of the regular army, and are sent to the frontiers. There are three hundred cadets, in a battalion of four companies, uniformed in gray ; and they pass two months of each year in camp, and ten months in barracks. Commanders of the United States Army. (1775 to 1892.) — The commanders (under the President as Commander-in- Chief) of the United States Army from the Revolution to the NEW YORK HARBOR. FORT WADSWORTH ON STATEN ISLAND. present time have been as follows : — Major-General George Washington, June 15, 1775, to Decem- ber 23, 1783; Major-General Henry Knox, December 28, 1783, to June 2, 1784, disbanded ; Lieutenant-Colonel Josiah Harmer (General-in-chief by brevet, July 31, 1787), June 3, 1784, to March 4, 1791 ; Major-General Arthur St. Clair, March 4, 1791, to March 5, 1792; Major-(Teneral Anthony Wayne, March 5, 1792, to Deceml)er 15, 1796 ; Major-General James Wilkinson, December 15, 1796, to July 2, 1798 ; Lieutenant-General George Washington, July 3, 1798, to March 3, 1799 ; General George Washington, March 3, 1799, to December 14, 1799 ; Major-General Alexander Hamilton, December 15, 1799, to June 15, 1800; Brigadier-General James Wilkinson, June 15, 1800, to January 27, 1812; Major-General Hc-nry Dearborn, January 27, 1812, to June 15, 1815 ; Major-General Jacob Brown, June 15, 1815, 50 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. to February 24, 1828 ; Major-General Alexander Macomb, May 28, 1828, to June 25, 1841 ; Major-General Winfield Scott, (Brevet Lieutenant-General), July 5, 1841, to November 6, 18G1 ; Major-General George Brinton MeClellan, November 1, 1861, to March 11, 18G2 ; Major-(Teneral Henry Wager Halleck, Jul}^ "I"-), 1862; to March 12,1864; Lieutenant-General Ulj^sses Simpson Grant, March 12, 1864, to July 25, 1866; General Ulysses Simpson Grant, July 25, 1866, to March 4, 1869 ; General Wil- liam Tecumseh Sherman, March 5, 1869, to November 1, 1883 ; Lieutenant-General Philip Henry Sheridan, November 1, 1883, FOET OAKLAND, COLORADO. to June 1, 1888; General Philip Henry Sheridan, June 1, 1888, to August 5, 1888 ; Major-General John jMcAllistei- Schofield, August 14, 1888, to ^^ Soldiers' Homes. — The Civil War left thousands of regular army and volunteer soldiers disabled for work on account of injuries received or disease contracted. To provide for the sustenance of these men the government 7naintains the United States Home for regular army soldiers, and the National Home for ARMV OF THE UXITEI) STATES. 51 disabled volunteer soldiers, the latter having seven branches. The benefits of the former are open to all regular army men who have served twenty years, or to any who have been disabled or in- capacitated for further service while in the line of dut\^ The inmates are fed wc^ll, and comfortably clothed, and receive medical attendance wlien needed. Over 1,200 men are now in- mates of tlie Home. The National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers is located at Washington, 1). C, and is open to the disabled volunteer soldiers and sailors of the United States, Avhether of the Mexican or the Civil Wars. Clothing, sustenance, religious instruction, and amusements are provided by the government. Admission to the Home is not open to i)ensioners who receive -flG a month or more. Only soldiers or sailors who have been honorabl}' discharged or who are disabled from service are i Aur THE MILITARY SERVICE OF THE U>rTTFD STATES. a(bnitted. There are branches of the Home at Dayton, O., Mil- waukee, Wis., Togus, Me., Hampton, Ya., Leavenworth, Kan., Santa Monica, Cal., and Marion, Ind. The total average number of inmates in the National Homes is 17,528; the average age of inmates is 57 years ; the average cost of maintenance ])er man is !r!l39.50. Besides the National Homes, there are Homes suj»- ported by eighteen States. The States supjiorting such Homes are California, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nel)raska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, 52 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. Vermont, and Wisconsin. The total number of inmates supported by the State Homes is 5,292. National Cemeteries. — The nation's dead number 300,000 men, whose graves are in seventy-nine National Cemeteries, many of which are in the Soutli. Among the principal ones in the North are Cj'press Hills, Brooklyn, N. Y., Avith 3,786 dead; Finn's Point, N. J., which contains the remains of 2,644 unknown dead; Gettysbui-g, Pa., with its 1,967 known and 1,608 unknown dead; Mound City, 111., with 2,505 known and 2,721 un- known graves; Philadelphia, with 1,909 dead, and Woodlawn, Elmira, N. Y., with its 3,090 dead. In the South, near the scenes of terrible conflicts, are located tlie largest depositories of the nation's heroic dead: Arlington, Va., 16,264, of whom 4,349 are unknown; Beaufort, S. C, 9,241, of whom 4,493 ai-e unknown ; Chalmette, La., 12,511, of whom 5,674 are unknown; Chattanooga, Tenn., 12,902, of whom 4,963 are unknown; Fredericksburg, Va., 15,257, of whom 12,770 are unknown; Jefferson Barracks, Mo., 11,490, of Avhom 2,906 are unknown ; Little Rock, Ark., 5,602, of Avhom 2,337 are unknown; City Point, Va., 5,122, of whom 1,374 are unknown; Marietta, Ga., 10,151, of whom 2,963 are unknown; Memphis, Tenn., 13,997, of whom 8,817 are unknown; Nashville, Tenn., 16,526, of whom 4,701 are unknown; Poplar Grove, Va., 6,199, of whom 4,001 are unknown ; Richmond, Va., 6,542, of whom 5,700 are unknown ; Salisbury, N. C, 12,126, of whom 12,032 are unknown ; Stone River, Tenn., 5,602, of whom 288 are unknown ; Vicksburg, Miss., 16,600, of whom 12,704 are unknown ; Antietam, Va., 4,671, of whom 1,818 are unknown; Winchester, Va., 4,559, of whom 2,365 are unknowm. T w o cemeteries are mahily devoted to the brave men who perished in the loathsome prisons of the same name — Andersonville, Ga., which contains 13,714 graves, and Salisbury, with its 12,126 dead, of whom 12,032 are unknown. Militia of the United States.— The Fathers of the Con- stitution were quick to appreciate the importance to the protection of the government of a well-organized militia. In the early years of the Republic, when thei-e was no standing army, naturally more anxiety was felt on this subject than now, yet if the population SHELL-GUN. ARMY OF THE UXITED STATES. 53 of the country and its military resources have since then enor mousi}' increased, steam transportation and other changes have as obviously augmented the facilities for bringing here an invad- ing army. Washington, in his message of 1790, laid down the rule that "a free people ought not only to be Armed, but Disciplined," while his succeeding message declared the militia to be "an object of piimary importance, whether viewed in ref- erence to the national security, to the satisfaction of the commu- nity, or to the preservation of order.'' In his message of 1794 he declared that " the devisuig and establishing of a well-regulated militia would l)e a genuine source of legislative honor, and a ])erfect title to pidtlic gratitude." Jefferson, in his inaugural address, declared a well-disciplined militia to be "our best Reliance in Peace and for the first moments of war till regulai-s may relieve them." Madison in his first message declared the militia to be "the great Bulwark of Our Security and re- s«» **' source of our power." f^^ .*.' . f^ **-\.-., Both Monroe and <^'^-^- John Quincy Adams in their messages to Congress emphasized the importance to the country of the militia. Jackson took the view that the great body of a patriotic people was ample protection in case of war, and pointed out weaknesses in the militia system. While the Con- stitution proviiled for the establishment of the militia, with the President as commander-in-chief, there was for some time a con- troversy as to exactly what authority the government possessed oyer it. Being organized under State laws, there was some ques- tion whether the militia was subject to the same regulations, while enlisted in the army of the Union, as were the regular troops. It was also questioned whether the President could delegate his authority as commander-in-chief to the commanding othcer of the army. However, these questions settled themselves when once the militia took up arms for the Union, its members, officers, and men, quickly submitting to the discipline governing the regular troops. The Militia to-day enjoys a high proficiency, and while to a certain extent, the organization is attractive to young men by reason of its opportunities for social pleasures, yet it takes the place of a standing army very satisfactorily. The perform- FORT PICKENS, PENSACOLA. 54 ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. anises of the militia during the Civil W.ar, especially in the ex- cellent material it developed in the way of officers, is convincing proof of its value. The tendency of the government is to encour- age the militia to become more ])erfect, and also to make the knoAvledge of military tactics a ])art of the educational system in the schools and colleges. The War Department has upwards of fifty officers stationed at institutions of learning, for the purpose of giving instruction in the military science. By the records of the War Department, it appears that in October 1, 18U1, there Avere enlisted in the militia of the States and Territories 101,981 men, of whom 9-J,"iUo were in the infantry, 4,554 in the cavalry, and 5, '224 in the artillery, besides 9,311 commissioned officers. The State of New York leads with 12,957 men, Pennsylvania is second with 7,747, Ohio third with 4,736, South Carolina fourth with 4,704, JMassachusetts lifth with 4,015, New Jersey sixth with o,989, California seventh Avitli 3,954, Illinois eiglith with 3,722, and Georgia ninth Avith 3,656. All the States and Territories except Utah have a militia organization. The Grand Army of the Republic— To Illinois belongs the credit of organizing the first Grand Army post. This oc- curred in 1866, at Decatur. The movement grew ra})idly, and to-day there are posts in all the States. Auxiliary ]iosts for the sons and the wives of veterans have been organized also, and have a large membership. The total enrolment of the Grand Army of the Republic on June 30, 1891, Avas 398,270 men. The posts of each State and Territory are organized into a depart- ment, and the departments are officered by a commander-in-chief, and a national council of administration consisting of one mem- ber from each State and Territory'. The Objects of the organization Avere outlined as foUoAvs, Avhen the national organization Avas perfected at Indianapolis, Ind., Nov. 20, 1866 : — 1, To jtreserve and strengthen those kind and fraternal feelings Avhich bind together the soldiers, sailors, aiul marines Avho united to sui>press the late Rebellion, and to perpetuate the history and memory of the dead. 2, To maintain true allegiance to the United States of America, based upon a paramount respect for and fidelity to tlie national Constitution and laws, to discountenance Avhatever tends to Aveaken loyalty, incites to insurrection, treason, and rebellion, or in any manner impairs the cfiiciency and ])ermanency of our free institutions, and to encourage the spread of universal liberty, equal rights, and justice to all men. Finally the organization aims to help the AvidoAA'S and orphans of soldiers or sailors Avho lost their lives in the serAace, and to assist such former comrades-in-arms as need help and jirotection. At the Indianapolis meeting. Gen. Stephen AKMV OK TIIK UNITKI) STATKS. 55 A. Tlurlbut, of Illinois, was olioseii as coniiiian 14 -U m'^ \ I! m mmi'M k it- i I i' ■ '- M ti^- gjWj'-'ftsy^,^,^ LIBBT VRISON. TIL; 1868— Philadelphia,, John A. Logan, 111.; 1869 -^Cincin- nati, John A. Logan, lib; 1870 — Washington, John A. Logan, III.; 1871 — Boston, A. E. Bnrnside, U. I.;'ls72 — Cleveland", A. E. Burnside, R. I.; 1870 — New Haven, Charles Dcvens, Jr., Mass.; 1874 — Ilarrisburg, Chas. Devens, Jr., Mass.; 1875 — Chicago, John F. Ilartranft, Pa.; 1876 — Philadelphia, John F. Hartranft, Pa.; 1877 — Providence, J. C. K'obinson, N. Y.; 1878 — Springfield, Mass., J. C. Robinson, N. Y.; 1879 — Albany, William Earnshaw, O.; 1S80 — Dayton, O., Louis Wagner, Pa.; 1881 — Indianapolis, George S. Merrill, Mass.; 56 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATIOISr. 1882 — Baltimore, Paul Van Der Voort, Neb.; 1883 — Denver, Robert B. Beath, Pa.; 1884 — Minneapolis, John S. Kuntz, O.; 1885 — Portland, Me., S. S. Burdette, Wash.; 1886 — San Fran- cisco, Lncius Fairchild, Wis.; 1887 — St. Louis, John P. Rae, Minn.; 1888 — Columbus, O., William Warner, Mo.; 1889 — Milwaukee, Wis., Russell A. Alger, Mich.; 1890 — Boston, Mass., Wheelock G. Veazey, Vt.; 1891 — Detroit, Mich., John Palmer, New York. The notable feature of the annual encampment of the G. A. R. is a parade, participated in by upwards of 35,000 Union veterans from all the States, many of them aged men, marching with their tattered battleflags, to the old familiar martial airs. Such a spectacle never fails to inflame with the spirit of patriotism the workaday population of the city in which the encampment is held. The day is a general holiday, business being practically suspended. Great crowds of people from the surrounding country come to witness the spectacle. Articles of Confederation. — The name given to the docu- ment which united the colonies in 1776, and under which they were governed until the Constitution was adopted. These articles were weakly constructed and inadequate, and gave the government no power to enforce its own commands, and not even to raise revenue. The debt, principal, and interest, fell into arrears, the soldiers of the Revolution remained unpaid, and Congress could not even induce the States to give it power to retaliate on nations bent on ruining our trade. The attendance of members in Congress grew smaller and smaller, and it required an especial appeal to have the quorum necessary for the ratifica- tion of the treaty of peace with Great Britain. The weakness of these articles led to the framing of the Constitution. Assay Ofiftces. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Associated Press. (See Newspapers.) Associated Yonth. (See Political Parties.) Asylnm for the Oppressed of Every Nation. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Atlas of America, The. (See Presidents of the United States.) Australian Ballot. (See Ballot Reform.) Ballot Reform. — In the past four years a new system of vot- ing at elections has been introduced, and has so much to recom- mend it in the interest of honest elections that over two thirds of the State legislatures have adopted it with several modifications. The aim of the system, which is knoAvn as the Australian BALLOT REFORM. 57 System, is to protect the voter from "influence" either of employer, party boss, or " heeler," and to seem e absohite secrec}'. This is provided for by all the new laws through the mechanical arrangements of booths, guard-rails, etc., similar to those in use in England and Australia. There are two methods of groupino- the names on the tickets and both have been tried. The first of these is the English, or more properly the original Australian style of alphabetical arrangement of the names of the candidates under the title of the office. This is used by the following States : California, Kentucky, Massachusetts, JNlinnesota, Montana, Ne- TOTING THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT. braska. New Hampshire, Oi-egon, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Ver- mont, Washington, and W_yoming. The second is known as the Belgian System, and consists of grouping all nominations and offices l)y ]iarlies. It is used in Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, Delawai-e, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, and Oklahoma Territory. The Australian ballot was first used in a State election in Massachusetts in 1888; in a city election in Louisville, Ky., in the same year. In New York State, the Saxton bill, which embodied the principles of the imported system, ])assed the legislature in 1888, but was vetoed by Governor Hill on the ground of uncon- stitutionality. In 1890, a new bill wliicli was a compromise became a law. The Practical Operation of the Australian Ballot, as it was adopted in Massachusetts, is as follows : The voter enters and 58 FALLOT REFORM. gives his name and residence to tlie ballot clerk, who on finding the voter's name on the check list admits him within the rail and hands him a ballot. He goes alone to one oi' the voting shelves and there nnfolds his ballot. He marks a cross x in the square at the right of the name of each ])erson for whom he wishes to vote. No other method of marking, such as erasing names, will answer. Thus, if he wished to vote for John Bowles for Governor, he would mark his ballot in this way : — GOVERNOR .... Vote for ONE. JOHN BOWLES, of Tauntou THOMAS E. MEANS, of Boston . Prohibition. | X . Democratic. | ELIJAH SMITH, of Pittstield . Kepublican. | 1 If lie wishes to vote for a person whose name is not on the ballot, he writes, or inserts by a sticker, the name in the blank line at the end of the list of candidates for the office, and marks a cross X in the square at the right of it. Thus, if he wished to vote for George T. Morton, of Chelsea, for Governor, he would pre- pare his l)allot in this way : — GOVERNOR Vote for ONE. JOHN BOWLES, of Taunton .... Froliibition. THOMAS E. MEANS, of Boston . . Democratic. ELIJAH SMITH, of rittsfieltT . . . . Republican. George T. Morton, of Chelsea Leaving the voting shelf, the voter folds his ballot, and di-ops it folded Into the ballot-box. As he does so he gives his name and residence to the officer in charge. The business of voting is thus entirely secret. The voter is not allowed to remain within the railing more than ten minutes, nor more than five if other voters are waiting their turn to vote. Nor is the voter allowed to take away with him a soiled ballot, nor one that is perfec.t. Those who cannot read, or who are blind, are assisted in marking their ballots by the officer in charge. Belgian System of Balloting. — By this system, the names of all candidates and of the officers are printed by groups, thus :— Democratic. Republican. Prohibition. People's. O O For Governor. For Governor. For Governor. For Governor. [^ William Smith, z: Thomas Jones, c: John Brown. :=; Henry Robinson. The voter of a straight ticket mai-ks a cross in the circle at the head of his ticket. The voter who " scratches " marks the squares opposite the nanies of all the candidates on the tickets. BAXK OF THE UNITED STATES. 59 Baclielor President. (See Presidents.) BillHlaiina. (See Slang of Politics.) Rank of the United States, The. (For Banks, National and Savings, See National Banks.) — The project for the estah- lislunent of snch a bank was a hobby with Alexander Ham- ilton. It met with great opposition fi'om Jefferson, Madison, and other Federalists, on the ground that it was not only nnconstitu- tional, but unnecessary, Hamilton contended that being a sovereign power, the United States had power to Charter a Corporation, but this contention his opponents denied. The bill nicorporating the bank was passed in 1791, and was signed by Washington. The bank was to continue for twenty years, with a capital of |i 1 0,000,000, of which $2,000,000 was to be subscribed by the government. The government was to receive a loan of $-2,iiOO,OOU rei)ayable in yearly instalments of 1200,000. The Bank failed to secure a renewal of its charter, and in 1811, it went out of existence. A Second Bank of the United States was incorporated in 1816, under nearly the same conditions as the first. Its capital stock was |53o,000,000, payable one fifth in cash and four fifths in government stock. It was to have the custody of public funds, and five of the twenty-five directors were to be appointed by the government. Mismanagement l)rought the bank into a precarious position, and the new bank president was obliged, as a matter of necessity, largely to curtail loans. There was a suspicion that the bank had some connection with ])olitics, aners. The Educational System of California is one of its proudest possessions. Among its more influential institutions are the Univei'sity of California, at Berkeley, and the Leland Stanford, Junior, University, at Palo Alto, endowed by Senator Stanford in memory of his son, besides a dozen or more sectarian institutions. The Lick Observatory, fa?nous for its astronomical achievements, is at Mount Ilamiltcjii. Many of the California cities and towns su])port excellent libi-aries. San Francisco, the chief city, has a noble harl)or ; the l)ay, which has seventy miles of navigable length, and a width of three to five miles, is entered through the Golden Gate, the narrows 64 CALIFORNIA. where the sea runs in between points of land. The city has many tine business l)uill 5,000,000 and the assumption of $3,250,000 of debts due from Mexico to United States citizens was the price paid to Mexico in 1848 for 545,783 square miles of territory known as New Mexico and Upper California. The title to certain portions of Arizona and New JMexico being still in doubt, this government acquired them bypurchase from Mexico in 1853 ; the price paid was $10,000,000. The area acquired was 45,535 square miles. By a treaty of March 30, 1867, ratified by the Senate, June 20, of the same j^ear, Russia ceded to the United States what is now the Territory of Alaska. The price paid was $7,200,000, and the area of the country was 577,390 square miles. Cereals, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Cheap Coats Make Cheap Men. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Chet. (See Presidents of the United States.) Cigars, Production of. (See Li ]>ublic, and who are apt to acquire a habit of (hnng business in an old-fashioned Avay. In 1883 Congress passed a law for the improvement of the civil service of the United States. This act provides for the ap- pointment by the President of three commissioners to have general CIVIL SERVICE REFORM. 77 chai'ge of filling the vacancies in tlie civil service department, and stipulates that tiie litness of all applicants for all subordinate positions in the departments at Washington, and in all custom houses and post-othces having as many as tifty officeholders, shall be tested by examinations, and the positions assigned with ref- erence to the capacity, education, health, and character of the applicants, regardless of political preferences. According to this, no absolute appointment to office can be made until the applicant has proven his or her ability to till the position satisfactoi'il}'^ by six months' service ; no person habitually using intoxicating beverages to excess shall be appointed to, or letained in, any office; no recommendation which may be given by any senator or member of the House of Representatives, except as to charac- ter and residence, shall be considered by the examiners; men and women shall receive the same pa}' for the same work. The general competitive examinations for Admission to the Service are limited to the following snl)jects : 1. Orthog- raphy, penmanship, and copying. 2. Arithmetic • — fundamental rules, fractions, and percentage. 3. Interest, discount, and the elements of book-keeping and of accounts. 4. Elements of the English language, letter writing, and the proper construction of sentences. 5. Elements of the geography, history, and govern- ment of the United States. A standing of sixty-five per cent, in the first three branches is necessary to qualify. There is a board of examiners in each of the principal cities of the country, and ex- aminations are held at regular intervals. Following are a few questions chosen at random fiom the civil service Examination Papers : Write without alibreviation the names of fifteen seaports of the Union. Name four of the principal tributaries of the Mississippi River. Which States are peninsular, and upon what waters are they situated l* Name seven of the leading agricultural ])roducts of the United States, and state in M'hat section of the country each is most ex- tensively cultivated. Correct any errors you find in the following sentences . — The boy done it, and he is as restless here as he will be if he was with you. He had did it and spoke of doing it before we come liere. Write a letter to Senator Jackson answering in full his letter of September 7 to the Secretary of the Treasury in w^hich he asks : " How must my nephew ])roceed to obtain a clerkship in the Treasury De])artment, under tlie civil-service law, and what are the requisite qualifications of a good clerk?" 78 COINAGE. The government sold an old vessel for $160,000, payable two fifths in eight months and the residue in seventeen months from the sale. What was the present cash value of tlie vessel, the current rate of interest on money being five per cent.? A merchant imported from Bremen 32 pieces of linen of 3'2 yards each, on which he paid for the duties, at 24 per cent., $122.38, and other charges to the amount of $40.96. What was the invoice value per yard, and the cost pei- yard after duties and charges were paid ? A owned | of a ship and sold ^ of his share to B, who sold | of what he bought to C, who sold f of what he bought to D. What part of tlie Avhole vessel did 1) buy ? The government sold 3,000 old muskets at 22^ per cent, of their cost. The ])urchaser becoming insolvent paid only 13 per cent, of the price he agreed to pay ; that is, he paid $900. What did each musket cost the government ? Add 7^, j? of 65, 8^, 6.V divided by 8', and reduce to lowest terms. Civil War Statistics. (See Wars of tlie United States.) Clean Sweep. (See Slang of Politics.) Coal, Production of. (See Mining.) Coins of the Colonial Period. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Coins of the United States. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Coinage, Free Coinage. Coinage Acts. Coins of the U= S. Trade Dollars. Mints. Free Coinage. Colonial Coinage. In God We Trust. Currency. Money Slang. Bimetallism. Dollar Sign. The controversy of the present day regarding the free coinage of silver has an intimate connection with the first legislation passed by Congress, affecting the coinage of silver. In the Act of April 2, 1792, an act "establishing a mint and regulating the coins of the United States," there was a clause which established the Silver Dollar as the standard as follows : — "Dollars or units — each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of puie or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver." The act also provided for half dollars, quarter dollars, dnnes, and half COINAGE. 79 dimes, each to contain, respectively, one half, one fourth, one tenth, and one twentieth of the piire silver contained in the dollar. • The coinage of cents and half cents of copper was also provided for. In this first coinage act the words " dollar or unit " are applied equally to dollars of gold and the dollar of silver — that is, " dollar " is the name of the unit of money, and the gold eagle was to be of the value of ten dol- lars, or units. The coin which repj-esented ex- actly the unit was the silver dollar, and the act provided that it should he of the value of the Spanish 'milled dollar, as that piece was then current. The assay of a num- ber of Spanish dollars, then in common use, showed them to contain 37 1|^ grains of pure silver, or 416 grains of standard silver. The same act fixed the relative or proportional value of Gold, to Silver as 15 to 1. This ratio was not exactly in accordanc^e with the ratio which then prevailed in European countries. Silver was slightly over-valued and gold a little under-valued. The result was that the metallic money of the United States, dui'ing this period, consisted mostly of silrer coins and largely of foreign coins. But $11,908,890 of gold altogether was coined from 1793 to 1834, and this was generally soon exported. The production of gold for the same period in the United States is given at $14,000,000. The Act of June 28, 1834, changed weight and fineness of the gold dollar, making it 258 grains of .899225 of fineness, or 232 grains of pure gold. The Act of January 18, 1837, estahlished .900 as the standard fineness of Loth gold and silver. It left the weight of the gold dollar unaltereil (thus slightly inei'easnig its value) and redu(;ed the weight of tlie silver dollar to 412.^ grains, leaving its value unchanged. The Ratio of Gold to Silver thus became as 15.98 to 1. The ratio in Europe was 15.5 to 1. The effect of this change in ratio was the Depletion of the UNITED STATES MINT, PHILADELPHIA. 80 COINAGE. Country of its silver curreiic}^, for the reason that full-weight silver coins were worth for export a little more than three per cent, more than gold coins ; and as the subsidiary coins contained proportionally the same weight of pure silver contained in the dollar ])iece, it was as profitable to export these coins as the dollar piece. Congress put a check to the exportation of frac- tional silver by Act of February 21, 1853, which reduced the weight of the half dollar from 20(3f grains to 192 grains of stan- dard silver dollar, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. At the International Alonetary Conference held at Paris in 1867, Samuel B. liuggles represented the United States, and favored a " common unit of money," which should be gold. As cliairman of the Senate Finance Committee, in 1868, Senator Sherman intro- duced a l)ill for the establishment of an exclusively gold standard, but the bill was not passed. By the Act of 1873, the coinage of Silver Trade Dollars of 420 grains Avas authorized. These coins were not intended for circulation as dollars, but for convenience in tiansportation ; nevertheless they did circulate, and Avhen silver declined the coinage of bullion into trade dollars was carried on at great profit to the owners of the bullion. The coinage of trade dollars of 420 grains was suspended by the Bland- Allison Act of 1878, which provided for the coinage of silver dollars of the weight of 412^ grains of standard dollar, at the rate of at least two millions, and not exceeding four millions a month. President Hayes vetoed this bill, but it Avas passed over the veto and became a law. The advocates of the fi'ce coinage of silver have made power- ful efforts to secure the passage of a bill removing the restrictions imposed upon the Secretary of the Treasury by the Act of 1878, in the aniount of bullion he may accept for coinage into silver dollars. In the Fifty-First Congress, there was a pro- tracted struggle over the free coinage question. The House passed a bill authorizing the purchase of bullion amounting to 14,500,000 a month ; this bill went to the Senate, where it was amended, and Avas then reported back to the House, where it failed to pass. Finally, another bill, authorizing the purchase monthly of 4,500,000 odnces of Bullion, at the market price thereof, not exceeding one dollar for 371^ grains of pure silver, to be paid for in treasury notes, was passed. The bill repealed the section of the Bland- Allison Act, which authorized coinage of bullion purchased into trade dollars of not less than $2,000,000, and not exceeding 14,000,000 a month. Free Coinage. — Free coinage is the acceptance by the Secretary of the Treasury of all bullion offered to him for coinage COINAGE. 81 into money, gold oi- silver. At the present time there is free coinage of gold. The advocates of the free coinage of silver are j)rinc'ipally from the West, where the production of silver is a great industry. By the Act of 1890, the Secretary of the Treasury is empowered to buy only 4,500,000 ounces of silver bullion a month ; THE MINT AT NEW ORLEANS. the efforts of the free coinage men are to secure a law which allows the unlimited coinage of all silver bullion offered at the mints. The Opponents of Free Coinage insist that such a law Avould leail to the coinage of more money than the lousiness of the country requires, which would result either in the depreciation of - the value of silver dollars at home, or their export to foreign countries. The latter-result is more to be feared, because of the reduced bullion value of silver, which is worth less now than at any time in the history of coinage. In 1878, the bullion value of a silver dollar was *1.004 ; in" 18S3, it was $0,858; in 1890, it 82 COINS. was ),809, and in 1892, about the same value. The danger of unlhuited coinage of silver dollars is the accumulation of a large amount of money in the Ti-easury, which would return there because the history of silver money in dol- lars shows that the people do not like them, and that they would find their way out of the channels of trade into the coffers of the United States Treasur3\ It might result that the government would be compelled to redeem national banknotes and legal tender notes in the depreciated silver dollars in the treasury, which would cause serious lost to all branches of trade, and might bring about many business failures. Were tlie bullion value of silver dollars equal to their face value, there A\'ould be no objec- tion to the free coinage of silver bullion. The ratio of gold to silver is now about 20 to 21 to 1. The total Value of the Gold Coined in the United States from 1793 to June 30, 1891, was $1,460,486,253.47; of the silver coined in the same period, $602,574,324.80. Total, $2,003,000,578.27. On July 1, 1891, the gold bullion in the treasury amounted to 161,442,802 ; the silver bullion to |38,- 769,772 ; the gold coin in the treasury, in the banks, and in general circulation amounted to $585,140,050 ; of silver dol- lars, to $405,659,268 ; of subsidiary or frac- tional coin, $77,848,700. Total,' $1,168,- 860,592. Coins of the United States. — The gold coins at present consist of the double eagle, (twenty dollars), the eagle (ten dol- lars), the half eagle (five dollars), the quarter eagle (two and one half dollars), and the one-dollar piece. The coinage Of the three-dollar piece was discontinued by 'act of the Fifty- First Congress. The silver coins are the standard dollar, the half dollar, the quarter dollar, and the dime. The base metal coins are five, three, two, GOLD COINS. EETERSE. ^ud ouc ccut picccs. Thc gold coins and COINS. 83 the standard silver dollar are legal tender to an unlimited amount; the half dollars, quarter dol- lars, and dimes to the maximum amount of ten dollars, and the base metal coins to the maximum amount of twenty-five cents in anyone payment. Mints. — Congress established mints at Phil- adelphia in 1791, at Charlotte, N. C, Dahlonega, N. C., and New Orleans, La., in 1881. The first two were suspended in 1861. The Char- lotte Mint was made an assay office in 1873. The New Orleans mint was suspended from 1861 to 1879, when it was reopened. A mint was established at Carson City, Nev., in 1865, but coinage was suspended, and it be- came an assay office in 1885. There is a mint also at San Francisco, and an assay office at Denver. A Bureau of the Mint was established in 1873, having control of all the mints and assay offices which had previously been in charge of the mint at Philadelphia. Assay offices are in oper- ation, also, at Boise City, Helena, New York, and St. Louis. Currency. — Currency is any form of mon'ey, whetlier it is coin or papei-. The term is, however, more often aj)])lied to paper money. Paper currency consists of legal tender notes, national banknotes, gold certificates, and silver certificates. P^or the redemption of legal tender notes, the Secretary of the Treasury is required to keep in the treasury |ilU0,O(M),()O0 as a reserve. There were outstanding on July 1, 1891, 1346,681,016 of the old issue of these notes, and 150,228,417 of the notes of the Act of July 14, 1890. Of gold certificates there were outstand- ing on the same date, |!l52, 486,429 ; of silver certificates, 1314,715,185; of na- tional banknotes, $107,927,974 ; of cur- rency certificates, $23,780,000. Total, $1,055,819,021. The Legal Tender Notes are in de- nominations of one, two, five, ten, twenty, '^ -nwl"" S1L\1 11 < 01\-, 84 COINS. fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thousand, five thousand, and Len thousand dollars. The national banknotes are issued by na- tional banks, and are guaranteed by the govern- ment, the banks being required to deposit United States bonds to secure their payment. The Gold, and Silver Certificates are issued against the dej)osits of gold and silver coin, and may be ex- changed for coin. These certificates are conven- ient for use in businessi, and are preferable to coin because of its great bulk. Fiat Money. — The theory of fiat money is that the governnuMit stamp fixes a value upon a coin, with the " dollar," for instance, as the ideal unit. In other words, the theory is that the gov- ernment may make a dollar simply by stamping it with the inscription : " This is one dollar by act of Congress." Coins of The Colonial Period. — The colo- nists resorted to all sorts of expedients for securing a medium of exchange. Wampum, which was the Indian name for the shells used in various shapes as money by the aborigines, Avas strung together like beads. For a time Cotton Cloth was a me- diuTU for trade with the Indians, and later Animal Pelts. Corn and bullets of a certain size passed for money in New England, and it was not until 1652 that the coinage of metals into money was begun. This was at Boston, where a mint was es- tablished and turned out coins of the value of 12, 6, and 3 pence. They were rude affairs, having on one side the letters N. E., and on the other the value stamped XII., VI., III., as the case might be. The first was known as the " New England Shilling," and was followed by the " Pine Tree," the ''Willow Tree," and the* "Oak Tree." In 1645, Virginia passed an act for coinage, but it knever went into effect. Maryland was more enter- f prising, and in 1659 })laced in circulation small coins which Avere coined in England. John Higley, of Connecticut, made some copper coins in 1737, for private circulation, which bore the encourag- ing legend, " I am Good Copper." Connecti- cut, in 1785, authorized the coinage of £10,000 of copper cents, which were known as the Connecticut Cents^ SILVER AND NICKEL COINS. REVERSE. COINS. 85 In 1722, Great Britain issued for circulation in the colonies metal coins valued at tw'o pence, one pence, and a halfpence. The first authorized copjier coinage was that of Vermont, which State gave to Reuben flarmon the right to coin copper money for two years. His mint was at Rupert, and he coined the Vermont cent of 1785. The next year, 1786, Massachusetts established a mint for the coinage of gold, silver, and copper, and authorized the coinage into cents and half cents of $60,000. The mint was in charge of Captain Joshua Wetherbee. The Cent was known as the Massa- chusetts cent of 1787. This coin had on one side the figure of an Indian, ])Ow and arrow in hand, and the words Common Wealth, and one star; on the other an eagle, rising out of a shield, marked " cent," the year of issue, and the word Massachusetts surround ing the eagle. New Jersey coined money from June 1, 1786, and her coins were the first to bear the legend " E Pluribus ITnum." (See Seal of the United States.) Early United States Coinage. — Robert Morris, to whom the Continental Congress of 1781 intrusted the matter of coinage, proposed a copper coin of five units, and another copper coin of eight units, the unit to equal ^ grain of silver, an equivalent of j^^jy of a Spanish (silver) dollar. Nothing came of Morris' efforts, l)ut in 1784 Jefferson made a report in favor of the Spanish Dollar the unit, and on July 6, 1785, Congress resolved : — " That the money unit of the United States of America be one dollar ; that the smallest coin be of copper, of which two hundred shall pass for one dollar; that the several pieces shall increase in a decimal ratio." Congress, August 8, 1786, provided for the issue of four coins, viz.: a gold piece of |10 value, a silver dollar, a dime or tenth of a dollar silver, and a hundredth of a dollar in copper. An ordinance for the estab- lishment of the Mint of the United States of America was passed Oct. 16, 1786. The United States Mint was not established and in operation until 1792, when, with David Rittenhouse as director, the government coinage began. The mint was at Phila- NICKEL AND COPPER COINS. KEVERSE. 86 COINS. delphia and is there to-day. The first coinage was in October of that year, and was of silver half dimes. Dollar Sign, The. — This originated probably from the character |, wliich Avas written as a sign for eight reals, or a piece of eight reals, which was equivalent to a Spanish dollar. Weight of a MiUion Dollars in Coin. — The weight of a million gold dollars is 1.9 tons; of a million silver dollars (stand- ard) 293. tons; of a million dollars in 10 cent pieces, 29^ tons; of a million dollars in five-cent nickel ])ieces, 110 J tons ; of a million dollars in ordinary bronze cents, 342f- tons ; of a million dollars in old copper cents, 1,.'^85| tons. These weights in each instance in short tons (2,000 pounds). In God We Trust. — This was used first on the two-cent cop- THE 1804 DOLLAR. per of 1864. It was used also on the $20, $10, and |5 gold pieces of 1806, and on the silver dollar, half dollar, and five-cent nickel of the same issue. It was invented by Director of the Mint James Pollock. Bland Dollar Profile. — It was for some time unknown, and by many it is not knoAvn now who is the lady whose profile is stamped on the Bland silver dollar. Her name was Miss Anna W. Williams, of Philadelphia, whom the designer of the dollar chose as having a model female head. On many of the early coins of the United States, the head of Martha Washington was stamped, but General Washington expressed his disapproval, and the portrait was altered. Money Slang. — Characteristic of the country is the slang the peoi)le have invented to designate the "coin of the realm:" Almighty dollars, American balm, ante's, balsam, banknotes, bills, bits, bluebacks, blunt, bobs, boodle, brads, brass, cans, car- fares, cart-wheels, cash, cases, cents, century's ($100 bills), cer- tificates, change, checks, chicken-feed (small change), chink, COINS. 87 clTips, circlets, circulating incdiuin, coach-wheels, coin, collateral, coppers, countex'-ringers, currency, daces, daddy-dollars, darby, dibs, dimes, dollars, doots, dooteramus, dots, dough, ducats, dust, eagle-bird, essential (of the), fat, fat plunks, filtli}^ lucre, financial circles (dollars), fips, fivers, flipper-ups, funds, gelter, gold, greed, greenbacks, halves, hard cash, hardscales, hardstuff, hoggs, honey, jacks, jinglers, legal-tender, leveys, levels, loaves and fishes, lowre, lucre, mint relics, money, mopus, mopusses, moss, muck, necessary (of the), Neds, needful, new-lights, nickels, notes, ochre, ones's, open sesame, paper dollars, pennies, pewter, picayunes, pile, plasters, plates, plungers, plunkers, plunks, pocket-weights, poney, posh, postals, purse-convicts, quarters, quids, rags, ready, ready-come-down- John, redge, reds, ringers, rocks, round dollars (silver), round moons (dollars), salt, sand, scrip, sharp-shins, shekels, shiners, shines, shinplasters, shot, sicers, silver, sinews-of- war, sinkers, slats, slugs, soap, sparklers, specie, spelter, spondu- lix, spoons, sprats, stamps, stulf, sugar, swag, sweeteners, sye- bucks, tenners, tens, tbreswins, thrums, tin, two-bits. Uncle Sam's I. O. U.'s, Vs, ways and means, wealth, wheels, wherewithal, wind, X's, yellows. E Pluribus Unum. — "Many in one." This phrase was brought into public use for the first time in the report to Congress by P^ranklin, Adams, and Jefferson, regarding the " Great Seal of the United States." (which see.) Bi-metallism. — The intent of bi-metallism is to bring about an agreement between the values of gold and silver at a ratio of 15|- to 1, in order that the fluctuations in their relative A alue may cease, and both metals may be always available as money to the full amount in circulation. If different countries adopt a double standard, with different ratios, the gold or the silver of every country will leave it to go to a country in which either is more valuable, and thus the two metals Avill be separated. If one country alone ado[)t a double standard, its gold or silver will be exported according as the market value of silver is lower or higher than the value fixed by the government ratio. This country is monometallic, notwithstanding the fact that there is silver in circulation. Colonization. (See Slang of I'olitics.) Colorado. — The State was settled at Conejos, in 1840, by Mexi- cans. It was admitted to the Union in 1876. Lieutenant Pikei U. S. A., was the first American who entered Colorado, and Pike's Peak perpetuates his memory. The State is celebrated for its high mountains. Gray's Peak is 13,341 feet high. Long's Peak is 14,271 feet high, and Pike's Peak is 14,147 feet high. There COLORADO. GREAT SK.VI, OV COLOKADO. a miticyatiiijx intluence. are more than twenty other mountain peaks exceeding 13,000 feet. There are many beautiful parks AvaUed in by lofty mountain ranges ; picturesque lakes, and wild river canons, Avith flashing cascades and otiier natural beauties. The mountain scenery is most impressive. There is a diversity in the climate. The region on the Atlantic slope of the Rockies has cool nights, without dew, even Avhen the temperature is ninety degrees during the day. The foot-hills have hot summers Avith cool niglits. Changes in temiterature ai"e sudden, but tlie dryness of the air has Artilicial irrigation has been introduced, and there are now over 3,000,000 acres under profitable cultiva- tion. For irrigation i>urposes over #10,000,000 has been spent. The Farm Products include 2,800,000 bushels of Avheat, 2,000,000 of oats, 2,.">00,000 of corn, 3,000,000 of potatoes, 350,000 tons of hay. Tiie leading farm product is a clover called alfalfa, whii'h is fed to the live-stock, and makes the best of beef-pro- ducing foods. The crop in I'^SO Avas 3,000,000 tons. Colorado has the finest grazing lands outside of Texas. The number of cattle exceeds 6,000,000. 'J'he sheep in 1890 numbered over 1,800,000. Sheep- raising and cattle-raising utilize a large capital. Colorado is the Second Silver-Producing State,and yields four times as much silver as gold. Leadville produces over #1 -2,000,000 a year, chiefly in silver. The total bullion productioji of Colorado has exceeded $300,000,000 ; of lead, the product has been nearly $50,000,000; of copper, $6,000,000. There arc 40,000 square miles of coal flelds, and fifty mines em- ploying 5,400 men. Tiie present output is 2,300,000 tons. There are twenty-five petroleum avcUs, producing 140,000 barrels of illuminating oil, and 100,000 barrels of lubricating oil. The population in 1870 was 39,864 ; in 1880, 194,327 ; in 1890, 410,975. The value of real and personal propertv in 1888 Avas 1130,000,000. The maimfactures in 1880 yielded $14,260,159. The acreage of farm lands, in 1880, was 126,585, valued at $25,- 109,223. '"The school and college attendance Avas 85,824. There Avere 4,176 miles of railroad in 1>*90, and in 1892 there Avere 276 neAVs]>apers. The educational institutions are the University of Colorado at Boulder, the State School of Mines at Golden, the Agricultural College at Fort Collins, and the Normal School at Greeley, besides \A'hich there are several sectarian institutions. f'OtORADO. 89 The chief city is Denver, whose population in 1890 was 106,670. It has a nuniher of expensive buildings, among which are the State Capitol, the High School, 0])era House, and several hotels. I'ueblo, the second city, has a population of 28,128. It is a busy manufacturing city, with steel-works, nail factories, rolling mills, and foundries. Leadville, the third city, with a population of 11,159, is in the heart of the mining camps, and is situated over 10,000 feet above the sea. John L. Routt FIRiST AXD LAST STATE CAl'lTOLH, DENVER, COLORADO. (Rc]).), is Governor of Colorado. His terni expires Jan. 10, 1898. The State is Repu1)lican. Colossus of Independence. (See Presidents of the United States.) Columbian Party. (See Political Parties.) Columbus Celebrations. (See World's Columbian Expo- sition.) Connecticut. — Connecticut was one of the thirteen original States of the Union ; it was settled at Windsor, in 1638, by Massachusetts men. There were two capitals, Hartford and New Haven, up to 1873, and then Hartford was made the capital. 90 coxxKOTirrT. GREAT -SKAL, >.>l' t U.NMH TICfT. The populati(ni in ISSO was G'i'iJOO; in 1890 it was 740,258. Tlie State has real proporty valued at ^244,000,000; porsonarjiropi-rty valued at ,i;l 05,000,000. It is a Great Manufacturing Slate, the inanut'aetures, wliieh emjiloy 100,- 00(1,(100 persons, ago-regating ^180,- 000,000. The savings bank deposits in 1890 aggregated ^112,000,000. There are three colleges in the State, 1,050 public sehools, 135,000 school children, and 207 newspapers. The largest city is New Haven, having 80,045 inhabitants. It is the seat of Yale University, and the leading jnanufactures are arms, clocks, machinery, etc. The city has many venerable elms, hence is known as the " City of Elms." Hartford, the capital, has a population of 53,230 ; the State Capitol, which is one of the handsomest in the country, has a beautiful situation near the railroad. Hartford is the centre of the Life and Fire Insurance business of the country, and of its size is the wealthiest city in the country. The insunince risks aggregate a billion of dollars. Bridgeport, popnlation 48,850, is a thriving, growing city, whii'h is celebrated for its diversity of manufactures, and for having been the site of the whiter quarters of Barnuin's circus. P. T. Barnum was mayor of the city, and its benefactor. Its chief manufactures are cartridges, sewing- machines, machinery, ami carpets. AVaterbmy, population 28,- 040, is the centre of the brass industry, and is known therefore as the Brass City. Meriden, Ansonia, Williniantic are other busy manufacturing cities of this pi-os]HM-ous little State. The national institutions are Forts Hale and Wooster, nngarrisoned, near New Haven ; Fort Trumbull, connnanding New J.itndon harbor and th(> Navy Yard at New Lcmdon, on the Thames, a beautiful river which flows into Long Island Sound. Connecticut has out? thousand miles of railroads. Morgan G. Bulkeley (Hep.) is Governor of Connecticut. His term expires ,Lm. 5, 1803. The State is doubtful in national elections, though it now has a Republican governor. Cleveland carried the State both in 1884 and 1888. roiiiiiirtnders of United States Army. (See Army, United States.) CoiumeiTe of the Oreat Lakes. (See Ship-Building.) CONTRA J{ A XD OF WAR. 91 STATi; CAPITOL AT IIAUTIUIID. Condition, A, Not Jl Theory. (Sec Sayings of Famotis Americans.) Congress. (See Federal (loverniiionl.) Constructionists, Strict and Loose. — The dominant parties of tlie couiitiy liave lield very generally throiiglioiit their history opposite views regarding tlie constrnction whieh niay be put npon the Constitution. Tlie view of the Federals, tlie National ]|e- ])ul)licans, The Whigs, and the J {''publicans has been along tlie line of a liberal construction of the document, while the Anti- l'\Mlei'alists, the DL'mo(;rati('-l Re- publicans, and the Democrats have adhered in their j»rinciples to the strict letter of the Consti- tution. The one party has thus been styk'd Loose construction- ists, tlie other Strict <-onstruc- tionists. 'J'his division, winch is the very essence of the dil'fer- ences between the two great political ])arties (see Republican and Democratic parties), had its origin in what lias been called the " Elastic Clause " of the Constitution, Article I., Section VIII., Clause 18, which empowers Congress to make all laws necessary fm' executing the various powers defim^d, an of public events, yet on the other hand, there inevitabl}' arises the question whether loose construction does not ini])ly a dangerous assumption of ] tower, w]ii<'li may eventually be prostituted to the jtolitical ad- vancement of one man oi" set of men. ('ontnibiind of War. — 'J'his is the name ap|»lied to all arti- cles (tarried by neutrals for the assistan(;e of an enemy in carrying on war. Such artich;s are liable to seizure and to conh'scation. In 18G1, Gen. Benjamin F. Butler ap])lied the term to negro i)2 CONVIfiTS AND PAUPKRS. slaves who entered the Union lands. These slaves were fugi- tives from their owners, wlio made demands on General Butler for their recovery, but he refused to give them up on the ground that they were contraband of war. What to do with the negro was a delicate problem with the Union leaders, and General But- ler's ingenious solution has been credited with clearing the wa}' for the Emancipation Proclamation. Convicts and Panpers. — By the bulletin of the United States Census of 189U, it appeared that the number of Convicts in the penitentiaries of the United States was 45,233, of whom 30,546 were white and 14,687 colored; of the total number 23,094 were native-born and 7,267 foreign-born. The number of Prisoners in the county jails was 19,538, of whom 13,916 were white, and 5,557 were colored ; of the total number 9,684 were native-born and 3,765 foreign-born. The total number of in- mates of Juvenile Reformatories was 14,846, of whom 1,943 were colored; of the total number 11,078 were native and 1,405 foreign-born. The nund)er of Paupers in the alms-houses of the United States, in 1890, was 73,045, of whom 6,467 were colored ; of the total 36,656 were native-born, and 27,648 were foreign-born. The number of paupers in the United States was small compared with the number estimated to be in the alms- houses of foreign countries. In 1890 it a])peared that there Avere in England and Wales 787,545 paupers; in Ireland, 107,774; in Russia, 350,000 ; in Germany, 320,000 ; in France and Austria, 290,000 each ; in Italy, 270,000. Cooley. — This word was applied to Chinese laborers of the poorer class, and in some parts of the far West it is still widely used. It obtained a wide circulation during the discussion of the Chinese Exclusion Bill. Copyright, International. — The International Copyright Act, which was passed by the Fifty-First (Vingress and approved by President Harrison, applies to books, etc., jjublished after .July 1, 1891. To acquire the benefit of international copyright, English authors will have to publish simultaneously — that is, on the same day — on both sides of the Atlantic. They will have to publish here to secure American copyright and in England to secure English copyright. The book must be printed from type set up in this country or plates made from such type, and it must be bound here. In the case of a book, map, dramatic or musical composition, photograph, chromo, or lithograph, the two copies required to be deposited in the library of Congress shall be printed from type set within the United States or from plates made therefrom, and from engrav- COURTS. 93 ings, cuts, negatives, annarv cause were held. Credit Mobilier. — The most famous scandal of a financial character this countiy has known is designated by this name. Oakes Ames, member of Congress from Massachusetts, and Oliver Ames, his brother, were incorporators of the Credit Mobilier of America, whicli, through the Ameses, contracted to bnild, in 18(»7, (VM miles of road for the Union I'acitic Kailroad for |47,()(H>,()()0. At the time Credit Mobilier shares were quoted at '2(H) ; in Febi-uary, 1868, they were (pioted at oOO or 400. Oakes Ames placed some of the stock with Congressmen, "where," as he said, "it will do most good for us." An investi- gation, ordered on motion of Speaker I>laine, was instituted in 187;}, the result of which was the recommendation by the investi- gation conunittee of the cx]mlsion of Congressman Ames for attempt to brilie members of the House by sales of stock below its value, and of James lirooks, of New Vork, for liaving received such stock, knowing that it Avas intended to inHuencc liis vote in legislation alfetting the Union Pacific Kailroad, of which he was a government director. The exposure created a profound sen- sation. James A. Cartield, it was shown, l»ad received some of the stock, tlie dividends on which amounted to $o29. In the Presidential campaign of 1880, when he was the Republican candithite, " 829 " was a campaign cry used against liim by liis opponents. l)oth Ames and Brooks died within three mouths after the exposure. Currency. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Custom Houses. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Czjir. (St'c Xicknames of Famous Americans.) Dairy Products. (See Agriculture.) Dark ILorse. (See Slang of Politics.) Daugliters of the Revolution. (See Sons of the Revoln- tioji.) Dead Head in tlw> Enterprise. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Dead-Letter Otiice. (See Post-Office System.) Debt, NationaL (See Finances, Government.) DKLAWARE. 95 GKKAT .SLAL OF I)1;LAWAKE. Defender of the Constitution. (See Nicknames of P^imous Americans.) Delaware. — This Avas one of the thirteen original States of the Union ; it was settled at Wil- mington in 1G38, by Swedes, sent out by Queen Cliristina to found a country in which " every man should be free to Avorship God as he cliose." The ))o{)ulation in 1880 was 14(),608; in 1890,167,871. The cap- ital is Wihnington, wliicli has 67,471 popuhition. Tlie )nanufactures in 18'.)0 agoregatei)ulation in 1890 of 4,000. It is an old town, with an ancient look. Fruit canning is the ]trominent industry. The noteworthy national institutions of Delaware is the famous Delaware Breakwater, which was completed in 1828. Its surf-breaker is 2,748 feet long, and fur- nishes needed protection to thousands of vessels on this rough coast. Jefferson called Delaware the " diamond in the corona- tion of the States," hence it is called the Diamond State. The (Governor of Delaware is Robert J. Reynolds (Democrat), whose term expires Jan. 18, 1895. The State is Democratic. Delegates to National Conventions. (See How the Presi- 'lent is Elected.) Deliverer of America. (See Presidents of the irnite(>r-si>a«.o. Tho huiltliuii- ocon|>ioil by tho Ti"o;isnry Deparlniont cost !t5S,000,0(H), ami i-ovors an aiva r>8-Jx;UH) foot. O\or -2,000 on\|>loyoos aro in tho (ioi»artniont ]n"0[>or. Tho War Do|>art- inont ooonpios two \vinu;s of tho Stato l^oi>artniont hnihiinu;, and onijdovs l,f)0(> oKm-Us. TIu» Army Headquarters aro also hlMO. Tho Patent Ottice ooou[nos spaoions rooms in a niassixo strnotnro w liioh is also sliarod hy tho Intorior Dopartniont. Tho bnihling oost ^li,T00,0lH>, and has ll>l roon\s. (.>pposito tho Tatont Ollioo is tho Posl-Oirice Dev^artnient Avith six hu>i- drod olorks. Tho Department of Agriculture has a tino luiildinii' in tho Konaissanoo stylo, and onijiloys horo fonr hnndrod porsons. Tho othor important Fodoral bnildings aro tho White House, oooupiod by tho Trosidont and family, boautifully sitnatod noar tho Totomao, with niany lino old troos and spaoious lawns, tho Unitod Statos Coast Survoy, the Huroaii of Printing; and En- graving, onijdoying l,'JOO persons, tho Ciovornmont Printing (."Jflioo and IVuulory, tho National JNlusonm, containing oxtonsivo oolKn'tions of a misoollanoous oharaotor, all of Amorioan origin, tho Army Modioal Mnsoum, tho Smithsonian Institution, os- tablishod l>y ondowmont of .lamos Smithson, an F.nglish soiontist, ami dovotod to soiontilio rosoaroh and tho ditYnsion of knowl- odgo, tho Pension Ollice, tho Naval (.Observatory at (ieorge- town Heights, the Congressional Library (iti eourso of eonstrm^tion at a oost of ^0,r>00,O0tM, the CovornnuMit Hotanioal C^ardon, the Corcoran Art Gallery, founded by \N'. AV. Corcoran, and containing America's most j»erfeet oollootion of paintings; besides those, othor government possessions at Washington are tJie Navy Yard, with its fiMmdry for making armament, tho CiMigj'es- sii>nal Cemetery, the Tnilod Statos Arsenal, the Maiino Barraoks, the Washington Monument, eosting ^l, "200,000, a white shaft ft.'>;'> foot liigh and ol>'J foot at tho base, tho National Soldiers' Hon\o and tho National Cemetery. The Monuments and Statues in the city besides those in the Capitv>l arc n\any in number, the more notable bouig nuMin- ments to Lafayette, Ciartield, and to tho sailors killed in naval vservice, and a large group entitled Kmaneipation, whieh ro[>re- sents Lincoln holding tho Emancipation Proclatnation over a negro whose shackles are broken. There are statues of Lincoln, Uon- eral Jackson, Washington ^^two'), tionoral MoPherson, Cenoral Thomas, Chief Justice ^larshall. Admiral nnpout. Admiral KPircATiox. 99 Farragut, Boiijaiiiin l-'ranklin, ( icncial K;i\\ liiis, lM;irtin Liillirr, and I'rofossoi- 1 Iimiiv. Dixio. (Si'c SoMo-s of tlu' Nation.) Dollar Si^'II, TIlC. (Si-r C'oinaoc, (."oins, rlv.) Doii'l lire 'lill Voii See llio Wliilcs ol TIumi- Kyes. (Seo Sayi'igs ol" I'^amous Anicricaiis.) Don't (live up MiO Ship. (^^h- Savings ol' l-'anioiis Arncii- <'ans.) Doilifli Faces. (Se(> rolitii-al Tai-lii's.) Drcd Sj'otf. Csisr. Tliis was ihc case (>t' Died Scott, a negro, \\lio in 1 SIS, l)i-oiiM|it, suit lo test i\\v (|nostion of l»is friH'doni. Ill' got. a vorclii't in liis fa\ or, but. tlu* Su|ir('nu' Court, of Missouri revorsod it on tiu' a|ii>ral. On being sold lo a resident of New York, Scott sued hisouner ina Tnited States C\)ur(. Tlu' ease reached the ll^nitetl States Su|irenie {\)nit, where in I ST)?, Cliief .Justice Taney ga VI' llu' (K'cision, w hicli was against t lie negro. The Court lieUl tliat the Constitution did not regard tlie negro slave as a eifi/.en, but as a thing, and furtherniort", tliat for over a century, the negro possessed no "rights which tlu' white man was bound to respect." The Court also lield that Congress liad no more j)ower to proiiibit the carrying of slaxes into any State or 'I'erritory than it had to prohibit tlu' carrying of horses or other property. This (h'cisiou, especially its severe i^hraseology, created great excitement, and was for a time sn]ipressed on account of the public agitation of the sla\ cry (piestion on the eve of the presick^ntial election. Drys. (See Slang of Pt)litics.) DihIos :intls, as well as the Dutch colonists of New York, had free schools for the education of the young. The record of the (Jeneral Court of INfassachusetts con- tains the ordinance of Kill, as follows: "Now, th.it learning may mit be buried in the graves of our lathers, every townshi]) in this jinisdiction, after the Lord hatli inci-eased them to T)!) house- hohh'rs, shall then ioi-thwith appoint one w itliin their town to teach all sueli children as shall resort to liiui to write and read." Lore. 100 EDUCATION". From that day to this, the Free-School System has been cherished as one of the bulwarks of the national welfare. The theory of the government is that, since the ])eoj)le are the rulers, every young person ought at least to be well enough educated to make an intelligent citizen, that is, to be able to know what he votes for. He ought at least to be able to read, or lie might not be sure that he used the ballot which he intended. To this end were the public schools established, attendance at which or at other schools is, in most of the States, compulsor}^ One of the first principles of the common school system is that they shall be Non-Sectarian (although under the early theocratic govern- ment in New England, the c>mnion schools were under the super- vision of the church), and that teachers shall be |)rohibited from urging religious opinions upon the scholars. On the other hand, many Private Schools are maintained by QUADKAKGLE AT HAKVAKD COLLEGE. the various religious denominations, both for younger and more advanced scholars, besides colleges for the education of young men as ministers to preach the different ere eds. AH the towns and cities of the country maintain connnon schools, whose expenses are met by direct taxation, -while most of the cities and many of the States support institutions in the interest of higher education, in Avhich the tuition is free. The United States Government has never interfered with the States in their scheme of education, nor has the United States Government ever established a national institu- tion of learning, although a project for the establishment of such an institution has within a few years been put forward. A National Bureau of Education, however, has been established, but its duties are chiefly in the line of the collection EDUCATION. 101 of statistical information regarding the seliools and colleges of the country. By the returns of the Bureau for 1890, it appeared that the number of pupils enrolled in the common schools of the United States was 12,097, 190, and that thci-e was an average daily attendance of 8,144,938. The average length of a school terra was 134j-'g da^^s. To maintain this syt^tem of common schools the sum of $140,277,484 was expended, of which $91,- 683,838 was for the school superintendents and teachers. The average expense per capita of population was $2.24. The per capita expense was smallest in South Carolina, v.here it was $0.41 ; it was largest in California, where it Avas $4.29. The Largest Percentage Enrolled of population was in UNIVERSITV OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Kansas, where it M'as 27.98. The smallest percentage of popula- tion enrolled was in Wyoming, Avhere it was 11.02. The average population enrolled was 20.27. IMie number of colleges of liberal ai'ts and universities in 1890 was 415, and the number of students in the several departments of these institutions was 118,581. The number of professors and instructors was 7,918. The permanent productive funds of these institutions was $74,- 070,415, the value of their grounds and ])uil35,385. There was paid by the students for instruction $3,764,984, an average of $31.75. The total income, including that from tuition. State or municipal aid, and from ])rodiu-tive funds, was $10,801,918 ; the total benefactions was $6,UU6,474. Manual Training. -- The introduction of manual training into the scheme of education in the United States, marks a long- step forward. The idea of a high school of manual training (I'i IOI>|ltA'nf the Miii-o|i<';iii ii.ilions in (Jic ('cnUMinial M\liiliilioM in riiil:iil<'l|)lii:i in I STt), wliicli L;rc;i(ly iiilfi'(;stcil liini ;i! 1 lie lime. 'I'wo ycMfs l:i(cr, vi/.., in ISV'J, llu- Si. liouis Mi:inii:il (,r:uniiiu; s ihodl conni'cti'-l will) llif W'lisliiiiyloii I'liiviTsil y of tluil cily W.H t'-ihildislKMl. Sini'c t,li;il. lime scliooU of :i liko cliaiMcli'i- li:ivi> lii'cM cslnlilislicd in Halliniorc, riiii;uli'l|>liia, ( 'lev flanil, 'I'olcdo, anil othcf citifs, wliilc lln' |miI)Iii' lii>;ll schools of many oIIut [(laci's (Ix'lwi'fn folly ainl lifly in all) lia\(^ taken on mannal trainini;" as a new luandi of si inly. Mcanwliili', cnilowril or |>ri\at(' si'liools, planned on the Si. Louis niiiilcl, lia\ c heeii multi- plicl, llie most eoiis|)ienons example Iteini;' I lu' Cliieano mannal training- school. The Plan of I l»t» Si'hools is to devote t wo lifths of the limo of the students to shop woi'k, (o drawini;- one tiflli, and I he other (wo lifths to appropriate studies. I'raclical instrnclion in wood- W'orkin<4, wood-tninin<;\ Itlacksinilhini;-, iroii-w orkinjj;, the nse t)f tools, n\echanical di-awin>;', elc, is >;iven to hoys of from tliir- Iceii to fitdilcen years. The schools are snpplicil with (he laiest machim-i-y and are ollieered hy compelent inst i iiclors. Thi' inann il liainini;' idea, is grow in>4, suid in a few years all the laru'e (Mtii's and towns will have adopted it, for llie reason that i( fur- nishc-; what ihe pidilie school does nol, pradical ediicalion. Indian Si'hools. -Tiio policy of the ^overnnn-nt in tryinu; to arcomplidi tlu' eivili/atioii oi lh>' iicxi ^'encratioii of Indians, an «>l>ject in j^ainino- which tlu-y are assisted hy many religious l»odies, is apparent froni the increase hoth in the niunher i>f tin* seliools untl of the si ndenl > in altendance. All the o-overnnient r(>S(>rvalions have Indian schools. ( lo v tMMinuMlt ScluH»ls ari' sitnated al ( 'ai lisle, I'a., Chemawa, Ore., I'"l. Stvvi'nson, N. I )., (^hiloeeo, Ind. T., (Jenoa, Nel>., Lawrence, Kans., Alhnipier(|ne, N. M., (o-and .liinetion, ("ol., Santa l''e, N. i\L, Carson, Nev., IMcii-c, S. I)., and l'\>rt IMohavc, \\\/.. Tlu> I'nroUment in ISDl \aried fron\ TTS at (^vvlisle, I'a., to SI at Tierre, S. D. The total enrollnnMit in IS1»1 was 1 1,1 ID ; in 1SS7 it was l),lHi-J. The !iverai;o attendance was S,:51)5> ; in IS87, it w:is 7,I7l'. In the niani(i'naiici> of tht'si> sidiools the eov I'rnnuMit spends aimually npwards of |10(>,()()0. Many Indian schools are conducti'd also under lht>anspices of tlu> rn>sl>yleriaiis, lloniaii Catholics, C\>ni>;r»'- <;ationalists, episcopalians, l^'riemls, J\rennonites, Unilarians, Luth- I'rans, and Mellu>dists, lu>sidt>s iithcrs at IMartinsbur;;', l*a., Alaska, Middh'town, Cal.. Hampton, \'a., and Lincoln, Ni'h. Far all of 104 ELECTORAL COMMISSION". these tlie government makes appropriations, agoregating in 1892 $604,240. Tliis is the only instance where a Sectarian Insti- tution receives government support. While this course is con- trary to the letter and s])irit of the Constitution, it is held that the churches are accomplishing Avith the Indian what the gov- ernment would not he able to accomplish so well, and for this reason, they should be allowed to continue their good work. How- ever, there are many who believe the government should assume absolutely tlie education of the Indians, and should train them in government schools Avith the specific end of fitting them for citi- zenshij). Eggs, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Elastic Clause in Constitution. — This is the eighteenth clause in Article I., Section y, which in outlining the ])owers granted to Congress concludes as folloAvs : " To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrjdng into execiition the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Consti- tution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- ment or officer thereof." It was in the interpretation of this clause that the differences between the Federalists and the Anti- Federalists liad their origin, and ill general it may be said that the application of this clause marlersous. Ami I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence; and 1 recommend to them that, in all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reason- able wages. And 1 further declare and make known that such persons, of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other i)laces, and to man ves- sels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In witness whereof I have hereunto set my name and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washington, this lirst day of January, in ~^— the year of our Lord one tliousand eight hundred and sixty- ] L.s. three, and of the Independence of the United States of America ' — /— ^ the eighty-seventh. By the President: Aukauam Lincoln. William H. Sewakd, Secretary of State. The total number of slaves thus emancipated was 3,895,172. Embargo Act. — An embargo is the detention of the vessels of a nation in port, and is promulgated by the government as a measure of precaution and protection, as well as of retaliation. In June, 1807, the British frigate Leopard took four seamen from the United States frigate Chesapeake. The orders in council of the EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 107 British government to tlie English navy had been to search all neutral vessels for French goods. Tlie United States at the time was a neutial country. President Jefferson, by proclamation, warned all IJritish armed vessels not to enter American ports. When Congress met in October, the President advised a bill Avhii'h was jtassed, prohibiting all American vessels from all foreign trade, and foreign vessels fiom carrying cargoes from the United States. This was called the Emb^argo Bill, and operated disastrously to the commerce of the country. The F'ederalists opposed it on the ground that it would injure this country rather than England, ana would enhance the commercial disaster which England's attacks on iVmerican commerce had already begun. Intense op- position to the Embargo was manifested in New England, where the foreign tra,974,r>31 1,363,8:12 2,.500,886 12,68;!.303 3.975,438 2.0.=i9.l72 1,444,7.'.5 l,43il.lJ7 3,031, 4.")4 110 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. Paper Stock Precious Stones, and Iniitations of, not set, including Diamonds, Rongli or Uncut Salt \h». Seeds Silli, Manufactures of ,, Unmanufactured Sugai: lbs. Tea lbs. Tin lbs. Tobacco and Manufactures of Wines Wood and Manufactures of Wool and Manufactures of AH otlier Articles 511,586,163 3,483,477,222 83,453,339 3'J,787,622 Total Merchandise. Specie: Oold.. Silver. Total Imports $5,018,248 13,271,602 928,88'J 3,266,230 37,880,143 19,077,366 105,728,216 13,828,993 7,977, ."VIS 16,703,141 10,007,060 19,888,180 59,291, 4.'')2 105,145,273 $844,916,196 $18,232,567 36,259,447 4!899,408,210 The imports of domestic meiohiuulise alone were in 1890 1789,310,409; in 1889,1745,131,652; in 1888, 1723,957,114 ; in 1887, 1092,319,708 ; in 1875, the aggregate was 1533,005,430. Exterritoriality. — This is a privilege accorded to diplomatic agents under the law of nations, by which they are allowed to live under the laws of their own country while accredited to a foreign nation. Their persons, families, estates, and servants are inviolable except in an extreme case, such as a heinous crime. In the case of ordinary crimes, the expectation is that the liomc government will at ,000 ; Stroller of Currenci/, Ed. S. Lacey, Afichigan, $5,000 ; Commissioner of Internal Beveiiue, John W. ^lason, $0,000; /Solicitor of Internal J\e refine, Alphonso Hart, $4,500 ; Solicitor of Tre((sur>/, W. P. Hepburn, Ii>wa, $4,500; C/iief of Secret Service, A. L. Drunnnond, $3,500. War Department. (See Army, The United States.) — This department was created by Act of Congress, August 7, 1789. The principal otticer is the Secretary of War, who is a Cabinet officer. To him are intrusted all at^airs relating to the military commissions ; the land forces of the United States ; the stores for the maintenance of the army both in peace and war. He is required to provide for the maintenance and course of study at the West Point ^lilitary Academy; to supervise the National Cemeteries, etc. The othces and administration of the Adjutant- General, the Inspector-General, the Quartermaster-tieneral, tlie Commissary-tTcneral, the Paymaster-Cxeneral, the Surgeon-Gen- eral, the Cliii'f of Engineers of the Army, the Chief of Ordnance, PKDEKAL GOVERNMENT. 115 the Bureau of Military Justice, ai-e under liis supervision. Tlie princii)al officers and their (U'j.artments are as follows: — A.^sistaut jSecret(fri/, Lewis A. (iraut, Minnesota, !};4,r)00 • Ad- Jutani- General, John C. Kelton, JV'unsvlvania ; Inspector- General Josei)h C. Breckinridge, Kentucky; Quartermaster- Generai, Kichard N. Batchelder, New Hampshire; Commissary- General, Beeknian Du Barry, New Jersey; Surgeon- General, Charles Sutherland, Pennsylvania; Paymaster- General, William Smith Vermont; Chief of Enejineers, Tlu.mas J.. Casey, l{h„eaoliments, and passes or rejects such legislation as may come up from the lower House. The Vice-President is the Presiding OfTicer. The Senate does not resolve itself into a committee of the whole, as does the House, but the practice is to move that a subject be considered " as in a committee of the -whole.'' The Senate frequently sits in Execu- tive Session, that is, in secret session, when the confirma- tion of the President's nominations, or the ratification of treaties is discussed. It often happens that full reports of the proceed- ings of the Senate in executive session are published in the news- papers. The punishment for revealing the proceedings is ex})ulsion, but the rule is practically a dead letter. It is commonly understood that the newspaper correspondents receive their re-, ports of the debates from those members of the Senate who are opposed to secret sessions. The lower house of Congress is the House of Representatives, which consists of Representatives or Congressmen from all the States, their number being depen- dent ujH)n the ]»o{)ulation. The Constitution |)rovidcs that the number of ' Congressmen shall not exceed one to each thirty thousand inhabitants, but that each State shall have at least one Congressman. In the Fifty-First Congress, an act was passed for the re-apportionnuMit of the Congressional districts, by which the House of Kepresentatives, after March o, 1893, will consist of three hundred and fifty-six members. The act also provided for a redistricting of the States, so that the several districts may be composed of contiguous territory, and contain as nearly as possible an equal number of inhabitants. JNIembers of tlie House are elected for two years; the salary is $5,000 a year, besides mileage at the rate of twenty cents a mile, and $1*25 a year for stationery and newspapers. A. member must be at least twenty-five years of age, and seven years a citizen ; he must, moreover, at the time of his election be an inhabitant of the State from wliich he is chosen. Tlie House of Representatives chooses its Speaker aiul other officers. The power of tlie Si>eaker is enormous. He appoints all committees, and the method of the Ilouse in transacting its business renders it more or less sub- servient to l\im. In the Fifty-First Congress, the Speaker, Thomas K. Reed, of Maine, instituted a method of conducting the business which was beyond all preced«it, and which precipitated I-'EDKKAL (iOV^KKNMENT. 219 a bitter strife between iiim and the Democratic ininoritv 1 reviously a quorum had been recognized as consistin-- of ^i n.ajonty ot the members. Members of a n.inority facti/m who des ,ed to obstrm-t legislation with whieli ihey .lid not sympathize j-mdd do so l,y not answering to their munej when the'vole wa^ ■ikui. 1 lie .Speaker, professedly m order to facilitate the public bsmess ruled that the actual presence of a member required that he sho.dd vote, an.i he ordered the votes of all members who ^v^■c present but w l.o e vested in one Supreme Court, a.ul in such interior courts as may be designated by Congress. Inhere are now eighteen Cuyuit Courts and seventy-live Dfstrict Courts be- sides the Court of Claims. The Supreme Court judgn-s im in . unber, are appointed for life. The Judicial piwer extends L. ofT' Tr 7iT ^*l"'^y';^'-i'^i".^' "■''•1^'»- tlie Constitution, (he l.iws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be .na^e under then; authority; to all cases affecting ambassado :, • t?(i, '•'";•";•''''■' '""^ """''"^^^ to all cases of" admiralty and a t nie jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States snail be a party; to controversies between two or more States- between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens 120 FEI>ERAL GOVERNMENT. of (lifferent States ; botwooii citizens of tlie same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State is a jxirty, the Su})reme Court has original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court has appellate j\irisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such excejUions and under such regulations as Congress may make. The Trial of All Crimes, except in cases of im- peachmcjit, is by jury ; and such trial nuist be lield in the State where the said crimes have been committed ; but when not com- mitted within any State, the trial is at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. The limits of tlie juri'^dictions of the Circuit and District Courts, and the appellate jurisdiction of the latter over the former, are provided by law. Tlie Circuit Court has jurisdiction of patent suits, and the District Court i>f ailuiiralty cases. The Court of Clninis has jurisdiction of ilaims against the United States. Tiie Justices of tlie SupriMuc Court, besides sitting in that Court, are each assigned to one of the circuits, being then known as Circuit Justices. There is also a separate Circuit Judge for each circuit, and a District Judge for each district. Circuit Courts may be held by the Cirt'uit Justice, by the Circuit Judge, or by the District .ludgc sitting alone, or by any two of these sitting to- gether. The Supreme Court is made up as follows: C/iief tTus- ), * Joseph P. Bradley, New Jersey (1870); John M. Harlan, Kentucky (1877); Horace Gray, Massachusetts (1881); Samuel Blatch'ford, New York (188-2); Lucius Q. C. Lamar, iMississippi (1888); David J. Brewer, Kansas (1880); Henry B. Brown, Michigan (1891). Ki'tircd Jifstice, William Strong, Pennsylvania, §10,01H^ a year. Salary of the Chief- Justice, $10,oOO ; of each Justice, $U\(HH1. The Circuit Judges are: Le Baron B. Colt, Rhode Island ; William J. Wallace, New York; E. Henry Lacombc, New York; Marcus W. .Vchcson, Pennsylvania; Hugh L. Bond, ^Maryland ; Don A. Pardee, Louisiana; Howell E. Jackson, Tennessee; Walter Q. Gresham, Indiana; Henry C. Cahlwell, Arkansas. Salary, ^t>,000. What is known as' the Supreme Court Relief Bill (which see), provided for the appointment by the President in each circuit of one new judge, each one of whom, with the present judge of the circuit to which the new judge is ap- pointed and a justice of the Supreme Court, will constitute a Circuit Court of Appeals for certain cases. The ap- • Died Jan. 22, 1892. FINANCES OF TIIK GOVERNMENT. 121 pointiiionts wore : First Circuit, William L. Putiiain, Maine ; Secoiul, Nathaniel Sliipman, Connecticut ; Third, Geor<>e M. Dallas, Pennsylvania ; Fourth, Nathan Goff, Jr., West Virajinia ; Sixtli, William II. Taft, Ohio ; Seventh, William A. Woods, Indiana. The salaries are |G,000 each. The United States Court of Claims consists of (Jhief Justice^ William A. Kichardson, Massachusetts ; Associate JiH7(/es, Chas. C. Nott, New York; Lawrence Weldon, Illinois; John Davis, District of C()luml)ia. Salary $4,r)00. Federal Party. (See Political Parties.) Fiat Money. (See Coinao-e, Free Coinage, etc.) Fifty-Foiir-Forty-or-Fiii:lit. — The campaign cry in 1844, when the location of the Northwestern boundary was in dispute. By a treaty with IJussia, the boundary, it was claimed, should extend to 54° 40'; but a compromise resulted in the extension of the boujidary on the 49th parallel to I*uget Sound. The phrase was sometimes written l*hi})hty-phour-ph()rty-or-phight. Fightilic; Joe. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Filibusters. — The word is of Spanish origin, and in that language meant " pirates. " Popularly, filibustering is the obstruction of legislative action by the minority. Originally the filibusters were adventurous spirits who organized expeditions m this country' for conquest of West Indian and Central American peoples. Several of these expeditions were started but none accomplished anything. Finances, Oovernnient. National Debt. Surplus. Government Bonds. Money in Circulation. Receipts and Expenses. The iinaiicii'r of the United States Government is the Secretary of the Treasury. (See Federal GovernnuMit.) This othcial is chosen from among the most expei't financiers in the country, and it is a tribute to the public honor that although the Treasury DepartJiient since its establishment has disbursed over j3!7,000,0()0,000, there has been no defalcation of any consequence. The iinances of the Treasur^^ have to do with the manipulation of the national debt, the care of the sur^dus, and of the receipts and cx])enditures, besides the coinage of moneys. The national debt derived its existence from the War of the Revolution, at the end of which the debt was 457r),4G;.),47itated a bitter contest between the Federals and the Anti-Federals, but by supe- rior political uianao;ement, Uaniilton seenred the adoj^tion by Congress of his report. ^Phe Debt of the Government from time to time consists chietiy of bonds and gold or silver cer- tiHeates redeemable in coin, the bonded debt has paid interest varying from eioht per cent, in 1799 to 1811, six per cent, in ISU to IS-Jji, live per cent, in 1S28 to ISof), six per cent, m 18:>5 to 1855, live per cent, in 1855 to 1870, four per cent, m 187G to 1888' and since then it has been as low as three and one halt, three, and two and one half per cent. Whenever the Surplus is hir^re'enough to warrant the Secretary of the Treasury ni pur- chasing' bonus, thereby to reduce the debt, he is empowered to do so. Between 1852 and 1857, over $50,000,000 of the debt was pnrcdiased in this wav in the open market, the bonds being worth at the time about' !5?125, so that a i.remium aggregating upwards of *8,000,000 was paid. Owing to the enormous expenses of the o-overnment in the War of the Rebellion, the national debt in 1860 ran up to !:^2,77;s28i'.,17:5, the highest point in its liistory. However, the immense internal revenue of ^the .Tovcrnment' at that time, amounting in 1800 to ^309,220,813.42 Tmore than twice as laroe as that in 1891), aided m paying ott the debt- a laroe amount of bonds, at six per cent., maturing in htteen voars were"^ also issued. Since then, the surplus has been largo enough to permit of a gradual reduction year by year of the war debt,'^so that it was wiped out long ago. The following table shows the amount of .the National Debt in each year since 1805. 1SC5... 186l> . . . 18(17 . . . 18G8 . . . 1869 . . . 1870 . . . 1871 . . . 1872... 1873... .S2,C80,r.47,8»)i>.74 . 2,773.23(>,173.lH) . 2,l>78.12»i,103.87 . 2,011.1'S".*'''>1.1'-^ . •_>.r)88,4."i2.213.!H . 2 480,(!72,427.S1 . 2.;«!.2U.3;v_'.32 . 2,25;?,251.328.78 2.234,482,;>!t:;.20 1874 1875 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880 . 1S81 , 1882 . .S2,251,6;>0,468.43 . 2,232,284.531 .'."S . 2,180,3!»5,IX!7.15 . 2,205,301,3!12.10 . 2,25C..205,892..'i3 . 2, 349. 567 .232 04 . 2,128,7'.ll,a">4.63 . 2,077,.'?89,253.58 . 1,926.688,678.03 188.-? . 1884. 188,-> i886 1887. 1888 1889 , IS'.tO 1891 . .§1,892,547.412.07 .. l,8;{8,iHH.607.57 . . 1,872,340,5,57.14 . . 1,783.438,697.78 .. 1,664,4(!1,5;?6.38 . . l,t«<0,917,706.23 . . 1.617.372,419.5;5 . l,.'')4it,2!H'.,126.48 . . l,54*;,iHU,695.61 Government Bonds sometimes are issued subject to the redemption bv the government at its i)leasure. But generally bonds are not redeemable until a certain time hxed t.u- their maturity. 'VW'x are sold in large amount to banking institutions, while thousand's of private indivitbials are more content in hold- iiu>- oovernment securities than anv others. It sometimes happens tlnt'lhe o-overnment does not tind itself able to redeem bonds at their maUiritv. ' In case Congress fails to i-rovide f.u- this emer- o-encv, the Secretary is force.l to make the best possible terms PINANCES OV THK GOVKR.VMENT. 123 WAsIIINf.TOV SCTMs IN 1H( t :. Pennsjhaiud, Avenue, lookuifr toward the Capitol. 2 3. Navy iJepartment. War iJeji.utiiieiit 124 nXANCES OF THK OOVKIJXMKXT. ■with tlio boiulholders. This Secretary Windoiu had. to do in 1S81, Avhen over §650,000,000 in five and six per cents matured. There not being money enough at his command to meet this enormous obligation, the Secretary olYered to extend the bonds of sucli as might desire it, at tluve and one half per cent., redeem- able at the pleasure of the government. This he did in a genor;il circular to the bondlutlders. Over §400,000,000 of these bonds ■'.vero thus redeemed. In 1891, Secretary Foster Mas forced to make a somewhat similar offer to holders of government bonds, which was accepted. The outstanding Interest Bearing Debt on Dec. 1, 1801, was as follows : Funded loan of 1891, §-2o,o04,500 ; funded loan of 1907, $5o9,573,GoO ; refunding certificates, §88,- 720 ; total, §o85,026,870. These, together with a non-interest bearing debt of §;)87,4o3,340.3o, the debt on which interest has ceased since maturity, §.'), 279, 770.20, and the outstanding Treasury notes secured by cash in the Treasury, §r>()9.221,709, made an aggregate debt of §1,540,901,695.01. 'The cash was §139,126,- 917.96. The debt per capita of population in 1867 was §69.26 ; in 1880, it was §38.27 ; in 1891, it was §12.30. The Surplus nowadays averages over §125,000,000. In Cleveland's administration, an Act of Congre^s was passed giving the Secretary of the Treasury permanent authority to purchase bonds whenever the surplus is large enough to warrant it. The withdrawal of so considerable an amount of money from the channels of business would be a severe hardship were it not that under the natit>nal banking laws government funds may be depos- ited in national banks, and thus be utilized in trade, if secured by deposits in the United States Treasury of government bonds. The amoimt of such government moneys in national banks was in September, 1886, §52,199,000 ; in julv, 1891, it was §107,- 056,532. Money in Circulation. — The money of the United States, in the Treasury, and in circulation, was, on July 1, 1860, §435,407- 252, circulation per capita (31,443,321 population) §13.85. In 1870, the amount in circulation was §675,212,794, circulation per capita (population 39,555,0(10), §18.10 ; in 1891, the amount in circulation was §1,500,067,555, circulation per capita (population 63,975,000), §23.45. The interest per capita on the interest- beai'ing debt was forty-four cents. The Receipts of the United States Government in tlu^ fiscal year 1891 were §392,612,447, of which §219,522,205 was from customs ; §145,686,249 from internal revenue ; §4,029- 535 from sales of public lands, and §23,374,457 from other sources. The Expenses of the United States Government for FIRST THINGS. 1*25 the fiscal year 1891, were |;J6o,73S,905, of which * 10,401, '22 1 was for i>remiums on loans and purchases of bonds ; ^48,720,005 for tlie War Department ; 120,113,896 for the Navy Department; §8,527,469 for Indians' maintenance ; 1124,415,951 for pensions; for interest on public debt, §87, 547, 135. Excess of receipts over expenditures, $20,638,542. Fire Ahu'lll Foraker. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Fire Eater. (See Slang of Politics.) Fire Losses, Causes of Fires, etc. (See Great Fires.) Fires, Forest. (See P'orestry.) Fires, Great. (See Great Fires.) First Gentleman of tlie Land. (See Presidents of the United States.) First in AVar, First in Peace, First in the Hearts of His Countrymen. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) First Things in America. — The following is a catalogue of the first use, make, existence, etc., of various articles, or insti- tutions, or products, etc., in the United States : — Sleejnng-car used ixpon the Cumberland Valley Railroad of Pennsylvania from 1836 to 1848 ; Benjamin Franklin used lightning rods, 1752; insurance office in Boston, 1724; American library, founded at Harvard College, Cambridge, 1638 ; cotton raised in Virginia, in 1621 ; Atlantic cable operated, 1858; steamer crossed the Atlantic, 1819; sugar-cane cultivated near New Orleans, 1751; sugar-mill, 1758; telegraph in operation between Wash- ington and Baltimore, May 27, 1844 ; college [Harvard] estab- lished in 1638; introduction of homceopathy, 1825; permanent P]nglish settlement, at.Iamestown, Va., 1607 ; newspaper at Boston, 1690; National bank established in 1816; Pennsjdvania estab- lished a hos|)ital in 1751 ; discovery of gold in California in 1848; illumination with gas at Boston, 1822; theatre at Williamsburg, Va., 1752; theological seminary established at Greenville, Pa., Nov. 1, 1805; public schools established in the New P]r)gland States about 1642; slavery at Jamestown, \'a., iu 1620; postage stamps in the United States in 1847 ; sub- scri|»tion lil)rary at Philadelphia, 1731 ; life insurance at Phila- delphia, 1812; discovery of United States land, April 2, 1512, by De Leon, who discovered Florida; agricultural exhibition in 1810, at Georgetown, D. C. ; axes and edged tools in 1826, first manu- factured at Hartford, Conn.; bank established at Philadelphia, Dec. 31, 1781, incorporated by Congress as "the President, Directors, and Company of the Bank of North America " ; savings 126 FLAGS OF THE UNITED STATES, bank, " the Savings Fund Society of Philadelphia," opened Dec. 2, 1816; ["the Bank for Savings" in New York was founded Nov. 25, 1816, hut did not go into business until July 3, 1819 ;] book j^iinted in 1640, the Ba}^ Psalms Book at Cambridge, Mass.; spelling book in 1783, the American Spelling Book, by Noah Webster; geography in 1780, published by Jedediali Morse; book written in America in 1607, "Relation of such occurrences as miglit have happened in Virginia," etc., composed in 1607, by Capt. John I. True, })ublished in London, 1608 ; child born Aug. 18, 1587, at Roanoke Island, the granddaughter of White, the govei-nor, and baptized on the following Sabbath by the name of Virginia (Dare) ; first church, erected in 1632, in Boston, Mass.; steamboat on the Hudson in 1807; sawmakers' anvil in America, 1819; percussion arms used in the United States Army in 1830 ; glass factory in the United States in 1780 ; complete sewing-maclune patented by Elias Howe, Jr., in 1846; temperance society organized in Saratoga County, N. Y., in March, 1808. For the first manufacture in America of vessels, bricks, saw- mills, glass, tinwai-e, cotton-mill, carding machine, cotton yarn, sew- ing thread, finished elotli, nails, tacks, hats, boots, and shoes, combs, iron works, cannon balls, cordage, wall-paper, ploughs, beer, wine, brandy, linen cloth, woollen cloth, paper, salt, see Manufactures. Flags of the United States. Stars on the Flag, Presidential Flag, Garrison Flag, Revenue Flag, Union Jack, First American Flag. The star-spangled l)anner dates from June 14, 1775, when by resolution of Congress the flag of the United States was offi- cially described as containing "thirteen !!!!!!!* stripes, alternate red and whi'te ; that the ******* Union be thirteen stars, white, in a blue ******* field, representing a new constellation." ******* Tavo more stripes were added, one each *.-******* j^^, Vermont and Kentucky, but on April 4, 1818, the number of stripes was fixed at thirteen. It was en- acted that one star should be added for each new State admitted. From 1876, when Colorado was admitted, to 1889, when the new Northwestern States were admitted to the Union, the flag had thirty-eight stars. The admission of these States added four more stars, making forty-two in all. Idaho and Wyoming have since been admitted, making forty-four States, and requiring forty-four stars in the flag. This number has been in the flag since July 4, 1891, The Revised ^Statutes provide the addition of a star to FLORIDA. 127 the flag shall take effect on the fourth day of July succeeding the admission of a JState. The Garrison Flag of the army is thirty-six by twenty feet, having thirteen red and white stripes equal in breadth. The Union is one third the length of the flag, and extends to the lower edge of the fourth red stripe counting from the top. There are also a storm flag, twenty by ten, and a recruiting flag, nine feet nine inches by four feet four inches. Tlie Revenue Flag originally consisted of sixteen perpendicular stripes, red and white, the Union of the ensign bearing the arms of the United States in dark blue on a white field. The sixteen stripes repre- sented the number of States in the Union at the time, and no change has since been made. In 1871, thirteen blue stars in a white field were substituted for the eagle in the Union of the pennant. Tlie pennant has a Union containing thirteen white stars, on a blue field, one quarter the length, the remaining three fourths having a red and Avhite stripe. By the " Union Jack " is meant the Union of the American flag. The Presidential Flag, the idea of which originated with President Arthur, consists of a blue ground with the arins of the United States -in the centre. It was used for the first time in 1883 by President Arthur. The first strictly American flag was hoisted over the Capitol at Washington, February 24, 1866, all flags previously having been manufactured from English bunting. The flag was twenty-one feet by twelve feet, and was the gift of Gen. Benj. F. Butler. Florida. — Florida was the first region in North America colonized by Europeans. It Avas dis- covered and explored in 1513 by Ponce de Leon, Avho made a settle- ment at St. Augustine in 1565. In 1861, Florida promptly joined the Secession States and seized such national ])roperty as was improtected. 'I'he coast of Florida has hundreds of i dands, among them the famous Florida Keys, where grow mangrove, palmetto, pine, sweet-bay, and other trees, and where cocoanuts, hemp, and ]>ini'apples are raised in large (piantities, with but little cultivation. There have been plantccl on or near the Keys since 1S80, 6(H),- 000 cocoanut trees, the culttu'e of cocoanuts and pineappk's, dates, lemons, etc., here and at other points on the coast being a jjrofit- CREAT SV.\U OI- I'LOKIDA. 128 FLORIDA. able industry. The sponge fishery of Florida employs four hun- dred vessels and sailboats, one thousand fishermen, and yields $1,000,000 worth of sponges every year. Mullet, redsnapper, porapano, kingfish, sheephead, green turtles, SjJanish mackerel, and many other kinds of fish are caught in large quantities, and shipped to the North. At Key West are upwards of one hun- dred and twenty-five factories, which make over 125,000,000 cigars yearly. Florida is noted for its Rivers and Lakes. The St. John's River is nearly four hundred miles long ; the Indian River is a salt water lagoon 165 miles long and from one to six miles wide, and is famous for its oi-anges and pineapples. Other rivers are the St. Mark's, the Apalachicola, the Suwanee, and the Withla- coochee. The Everglades, which is a vast, luxuriant SAvamp covering 7,500 square miles, abounds in fish, and has many islands with hundreds of acres of cypresses and pines, palmettoes and magno- lias. The lakes of Florida, of Avhich there are twelve hundred, are remarkable for the clearness of their water. The Lumber In- dustry is a most important one, the woods jiroduced in the State finding a ready market. There are over 20,000,000 acres covered with Avoods, among which are pitch-pine in great abundance, pine, oak, sweet-gum, royal i)alni, bay-laurel, magnolia, cedar, beech, mahogany, satin-Avood, lignum-vitre, green ebony, man- grove, cork-tree, and olive — in all tAvo hundred species of trees. Live-oak, for shipbuilding, is a large product of the northeast ; and AA^estern Florida finds profit in tar, resin, and pitch, and distilling turpentine. Lumbering yields 120,000,000 a year. The Cotton crop is valued at 14,000,000; that of tobacco at nearly 1700,000 ; that of oranges at 12,000,000 (2,250,000 boxes). On account of its equable climate Florida has long been a favorite resort for invalids, especially for those suffering from lung and throat trouble!?, overwork, nervous prostration, and dyspepsia. The population in 1880 was 269,493 ; in 1890, 390,435. The value of assessed property Avas |;77,000,000. There were 3,300,000 acres of farm lands, valued at $20,000,000. In 1890 there were 2,470 miles of railroad, and 122 neAvspapers. Jacksonville is noted as a Avinter resort and as a centre of a large fruit-packing business, and some manufacturing. It is situated fifteen miles from the ocean on the St. John's River. The population in 1890 Avas 17,160. It has an extensive ship- ping trade. Key West is sixty miles from the mainland. It Avas settled in 1818 by Connecticut fishermen. It has a fine harbor, Avell fortified, a naval station, and steamship lines to New York, Galveston, New Orleans, and Havana. It is the ninth port of FORESTRY. 129 entiy in the United States. Many of its inhabitants are Spaniards and the buildings have a foreign look. Fensacola is an old Spanish colony, with a population of 11,- 751. It has a large export trade in lumber and fish, and has a harbor of two hundred square miles. The capital is Tallahassee, which is an old-fashioned city, famous for its flowers. Fernan- dina, a seaport, and an exporting centre, and Palatka, ninety-six miles up the St. John's River, are other of the more populous . cities. Frank F. P'leming (Democrat) is Governor of Florida. His term expires Jan. 3, 1893. The State is Democratic. Force Bill. — The term Democrats in the Fifty-First Congress used with reference to the Elections Bill, which proposed to give the United States Government control over the national elections. The suggestion of " force " arose from the probability that armed government soldiers would be present at the polls in Southern States, to guarantee to the negroes their right to vote. The name " P^'orce Bill " was first applied to a bill i^assed by Congress to compel South Carolina to yield to the collection of the duties, under the Tariff Acts of 1828 and 1832, which the Calhoun Nullifiers had pronounced null and void. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Foreign Mail Service. (See Post-Office System.) Foresters, Ancient Q^der of. (See Secret Societies.) Forestry. Forest Area. Lumber Industry. Forest Fires. Forestry Commissions. Tree Planting. Arbor Day. The forest area of the United States, now estimated at 480,000,000 acres, was originally evenly distributed through- out the country. The foi'est area included in farms is about 185,000,000 acres. The northern part of the countr}^, years ago, Avas well wooded, the most valuable lumber tree, the white pine, being especially luxuriant.' The i)rocess of destruction however, which has for many years been carried on, has practi- cally strij^ped this section of its valuable forest growths. Lum. baring is still carried on, but the yield is not nearly as large. Large sections of the South are still heavily timbered, but it is only a question of time before it, too, M^ill be denuded, so fast has the cutting been done. The West is remarkable for a scarcity of forests, although there has been extensive Planting of Trees in late years in many of the States this side of the Rock- ies. In the Pacific coast division, the mountains are covered with rich growths of fine trees, but here, too, the woodman's axe has been diligently at work, until even in this primeval region, the 130 FORESTRY. trees will soon be gone. The Paget Sound region is now the centre of a vast lumbering interest. In California, the pine and red-wood are in great demand for export. Parts of Ainzona and New Mexico have virgin growths of hue trees which have not yet been attacked, chiefly because of their inaccessibility. Generally speaking, the forests of New England, New York, Pennsylvania^ Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are practically destroyed, those of the Northwest will be gone ere long, so that the South- ern States in the next twenty yeais will be called upon to supply the larger part of the lumber used in manufacturing, domestic life, and railroading. The present annual Consumption of Lumber is approxi- mately 20,000,000,000 cubic feet, over 2,500,000,000 cubic feet of which is required in manufacturing. A very large part is used for fuel and other domestic purposes. Railroads use over |10,- 000,000 worth of lumber for railroad tics, and over $5,000,000 worth for fuel. For fuel purposes the steaml^oats of the country use about 12,000,000 worth. Baskets, Avood-pulp, handles, fence- posts, etc., are some of the minor forms in which lumber is used in large amount. The total value of tlie forest crop of the coun- try is something over $600,000,000, of which $49,181,238 were exported in 1890, chiefly unmanufactured. A serious cause of the destruction of forests is Forest Fires, which, by the census of 1880, destroyed $25,462,250 of forest lands, burning 10,274,089 acres. In Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Wyoming alone, $12,000,000 of forest lands were destroyed. Another cause of loss is the habit nianj^ farmers have of turning cattle, sheep, and horses into the woods. They devour seedling trees, bark their trunks, and otherwise destroy their vigor. The lumber interests are centred in Maine, northern New York, Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Washington, southern Alaljama, southern Mississippi, southeastern Texas, northern California, Avestern Or^on, and the proliflc Paget Sound region. Michigan is the first State in production, the Puget Sound region being second. Over $250,000,000 capital is invested in lumbei-ing, employing 200,000 hands. The number of lumber- ing establishments is over 30,000. The attention of the government Avas several years ago called to the Denudation of the Forests. Congress made an inves- tigation, forestry associations sprang into existence, and a concerted attemj^t was made to save some of the forest lands. Yellowstone Park was set aside as a National Park, and in New York the Adirondack Park Association strives to secure for the State of New York a compact State Park in the Adirondacks. FORESTRY. 131 For the preservation of the forests, the State of New York instituted a Forest Commission, in 1885, with extensive powers. The State of California lias also created a Forest Commission, COURT HOUSE AT ATLANTA, GA. and Colorado, North Dakota, and New Hampshire have Forest Commissions. Ohio has a Forestry Bureau. A national organization known as the American Forestry Association, composed of delegates from all the States, meets annually. To encourage forest-planting on the prairies, the United States Government has made tree-planting, under certain 132 FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW. regulations, the consideration for the acquisition of public lands. (See Public Lands.) The individual States have striven to encourage tree-planting by appointing a certain day in the year, to be known as Arbor Day, for the voluntary planting of trees by the people, and latterly the interest has been widened by inducing the pupils of the public schools to take part in the observance. The following States and Territories have since then, by legis- lative enactment or otherwise, established an annual Arbor Day: Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Mary- land, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming — 37 in all. (See Legal Holi- days.) Free Coinage. (See Coinage, Free Coinage.) Free Masonry. (See Secret Societies.) Free Soil, Free Speecli, Free Men, and Fremont. — A campaign cry of the Fremont Republicans in 1856, (See Cam- paign Songs.) Free Soilers. (See Political Parties.) French Spoliation Claims. — During the war between France and England in 1794, the French seized many cargoes of American vessels trading with England. The owners of the property seized demanded damages. This government asked France to pa}^, but she replied that our treaty of 1778 with her had been broken by us, maintaining that the United States should have assisted her in her war against England instead of remaining neutral. For this reason she refused to pay the damages asked, unless this government should compensate her for loss occasioned by our alleged violation of the treaty of 1778. The property owners now turned to the United States Government, and de- manded the damages from it, taking the ground that the govern- ment could not cancel a public debt at the expense of a number of private citizens. Since 1800, one bill after another, providing for the payment of these claims, amounting Avith interest to 11,304,095.37 has been introduced in Congress. Twice an ap- propriation passed, but in each case the bill was vetoed. The Fifty-First Congress passed the bill, and President Harrison signed it. Fugitive Slave Law, The. — This was part of Henry Clay's GEORGIA. 133 Omnibus Bill (which see), in which it was inserted as a means of placating the Sontherners in the matter of the admission of Cali- fornia as a free State in 1850. The law encouraged the surrender of fugitive slaves, and commanded the people to aid in their arrest. Those who obstructed an arrest, or who aided slaves to escape from custody, were liable to line and imprisonment. United States marshals refusing to execute writs were punishable by a fine, and the fee of a commissioner capturing a slave was ten dollars if the prisoner was shown to be a slave, but only five dollars if he was shown to be free. Inhumanities were practised upon the blacks, and there were regularly organized parties of whites engaged in kidnapping them. The public indignation became so strong that some of the Northern legislatures passed Personal Liberty laws, for the j^rotection of free negroes. Both Democratic and Whig platforms of 1852 endorsed the law, but it remained in effect, with its undiminished cruelties, until repealed by the Republican Congress in 1863. Fuss and Feathers. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) 0. 0. P. (See Slang of Politics.) Garrisonians. (See Political Parties.) Geneva Award. — Five arbitrators, Charles Francis Adams, representing the United States, Lord Chief-Justice Cockburn, representing Great Britain ; Count Sclopis, representing Italy ; Jacques Staempfli, representing the Swiss Confederation ; and Baron Itajuba, representing Brazil, met at Geneva, Switzerland, on December 15, 1871, as a tribunal to settle by arbitration the dispute between this government and Great Britain, growing out of the Alabama claims. J. C. Bancroft Davis and Lord Tenterden were agents for the United States and Great Britain, respectively. William M. Evarts and Caleb Cushing were present to deliver the arguments in behalf of this government. The tribunal awarded $15,500,000 in gold as indemnity to the United States, only one dissenting vote, that of the English represen- tative, being cast. (See Alabama Claims.) Georgia. — Georgia was settled at Savannah by the English in 1733, as a i>lace where insolvent debtors and others who had been unfortunate might find a refuge. It was one of the thirteen original States. The State joined the Confederacy, although there was a widespread sentiment against it. Since the war a steady development has been made. The staple crop is Cotton, in the production of which Georgia ranks third among the States; its crop of cotton has reached nearly 1,000,000 bales in a year. Corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, sorghum, clover, peanuts, and sweet 134 GERRYMANDER. GREAT SEAL £>F GEORGIA. potatoes are grown in large qiiantitics. There is a large business in fruit and in truck farming. One of the leading industries is Lumbering, over 200,000,000 feet of lumber and timber, valued at $7,000,000, being shipped annually. More than 13,000,000 worth of tar, pitch, turpentine, and resin have been shipped in a single year. Coal-min- ing, marble-quarrying, and gold-min- ing are carried on, with a large invested capital. The State has one million cattle, worth $12,500,000; 400,000 sheep, worth $800,000 ; 144,- 000 mules, worth over $13,000,000, and 106,000 horses, worth $8,736,000. There are thirty-two woollen mills, several flour mills, and cotton mills in seven cities. The production of cotton goods aggregates $25,- 000,000 yearly. The total manufactures aggregate $37,000,000. The farm products are worth $112,000,000 yearly. The Population of Georgia in 1880 was 1,542,180; in 1890, it was 1,833,353 ; the real property was valued at $192,000,000 ; the personal property at $165,000,000. The school attendance was 226,000, and there were 8,000 school buildings. There were 4,532 miles of railroad, and, in 1892, 291 newspapers. Savannah, on the Savannah River, is a beautiful old city whose streets are lined with camellias and oleanders, which grow as t!-ees, and whose sidewalks are overhung with orange and banana ti'ees, myrtles and magnolias. It is a great shipping centre for the contiguous States ; steamship lines run to Florida, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. The exports exceed $70- 000,000 a year. The population in 1890 was 43,189. Atlanta, which is 1,067 feet above the sea, is a beautiful modern city and a great railway centre. The population in 1890 was 65,533. Augusta, which is the third cit}^ has a population of 33,300. It has eight cotton mills, running 200,000 spindles, which are operated by water poAver canals, which cost $3,000,000. The Governor of Georgia is W. J. Northern (Democrat), whose term expires Nov. 2, 1892. The State is Democratic. Gerrymander. — Gerrymandering is the studied arrangement of electoral districts by which one party may have advantage over another. It has been practiced in nearly all of the important States, by both Democrats and Republicans. There is in Iowa a " Monkey Wrench " district, in Pennsylvania a " Dumb-bell " " GIVE 'em JESSIE." 135 district, in New York a " Horse-shoe " district, and in Mississippi a <' Shoe-string " district, the appelLations referring to the shape of the districts as seen on the map. Gerrymandering takes its name from Elbridge Gerry, Governor of Massachusetts in 1814, and from " Salamander." Governor Gerry signed a bill readjusting certain districts, one of which was so odd in shape as to suggest its likeness to a salamander. The editor of the Boston CenUnel^ Benjamin Russell, is credited with having given birth to the word. *' Give 'em Jessie." — This was a campaign cry in the Presidential canvass of 1856. Jessie, the daughter of Thomas H. Benton, of Mis- souri, had run away with and married General Fremont, the Kepublican can- didate, in their youth, and when Fremont was nominated, the mfemory of the ro- mantic event caught the jDopular sym- jjathy, which . is always eager at elec- tion time to seize upon some personal allusion or attribute of a candidate and use it in a political connection. Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Gladstone of tlie West. (See Nicknames of Famous Amei'icans.) God ill the Constitution. (See Religious Denominations.) God Reigns, and the Government at Washington Still LiA'es. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Gold, Production of. (See Mining.) Good Enough Morgan. (See Morgan.) Good Temidars, Independent Order of. (See Secret Societies.) Good War and a Bad Peace. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Goose and Gridiron. — Nicknames for the American Eagle and the United States I'laa:. STATE CAPITOL AT ATLANTA. 136 GUN-BOAT SYSTEM. Grandfather's Hat. (See Presidents of the United States.) Grangers. (See Political Parties.) Great Fires. — The most destructive fire on this continent was tliat which broke out in Chicago on October 8, 1871, and burned for two days. It burned over 2,000 acres, and consumed property valued at $195,000,000. In New York, in 1835, over five hundred buildings and $20,- 000,000 worth of property were destroyed ; in the same city on September 6, 1839, $10,000,000 worth of property was des- troyed. In Pittsburg, April 10, 1845, one thousand buildings were burned; loss, $0,000,000. In St. Louis, May 4, 1851, a large portion of the city was burned; loss, $11,000,000. In Portland, Me., July 4,1866, the city Avas almost entirely destroyed; loss, 115,000,000. On July 14, 1874, another great fire in Chicago destroj'ed 14,000,000 worth of property. In Boston, Mass., No- vember 9, 1872, nearly four hundred and fifty buildings were des- troyed; loss, over 173,000,000. On Thanksgi^ ing Day, 1889, a fire in the business part of Boston destroyed nearly $5,000,000 worth of i)roperty. Fire Loss Since 1875.— The agsregate property loss by fire in 1891 was $131,260,400 ; in 1890, $108,993,792 ; in 1889, $123,- 046,833. The aggrescate insurance loss in the same years was $77,140,200, $65,015,165, $73,679,465, respectively. The total loss since 1875, inclusive, has been $1,615,818,739 ; total insurance loss, $911,070,548. Causes of Fires. — The principal reported causes of firesi and the number of fires from each cause in 1890, Avereas follows- — Incendiarism, 2,106 ; defective flues, 1,239; sparks (not loco- motive), 203 ;' matches, 691 ; explosions of lamps and lanterns, 697 ; stoves, 525 ; lightning, 625 ; spontaneous combustion, 286 ; forest and prairie fires, 89 ; lamp and lantern accidents, 248 ; locomotive sparks, 203; cigar stubs and tobacco pipes, 228; fric- tion in machinery, 112; gas-jets, 269; engines and boilers, stationary, 124; furnaces, 134; firecrackers, 77; ashes and hot coals, 128. There Avere 9,494 fires classified as " not reported," and 2,602 as unknoAvn. Lives Lost by Fire. — In the six years ending 1888, the number of human lives lost in fires in this country Avas 2,975 ; of horses, 15,405 ; of cattle, 8,840 ; of other animals, 81,119. Gnn-Boat System. — Jefferson Avas unwilling to increase the expenses of his administration, and therefore objected to the construction of a navy AA'hen the English, in 1805-6, Avere attack- ing American A-essels. He recommended instead, and Congress adopted a 2:)lan for the building of a number of small and inex- HARTFORD CONVENTION. 137 pensive gun-boats. The P^ederalists laughed at this exhibition of Jeffersonian simplicity, and the " gun-boat system '' became an object of their ridicule. Half Breeds. (See Political Parties.) Hail Columbia. (See Songs of America.) Hard Cider Campaigu and Hard Cider Candidate. — Used in the Harrison campaign of 1840. It was said of the candidate that he once lived in a log cabin, and had only hai'd cider to drink. Instead of having the effect intended, the allu- sion, with many of the voters, was entirely favorable to the can- didate. (See Campaign Songs.) Hard Shells. (See Political Parties.) Hartford Convention. — Tliis memorable gathering of repre- sentatives of the New England States occurred at Hartford, Conn., December 15, 1814. Twent^^-six delegates were present, tlieir avowed purpose being to bring about a revision of the (^institution. Their purpose having become known, they were bitterly denounced as traitors to the government, and in some quarters as conspirators in the service of England. They were accused of being in favor of dismembering the Union, and of ujiholding the Doctrine of State Rights. They disavowed any intention to dissolve the Union at that time ; such dissolu- tion, they declared, must " be the w'ork of peaceable times and deliberate consent." Among the grievances recited were the " easy admission of naturalized foreigners to places of trust, honor, and profit," and the easy formation of new Western States; they (k'sired the defence of every State to be entrusted to the State itself, and declared it to be " as much the duty of the State authori- ties to watch over the rights reserved^ as of the United States to exercise the powers which are delegatecV The Convention met but once, and nothing was heard of its contemplated reforms. (See Secession.) Headsman Clarkson. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) He Fears God, Hates the Devil, and Votes the Straight Democratic Ticket. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) He Smote the Rock of the National Kesonrces, and Abundant Streams of Revenue Gushed Forth. He Touched the Dead Corpse of Public Credit, and it Sprani? Upon its Feet. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Hero of Appomattox. (See Presidents of the United States.) Hero of New Orleans. (See Presidents of the United States.) 138 HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. Hero of Tippecanoe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Hickory Broom, The. — Andrew Jackson, « Old Hickorj^," turned out of office all office-holders of the opposite party, and became thereby the father of the " spoils system." It was said that he swept the de^^artments clean; hence the "Hickory Broom." High-Miuded Federalists. (See Political Parties.) Homestead Act. (See Public Lands and Land Grants.) Honest John. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Honest Old Abe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Horizontal Bill. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) How the President Is Elected. Primaries, Electoral College, District Delegates, Presidential Conventions, National Conventions, Reapportionment. The first thing necessary to a Presidential election is candidates. In the early years of the Republic, candidates were chosen in a caucus of the Congressmen of either party. Such a caucus was unnecessary in the case of Washington's nomination, for the reason that there was no opposition to him. John Adams and Jefferson, likewise, were nominated, as it were, by general party consent. The Congressional Caucus was held secretly in 1800, to nominate candidates for President and Vice-President. In 1824, the "era of good feeling" (which see), the legislatures of the States, in the case of Adams and Clay, made the nominations. Jackson was nominated by a county convention in Tennessee, and by local conventions in several other States. W. H. Craw- ford, who was also a candidate, revived the Congressional caucus. (See Scrub Race for the Presidency.) In 1832, the First National Conventions, which had come to be regarded as the only proper method of nomination, were held and put tickets in the field. From that day, the two great parties and most of the smaller ones have chosen their candidates in national conventions. The make-up of the national convention carries us back to the country towns and the wards of cities. In these, at stated times, specified by district committees of the districts in -which the towns or wards are located, the voters of both parties meet, separately, in " Primaries," or caucuses which are conventions of the voters in a ward or a township. Those in attendance vote for delegates from the township or ward to the district convention. i HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. 189 140 HOW THE PKESIDEXT IS ELECTED. By this is meant, the convention of the Congressional district. The number of delegates is as a rule apportioned to the popula- tion, so that one town or ward may send more delegates than another. The party " bosses " usually have the " ticket " already chosen. In some cities, the Australian system of balloting for delegates is used. The delegates from all the towns or wards to the district convention having been chosen, they assemble, on a given date, in the district convention, and there choose two men who shall be Delegates to the national convention, and two alternates who sliall act as delegates in the event of the delegates being prevented from serving. Each State has, therefore, twice as many delegates in the national convention as it has Congress- men ; besides, it sends to the national convention four delegates at large, Avho are chosen by the State convention called for the purpose. The delegates having assembled in the national convention, which is held in such city as may be determined by vote of the national committee, a Platform of Principles, as drawn up by the committee on resolutiojis, is read and approved. The nominating speeches are made, and the balloting begins. In Republican conventions a majority of the votes cast is necessary to a choice ; in Democratic conventions, two thirds of the votes are necessary to a choice. The nominations made, the convention adjourns, and the campaign begins in earnest. (See National Committee.) The balloting in the Republican and Democratic conventions of 1876, 1880, 1884, and 1888 resulted as follows: — National Conventions. — In the Democratic convention of 1876, the candidate Avas nominated on the second ballot. On the first ballot, Tilden, New York, had 4034-, on the second, 508. Necessary to a choice, 492. Total vote, 738. Hendricks, Indiana, had 133^ on first ballot, and 85 on second; Hancock, Pennsylvania, 77 on the first ballot, 60 on the second; Allen, Ohio, 56 on the first, and 54 on the second ; Bayard, Delaware, Parker, New Jersey, and Broadhead, Missouri, scattei'ing votes. In the Republican National convention of 1876, the total vote on the decisive ballot, the seventh, was 756 ; necessary to a choice, 379. Blaine, 3Iaine, had on the seven ballots, respectively, 291, 1298, 293, 292, 287, 308, 851; Morton, Indiana, had 12o, 111, 113, 108, 95, 85, — , respectivelv ; Bristow, Kentuekv, had 113, 114, 121, 126, 114, 111,21, respectively; Conkling,'New York, had 96, 93, 90, 84, 82, 81, — , respectively ; Hayes, Ohio, had 65,64, 67, 68, 102, 113, 384, respectively, and Avas nominated; Hartranft, Pennsylvania, and Jewell, Connecticut, had scattering votes. In the Democratic convention of 1880, the total vote on the HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. 141 second and decisive ballot was 738 ; necessary to a choice 49ii. Hancock, Pennsylvania, had on the two ballots 171, 320, respec- tively; Bayard, Delaware, 1534^, 113, respectively ; Payne, Ohio, Thurnian, Ohio, Field, California, Morrison, Illinois, Hendricks, Indiana, and Tilden, New York, had scattering votes. Han- cock was after the second ballot nominated by acclamation. In the Iie|)ublican Convention of 1880, the total vote on the thirty-sixth and decisive ballot was 7f)5 ; necessary to a choice 378. Grant, Illinois, had on the first ballot 304, on the thirty-first ballot, 308, and thereon to the thirty-sixth, 309, 309, 312, 313, 306, respectively; Blaine, Maine, on the same ballots had 284 276, 270, 275, 275, 257, 42 ; Sherman, Ohio, had 93, 118, 117, 110, 107, 99, 3 ; Garfield, Ohio, had on the lirst ballot none, and on the thirty-first, thirty-second, and thirty- third ballots, one, 17 on the thirty-fourth, 50 on the thirty-fifth, and 399 on the thirty- sixth, and was nominated. In the Democratic Convention of 1884, the total vote on the second and decisive ballot was 820 ; necessary to a choice, 547. Cleveland, New York, had on the first ballot 392, and on the second ballot, 683, and was nominated. His nearest opponents were Bayartl, Delaware, who had on the first ballot 170, and on the second, 81^, Thurman, Ohio, who had on the first ballot 88, and Randall, Pennsylvania, who had on the first ballot 78. In the Republican Convention of 1884, the total vote on the fourth and decisive ballot was 813 ; necessary to a choice, 407. Blaine, IMaine, had on the four ballots 334|-, 349, 375, and 541 respectively, and was nominated ; Arthur, New York, 278, 276, 274, and 207 respectively ; Edmunds, Vermont, Logan, Illinois, and Sherman, Ohio, had scattering votes. In the Democratic Convention of 1888, Cleveland, New York, was nominated by acclamation. In the Republican Convention of 1888, the total vote on the eighth and decisive ballot Avas 830 ; necessary to a choice 416. Harrison, Indiana, had on the eight ballots 80, 91, 94, 217, 213, 231, 278, 544, respectively, and was nominated; Sherman, Ohio, had 229, 249,244,285,224,244, 231, 118, respectively ; Alger, Michigan, had 84, 116, 122, 135, 142, 137, 120, 100, respectively ; Gresham, Indiana, had 111, 108, 123, 98, 87, 91, 91, 59, respec- tively. The work of the national conventions done, the next step is the choosing of Presidential Electors, who constitute the Elec- toral College. The Electoial College was an expedient adopted by the framers of the Constitution which it was calculated Avould make the election of the I*resident the duty of representative men frc m each State, men who could be trusted to make a 142 HOW THE PRESIDENT IS ELECTED. selection which would be in the hi:^liest interest of the nation. It was expected that on election day the people would vote not for Presidential candidates but for electors, but Avhile this was a pretty theory, the practice has ever since been far different. The electors are simply the representatives of the candidates, and in no instance has an elector cast his br.llot in opposition to the candidate of the i^arty. Under the Constitution each State may appoint its electors as the legislature sees fit ; originally they were chosen by the legislatures, but nowadays, they are nomi- nated by the party conventions of the States and voted for by the people. Each State is entitled to as many electors as it has Representatives and Senators. A plurality of the votes is suffi- cient to elect, but it happens sometimes that one elector may be chosen Avho has different party affiliations from those of the other electors. For instance, in 1880, California elected five Hancock electors and one Garfield elector. By the Act of 1792, the electors in each State were required to assemble on the First Wednesday in December follow- ing their election at a place designated by the legislature. By Act of Feb. 3, 1887, the first Monday in January is fixed for their assembling. Previously, the governor of the State must deliver to each elector three certified lists of the names of the electors. Having voted for President and Vice-President, each elector makes out three certificates of his vote, attaching to each certificate a copy of the certified list c^ the electors' names deliv- ered by the governor. One copy goes by messenger to the President of the United States Senate at Washington before the first Wednesday in Januaiy; another copy is sent to him through the mails ; the third is deposited with the United States judge for the district in which the electors have met. If neither of the first two copies reach their destination by the first Wednesday in January, a special messenger is sent to the judge to obtain the third. This interval of a month was decided upon in order to allow for the slowness in getting the returns in, due to poor trav- elling facilities. Messengers who carry the electoral votes are allowed twenty-five cents a mile, and ai'e subject to a fine of one thousand dollars if they are found guilty of neglect of duty. By the Second Wednesday in February, Congress is required to be in session, when the votes are unsealed by the President of the Senate, in the presence of both Houses of Con- gre^is, and counted. The person having the highest number shall be the President. By the Reapportionment Act, passed by the Fifty-First Congress, the Electoral College now consists of 442 electors, or forty-one more than uj) to 1891. The successful candidate for HUB OF THE UNTIVERSE. 143 President must, therefore, have 223 electoral votes. The admis- sion of Idaho, jMontana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming Territories into the Union, and the reapportionment of Congressional districts in eighteen of the States, both of which have occurred since the last national election, account for this increase. By the new arrangement, Massachusetts gained one vote, New Jersey one, Pennsylvania two votes, Arkansas one, California one, Colorado one, Georgia one, Illinois two, Kansg-s one, Michigan one, Minnesota two, Missouri one, Nebraska three, Oregon one, Texas two, and Wisconsin one, twenty-one in all. The new States are together entitled to twenty. Each State now votes in the Electoral College as follows: Alabama, 11; Arkansas, 8 ; California, 9 ; Colorado, 4 ; Connecticut, 6 ; Dela- ware, 3 ; Florida, 4; Georgia, 13; Idaho, 3 ; Illinois, 24 ; Indiana, 15; Iowa, 13; Kansas, lU; Kentucky, 13; Louisiana, 8 ; Maine, 6; Maryland, 8; Massachusetts, 15; Michigan, 14; Minnesota, 9; Mississippi, 9; Missouri, 17; Montana, 3; Nebraska, 8; Nevada, 3 ; New Hampshire, 4 ; New Jersey, 10 ; New York, 36 ; North Carolina, 11 ; North Dakota, 3 ; Ohio, 23 ; Oregon, 4 ; Pennsylvania, 32; Rhode Island, 4; South Carolina, 9; "South Dakota, 4; Tennessee, 12; Texas, 15 ; Vermont, 4; Virginia, 12; Washington, 4; West Virginia, 6; Wisconsin, 12; Wyoming, 3 ; total, 442 ; necessary to choice, 223. Hub of the Universe. — Referring to Boston as being the centre of advanced thought and political progress. It was first used by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, who said that "Boston State House is the hub of the solar system. You couldn't pry that out of a Boston man if you had the tire of all creation straightened out for a crow-bar." Hunkers. (See Political Parties.) I Am Content. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Am a Democrat. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Have Killed Seventeen Roman Pro-Consuls. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) I Propose to Fight It Out on This Line if It Takes All Summer. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Still Live. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) I Was Born an American, I Live an American, I Shall Die an American. (See Saj'ings of I'amous Americans.) Idaho. — Idaho was settled at Fort Hall, in 1834. It was first entered by white men of Lewis and Clark's exploring party, in 1856; it remained a Territory until 1892, when it was admitted as a State. 144 iDAao. The chief industry is Mining, and the State contains some of the richest veins in America; it has produced over 1160,000,000 in the precious metals. It produces, also, copper, iron, mica, coal, marble, limestone, sandstone, and salt. Irrigation is necessary in the southern counties, but not in the northern ones. The State produces over 1,-500,000 bushels of wheat, and 1,300,000 bushels of oats ; also barley, hay, flax, rye, alfalfa, sorghum, and wild fruits in o-reat abundance. As a Grazing Country, it has fine facilities, which are used for 600,000 horses and cattle and 350,000 sheep. It has several BEFORE THE PIONEER, beautiful lakes, the chief of which are Lake Pen d'Oreilles, which is thirty miles long, and three to fifteen miles wide, having numer- ous islands, and is encircled by lofty mountains with snowy peaks. Ca?ur d'Alene Lake is twenty-five miles long, one to four miles wide, with a depth of 180 feet, and has clear, greenish water, which is stocked with millions of game fish. The Shoshone Falls, in the Snake River, descend over a semi-circular cliff, 225 high, in a mighty stream 950 wide. The population of Idaho, in 1880, was 32,610 ; in 1890, 84,- 305. The taxable property was valued at 136,000,000 ; the manufactures were worth 11,200,000 ; the farm land was valued at $2,800,000. There were in 1890, 844 miles of railroad, 10,333 school children, and 38 newspapers. There are in the State 42 Mormon churches, with 237 priests and 6,000 members. There are several reservations for Indians. The chief cities are Boise City, population 4,000 ; Pocatello, population 2,500 ; and Ilailey, population 2,000. The Governor of Idaho is Norman B. Willey (Republican), whose term expires January 1, 1893. The history of the State shows it to be Republican. If Anyone Attempts to Haul Down the American Flag, ILLINOIS. 145 GREAT SEAI. OF ILLINOIS. Shoot Him on the Spot. (See Sayings of Famous Ameri- cans.) Illinois. — Illinois was settled at Kaskaskia in 1720, by the French ; it was admitted as a State in 1818. The Mormons entered the State in 184U, and erected a temple at Nauvoo, on the Mississippi River. The Mormon chiefs, Jose})h and Hiram Smith, were im])risoned at Carthage and put to death by a mob ; the rest of the band were forced to leave the State and went farther West. Illinois received a large part of the immigra- tion to the West, and her development since 1850 has been truly wonderful. The Farm Products have reached $270,000,000 in a single vear (grain, 1145,000,000 ; live-stock, $50,000,000 ; dairy products, $27,000,. 000; hay and potatoes^g^2(3,000,000). The farm property is valued at above $1,000,000,000. As a producer of wheat and corn, Illinois holds high rank among the States. For many years the wheat crop averaged 30,000,000 bushels, but owing to the small prices of wheat the industry has fallen away. The State raises large crops of oats, grass-seed, flax-seed, broom-corn, honey, and bees- wax ; the fruit industry is an important one, peaches, strawberries, apples, and several kinds of berries and grapes being produced in abundant quantity'. Illinois has more than One Million Horses, including many thoroughbreds, which are valued at $75,000,000. In the number of its horses it is the first State in the Union. It has 1,205,000 cattle, valued at $50,000,000, of which 700,000 are milch cows. The milk produced aggregates 100,000,000 gallons, for city con- sumption alone ; from the rest there are made 25,000,000 pounds of butter and 7,000,000 ])Ounds of cheese. The wool product has reached 6,000,000 pounds in a year. There are valuable Coal Fields in three fourths of the State, producing bituminous, block, and cannel coal. There are 800 mines, 30,000 miners, and the coal product amounts to 11,500,- 000 tons a year. The output of pig-iron in 1889 was 674,506 tons. Lead, zinc, salt, limestone, sandstone, and marble are other products of the Garden State. Illinois has numerous educational institutions, the public school and State educational property being valued at $27,000,000. The Chicago University has been endowed by J. D. Rockefeller 146 ILLINOIS. with over 12,500,000 ; there are twenty-four colleges, and the public school attendance is 588,310. The population in 1870 was 2,530,891 ; in 1880 it was 3,077,871 ; in 1890 it was 3,818,586. The real property was valued at $570,000,000 ; the personal property at $221,000,000. The manufactures aggregated in 1890 |415,000,(t00. Tlie acreage of farm lands was 32,500,000, valued at $1,010,000,000. ThereVere 1,714. newspapers in 1892, and in 1890, 10,218 miles of railroad. ChicagOj the chief city, is situated at the southern extremity of Lake Michi- gan, and is the foremost ship- ])ing centre of the Great Lakes, and is second only to New York. Here the cereals of the N o r t h w e s t , landed by rail in li r mammoth grain elevators, are transferred to ]>ropellers, barges, and schooners, and carried through Lakes II u r o n and Erie to Buf- falo, thence to New Yoik by rail or by the Erie Canal. In the number of its entrances and clearances Chicago outranks New York. ITer en- trances and clearances in 1890 were 21,054, with a tonnage of 10,288,088 ; New York's entrances and clearances numbered 15,283 ; those of the entire Atlantic seaboard were 37,750. Situated as Cliicago is at the centre of the most extensive sys- tem of railroads in the world, bringing to her grain elevators and storehouses the almost inexhaustible products of the rich western and luirthwestern country, witli an easy route to the domestic and foreign markets, and with facilities for Manufacturing which are almost as good as those of New York, it is not surprising that lier trade and commerce have so developed that she stands to-day second in wealth and population of the American cities. Her total trade for 1890 aggregated $1,440,000,000. There are twenty-eight foundries, eighty machinery and boiler works, <.■OlKT-IIOU.SE AND rOST-tH^FICK, CHICAGO. ILLINOIS. 147 seventy iron, tin, and slate roofing works, six rolling mills, several manufactories of agricultural ini])leinents, carriages, furniture, clothing, leather, liquors, tobacco, etc. The manufactories num- ber over three thousand, and their annual output aggregates $550,000,000. The Union Stock Yards received in 1891, 8,848,- 500 hogs, 1,202,824 sheep, 3,308,009 cattle (an average of 10,500 a day), 205,010 calves, and 95,959 horses. The products of the packing houses in canned, cured, and dressed meats, and pork aggregated 2,000,000,000 pounds. The Grain Receipts were 232,000,000 bushels. The exi»orts of fresh beef aggregated 200,000,000 pounds. The building of ships in Chicago has become an important industry. The million-dollar building in Chicago is no longer uncommon. The Court- Ho use and City Hall, of French Renais- sance architectiH'e, built of marble and granite, with s t a t u ar y, cost 14,000,000. The Post-Office and Custom House, in the Venetian Ro- manesque style, cost 16,000,000. The fine business buildings are not as numerous as, but are no less costly than those of New York. ihe new Masonic chambku of coMMicRfu, Chicago. temple cost $3,- 000,000; theW.C. T. U. temple, 11,000,000 ; the Chamber of Commerce, 13,000,000, while the churches and many of the private residences are most magnificent. Among the features of the city are the Board of Trade, the system of parks surrounding the city covering upwards of eight hundred acres, and constructed at a cost of 110,000,000, the Lil)by Prison, transferr(id from its original site at Richmond, Va., the beautiful Auditorium Build- ing, with its spacious Opera House and tall tower overlooking the lake, and the beautiful Afichigan Avenue drive. (For Exposition Buildings see World's Columbian Ex230sition.) 148 IMPEACHMENT OF ANDREW JOHNSON, The Population of Chicago in 1890 was 1,099,850. Peoria, the second city, had 41,024 inhabitants in 1890, has a fine county- court house, several large elevators, and important manufactures. It is a large grain shipping centre. SpringHeld is the capital, and the site of the Lincoln monument. (See Burial Places of Presi- dents.) The population in 1890 Avas 24,963. Joseph W. Fifer (Rep.) is Governor of Illinois. His term expires January 4, 1893. The State is Republican Immigration, Restriction of . — The new Immigration Act passed by the Fifty-First Congress was amendatory to the existing law. Besides Chinese laborers, it excludes from admission into tlie United States all idiots, insane persons, paupers, or persons likely to become a public charge, persons suffering from a loathsome disease or a dangerous contagious disease, persons Avho have been convicted of a felony or other infamous crime or mis- demeanor involving moral turpitude, polygamists, and also any person whose ticket or passage is paid for with the money of another, or who is assisted by others to come, unless it is affirma- tively and satisfactorily shown on special inquiry that such person does not belong to one of the foregoing excluded classes, or to the class of contract laborers. Persons living in the United States may assist friends or relatives who are not of the excluded classes. Persons convicted of a political offence are not to be excluded from immigration. To induce immigration by advertisements of any kind in foreign countries is prohibited except when done by States or State Immigration bureaus. A fine of one thousand dollars or an imprisonment of not more than one year is prescribed for bring- ing or aiding in bringing into this country any alien excluded by law. (For Statistics of Immigration see Population and Area.) Impeachment of Andrew Johnson. — In August, 1867, President Johnson notified Secretary of War Stanton that his resignation was requested, in consequence of " public considera- tions of a high character." On Stanton's refusal to resign, the President suspended, him, General Grant being appointed Secre- tary of War ad interim. The Senate declined to agree to Stan- ton's removal. Grant then declined to serve, and Stanton took pos- session again. The President again removed Stanton, who notified the House of Representatives, which body, on February 24, 1868, resolved that the President be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors. The Senate, sitting as a Court of Impeachment, tried the case. Chief Justice Chase presiding. The Articles of Impeachment charged that the President, in violation of the Tenure of Ofiice Act (this was a new law which INDIANA. 149 provided that civil officers should hold office until their successors should qualify, and giving the Senate final powers of removal, instead of the President), had removed Stanton and appointed Thomas ; that he had been guilty of intimidation of the former and of an attempt to seize unlawfully the property and money of the War Department ; that lie had declared that the Thirty-Ninth Congress was not a legally constitiited body, and that he had failed to properly execute its acts. The counsel for the President argued that the removal of Stanton and the appointment of Thomas did not come within the provisions of the Tenure of Office Act, but were legal according to the laws of 1789 and 1795, which were the only controlling ones in this case ; that he was not guilty of the other charges, except those in regard to his declarations concerning Congress, and that as to those he was protected by the rights of freedom of opinion and freedom of speech. Votes on two of the articles wei"e taken ; the result was thirty-five for conviction, and nineteen for acquittal, thus lacking one vote of the two thirds necessary for conviction. Chief Justice Chase ordered a Verdict of Acquittal, and Johnson served out his full term. Stanton resigned in regular form July 27, 1868. Impending Crisis. — A stereotyped phrase used by cam- paign orators to designate a particularly' dangerous condition of affairs. It was used first by H. R. Helper, a North Carolinian, who published a book in 1868, entitled "The Impending Crisis of the South." Imports. (See Exports and Imports.) In God We Trust. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) Indian Population. (See Population and Area.) Indian Schools. (See Education.) Indiana. — Indiana was first visited by La Salle in 1669. It was settled at Vincennes, in 1702, by the French ; it was admitted to the Union in 1816. More than one third of its surface is still covered with forests, and the Lumber Product is above $16,000,000 yearly. The valley drained by the Wabash River is a rich region for corn and wheat. The corn crop sometimes amounts to 130,000,000 bushels, valued at over 130,000,000. The acreage for wheat is 30,000,000 ; the crop exceeds 40,000,000 bushels, valued at $30,00(),00(». Large crops of oats, rye, barley, sorghum, tobacco, etc., are produced, and the hay crop has reached 2,900,000 tons, valued at .1?35,00<»,000. Fruit is an extensive industry, yielding peaches and apples in large quantities. The farm products in 1880 were worth $308,- 000,000, of which dairy products form a large part. 150 IXIUAN TKKRITOKY. GKEAT SEAL OF INDIANA. There are over seven thousand square miles of bituminous coal. Natural gas is found in several coun- ties, issuing from four huiuired wells. Tlie manufactures of Indiana number over eight thousand, employing over seventv thousand persons, and a cap- ital of" 665,000,000. The population in 1880 was 1,987,- 301 ; in 1890, 2,19-2,404. The State debt in 1890 was 63,'v301,7l2o; the real property was valued at ^5(>7,000,- 000 ; the jieVsonal propertv $'227,000,- 000. Tlie Manufactures yearly amount to $148,000,000; there are 21,000,000 acres of farm land, valued at $G35,0(Ht,000. Tliere are ten thousand public schools, with a daily attemlance of 409,- 000. There are G,04G miles of railroad and 698 newspapers. The leading educational institutions are Pardue University at Lafayette, Indiana I'^niversity at Bloomington, the I'niversity of Notre Dame at Soutli Bend, ^Vabash College at Crawfordsville, and there are many other institutions hicluding several Normal schools. Indianapolis is the capital and chief city, liaving a popu- lation ir. 1S1»0 of 105,430. It is a large railroad and manufactur- ing centre, producing $28,000,000 in a year. Flour-miUing, meat-packing, and grain are the chief industries. It has a magnificent court-house, and is the site of the United States Arsenal. A tine Soldiers' ^Monument is an attractive feature. Evansville, on the Oluo l\iver, is a coal, lumber, tobacco, ami grain shipping point, and lias four hundred factories, employing over ten thousand people. Fort Wayne, the third city, has a popula- tion of 35,593 and is a railway and manufacturing centre. The Governor of Indiana is Ira J. Chase (Republican), whose term expires January 12, 1893. Politically the State is a doubt- ful one. Garfield carried it in 1880, and Cleveland in 1884. Harrison carried the State in 1884. Indian Territory. — The unorganized territory of the United States, which extends from latitude 33^ 35' to 37° north, and longitude 94^ 20' to 103^ west, forms the Indian Territory. It was part of the Louisiana purchase, and has been from time to -time cut down to fonu States and Territories. Except in the west, wliich is an arid plain, rivers are plentiful. These are the Arkansas, and its tributaries the Verdigris, Neosho, Illinois, INDIAN TEKKITORY, 151 from the north, and the Canadian, Cimarron, Jjhick Bear, Little Arkansas, Poteau, and Noith Fork from the west ; there is also the lied River on the southern boundary. Of the 41,000,000 acres in the Territory, nearly 26,000,000 have been surveyed and set apart as Reservations for the Indians. These have been gathered from all parts of the country — from Oregon to P'lorida — in pursuance of the general plan of congre- gating all the Indians in one territory, to be theii's forever. The United [States Government holds the riaht of eminent INDIANA STATE OAPITOL AT INDIANAPOLIS. domain over the lands of the five tribes, the Indians being fee- simj)le owners, but not sovereign, though enjoying to some degree the ])owers of self-government. The United States Indian Agency for the live tribes is located at Muscogee, and has jurisdiction over all persons, whether Indian or white, residing in the Indian counuy. Forty-three Indian policemen are attached to the agenc3\ These ofHcers are engaged in the suppression of crime, the prevention of the intro- duction of whiskey, and serving orders issued by the agent. Each of the civilized tribes is governed by a Priiu-ipal Chief and a Second Chief, elected for from two to four years, an annual legislature of two houses, elected for from two to four years, and a judiciary system. There are over 400, 00*> aci'es under cultivation, Mliich jiroduce 152 INTERNAL REVENUE. large amounts of corn, wheat, and oats, 60,000 bales of cotton, besides vegetables and hay. The Indians have over 750,000 head of live stock. Among the other pi-oducts are lumber, woollen blankets, shawls, willow-baskets, rice, and maple sugar. The population of Indian Territory in 1890 Avas 180,390 Indians, 107,987 white persons, and 5ii,0G5 Indians not belonging to the live tribes. There Avere 880 miles of railroads, and eleven news- papers. luilOCHOUS Desuetude. (See Slang of Politics.) Ins and Outs. (See Slang of Politics.) Insanity. — The number of insane persons treated in 1889 at the {)ubUc ami private asylums for the insane was 97,535. The average cost per head in the public asylums was $161. The number of public asylums was 125, of private asylums, 38, of whii'h 25 were in the North Atlantic States. Interior Department. (See Federal Government.) Internal llevenue. — The interTial revenue of the government nowadays is derived from tobacco, distilled spirits, fermented litpu^rs, bank circulation, and oleomargarine. In the early days of the government taxes were levied on various articles of human utility and luxury, including wines and liquors, snuff, sugar, auction sales, paper, and parchment, and as late as 1814, on iron, candles, umbrellas, beer, boots and hats, gold and silver, watches, household furniture, etc. The enforcement of the tax on spirits, in 1791, led to the Whiskey Insurrection in Western Penn- sylvania, Avhere whiskey was manufactured. The insurrection was put down with the loss of only two lives. The imjiosition of this form of direct taxation Avas the concei)tion of Alexander Hamilton, Avho proposed it as a means of meeting the expenses of the government. It Avas valuable also in time of Avar, or threatened Avar, and the tax Avas especially heavy after the war Avith Eiigland in 1812-13. These taxes, hoAvever, Avere abolished in 1818, and were not re-imposed until 1861, when the govern- ment levied direct taxes in order to raise funds for maintaining the Avar. On July 1, 1862, an exhaustive Internal Revenue Act Avas j)assed, levying taxes on all sorts and kinds of articles, on trades, incomes, sales, manufactures, legacies, etc. More than twenty-five acts on the same subject Avere passed Avithin the next six years. The revenues Avere very large, but the people made no objection. Since that period reductions in the number of articles taxed Avere reguhirly made until, in 1872, only tobacco, distilled spirits, fermented liquors, and bank circulation remained ; in 1886 oleomargarine Avas added. Up to 1800, the Receipts from internal revenue averaged INVENTIONS. 153 $500,000 a 3'ear. In the fourth year of the Civil War, tlie revenue was i;-J09,404,215 ; in LSGO, ^;509,226,813. Tlie revenue has (liniinislied steadily since that time, but since 1888 it has increased above the average of the preceding years. In 1891, the revenue was 1145,086^249, of v^^hich 1111,901,094 was for distilled spirits and fermented liquors, and $32,796,271 was for tobacco. The total internal revenue receipts from 1789 to 1891 have been $4,111,760,798. The tax on oleomargarine is about $800,000 a year. The State paying the lieaviest tax on liquors is Illinois, which in 1891 paid $33,049,373; Kentucky is second, paying in 1891, $15,252,118. Inter-State Commerce Act, The. — The purpose of this act was to establish some sort of control over the railroads of the country, by which unjust and unreasonable charges and unjust discrimination should be prevented, to establish a schedule of regular rates for freight and passengers, and in other ways to bring about better service of the public, and to put an end to railroad wars, causing inteiTuptions to business and inconvenience to the public. l*enalties shall be exacted for " pooling," for com- binations to prevent continuous carriage, for making one rate to one person and another rate for the same distance to another, or for discriminating in favor of particular localities. Some criticism was made of the act on the ground that it tended toward govern- mental control, but the law has been in operation since February, 1887, and gives general satisfaction. The Commission consists of five members, who receive a salary of $7,000 a year. The Fifty- Fii'st Congress amended the act creating the Commission, giving it authoi'ity to request United States District Attorneys to prose- cute all persons violating its provisions. Ill the Name of tlie (Jreat Jehovah and tlie Continental Coili?resS. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Inventions, Great American. Telegraph. Sewing Machine. Telephone. Cotton-gin. Phonograph. The American inventions of a distinctly American origin, which more than any others have contributed to the convenience of humanity, are the telegraph, the telephone, the sewing-machine, the cotton-gin, and the phonograph. Telegraph, The. — In the days before the telegraph, com- munication between distant points was carried on by means of signals. The Romans burnt fires of different substances, each one representing a word or words. The American Indians talked 154 INVENTIONS. witli OTie another in much the same Avay, having signal stations at chosen points through the country. In the 17th and 18th centuries, several systems of telegrai)hic signals were discussed, some of which Avere put in operation. A Frenchman by the name of Cliappe, in 1792, constructed a post with a bar capable of being inclined at any angle, and with the aid of ro}>es, and an abbreviated alphabet, a code of signals Mas operated. This and the other methods experimented M'ith depended upon the eye, could only be used for short distances, and never in foul weather. In the 18th and the early j^ears of the 19th century, experiments with the electric current were carried on in Europe and in this country, but it remained for an American inventor to conceive and operate the First Efficient Machine for utilizing the current. It has always been a matter of controversy as to when, where. INVENTIONS. 155 and by whom the electric current was utilized first for telegraphic coininunication. There is evidence that Alfred ^'ail, operating at Speedwell, N. J., on January G, ISoS, sent to his father, by the dot and dash code, a message thus: "A patient waiter is no loser." On May 6, 1844, the Whig National Convention assem- bled at Baltimore. Between Annapolis and Washington, on that day, Prof. S. F. B. Morse, and his assistant, Alfi-ed Vail, had a circuit, which was part of the circuit which, a few days later was operated between Baltimore and Washington. In Washington there was much curiosity regarding the ticket nominated at Baltimore. A train which arrived at Annapolis had on board several of the delegates, from whom Yaii, who -was at work at this point,learned that the ticket nominated was Clay and Frelinghu^'sen. Tliis information he telegra[)hed to Washington as follows: " The ticket is Clay and Frelinghuysen." This message was received by Professor Morse in the presence of several mend)ers of Con- gress. Later in the same month, the line between Washington and Baltimore was opened. The instrument used Avas that of Professor Morse's invention. Before sending the first message over the wire, he asked Miss Annie Ellsworth to suggest the pro])cr message for so important an experiment. She gave the message, " What Hath God Wrought? " From this small beginning there hasgi-own a world-compassing system of telegraph communication, which is one of the marvel- lous achievements of the nineteenth centur3^ The practical monopoly of the business is in the liands of the Western Union Telegraph Company, although there are several inde|)endent companies which do considerable business. All of them are owned by private individuals. (See Newspapers.) The nundjer of Messages annually transmitted by the Western Union Company has increased from 5,879,282 in 1867 to 59,148,348 in 1891 ; the number of ofKces receiving and send- ing messages, from 2,505 to 20,098 ; the number of miles of wire operated, from 85,291 to 715,591 ; the numl)er of miles of poles and cables, from 46,270 to 187,981 ; the receipts, from $6,568,925.86 to $23,084,826.59 ; the expenses from $8,944,005.68 to $16,428,741.84; the profits, from $2,624,919.78 to $6,605,584.- 75. Exclusive of the private leased wires, the Western Union Coni])any, in 1891, transmitted 524,502,952 words. The average toll per message in 1868 was, in cents, 104.7 ; in 1891 it was 32.5. The average cost per message to the company in 1868 was 68.4 ; in 1891 it was 23.2. Tolls to Foreign Lands. — The first Atlantic Cable was laid in 1857, from Valentia Bay, Ireland, to ITeait's Content, New- foundland. In telegrams to foreign lands, the length of a word 156 INVENTIONS. is limited to ten lettei-s. To England, France, Germany, Ireland, and Scotland, the rate is twenty-five cents a word (from New York); to Russia in Europe, forty-three cents; to Spain, thirty- nine cents ; to Italy, thirty-four cents ; to Sweden, thirty-nine cents ; to Norway, thirty-five cents. To Melbourne, the rate is 12,54 a word ; to New South Wales, $2.58 ; to New Zealand, $2.82; to Canton, $2.09; to Hong Kong $1.99; to Victoria (Australia) $2.5-4; to Rio de Janeiro, $1.89; to Lima (Peru), $1.72; to Argentine Republic, $1.82. The most expensive rate is that to Demerara, which is $3.15 a word. Telephone, The. — The principle of the telephone, that sounds may be conveyed to a distance by a distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert Hook in 1667, but no practical applica- tion was made of the discovery until 1821, when Professor Wheatstone exhilnted his " Enchanted Lyre," in which the sounds of a music box were conveyed from a cellar to upper rooms. The first true discoverer of the speaking telephone, how- ever, was Johanu Philipp Reis, a German scientist and professor in the institute of Friedrichsdorf. April 25, 1861, Reis exhibited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all the essential features of the modern telephone, but as its commercial value was not at all comprehended, little attention was paid to it. Reis, after trying in vain to arouse the interest of scientists in his discovery, died in 1874, without having reaped any acil. Professor Dolbear, of Tufts College, near Boston, Mass., and later by Mr. Edison. Professor Gray's successful experiments considerably antedated those of the others, but Pro- fessor Bell was the first to perfect his patent. February 12, 1877, BelTs articulating telephone was tested by experiments at Boston and Salem, Mass., and was found to convey sounds distinctly from one place to the other, a distance of eighteen miles. This telephone was exhibited widely in this country and in Europe during that year, and telephone companies were established to bring it into general use. Edison's carbon " loud speaking " tele- phone was brought out in 1878. The Examiner of Patents at Washington on July 21, 1883, decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the first to complete his inven- tion and secure a full patent. A long litigation ensued, the chief opponent of the Bell patent being Drawbaugh, who claimed priority of invention. In 1891, after many years of controversy, the United States Supreme Court decided in favor of Bell. The number of Telephone Exchanges in 1891, was 774, with 467 branch offices; miles of wire on poles, 171,498; on IWKNTIONS. 157 buildings, 13,445; underground, 54,090; submarine, 779 ; total, 240,412. The total number of circuits Avas 240,4 1'i ; total sub- scribers, 202,931; total instruments in use, 483,790; average number of connections in a day, 1,438,294; in a year over 450,- 000,000. The average number of calls daily from subscribers was 7.10. The amount received in rentals in 1890 was 12,913,369. The Bell companies represent 180,000,000 of capital. Phonograph, The -The phonograpli was invented by Mr. Edison in 1877, and brought before the public early in the fol- lowing year. The inventor believed that the numerous practical applications of this machine would commend it very largely to general use. This has not thus far proved to be the case, not because the instrument itself is lacking, for added experiment only proves its more remarkable i)ossibilities, but probably because the invention is so wholly new and sti'ange, so at variance with anything pre- viously known and under- stood, that men have not yet been able to comprehend its application to every-day affairs. It is growing in use, however, and many business men whose time is precious use the machine instead of a stenog- rapher in the dictation of their letters. They talk into the phonograph as fast as they like. The stenographer takes the dic- tation from the phonograph to the note-book, and then tran- scribes it. Although expert stenographers can " take " upwards of sixty to seventy words a minute, they cannot compete with the phonograph. The Operation of the phonograph depends upon the principle that sound is produced by vibrations of the air. In the phonograph the sound of the spoken words is re- ceived on a metal plate, turning on a cyclinder, upon whose surface is a spiral groove having hundreds of fine teeth. The vibrations of the metal plate are registered on a piece of tin foil in contact with the spiral groove, and are thence carried to a resonator which causes the vibrations to be easily communicated to the ear. The person using the phonograph, therefore, hears the registered vibrations of the words of the speaker. Sewing-Machine, The. — Foreign experimenters with EDISON SPEAKING PHONOORAPH. 158 INVENTIONS. sewing-maehines met with results similar to those of foreign experimenters in telegraphy, — they produced nothing that was pi-actical. Various Americans tried to perfect such a machine, among them, the Rev. John Adams Hunt, of Monkton, Vt., in 1818, and in 1832, Walter Hunt, in New York City. In 1846, Elias Howe, of Cambridge, Mass., made a machine, which had many defects, but which had what all others lacked — the ability to do practical Avork, Howe embodied the good features of the early machines in his, and jiatented his invention ; besides, he ^A THE FIRST SEWIJTG-MACHINE AND ITS INVENTOR, ELIAS HOWE. bought up other patents, using thera to perfect his machine, and thereby laid the foundation of a large fortune. Other pioneers in the improvement of sewing-machines were John Bradshaw, of Lowell (1818), Allen B. Wilson, of Pittsfield, Mass. (1850), and William O. Grover, of Boston (1851), all of whom contributed valuable ideas. Isaac M, Singer about this time controlled several patents, from which he made the first machine that proved satisfactory to manufacturers. Singer be- came immensely rich. IOWA. 159 Cotton Gin. — The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 revolutionized the cotton production and cotton manufacturing industries of the world. It not only made cotton production more proli table, because more cheap, but it made possible extensive cro])s, and thereby gave the manufacturer more raw material. The invention led to the rapid development of improved cotton s])inniiig and weaving machines. Previously, lint cotton had been separated from the seed by " roller gins," Avhich was a slow and an expensive process. The new gin sepa- rated the lint from the seed not only more quickly and cheaply, but at the same time it increased the quantity of lint. The pods in "which cotton grows burst open when ripe, and are about as large as an apj^le. The pods hold the cotton wool so firmly that it cannot be picked easily. The seeds, too, if taken out by hand, are so entangled in the cotton that it used to take a man a day to produce a pound of clean cotton. Whitney's machine cleaned three hundred pounds of cotton as quickly as a-man by hand could clean one pound. Iowa. — This State originally belonged to Louisiana, at the time it wasbought from France. The first white settlers were people from New England, who founded the vil- lage of l^ubuque in 1833. Iowa is noted for its prairies, which are ex- tremely fertile. More than half the inhabitants are farmers, who produce more than $365,000,000 of various crops 3'early. The Corn Crop has exceeded 322,000,000 bushels in a year; the wheat crop, 37,000,000; oats, 80,- 000,000; rye, 2,000,000; barley, 5,- 000,000; potatoes, 20,000,000. This is the first corn producing State, its achievements in this cereal having been commemorated in the great Corn Palace at Sioux City, an immense structiare which is built yearly entirely of corn. The corn canning industry produces 7,000,000 cans of corn yearly. The product of hay, in a year, has exceeded 7,000,000 tons, worth $33,500,000. The State raises over 4,000,000 head of swine, Avorth $28,- 000,000, and in this industry ranks first. It has 1,200,000 milch cows, and 2,100,000 other cattle, thousands of them blooded stock, the whole valued at !ii!80,000,000. lu the Raising of Horses it stands third, having over 1,000,- GREAT SEAL OF IOWA. IGO nules of bitumiiiou!' 3,500,000 to 4,000 stone, liinostoiK ttM-'s clixv .ive tur yci 000 head, Avorth over $7,000,000. 'riu> slu-op iiuluslry 1ms falK'ii away in reciMit yoars; to 27(>,000 liead. It is tlie second IStato in the production of butter, and the fourth in eheese. There are four liundred Coal Mines, and 20,000 square coal deposits. Tlie output is from tons a year. Lead, zinc, iron, sand- gy})suni, and ])ot- 'ed. The nianufac- rtli |!70,000,0t)0 a xtensive Hour mills, meat-packino- os- )lishments, and va- rious otlier nianu- t'ni'tnrino; indus- tries. The Popula- ion in ISSO was 24,015; in ISDO, 1,- 0. The real })rop- s valued at ^oiM,- ; the ])ersonal prop- yl 40,000,000. The if farm lands was );>, valued at $567,- farm j)roducts were 108,478. In 1890 •^,;)05 miles of rail- o\ attendance was L'wspapers in 1892 ,nva, Des Moines, is a U'ading railroad and manufactur- ino- centre. Amono- its pnnlucts are wire fences, carriages, ])ork, cotton and woollen i^oods. The ]>opulation in 1890 was 50,09;?. Sioux City is a great packino- i-ontre ; the value of its yearly product is $80,000,000. The popula- tion in 1890 was 37,806. The third city is Dubuque, situated on the IVIississippi River on a plateau. It is the terminus for five railroads, does a business aofo-vogating $40,000,000 a year and is a o-rain, lumber, and meat-packing centre; the population in 1890 was 30.311. Horace lioics (Democratic) is (nnernor of Iowa. His term expires January 1, 1894. The State is Republican. VIEWOFOOV NCU- luri'is, IOWA. JOHN r.KOWN S KATD. 161 Irrepressible Conflict. — William H. Seward, of New York, in a speech in 1S5S spoke of the conflict between freedom and slavery as " an irrepressible conflict between opposing and endur- ing forces." Jack the (iiaiit Killer. (See Nicknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Jefferson Simplicity. (See Slang of Politics.) Jingoism. (See Slang of Politics.) John Brown's Raid. — In 1859, John Brown, who had pre- viously been an active ])arliciiiant and leader in the Civil War in Kansas growing out of the ])roposition to make that State a Free State, arrived in Maryland, near Harper's Ferry. With a num- ber of companions, he began the smuggling of men and arms in to a house which he . .^ -■ ^ ^ ■ - - - ■ ■ -•, -— ^-- — = — -e— .-^=— ^ hired, bis purpose be- f *^^^ * ing the organization of an exjjedition to seize the national arsenal at the ferry, where there were 100,000 stand of arms, and with them to arm and free the negroes of the sur- round ing country, whom he expected would rally around him. He would then take to the mountains, whence he hoped to put into operation a plan for the wholesale freeing of slaves, de- fending his force at any hazard. On the evening of October 17, with twenty-two men, he seized the arsenal, cut the telegraph wires, stopped passenger trains, and took sixty prisoners. The negroes did not rally to his side as he had expected they woixld, and he was soon surrounded by troops of the State militia, who outnumbered him many times. Brown made a stout resistance, but finally was ca})tured, being wounded severely. On his trial, he was found guilty, and condemned to death, and was hanged on Deceml)er 2. The inci(h>nt made a national sensation, and helped to inflame the already bitter feeling l»etwecn the North and the South. In Kansas, John Brown had distinguished him- self for his defence of Ossawatojnie against an armed force many times as large as his own ; the Governor of Missouri, where he freed many slaves, offered a reward of three thousand dollars for his arrest. Brown belonged to 710 political party ; if he had any political creed, it was the freedom of the slave. JOHN brown's fort. 162 KANSAS. Johnnies, The, and Johnny Reb.— The names used by Union soldiers during the Rebellion when speaking of the Confederates. Judge Lynch. — Derived from John Lynch, a North Carolin- ian who, failing to secure protection from the authorities, took tl>e law into his own hands ; hence, lynch law, which is the punish- ment of criminals by other than legal authorities. The number of lynchings reported in 1891 was 195, distributed among the States as follows : Alabama, twenty-six ; Arkansas, twelve ; California, one ; Colorado, two ; Florida, ten ; Georgia, twelve ; Illinois, one ; Indiana, three ; Kentucky, eleven ; Louisi- ana, twenty-nine ; Maryland, one ; Michigan, two ; Mississippi, twenty-three ; Missouri, two ; Montana, five ; Nebraska, two ; North Carolina, two; Ohio, one ; Oregon, one; South Carolina, one ; South Dakota, three ; Tennessee, thirteen ; Texas, sixteen ; Virginia, five ; "West Virginia, two ; Wisconsin, one ; Washington, three ; Wyoming, one ; Indian Territory, two. There were 121 negroes, sixt^^-nine whites, two Indians, two Chinese, and one Mexican. Six of the 175 were women. These figures are taken from a compilation in the Chicago Tribune. Judiciary, The. (See Federal Government.) Junket. (See Slang of Politics.) Kansas. — Kansas was part of the Louisiana purchase ; it was settled at Fort Leavenworth in 1840. It was part of Missouri Territory until 1821, and then remained unorganized until in 1854 the Territory of Kansas was erected, including part of what is now the State of Colorado. The attempt to make Kansas a Slave-State resulted in a Civil War, lasting sev- eral years ; towns Avere sacked, hun- dreds of men were killed in battle or assassinated, and " Bleeding Kansas " attracted the attention of the world. GREAT SEAL OF KANSAS. It was admitted to the Union in 1861. It is an important Agricultural State, raising extensive crops of corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, rye, tobacco, buckwheat, and sorghum. Lately the raising of beets for sugar has become an important industry. Forty million acres of Kansas soil are in grass, supporting an enormous number of domestic animals, including 750,000 horses, bred up Avith fine Clydesdale and Percheron, Norman and Kentucky stallions; 100,000 mules, highly valued in farming operations; 800,000 milch-cows, improved by admixtures of Hereford and KAXSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. 163 Galloway, Ilolsteiii and Jersey stock ; and 2,000,000 other cattle. The Live Stock of Kansas is valued at $150,000,000. There are great stock j^ards and packing honses at Kansas City, Kan., across the river from Kansas City, Mo. During 1890, 1,472,2'29 cattle, 76,568 calves, 2,865,171 hogs, 535,869 sheej), and 37,118 horses and mules, in 108,160 cars, were received at these stock yards, and of these animals over 3,000,000 were slaughtered, 1,600,000 sold to shippers, and 320,000 sold to feeders. The zhic and lead mines c>f the State yield in a year $800,000. The population in 1870 was 364,999; in 1880, 996,096; in 1890, 1,427,096. The real property Avas valued at $244,000,000 ; personal property at $109,000,000. The manufactures aggregated $30,790,000 ; the farm products were valued at $52,00o7»00"; the farm lands at $255,000,000. The daily school attendance was 244,697. There are 8,866 miles of railroad in 1890, and in 1892, 765 newspapers. The leading educational institutions are the University of Kan- sas, at Lawrence, the State Normal School, at Emporia, and the Agricultural College at JManhattan, besides which there are numerous smaller institutions. The United States institutions ui Kansas are Fort Leavenworth, the headquarters of the De- partment of the Missouri, the United States Infantiy and Cavalry School, and the United States Military Prison, both at the same place, and the Soldiers' Home near by, besides Fort Riley. Kansas City, the first city, is separated from Kansas City, Mo., by the Mississippi River. On the Kansas side the popula- tion is 38,316. To])eka, the second city and the capital (popula- tion 31,007), is a railway and supply centre. Wichita (population 23,853) is the third city. Leavenworth has a population of 19,768, and is a busy manufacturing a^id shipping point. The Governor of Kansas is Lyman U. Humphrey (Republican), whose term expires Jan. 9, 1893. The State is Republican. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — The Thirty-Third Congress opened December 5, 1853. On December 14, a bill was introduced into the Senate to establish a Territorial government for Nebi-aska, which was refei-red to the Committee on Territoi'ies, of which Stephen A. Douglas was chairman. Mr. Douglas promptly reported the bill on the following day with certain amendments. The true intent of the amendments, as to whether they had annulled former compromises or not, was not undci'stood by the Senate; and a special report was made to the Senate on Januarj'^ 4, 1854, further amending the original bill in such language as could leave no doubt that its construction meant the supersed- ure of the Missouri Compromise (which see). 164 KANSAS-XEBRASKA BILL. The late Compromise of 1850 had rested on it as a basis hy which other contingent issues had been settled ; and this sudden blow aimed at the foundation of the compromise fabric created a sensation deep and wide throughout the North, Mr. Douglas defended the bill on the ground that in 1848 a bill l)rought before Congress for the extension of the Missouii Com- promise line to the Pacific ocean had been defeated, and that this defeat had made it necessary to effect the Compromise of 1850 to supersede it. He further stated that the object of the bill was to leAve the settlement of the slavery question to the inhabitants of the Territoiy. This was the principle of what was termed " Squatter Sovereignty " (which see). In reply to Mr. Douglas, Salmon' P. Cliase denied that the KANSAS STATE CAPITOLS, FIRST AND LAST. Compromise of 1850 had superseded the Missouri Compromise, and to substantiate his premise, quoted the language of Mr. Atchison, Senator from Missouri, who on that occasion, had declared that " though a grave error, the Missouri Compromise could not be repealed.". The debate began early in December, 1853, and terminated with its ])assage May 25, 1854, modified to include Kansas, and clearly superseding the Missouri Compromise. Up to this time the Whigs had held intact their oi-ganization ; but the Southei-n Wliigs had largely deserted them in the contest over this Itill. The Free Soilers (see Political Parties) were an acknowledged power in the North, not to be despised; and the problem now was to find a political nucleus around which to gather in opposition to the Democratic party, by whose quasi KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. 165 166 KENTUCKY. GREAT SKAL Ol' KKNTUCKY. alliance the South had managed to divide the political forces of the North and conquer them in detail. This condition of affairs led to the birth of the Ivcpublican party. (See Political Parties.) Kentucky. — Kentucky was settled at Harrodsburg in 1774, b}' Virginians. It was originally a part of Virginia; in 1790 it became a separate Territory. At the time of the secession movement, although a large slave-holding State, the State did not secede. Of her citizens, over 9!>,(U)0 fought under the Stars and Stripes, and 40,000 under the Stars and Bars. Kentucky has large rivers, famous mineral springs, and it grows extensive crops of hemi), tobacco, corn, and wheat. It ])roduces annually about 280,- 000,000 pounds of Tobacco, which represents nearly two thirds of the American crop. The taxes to the government since 1862, from its manufacture of chewing and smoking tobacco, cigars and cigarettes amounted to $840,- 000,000. Louisville is the largest tobacco market in the world. The State is celebrated for the Blue Grass Region, which covers 10,000 square miles, has a very rich black soil and great landscape beaut\'. The ])o]ndation in 1880 was 1,648,690; in 1890, 1,855,486.' The State debt was |l,449,000,0n0. It had 2,746 mile's of railroad, in 1892, 319,000 school children and 280 newspapers. Louisville, the chief city, with a population in 1890 of 161,- 005, is on the Ohio River, and has an extensive railroad and steamboat navigation. Her manufactures aggregate $60,000,000 in a year. The Custom House, the Baptist Theological Seminary, the Court House, the City Hall, the Cave-Hill Cemetery, and the public institutions are among the prominent features of the city. Covington, the second city (population 37,375), is opposite Cin- cinnati, and has large factories. Frankfort, the capital (poj^ulation 9,000), is the site of the grave of Daniel Boone. Lexington (population 22,355) is the metropolis of the Blue Grass countrv, has large live-stock and commercial interests. Kentucky Univer- sity and the State Agricultural College are situated here. John Young Brown ( I )emocrat) is Governor of Kentucky. His term expires Januarv 1, 1896. The State is Democratic. Kicker. (See Slang of Politics.) Kid-Glove Politicians. (See Slang of Politics.) LEGAL HOLIDAYS IK THE UNITED STATES. 167 Kindergarten Politics. (See Slang of Politics.) King Cotton. This allusion to the importance of cotton originated a short time previous to the Civil War. The South claimed that the North would not go to war with the South for the reason that it could not get along without the South's cotton ; " cotton was king," so asserted the Southerners. The saving gave rise to vai'ious rhymes. King Martin the First. (See Presidents of the ITnited States.) Knifing. (See Slang of Politics.) Kirtghts of Honor. (See Secret Societies.) Kuigllts Templars. (See Secret Societies.) Know Nothings. (See Political Parties.; Ku Klnx Klan. (See Political Parties.) Land Grants, Railroad. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Landslide. (See Slang of Politics.) Last Cocked Hat. (See Presidents of the United States.) Law Partner Miller, (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Legal Holidays in the United States. — Not all of tiie States have the same legal holidays. Six recognized legal holi- days are set apart in all the States, but many States have special holidays in commemoration of some event of particular interest to its people. Following is a list of the holidays celebrated in the States and Territories : — April 15, 1892. Good Fkiday: In Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. April 21. Anniversakyofthe Battle of San Jacinto: In Texas. April 26. Memorial Day: In Alabama and Georgia. May 10. Memorial Day: In North Carolina. May 20. Anniversary oftuk SIGNING of the IMecklenburo Declaration of Independence: In North Carolina. May 30. Decoration Day: In Arizona, California, Colorado, Con- necticut, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hamp- shire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Kiiode January 1. New Year's Day: In all the States except Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. January 8. Anniversary op THE Battle of New Orleans : In Louisiana. January 19. Lee's Birthday : In Georgia and Virginia. February 12. Lincoln's Birth- day: In Illinois. February 22. Washington's Birthday: In all the States ex- cept Arkansas, Delaware, Iowa, Mississippi, and Vermont. March 1, 1892. Mardi-Gras: in Alabama and Louisiana. March 2. Anniversary of Texan Independence: in Texas. March 4. Firemen's Anniveh- sAiiv : In New Oileans, La. April 6, 1892. State Election Day: In Rhode Island, 168 LIFE-SAVING STATIONS. Ishuul, Toimossoe, Utah, A'oniumt, Wisconsin, Washington, and Wy omiug. June 3. Biiithday: June 17. Davis's Jeffeksox In Florida. BiNKEK Iln.i, Day. In Boston and suburbs. July 4. IxnKPKNOKNi'K Day: lu all the States. July 24. Pioneers' Day: In Utah. September 5, 1S02. LabokDay': In Coliuado, Connecticut, Illinois, huliana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Massachusetts, jNIontana, Nebraska, Xew Hampshire. Xcw Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, and Waslun>iton. October ol. Admission in the Union Day': Nevada. November — .Gexekai. Election Day': In Arizona, California, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New- Jersey, New York. North Dakota, Ohio. Oregon, South Carolina. South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, AVashiugton,Wiscousin,and Wyom- ing. In the States which hold elections in November, 1S02, elec- tion day falls on the 8th instant. November 24, ISO'J. Thanks- giving Day': Is observed in all the States, though in some it is not a statutory holiday, December 25. Christmas Day': In all the States, and in South Carolina the two succeeding days in addition. Sundays and Fast Days (when- ever appointed) are legal holidays in nearly all the States. Akhok Day' is a legal holiday in Idaho, Kansas, Rhode Island, and Wyoming, the day being set by the Governor — in Nebraska, April 22; Calit\)rnia, September 9; and Colorado on the third Proiay in April. In New Mexico there are no legal holidays est;»blished by stat- ute, and in Delaware no State holidays. Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal holiday in New Y'ork and Xew Jersey, and from June 15 to September 15 in Pennsyl- vania. June 1, 1865, was appointed by President Johnson a " day of humiliation and mourning" on ac- count of Lincoln's assassination. Sept^Muber 20, 1S81, when Gartield was buried, was appointed by President .Vrtluir to be observed throughout the Union as " a day of humiliation and mourning." Legislative, Tht^. (See Federal Government.) Lot No GuiKy Mmi Escape. (See Savings of Famous Americans.) Liberal Kepublieail. (Sec Political Parties.) Liberty ami Union, Now and Forever, One and Insepar- able. (See Sayings of Famons Americans.) Liberty Party. (See Political Parties.) Life-Savina: Service, The. — One of the most valuable and energetic branches of the government is the Life-Saving Service, whose members patrol the coasts of both oceans and of the Great Xakes, and keep watchful lookout for vessels in distress, and for the protection of property. One of the features of this service has been the introduction of life-saving appliances, for use in carrying passengers ashore from vessels which are wrecked or goino- to pieces. Among these are guns for hurling a line from the shore to the ship in distress, a "breeches-buoy," an ingenious LlGin-llOUSES. ir>n contrivance for hauling a man ashore on a lino, and a life-car, swung on a Hue from the ship to the slioro, m which two ])orsons may be accoiuniodated. Tiie crews are trained in the ni3^steries of launcliing a life-boat when the breakers are running high, of righting the boat in ease it is capsized, of rescuing drowning per- sons, and of resuscitating them wlicn they are brought ashore, as many are, insensible. The stations ai-e ])rovided with medical stores and provisions for use in case of emergency. The records of the service show many heroic deeds performed in the effort to save human life, or to rescue valuable sliips from disaster. In 1891 there Avere 1J08 Life-Saving Stations, of which 178 were on the Atlantic Coast, forty- eight on the Great Lakes, eleven on the Pacific Coast, and one on the Ohio River near Louisville, Ky. The system was introduced in 1871, and in that time there had been 5,783 disasters in which the Life - Saving Ser vice rendered aid. The value of the property of these vessels aggregated $96,000,000; the value of the jirop- erty saved aggre- gated 171,000,000 ; the value of the property lost ag- gregated $24,000,- 000 ; the number of people on the vessels which thus came to disaster was 49,530, of whom 592 Avere lost. The cost of maintaining this valuable service, which is a depai t- ment of the Treasury Department, is about $1,000,000 a year. Light-Houses. — The liglit-houses of the country are under the supervision of the Light-House Board, which is a subordinate rOllTSMOUTH, N. 11. LIGHT-HOUSE. 170 LIQUORS AND TOBACCO. , department of the United States Treasury. Its officers are engineers of the navy and its chairman is ahvays a commodore. Tlie Liglit-IIouse Board lias charge not only of the light-houses and beacons, but also of the fog signals, buoys, light-ships, etc., in the harbors or along the coast. In 1891 there were 1,167 light- houses and beacons, thirty-two light-ships, seven lighted buoys, 186 fog signals operated by clockwork, ninety-two by steam or hot air, fifty-nine whistling buoys, seventy-nine bell buoys, and four thousand other buoj^s of various kinds. On the I'ivers of the West there were 1,368 post-lights. Liquors and Tobacco, Consiiniption of. Malt Liquors. Cigars. Spirits. Cigarettes. Consumption Per Capita. The statisticians of the United States Census Bureau publish a tabulation showing the consumption in the United States of distilled spirits, wines, and malt liquors and the consumption thereof per capita of population. By the report for 1890 it ap- l>eared that the total consumption of distilled spirits, wnies, and malt liquors in the United States was 971,272,770 gallons, of which 855, 992,035. were malt liquors, 27, 650, S70 wines, and 87,- 829,562 distilled spirits. This consumption was far greater than that of any pi-evious year since the statistics have been computed, and the consumption almost doubled in the ten years ending 1890. The tabulation further showed that the consumption of all wines and liquors (including malt), per capita of population, was 15.49 gallons, of which 13. ()5 Avas malt liquors, 1.40 distilled spirits, and .44 wines. It appeared from this tabulation that the consumption of Malt Liquors per Capita of population has steadily increased since 1840, when it was onlv 1.36 gallons; in 1860 it was 3.22 ; in 1870 it Avas 5.30 ; in 1880"it Avas''8.26. On the other hand, it appears that the consumption of Distilled Spirits per Capita of population has decreased since 1840, Avhen it A\'as 2.52 gallons, Avhereas in 1890 it Avas only 1.40 gallons. The consumption of Avines ])er capita of population has shoAvn a A'ery steady average of .45 gallons since the statistics have been computed. The total Production of Beer in the United States for the year ending April 30, 1891, Avas 30,021,079 barrels, an increase over the preceding year of 3,200,126 barrels. The State Avhich produced the largest amount of beer was Ncav York, which pro- duced 9,088,109 barrels ; Pennsylvania Avas second with 3,118,- 248 barrels ; Ohio Avas third with 2,636,668 ; Illinois was LOUISIANA. 171 fourtli with 2,60^,916; Wisconsin was fifth, with 2,403,640. 'I^lic city wliirh sold the lari:;est ainonnt of beer in 1891 was New Yoj-k, which sold 4,448,815 barrels ; Chicagc was second, witli 2,034,696 barrels; Milwaukee Avas third, witli 1,877,157 barrels; St. J>ouis was fourth, witli 1,824,950 barrels; I*hiladeli)hia was fifth, Brooklyn sixth, and Cincinnati seventh. The world's pro- duction of beer is estimated at 4,485,273,549 gallons, and tlie consumption ])er capita of i)<)pulation in all the countries of the world is 41.59 gallons, being heaviest in Bavaria, where it is 263.40 gallons. In the consumption per capita of population the United States stands ninth. Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, Wittenberg, Denmark, Baden, Alsace-Lorraine having pre- ceded it. The materials used for the production of distilled spirits in the j^ear ending June 30, 1891, were 2,951,547 bushels of malt, 18,671,536 of corn, 4,579,868 of rye, 2,610,918 of molasses, 96,166 of wlieat, 28,389 of maltfeed, 14,637 of oats, 662 of barley, and 4,836 of other materials ; total, 26,347,641 bushels. The internal revenue taxes collected for the wines and liquors amounted to $107,691,504. (See Internal Revenue.) Cigars, Tobacco, and Cigarettes In the year ending Dec. 31, 1890, there were manufactured in this country 4,228,- 528,258 cigars, an increase over the prec^^ding year of 441, 29S,- 805 ; of cigarettes tliere were manufactured 2,505,167,610, an in- crease over the preceding year of 91,817,799; the number of pounds of tobacco was 91,746,311, an increase of 8,232,349. The internal revenue taxes on cigars and tobacco in 1891 was $703- 709. Little David. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Little Giant. (See Nicknames of P'amous Americans.) Little Mae. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Little Magieiail. (See Presidents of the United States.) Little More Grape, Captain Uragi?. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Little Tan. (Se(^ Presidents of the United States.) Lives Lost by Fire. (See Great Fires.) Loco Foeos. (See Political Parties.) Lojj; Rolling. (See Slang of Politics.) Lonj? Tom. (See Presidents of the United States.) Lonisiana. — The State was settled at Biloxi, in 1699, by the P'rench. Na))oleon I., at one time, thought of sending a French army to Louisiana to establish a New France. Being unable to defend the District, and fearing its seizure by England, he sold it 172 LOUISIANA. GREAT SEAL OF LOUISIANA. to the United States for $12,000,000. (See Cessions of Terri- tory.) Louisiana promptly seceded from the Union in 1861. Its coast is covered by a huge marsh, extending inland thirty miles, parts of which, in recent years, liave been drained and improved. One half of the State is covei-ed with yellow pines, and the cypress and the oak grow abundantly in the swam])s. The State has 8,872 miles of inland navigation, the lowlands being ])rotected from inundation by 1,150 miles of levees. Only about one tenth of her soil is under culti- vation ; the agricultural products are Avorth $50,000,000 a year. The Rice industry is carried on on fif- teen hundred plantations, employing 50,000 persons, the crop varying from 00,000,000 to 120',000,000 pounds a year. The raising of Sugar utilizes $90,000,000 in land and buildings, and yields $25,000,000 a year. The crop of 1890 was over 330,000 hogsheads of sugar and 500,000 barrels of molasses. This large crop Avas due to the bounty of one and three fourths to two cents a pound, granted by the government under the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890. The sugar industry employs half the popula- tion of the State. The State produces also corn (15,000,000 bushels), oats, and sweet potatoes, besides figs, bananas, peaches, plums, and other fruits, early vegetables, and tobacco. The Cotton croj) yields 550,000 l)ales. The cotton-seed oil business requires 18(»,000 tons of seed yearly. The population of Louisiana in 1880 was 939,946; in 1890,'l, 110,828 ; the net State debt was $12,513,214; the real ])roperty was valued at $149,000,000; the personal property at §64,000,000. The acre- age of farm lands Avas 8,273,506, valued at $58,989,117 ; the farm products were valued at $42,883,522 ; the school attendance averaged 90,551, The railroad mileage in 1890 was 1,758, and in 1892 there Avere 173 ncAvspapers. The only large city of Louisiana is New Orleans, Avhich had a population in 1890 of 241,995. With the exception of Liver- pool, it is the largest cotton market in the Avorld, receiving annu- ally 2,000,000 bales. It is an hnportant centre for railways and steamships. The export trade in sugar, rice, and cotton is of mammoth proportions. A large trade in fruits Avith Central and South America, in aa^ooI Avith Texas and Mexico, and in hides, lumber, and iron is carried" on. The city has many quaint and MAINE. 173 picturesque features, of which tlie Cathedral St. Louis, the French Market, the Spanish Fort, the Creole quai-ter, and the old French houses are the more notable. The Mississippi River here empties into the Gulf, flowing in a mighty sea, through the Northeast, South, Southwest, and other passes, its tiecific purpose, and (Governor's Island, Boston Harboi-, was granted in 1634 to Govei-nor Wiiithrop, who wished to utilize it as a vineyard. The distillation of brandy was begun in 164U. In this year the first linen cloth was made in Massachu- IRON MANUFACTURIxa TN PENNSYLVANIA, setts and on^year later a bounty was awarded by the colony to encourage its manufacture. In 1644 the first systematic attempt at the production of Woollen Cloths was begun at Rowley, Mass., and the United Company of Philadelphia, which owned a spinning jenny ini- porteout 1200,- fcrS*(&)llX. ^K ^ m^ f^^m^ 000,000 each. ■ ■■" Two thirds of the manufac- ^ . „_,—,=-- „„,, ....^'-^ »&*■ '^^-JS.islfllii. , tures are in T,.,,.^^,»-»*«.L-^-«-™«»«.«,r™^. — «r™™™M™.™™pjvv^^_.^ j",New England '^ ;• - / and.New York, New Jersey and Pennsyl- A i.vNAMo. vania. The re- tui-ns of manu- facturing in 1890 have not yet been compiled, but unofficial fig- ures show a large growtli, both in the number of establishments, and in the product. The following table shows the rate of increase of manufactur- ing in 1870 ove^' that of 1860, and of 1880 over 1870. MARYLAND. 179 18G0-1870. 1870-1X80. Establishments 80 per cent. 7 percent. Employees 33 „ ,, 33 ,, „ Capital 100 ,, ,, fi4 ,, „ Wages paid more than doul)le, 52 , „ Value of material ,, „ „ 37 ,, „ „ „ products 2>^ times greater, 13 „ „ The first State in manufacturing is New York ; the second is Pennsylvania. Tlie United States, in t\w volume of its manufactures, leads all the nations. By Mulhall's estimate, in 1888 the United States produced manufactures valued at '17,215,000,000 ; Great Britain's wei-e valued at 14,100,000,000, (Germany's at 12,915,000,000, France's at $2,425,000,000, Russia's at Ji;l,815,000,()0(). Martling Men. (See I'olitical I'arties.) Martyr President. (See Presidents of the United States.) Maryland. —Maryland was one of the tliirteen original States. It was named after Heniietta Maria, *^\X^V»?*'~'^ll^!b. ^^^^^ "^ Charles I. of England. It ^^J^^^^ '^^W refused to join the Confederacy, ■'y^ ^"^^melS^ .^%fi»m. although a Slave State. Chesapeake Bay, which is the iJlQ'!^^ --SI I'l''"^*-'^^ American inlet, runs inland two hundred miles ; its oyster beds 'X'"irfe'»l If ii '''^^'*' ^ g''*''i't value, and the cultivation s- BSlfe^j^-?.'^ . JM ^,f oysters, having a product of 15,- X » vo. V-, vNTf. y^ 000,000 bushels a year, is a leadinp- industry erapu)ying many men. Terrapin, seabass, white perch, her- GREAT SEAL OF MAKYLAND. ^''^^g, mackcrel, wcakfish, and shad abound in these waters. The Farm Products in<;lude 10,000,000 bushels of corn, 6,000,000 bushels of wheat, 28,000,000 ])ounds of tobacco, })esides oats, potatoes, and hay, the whole valued at $40,000,000 a year. Peaches, melons, strawberries, and other choice fruits, grow in the fertile lowlands. The output of coal is 2,500,000 tons a year. The production of iron varies from 20,000 to 00,000 tons a year; there are twenty- two blast furnaces. Zinc, iron, copper, marble, limestone, sand- stone, and slate are found, besides lime, c|)som salts, mica, and granite. The manufactures em])loy 75,000 jiersons, and aggre- gate 1100,000,000. The po])uIatioii of Maryland in 1880 was 934,948 ; in 1890, 1,042,890 ; the net State del>t was *2,724,123 ; the real and jjersonai projterty was valued at -^480, 000, 000 ; the acreage of farm lands was 5,185,221, valued at |IG5, 503,341 ; the railroad mileage was 1,231 in 1890 ; the school attendance aver- 180 MASSACHUSETTS. aged 09,220 ; tliere were 200 iK^w^papers. Ballimore, tlio iiK'tro))()lis of JVIarylaiul, i.s the fourth maritime city ; besides the immense coastwise lleet, tlie arrivals and departures of foreign vessels number 3,000 annually. Steamship lines run to eight foreign ports and to all the imj)ortant American ports. The city is noted for its beautiful buildings, cemeteries, and parks. Here is located the Pea body Inslitule, endowed by (ieorge Pea- body; it has a library of 100,000 xolumes free to the pid)lic, and an art gallery containing many rare art treasures. The Institute gives free lectures by sjtecialists, and instruction in musitr to 2.^0 scholars. There are many handsome monuments in tlu; city. It is the seat of Johns Hopkins University, endowed by its founder with #;5,000,000, mainly for the higher education of college graduates. It has fifty-five instructors and four hundred students. The Baltimore Free Library, founded in 1S82, issues nearly fiOO,!)!)!) books ainiually to the citizens. The j)()puIation of /Ballimore in I SDO was 4;>4,4;{!). The (Jovernor of Maryland is Frank lirown (Democi'at), whose term expires January S, 1890. The State is l)emocratic. Mason and Dixon's Line. -This was a boundary line, defined by j)opular usage, which se])arated the free and the slave territory. The phrase was used first by John Kan(h)lph, of Vir- ginia, at the time of the discussioji of tlu' Missouri (\)mpromise. Originally, it was the jtaiallcl of latitude 39 degrees, 48 niinutes, 20. ;> seconds, separating Pennsylvania from Maryland. Finally, it was the parali(4 oO (legrees, 30 minutes, and east of that, the course of the ()iii() L'iver to the Mississippi. Mason and Slidell. — Mason and Slidell wert" Southerners, who, on Nov. 7, 1801, while on board an English passenger steamer, the Trent, were seized by C-aptain Wilkes, commaiuling the United States vessel, San Jacinto, and lande(l at l^ostou, and imprisoned. The S(»utheiners were supposed to be r(4)el emissa- ries to England and Fiance. The North su]>p<)rtt'il Wilkes, but England demanded rej)aration, and actually began prejjarations for hostilities. The controversy involved the stion of the right of search of a lunitral vessel, which, when exci'cised by Great Britain, had been a leading cause for the War of 1812. Charles Sumner and Secretary Seward maintained that Captain Wilkes had no authority for his conduct, and this government sent an apology to England, releasing at the same time l)oth prisoners. Massachusetts. — Massachusetts was settled for the first time permanently at I*lynu)uth, in 1020, by Englishmi'ii. The Massa- chusetts Hay Colony settled at Saleiii, in 1(528, but in 1030 the capital was removed to Shawmut, which was afterwards named MASSA( IIUSKTTS. 181 GKEAT Sl.AL 01' JIA.SSACII ( SKI Boston. Another colony settled at Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and still other colonics settled in the followins^ years at several jtoints within easy distance of Boston. In 1648, a confederation of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con- necticut, and New Haven was formed for defence against the In- dians and the Dutch, and contirnied more than forty years, Tn HlOl Massachusetts, I'lyniouth, and Maine were united un,(MjU,()<»0 is invested in mainifacturing alone, the value of the jjroduct being $67.''),000,()00. There are 'J4,ublic, and issues annually one million books for home reading, and 700,0(10 periodicals. The Young JMen's Christian Union has a well-planned building and five thousand members. The Museum of Fine Arts contains the works of many famous masters, and among the museums of the country ranks first. The population of Boston in 1890 was 448,477. The second city in size is Worcester, which is a manufactur- ing and railway centre; the population in 1890 was 84,655. The third city is Lowell, whose population in 1890 was 77,696. Its mammoth cotton mills and their j)roducts are famous the world over. It is estimated that they produce 145,000 miles of cotton cloth annually, and em])loy one million spindles. The other great manufacturing cities are Lawrence, Fall Kiver, Lynn, the city"p.x.per; ^flfSlliiii^ lundred acres of ^S^y^^^^^aaS^l CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AT BOSTON. 184 MAYFLOWER ARISTOCRACY. New Bodfonl, Fitehl>urg, Taunton, and llavovliill. Sprinsxfield (44,1 7i* inhabitants) is a boantit'nl city on the Connectient Kiver, with tine |niblii' ))niKlin<;s and a large United States Armory. Tlie (lovernor of JMassaehnsettsis William E. Rnssell (Democrat). His term expires Jan. 4, 180o. The State in national elections has always been Republican. MasSJl Lillkuili. (See Presidents of the United States.) Mayflower Aristocracy. — In ^Massachusetts especially this phrase is frequently heard. It describes the social influence and importance of the descendants of the Pilgrims who landed from the Maytlower at Ply- mouth in I&IO. The pas- sengers on the Mayflower were as follows : — Isaac Aller- ton, Jno. Alden, Jno. Allerton, William Bradford, William Brewster. John Billington, Peter Brown, Richard Brit- terage, John Carver, Francis Cook, James Chilton, John Crackston, Richard Clarke, Edward Dotey, Francis Eaton, T h o m a s English, Samuel Fuller, John Ilowlaml, Stephen Hopkins, Edward Leister, Christopher jNlartin, William Mullins, Edmund Margeson, Degony Priest, Thomas Rog- ers, John Rigdale, Edward Fuller, Closes Fletcher, John Goodman, Richard Gardiner, Georoe Soule, Captain JMiles Stand- ish, Edward Tilly, John Tilly. Thomas Tinker, John Turner, Edward Wiuslow, William White, Richard AVarren, Thomas Williams, Gilbert AVinslow. Servants as follows: Carter, Cooper, Ely, Holbeck, Hi>oke, Langmore, Latham, JMinter, More, PoAver, Sampson, Story, Thompson, Trevore, Wilder. Me Too. (See Xicknaines of Famous -Vmericaus.) Meildiilir Fences. (See Slang of Politics.) Micllii^ail. — The State Avas settled at Detroit, by the French, in 1070. It was admitted as a State in 1887 ; it consists of two peninsulas, which, in parts, border on Lakes Huron, St. Clair, Erie, Michigan, and Superior. Its extraordinary Water Facili- Ol.n ri.M ON BOSTON CO>lMi>N. MICHIGAN. 185 GREAT SEAL Ol' MICllIUAX. lies allow it fo carry on iiioiv !sliii)i)iiig than aii^- other Western State ; it has a Heet of lour huiulred steamboats, with a tonnao-e of 140,000. Its fivsli water fisheries are valued at $1,500,000, eniployino- seventeen lunulred men and pi-odu- ciiig annually 25,00(1,000 pounds of whiteHsh, salmon, sturgeon, hei'ring, and other lakelish. The State is noted for its rivers, ]»onds, lakes, and streams, most of which ai-e ntili/.cd in the hnnhering industi-y, which is the leading industry of the State. A Lirge propoi'tion of the lumher used in the East is JMich- igan hunher, the production in the Saginaw \'alley alone being over 1,000,000,00(1 feet of Imnber in a year. There are in operation one thousand saw uiills, having an invested capital of nearly |i50,000,000 and a yearly output of ^(i(l,O00,00O. The lumber produced consists of cord-wooroduot of ?:lyO,U('0,(UU>. The Population of Miehigan in IS^O was l,6oo,937 ; in 1890, it was :2,09o,8Si) ; the real property was valued at 8711,000,000 ; the personal property at §140,000,000 ; the acreage of farm lands was lo,800,*2iil, valued at ^499,103,] 81 ; the farm products were valued at 1:91,000,000 a year: the school attendance Avas 1^79,900 ; there \\ere 690 newspapers in 189'2, and in 1890 7,242 miles of railroad. Detroit, which is situated on the Detroit River at the outlet of the Upper Great Lakes, has an immense maritime and railway traffic. It has a water front nine miles long; and more ti>nnage passes it than any other point on the globe. The tonnage passing Detroit River during 1889 amounted to o0,20o.00G tons; nearly 10,000,000 tons more than the entries and clearances of all the seaports in the United States; and nearly 3,000,000 tons more than the combined foreign and coastwise shipping of Liver- pool and London. The city has many hue public buildings and large factories. It has a tine hospital, a Museum of Arts, a Public Library containing one liundred thousand volumes, a beautiful Soldiers" Monument which cost 8^1)0,000, and a seven hundred acre park. On the river-bank is tlie United States Marine Hospital, and near the city is Fort Wayne, which is occupied by the LTnited States troops. The population in 1S90 was 205,870. The second city of Michigan is Grand Rapids, where an extensive furniture manufacturing industry is carried on. The population in 1 >90 was 60.278. Lansing, whicli is the capital, has some manufac- turing and is the site of several State institutions. The other imj^ortant cities are Bay City (27.839 inhabitants), Muskegon (22,702), and Jackson (^20,798). The Governor of ^lichigan is Edwin B. AVinans (Democrat), whose term expires January 1, 1893. The State is Republican. Milk, Prodiietioii of. *^See Agricidture.) Mill Boy of the Slashes. (See Xicknames of Famouii Americans.) 3Iills Tariff. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Milling. Gold. Copper. Silver. Petroleum. Coal. Building Stone. Early Mining. The phencmienai mineral production of the United States is MINING. 187 ;^ ed by Longfellow; theie are several other falls and picturesque cascades. The immense area and the fertility of farming country have enabled Minnesota to become one of the great grain-producing States. The production of Wheat has exceeded 45,000,0(i0 bushels a year ; that of Oats, 48,000,- 0(10 ; that of Corn, 22,000,- 0. Only twenty p e r cent, of the available farm lands are under cultivation, and there are still vast areas open for cultivation. It is a foie- raost lumbering State ; 472,- 000,000 feet of sawed lumber, ami 180,000,. 000 shingles have been pro- duced in a year. There are extensive iron mines. The State also produces fine building stone, including limestone, whitestone, dolomite, and brownstone, besides gray, white, and red granite, which are much sought after for public buildings. The manufactures of Miimesota in 1890 aggregated $76,065,- 198; the acreage of farm lands was 1.^,40^,019; valued at $193,- 724,260; the farm products weie worth $49,468,951; the real ]jr<>perty was worth $;^82,000,<)00 ; the personal property was worth $87,000,00(1. The school attendance was 111,641. In 1891 there were 5,666 miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were 476 newspapers. The population in 1880 was 780,773 ; in 1890, it was 1,301,826. f^ut^&jniB: 192 MISSISSIPPI. The chief city is St. Paul, which is situated at the head of navigation on tlie Mississippi, is the capital, and had a population in 1890 of loo, 1 Ad. Minneapolis had a population in 1890 of 164,738, These cities are within a few miles of each other, and both have tine churches, schools, })ublic buildings, and tlwelling houses. St. Paul is a centre of an immense railway tr.ilhc, aiul it is a great manufacturing centre, the yearly product amounting to over ^50,000,000 a year. It is the centre of the wholesale and jdlihing trade of the Northwest. It has large meat-packing I'stablishments and extensive breweries and distil- leries. Minneapolis has hunbir mills ])roducing over o40,000,000 feet of lumber yearly, it is the largest tlour centre in the world, having over twenty mills, with a combined cajtacity of nearly 40,000 barrejs a day. The output of flour has exceeded 7,000,- 000 barri'ls in a year. iMinncai)()lis has a Court House and City Hall erected at a cost of !!!l2,500,000, a iirei)roof Public Library, and an Art Museum. The third city of Minnesota is Diiluth, which had a popula- tion of 83,115 in 1890; it is situated at the extreme western point of the Great Lakes. It has a wonderful system of harbors which are reached by a ship canal, fifteen hundred feet long and three hundred feet Avide. It is the centre of a great shipping ti"ade eastward through the Great Lakes ; it has immense grain elevators, and the most improved machinery for loading wheat on to steamers. The capacity of its elevators is 21,000,000 bushels of wheat, and the arrivals and shipments in a year aggregate 80,000,000 bushels. More than 2,000 vessels, brniging 1,500,000 tons of coal, and carrying away over 8,500,000 barrels of flour, enter and leave the port in a year. The (4overnor of Minnesota is William R. Merriam (T\e])ublican), whose terni expires January 2, 1893. The State is Pepublican. Mints. (See Coinage, Coins, etc.) Mississippi. — The State was settled at F'ort Rosalie, by the r'remOi, in ]71() ; the greater part of it was ceded by France to Kngland, by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763, and belonged at the time to the Province of Illinois. It Avas a rampant secession State, and diu-ing the war was a centre of active hostilities from 1801 to the surrender of Vicksburg, July 4, 18(53. The Missis- sippi River skirts the western frontier, its chief tributary from the State being the Yazoo River, 264 miles long, and navigable throughout. The Steamboats carry 50,000 bales of cotton annually from the surrounding country, and transport shipments aggregating Mississrrn. 103 GREAT SKAL MISSISSIIM'I. $:],500,000. The Tallaliatcliic, the Yalobusha, lY-luila Lake, the Big Black River, the Pearl River, tlie Tombigbee River, the Noxubee, the Pascagoula River are all navigable and are plied by steamboats in the cotton trade. The chief industry is Cotton, the product of which is now over 1,000,- 000 bales a year. Mississippi is the second cotton State. The crop is ])roduced one third by Avhite men and two thirds by negroes. Cotton see-tlic-('rc<'kH (;i,ii :illusioii lo Ihc ii;il,iv(! river-birds); Gooi'f^ia, I>ii/,z:u river in sprinjjf, spawn, and (U)nie down ati;ain in the fall"); Indiana, iloosiers; Iowa, navvk-('ye8 ; Kansas, Jayhawkers (tli(^ Jayhawkcirs wen; a sort of free-boot- (!rs. The name was fust used by a local irishnian, who said tlu* jayhawker is a native bird in tim Mnierald \h\v, which preys uj)on other birds); Kcnluck y, (!orn (trackers (see Nicknames of Stales); Louisiana, Creoles; Maine, l^'oxes (the woods of Maine abound with foxes, and llu; trappin<^ of them is carried on by the woodsmen); Mary land , ('lain IIunt(M-s (allusion to a thrivinc; native industry) ; Massachusetts, liean l<]at(M-s (no well-reL!;idat(Ml family in the State fails to eat baked l)eans on Satunhiy tii<;ht or Sunday morninjjj) ; Michif^an, Wolverines (from lh(^ abundaiHH^ of wolves in hvv forests); Minnesota, (Jophers (se(^ Nicknames of States); Mississippi, Tadpoles (the States was once ))art of the French domain of LouiKiana, whose inhabil,ant.s were known as ('ntpaiK/ti (froj>;s). The transition from froi!;s to tadpoles was an easy one) ; Missouri, I'ukes (se(^ Nicknanu'S of States) ; Nebraska, liug-l<^aters (so c.alleoys ; New Jersey, Clam Catchers (a consitlerable p.ut. of the co:ist, po|iul;ition deiives a livini^ catch- in<^ «'lams), and .Jersey Jilues (from the famous blue laws of the State ; New Mexico, Sp.inish Indians (from the native In- dians who spoke Spanish, which they a.c(piired from the Spanish missionaries who invaded the I'cujion in tlie sixteenth century, and establisluul their churches in the midst of the savages, thousands of whom were converted to Christianity); New York, Knicker- bockers (the word was the invention of Washington Irving, his /loiii ecause of the lar^e the hills), also VVeascds (fi-orn of the inliabitants liv(! in i\\i\ weaselH al»oiui(;(;f-Heads (an allusion OLI> HTA'IK IIOIJHK, HOHTON. to the caltle industry of the State); Utah, Tolyf^amistH ; Ver- mont, (ireen Mountain Boys; Virginia, Beadles (the early 212 MULLIGAN LETTERS. colonial courts had beadles); West Virginia, Pan-handlers (owing to the peculiar shape of the State) ; Wisconsin, Badgers (see Nicknames of States). Nicknames of Cities. — The nicknames of cities in the United States are no less original than are those of the people of States. They are so characteristic that no explanation is needed. Albany, Edinburgh of America; Allegheny, Twin City; At- lanta, Gate City of the South; Baltimore, Monumental City; Bangor, Lumber City; Boston, The Hub, Modern Athens, City of Notions; Brooklyn, City of Homes, Churches ; Buffalo, Queen City of the Lakes; Burlington, Iowa, Orchard City; Charleston, City of the Earthquake, Palmetto City ; Chicago, Garden City, Prairie City, Windy City; Cincinnati, Queen of the West, and Porkopolis ; Cleveland, Forest City ; Denver, City of the Plains; Detroit, City of the Straits; Hartford, In- surance City; Harrisburg, Pivotal City; Indianapolis, Rail- road City; Keokuk, Gate City; Lafayette, Star City; Leavenworth, Cottonwood City; Louisville, Falls City; Lowell, City of Spindles ; Milwaukee, Cream City, City of Beer and Bricks; Minneapolis, City of Flour and Sawdust; Nashville, Rock City; New Haven, Ehn City; New Or- leans, Crescent City; New^ York, P2mpire City, Gotham, and Metropolis of America; Philadelphia, City of Brotherly Love, City of Penn, Quaker City, and Centennial City; Pittsburgh, Iron City and Smoky City; Portland, Me., Forest City and Hill City; Providence, Roger Williams' City ; Raleigh, Oak City; Richmond, Cockade City, and IModern Rome ; Rochester, Aqueduct City and Flour City; Sacramento, Miner's Pocket- book; Salt Lake City, Mormon City; San Francisco, Golden Gate, and Frisco; St. Louis, Mound City ; St. Paul, Gem City and North Star City ; Savannah, Forest City of the South; Yicksburg, Key City; Washington, City of Mag- nificent Distances and Federal City ; Waterbury, Brass City, Mugwump. — This oft-quoted word is of Indian origin, and was used in Connecticut to designate a great man, a chief, or duke. It is found in Eliot's Indian Bible, as Mukquomp, and in the gospel of Matthew, and also in Genesis. It Avas fii"st used in recent years by the Indianapolis Sentinel, in 1872. In the presidential campaign of 1884, the New York Sicn applied the word to those Republicans who refused to vote for .lames G, Blaine. Mulligan Letters, The. — The correspondence between Warren Fisher, of Boston, and James G. Blaine, which played so prominent a part in the Cleveland-Blaine campaign in 1884, was NATIONAL BANKS. 213 known as the Mulligan letters because they were first described by James Mulligan before an Investigating Committee of Congress in 1876. Mulligan was Fisher's private secretary. In his testi- mony before the committee he charged Mr. Blahie with having stolen the letters from him under a promise to retui-n them after having been allowed to read them, in order, as he said, to refresh his memory regarding them, "Burn this letter," "I do not feel that I shall prove a deadhead in this enterprise," and " An anchor to windward " all occur in this correspondence. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Mlirclieson Letter. (See Sackville Incident.) My Country, 'Tis of Thee. (See Songs of the Nation.) Napoleon of Protection. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Natick Cobbler. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Nationalists. (See Political Parties.) National Bank Act. (See National Banks.) National Banks. National Bank Act. Savings Banks. Organization. Deposits. The national banks originated out of the financial embarrass- ment which confronted the government in its effort to carry on the Civil War, In order to raise the revenue necessary for the maintenance of the Army and Nav}^, the establishment of national banks was suggested. These banks were to be organized to issue banknotes, secured by United States bonds deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury. The proposition was outlined by the Secretary of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, in a report to Con- gress in 1861, He argued that by this system the government could easily obtain loans, that there would be established a uni- form currencj-, and that there would be a community of interests between the government and the financial institutions of the country. It was not until February, 1863, that the National Bank Act, having been passed by Congress, was signed by the President. This act provided for the organization of national banks, by at least five persons for each bank. All the caj)ital stock was to be paid up in full. The circulation should not ex- ceed ninety per cent, of the market value of the government bonds deposited in the Treasury, and should not exceed ninety per cent, of the par value. The circulation of the banks was to be guaranteed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and first liens on the assets of the banks were vested in the government, to 214 NATIONAL BANKS. cover any possible deficit which the bonds deposited might not make good. By the terms of the act, the circulation was limited to $300,000,000, but in 1875 all restrictions on circulation were abolished. Banks could not organize with a Capital Stock of less than 150,000 in towns having less than .six thousand inhabitants. In towns of more inhabitants, the minimum of capital Avas placed at $100,000, and in cities of fifty thousand inhabitants the mini- mum was put at $200,000 capital. State banks were allowed to be converted into national banks, but only a few banks were so converted until 1865, when the act was passed which placed tlie tax of ten per cent, on notes of State banks or of individuals which were vised as circulation or paid out by them. In July, 1864, there weie 467 national banks ; a year later there Avere 1,294. The national banks aie under control of National Bank Ex- aminers who are supposed to exercise over them a strict supervision and to make thorough examination of the banks at intervals. The national banks are taxed one per cent, on their circulation, and one half of one per cent, on their deposits, besides having to pay a State tax. They are restricted from making loans on real estate, or on their own notes, or on their own stock, or on legal tender notes, or to any one person or concern to the extent of more than one tenth of their capital stock. In 1891, there were 3,577 national banks, with a total capital of $660,108,261, a surjilus of $222,766,668, dividends paid in tliat year of $50,795,011, and total net earnhigs of $75,768,614. The number of banks had steadily increased year by year; in 1875 the number was 2,047. On November 1, 1891, the banks held $346,681,016 in legal tender notes, $15,282,625 of fractional currency, and $172,184,558 of notes of other national banks, in- cluding gold notes. Saving Banks. — The first savings bank in this country was the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society, which opened for the reception of deposits in 1816. By the last report issued by the Comptroller of the United States Treasury, 1889-90, it appeared that there were 921 savings banks, holding deposits to the NATIONAL PARK BANK, NETV YORK. NATIONAL COMMITTEE. 215 amount of $1,524,844,506, deposited by 4,258,623 persons. The average deposit was 1358.04. The State having the largest deposits was New York, which is the most populous State, and which had 1550,066,657, and 1,420,097 depositors. Massachu- setts, which is sixth in population, was second in the amount of its deposits, having $332,723,688 and 1,029,694 depositors. Con- necticut, the twenty-ninth State in population, was third in the amount of its deposits, having $1 L0,370,962 and 294,896 deposi- tors. The largest average to each depositor was in California, where the average was $787.74. California was fourth in the amount of its deposits, having $98,442,007. Both in the number of their depositors and in the amount of deposits, the savings banks of the United States lead those of any other country, proving that the Americans are the thriftiest people in the world. Great Britain has deposits of $536,000,000 and 3,715,000 deposi- tors; France, $559,000,000 deposits and 4,150,000 depositors; Austria, $613,000,000 deposits and 1,850,000 depositors, etc. National Cemeteries. (See Army United States.) National Committee, The. — The National Committee of a great political party takes charge of the candidate as soon as he has been nominated, and from that time until the returns T from all the States are received, ' his movements are subject to its control. It is generally the case that the candidate's nomi- nation has been anticipated, so that the committee is able to map out beforehand the plan of the campaign, determining both what the policy of the campaign will be, but also in what States the aggressive work must be done. One of the iirst duties of the commit- tee is the publication of a campaign life of the candidate, which must have an individuality which will appeal to the imagination of the voter. The voter likes nothing so well as to read the intimate personal history of the candidate from childhood up. To this end the candidate himself, and his relatives and friends, give to the biographer all information which will picture the candidate in every phase of his private and public career (not excepting the members of his family), in a favorable light before the public mind. PACIFIC BANK, SAN FRANCISCO. 216 NATIONAL COMMITXEE. This Personal Element of presidential campaigns is one of the results of democracy, and while in some respects it may not be pleasing to the nominee, it is nevertheless productive of a bond of human sympathy between tlie ruler and the ruled, which in a Republic is inseparable from its perpetuity. The mapping out of a campaign by the committee requires qualities of leadershi]>, which while differing from those of a general of an army, are not less rare. Upon the Chairman of the Committee devolves the heavy work of the campaign. Asa rule he gives to it his entire time during the six months of the canvass. He has at his beck and call a number of lieutenants read}'' at a moment's notice for special service. He keeps posted upon the strength and weak- ness of his own and the rival i>arty, not only in the doubtful States themselves but in each of their cities and important towns ; he knows tlieir leading industries, how tliey are affected by tlie tariff or other legislation, and the attitude of their business men toward this or that bill in Congress ; he is familiar, also, "wdth the strife of factions in States and cities, and knows the leaders thereof, and one of his chief aims is to unite them in the com- mon cause before election day ; he consults often with the editors of the party organs, and frequently furnishes them with political news and editorial inspiration ; he originates schemes for attacking the enemy, and having at his command a large staff of writers and clerks, he can print and distribute, at a day's notice, thousands of copies of a campaign document; the Publi- cation office of the National Committee issues in the course of a campaign, political matter aggregating several million copies, covering a variety of subjects for distribution in all the States. Such work as this is all done, as it were, behind the scene ; the public sees only the result. Besides, the chairman makes dates for the candidate to speak, and works up through lieutenants in various parts of the country, public interest in his coming ; he raises funds for the expenses of tlie campaign, which are neces- sarily licavy ; he selects campaign speakers, instructing them re- garding the issues they shall lay most stress upon, and those upon Avhicli they must touch lightly upon ; he must, moreover, seize any political straw there may chance to be in the air affecting the enemy's intentions and turn it to their disadvantage. The chairman is elected by the members of the Committee from the States, there being one member from each State, who is elected usually l)y the delegate to the National Convention. The Members from the States are selected from the standpoint of their ])olitical power, their acquaintance with the politics of their States, and their j)olitical sagacity. Generally NATIONAL COMMITTEE, 217 speaking, each member of the Committee from a State is respon- sible for his State on election day. The Expenses of conducting a presidential campaign aggre- gate at least a million dollars. This money is spent both for legitimate and illegitimate ])urposes. The equipment of political clubs in their parades, the hiring of public halls, brass bands, and of special cars for the candidate, printing, clerk-hire, grand stands, telegrams, campaign banners and flags, fireworks, deco- rations, " missionary" work by emissaries sent out on one errand or another — ■ these are the chief items of a legitimate expense which aggregates a large sum. There is also popularly supposed to be a large fund reserved for use on election day, in the purchase of votes The actual extent of this practice is probably exag- gerated, although it cannot be questioned that it exists in all the doubtful States. " Soap," applied in large quantities in a doubt- ful State, has always been regarded as an important factor in carrying the election. (See " Political Slang.") The money of the National Committee is raised either by voluntary or solicited subscription. Leaders of a party who are wealthy are expectcid, as a matter of course, to subscribe large sums, and also manu- facturers and others whose industries are benefited by legisla- tion originating with the party's leaders. It not infrequently happens that this money is solicited on the eve of the election, " for getting out the vote," but when this is the case, the sus- picion of intended corruption is always aroused. One of the advantages claimed for the Australian Ballot was that it pre- vented corruption and intimidation at the polls. Under the old system of voting, the venal voter received his vote from, and deposited it in ])lain sight of the vote purchaser, whereas under the new system, he receives his ballot only from an official source, and marks it unobserved. In the one case, the corruptionist sees the " goods," so to speak, which he is paying for ; in the other, he has no means of knowing whether " the goods are delivered." The members of the Republican National Committee, headquartei'S at New York City, are : Chairman, .Tames S. Clarkson; Treasurer, William C Barbour; Secretary, J. S. Fassett; Mem- bers: — Alabama, William Youngblood ; Arizona, George Christ; Arkansas, Powell Clayton ; California, M. II. DeYoung; Colorado, W. A. Ilamill ; Connecticut, S. Fessenden ; Delaware, D. J. Layton ; District Columbia, P. H. Carson ; Florida, John K. Russell ; Georgia, F. F. Putney ; Idaho, George L. Shoup ; Illinois, W. J. Campbell ; Indiana, John C. New ; Iowa, J, S. Clarkson; Kansas, Cyrus Leland, Jr. ; Kentucky, William O. Bradley ; Louisiana, P B. S. Pinchljack ; Maine, J. ^l. Ilaynes ; Maryland, James A. Gary; Massachusetts, Henry S. Hyde ; Michigan, John 218 NATIONAL COMMITTBB. P. Sanborn ; Minnesota, Robert G. Evans ; Mississippi, James Hill ; Missouri, Chauncey I. Filley ; Montana, Charles S. Warren ; Nebraska, W. M. Robinson ; Nevada, E. Williams ; New Hamp- shire, Person C. Cheney ; New Jersey, G. A. Hobart ; New Mexico, W. L. Ryerson ; New York, J. S. Fassett ; North Caro- lina, W. P. Canady ; North Dakota, H. C. Hansbrough ; Ohio, A. L. Conger; Oklahoma, D. T. Flynn ; Oregon, Jonathan Bourne, Jr. ; Pennsylvania, M. S. Quay ; Rhode Island, Thomas W. Chace; South Carolina, E. M. Bray ton ; South Dakota, A. C. Mellette; Tennessee, W. W. Murray; Texas, N. W. Cuney ; Utah, J. R. McBride ; Vermont, G. W. Hooker ; Virginia, James D. Brady; Washington, T. H. Cavanaugh ; West Virginia, N. B. Scott; Wisconsin, Henry C. Paine; Wyoming, J. M. Carey. The Democratic National Committee with headquarters also at New York City are : Chairman, Calvin S. Brice ; Treas- urer, Charles J. Cauda; Secretary, S. P. Sheerin. Members : Ala- bama, H. D. Clayton, Jr. ; Arizona, J. C. Herndon ; Arkansas, S. P. Hughes; California, M. F. Tarpey; Colorado, Chas. S. Thomas; Connecticut, Carlos French; Delaware, John H.Rodney; District of Columbia, William Dickson ; Florida, Samuel Pasco ; Georgia, John H. Estill; Idaho, John W. Jones; Illinois, E. M. Phelps; Indiana, S. P. Sheerin; Iowa, J. J. Richardson; Kansas, C. W. Blair ; Kentucky, Henry Watterson ; Louisiana, James Jeffries ; Maine, Arthur Sewall ; Maryland, A. P. Gornian ; Massachusetts, Chas. D. Lewis; Michigan, O. M. Barnes; Minnesota, Michael Doran ; Mississippi, C. A. Johnston ; Missouri, John G. Piather ; Montana, A. II. Mitchell; Nebraska, James E.Boyd; Nevada, R. P. Keating; New Hampshire, A. W. Sulloway; New Jersey, Miles Ross: New Mexico, Neill B. Field; New York, W. F. Sheehan ; North Carolina, M. W. Ransom ; North Dakota, W. R. Purcell ; Ohio, Calvin S. Brice ; Oregon, A. Noltner ; Penn- sylvania, Wm.-^. Harrity ; Rhode Island, Samuel R. Honey ; South Carolina, John C. Haskell; South Dakota, Wm. R. Steele; Tennessee, R. F. Looney; Texas, O, T. Holt; Utah, Wm. F. Ferry; Vermont, Hiram Atkins; Virginia, John S. Barbour; Washington, J. A. Kuhn ; West Virginia, Johnson M. Camden ; Wisconsin, John L. Mitchell; Wyoming, W. L. Kuykendall, National Prohibition Executive Committee — Chair- man, Samuel Dickie, Albion, Mich.; Secretary, John Lloyd Thomas, 32 East 14th St., New York City; Vice-chairman, A." A. Stevens, Tyrone, Penn.; Treasurer, S. D. Hastings, Madison, Wis. ; J. B. Hobbs, Chicago ; Samuel W. Small, Atlanta ; A. J. Wolfenbarger, Lincoln, Neb.; W. D. Wardwell, 75 New St., New York. National Convention. (See How the President is Elected.) NAVY OF THK UNITED STATES. 219 National Democrat. (See Political Parties.) National Prohibitionists. (See Political Parties.) National Republican. (See Political Parties.) Native American. (See Political Parties.) Naturalization. — The renunciation by a foreigner of a former nationality and his entrance into a similar relation towards the United States as a body politic. The candidate must declare on oath his intention to become a citizen, two years at least after which and after five years of residence he may get his papers as a citizen in full of the United States. The laws of the States admit a man to citizenship in the State in from six months to one year; the laws of cities admit a man to citizenship in from ten to thirty days. NaVJll Academy at Annapolis. (See Navy, United States./ Naval Militia. (See Navy, United States.) Navigation on the Great Lakes. (See Ship-Building.) Navigation, Steam, Stream. (See Ship-Building.) Navy Department. (See Federal Government.) Navy, Great Britain's. (See Navy, United States.) Navy, New. (See Navy, United States.) Navy Pay Table. (See Navy, United States.) Navy, The United States. Rear-Admirals. New Navy. Commodores. Old Navy. ^ Salaries. Naval Academy. Navy Yards. Naval Militia. Great Britain's Navy. There is at the present time no officer possessing the title of admiral, which is the highest possible rank, nor is the title of vice-admiral held by an officer. There are at present six Rear- Admirals, and two commodores acting as rear-admirals. They are Lewis A. Kimberly, President of Board of Inspection and Survey, West Newton, Mass. ; Bancroft Gherardi, Commanding North Atlantic Station, Flag Ship Philadelphia; George E. Belk- nap, Commanding Asiatic Station, Flag Ship Marion; David B. Harmony, Commanding Asiatic Station, P^'lag Ship Lancaster ; A. E. B. Benham, waiting orders, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; John Irwin, Commandant Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal. ; and Acting Rear- Admirals John G. Walker, Commanding South Atlantic Station, Flag Ship Chicago, and George Brown, Commanding Pacific Station, P^lag Ship San Francisco. There are thirty-tln-ee rear- 220 NAVY OP THE UNITED STATES. admirals on the retired list. The salary of a rear-admiral is $6,000 at sea, $5,000 on shore dut}^ and |>4,000 on leave or waiting orders. The Commodores are James A. Greer, Chairman of Light- Ilouse Board, Washington, D. C. ; Aaron W. WeaA^er, Comman- dant at Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. ; Wm. P. McCann, President of Examining and Retii'ing Boards, Washington, D. C. ; James H. Gillis, waiting orders, Nutlcj^, 'N. J. ; Francis M. Ramsay, Chief of Bureau of Navigation, Washington, D. C. ; Joseph S. Skerrett, Commandant at Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. ; Joseph Fyffe, Navy. No. 1. SHOULDER STRAVS OF OFFICERS OF UNITED STATES NAVY. No. C. 1. Admiral. 2. Vice-Admiral. 3. Rear-Admiral. 4. Commodore. 5. Captain. 6. Commander ( silver leaf). 7. Lieutenant - Comman- der (gold leaf). 8. Lieutenant. Commandant at Naval Station, New London, Conn.; Oscar F. Stanton, Governor of Naval Home, Philadelphia. The salary of a commodore is 15,000 at sea, 14,000 on shore duty, and $3,000 on leave or waiting orders. There are nine commodores on the retired list. The Salaries of officers other than admirals and commodores are as follows : — At Sea. On Shore Duty. On Leave, or Waiting Orders. Captain Commander Lieutenant-Commander, first lour years. .. Thereafter Lieutenant, first four years Thereafter Lieutenant, Junior Grade, first four years Thereafter Ensign, first four years Thereafter — Ensign, Junior Grade $4,500 3,500 2,800 3,000 2,400 2,600 1,800 2,000 1,200 1,400 1,000 $3,.'50O 3,000 2,400 2,600 2,000 2,200 1,500 1,700 1,000 1,200 800 $2,800 2,300 2,000 2,200 1,600 1,800 1,200 1,400 800 1,000 000 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 221 The navy proper has eight thousand men. The pay of seamen is $258 per annmn ; of ordinary seamen |210 per annum. The United States Marine Corps consists of a force of two thousand men. Colonel Charles Hay ward is commandant. The location of Navy Yards is as follows : — Brooklyn Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Charlestown Navy Yard, Boston, Mass. ; Gosport Navy Yard, near Norfolk, Va. ; Kittery Navy Yard, opposite Portsmouth, N. II. ; League Island Navy Yard, seven miles helow Philadelphia, Pa. ; Mare Island Navy Yard, near San Francisco, Cal. ; New London Naval Sta- tion, New London, Conn. ; Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla. ; Washington City Navy Yard, AYashington, D. C. ; Norfolk Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. There are naval stations at New London, Conn., Port Royal, S. C, and Key \Yest, Fla., and a torpedo station and naval war college at Newport, R. I. New Navy, The. — In the administration of President Cleveland the initial steps were taken in the construction of a Cfiaiip^nn ~" jitir Pflr^r 'Ti'rui doMiware Bosfon THE SQUAUROX OF EVOLUTION. Sin franu'-fo fleet of armored cruisers and battle-ships, upon the most approved models. The naval architects of the country, and the builders of steel and iron vessels have since then achieved won- ders in the designing and building of a practically new navy for the United States. Meanwhile the government engineers of ordnance have been diligently at work experimenting with new steel armor plates and with new large-sized guns as fast as tliov have been cast. Adopting the plan of foreign nations, tlie government has placed in operation a steel armor plant of its own, and has conducted numerous tests of both its own steel plates and of those produced in the foundries of the country. Since Secretary of the Navy Whitney awarded the contracts for the construction of the new navy, sixteen vessels, including nine cruisers, four gunboats, two torpedo boats, and one despatch boat have been placed in commission. These are the protected cruisers Chicago, 4,500 (the figures represent displacement), 222 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. Boston, 3,189, AUanta, 3,189, Dolphin, 1,485, Newark, 4,083, Charleston, 3,730, Baltimore, 4,600, San Francisco, 4,083, and Philadelphia, 4,324; the gunboats Yorktown, 1,700, Concord, 1,7U(), Bennington, 1,700, and Petrel, 890 ; the torpedo-boats, Stiletto, 31, the Cushing, 116, the despatch-boat Dolphin, 1,485, and the dynamite cruiser Vesuvius, 3,795, The latter has three fifteen inch dyna- mite guns, and three rapid-fire guns, and has a tested speed of 21.5 knots. The torpedo-boat Stiletto has a speed of eighteen knots ; her companion torpedo-boat, the Cushing, a speed of 22.5 knots. The cruisers have a speed of 15.6 to 20,7 knots, and from twelve to twenty-nine guns each, including rapid-fire breech-loaders, breech-loading rifles, Gatlings, and guns of small calibre. Besides these vessels there are in process of building the double- tuiTcted monitor Miantonomah, 3,815, the first armored battle- ship to fly the flag, with four ten-inch breech-loading rifles which are second to none in the world, and ten other rapid-fire guns ; four other double-turreted steel monitors, two of tliem mates of the Miantonomah, the Puritan, 6,060, Amphitrite, 3,815, Monadnock, 3,815, and Terror, 3,815, with armaments equally formidable ; tlie battle-ship Texas, 6,300, with two twelve-inch guns, six six-inch breech-loading rapid-fire guns, and eight other rapid-fire guns; the armored cruiser Maine, 6,648, with four ten-inch guns, six six-inch breech- loading rapid-fire guns, and eight other rapid-fire guns; the coast-line battle-ship Oregon, 10,298, with four thirteen-inch, eight eight- inch, four six-inch rapid-fire, breech-loading guns, and twenty-eight rapid-fire and machine guns ; her mates, the Indiana, 10,298, and the Massachusetts, 10,29 8, each to cost 14,000,000 ; the protected cruiser Cincinnati, 3,893, with ten four inch breech- loading rapid-fire guns, two rapid-fire six-pounders, two rapid-fire three-pounders, and four machine guns ; her mate, the Raleigh ; the Monterey, 4,000, for coast defence, with two twelve-inch, two ten-inch breech-loading rapid-fire guns, six six-pounders, four three-pounders, two rapid-fire, and two machine guns ; the C?fic/'/£)o /S7?J NAVY OP THE UNITED STATES. 223 New York, 8,150, armored cruiser, with six eight-inch and twelve four-inch breech-loading rapid-fire guns, eight six-inch rapid-fire guns, four one-pounders, and four machine guns. Still other war vessels, protected cruisers Nos. 6, 9, 10, 11, and 13, the steel practice vessel, the harbor defence ram, and the gunboats Nos. 5 and 6, are under way. Upwards of Fifty Mil- lion Dollars will have been expended upon the new navy by the time the vessels already contracted for have been comj^leted. In addition to these vessels, there are also to be included in the list the iron vessels, Ajax, Comanche, Canonicus, Cats- kill, Jason, Lehigh, Mahopac, Manhattan, Montauk, Nahant, Nantucket, Passaic, Wyandotte, which are all vessels of the old navy, but fitted, so far as is possible without entire rebuilding, with modern armament. Their speed is not above six knots. Finally, the United States Navy has fiftj'-nine iron and wooden sailing and steam vessels, of which thirty are in commission. Great Britain's Navy. — A comparison of the navy of the United States with that of Great Britain is most suggestive. Great Britain unquestionably possesses the most powerful navy in the world ; in fact with the vessels now in process of construc- tion, she could probably defeat any two navies that could be matched against her. The Vessels of the British navy may be tabulated as follows : ARMORED. Battle-ships, first class 41 Kattle-ships, second class 12 Coast defence vessels 10 Armored cruisers 12 Torpedo ram 1 Total 76 UN ARMORED. f Protected 10 ) Ist-class cruisers < Partially protected OS 10 ( Unprotected ) (Protected 35) 2d-class cruisers < Partially protected 4 [ 49 { Unprotected 10 ) (Protected 19) 3d-class cruisers < Partially protected 20[ 51 ( Unprotected 12 ) Gunboats 53 Torpedo cruisers 33 Sloops of war 26 Torpedo boats* 206 Miscellaneous craft 5 Total 433 Grand Total 509 The Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., fits picked young men, by a six years' course of study, to be officers in the Line 224 NEBRASKA. and Engineer Corps of the Navy, and in the Marine Corps. It was founded in 1845, by George Bancroft, then Secretary of the Navy, and transferred to Newport, R. I., during the Seces- sion War. Here stand the Midshipmen's Quarters, Officers' Quarters, Gunnery Building, Observatory, Hospital, Department of Steam Engineering, and G3^mnasium. The library contains 18,000 volumes, and many trophies and flags, and portraits of Farragut, Porter, Perry, Decatur, Preble, and other naval chief- tains. The Academy grounds are adorned with fine old trees, monuments to heroes of the American fleets, and trophy cannon. There are fifty-seven instructors and 280 naval cadets, each Con- gressional district being entitled to send one youth, physically and mentally sound, who must bind himself to serve eight years (including the time at the Academy) in the United States Navy. Each naval cadet receives $500 a year. Naval Militia. — In Boston, in 1889, a movement was started for the organization of a naval militia, whose members should occupy the same relation to the United States Navy as that of the State militia to the United States Army. It was argued that in the event of a foreign war, there were few American sailors who understood the working of batteries on warships, or who would be in other respects available for service on board a man-of-war. The result of this movement was an organization of young men, of Boston and the suburban towns, into a naval militia under competent officers. They were encouraged by Secretary Tracy's approval of the plan, and finally at the Secre- tary's instigation, Congress, in 1891, appropriated $25,000 to purchase arms for the militia, to be expended under direction of the Secretary of the Navy. This fund is not distributed directly to the States, but is used, under supervision of the Bureau of Ordnance, to fill requisitions from governors for arms and equip- ment. California had mustered in 371 men. New York, 342, Massachusetts, 238, North Carolina, 101, Rhode Island, 54, and Texas, 43; total, 1,149. The men are drilled in summer on board men-of-war furnished by the government, and sham battles, generally on the islands in the several harbors, are fought. Thorough instruction in all the duties of a sailor is given. Nebraska. — The State was settled at Bellevue, in 1810, by Americans ; it was part of the Louisiana Purchase, and was ad- mitted to the Union in 1867. It is a region of unbroken prairies and rich valleys, watered by noble rivers, including the Missouri, which forms the eastern boundary for five hundred miles, the Platte, Elkhorn, Loup, Republican, Niobrara, and numerous other rivers. The " Bad Lands " of Dakota, famous for their II NEBKASKA. 225 The Farm Products monstrous weird-shaped rocks and desohite canons, extend into nortliern Nebraska. of Nebraska, which is essentially an agricultural State, exceed |> 10,000,- 000 a year ; thei-e are G5,000 farms of an average value of $10 an acre. The annual product of cereals in 1889 was 270,000,000 bushels. The beet-sugar industry, encouraged l»v the bounty of the go\ernment of two cents a pound, is attaining extensive proportions. The Livestock of the State are valued at 181,000,000 and number 4,700,000 head. The stock-farms are among the best in the country. The manufactures of Nebraska, in 1890, were over 120,000,000. The United States forts are Fort Omaha, Fort Sidney, Fort Niobrara, Fort Robinson, and the headquarters of the Department of the Platte is at Omalia. There are several reservations and agencies for Indian tril)es in the State, and schools for the education of Indian youths. The Population of Nebraska in 1880 was 452,402; m 1890, it was 1,056,193. The GREAT SEAL OF NEBKASKA. real property was valued at $96,000,000 ; the per- sonal property at |64,- 000,000 ; the farm lands included 9, 9 4 4 , 8 2 6 acres, valued at $105,- 932,541 ; the farm pro- ducts were worth $7,- 708,914 ; the school attendance was 159,692. There were, in 1890, 5,295 miles of railroad, and in 1892, 610 news- papers. The largest city is Omaha, which is situated on a plateau above the Missouri River Mnth a population in 1890 of 140,000 and having a trade of $75,000,000 a year. It has many fine pub- lic buildings, nearly 100 churches, 100 miles of railway, and beautiful avenues. It is the centre for pork and beef-packing. The second city is Lincoln, which is the capital, and the chief railroad centre, having a population in 1890 of 55,154. It has THE " BEE " BUILDING AT OMAHA. 226 NEVADA. large stockyards and grain elevators. The third city is Beatrice, the centre of a quarrying industry, with a population in 1890 of 13,836. The Governor of Nebraska is James M. Thayer (Re- publican). His term expires January 5, 1893. The State is Kepublican. Negro Population. (See Population and Area.) Nevada. — The first white men in Nevada were trappers, who visited the region in 1825. Several explorers penetrated the country in the succeeding year, and Fremont pitched his tents there in 1843—5 and explored the country. The first settlement was at Genoa in 1851 by Americans. The Discovery of Silver, in 1858, led to a large immigration. By 1862, 50,000 men from all parts of the country, and of all conditions in life, came to the State in search of fortune. The State was admitted to the Union in 1861. It has the richest GREAT SEAL OF NEVADA. sllvcr mincs lu thc Union and there is mined a large amount of gold. The total output of silver and gold has been over $560,000,000. The mines were worked with great profit until 1875, when they became less productive ; the average product of the State is now about $10,000,000 a year. It has never been an extensive agri- cultural State, but the farming industry is being developed by the introduction of irrigation. The State has 500,000 sheep and 400,000 cattle. There are hundreds of mineral springs of all kinds. In Nevada are many wild and deep Canons, the chief of which is El Dorado, which is twelve miles long and from 200 to 600 feet deep, at the bottom of which the Colorado Kiver flows in a mighty stream half a mile wide. The Great Basin, which is supposed to have once been a sea with an area of several hun- dred thousand of miles, and which at some unknown period was drained off, leaving an immense plateau 4,500 feet above tide- water, is one of the wonderful phenomena of the State. The country abounds in Avild animals, and the lakes contain thousands of game fish. The population of Nevada in 1880 was 62,266 ; in 1890 it was 45,761. It was admitted to the Union in 1861. The real property in 1888 was valued at $10,790,670 ; the personal prop- ertv at 120,003,121 ; the manufactures aggregated $1,323,000 ; NEW HAMPSHIEE. 227 the acreage of the farm lands Avas 530,862, valued at 15,408,325 ; the average school attendance was 5,149. In 1890 there were 924 miles of railroad, and twenty-five newspapers. Virginia City, which had a population of 9,000 in 1890, is the site of a great gold and silver mining industry. The sec- ond city is IJeno, with 5,000 population, where there are flour- mills, saw-mills, and reduction works. The .(^fc- third city is Carson City, the capital, which --^^j^g^--' had a population in 1890 of 4,200. The cities 3'l^^^=: ^ of the State are situated fi'om 6,000 to 10,000 v^P feet above sea IcA^el. The governor of Nevada feip. A MINING CAMP IN NEVADA. is R. K. Colcord (Republican), whose term expires Jan. 7, 1895. The State is Republican. New Hampshire. — The State Avas settled at Dover in 1623 by Englishmen. The early inhabitants suffered greatly from attacks by Indians. In the early wars of the colonies, New Hampshire plaved a patriotic part, and to the War of the Rebel- lion gave over eighteen thousand of her sons. It was one of the original thirteen States. The State is remarkable for its Natural Beauty, its mountains having the most picturesque scenery of any east of the Rocky Mountains. The White Mountain region, situated in the northern middle part of the State, has 1,300 squai-e miles covered Avith forest growth.' This I'egion still maintains its primeval AviMiicss and is noted for its attraction to summer tourists. Mt. ^Vashington, 228 NEW HAMPSHIRE. which is 6,293 feet high, has an outlook extending over four States, and its summit is reached by a carriage road ascending its entire slope, and a railway mounting 3,73(1 feet. There are seven peaks exceeding five thousand feet in height, twenty-two exceeding four thousand feet, and many more of about the same elevation. The White Mountain Notch, a defile cut througli the mountains for a dis- tance of several miles, is traversed by railroad trains bound for Canada and the West. In the Franconia Notch is a famous profile, a stone face carved by nature in the mountain rock 1,200 feet above the highway. It is one of GREAT SEAL OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, thc grcat uatural wonders of the world. The lakes of New Hampshire are famous for their beautiful surroundings ; the chief of these is Lake Winnepesaukee, which has an area of seventy-two square miles and 274 islands. The Connecticut River flows the entire length of the State, from its source on the Canadian frontier. The other rivers are the Pemi- gewasset, Winnepesaukee, Merrimac, Piscataqua, Upper and Lower Amnion oosuc, Androscoggin, Contoocook, Saco, and Sun- cook, all mountain streams with rapid current and abounding in fish. The lumbering business is carried on in the northern sec- tion, and produces 40,000,000 feet of logs in a year. The Manufacturing cities are Mnncliester (population 44,126), Nashua (population 19,311), Dover (population 12,790), Laconia, and Suncook, all of Avhich have extensive plants, and employ a capital of over 150,000,000 yearly, paying wages of 115,000,000. The manufactures include cotton goods, cloths, carriages, paper, and sheeting. The State produces the famous Concord granite,* some gold, tin, lead, zinc, copper, iron, graphite, mica, salt, lime, and soapstone. It supports several important educational institutions, including colleges and preparatory schools. The population in 1880 was 346,991 ; in 1890, 376,530. The real property in 1890 was valued at $117,000,000; the personal property at 1130,000,000; the farm lands aggregated 3,721,173 acres, valued at |<7 5,834,389 ; the farm products were valued at $13,474,380; the school attendance was 43,484; there Avere in 1890 1,445 miles of railroad, and in 1892 152 newspapers. Concord, the capital, with a population of 17,004, is a beau- tiful city, with fine old trees shading its spacious streets. A NEW JERSEY. 2-29 GREAT SEAL NEW JERSEY. statue of New Hampshire's proudest son, Daniel Webster, is here, ami also the site of St. Paul's preparatory school. Hiram H. Tuttle (Republican) is Governor of New Hampshire. His term expires Jan. 4, 1893. The State is Republican. New Jersey. — The State was settled at Bergen in 1G27 by Dutchmen. The lirst European explorer was Henry Hudson. It was one of the thirteen original States. It has 120 miles of sea-shore and several mountain ranges, the higliest of which is less than 2,0UU feet. In the nortliern part, rising perpendicularly from the shores of the Hudson River, are the Palisades, tall precipices extending as far as Laden- town, in New York. The Manufactures of the State employ over |1()0,ies a year to build, and costs upwards of $40,000. This remarkable rapidity in printing is made possi- ble by the use of stereo- type plates of metal. Ordinary Type would not stand the strain of such rapid execution. /:>/ So the metal plate, which ■anic, known as Black Friday (which see), which was due to manipulation of the gold market, and liad, therefore, an arti- ficial origin. In 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1884, stringency in the money market occurred, in each instance resulting in great conuuercial depression, accompanied by business failures. The money Stringency of 1819 was due to the expense incurred I^Si^ CHANaKR OV COMMERCE, roKlLAND, DUKtiON. I PANICS. 259 in carrying on the war of 181:1, and to the call by the government upon tlie Bank of the United States for over $7,0(10,000 in funds to meet the payments due for the Louisiana Purchase. 'I'lie Bank )>aid the money, l>ut was compelle(l to curtail its discounts, and the commercial interi'sts felt it. Tiie speculation iu Western lands about 18oo was the chief cause of the Panic of 1837, which involved the country iu great depression. A contributing cause of this speculation was an act of Congress, in 1830, whicli authorized the distribution among the States as a loan of upwards of $35,000,000 of the government surplus. The receipt of this large sura of money by the States led to inflation in all kinds of linancial enterprises. The State Banks were I'aying for public lands in notes which the govern- ment regai'ded as of doubtful value, and President Jackson issued a Specie Circular, ordering government agents to accept only gold and silver in payment for the lands. The effect of this was a great demand for specie, in meeting which the banks containing the specie were seriously embarrassed, and many of them went under. Many of these banks were State banks, where govern- ment money was at that time largely deposited, and were known as " Pet Banks." Hundreds of other banks, which had sprung into existence with the disaj^pearance of the Bank of the United States, and Avhich hatl encouraged and participated in the wild speculation in public lands, were forced under. The State banks suspeiuled specie payments, and the crisis was at hand. The New York banks refused to p;iy gold or silver for their own notes, and the legislature of the State authorized the suspension of specie payments for one year. President Van Buren called a s])ecial session of Congress to consider the situation, the upshot of which was Van Buren's proposal to establish Sub-Treasuries in important mone}'^ centres, but the proposition was rejected. Acts were passed by way of compromise to cease distriljution of reveJiue among the States, and to authorize the issue of ^1(*,000,- 000 of treasury notes, and an extensioji of time to merchants on their revenue bonds. By A])ril, 1838, specie payments were resumed. Specie Payments were also suspended in October, 1857, and sixty days afterwards they were resumed, but meantime, several thousatnl business houses went to the wall. In Decem- ber, 1S61, s|)ecie payments were sus])cnded by the government and by the banks in consequence of the outlay ini-urred by the Civil War, and gold sold as high as 285. The following year the first issue of greenbacks as paper currency was made. Specie payments were not resumed until January 1, 1879, when the greenbacks were redeemed for coin at par. 260 PATKNT OFFICE. The Panic of 1873 was due cliiefly to the fact that millions of capital was locked up in railroads, which were bviilt about this time far beyond the needs of the country. There was another decline in prices in 1884, when money was worth three per cent, a day. But the ditliculty was happily tided over, and its conse- quences were not permanent. Parades, Political. (See Torchlight Processions.) Parties, Political. (See Political Parties.) Pasters. (See Slang of Polities.) Patent Office, The. — The Patent Office, under the system of patents, is designed to aid the inventor in the protection of his invention. The patent continues for a term of seventeen years, during which the patentee, or his heirs or assigns, may have exclusive right to the use, production, or sale of his invention in this country. To Secure a Patent, api)lication must be made in writing to the Commissioner of Patents, accompanied by a writ- ten description of the invention, full and exact details as to the manner and process of makhig it and using it, a full explanation of any principle of science or mechanics there may be under- lying it, and these specifications must be signed by the inventor and attested by two witnesses. If possible the inventor must submit drawings signed by himself and attested by two witnesses, to be placed on tile in the Patent Office ; he must also make oath to his belief that he is the original inventor of the article or sub- stance which he proposes to patent. He must also pay, in ad- vance, fees as follows : On filing application, fifteen dollars ; on issuing each original patent, twenty dollars. There are also other fees for other patents; for reissuing of a patent, the fee is thirty dollars. Caveat is a notification to the Patent Office of original claim as an inventor, b}^ wdiich the inventor is protec!ted from the gi-ant- ing of a patent to some one else for the same invention. If the inventor desires further time to mature and perfect his invention, he can do so by filing the caveat with a description of the invention. The Patent Office will take his caveat and keep it secret in the archives of the office for one year after it has been filed. During the fiscal year ending 1891, the Number of Applications for patents was 39,696 ; the number of caveats was 2,333 ; the number of patents granted, including reissue and designs, trade- marks, labels, etc., was 27,340 ; the luimber of patents that expired was 12,383. The receipts of the Patent Office were $1,302,795. The total number of applications for patents in fifty-five years has been 786,199; the number of patents issued has been 503,125. PENNSYT,VANIA. 261 Particularists. (See Political Parties.) Pathliuder. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Pay Table, Army. (See Army, United States.) Peace Congress. The Peace Congress was convened for the purpose of devising some plan by which the troubles between North and South in 18G0 might be settled without an appeal to arms. Virginia issued the call, and in February, 1861, the Con- gress met at Washington, fourteen free States and seven slave States being represented. The majority report of a general com- mittee recommended, liy way of a solution of the difficulties, amend- ments to the Constitution to the effect that north of 36° 30' slavery should be prohibited ; that south of that "line it should continue undisturbed ; that neither the Constitution nor any amendment thereof was to be construed as giving Congress power to interfere with slavery in any State; that no new ter- ritory was to be acquired except by discovery or for naval and commercial stations or depots, without the concurrence of a majority of the Senators fi'om the free States and a majority-4>f the Senators from the slave States. These propositions were submitted to both the Senate and the House, but were straightway rejected. Peacock Senator. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Peanut Politics. (See Slang of Politics.) Pedestal for This Colossal Heresy. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Pennsylvania. — The State was settled in 1643 at what is now the citj'^ of Chester, by the Swedes, although the Dutch claimed the soil from the fact of the discovery of Delaware Bay by Henry Hudson, in 1609. The ter- ritory eventually passed into the power of Great Britain, and in 1681, William Penn, who had received an extensive grant from Charles II., became absolutes proprietor of the new province. During the first fifty years of its existence, thousands of Germans and Swiss settlers immi- grated to Pennsylvania, and formed the bulk of the population, and from that day to this " I^ennsylvania Dutch " has been the byword in speaking of its people. At the same time there was a heavy immigration of Quakers and Scotch-Irish. GREAT SE.\L OF PENNSYLVANIA. •202 PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania rallied to the Cause of Independence and her sons played a ])rominent part in the Ivevolution, It was in Philadeljdiia that the Continental Cono-i-ess assembled, and it wa:: here that the Declaration of Inde))endeiiee was siii;ned. Phila- delphia was originally the ea2)ital, hnt in 1799 the seat of govern- ment was ti-ansferred to Lancaster, and in iSl'i to llarrisburg, where it still remains. The State is remarkable for its great beauty. The Cumber- land Valley forms a part of the great dei)ression which extends through the entire length of the Appalachian system as far south as Alabama. The Sus(piehanna drains nearly one half the area of the State. Its chief ti-ibutary is the Juniata. The Dela- ware, Avhich . rises in the Catskill ]\Ionntains in New York, is a tidal stream 132 miles from the sea, at Trenton. The Allegha"y i-i-*'^'* i" the "oil countiN," and at Pittsbuig pniLADELrnr.v city hall. forms a junction Avith tlie INfonongahela. The Ohio, l^elow their junction, is a great thoroughfare for steam navigation. The State is one of the first in Manufactures and in Agri- culture, besides being the first in Coal Production and Iron Manufacturing. Fpwards of 300,0(»0 of her citi/.ens are engaged in agriculture. The farms number 200,000, with an acreage of 20,060,455 in 1S90, valucl at over !?;1, 000,000,000. The PENNSYLVANIA. 263 t'ann jiroducts are worth $150,000,000 a year. The product of oorn amounts to 40,000,000 Ituslu'ls a year ; of oats, 30,000,000 ; of wheat, 17,000,000; of rye, 5,000,000 ; of potatoes, 15,000,000; of hay, 3,000,000 tons; while the k>af tobacco industry is no less important, the ])roduction averaging about '24,000,000 pounds a year. There are between 4,50(1,000 and 5,000,000 head of live- stock, of Avhich 1,500,000 are slieep, 1,600,000 are cattle, 1,000,- 000 liogs, and 500,000 horses. In the manufacturing of Iron, Pennsylvania produces as mucli as all the other States combined. It has been an industry in this State ever since 1688, wlien William Penn put in o|)eration the first blast-furnace. In the year ending June 30, 1890, the output of iron in her anthracite furnaces was 1,842,000 tons. In the coke and bituminous furnaces the output was 2,847,000 tons. The State makes Ujnvards of 800,000 tons of steel rails, 35,000 tons of iron rails, and 130,000 tons of steel ingots. The deposits of iron ore seem to be without limit, although nearly 9,000,000 tons of the ore have been taken out since 1740. The State produces as much Coal as all the other States and Territories combined. The anthracite coal-beds cover seven districts of the State ; the output of anthracite in 1889-90 was 45,544,970 tons. Tlie l)ituminous coal fields cover over 12,000 square miles, yielding in 1889-90 36,174,089 tons. The State also produces large quantities of oil, zinc, coke, sandstone, mar- ble, bluestone, lead, nickel, some cop]>er, besides graphite, salt, kaolin, tire-clay, mineral ])aint, etc. The imi)ortant United Slates Institutions in Pennsylvania are the maguiticent Post-OtHce in Philadelpliia, built entirely (tf grarnte at a cost of ^8,(10(1,000 ; the wliite marble Custom Ilovise at Philadelphia, patterned after the Parthenon, besides tine build- ings at Pittsburg and other cities; Fort JMifflin, on the Delaware River; the Schuylkill Arsenal, whei-e hundreds of men and women are engaged constantly making clothing, bedding, tents, and various other useful su))|)lies f(n' the United States Navy ; the Frankfort Arsenal at Philadelphia, with fine grounds and venerable trees, which is used as a factory for making cartridges; the All(\ghany Arsenal, at Pittsburg, which is used for storing ordnance; the Navy Yard at League Island,^ at the junction of the Delaware and Seliuylkill Pi\ers, covering over nine hundred acres; the Indian Training School at Carlisle, Avhere young Indians of the savage tribes to the number of eight hundred are educated ; the United States Naval Asylum at Philadelphia, where disabled officers and sailors are furnished with the com- forts of life, ami the Naval Hospital at the same point. Some of the oldest and most inlluential of tlu' educational institutions of 264 PEXNSYI TAXIA. the country are in Pennsylvania. There is a fine system of canals, upwards of tAventy-tive in number, built at a cost of $50,000,000, with a total m'ileage of 770 miles, which in the course of a year move millions of tons of coal, lumber, lime, and other chief products. The manufactures of Pennsylvania liave an invested capital of .s500,000,000, employing- 400,000 persons in 35,000 factories, and making U[.wards of §(900,000,000 in manu- factured goods. A large percentage of the mechanics are skilled, and nearly all of "them are Americans. The Railroads of Pennsylvania, in 1890, had a mjleage of over 9,000 miles, with a paid-up capital stock of over ^700,000,- 000, with roads and equipments valued at $1,000,000,000, an aimual freight tonnage in a year of 140,000,000 tons, and 90,000 MKMOKIAI. UALL AT PUILAPKLPllIA. papers.' Tlu^ Governor of Pennsylvania is Pobert E. Pattison (Democrat), Avhose term exjtires January 10, 1895. The State is Republican. The chief city of the State is Philadelphia, beautifully situated between the Delaware and Sihuylkill Kivers, having upwards, of two thousand miles of spacious streets, excellent PKNXSYl.YANIA. 265 water facilities, and precious historical associations. One of the notal")le features of the life of the people is the vast army of artisans and mechanics who own their own houses, which they are able to do hy reason of the co-o])erative building associations which in Philadelphia are especially strong. riiilacU'lphia manu- ' factures 1^500,000,000 worth of goods every year, emplo^'ing 250,000 persons. The more conspicuous public buildings are Independence Hall, Carpenters' Hall, and Christ Church, which Washington attended, and in whose graveyard the remains of Philadelphia's arivates to five dollars a month. This applied to (VJ,009 men who had served in the licvolution, to 60,670 officers and soldiers of the War of lSli2, and to 21,724 of the Mexican War. Widows of soldiers did not receive pensions until 1861, when the svsteni of pensions of the present day Avas begun. The tendency of the government has been to make these laws more and more generous to the veteran, hut not without calling forth oi)position in many quarters. The " Arrears of Pensions Act," which became a law in 1879, provided for the payment of pensions from the date of discharge or disability, and not from the date of application, as ]>revious laws liad jirovided in case the claim was not made within a certain time. On June 30, 1891, there were 676,16t» pensioners borne on the rolls of the bureau, being 138,216 more than were carried on the rolls at the close of the fiscal year 1890. They are classified as f«illows : AVidows and daughters of Revolutionary soldiers, 23; army invalid pensioners, 413,o97 ; army widows, minor children, etc., lt»8.;"):)7 ; navy invalid pen- sioners, 5,449 ; navy widows, minor children, etc., 2,568 ; sur- vivors of the war of 1812, 7,590; survivors of the Mexican War, 16,379; widoAvs of soldiers of the Mexican War, 6.976. The aggregate Annual Value of the 676,160 pensions on the rolls June 31, 1891, was §^89, 247, 2(10 and the average annual value of each pension was 8139.99; the average annual value of each pension under the act of June 27, 1890, was 81-1.51. The total amount disbursed on account of pensions, expenses, etc., during 1891 Avas 8118,548,959.71 as compared Avith 8106,- 493,890.19 disbursed during the preceding fiscal year, 889,131,968 in 1889, 833,780,526 in 18^9 and 8-28,422,884 in 1869. The Age of the greatest number of pensioners under both the old and new law Avas forty-seven years. There are about 1,208,- 707 Soldiers of the Union now living, and of the survivors 520,158 are now on the pension rolls. There are, therefore, 688,549 survivors Avho are not pensioned, and 879,908 deceaseabney, aged 91 ; Esther S. Damon, aged 77 ; Jane Dun- more, aged 90 ; Xaiu'v A. Green, aged 73 ; Sally Heath, aged 86 ; Nancy Jones, aged 77 ; Rebecca ^layo, aged 78 ; Olive C. Morton, aged 80 ; Lucy ]\[orse, aged 90 ; Nancy Rains, aged 99; POLITICAL PAKTIES, 267 Patty Richardson', aged 00 ; Meiidy Sniitli, aged 86 ; ]Marv Snead, aged 75 ; .Vseiiath Turner, aged 86 ; Nancy Weatherman, aged 81 ; Anna MarLi Young, aged 99. The Widows of Presidents and Federal Officers on the pension rolls June oO, 1891, besides those of Presidents Grant and Garfield, who receive five thousand dollars a year, were : Mrs. George H. Thomas, Mrs. W. S. Hancock, Mrs. John A. Logan, Mrs. P>ancis P. Blair, Mrs. P. H. Sheridan, ]Mrs. John C. Fremont, IMrs. (ieorge B. McClellan, Mrs. (George Crook, who receive two thousand dollars a year ; JMrs. James Shields, Mrs. S. Ileintzelman, Mrs. David McDougal, Mrs. E. O. C. Ord, Mrs. Robert Anderson, Mrs. George I. Stannarcf, Mrs. Gabriel R. Paul, Mrs. James B. Ricketts, ]Mrs. J. W. A. Nicholson, Mrs. L, H. Rousseau, Mrs. Jolui F. llartranft, Mrs. Roger Jones, Mrs. G. K. Warren, wlio receive twelve hundred dollars a year ; and Mrs. David D. Porter, who receives twenty- five hundred dollars a year. Pernicious Activity. (Sec Sayings of Famous Americans.) Personal Liberty Laws. (See Fugitive Slave Law.) Personal Liberty Party. (See Political Parties.) Pet Banks. (Si'C Panics, Financial, also Bank of the LTnited States.) Pewter Muargers. (See Political Parties.) Pipe Layina:. (Sec Slang of Politics.) Plumed Kni?;ht. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Poker Charley. (See Nit-knames of Famous Americans.) Polk-Walker Tariff. (See Tariffs of the Unitc.l States.) Political Parties. — It is a most suggestive fact that in spite of the large number of political parties there have been in this country in one hundred years of national life, the Constitution has remained practically unchanged. When we reflect upon the wide variety of issues, princi|)les, jtlatforms, etc., which have been the mainspring of cont'crtcd ]»olitical action, we cannot but ad- mire the farsightedness and sagacity of the men who (Miibodied in a bit of manuscript a line of civil and political conduct whii-li should be religiously guarded by the ])eople of aiu)thcr age and century. Below will be found brief outlines of the parties and factions of parties which have figured upon the stage of political action since the Constitution was ratified : Abolition, Abolitionists. — The movement to secure the aboliUon of slavery began in Pennsylvania in 1774. New York espoused the cause in 178;'), Rh(»do Island in 178(), Maryland in 1789, and New Jersey, Virginia, and ('onnet-ticut in \~9'1. John 268 POLITICAL PARTIES. Jay and Alexander HainiltiMi were presiilents of the New York society. Colonization was talked of as a solutitni of the i)roblem, and in 18-9 Tlte (renixs of ['tifrer,^((l lL})iancipposcd to slavery in the United States, at tirst known as Abolitionists. Among them Avere the poet \Vliittier, Wendell Phillips, and Benjamin Lundy. Abolition became a national agitation, and j)ublic excitement ran high. IJioting Avas of frequent occurrence; in Alton, Illinois, in 1837, h^lijah P. Lovejoy, an abolition editor, Avas mobbed and killed, anii in 1838, Pennsylvania Hall in Philadelphia, AAas burned. In 1838, a portion ot the members AvithdreAv, and formed the " American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society." It Avas princi: jtally of these that the Liberty party, organized in 1840, A\-as forn'ied. In 1848, the abolitionists voted Avith the Free Soil party, and continued Avith them until 1856, Avhen they su|>ported the Kepublicans. Until the " Avar Avas fairly under Avay the " Garrisonians" (Avhich see) Avere in favor of alloAA'ing the slave-holding States to Avithdraw peaceably, but Avhen fighting had actually begun, they Avere among the most ardent supporters of the Union. Agricultural Wheel. - The name of a political association of farmers in l^rairie County, Ark., organized in 188:2 for mutual ])rotectii)n and advancenumt. It was eventually merged into the Farmers' Alliaiu'C (Avhich see). Albany Regency. — A cabal of Democrats in Xew York State, organized in 18'20 ior ]iolitical purposes. Among its mem- bers at the start Avere Martin Van Buren, .lohn A. Uix, and Silas Wright. American Knights. —Before the Civil War in the South, there Avas an organization known as the Knights of the Golden Circle, Avhose members Avere ardent opponents of the North, and sought to se]>arate the Southern States from the I'^nion. During the war this society secretly encouraged UnioTi soldiers to desert the Uni(Mi flag, and to aid the Confeilerates by givingthem information and by recruiting for their ranks. Among other jmrposes of the society Avas the establishment of a NortliAvestern (\)nfederacy. It Avas re-organized in 1864, the Federal Government having be- POLITICAL PARTIES. 269 come possessed of a full knowltHloe of its operations. Under he re. organization its name was changed to tiie Order of Sons of Libei'ty, and it was conducted after strict military methods. Jetferson Davis, it was claimed, was one of its members, of whom the total number was from oOO,U(K> to 500,000. American Party.— ^ This was the name of the party which resulted from the C()nd)ination between the Whigs in 1854 and the Know-Nothings. The name was also applied to a party which was foundi'd in opposition to secret societies and which had a meeting at Columbus, ()., in 1872, and nominated Charles Francis Adams for President. The platform demanded the prohibition of the sale of liqui>i", tlie withdrawal of the char- ters of secret societies, the use of the Bible as a text-book in the public schools, the resumption of specie payments, government recognition of the Sabbath, etc. Another party of the same name met in convention at l^hiladelphia in 1887, and put forth the donctrine that America should be governed b}^ Americans. Among other things the ])latform declared in favor of the restriction of immigration, the advancement of the Amer- ican free-school system, the opening up of the j>ublic lands to American settlers, the extension of the time for naturalization to fourteen years' residence, and the refusal of pul)lic lands for sectarian uses. Curtis, the candidate for President, in 1888, of the American Party, polled 1,591 votes, all in California. Anti-Federalists. — One of the first two political parties under the Constitution, the outcome of the Particularists (which see). They were the opponents of the Constitution of the United States, which was then spoken of as the Federal Constitution. Anti-Masonic Party. — ^This party oiiginated in conse- quence of the great public excitement growing out of the disap- pearance of William Morgan, of Genesee County, N. Y., in 18'26. IMorgaii was about to publish a l)ook, exposing the secrets of the Masonic fraternity. Not long after he disappeared, and was never heard from thereafter. An investigation revealed the fact t'lat he had been taken in a closed carriage to Niagara, and the discovery of a dead body a few days later, which was supposed to be his, strengthened the belief that he was the victim of foul- play. (See Morgan.) Suspicion pointed to the Masons. The result of this was an intense public hostility and prejudice to the Masons. A ])arty was organized which nominated a ticket con- taining no Masons, and an Anti-Masonic convention was held which nominated a ticket pledged to opjiose Free-Masonry. The party increased in power, and in 1880 fought hard against Andrew Jackson, who was a Mason, and at that time a candidate for the Presidencv. Tt held a national convention in 1831, and liTO POLITICAL PARTIES. nominated its own ticket, receiving the electoral vote of Veimont. The party was eventually incorporated into the Whio- party, in which it IkhI considerable influence. Anti-Monopoly Parly. — This party came into existence in 1884, wiien it met at Chicago and nominated Benjamin F. Butler for the Presidency, Its platform declared in favor of an Inter- State Commerce law, industrial arbitration, the establishment of labor bureaus, a graded personal and income tax, and of leois- lation for the fostering of agriculture. Among other things it di'iiounced t'.G tariff, and the grant of public lands ti> corporations of private individuals. It made a coaUtion with the Greenback Labor party, and the joint ticket was called the People's party. (.)n election day the candidate polled about 180,000 votes. On May -0, 1891, at a convention at Cincinnati, a ])olitical party calling itself the People's party, in conjunction with representa- tives of various industrial organizations, adopted a platform, since known as the platform of the l^eople's party, ratifying the POLITICAL PARTIES. 271 Ocala platform (see Farmer's Alliance), favoring the abolition of national l.anks, and tlie issue of legal-tender notes to be loaned without limit upon the seeurity of non-perishabk^ products and upon real-estate, interest to bo paid at two per cent. })er annum, demanding free coinage of silver, a direct vote for President and United States Senators and condemning alien ownership of lands, etc. Anti-Nebraska. — This name was assumed by Northern Whigs, who separated from the Southern Whigs, on tlie subject of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1S58, drawing reinforcements from Democrats opposed to slavery in the Ti'iritories. Anti-Poverty Society. — This was a working-man's society which was formed in New York in 1887 by Henry George aiul Father McGlynn. The latter was unfrocked by the Pa])al author- ities because he disobeyed a command not to speak at a political meeting. The doctrine of the society is " that involuntary pov- erty is the lesult of the human laws that allow individuals to hold as private pro]»erty that wliich the Creator has provided for the use of all." To obtain this, the members proposed "the shifting of all taxes from products of labor to land values. Products of labor being pro in Philadeli)hia, and was opposed to tlie extension of slavery. (See ^Vbolitionists.) Aristocrats. — Applied by the Pepublicans to a section of the Federalists in 1796. Also called the British Party (which see). Arm-in-Arm Convention. -The Republican convention of 1860 was so called from the fact that the delegates from South Carolina and those froiu Massachusetts entered the convention arm in arm. Associated Youth. ^ — This was a body of young Federal- ists in 1798, who put forth addresses enunciating the principles of the ]iarty, and were otherwise active in furthernig its cause. Barnburners. — A name applied to the followers of Van Buren, when in 1844 the Democratic ]iarty in New York split, the Barnburners advocating the extermination of banks and cor- porations on account of their abuses. The story of a fanner that burned his barn, in order to free it from rats, Avas often told and the ])urpose of the party was likened to it. Later, they were known as the Softs, or Soft-Shells. Theii- opponents, whili' kjiown 272 POI.lTlrAL PARTIES. as Barnburners, were tlie Hunkers ; while known as Softs, the Hards, or Hard-Shells. Black Republicans. — The attitude of the Republicans against slavery in liSC>(l and their espousal of the negro's cause, led to their being styled Black Republicans. Blue Light Federalists. — This was a faction of the Fed- eralists, who were opitosed to the War of ISlii. The name arose from the fact that blue lights in the harbor of New London, Conn., were displayed as signals to the British vessels at a time when Commodore Decatiir was trying to put to sea. Decatur claimed that the signals were the work of Federalists, who were tht-reafter called Blue Light Federalists. British Parly. — The proposition of the Federalist party, in 1790, to concentrate and strengthen the power of the oovern- ment was styled by the opposition as a British idea. The oppo- sition raised the cry of ••'Monarch and a King," and in some quarters the Federalists were known as the British party. Buck-Tails. — The supporters of Madison in ISIG used to wear in their hats on political occasions a portion of the tail of the deer; hence they were called Buck-Tails. Carpet-Baggers. — During the reconstruction }>eriod many Northern l\epul)licans Avent to the South and settled there, and by the aid of negro votes, were elected to public othee. It was suggested that as they came in the nature of transient guests, they brought all their personal property in a carj)et-bag, and hence were called carj^et- baggers. Columbian Party. — The name of a new party headed by James Means, Esq., and other Bostonians, in 189"2, whose object is the advocacy of principles taken from the Democratic and Republican platforms. They favor " honest money, a tariff for revenue only, and the abolition of the spoils system." They have no organization and their numerical strength is veiy slight. County Democracy. — A Democr itic faction in New York City formed originally of disgruntled Tammany men. It has a distinct organization, nominates its own ticket, and sometimes makes coalitions Avith the Republicans. Democratic Party. (See Democratic-Republican.) — The Democratic party first came into power with the administration of Andrew Jackson, Avho was a strict constructionist. The party genealogy is easily traceable to Jefferson, and " Jeffersonian simplicity" has ever been a Avatchword Avith it. In Jackson's administration, 18"J9-1S33, the party had a Southern Aving con- sisting of a pro-slavery element, which under John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, atlirnied the doctrine of Nullitication (which see) which declared the right of any State to nullity and make A'oid POLITICAL PARTIES. 278 any act of Congress which it deemed unconstitutional. This doctrine became the basis of tlie Secession Movement of 1860. Jackson made himself famous by taking a firm stand against this lieresy ; also for his removals from oftice of all partisans of the previt>us administration. He Avas thus the father of the " Spoils System." 'I'he Whigs with William H. Harrison, of Ohio, as candidate, made a good fight against the Democrats in ISoti, but Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic candidate', was elected. In this administration the Democrats lost great prestige through the ruinous financial policy put in operation by Jackson and carried out by Yan Buren. Jackson had chartered the State banks, whose notes in ])ayment for public lands made a large accumulation of dt»ubtfid paper money in the Treasury. He had directed the issue of a specie circular in 1886, ordering Fnited States agents to receive there- after only gold and silver in payment for land puivhased. This caused a run on the banks in which the specie was deposited, and many of them went under. (See Panics, Financial.) It appeared that the ])anks had used the specie as loans, which now had to be called, a fact which preci])itated the Panic of 1837, the most disastrous in the history of the United States. The Whigs, therefore, with \Yilliam Harrison again as their can- didate, were victorious in the election of 1840, Jolm Tyler, a Cal- houn Democrat, being placed on the ticket with Harrison. Yan Buren was the Democratic candidate, Harrison having died soon after his inauguration, John Tyler became President, the pro-slavery faction of the party became uppermost, and the party in the convention of 1844 was committed to the annexation of Texas. The Democrats won again in that year, chiefly because the Republican candidate. Clay, was susitected of favoring the annexation of Texas. (See Liberty Party.) James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected. The slavery question was now the foremost one, and both Democrats and Whigs wei-e afraid to com- mit themselves decisively jn'o or con. Lewis Cass, of Michigan, the Democratic candidate in 1848, was defeated by Zachary Taylor, Whig. The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hamp- shire, in 1852, on the State l^ights' doctrine, and strict construc- tionist issue (See Constructionist, Loose and Strict), pledging themselves to observe the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Law, and to op])Ose any agitation of the slavery question. The Whigs nominated Winfield Scott, of Yirginia. Pierce was elected. The slavery issue could not be averted, and when in 1854, the Northern opposition to making Kansas a slave State became so pronounced, the Calhoun and Nullification element of -74 POLITICAI, PARTIES. the Democratic party stood forth detiantly in iiiaiiitenanoe of their views. Tlie power of the party in the nation at large was now ek'arly on the wane, ami altliougli in 1850, its eandidate, James Buchanan, of l^ennsylvania, was eh'eted, tlie tinal issue was not long postjioned. In the Convention of 1860, tlie famous Charleston con- vention, there was a stormy time, the result being a split between the ISouthern and Northern wings. Tiie Southerners re-athrmed that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the States or Territories ; the Northerners affirmed the doctrine of " popular sovereignty" (s(pjatter sovereignty). The Nortlierners were led by Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, whose platform was adopted, \vliereuj)on the Southern Democrats withdrew. They met at Kii'hniond, and nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Joseph I.aiie, of Oregon. The Dc. >crats nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, upon a platform which sought to leave the slavery question to the United States Supreme Court, or to the people of the States and Territories. The Republican party, on a platform to exclude slavery from the Territi>rics at any cost, nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine. The Constitutional Union party (formerly the Know-Nothing) aominated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. Lincoln received a majority of all the electoral votes. During the Ci\il War, the Democratic party opposed the government; in its j)lat- form of 1804, it declared the war a failmv, and asked for a cessation of hostilities. It nominated George B. McClellan, of New Jersey, who was defeated by Lincoln, who had been renominated by the Ivcpublicans. In 1808, the Democratic can- didate was Horatio Seymour, of Xew York, and the platform demanded the representation in Congress of tl* Southern States, and the power of self-government as guaranteed by the Consti- tution. Ulysses S. Grant, the Republican candidate, was elected. In 187-, the Democrats made notable gains in the North, partly because of the revolt of the Liberal Republicans (which see) and partly because of the panic of 1873. The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, whom the Democratic Convention accepted, (irant was re-elected, however. In 1870, the election went into the House of Representatives, the Democratic candi- date, Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, having 184 undisputed electoral votes, and Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candi- date, having 17"2 undisputed electoral votes. The result depended upon the votes of Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Chvgon. Congress appointed the Electoral Commission (see Electoral Commission), which on investigation declared that the POLITICAL parties: 276 POLITICAL PARTIES. votes of all the doubtful States slioukl be cast for Hayes, wlio was declared elected. The Dsmocratic platform in 1880 was strict constructionist, and in favor of honest money and a tariff for revenue only, and denounced the "fraud of 1876." Its candidate, W in field S. Hancock, of Pennsylvania, was defeated by the Republican candidate, James A. Garfield, of Ohio. In 1884, the Democrats noHiinated Grover Cleveland, of New York, on a loose con- structionist platform, which evaded the issue of protection, and favored the imposition of only sufficient duties to meet the expenses of the government economically administered. It advocated Civil Service Reform, a Chinese Exchision Bill, and the extension of continental trade relations. The Republican candidate was James G. Blaine. Cleveland Avas elected ; the vote of New York, which was carried by him by a plurality of 1,047 m a total vote of over 1,100,000, deciding the contest. Grover Cleveland was renominated in 1888, the tariff being the chief issue, but was defeated by Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, Re- publican. Democratic-Republican.— This was a name originating with Jefferson, which designated the Anti-Federalists, when the op- position to the Federalists assumed formidable proportions. This dual name was chosen as expressing more completely the prin- ciples of their faith. They were Republicans in feeling, but they believed in strict adhei-ence to the Constitution, in the restriction of the power of the government, the extension of the right of suffrage, and in laws favorable to naturalization. Practically the same principles are professed by the Democratic party of the present day (see Democratic Party). Thomas Jefferson was the first President elected by the Democratic-Republicans. His election was brought about by the popular disapproval of laws passed by the Federalists, among which were the obnoxious alien and sedition laws (which see), the chartering of the Bank of the United States, the levying of a tax on spirits, the institution of internal improvements, and the proposition that the government should assume the State debts contracted in the Revolutionary Wai-, all of which tlie Democratic- I\ej)ublicans regarded as not permissible under the Constitution. They were '< strict construc- tionists," i. e., they believed in a strict construction of the Con- stitution being lived up to, whereas Hamilton and the Adamses were regarded as " loose constructionists." The Democratic- Republicans took issue with the Federalists first in 179'2, and in the Tbird Congress succeeded in electing their candidate for speakev. In the Election of 1800 there was no choice, and the elec- POLITICAL PARTIES. 277 tion Avas settled by the House of Representatives. Of the electoral votes Jefferson had seventy-three, and Adams sixty-five. After six days' balloting, Jefferson Avas declared elected, ten States voting for Jefferson, four for Burr, and two casting blank votes. Jefferson was re-elected in 1804. The party favored strict con- struction, the reduction of expenses, an embargo act, and the purchase of Louisiana, although the two latter propositions were not in accord with strict construction. In 1808, the party elected James Madison ; it favored at the time a non-intercourse act, a protective tariff, a war with England, and opposed the re-chartering of the United States Bank. Yet when the War with England in 1812 embarrassed the gov- ernment finances, the party went back on its position of hostility to the bank of the United States, and now favored the project on the same general lines as those laid down originally by Alexander Hamilton. This attitude weakened its hold upon the people, and it was divided into two factions, strict construc- tionists and loose constructionists. The latter succeeded in electing John Quincy Adams, in 1824, by a coaUtion, the election having been thrown into the House. Thereafter the Democratic-Republicans were known simply as Democrats, and the loose constructionists or Repub- licans assumed the name of National Republicans (which see). The Andrew Jackson Democracy were in favor of strict con- struction, opposing the United States Bank, but favoring the Sub-Treasury system. Jackson was the first President who Avas nominated on a Democratic platform. The hyphenated name of Democratic-Republicans Avas not always used, but more often simply " Republicans " Avas the name Avhich designated the party of Jefferson. With Jackson the name " Democrats " came into vogue, and has been in use ever since. Dough Faces. — This Avas the name applied to those Repub- licans Avlio voted in favor of excluding the slavery clause from the bill admitting Missouri as a State, and thereby affected the Missouri Compromise, The epithet Avas applied also after that to the friends of slavery in the North. In the South it Avas applied to those who were in favor of the abolition of slavery, and, gen- erally speaking, it is applied to all i»eople Avho fail to live up to Avhat are supposed to be their natural convictions. Equal Rights. — ^ This Avas the name of the party which in 1884 nominated Mrs. Belva A. Lockwood for the Presidency on the woman suffrage platform. She polled between 2,100 and 2,500 votes in a total vote of ten million. There Avas also a party of this name in 1885, in New York, made up of Democrats who opposed the granting of charters to the new banks which 2r8 POLITICAL PARTIES. sprang quickly into being when it became known that the charter of the Bank of tlie United States (which see) would not be re- newed. They called themselves the Equal Rights Party, most of the nuMnl>ers being Tammany men. (See Loco-Focos.) Farmers' Alliance, The. — The uprising of the farmers of the country in recent years lias been one of the most remarkable of political events. The importance of the movement is admitted by every prominent statesman, and the leaders of the two great parties recognize in it the possibility of its becoming a great political power. The mere fact that in so short a career the organization has elected eight of its members to the House of Represen- tatives, and one of them to the United States Senate, has been surticient in itself to demonstrate that it is not only thoroughly organized, but that it proposes to place candidates of its own choosing in othce. The Farmers' Alliance grew out of the old Grange, an organization whit-h came into being for the mutual protection of its members, in 18G7, at St. Louis. By 1874 the National Grange had eight hundred thousand members, and twenty thousand subordinate granges or lodges. In 1879, the Farmer's Alliance of Texas Avas organized. Among tlie purpt)ses were : — *•' To labor for the education of the agricultural classes in the science of economical government m a strictly non-j)artisan spirit; to develop a better state, nuMitally, morally, socially, and linancially; to suppress personal, local, sectional, and national prejudice, all unhealthy rivalry and all selfish ambition."" In another part of the declaration of pur- poses it is stated that tlie laws of the Farmers' Alliance " are reason and equity ; its cardinal doctrines inspire purity of thought and life, and its intentions are peace on earth and good-will toward men." These may be regarded as the fundamental principles of the Farmers' Alliance. The Texas Alliance joined with the Farmers' I'nion of Louisi- ana, in 1S87, and formed an order called the " Farmers' Alliance and Go-operative Union of America." This new order spread rajudly in the States of Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississijipi. Al)out this time, in Arkansas, Mississippi, Kentucky, and Tennessee, another farmers' organization, known as the '•' Agri- cultural Wheel," mustered great strength. In October, 1887, the " Agricultural Wheel " united with the Allian -e and formed the "Farmers' and Laborers' Union of America." Aliout the same time the " National Farmers' Alliance " organized at Chii-ago with a membershi]> which ni a little while extended into the States of Illinois, Wisconsin, ]\[innesota, Iowa, JMissouri, Kansas, and Dakota. Their objects were stated to be " to unite I 1 POLITICAL PARTIES. 279 the farmers for the promotion of their interests socially, politi- cally and finaneially ; to secure a just representation of the agricultural interests of the country in the national Congress and State legishitnres ; to dcTnand the prohibition of aUen cattle and land syndicates ; to oppose all forms of monopoly as being detrimental to the best interests of the public ; to demand of our representatives in Congress their votes and active influence in favor of the prompt passage of such laws as will protect live stock interests from contagious diseases; and to demand tliat agricultural interests shall be represented by a Cabinet officer," It was inevitable that these organizations, having a common end, shouhl come together and formulate a declaration of ])rinci- ples. This they did at Ocala, Fla., December 2, 1800, when thirty-five States and Territories were represented by 168 dele- gates. They adopted the following platform, which i« known as the Ocala Platform : — 1. We tleniaiul the abolitiou of national banks; we ilemanil that the governmeut shall establish sub-treasuries or doj)ositorief5, in tlie several States (see Sub-Treasuries), which shall loan money direct to the people at a low rate of iuterest, not to exceeil two per cent, per annum, 'on non- perishable farm ])roducts^ and also upon real estate with proper limita- tions upon the (piantity of land and amount of money. We demand that the amount of the circulating medium be speedily increased to not less than lifty dolhus jier capita. 2. Wc demand that C'tuigress sluill pass such laws as shall elfectually prevent the dealing in futures onall agricultural aud uicchanical jiroduc- tions, preserving a stringent procedure in trials, s>ich as shall secure prompt conviction aud the imposition of such penalties as shall secure the most perfect compliance with the law. 3. We condemn the silver bill recently i)assed by Congress and de- mand in lieu thereof the free and unlimited coinage of silver. 4. We demand the passage of laws prohibiting alien ownership of land, and that Congress take i)rompt action to devise some plan to obtain all lands ni)w owned by aliens and foreign syndicatt>s,and that all lands now held by railroads and other corporations in excess of such as are at'tually used and needed by them l)e reclainuMl by the government and held for actual settlers only, 5. Believing in the doctrine of equal rights to all and special i>rivi- leges to none, we demand that our national legislation shall I)e so framed in the future as not to build up one industry at the exi)ense of another. Wc further demand a removal of the existing lu^avy tariff from the necessaries of life tliat the poor of our land must have. We further demand a just and e(putal)lo system of graduated tax on inconu-s. ^Vi- believc that the money of tiu- country sliould be ke])t, as much as jios- silde, in the hands of the pcojjle, and hcnci' wc demand that all national and State revenues shall be limited to the necessary expenses of the government, economically and honestly adnnnistcred, 6. We demand the most rigid, honest, and just State and national government control and supervision of the uu?ans of iud)lic communica- tion and transpt)rtation, ami if this control ami supervision do not 280 POLITICAL PARTIKS. remove the abuses now existinji, we demand the government ownership of such means of communication and transportation. In ]May, 1891, a oont'erenoe of the National Farmers' Alliance and the Farmers' Mutual Benetit Association was held at Indian- apolis, at which the National Committee of the People's Party sought to bring about the amalgamation of the three organiza- tions, but failed to do so. (See People's Party.) Federal Party. — The framing of the Constitution led to political agitati()n iu which the people took sides. Those who favored the adoption of the Constitution were called Federalists. Among them were ^Vashington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Madison, Jay, and Ivandolith. The Constitution was adopted, and with Washington as President, the Federal Party went into power. The financial jjrojects of Alexander Hamilton precipitated a strife. He proposed to pay the foreign debt in full, the conti- nental debt at par, and that the government should assume the State debts. The last proposition evoked much bitterness of fooling, but it Avas nltiniatoly adopted. Other measures intro- duced were the incorporation of the Bank of the United States, anrl a tax on distilled spirits. The administration also sought to build up the army and navy, io institute a system of Import Duties, and otherwise to strengthen the foundations of govern- ment. Jefferson had always fought against the centralization of too much power in the government, and the tendency in this direction displayed in the first eight years of life under the Con- stitution drove him out of the Federal party ; with him went Madison, Kaiulolph, and other leaders. The Federals Avere over- thrown in 180(\ Jefferson and Burr heading the rival ticket. A policy of obstruction was now pursued by the Federalists, but the party never regained its power, and by 18"J0 was practically out of existence. Its supporters became National Republicans, the latter ultimately adopting the political faith of the Republican party. (See Democratic-Republican and Democratic Parties.) Free Soilers. — They formed a party headed by Martin Van Burcn and Charles Francis Adams as a Presidential ticket in 1848. They advocated the restriction of slavery to its limits at the time. The party was formed by a coalition witVi the dis- united Liberty party, and fought hard for its j)riiiciples, but never made much of a showing at election times. It was merged into the Rei>ublican jiarty in 1858. Garrisonians. — The followers of "William Lloyd Garrison. So radical in their views of slavery were they that they claimed that slavery was supported by the Constitution. (See Abolition and Abolitionists.) Grangers. — An organization of farmers, known as Patrons iltjlf :s4W)^:— -IP- H POLITICAL PARTIES. 281 of Husbandry, came into existence in 1867. Its object was co- operation, social, commercial, and educational. Lodges called Granges were established in the Western farming localities, and grew so powerful that in 1878 and 1874 they succeeded in carry- ing the Illinois and Wisconsin legislatures. Legislation directed against railroad extortion in freight and passenger rates was enacted. In recent years the Grangers Avere merged into the Farmers' Alliance. (See Fanners' Alliance.) Greenbackers. — The party which favored unlimited issues of paper money. Paper money, issued by the government dur- ing the war in payment for suiijilies for the army, came to be resrarded in aorioultural communities with gi-eater favor than coin. The Greenbackers, in convention in 1874, declared in favor of the withdrawal of all bank currency, and of the issue only of national currency, in which the national debt should be paid instead of in gold. They opposed the resumption of specie payments. In 1876 the Greenbackers, adopting the name of the Independent party, nominated Peter Cooper, of New York, for the Presidency. The ]mrty polled a total of about eighty thou- sand votes. In 1877 the party's vote in the State elections vras about 185,000, About this time, hi several States the labor and greenback parties united. In 1878 a national convention adopted the name of National Party. In that year its vote rose to one million, and a number of national representatives were elected. In 1880, James B. Weaver, of Iowa, was nominated for President, polling a})uut three hundi-ed thoiisand votes ; in 1844 the nominee was Benjamin F. Butler, of Massachusetts, who was also the Anti-Monopoly candidate, the joint ticket being known as the People's party, 'and the vote about one hundred and thirty thousand. Half-Breed. — A contemptuous nickname for a section of the New York Republican legislature of 1881, the members whereof refused to vote for the candidate for United States Senator put forward by the Stalwarts, or straight-out Republicans. The name was applied, also, to the opponents of Grant for a third term in 1880. (See Stalwarts.) Hardshells, Hards. — These were Hunkers, a division in the Van Buren Democracy of 1848, their opponents being Barn- burners, or Soft-shells and Softs. Hard-shell is a name fre- quently applied to members of the Baptist denomination. (See l^arnbu7-ners.) High- Minded Federalists A name for those F('(leralists who in 1820 su|)i)()rted (Governor Clinton. They made frequent use of the word " high-minded," hence the a]jpellation. Hunkers. — The con.servati\e wing of the Democratic party 282 POLITICAL PARTIES. in New York 1S44-4.S, as distinguished I'miii tlie Young Democ- racy. The word is derived from llie ])ut(^h JioiiA\ meaning " home." Know-Nothings. — "Ned Buntline," otherwise E. Z. C. Judson, organized a faction of tlie American party in 1853, in New York, whicli acquired tliis name from tlie' fact tliat when in- terrogated regarding the purpose of tlieir organization, the mem- bers replied : " I don't know." Tlie campaign cry was " America must rule America" ; they were opposed to Romanism, to natu- ralization, to putting any but Americans in office, and were stout su])]jorters of the common school system. In the vicinity of Boston there are several " Know-Nothiiig " railroad crossings, so called from the Know-Nothing candidate for governor, in l!S54, who, when elected, ordered all trains to stop at such crossings. K. K. K.'s, or Ku-Klux-Klan. — This was a secret polit- ical society chielly in the Southern Central States, which organ- ized in 1868 for the intimiarty (which see), a section of tlie Tammany De- mocracy in 18o5, who met in New York City, and organized as a j)rotest to the granting of charters to new banks. Their o}»po- nents, straight-line Democrats and Whigs, also attended the meet- ing, and during a disturbance the lights were put out. The Eipial llightsmenreliglited tlie room, using Loco-Foco matclies. The o])position thereu|)on characterized them as Loco-Focos, a nickname which clung to them for many years thereafter, and was Sometimes a]>|ilied to the Democratic party as a whole. Martling Men. — This was a faction in the Democratic ]>arty in New York, in 1807, the name originating fri.'m their meetinfr place. Nationalists. — The Nationalists get their political creed from Edward Bellamy's "-Looking Backward," a politico-economico novel in which the social system of the ])resent day is bmlesqued and a new social state is outlined. As the result of the pul»lica- tion of tliis book, a small party of men organized in Boston in 1888. The principles of the jiarty are in favor of the govern- ment control of all public cnterpiise.-!, such as telegraphs, tele- phones, railroads, express companies, etc., the government owner- ship of mines, oil-wells, etc., and the municipal ownershij) of street cars, gas-works, and electric light plants, in fact the separa- tion of the ownership and management of all these enterpiises from the individuals who now control and manage them, and the giving of the same into the charge of the government. The Nationalists maintain that under such a system the j'ublic couhl be more economicallv and more satisfactorily served. The pr^ttits gained from these enterprises shall be the property of the pe()ple, although the aim would be to conduct them all at cost, so that there would 1)e no profit. The Nationalists also would prohibit the enijiloyment of child-labor in factories, and would make it com]»ulsory that children shouhl go to school until they are seventeen years old. National Democrat. — Some of the Democrats \\itlnlrew 284 POLITICAL PARTIES. from tlie Democratic Convention of 1860, because the Conven- tit)n took the position that Congrese had no power to abolish slavery in the Territories. They took the name of National Democrats, but as a i)arty did not live long. National Prohibitionists. — ^The Prohibition party sprang from the Independent which was instituted in of the temperance eal achievement was as Mayor of I'ortland, The national organiza- until 1869, when a con- cago. The first Pro- for the Presidency was was nominated in a lumbus, February '22, Order of Good Templars, 1851 for the furtherance cause. Their first politi- the election of Neal Dow Me., in 1853 and 1854. tion was not jierfected vention was lield at Chi- hibition candidate James Black, who convention at Co- 1872. Since then. TEINITY CHURCH, BOSTON. the part}'' has nominated candidates for the Presidency at every election. Their candidate in 1888 was Clinton B. Fisk, who polled 249,907 votes. National Republicans. — They were an outgrowth of the disaffected elements of the Democratic-Republican party. They were like the Federalists^ — loose constructionists of the Constitu- a POUTICAL PARTIES. 285 tion. They sought to put a check on the naturaUzation law, favored a protective tariff and internal improvements. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, by uniting their factions, brought the party into being ; it was later merged into the Whig i)arty (which see). Native American. — -This party organized in New York in 1835 as the result of Democratic and other influences to combine into a separate organization the foreigners who had been naturalized, in order to capture control of the municipal govern- ment. The native Americans favored twenty-one years' resi- dence as a prerequisite for naturalization. It succeeded in electing a mayor of New York, but it was ultimately crushed out of existence by overwhelming majorities against it. Particularists. — This was an opposition faction to the Feder- alists, that along about the close of the Revolution formulated a docti'ine, which was in effect that there should be no central power in the government Avhich could compel a State to accept its will. They l)elieAed in a strong local self-government, and iii the doctrine of State IJights. Personal Liberty Party. ^ — This was a small party whose political principles were embodied in the idea that sumptuary laws were never effectual and were an encroachment on individ- ual rights and privileges. It sought to bring about the repeal of obnoxious portions of the excise laws. Pewter Muggers. — The name of a Democratic faction in New York in 1828, so-called from an ale-house frequented by the leaders, where the ale was drawn in pewter mugs. Progressive Labor Party. -This Avas a faction in New York, of the Henry George, or United Labor Paity, wliich left the latter in 1887, owii]g to a disagreement regarding party pur- pose. Its candidate for Secretary of State polled over 7,000 votes. There is no apparent essential difference between its platform and that of the United Labor Party (which see). Quids. — A faction which supported John Itandolph, of Vir- ginia, in 1805, and when he fell out with the Kepublicans, was merged Avith the Fedeials. They weie call " Quids," because of the uncertainty of their attitude. Republican Party. — The name Hepublicaii was originally adopted by the Democratic party. (See Democratic- Kepublican party.) It originated with Thomas Jefferson, who thought it best represented the principles of the Anti-Federalist party, and bor- rowed it from the Republican movement in France during and after the P'rench Revolution. Tlie early Democrats, therefore, were called Republicans, or moie specifically, Democratic-Re]>ub- licans. The name Republican disa^^peared as applying to Demo- 286 POLITICAL I'AKTIKS. criits in 1S2G. As appliiMl lo I{i'|»iiblic;iiis, it Avas lirst used in 1S55, bointij adopliMl by the Anti-Nebraska men as being most expressive of nationality. The Kepubliean ]'arty came into exist- ence after the dissohition of the Whig party in 1852. It was made up of Whigs, National Ilepublicans, the Free-Soilers, the Know-Notliiiigs, and a few scattering Democrats, all of whom C()mbineCIIlC>-'C5b300>».OI :iO-^^cDOt-»tJ^-^*»-dOTCo^c;wo4i»OH-*co ^w^it-*OTrf^ooo*-(f-c:;ntcts)cD^i^wi-*cnoicD 00 0>^ W to 00 Mi W >(^ o"C0 Or Co O N*- ^ C5 :^ I Op-' O O Oil-' Co o »*- t-0 c; CO ■-rj or co O 4:* CO^ ^1 :;! 4i t H-' O GO < ll CCa t^ t-'^-'h-. >f:. fWtoi-'C.-'i.:'— ^Ok^if^iccoto*. bcoMUioji-'OOiOirfi.Cjioic-] »f* -1 00 00 _r. >: ic p - 'os'co oi CO 4- H- c: - *. to 00 p-i tc -^ -^ - . - . - - _ -. _ - . |>D p O OOJX> Ul CO h- »-» CO Cn C ic p^c:ot-*tooc;ii-'Ocio^iCiGio>^tot -1 00 t— en tc h- tc ^ -1 cn^i ; ►-» C-. to 00 C5 < 4^ »^ O : »- 1*. to- ot ^ O C 13 II c r m qc't) -_ .. _ _ -- - --.. 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"to CO 01 'te-hi to w"o -J -i"a> i-''to''-i en'^g'^i'bo i^ fclo't^"^ p en p^ ^ cowco*.Po*.i-'i-*.ooicotoio-ic;vopopococgp>-'co- ."^ ►-WC0t-'C0O00h-^nt-'-^O-ienC0O»-'C0G0C0Ot**t-'p-rf^C0 294 POPULATION AND AREA. had an area of one Imndred square miles, but tliirtj' square iiiilr; were ceded to Virginia in 1 846. The following table shows the land and water area of I'l ' States and Territories, their length and breadth, and tiuir capitals. States and Territories. Gross Area in S(iuare Miles. Extreme Breadth, Miles. Extreme Length, Miles. Capital. .52,250 577,390 113,020 ■53,8L0 158,300 103,925 4,990 2,050 370 58,080 59,475 84,800 50,050 30,350 31,400 50,025 82,080 40,400 48,720 33,040 12,210 8,315 58,915 83,.305 40,810 09,415 14(!,080 77,510 110,700 9,305 7,815 122,580 49,170 52,250 70,795 4i,0(;o 39,030 90,030 45,215 1,250 30,570 77,050 42,050 205,780 84,970 9,505 42,450 69,180 24,780 50,040 97,890 3,002,990 200 800 335 275 375 390 90 35 9 400 250 305 205 100 210 300 400 350 f80 205 200 190 310 350 180 300 580 415 315 90 70 350 320 520 300 230 305 375 300 35 235 380 430 700 275 90 425 340 200 290 3(!5 2,720 330 1,100 390 240 740 270 75 110 10 483 ; in 1870, 38,558,371; in 1800,31,443,321; in 1850,23,191,876; in POPULATION AND AREA. 295 1840, 17,069,453; in 1830, 12,860,020; in 1820, 9,633,822; in 1810, 7,239,881 ; in 1800, 5,308,483 ; in 1790, 3,929,214 ; in 1780, 2,945,000; in 1770, 2,312,000. The population of Alaska, which is not included above, is 30,329. (For population of States and Territoi-ies see each State and Territory.) The Most Populous State is New York, which has a popu- lation of 5,997,853 by the United States census of 1890, although NATIONAL ACADEMY OF DESIGN, NEW YORK. the enumeration completed in JVIarch, 1892, by the State authori- ties made the population 6,479,730. The Least Populous State is Wyoming, Avhich has a popu- lation of 00,705. The Most Populous City in the United States is New York. The government census of 1890 made the population 1,515,301 ; the municipal enumeration some months later made it 1,710,715. The Centre of Population is at a point twenty miles east of Columbus, Ind, It moves steadily westward at an average rate of fifty miles in ten years. In 1800 it was sitiuited at a 296 POPULATION AXD AREA. point eighteen miles west of Baltimore, McI. Centre of popula- tion as detined in the Statistical Atlas of 1874, "is the point at which equilibriunt would be reached Avere the country taken as a plane surface, itself without weight, but capable of sustaining weight and loaded with its inhabitants, in number and position as they are found at the period under consideration, each individual being assumed to be of the same gravity as every other and con- sequently to exert pressure on the pivotal point directly propor- tioned to his distance therefrom." In short, it is the centre of gravity of the population of the country. The Negro Population of the South (16 States) is 6,944,015 ; tlie white population is 15,49o,8"23. The white popu- lation of the South in 1850 was G, ■222,41 8, the negro population 3,442,238; in 1800 the white population was 8,0977462, the negro population 4,215,614; in 1870 the figures were 9,466,353 white, 4,538,883 negro; in 1880, 12,578,253 white, 6,099,253 negro. These fiscm'cs show that the colored element increased during the decade at the rate of 13.8 per cent. The white population of these States in 1890 numbered 15,493,323, and in 1880, 12,578,- 253. It increased during the decade at the rate of 23.1 per cent., or nearly twice as rapidly as the colored element. Indian Population. — By the census of 1890, the Indians in the United States, exclusive of Alaska, numbered 249,273, distributed among the States and Territories as follows: Arizona, 16,740; California, 15,283; Colorado, 1,034; Connecticut, 24; Florida, 215; Georgia, 2; Idaho, 3,909; Illinois, 1 ; Indiana, 71; Indian Territory, 8,708 ; Five Civilized Tribes, 66,289 ; Iowa, 397 ; Kansas, 1,437; Louisiana, 132; Maine, 140; Massachusetts, 145 ; Michigan, 6,991 ; Minnesota, 7,065 ; Mississipi^i, 1,404 ; Missouri, 14 ; Montana, 10,573 ; Nebraska, 3,864; Nevada, 4,956 ; New Me.xico, 20,521 ; Pueblos, 8,278; New York, 28; Six Na- tions, 5,304; North Carolina, 231; Cherokees, 2,885; North Dakota, 7,952; Oklahoma, 5,689; Oregon, 4,282; South Dakota, 19,845; Tennessee, 10; Texas, 258; Utah, 2,489; Washington, 10,837 ; Wisconsin, 8,896; Wyoming, 1,806; War Department Apaches, Mt. Vernon barracks, 38 4; Indians in prison, 184; total, 249,273. Of these, the Five Civilized Tribes number 68,371, among whom there are: Cherokees, 29,599; Chickasaws, 7,182 ; Choc- taws, 14,397 ; Creeks, 14,632 ; Seminoles, 2,561. Other Indians are the Pueblos of New Mexico, who number 8,278 ; the Six Na- tions, Saint Regis, and other Indians of New York, 5,304 ; the Eastern Cherokees of North Carolina, 2,885 ; Indians taxed or taxable, and self-sustaining citizens, counted in the genei'al census (98 per cent, not on reservations), 32,567 ; Indians under control POPULATION AND AREA. 207 of the War Department, prisoners of war (Apaches at INIount Vernon barracks), 384 ; Indians in State or Territorial prisons, 184. The Cities Having 100,000 Inhabitants, or over, num- ber twentv-eight. Tliey are as follows: New York, N. Y., CHINESE QUAUTEIl AT SAN FRANCISCO. ],515,.S01 ; Chicago, 111., 1,099,850; Philadelphia, Pa., 1,046,904; Brooklyn, N. Y^, 806,343; St. Louis, Mo., 451,770; Boston, Mass., 418,477; Baltimore, Md., 434,439; San Francisco, Cal., 298,997; Cincinnati, Ohio, 296,908; CK'vcland, Oliio, 261,353; 298 POPULATION AND AREA. Buffalo, N. Y., 255,064 ; New Orleans, La., 242,039 ; Pittsburg, Pa., 238,017; Washington, D. C, 230,392; Detroit, Mich., 205,876; Milwaukee, Wis., 204,408; Newark, N. J., 181,830; Minneapolis, Minn., 104,738 ; Jersey City, N. J., 103,003 ; Louis- ville, Ky., 101,129; Omaha, Neb., 140^452; Rochester, N. Y., 133,890; St. Paul, Minn., 133,150; Kansas City, Mo., 132,716; Providence, R. L, 132,140; Denver, Colo., 100,713; Indianap- olis, Ind., 105,430 ; Allegheny, Pa., 105,287. There are 393 cities in the United States each having a population of 8,000 of over. Immigration. — The immigration into the United States from the close of the Revolutionary War has numbered approxi- mately 15,507,000 persons. Of these Germany sent 4,504,128 ; Ireland, 3,481,074; England, 2,430,380 ; Norway and Sweden, 925,031; Austria-Hung'ary, 434,438; Italy, 388,558; France, 300,340 ; Russia and Poland, 324,892 ; Scotland, 323,823 ; China, 290,055; Switzerland, 171,209 ; Denmark, 142,517. Of the immigrants arrived during the last decade, 3,205,911, or 61.10 per cent, were males, 2,040,702, or 38.90 per cent., females, and 1,121,499, or 21.4 per cent, under 15 j^eai-s ; 51 per cent., or 334,229, from Ireland were males; 49 per cent., or 321,253, females. From Germany, 836,290, or 57.0 per cent., were males, and 010,680, or 42.4 per cent, females. From England, Sweden, Norway, and Scotland, 61 per cent, were males. From Hungary, 94,243, or 73.8 per cent, were males, and 33,438, or 26.2 per cent., females. From Italy, 243,923, or 79.4 per cent, were males and 63,386, or 20.6 per cent., females. Of the immigration of the ten years ending 1890, the Profes- sional Class, which embraces musicians, teachers, clergymen, artists, lawyers, physicians, etc., constituted .056 per cent. The Skilled Occupations, embracing blacksmiths, carpenters, coopers, iron-workers, machinists, printers, gardeners, dress- makers, miners, tailors, etc., represented 10.30 per cent. The class "miscellaneous occupations " constituted 39.63 per cent., and includes laborers, farmers, servants, and merchants. 47.34 per cent, of all had no occupations. Of this total of 2,600,061 ap- parently without occupation, 1,767,284 w^ere females and 537,007 were under fifteen years. Occupations* — The occupations of the people of this coun- try were listed in the United States census of 1880 under four general titles : — 1st — Professional and personal service. Males 2,712,943 Females 1,361,295 4,074,238 2cl — Trade and transportation. Males 1,750,892 Females 59,3G4 1,810,256 POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. 299 3d— Agriculture. Males 7,075,983 Females 594,510 7,670,493 4th — Manufacturing — Mechanic arts and mining. Males 3,205,124 Females 631,988 3,8.37,112 Total 17,392,099 Growth, of Cities. -- It is a common saying that" God made the country and man made the town." Statistics of the Ameri- can cities prove that tliis is true, in this country, at least. In 1790 tlie population of the United States was almost entirely a rural one. There were no large cities. Philadelphia, the largest city, had 42,000 inhabitants ; New York had 38,000 ; Boston had 18,000 ; Baltimore, 13,000. The entire population of the country was 3,589,063. The aggregate population in 1890 of the four cities named exceeds this by many thousands. In 1790, the per- centage of people in the cities was about 3 in 100 ; the other 97 lived on the farms, or in the towns, which averaged 500 to 1,500 inhabitants. This percentage remained about the same during the fifty years subsequent to 1790. Between 1840 and 1850, the cities began to be more populous. Manufacturing, encouraged by inventions and the protective tariff, drew thousands from the farms to the cities, and by 1850, when there M'ere 44 cities, the percentage of people in cities to those in the country had increased to 12.5. Followinec is a table showinsf the increase since 1850 : — Date. Population of United States. Citie.-5. Population of Cities. I'ercentage of Urban Popiilation. 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 23,191,870 31,443,321 38,.558,371 50,155,783 62,622,2,50 85 141 226 280 443 2,897,586 5,072,256 8,071,875 11,318,597 18,235,670 12.5 16.1 20.9 22.5 29.1 Post-Office Dopartment. (See Federal Government.) Post-Office System, The. (See Post-Office Department, under Federal Government.) Post-Riders. Railway Mail Service. Early Postal Rates. Ocean Mail Service. Money-Order System. Dead Letter Office. Receipts and Expenses. Postal Telegraph. Statistics. The first mention of a central office for the reception and dis- tribution of letters is found in the records of the General Court of Massachusetts 1689, as follows : " It is ordered that notice be noo POST-OFFIOK SYSTEM. COLONIAL POST-OFFICE. given that Richard Fairbanks liis lumsc in Boston is the place appointed for all letters which are l)roug]it from heyond the seas, or are to be sent thither to be left with liini, and he is to take care that tliey are to bo delivered or sent according to the direction. And he is allowed for every letter a ])enny, and nnist answer all miscarriages through his own neglect in this kind." This arrange- ment, however, was not satisfactory, and another was soon after put in operation. Viiginia had a Local Mail Service in 1 (J;")?, and in 1 672 a ])()st-route was oj)ened between New York and JJoston, trips being made once a month, and thirty years later, every two weeks. There Avas also a route extending from Piscataqua, or Portsmouth, N. IT., to I'hiladelphia via New York, and another from Philadelphia to Williamsburg, Va., and thence to Charleston, S. C, but both of these were uncertain in the delivery of letters, which dei)ended both uj)OU the condition of the weather and u])on the peace of the country. In KiO'i, Parliament ])laced the mail service in the colonies in charge of a crown oilicer known as the Deputy Postmaster- General for America. In 1710, the central oilice was estab- lished at New York. Still the service was mismanaged, and did not yield the revenue which it was Parliament's lirst object to secure. Benjamin Franklin, who had been comptroller for the Post- master-(4eneral, was upon the latter's death, in 1753, appointed to the oilice by Parliament. With characteristic energy, he im- ])roved the service greatly, instituting a penny-post in Phila- delphia to delivi-r letters at residences, and a tri-weekly mail between Philadelphia and New York. At this time and previously, letters were carried by Post-Riders, who rode on horseback over a given territory, collecting letters either from the senders in person, or from boxes placed along the route. This ])rimitive method was in vogue until the latter half of the eigh- teenth century. Iji 1756, Franklin sent the mail from Philadelphia to New York by Stage-coach, a plan which soon after came into general use. Packages were also sent in the same way. ^Vlthough P^'ranklin had increased the revenue so that Great liritain made a profit from the mail service in the colonies, he was removed on account of his politics, but by the Continental Congress was reappointed. ]5y 1789, Wiscasset, Maine, and Georgia were connected by post-routes. From 1789 to 1799, the Rate for carrying a singk; letter more I'OST-OFFICK SVSTKM. HUl than 30 and under 60 miles was eight cents, from 60 to 100 miles, ten cents, from 100 to 150 miles, twelve and one half cents, from 150 to 200, fifteen cents, and so on. For carrying a double- weight letter, tiie rate Avas twice as much. P"'rom 17S9tolS16, the rates remaiiu'd practically the same, excepting tiiat the dis- tance a single letter was cai-ried for eight cents was inctreased. In 1794 tlie Post-Office DeparLmenl was created. From 1816 to 1845, the single rate for 80 miles was six cents, for longer dis- tances the rate was proportionately higher. The revenue during this period was about ecpial to the expenditure. In 1845 tlie rate; was reduced to the unit of 865,93 1,786 ; the Expenditures *71,662,463; of the latter, 114,527,000 were for salaries of post- mastei"s, and $36,805,621 for transportation of the mads. For transj)ortatian of mails in 1865, the expenditure was '1!^6,246,8S4. The whole number of post-offices in 1891 was 64,32f), of which 2,942 were Presidential offices. The number of miles of ])ostal routes was 439,027. In the extent and perfection of its ])ostal system, the United States leads all the nations of the world. Tlie dei)artment handles in a year more postal matter than Great Britain, France, and Germany com])ined. (^reat ]3ritain transmits in a year about l,500,00t),000 ])ieces, Germ;uiv al)out 1,200,000,000, and France a])out 700,000,000, Austria-llungary arbout 600,000,000. Money-Orders and Postal Notes. — The system of send- ing money by mail is known as the JNloney-Order System, and 302 rOST-OFKinE SYSTEM. is a separate department of the Postmaster-General's admin- istration. It was created in 1871, and now does an enormous business. Domestic Money-Orders are issued by money- order post-offices, of wbich there are about 9,000, for any amount up to llOO, at the following rates : For sums not exceeding |5, five cents ; for $5 to |10, eight cents ; for $10 to $15, ten cents; for $15 to $30, fifteen ceuts ; for $30 to $40, twenty cents ; for $40 to $50, twenty-five cents; for $50 to $00, thirty cents; for $60 to $70, thirty-five cents; for $70 to $80, forty cents; for $80 to $100, forty-five cents. When more than $100 is required, additional orders must be obtained, but not more than three orders will be issued in one day to the same payee, payal)le at the same office. There are now in operation Postal Conventions for the ex- change of money-ordei'S between the United States and the following countries, viz : Switz- erland, Great Britain and Ireland, Ger- many, France, Italy, Canada, and New- * found land, Jamai(%a, New South Wales, Victoria, New TIIK FAST MAIL TRAIN. Zealand, Queensland, the Cape ^^ , _ Colony, the Windward Islands, tlie ^^^^'^s^, -' Leeward Islands, Belgium, ]'ortugal, Tas- ''''~*^_ mania, Hawaii, Sweden, Norway, Jai)an, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The rates of commission or fees chaj'ged for the issue of all international money-orders are as follows: For sums not exceeding $10, ten cents; over $10 and not exceeding $'2(1, twenty cents; over $20 and not exceeding $30, thirty cents ; over $30 and not exceeding $40, forty cents ; over $40 and not exceeding $50, fifty cents. The system of Postal Notes was created March 3, 1883. These notes Avill be issued for sums less than $5, for a fee of three POST-OFFICE SYSTEM. 803 cents, and are payable to any person presenting them, either at the office designated on the note, or at the office of issue, witliin three montlis of date of issue. Railway and Steamship Mail Service. — The chief agency in the transmission of tlie inails is the railroads. Part of them are carried by steaml)oats, and by messengers, as for instance, from one railroad station to another in a city, or from a railroad station to a steamboat. In back-country districts, where the railroad does not reach a town, post-routes run from the rail- road to the town, and such mails are carried by private individ- uals under yearly contracts. Such routes are known as Star Routes, and are numerous in tlie far West, where in some in- stances they extend for one hundred and one hundred and fifty miles, usually by stage-coach. The Railway Mail Service is in charge of a General Superintendent, who makes conti'acts with railroad companies, and sees tliat they are faithfully per- formed. The railroads furnish sepai-ate cars for carrying the mails, which are always run with the fast through trains. Over a few roads, as for instance, from Chicago to New York, there has been run a Fast Mail train, composed exclusively of mail-cars, and having the right of way over all other trains, thereby enabling it to make quick connections. Mail-cars are manned by separate crev/s, who assort the mail en route, frequently Avorking all night, and who deposit it in mail-bags which are transferred to mail wagons in waiting at the point of destination. Quick and accurate work is necessary, as for instance, where the mail-bags must be carried across a city to a train scheduled to leave in half an hour. Mails between San Francisco and New York have been carried in five days, but the service was so expensive that it was discontinued. The average time is now inside of six days. What is called the New York and Chicago Fast Mail is the most im])ortant of the fast mail trains now running. It is made up generally of five mail cars, one baggage-car, one express-car and one passenger car. The mail cars ai-e built of the most enduring material, and are provided with tlie best of run- ning gear. Each car contains pouches of mail destined for partic- ular States and the same men assort it each trip. Each clerk assorts the mail of particular States. The first car carries all the letters and is known as the letter car. The four other cars carry the newspaper, periodical, and package mail, which is so much more bulky than the letter mail that four cars are required to transj)ort it. Tlie Run to Chicago is divided into three sections : New York to Syracuse, Syracuse to Cleveland,and Cleveland to Chicago. 304 roST-OFKlCK SYSTKM. Tlie crews begin work at New Yorkat4j'. m, and arrive at SyracuHc, it" on time, at 5.35 a. m. Here tliey remain nntil the same evening at 8.40, arriving tlie next morning at New York at six o'clock. So exacting are tlieir duties that the clerks on this train after making three trips, lay oi't" six days, their salaries, whicrh are from nine hundred to thirteen liundred dollars })er annum, continumg meanwhile. At iSyracnse, a new crew takes possession, who are in turn relieved at Cleveland hy a third crew, who woi'k until Elkhardt, Ind., is reached, where a Chicago crew comes on board aiul takes })ossession during the rest of the trip. The letter car, on leaving New York, is manned by six men, and a chief clerk ; the other cars, by four men. ]\Iail is brought on board at all ])()ints Avhere the train stops, and at other points by an ingenious contrivance callcnl a " crane," which is an up- right frame from which is suspended, at the jn-oper height, the mail-})ouch, which a rod from the k'tter car catches in j)assing, and is swung with its burden inside. The Railway Mail Service employs six thousand men. The Foreign Mail Service is also in charge of a Su))eiMn- tendent, who makes contracts for the government with the transatlantic steamship lines. Within a year scnne of the com- ])anies have set ajtart a room on their ships where mail clerks assort the mails from America destined for foreign counti'ies, thereby saving a day or more iri time. The clerks return on the next steamer to the LTnited States, and assort the European mails for Ameri(vxn cities. Forty-four steamshi])s between Europe and the United States are authorized to carry the foreign mails. Dead Letter Office, The. — Letters or packages which are misdirected, or whose addi-esses are Avanting, or are illegible, or directed to persons who are no longer living, are in every case rt'turned to the senders if it can be ascertained who they are. If not, the letters and packages are advertised, kej)t a certain tune, and then destroyed if not claimed. " Dead " letters and i)ackages are received at the Post-Office De])artment at ^Vashington at the rate of 20,000 a day. Of this number 5.^ per cent, contain money, which if not claimed, reverts to the United States Treasury. The Amount of Money found in '^ dead " letters averages |!lO,000 a year. Some of the " dead ■" letters and packages are ])reserved nu'rely as Curiosities. There is a large skull in the collection, which was addressed to Prof. S. D. Gross, Philadelphia, and by him refused on account of the excessive postage due. An interesting article on exhibition is a sheet compiled by the Postmaster at Boston showing one hundred variations in spelling the word " Chicopee," as received at the Boston Post-Office. rosT-oKKicii; system. 8u5 One letter is addressed: "Miss Kate , a jjjirl al)()ut Ui years old, some gold in one of her front upper teeth, who sud- denly left her boarding house on Cherry Street, Philadelphia, about September, ISSf)." Another is addressed : "To the oldest Son of the Biggest Proprietor of the largest store in Crescent Mills, Plumao couTity, Cal." Another ])ostmarked in North Carolina, is addressed: " P. M., j)lease to iiujuire of a collard gentleman by name of Mack Henry, Ililliai-d, N. Y." Several yeai's ago a lellcr reached the otiice a rough the postal service. All ])ost-offices Avhere the free-delivery ser- vice now exists, and the otKces of the telegraph companies with which contracts would be made, would be postal telegraph stations. In addition, the I'ostmaster-General would l>e empowered to designate from time to time other post-offi(H'S and ])Ostal teiegrajth offices, and to contract with one or more telegraph companies now in existence, or that may become incorpoiated for a ))eriod of ten years, for the transmission of postal telegrams on condi- tions and at rates of tolls set foi-th in the bill. ]*ostal telegrams are to be sent in the order of filing, except that government telegrams take precedence. As witli the mails, no liability is to attach to the Post-Office Dei)artment on account of delays or errors. Postal Notes. (See Post-Office System.) Postal Subsidy Act. (See Shipbuilding.) 306 I'UKSIDKNTS OF TIIK ITNITKD STATES. Postal Telef^rapli. (See Ship-Lnilding.) rnictical Politics. (See Slang of I'olitios.) PrC-Adaillitc. (See Nicknaiucs of Famous Americans.) President do facto. (i*>Go Presidents of tlio United States.) Presidential Eh'ctors. (See How tlu' President is Elected.) Presidential Flat?. (See Flags of tl>e United States.) Presidents of the United States. Sobriquets. Burial Places. Ancestry. Professions. Title of President. Religious Convictions. Presidential Term. There have been twenty-three Presidents. Tt should be specified that in the sul)joined list, the early llepublieans, so-called, were really Deniocrat-lvepublicans (see Political Parties), and they are connected by direct lineage with the Democrats of the present time. Name. Politics. Uesiileiice. Inaiiguratocl. Ycur. Ago Gcovfio W:isliinj;toii. . .lolin A(l:iiiis TlioiiKis .IcIVcrson .laiiu's I\l:iilis()H .laiucs Monrix' •.loliii CJuincy Adilius. Andrew Jackson INIartin \'mii liiircii . . . William 11. llanison, .lolin Tvlcr .lames K. I'olk /.acliarv Tavlor MiUani I'iliimorc... Franklin I'icrcc .lames Hiichanan Abraham lancoln Andrew .lohnson Ulysses S, (irant Uiithcrlord U. Hayes .lames A. (iarlield C'liestor A. Artliur... (i rovor Cleveland — Uonjaiuiu Harrison. . Federalist . . . Federalist. ., Keimlilican. . Re|>nblican. , Uepulilican. . Kepubliean*, Democrat Democrat. . . . Wilis Democrat.. . . Democrat Wilis Wliisi- Democrat.. . . Democrat. . . . Reimblicau. Uopnblican. . Kei>nblican. Kopnbliean Kepubliean . llepublican. Democrat.. . Republican . Virginia Massacluisetts.. . . Virginia Virn'inia Virginia Massachusetts Tennessee New York Ohio Virginia Tennessee Ijouisiana New York New ll;inipshire. . IViinsylvania niinois Tennessee Dist. of Columbia, Ohio Ohio ,... New York New York liuli.ana 1789 57 171)7 (!2 1801 f.8 ISO'J 58 1S17 59 IS'J.'-) 58 18'.'!> (;2 18;!7 55 1841 (18 1841 51 184.5 51) 184SI (>5 18,')0 50 l8,'i;{ 49 1857 (it! ISC.l 52 18(1.5 57 181;;) 47 1877 54 1881 49 18SI 51 188,5 48 1889 55 1799 182G 1820 18;!G 1831 1848 1845 18(12 1841 1802 1849 1850 1874 18(19 18tl8 1805 1875 1885 1881 1880 Sobriquets of the Presidents. — The national weakness ft)r nicknames has always inflicted itself upon the President of the United States. As a rule they have originated M'ith the common people, and have been characterized by an easy familiarity pos- sible only under a " govenimeut of the i)eople, for the people, •John Ouincy Adams was, properly speaking, a National-Republican j his sympathies wore distluctly Federalistic. I'lii.JSIlJKNTS OF THE UNITKD S'J'ATKS. J07 e -? .i'--2^j^-A^ ^'''^<-<-<-<-c^ C<:i^ xlJ^C^.^ x:d-==> AlITOOHAl-UH or THE a'Ri;SIL.KNT3. (SEE I'AOE 313.) 308 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. and by the people." Frequently, however, nicknames have been applied to the chief executive by political enemies, and in such cases, have differed from the nicknames applied by the people in that they have been sarcastic, and sometimes expressive of scorn, Washington has always been familiarly spoken of as the "Father of His Country " ; the origin of the name is not known, but its significance is apparent. He was also called the " American Fabius," from the fact that his system of military "warfare was similar to that of the Roman General P"'abius, who used to harass the enemy by a system of marches and counter- marches and surprises, a practice which characterized the cam- paigns of Washington. He was also called the " Cincinnatus of the West," from the fact that while he was in retirement on his farm at Mt. Vernon, in 1797, he was called upon to take com- mand of the army at a time when it looked as if the United States would go to war with France. Some of his opponents sarcastically spoke of him as the "Step-Father of His Country." He was also spoken of as the " Atlas of Amer- ica," because he had to carry the new woild on his shoulders. The " Deliverer of America," the " Saviour of His Country," were other nicknames for Washington. John Adams was called the " Colossus of Indepen- dence," from the fact of his intimate connection with the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson has frequently been referred to as the " Sage of Monticello," from the fact that he lived at Monti- cello, his country seat, after he retired to private life, but managed to keep in touch with politics. As he was very tall and slender, the political wags used to speak of him playfully as " Long Tom." President Madison was called the " Father of the Consti- tution," from the fact that he offered a resolution in a Virginia legislature which resulted in the convention of 1787, and led the way to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States. President Monroe was sometimes spoken of as " Last Cocked Hat," because he used to wear a cocked hat, a precious relic of the Revolutionary period. John Quincy Adams, while in Congress, earned such a reputa- tion for oratory, and so interested the members by his speeches that they dubbed him " Old Man Eloquent." Andrew Jackson is well known even to this day as " Old Hickory." One of his soldiers once made the remark that the Genei-al was tough, and afterwards it was remarked that he was tough as hickory; hence he was called "Hickory." As time went on his admirers affectionately spoke of him as " Old CD PRESinKNTH OK Tlllfl HNri'l'".!) H'l'ATIW. 80(1 Hickory," and ili;it l)(^<';uii(i liis iiickiiiunc. 'IMk! Cn^'k IiuliaiiH spokc! of liim as "Big Knife," aiMl "Sl^iarp Knife," jukI in consoqueiico of liis vidory over tlu; Urilisli at, New OrlcaiiH, Ik; has been spoken of as tiu; " Hero of New Orleans." President Martin Van JinrcMi a(!in tlu; fact that lio fought a battle at the junction of the 'ri|)pecaMo(! and Wabash liivers, in ISIL In tJu; Ilard-Oider canipuign Harrison was affectionately spoken of as tlu; " Hero of Tippecanoe." "Old Tip," was unothei- nairie for him. Harrison was also refeire(l to as the " Waslnngton of the West," Ix'causc in the War of I SI 'J he jtursued the liritish into (!anada, and was as active in this war against tlu; Hrilish as \Vashingt,on liaragg." Another famous name for liini was "Old Zach." I'resi(h'nt Millard l^'illmctro was a man of aristocratic^ ten- ilenci(!S, old school courtesy, and ])olislied mariners, a f;ict which gav(! lise to Vh(! appellatir)n, t.lu^ "Anioritian Louis Philippe." It is also said that, in pliysiipie he was Jiot unlike; the I''r(!nch King. I'VaidSfni. During the 1884 campaign the Republicans derided him as the " Buffalo Hangman," because as sheriff in that city, he once had charge of the execu- tion of a murderer. They also contemptuously referred to him as the " Buffalo Sheriff.'" President Benjamin Harrison has been spoken of frequently as "Grandfather's Hat," as" Ben," and as " B. Harri- son." This nickname of " Grand father's Hat " arose from the fact that the cartoonists represented him as wearing a hat as large as himself and labelled " (Trandfather's Hat." " Baby McKee's Grandfather" is another of his nicknames. Professions, Education, and Ancestry. — Of the twenty- three Presidents of the United States, John Adams, T. Jefferson, iMadison, John Quincy Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Tyler, Polk, Fillmore, Pierce, Buchanan, Lincoln, Hayes, Garfield, Aithur, Cleveland, and Benjamin Harrison were Lawyers at the time of their election. Monroe had no regular profession, but gave his time to Politics. William 11. Harrison, Taylor, and (Ti-ant were Soldiers ; Andrew Jackson was an Ex-Soldier and Politi- cian. John Adams and J. Q. Adams were graduates of Harvard College ; Madison was a graduate of Princeton ; Jefferson and Tyler were graduates of William and Mary's College, and Monroe once studied there. Washington, Taylor, Fillmore, and Cleveland attended the Common School. Jackson, Lin- coln, and Johnson were Self-Taught. l*olk graduated at the University of North Carolina; William A. Harrison attended Hanipden-Sydney College; I'ierce was a grad- uate of Bowdoin College ; Buchanan of Dickinson Col- lege ; Grant of West Point Military Academy ; Hayes of Kenyon College ; Garfield of Williams College ; Arthur of Union College ; Benjamin Harrison of Miami College. Washington, the Adamses, Madison, Harrison, Tyler, Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce, Lincoln, Johnson, Garfield, and Cleve- land were of English ancestors ; Monroe, Grant, and Hayes of Scotch ancestors; Jackson, Polk, Buchanan, and Arthur of Scotch- Irish ancestors, and Van Buren of Dutch ances- tors. Washington, Jefferson, JMadison, Monroe, Taylor, wei'c sons of Planters ; John Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, Polk, Fill- PKKSIDKN'IS OK THE UNITED STATES. 315 more, Pierce, IJiieolii, (iarfield, and lienjamiii JIanisoii were sons of Farmers. J. Q. Adams' father mus a Lawyer ; William H. Harrison's, a Statesman ; Tyler's, a Jurist ; liiichanan's and Hayes', Merchants ; Johnson's, a Sexton ; .Arthur's and Cleveland's, Clergymen. Burial Places. — Washington is buried at Mount Ver- non, on the Potomac River, about sixteen miles from Washing- ton. The inner tomb is made of freestone, which has a stone panel bearing the inscription: "I am the resurrection and the life ; he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live." The outside structure is twelve feet high, entered by an iron gateway beneath a Gothic arch, over which is a marble slab on which is inscribed, " Within this enclosure rests the remains of General (4eorge Washington." There is an ante-chamber where are two marble saico})hagi. Washington's has a sculptured lid on which is carved an American shield suspended from the American Hag. The flag hangs in festoons and over it rests an eagle, with wide open wings, perchefl u])on the shield; cut in the marble is the name " Washington." The remains of Martha Washington lie in the other sarcophagus, which is made of marble and IS eight feet high. President John' Adams is buried at Quincy, Mass., beneath the portico of the Unitarian Church, The tomb is in the cellar, and is built in behind huge blocks of rough granite ; the door is a marble slab Vith massive clasp, ]iadl()ck, and hinges. In the church pro])er is the memorial tablet to John Adams and his wife, on the top of which is a life-sized bust of the ]-*resident ; the tablet is inscribed with an elaborate eulogy of his services as a citizen and a public servant. Thomas Jefferson is buried at Monticello, Va., in the family cemetery. There is a granite obelisk, built of three pieces of rough granite, designed from a di-awing made by Jeiferson. The inscription on the pedestal is as follows : — Here lies buried THOMAS .JEFKKUSOX, Author of the Declaratiou of American Independence, Of the Statute of Virginia For religious freedom, And father of the University of Virginia. On the northern side of the base stone is inscribed'. — Born Ai)ril 2, 174:5, O. S. Died July 4, 1826. Mrs. .TefTerson is buried close by. 316 PRESIDKXTS OP THE IJNITKI) STATES. James Madison is l)iirkHl at Montpelier, Va. The lot is entered by an iron gate with the name "MADISON." Tlio monument is a phiin but graceful obelisk built of seven pieces of stone. The total height is twenty feet six inches. The inscrip- tion is witliout aUusion to his public services. I lis wife, JJolly I'ayne, is buried in the same lot. The monument was erected twenty-two years aftt'r Madison's death, by private subscrip- tion. James Monroe lay buried in New York city, in the Second Avenue Cemetery, until 1858, when the body was removed to Richmond, Va., and deposited in Hollywood Cemetery, in a lot which was bought by Governor Wise in behalf of the State for the purpose of utilizing it as the burial place of Virginia's l^residents. The vault is made of brick and granite and is five feet under ground, being covered by a block of Virginia marble on which rests the sarcophagus, a granite block shaped like a cofKn. On the sarcopliagus was a metal plate on which was inscribed, "James Monroe, Governor of Virginia, 17'J0 to 1802. 1811. President of the U. S., 1817 to 1825." This plate was stolen and never recovered. The monument is eiu'losed by an elaborate framcnvork of iron, which has the aj)peai'ance of a Gothic temi)le. Mrs. Monroe lies buried at Oak Hall, ^'a., with other members of her family. John Quincy Adams is burit>(l at Quincy, Mass., in the same vault with his l)rother beneath the portico of the First Unitarian Church. There is also a tablet to his memory on the wall of the church to the right of the pul])it, on the top of which is a bust of the statesman. The inscrijition on the tablet is elaborate and eulogistic of the services the deceased rendeied to the nation, llis wife, Louise Catlierine, is buried by his side. Andrew Jackson is buried at the Hermitage, eleven miles from Nashville, Tenn., on the Cumberland River. The ri'niains lie within a sti'ucture about fifteen feet high, surmounted by a dome and supported by eight Doric columns; the interior has a vaulted ceiling in white. At the base of the structure is a ]\vramid of white marble resting on a square base beneath Avhich is the vault. There is nothing on the General's tomb indicating that he was President. The inscription is simply "General Andrew Jackson, Born March 15,17(57, Died June 8, 1845." The inscription on the tomb of his Avife, which was written by General Jackson himself, speaks of her as the v/ife of I'resident Jackson. The remains of President INlnrtin ^'an r>uren lie in Reformed Church Cenu'tery at Kinderkook, N. Y. The shaft is nuide of plain granite rising from the block four feet square, resting on i I PBESIDKNTS OK TIIK UXITKD STA.TKS. 317 a pedestal. The lieii^ht of the inoiuiineut is liltt'cii feet. The inscription is veiy plain. I'resident William H. Harrison lies buried in a field over- looking- iho Ohio River at North Bend, O. Tiie ronuiins were originally buried at Washington, 'fho vault is built of brick and extends live feet beneath the surface, the ujjper j»art of it beuig two feet above the surface. The vault is oi)ened by an iron door and the descent is niade on wooden steps. IJemark- able to relate, there is no inscription on the tomb although thei-e is a wide marble slab on the lintel of the door, apparently placed there that the name of the distinguished dead might be thereon insci'ibed. The Ohio Legislature has several times rejected bills to erect a suitable monument. President Tyler is buried at Hollywood Cemetery, Richmont, Va., in the President's section near the grave of I'resident Monroe. Tliere is neither monument nor stone to maik the grave, although thirty years ago the Virginia JiCgisla- ture passed resolutions for the erection of a suitable monument. James K.Polk is buried in Nashville, Tenn., in the front yard of an old mansion on Union Street, corner of- Vine. The moim- ment is twelve feet square and about twelve feet high, and is built of limestone; it stands in the centre of a square, enclosed by an iron railing. In the centre of tlu^ monument is a s(|uare stone block about five feet high, on three sides of which is engraved an insci"iption eulogistic of the dead. Presiilent Taylor lies l)urieil in tlu; Taylor Cemelery, Louis- ville, Ky. The monument is a handsome grunite shaft, on tlu^ top of which is a marble statue of President Taylor, bareheaded, and in full uniform. The monument was erected by the State, and is thirty-se\ en feet in lieight. The inscription is simple and l)i'ief; on the base are the initials " Z. T.," and on one of the panels of the shaft aie the last woi-ds of the President: " I have endeavored to do my duty, 1 am ready to die; my only regret is for the friends 1 leave behind me." On the middle section is a bronze j)rolile of the (Jeneral ; on the west side of the shaft are the American eagle and coat of arms in relief; on the other side is a list of the battles in whicli the General fought: Fort Ilaiii- son, Black Hawk, Okeechobee, Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterey, and liuena Vista. The remains of Milhird Fillmore are buried at Forest Lawn Cemetery, Jiear BulTalo, N. Y., and the obelisk is a ])olished red gi-aiiite twenty-two feet high. On the base is carvetl in large letters " FILLMOL'K." IMie inscription is very simple aiid there is nothing to indicate that the deceased was I'resident of the United States. 318 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. Franklin Pierce is buried at Concord, N. H., in the Minot Cemetery. The monument is of Itahan marble and is graceful in shape and construction ; at the base is carved the word " PIERCE." The inscription is very simple and no mention is made of the fact that the deceased was President of the United States. President James Buchanan lies buried at Lancaster, Pa., in Woodward Hill Cemetery. The vault consists of large lime- stone flags upon which rests a block of New -Hampshire granite seven feet long, three feet seven inches wide and a foot thick. The monument is in the Koman style ; a single block of Italian marble, having on one side the name " BUCHANAN," on the other side an inscription which states that the deceased was the fifteenth President of the United States. The remains of Abraham Lincoln are buried at Springfield, 111., in Oak Ridge Cemetery. The structure is made of Quincy granite, and is 119x72 feet; there is a main platform, which is approached by four staircases from either corner, the platform itself being 72^ feet square, and forming the base of the shaft and pedestal, which support the statuary, and in themselves occupy a space of 54 feet square. P^rom the centre of the base rises the shaft, twelve feet square at the base, and eight feet square at the top, to a height of 98 feet from the platform, with a winding staircase inside ; the total height is 120 feet. On the pedestal are heroic bronze groups representing the Navy and the three departments of the Army of the United States ; there are shields of polished granite inscribed with the names of the States, Avhich encircle the square between the bronze groups ; on the Southern side of the shaft rests a pedestal on which stands a bronze statue of Lijicoln in a double-breasted Prince Albert coat, holding in his left hand a scroll marked " Proclamation," and in his right hand a pen. The right hand rests upon the American flag, at the bottom of which is a laurel wreath. In the base of the mon- ument are two chambers, one of which is a memorial hall, where relics of Lincoln are exhibited. In the other chamber were origi- nally placed the remains of Lincoln. The sarcophagus where the remains are now interred has on one end the name " LINCOLN," encircled by a wreath of oak leaves and acorns; beneath this, in a semi-circle, is the sentiment : " With malice toward none, with charity for all." The monument was dedicated Oct. 15, 1874, President Grant and the Cabinet being present. The monument cost $250,000, which was raised by public subscription. Andrew Johnson's remains are buried near Greenville, Tenn., under a monument beneath which rest also the remains of his wife. Both lie in an arch from the roof of which rises the PRESinENTS ^F THE UNITED STATES. 819 monument, first the base, tlien tlie ])liiitli, wliicli is a large l)lo('k of marble, with iiiscri[»tion approi)riate to eacli of the deceased. Accompanying that of the President is the line, " His faith in the people never wavered." Above is carved an open Bible, seven- teen by eleven inches, on the pages of ■which rest a hand, as it were the hand of the President taking the oath. Above the Bible, hung from the upper moulding, is a carved scroll of the Constitution, ins(*ril)ed in raised letters, " Constitution of the United States." There now rises a shaft of marble thirteen feet high, at the top of which is an American s;'.l; Dcc'd A. 1). Sept. Kttli, JSSl. In the centre, rising from a pedestal, is a striking heroic fignre of (Jarlield rc^presented as addressing Congress. The statue, which is of marble, is encircled by eight large gi'aiiitc columns, surmounted by a (bnne. On the frieze is an allegorical represen- tation of tlu' funeral procession, the iigures being Columbia, LaAv, Justice, Concord, grou()s of States, J^iterature, War, arui Labor, In the roof of the dcune are winged figures of North, South, East, and West. 'J'he remains of the President rest beneath tlie statue, and are reached by a spiral stairway. The tem[)le is lighted by windows between which are panels re{)re8enting the thirteen States. The contributions for the erection of this beautiful nuMuoriMl temple amounted t-o $l;>f,7r)r). The renniins of Prt'sident Arthur lie in the family plot in Hural Cemetery, at Albany, N. Y. "^riie sarco{)hagus is of stone, a single block of granite, eight by four b}' three feet, with- out ornamentation, but highly i)olished. It rests on a pedestal also of granite. On the base is a bronze tablet inscribed with : CUKSTKU AI-AN AUTIIUU, Twenly-lirst. President of the United States. Horn October 5, ISoO. Died, November 18, 1880. Also on the base is the name, in raised letters, " Artlnu"." Standing at the foot of the monument ami leaning against it is a beautiful bronze ligure of Sorrow, of heroic size, with folded wings, and in the act of placing a palm-leaf on the tomb. The motninuMit cost eleven thousami dollars, and was contributed by the President's friends. The remains of his wife, Klleu Lewis llerndon, are in a sarcophagus close by. Religions Convictions. -^ - WasJiington, Madison, Monroe, W. 11. Jlarrison, Tyler, Taylor, Arthur wtMc Episcopalians. PRESIHRNTR OF TIIK ITNITEn flTATRS. 821 UKMKUAL UliUiUili WA.SllINtl i(>.,. S'l'l PRESIDKNTS OF THK INITKI) SPATKS. "An atlu'ist in religion, and a fanatic in politics" — this was said of Thomas Jefferson by tlie Federalists when he was elected to the Presidency in 1800. JMany of them actnally felt that the country would go to ruin under Jefferson's administration. As to Jefferson's atheism, that has ever been a matter involving grave doubt. Whatever his religious views may liave been prior to his death, there is no doubt but that he died a believer in an Ahniglity CJod. John ^\dams, John Quincy Adams, Fillmore, were Unitarians; Jackson, l\)lk, Buchanan, J^incoln, Johnson, Clevelaiul, Benjamin Harrison, were Presbyterians, although Lincoln, Johnson, and Polk were not connnunicants. Polk on his death-bed re- ceived the rite of bai)tism from a Methodist clergyman. Grant and Hayes Avere Methodists; Van Buren attended the Dytch Reformed Church. Pierce was a Trinitarian Congre- gationalistj and Garfield a member of the Church of Dis ciples. Expenses of the White House. — Besides the salary of 1*50,000, the government allows the I'resident a fund, usually about 175,000, for the expenses of the White House, the main- tenance of the grounds, repairs, etc., and for the hiring of assist- ants, clerical and otherwise. The latter are: Private Secretary, |!;>,'250 ; Assistant Private Secretary, $2,*250 ; Stenographer, $1,800; Five Messengers, $1,200 each; Steward, | ; Two Doorkeepers, 11,200 each ; Two Ushers, $1,200, $1,400 ; Night Usher, $1,200 ; Watchman, $900 ; and a few other minor clerks and telegraph o]ierators. The rest of the a])propriation goes for care and furnishing of the AVhite House, fuel, the greenhouse, the stable, gas, etc. IMrs, Harrison secured an additional appro- priation from the P'ifty-First Congress for improving the drainage of the Executive IMansion, the building of additions to the house, etc. Presidential Term. — The length of time the President should serve was not decided upon without a good deal of discus- sion. Some Congressmen favored seven yi'ars, others twelve, lifteen, "during good behavior," while Rufus King advocated " twenty years, the medium life of princes." Finally, a " grand committee," consisting of one member from each State, reported in favor of limiting the term to four years. Title of the" President. — The title "President of the United States " origimited in deference to AVashingtou's desire not to arouse pid)lic criticism by conferring xipon the Executive any title which might savor of monarchy. A committee of Con- gress had rc])(>rted in favor of addressing the President as " His Highness, tlH> President of the United States of America, and n PUBMO LAXDS AND LAND GRANTS. 323 Protector of their Liberty." The inauguration was delayed in order that this important question might be settled. Finally, a committee of Congress reported that " it is not proper to annex any style or title other than expressed in tht^ Constitution." Press, History jiiid Statistics of the. (See Newspapers.) Primary Elections. (See How the President Is Elected.) Progressive Labor Party. (Set- Political Parties.) Prohibition National Coniniittee. (See National Com- mittee.) Public Lands and Land Grants. — Grants of government land are made to all States on their admission, to the extent of five per cent, of the entire area within the States. The govern- ment has made it a rule to make extensive grants to railroad cor- porations as an inducement to build. The first grant of land for a railroad was to the State of Illinois, in 1850, of 2,.'i()(),()0() acres, which was used for the constnu^lion of the Illinois Central Rail- road. To encourage the building of the Trans-Continental Rail- roads, upwards of 25,000,000 acres were granted. Later, the Northern Pacific and the Atlantic Pacific Railroads received over 40,000,000 acres each. In recent years, public sentiment has dis- approved of these wholesah; gifts of land to ])rivate individuals, and by Act of Congress, a considerable portion of the grants have been recovered, chiefiy for failure to live up to the terras of the grants. In 1891, the government owned 994,000,000 acres of public lands which had at that time been surveyed. Besides this large area, there were upwards of 800,000,000 acres unsurveyed, but not suitable for domestic life. The ])ublic lands, undisposed of and Open to Settlement, are divided into two classes, one class being held at 11.25 jx'r acre as the minimum price, the other at $2.50 per acre; being the alternate sections reserved by the United States in land grants to railroads, etc. Such tracts are sold o)i apj)Ucation to the regis- ters and receivers of the district land offices upon conditions of actual residence and improvement under the pi-e-emi)tion laws. Widows, heads of families, or single persons over twenty-one years of age, if citizens of the United States, or aliens who have declared their intention to become citizens, have the Right of Pre-emption to the maximum quantity of 160 acres each on becoming settlers and complying with the regulations. Uiuler the Homestead laws a citizen, or an alien having declared his intention to become a citizen, has the right to KiO ac^res of either the $1.25 or $2.50 class after actual residence and cultivation for five years. Under the Timber Culture law a citizen, or one 324 PUBLIC LANDS AND LAND OWNERS. who has declared his intention to become such, if the head of a family, or a single person over twenty-one years, may acquire title to 160 acres on cultivating ten acres of trees thereon for eight years. By the act of August 30, 1890, no person can acquire under all the land laws an aggregate area of more than 320 acres of the public lands. In the year ending June 30, 1891, the number of acres entered under the Homestead Act, and the Timber Act, was 5,040,393 (homestead), and 969,006 (timber). Alien Land Owners. — The holdings of lands in the United States by foreign corporations, companies, and individuals aggregate upwards of 25,000,000 acres. Most of these lands are Avest of the Mississippi, and nearly all of the foreign owners are Englishmen, who use the land for cattle-raising purposes. The more prominent of these alien land-owners, and the amount of their holdings, in acres, are : An English syndicate. No. 3, in Texas, 3,000,000 ; the Holland Land Co., New Mexico, 4,500,- 000 ; Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida, 2,000,000 ; Eng- lish Syndicate in Mississippi, 1,800,000 ; Marquis of Tweedale, 1,750,000 ; PhiUips, Marshall & Co., London, 1,300,000 ; German- American syndicate, London, 750,000 ; Bryan H. Evans, of Lon- don, 700,000; Duke of Sutherland, 425,000; British Land Company in Kansas, 320,000 ; Wm. Wharley, M. P,, Peterboro, Eng., 310,000; Missouri Land Co., Edinburgh, Scotland, 300,000 ; Robert Tennent, of London, 230,000 ; Dundee Land Co., Scot- land, 247,000; Lord Dunraore, 120,000; Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool, 100,000; Lord Houghton, in Florida, 60,000; Lord Dunraven, in Colorado, 60,000; English Land Company, in Florida, 50,000 ; English Land Company, in Arkansas, 50,000 ; Albert Peel, M. P., Leicestershire, Eng., 10,000; Sir J. L. Kay, Yorkshire, Eng., 5,000 ; Alexander Grant, of London, in Kansas, 35,000; English syndicate, Wisconsin, 110,000; M. Ellerhauser, of Halifax, in W. Va., 600,000 ; a Scotch syndicate in Florida, 500,000; A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee, 50,000 ; Mis- souri Land Company, of Edinburgh, 165,000. To these Syndicate Holdings should be added the follow- ing : The Arkansas Valley Company in Colorado, a foreign cor- poration, whose inclosures embrace upward of 1,000,000 acres ; the Prairie Cattle Company (Scotch), in Colorado, upwards of 1,000,000 ; H. H. Metcalf, River Bend, Colorado, 200,000 ; John W. Powers, Colorado, 200,000 ; McDaniel & Davis, Colorado, 75,000 ; Routchler & Lamb, Colorado, 40,000 ; J. W. Frank, Colorado, 40,000 ; Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30,000 ; E. C. Tane, Colorado, 50,000; Leivesy Brothers, Colorado, 150,000; Vrooman & McFife, Colorado, 50,000 ; Beatty Brothers, Colo- RAILROADS AND BRIDGES. 325 rado, 40,000 ; Chick, Brown & Co., Colorado, 30,000 ; Reynolds Cattle Company, Colorado, 50,000 ; several other holdings in Colorado, embracing from 10,000 to 30,000 ; Coe & Carter, Nebraska, fifty miles of fence ; J. W. Wilson, Nebraska, forty miles ; J. W. Boster, twenty miles; William Humphrey, Nevada, thirty miles ; Nelson & Son, Nevada, twenty-two miles ; Kennebec Ranch, Nebraska, from 20,000 to 50,000 acres. Public Schools. (See Education.) Pull. (See Slang of Politics.) Purse. (See Presidents of the United States.) Put None but Americans on Guard To-night. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) Quids. (See Political Parties.) Rag Baby. — A derisive name for the Greenback idea. Rag currency was paper money. Railroading. — (See Slang of Politics.) Railroad Mileage. (See Railroads and Bridges.) Railroads and Bridges. Early Building. Accidents. Pacific Railroads. Earnings. Speed. Mileage. Railroad Bridges. Street Railways. The first railroad constructed in America was projected by Gridley Bryant, civil engineer, in 1825, and completed the fol- lowing yeari from the granite quarries at Quincy, Mass,, to the Neponset River; including branches, it was four miles long. The first cost was 150,000. It had a five-foot gauge ; the sleepers were made of stone, and the rails of wood. Bryant invented the portable derrick, the turn-table, the switch, and built the first eight- wheeled car ever used. Four years later, Ross Winans of Baltimore, experimenting with a view of designing a carriage capable of rounding the short curves of roads then under con- struction, produced the eight- wheeled carriage which is still in use in this country and Europe. The second railroad in America was opened in May, 1827, from the Mauch Chunk (Pa.) mines to the Lehigh River; it was thirteen miles in length, including branches. The first Stephen- son locomotive in this country was one imported by the Dela- ware and Hudson Canal Company in 1829. The First Rail- way Company incorporated is now known as the Baltimore &Ohio; the legislature of Maryland, in March, 1827, granted a charter; the capital stock was $500,000, and both Maryland 326 KAILROADS AM>. HKIOGKS. and tlio city of Baltimore woro authorized to buy the stock. It was iutomlod to use not steam but horses on the road, relays of which were kept at points akvig the route. The road was gradually extended from its original terminus, Frederick, ^fd., across the Blue Ridge and Alleghany Mountains as far as Cin- I'iTinati. The tirst American loci>motive was built in Baltimore, by Peter Cooper, of New York, in 1S:?I», ami was run from Baltimore to EUicott's 31 i 1 1 s . It attained to a speed of eigh- teen miles an hour. Froni this time the II u m b e r of rail r o a d s rapidly multi- ]> 1 i e d In fact, by 1837, the total mile- a g e w a s greater than that of any other country. The variation in the gauge of different connecting roads led to much inconvenience, but ultimately a uniform gauge of 4 feet SA^ inches was adopted. An incentive of the utmost im- portance for the building of rail- roads has been the policy of the government of making grants of public lands to railroad eorpo- ratioTis, esiHH'ialiy in the North- western, "Western, and Southern St.ates. Pacific Railroads. — The project of connecting the .\ilantic and Paciric Oceans by rail was discussed from all points of view between 1840 to 1849. In the latter year. Senator Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri, introduced a bill for the building of such a road, but it was not imtil lSt,>- and "IStU, surveys meanwhile having been completed, that the plan took definite shape. Acts i>f Congress then provided for Subsidies in six per cent, bonds, at the rate of $10,000 a mile, $48,0t>0 a mile. $;:V2,000 a mile, and >;1(\000 a mile, according to the ditHculty of building. Land Grants, aggregating 25,000,000 acres, Avere also made to the com- n ^*^, • — ^ ^/P RAILROADS AND HKIDO.KS. .>-( paiiv. Tlie govornniont took a first lion on tlie road, but n'leasoil it wlion it appi'arod that tho subsidy was not sufliciont to pay the expense of eonstruetiiui. The company, therefore, issueil tlieir own bonds, seeured by niortuage on the i)ropc>rty. Work was begun ni ISlUJ, from the ^lissouri IJiver, and from California; in the former ease by the Union Pacitic Company, in tho latter by the Central Paeitie Company. On May I'i, 1809, the road was Opened for Business, and its construction in so short a tinie was a signal triumpli of engineering skill and American ]>luck. Tho cost^of tho Union Pacitic Koad was sll2,*2r)9,:>(30 or $10S,- 778 a mile; tho liabilities at tho time of completion were sSill.i,! 10 a mile. The number of miles of track laid was l,0"-!l) ; the Central Pacitic laid from California SSI miles. 'J'he cost of tho latti'r, including branc lies, was 8ll4,:i.">S a mile. Tho roads and sub divisions of roads which wore built by government money under the plan outlined above were the Central Pacitic, Kansas Pacitic, Union Pacitic, Central Rranch of Union Pacitic, Western Pacitic, aiul Sioux City, and Pacitit'. The total Mileage of Railroads operated in 1889 was KUi,- 817 ; side tracks and sidings, 4-, '24-. Tiiei'o were 151,7*J'J miles of steel rails, 51, OG.'J miles of iron rails, ol,Oi>'J engines; 'it!,;') 1 1 passenger cars, l,lo7,027 freight cars. Tho Passengers car- ried numbered 49-, 4ol), 805 ; the passengei mileage was ll,9i'5,- 7-0,015 ; tons of freight moved nnuiberod 019,lo7,"io7 ; the freight mileage was 08,004,01"2,;)90. The Earnings from passengers were $"2o9,040,807 ; from freight, ^000,5o0,053 ; the total earn- ings were ^99'2,850,85(j ; cxikmisos were ^;i70,40-J,907 ; net earn- ings, $.818,125,389; surplus, 880,5-2G,520. The Capital Stock of railroads in 1890 was A4,(;40,-289,578 ; the bonded debt, was M,828,805,771. The total liabilities were ^9,98l,4o:l,l40 ; total assets, ^1 0,205,493,0 ■)(); excess of assets, ^274,089,904. The Dividends paid in 1890 were ^83,808,08'2 ; interest, 1229,101,- 144. The gross earnings in 1890 (Poor's JNIanual for 1890) wore $1,097,847,428; net earnings, 8843,921,318. Tho railroad Employees in all branches of the service in 1890 numbered 749,801. The Greatest Mileage in any State is that of Illinois, 10,218 miles; Ivausas is second with 8,800 miles; Texas third with 8,018 miles. The smallest mileage is that, of Phode Island, 212 miles. The new tracks laid in 1891 were 4,108 miles. (For railroad mileage of States and Terri- tories ^;oe each State and Territory.) Speed. — A maintained speed of forty miles an hour is no longer uncommon on anyone of half a dozen of tho great railroad systems. For several years the Pennsylvania Railroad has run express trains between New York cfc Washington, 225.8 miles, in 328 RAILROADS AND BRIDGES. five hours, an average of 48.6 miles an hour. This road in 1891 ran a special between New York and Washington in 4 hours, 11 minutes, an average exclusive of the stops of 56f miles an hour. The year before a train carrying a theatrical troupe made the run in 4 houi-s, 18 minutes, and back again in the same time. The Fastest Run across the Continent was that of the Jar- rett and Palmer special theatrical train, which in June, 1886, ran from -Jersey City to Oakland, California, in 3 days, 11 hours, 30 minutes and 16 seconds. The distance was 3,801 miles; average 91. 'J3 miles an hour. On November 14, 1889, anew regular fast mail train left the Grand Central Depot in New York at 9 p. M., and reached San Francisco in 4 days, 12 hours, 45 minutes. In October, 1891, John W. Mackay and Miss Virginia Fair crossed the continent in a special car attached to regular trains in 4 days, 12 hours, 28 minutes. On October 29, 1891, James L. Flood performed the same journey in 4 days, 12 hours, 15 minutes. A MODEKN LOCOMOTIVE. The New York Central road recently inaugurated a fast service between Ncav York and Buffalo, 440 miles, its Empire State Express making the run in 425 minutes and 14 seconds; average 61.56 miles an hour. In England, the fastest train is the Flying Scotchman, London to Edinburgh, 400 miles, which it makes in 7 hours, 52 seconds, an average speed of 50.9 miles an hour. So high a rate of speed has been made practically safe by the adoption of several ingenious appliances, as well as by the main- tenance of strict discipline by the employees. The automatic air- brake, the interlocking system of signals and switches, and the "block" system of signals, all play important parts in swift rad- way travelling. The telegraph, which runs into the train-de- spatcher's office at the central station, is also an invaluable assistant. Railroad Accidents. — Raih-oad accidents are due to a RAILBOADS AND BRIDGES. 329 variety of causes, tlie most frequent being obstructions (unfore- seen ) ; defects of the roads, sucli as a broken frog, or caving of the enibanknient ; defects of c(iuipment ; negligence on tlie part of the employees, although tliis is a less frequent cause of accident than either of the others, in spite of popular opinion to the con- trary. The fact that the number of accidents and the luimber of casualties are increasing has resulted in an effort to determine the Causes, and some interesting statistics have been obtained. From 1880 to 1890 inclusive, the number of accidents was 16,280, an average of 1,480 each year, or four a day. The number of people killed in the same time was 5,241 ; the injured numbered 19,779. These figures are exclusive of deaths due to walking on the tracks, or while crossing them. The number of accidents in 1890 was larger than that in any year since the record has been kept; the total was 2,14(3; killed, 806; injured, 2,812. Acci- dents due to defects in the road numbered in 1890, 167 ; to defects of equipment, 158; to obstructions, 194; to negligence of employees, 108 ; unaccounted for, 377. Of the collisions, 495 were rear collisions ; 328 due to " butting " ; 222 in crossing- other roads and to miscellaneous causes. Street Railways, Statistics of. — The census of 1890 showed that in December, 1889, 476 cities and towns possessed street transit facilities in one form or another. The latest figures shoAV that Philadelphia has 510 miles of single track; Chicago, 452 ; New York, 289 ; Brooklyn, 285 ; Boston, 283 ; St. Louis, 275 ; Baltimore, 207 ; San Francisco, 205; Cleveland, 192; Cin- cinnati, 180; Pittsburg, 168; Kansas City, 141 ; New Orleans, 139; Louisville, 132; Buffalo, 110; Minneapolis, 101; Los Angeles, 99 ; Detroit, 94 ; Bn-mingliam, Ala., 92 ; St. Paul, 90 ; Washington, 85. New York carried in 1890, 405,000,000 passen- gers, Clucago 206,000,000, and Boston (1891) 119,000,000. The Total Mileage for the country last reported was 11,030 ; animal power, 5,443 ; electricity, 3,009 ; motors, 1,918; cable, 660. The iiorset^ employed number 88,114; mules, 12,002; cars, 36,517; motors, 200. The rapid adoption of Electricity for rapid transit has diminished the number of liorses employed, which three years ago was over 110,000. It is estimated that by the end of 1892 there will be in o])eration upwards of 4,000 miles of electric railways. The First Street Railway was operated in November, 1832, between the City Mall and Fourteenth Street. It was known and has continued to be known as the Fourth Ave- nue line. Bridges, Railroad. — The bridges of the United States are mechanically the most perfect of any in the world. The more remarkable of them are here briefly described : — Over the Sus- 330 KAILKOAPS AMI KKIOOES. quohanna Eiver at Havre de Grace, Md., is a wooden l>ridge 'J3,'27l feet long, which lias twelve spans, oaeh resting on a granite [•ier. It was bnilt at a time when wooden bridges were the rule. The Suspension Bridge at Niagara was built by Roebling. Its span is 8:21 feet, the detieetion, 59 feet; there are 14,560 wires in the cables, capable of sustaining 12,000 tons. The railway tracks are l!45 feet above the river. It was completed in 1855, and cost |!400,000. The Suspension Bridge over the Ohio at Cincinnati, also, was built by Koebling. It is 2,'2'20 feet over all, has a span of 1,057 feet, and is 103 feet above low water. The two cables w h i c h support it are I'i;^ inches in d i a m e t e r . Another won- derful achieve- ment of Roeb- 1 i n g is t h e Brooklyn Bridge, con- necting N" e Av Y o r k a n d Brooklyn. I t rests on two granite anchor- ages. The span between the an- chorages is 1,- 505 feet ; the length over all is 3,475 feet ; the height above the river is 135 feet ; it is built of iron, the width of the frante being 85 feet, which is suspended from four cables, each 10 inches in diameter, composed of galvanized steel wire, Mith a strength of 100,000 fiounds per square inch of section. The height of the stone piers is '2~'2 feet above liii::h tide. The strength of the main span is 5,000 tons. The brfdge cost ^15,000,000\ The First Railway Suspension Bridge was built in 1852 over the Kentucky Kiver at Frankfort ; the s]>an was 000 feet. It was replaced by a truss bridge. An Iron Tubular Bridge over the St. Law- rence at Montreal, on the Grand Trunk Railroad, is unique of its kind. The length of the tube is 0,600 feet, and is approached VESTIUl'LE CAR. KAll.KOADS ^Wn r.RIlxiKS. 331 by omhnnknu'iils, the JMoiideal ond Leing 1,'JOO feet, tlio south- ern 800 t'oet, wliich, with the abuttneuts, make a total lengtli of 9,084 feet. The tubes were built in phxce, on false works, erected in the rapids. In the winter the base of these woiks rested in the ice of the river. The Qiiincy, III., Bridge, over the Mississippi, is at the point of crossing o,*2f)0 feet long. There are 17 spans, the piers being of solid masonry, sunk oO feet deep. Tlie Omaha Bridge, over the JMissouri, is '2,800 feet in length, with 11 spans of "JfiO feet each, resting on iron cylinders, 8 feet, 8 inches in dianietei-, and sunk 70 feet below low water. At Dubuque, Iowa, llaiuiibal, Alo., at Kansas City, Mo., and at St. Joseph, Mo., arc four other notable bridges spanning the Mississippi. At Louisville, Ky., over the Ohio River, is one of the longest iron bridges in the United States. It consists of 27 spans, 24 over the river, having a total length of 5,280 feet, just one mile. At its lowest point it is DO.} feet above low water. At Memphis, Tenn., the Mississippi Uivei- is spanned by the third largest canti- lever bridge in the world, which was completed in May, 1892. It is three quarters of a long, has live spans, the largest of which is 794 feet ; the bridge cost $3,000,000. At St. Louis, Mo., t)\er the Mississipjji, is a Most Remark- able Structure, of which James B. Eads was the engineer. There are three span{<, the centre one being 515 feet, the two side ones 497 feet each. The si)ans are held by an interlacing of iron ribs from pier to ))ier. The roadway is 34 feet wide ; there are foot-walks on either side, each 8 feet wide. Trains run be- neath the roadway through a ])assage 18 feet high. The bridge cost $10,000,000. The^Poughkeepsie Bridge is 1^ miles long, and is sup])orted on four pyraniiilal steel towers 100 feet high, which rest upon timber caissons GO x 100 feet and 100 feet high. There are three cantilevers, with connecting spans. Trains from the Pennsylvania coal-iields enter New England direct over this bridge. The International Bridge from Black Rock, near Buffalo, to Fort Erie in Canada, cost $1,500,000. A bridge which crosses tlie Niagara Kiver, and used mainly /t^. mile ^^^.., , >li:ili■i;^:iHf';^'iW^Fl«'i^^*''i'^*'liIial)!l# •' 'I •<, UKANU CKNrUAL DKl'OT AT NKW YORK. 332 RE- APPORTIONMENT. for freight trains is 1,967^ feet long, with two draws of 160 feet each. The Cantilever Bridge near Niagara Falls is one of the highest achievements of mechanical skill in the country. It rests on loft}' towers of steel, which stand on either shore, and has double raih'oad tracks used by the heaviest trains. The length is 910 feet; total weight, 3,000 tons; cost $222,000. North of the St. Louis Bridge, on the Mississippi, is the Merchants' Bridge, 2,420 feet long, built in 1889-90 at a cost of 16,000,000. The Arthur Kill Bridge, crossing from New Jersey to Staten Island, has the largest draw in the world (500 feet). The Washington Bridge, in New York City, has two arches of Bessemer steel, each 508 feet high, supported by granite abutments. The High Bridge, over the Harlem River, in New York, is built of granite ; it is 1,450 feet long and 114 feet high, and carries the Croton Aqueduct in New York on 14 huge piers. The Rush Street Bridge in Chicago, built in 1884, at a cost of $132,000, has the largest general traffic draw-bridge in the world. It accommodates four teams abreast, and the foot passages are seven feet wide. Rail Splitter. (See Presidents of the United States.) Raihvay M.lil Service. (See Post-Office System.) Rainbow Chasers. (See Slang of Politics.) Re-apportionment. — By the new act re-apportioning the Congressional Districts, the House of Representatives, after March 3, 1893, shall consist of 356 members, as follows : Ala- bama, 9 ; Arkansas, 6 ; California, 7 ; Colorado, 2 ; Connecticut, 4 ; Delaware, 1 ; Florida, 2 ; Georgia, 11 ; Idaho, 1 ; Illinois, 22 ; Indiana, 13 ; Iowa, 11 ; Kansas, 8 ; Kentucky, 11 ; Louisiana, 6 ; Maine, 4; Maryland, 6 ; Massachusetts, 13; Michigan, 12; Minnesota, 7; Mississippi, 7; Missouri, 15; Montana, 1; Ne- braska, 6 ; Nevada, 1 ; New Hampshire, 2 ; Ncav Jersey, 8 ; New York, 34 ; North Cai-olina, 9 ; North Dakota, 1 ; Ohio, 21 ; Oregon, 2 ; Pennsylvania, 30 ; Rhode Island, 2 ; South Carolina, 7 ; South Dakota, 2; Tennessee, 10; Texas, 13; Vermont, 2 ; Virginia, 10 ; Washington, 2 ; West Virginia, 4 ; Wisconsin, 10; Wyoming, 1. Receipts and Expenditnres, Government. (See Finances, Government.) Reciprocity. — This is the name of an arrangement between two countries by which each grants the other certain commercial privileges. It usually affects the imports from one country to the other ; under reciprocity one nation may agree to reduce or abol- RECIPROCITY. 333 ish the duties on a certain class of merchandise imported from the other country, in return for similar concessions affecting its own goods in the other country. Within the past five years reci- procity has been put forward as a means of expanding our foreign trade, and already several reciprocity treaties, favorable to this country, have been negotiated. It is customary to provide that, should either of the parties to the treaty grant more favorable conditions to a third nation, such privileges should iniu'e also to tlie benefit of the other party to the treaty; such an agreement is called the " most favored nation " clause of the treaty. During the administration of President Harrison, Reciprocity Treaties were entered into between the United States and Brazil ; with Spain, for Cuba and Porto Kico ; with Salvador in Central America ; with Great Britain for Jamaica, Barbadoes, the Leeward and Windward Islands (except Gi'enada and Trinidad), and British Guiana, the schedule with Jamaica containing 63 kinds of articles admitted free, and 12 upon reduced duties, that with the other colonies containing 58 articles admitted free, and 16 upon reduced duties. A treaty has also been entered into with Santo Domingo, and treaties with South American countries are in process of negotiation. In the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890, a reciprocity section was incorporated, and went into effect with the bill itself. The act provides for the Free Entrance of sugar, coffee, molasses, tea, and hides, but the reciprocity section authorizes the President to cause these articles to be taxed, each to a specified amount, in case it shall be deterniiiu'd that the exporting country imposes a tariff on American imports into it. That is, if the exchange is an unequal one, the President can make the exchange a fair one. Reconstruction. — The status of the rel)eIlious States towards the Federal Government after the Civil War involved many 534 RECONSTRUCTION. delicate questions. These States were practically conquered territory, but the Constitution contained no provision for the reception of a State which had left the Union of its own free will. Their admission to their former position among the States would have given them virtual control over the negroes, who were now demanding that their freedom be secured to them in fact as well as in name. There was great divergence in the views of statesmen and people alike. Sumner's theory was that the rebellious States having seceded, slavery was thereby abolished, and Congress should proceed to protect the inhabitants. President Johnson's Policy was to punish individuals, not THE NIAGARA CANTILEVER BEIDGE. (SEE RAILROADS AND BRIDGES.) States ; he took the position that a State could not be punished for treason by Congress. His policy was to reinstall the rebel- lious States to their previous full powers. By proclamation he declared all Southern ports, except four, open to commerce, pro- claimed amnesty and pardon to all rebels, except in fourteen in- stances, restored the writ of habeas corpus in the Northern States, and appointed provisional governors for the seceded States, with the view of reorganizing them into permanent governments. At first the Republicans, at that time having a majority in both Houses, supported the President, but a bitter RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 335 strife between the Chief Executive and Congress soon began. Congress passed a supplementary Freedmen's Bill which aimed at further protection of the blacks, but the President vetoed it. The Civil Ilights Bill (which see), Avhich declared the negroes citizens with the rights of citizenship, was vetoed by the President, but was passed over the veto. The Fourteenth Amendment, also for the ])rotection of the negro, was adopted, but President Johnson disapproved it. Congress also passed the Tenure of Office Act (which see), which took away much of the President's power of removal from office; Congress deprived the President of command of the army by providing that his orders should be given only through the General, and made Grant irremovable. Johnson vetoed the bill admitting Nebraska as a State, but Congress passed it over the veto. Finally the bill to provide efficient governments for the rebel- lious States was passed, was vetoed by Johnson, and was passed over the veto on March 2, 1807. This bill divided the States into Military Districts, commanded by a brigadier-general, whose duty Avas to protect all citizens in their rights. The bill provided that the military governors m each State should super- vise an election for the choosing of delegates to a constitu- tional convention, having for its }>urpose the formation of a State government. When new legislatures had been elected in these States, and had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, the States would be re-admitted to the Union. The military governors were appointed and reconstruction proceeded. The Consti- tutions thus adopted abolished slavery, repudiated the debts incurred during the Civil War, renounced the right of secession and agreed to pass no laws abridging the liberty of any class of citizens. By March 30, 1870, all the rebelUous States were re-admitted except Georgia, which was re-adniitted in July of the same year. - Red Men, Improved Order of. (See Secret Societies.) Religious Convictions of Presidents. (See Presidents of the United States.) Religions Denominations. Membership. God in the Constitution. Property. Sunday Schools. Freedom of religious thought has ever been inseparable from the idea of the Republic. There have been from time to time combinations of men who have sought to have a " God in the Constitution " clause put into that immortal document. But no recognition of any religious denomination or creed ever has' 336 RELIGIOUS PENOMINATIONS. CHURCH OV SAN MIGUEL AT SANTA FE, N. M. been made by the Federal Government. (See Indian Schools, under Education.) The first amendment to the Constitution de- clares that " Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." The only government act in which the word God is found is that creating the copper two-cent piece of 1864, which bore the m- scription, " In God We Trust." (See Coinage.) In 1874 there was a Religious Movement which sought to have the word inserted in the Constitution, on which the House Committee of Judiciary reported adversely on the broad ground that this question was carefully considered by the fram- ers of the instrument; that it was rightly de- cided that the Republic was to be the home of the oppressed of all nations, whether Christian or Pagan, and that in view of the mischief of a union of Church and State seen in other nations, it was thought inex- pedient to put anything into the Constitution which might be construed as the recognition or support of any religion, creed, or doctrine. The Fathers of the Constitution seem to have recognized and to have taken counsel of the fact that it was the desire to find a place in which they might have " freedom to worship God " as they saw fit that drove the Puritans out of England. From that day to this, the Spirit of Toleration has pre- vailed, a fact which unquestionably explains tlie variety of reli- gious beliefs and creeds enumerated by the Census Bureau. By the Bureau's report (incomplete), there were in 1890 over 100 religious denominations in the United States, having upwards of 22,000,000 communicants, owning propertv valued at $250,000,- 000, and 45,595 churches. The Roman Catholic Church was first in the number of communicants, 6,250,045 ; the value of its property was $118,- 381,516, although it had but 10,221 churches. The Methodist (not reported by the Census) had 54,711 churches, and 4,980,- 240 communicants, (according to the Methodist Year Book), the Baptists 48,371 churches, and 4,292,291 communicants (Baptist Year Book ) ; the Episcopalians 5,281 churches, and 478,531 communicants (Episcopal Year Book) ; Congregation- >. alists, 4,689 churches, and 491,985 communicants (Congrega- RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 337 tional Year Book) ; Presbyterians (Year Book) had 15,619 churches, and 1,"2'29,012 communicants. Tlie Lutlierans by the census liad 8,427 churches, valued at $34,218,234, and 1,199,514 communicants. These were the leading denominations. The Miscellaneous church bodies included one Greek church, four iSchwenkfeldian, six American, 324 Spiritualist, 40 Theosophical Societies (695 members and !|600 m church prop- erty), fourteen Russian Orthodox, 550 Meiinonite, thirty-one Communistic, of Avhom fifteen were Shaker, and four Ethical societies. The numerical strength of the English-speaking reli- gious denominations is estimated (an English estimate) as follows : Episcopalians, 23,000,000; Methodists, of all descriptions 16,960,000; Roman Catholics, 15,200,000; Presbyterians of all descriptions, 11,100,000 ; Baptists of all descriptions, 8,600,000 ; Congregationalists, 5,500,000 ; Free Thinkers, 3,500,000 ; Luth- erans, etc., 1,750,000 ; Unitarians, 1,250,000 ; Minor Religious Sects, 4,000,000. Sunday Schools. — According to the latest estimates, the number of scholars attending Sunday schools in the United States was in 1890, 8,649,131 ; the number of teachers and officers was 1,151,340. New York was first with 979,415 scholars; Pennsylvania second, with 964,599; Ohio third, wnth 620,107; Illinois fourth, with 582,756 ; Indiana fifth, with 374,185 ; Iowa, sixth, with 319,128; Georgia seventh, with 301,612; Virginia eighth, with 283,336 ; Michigan ninth, with 277,200 ; Tennessee tenth, with 274,560. The Number of Sunday Schools reported is 108,939 ; the total number of teachers and scholars, 9,800,582. These statistics of Sunday schools do not include the schools of Hebrews, Roman Catholics, and non-Evangelical Christian churches. The number of scholars in Roman Catholic Sunday schools in the United States is estimated by clerics at 700,000. The number of scholars in the Sunday schools of the leading nations of Europe are : England and Wales, 6,350,266 ; Scotland, 711,188; Ireland, 338,231; Austria, 4,831; Belgium, 2,542; Denmark, 37,000; Finland, 8,800; France, 53,110; German}', 431,221; Holland, 157,676; Italy, 13,410; Norway, 27,190. (See Y. M. C. A.) Republican National Committee. (See National Committee.) Republican Party. (See Political Parties.) Revenue Flag. (See Flags of the Nation.) Revenue Marine. (See Tariffs of the United States.) Rider. (See Slang of Politics.) Rise Up William Allen. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) 338 RHODE ISLAND. GREAT SEAL OF RHODE ISLAND. Rbode Island. — Rhode Islaiul was one of the thu-teen original States, and in area is the smallest in the Union. It was settled in 1636, at Providence, by Roger Williams, who had been ban- ished from Salem on account of his religious convictions. The State was originally occupied by the Narragan- sett Indians, a few of whom, now half- breeds, remain on the Indian lands which the State has preserved in Charlestown for them, and where their ancestors lie' buried. The State has been more or less prominent in the history of the countr}', and in both the Revolutionary and the Civil War she furnished large forces of men to the Union. Out of a population of one hundred and seventy-tive thousand, over twenty-three thousand men went to serve their Hag in the Rebellion. Narragansett Bay, which runs from the sea thii-ty miles in- land, affords extensive harbors for shipping, and is famous for its summer resorts. The Narragansett Bay iisheries are valuable for their oysters, lobsters, clams, and various sea-fish, and employ u})wards of 1,'iOO vessels and ^600,000 in capital. The agri- culture of the State pi-oduces annually ^8,000,000, the farm-lands and buildings being valued at upwards of $30,000,000. The Manufactures are the chief source of wealth. The annual product aggregates over $100,000,000, the capital in- vested being |!75,000,000. There are over twenty-six plants, employing upwards of seventy thousand persons, of whom a large proportion are women. In cotton, woollen, worsted, and other textiles, Rhode Island leads the Union. The population of Rhode Island in 1880 Avas 276,531 ; in 1890 it was 345,506 ; the real property was valued at $240,000,000, and the personal property at $85,OU0,OOO. There were 212 miles of railroads and 66 news{)apers. The national institutions are a Torpedo School on Goat Island, where experiments in torpedoes ami other projectiles are made, and where otlicers of the navy are instructed in their use. Guarding Newport Harbor is Fort Adamsy one of the important fortresses of the United States. Ownig to the danger to ships on this coast, many lighthouses are located in the vicinity. There is a training school on board the United States vessel for naval apprentices, where scAcral hundred American youths are taught the principles of seamanship. Providence, the chief city, which had a population in 1890 SACKVILLE IXCIDENT. 339 of 132,146, is situated at the head of Narragansett Bay, and is a prosperous manufacturing, financial, raih-oad, and steamboat cen- tre. Its cotton mills, woollen mills, worsted mills, jewelry, and silverware factories are among the most important in the country. It is the site of Brown University, and of several fine public biiildings, including the Public Library, the Athenaium, and the Rhode Island Historical Society. The second city in population is Pawtucket, also a busy manu- facturing centre. Woonsocket has great cotton-manufacturing interests, and a po})ulation of 20,830. Newport is an old town which preserves its colonial atmosphere to this day ; it is famous as a watering place for the fashionable people of the great cities; the population in 1890 was 19,455. The Governor of Rhode Island is D. Russell Brown (Republican), whose term expires May 25, 1893. The State is Republican. Royal Arcanum. (See Secret Societies.) Rotation in Oftiee. (See Civil Service Reform.) Rnni, Romanism, and Rebellion. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) Rye, Prodnction of. (See Agriculture.) Sackville Incident. — In the heat of the Presidential canvass of 1888, there found its way to the public view a letter written by Lord Sackville-West, Minister from the Court of St. James to the United States, to a person by the name of Murcheson, resident in Lower California. In this letter, written in reply to one to him from Murcheson, a professed native Englishman, but now an American citizen, in which Murcheson asked the minister to advise him whom to vote for. Lord Sackville made use of lan- guage which was distasteful to the Cleveland administration. The writing of such a letter was a diplomatic blunder, and at once made the minister, in the eyes of this government, Non Persona Grata. President Cleveland accordingly demanded his passi)orts, and Sackville left the country in disgrace. It is a principle of the comity of nations that no minister to a foreign court shall meddle with the politics of that country ; to do so renders him obnoxious. There was for some time great public curiosity to know more about Murcheson. It appeared on inquiry that no person of that name was known in the town where the letter to Lord Sackville was mailed, and by some it was l)elieved that the Murcheson letter was a trick of the Repub- licans, conceived in the possibility of discrediting the Cleveland administration. Sage of Monticello, The. (See Presidents of the United States.) 340 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Salary Grab. — This was the name given to a bill which was hurried through the Forty-Second Congress, on tlie hist day of its session, March 3, 1873, It passed the House and Senate and received President Grant's signature, all in the same day. The bill raised the salary of the President from $25,000 to $50,000, and the salaries of Congressmen to $5,000. The fact that the provisions of the bill applied to the salaries of the members for the current session aroused vigorous criticism. Salt River. (See Slang of Politics.) Savior of His Country. (See Presidents of the United States.) Sayings of Famous Americans. — The more notable of the sayings of American statesmen are included in the following category : — A Covenant With Death, and an Agreement With Hell. — This has always been regarded as having been said by the Garrisonians of the Constitution, which the more radical of them declared permitted slavery. The phrase is said to have originated with William Lloyd Garrison himself, although there is a good deal of doubt upon the point. (See Abolition and Abolitionists.) Administration Should be Conducted behind Glass Doors. — This utterance originated with President Cleveland in defining his views regarding the publicity that should surround the acts of public servants. A Pedestal for This Colossal Heresy. — The Calhoun Nulhfiers in 183'J sought to show that nullification would have been justified by Jefferson were he alive. James Madison made vigorous protest against the use of Jefferson's name " as a ped- estal for this colossal heresy." All Men Are Created Equal. — The second paragraph of the Dei'laration of Independence begins : " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal," etc. All Quiet Along the Potomac. — When General McClel- lan took command of the Army of the Potomac in 1861, a vig- orous campaign was exjjected. The country waited anxiously for a forward movement, but the cry came inevitably back, '^ All quiet along the Potomac." The phrase " masterly inac- tivity " was coined at this time, and referred to McClellan's policy. All We Ask Is To Be Let Alone. — This phrase Avas in the message of Jefferson Davis to the Confederate Congress in 1861. It had reference to the attitude of the North toward the South. SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS, 341 TRINITY CHURCH, NEW YORK. 342 SAYINGS or famous AMERICANS. Americans, The, Must Light the Lamps of Industry and Economy. — Tliis sentiment is commonly attributed to Benjamin Franklin, as having been written in a letter from Lon- don in 1765, immediately after the passage of the Stamp Act. The phrase is graphic enough to be Franklin's, but it has been distorted from its original construction, which was not nearly so expressive. What P^ranklin really wrote was : " Let us make as good a night of it as Ave can. We may still light candles. Fru- gality and industry will go a great way towards indemnifying us." The quotation is from a letter to Charles Thomson, of Philadel- phia. An Anchor to the Windward. — One of the famous expressions of James G. Blaine in the Mulligan letters (which see). Asylum of the Oppressed of Every Nation. — This well-known phrase originated in the Democratic National plat- form of 1856. Burn This Letter. — A Democratic campaign cry in the Cleveland-Blaine canvass of 1884. Among the Mulligan letters, containing alleged inei'irainating evidence against Mr. Blaine, was one which had ended Avith the phrase quoted. (See Mulligan Letters.) Ceesar Had His Brutus, Charles L His Cromwell, and George IIL — May Profit by Their Examples. If That Be Treason, Make the Most of It. — In the midst of his speech denying tlie right of the king to tax the colonies in 1765, Patrick Heniy A'ented his indignation in a burst of impas- sioned eloquence, as quoted. He had spoken the AA^ords, " and George III.," Avhen he AA^as interrupted Avith cries of "Treason! " He quickl}' added, defiantly : " If that be treason, make the most of it." Cheap Coats Make Cheap Men. — An aphorism of President Harrison, who used it in connection with a defence of the McKinley Tariff Bill in 1891. The Democratic opponents of that measure having asserted that a reduction in tariff duties would make the price of coats, for instance, cheaper for the Avorking- man, the President, replying to this argument, used the phrase quoted. The implication is that a good article is rarely the cheapest article, and that only cheap men Avill buy a cheap thing. Don't Fire Till You See the Whites of Their Eyes. — The command of Colonel Prescott to his troops at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Don't Give Up the Ship. — The Avords used by Captain LaAvrence, of the United States frigate Chesapeake, as he was being carried beloAV, mortally wounded, during the engagement between SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 343 that vessel and the British frigate Shannon in the War of 1812. Enemies in War, in Peace, Friends. — Thomas Jeffer- son wrote these words in tlie Declaration of Independence, referring to \\\e attitude to be maintained by the United States towards Great Britain. England a Den of Pirates and France a Den of Thieves. — The English attacks on American shipping in 1807 (see Embargo Act), and France's determination to capture every neutral vessel which should submit to being searched, called forth, from Jefferson, in a private letter, the declaration that "England seemed to have become a den of pirates and France a den of thieves." Entangling Alliances.— This is another of Jefferson's hajipy phrases. It is found in his inaugural address, in a passage in which he speaks of the principles which guided the founders of the Union. He says : " Peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none." First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of His Countrymen. — From the resolutions passed by the House of Ilepiesentatives on the death of Washington. The resolutions were written by Henry Lee, of Virginia. Give Me Liberty, or Give Me Death. — Patrick Henry, in a speech in the Virginia Convention, in March, 1775, favoring a resolution " that the colony be immediately put in a state of defence," concluded as follows: "Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purcliased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death !" God Reigns, and the Government at Washington Still Lives. — - This inspiring utterance was delivered by James A. Garfield, on April 15, 1S65, the day of President Lincoln's death. In Wall Street, New York, an angry mob had gathered, and demanded vengeance for Lincoln's assassination. Trouble was in sight, when a man ste))ped forth, and motioning the crowd to silence, s})oke as follows in a clear and far-reaching voice : " Fellow-citizens, — ■ Clouds and darkness are around about him. His pavilion is dark waters and thick clouds of the skies. Justice and judgment are the establishment of his throne. Mercy and truth shall go before his face. God reigns, and the government at Washington still lives." Quickly the mob dis- persed at the bidding of Garfield, then- ])assions subdued by his commanding tones. Government of the People, by the People, and for the People, is part of the closing sentence of Lincoln's speech 344 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. at Gettysburg, on the occasion of the dedication of the National Soldiers' Monument. That part of the speech in which the now famous utterance occurs is as follows : " It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to the cause for which they liere gave the last full measure of devo^^on — that we here highly resolve that the dead shall not have died in vain ; that the nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom ; and that the government of the people, by the people, and for tlie people, shall not perish from the earth." He Fears God, Hates the Devil, and Votes the Straight Democratic Ticket — This saying, which originated with "■ Horizontal Bill " Morrison, is often quoted by politicians at Washington. It i-efers to Rev. William H. Milburn, the blind chaplain of the House of Representatives, in nominating whom in the Democratic caucus Congressman William R. Morrison used the phrase quoted. It evidently pleased the Democrats, for Mr. Milburn was elected and has acted as chaplain ever since. He Smote the Rock of the National Resources and Abundant Streams of Revenue Gushed Forth. — Said of Alexander Hamilton by Daniel Webster, in a speech on Alexander Hamilton's famous report on the Public Debt, in 1790. (See Finances, Government.) He Touched the Dead Corpse of Public Credit and It Sprung Upon Its Feet. — This Avas said by Daniel Web- stei of Alexander Hamilton in a speech. (See previous para- graph.) I Am a Democrat. — Governor David B. Hill, of New York, ui a speech at Brooklyn, m 1890, at a Democratic love- feast on the anniversary of Jefferson's birthday, gave utterance to this sentnnent, which evoked the greatest enthusiasm. Al- though it was not a new statement of his political doctrine, yet it was suggestive of great meaning, and struck a sympathetic chord. The manner m which it was uttered, and the peculiar political conditions at the time contrilnited to its effect. I Am a Republican, Who Carried His Sovereignty Under His OwnHat.— Originally uttered by A. W. Campbell, of West Virginia, in the Republican national convention of 1880. It was quoted by George William Curtis, on June 4, 1884, at the Republican national convention in Chicago. Curtis led the Republican opposition to Blaine, and in his speech said : " A Republican and a free man I came to this convention, and by the grace of God a Repul)licaii and a free man will I go out of it." " I carry my sovereignty under my hat," became the watchword of the Independents. SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 345 FRANKLIN'S RULES OF SUCCESS. 346 SAYINGS OP FAMOUS AMERICANS. I Do Not Feel That I Shall Prove a Deadhead in the Enterprise. — This sentence Avas in tlie celebrated Mulli- gan letters, Avhicli passed between James G. Blaine and Warren Fisher. (See Mulligan Letters.) I Have Killed Seventeen Roman Pro-Consuls. — William Henry Harrison's inaugural address was read by Daniel Webster before its delivery. Many points of style did not please Webster, but he took especial ground against Harrison's lavish use of allusions to Roman history. Webster edited the speech, and cut out much of its ancient historical matter, and when, on returning home, the lady of the hoiise at which he stopped remarked that he looked worn out, and asked if anything had happened, Webster replied, " You would think that some- thing had happened if you knew what I have done. I have killed seventeen Roman pro-consuls." I Propose to Fight It Out on This Line, if It Takes All Summer. — This sentence was in a despatch of General Grant to the Secretary of War after the Battle of Spottsylvania, May, 1864. I Still Live. — The last words of Daniel Webster. I Was Born an American, I Live an American, I Shall Die an American. — This sentence is from a speech of Daniel Webster, delivered July 17, 1850. If Anyone Attempts to Haul Dovsrn the American Flag, Shoot Him on the Spot. — In December, 1860, when New Orleans was in possession of the secessionists. Secretary of War John A. Dix issued an order to the captain of a revenue cutter at that port to bring his vessel to New York. The captain refused to obey the order, whereupon Dix wired an order placing the officer under arrest, closing his despatch with the now famous utterance quoted al)ove. In the Name of the Great Jehovah and the Conti- nental Congress. — When in May, 1775, Ethan Allen surprised Fort Ticonderoga, then in the hands of the British, he demanded the surrender of the garrison and port. When the commanding officer asked by whose authority, Allen replied : " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." Let No Guilty Man Escape. — These Avords were attrib- uted to General Grant, and were said to have been his official endorsement on the papers setting forth the criminal conduct of the Whisky Ring (which see). Liberty and Union Now and Forever, One and In- separable. — The concluding words of Daniel Webster's second speech in reply to Jiajue. Little More Grape, Captain Bragg. — During the battle SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 347 of Buena Vista, in 1847, it appeared to General Taylor that the enemy could not withstand the discharge of grape from Captain Bragg's battery, and shouted : " A little more graj)e. Captain Bragg." The enemy were disastrously defeated, and the phrase has lived from that day. No Terms Other than an Unconditional Surrender. — When, in P^bruary, 186*2, General Grant, commanding Union forces before Fort Uonelson in Tennessee, had cut off all chance of the enemy's escape, he received from General Buckner, who commanded the rebel forces, an inquiry as to what terms of sur- render would be allowed. Grant replied as above, and added: " I propose to move immediately upon your works." General Buckner surrendered. Office of President Is Essentially Executive in Its Nature. — Grover Cleveland in his letter accepting the nomina- tion of the Democratic party in 1884, used the phrase, which has since passed into common use : "The othce of President is essen- tially executive in its nature." On to Richmond. — As editor of the New York Tribune during the Civil War, Horace Greeley gave birth to this war cry, which was taken up by those "U'ho advocated an immediate forward movement on the Confedei'ate capital. Only Good Indian is a Dead Indian, The. — This say- ing has always been credited to the late Gen. George Crooke, the Indian fiohter, but he made stronec denial of having uttered it. Whatever the origin of the [ihiase, it has passed into common use, and represents the doctrine of those who oppose the red man's civilization. Pernicious Activity. — Among the Avords and phrases con- tributed to the vocabulary of politics by Grover Cleveland, none were so widely discussed as "pernicious activity." They are found in a letter to the heads of departments, in which he said " office-holders are neither disfranchised nor forbidden the exer- cise of political privileges; but their privileges are not enlarged, nor is their duty to jDarty increased to pernicious activit}' l)y office- holding." Public Office Is a Public Trust. — A famous utterance of Grover Cleveland. It became the battle-ciy of the Independents. Put None but Americans on Guard To-night. — This occurs in an order by General Washington on the eve of a battle in the Revolutionary War. Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion.— The Rev. Dr. Bmch- ard used tliis phrase in a speech at the Plfth Avenue Hotel in New York, a few «lays before the Presidential election of 1884. Mr. Blaine was receiving a delegation of ministers, of whom Rev. 348 SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. Dr. Burchard was the spokesman. In the course of his remarks he referred to the Democratic party as tlie party of " Kum, Romanism and Rebellion." Some criticism of Blaine was made next day for not rebuking the speaker, but Blaine said that he was not listening, his thoughts at the time being on the subject of his own speech. The Democrats made the most of the insult to iheir party. It has never been questioned that many votes, especially of Catholics, were turned away from Mr. Blaine. Cleveland's majority over Blaine in New York was only 1,047, so that 524 votes lost to Cleveland would have turned the State in Blaine's favor, and elected him. Sink or Swim, Live or Die, Survive or Perish, I Give My Hand and My Heart to This Vole. — Supposed to have been uttered by John Adams in a speech in Congress in 1776, before voting in favor of the Declaration of Independence. Suicide is Confession. — Original with Daniel Webster in his famous speech in prosecution of the White murder case in 1830 at Salem, Mass. One of the prisoners, Richard Cronin- shield, had committed suicide in jail, a fact which Webster seized upon to coin a phrase which became immortal. Surplus is Easier to Handle Than a Deficit. — This phrase, originating with D'Israeli, was used by the Republicans in the Harrison-Cleveland campaign of 1888, as a reply to Democratic attacks on the accumulation of the surplus by reason of high tariff duties. It is said that Col. Fred Grant used the phrase first in this connection. Tariff is a Local Issue. — In the midst of the Presidential canvass of 1880, Gen. Winfield S. Hancock, the Democratic candidate, said in a newspaper interview that the tariff question was a local issue. The statement, which went uncontradicted by its author, was eagerly seized upon by the opposition press, and used to the party's disadvantage. Tariff is a Tax. — Tliis became a campaign cry of the Tariff Reformers, when in the campaign of 1888 it was reiterated many times in speeches by Allen G. Thurman, the Democratic candidate for Vice-President. Tell Them to Obey the Laws and Support the Con- stitution. — This was the dying message to his son of Stephen A. Douglass, and was meant for the members of the Northern wing of the Democratic party, which had supported him for Presi- dent in 1860. There Never was a Good War or a Bad Peace. — A maxim of Benjamin P^ranklin. This is the Last of Earth; I am Content. — ^ These were the dying words of John Quincy Adams. miMk > SAYINGS OF FAMOUS AMERICANS. 349 Thomas Jefferson Slill Survives. — These were the last words of John Adams. As a matter of fact, the statement was not true, Jefferson having passed away a few hours before, but the dying man did not know it. Union Must Be Preserved. — This phrase originated with Andrew Jaclcson, wlio, when asl|>tion of an American and an Englislunan. The descrip- tion of it, in heraldic })hraseologv, is as follows : — AiiMS : Paleways of thirteen pieces argent and gules ; a chief azure ; the escutclieon on the breast of the American eagle dis- played proper, holding in his dexter talon an olive branch, and ni liis sinister a bundle of thirteen arrows, all proper; and in his beak a si'roU inscribed with this motto: K Pr,URiiuis Unitm. For the (^liKsr: Over the head of th(> eagle which appears above the escutcheon, a glory or, breaking thi-ongh a cloud proper and surrounding thirteen st.irs, forming a constellation, argent, and on an azure Held. IIiovkusk. A pyr;iinid untinishcd. In the zenith an eye in a triangle, surroundi'd with a glory proper; over the eye these words, Annuit Cosptis ("God has favored the undertaking.") On the base of the pyramid the numerical letters MDcciA'xvi, and underneath the following motto: Novus Okdo Skci.okum ("A New Series of Ages"). The reverse of the seal has not been cut. A new die was cut in 1S41, but it cannot be said to have im- proved upon the old one. Tin* die in use to-oS, and now nnmbers about 270,000 membersw There are 27 Grand Lixiges, and over 4,000 snboniinate lodges. Since its fc:. - ■ . it has disbursed in benefits over #o7,0l>0,0t)0, and over > .in charitv. Knights Templars. — Thi< order is ci i: rt;;ch ork:in, although the Aiuerioaa org:tuization is an independent body. It has thirty-nine Grand Commanderies, over 85,000 members, besides 2,000 in subordinate commanderies. The commandery degrees conferred are Red Cross Knight, Knight Templar, auvl Knight of Malta. Masons who have reache*! the degrees of Master Mason or Roval Arch Mason are admitted. Independent Order of Good Templars. — The object of this org:iniz;»tion is apparent frv>m the following pledge to which all candidates for membership are required to sub^^ribe, viz., that they ^* will never make, buy, sell, use, furnish, nor cause to be furnished to others, as a beverage, any spirituous or malt liquors, wine or cider, anvi will discountenance the manufacture and sale thereof in all proper ways." There are over 400,*)00 members, and a juvenile branch having 160,00«) memWrs. The Grand Lodges, one hundred in number, are distributed through more than twenty different nationalities. Royal Arcanum. — This order was founded in 1S77, and has a membership of about 120,00C» ; the number of Grand Coun- cils is nineteen, with subordinate councils to the number of 1,300. The benefits made up to June 1, 1S91, aggregated 16,500,000. Ancient Order of Foresters. — This order extends throi^h- out the civilized world, having branches in twenty-eight different nationalities. The American branch, which was the parent Inranch, was founded in 1S64. The membership in all the Grand Courts and subordinate coturts is over 800,000, the American branch having 9«) 4.000 members. Improved Order of Red Men. — The total membership in all countries is aK>ut 110,000; in the United States, it is 16,268. The onier was foimded lS72.and has an auxiliary branch for women, known as the *- Degree of Pocahontas."' Knig:hts of Honor. — The nimiber of members in this organization is about 132,000 ; benefits disbursed since its organi- zation in 1873, 36,500,0iK>. The other chief fraternal societies having a membership in the United States are. Knights of Pythias, 263,847 ; Improved Order of Red Men, 111.644; Roval Arcanum, 1 1 8,454 ; Knights and Ladies of Honor. 70.419; American Legion of Honor, 63,751 ; Knights of the Maccabees, Supreme Tent, 62,580; Modem Woo'lraen of America. 53.000; Order of L'nited American ^Toohanios, 4S,517; KquitaMi^ Aid riiii>iu 4o,il.'>0 : Onlor of ChosoM Krionds, oS,S*Jl ; CatlnUio ^futual r>onotit Assoi-iaiioii, oO.Oi'O; National Union, "Jlv-'UH^ : Indopondout Ordor of IVnai B'rith, *Jf>,478; Catholic Bonovolont Lotion, •Jo.o.'^ii ; Ordor of United Frionds, -'J.oOl ; Catholic Kniiihts of Aniorica, 121, ()*);>; Order of the GoUlen Cross, 17,aO">: Koval TenipLirs of Teni- peraneo, 15,1."h^; Aneient Order of Dniids, 15,000; Koval Soeioty of GoihI FeUows, lo,OS I ; United Order i^f Pilgrim Fathers. l"i,44o. The Total Membofship in secret societies of all kinds is over i:,SOi',i'O0. StH'tional Pivsitlont. (^^«ee rresidentsof the Unhed States.) Seven M.ule liurnuiu. ^See Nieknames of Famous Ameri- cans.) Seventh of March Speech. — This refers to an extraordinary speech by Daniel Webster in the Senate on March 7, ISotK in the debate growing out of the Clay resolutions regarding the Compro- mise of 1850. In his speoch Webster antagonized the abolitionists by Ins utterances in opposition to the restriction of slavery, his pre- vious views on which had ])l;iced hinx sipiarely against the South. It was charged that his sudden change of opinion was influenced by his desire to secure the nomination for President. Sharp Knife, (^ee Presidents of the I'nited States.) Shinphisters. — Pnring the war, private individuals not being able to secure small change, they issued private notes of ten, twenty- tive, and fifty cents denomination, and circulated them in their business. The notes were called shinplasters, because they liad no value outside of particular localities, except possibly as ]dasters for broken shins. The small notes issued by the gov- ernment in after years from this source derived the name <>f shinplasters. Ship-I>uil(lini:. Packets and Clippers. Ocean Disasters. Steamboats. Great Lake Navigatu'»n. Ocean Steamships. Anierican Carrying Trade. Subsidies. The first ship built in this country was the \'irginia, which was built in 1007, at the mouth of the Kennebec Kiver, in Maine, a State which has always been noted for its ships. The vessel was built by colonists who used it in returning home, having become discouraged with their new life. The second ship built was the Onrest, which was constructed at New* York, in l(>15-16. New England early in her career took the lead in ships, and many of her people were engaged in shipping. Her vessels, 358 suir-iuiLDiNG. however, were practically annihilated by the Britisli fleets in the Kevolntionary War, and when the war was over an era of ship- biiildiiii^ was inaugurated which attahied large proportions, and was famous for the perfection of its vessels, and especially for their speed. The Early American Ship- Builders aimed to construct their A'essels as nearly as possible upon the lines of a fish ; their success in this direction led to the imitation of their models by raanv foreign designers. Packets were run between !New York and English ports as early as 1S15. They had two decks, and were swift and substantially made. The first three-decker Avas the Guy Mannering. which was built at Xew York in 1S49. and quickly set the fashion for packet ships which were built there- after. The success of the packet shi[>s induced the English gov- ernment to subsidize the Cunard line, which in 1S40 sent out a steamship, the Britannia, and has continued the service ever since. (See Steam Navigation.) The tendency in ship-building was now towards larger and larger ships. The packet was f<)llowed bv the clipper ship, about lv*^40 to IS'H^. built low in the water, with a sharp bow. fine water-lines, and tall masts which carried an immense spread of canvas. Tlie immiirration to California, in 1S4S and on. led to a great boom in the clipper-built ships, and about this time tlie American Carrying Trade was at the height of its prosperity, lietween lSol3 and ISOO, the value of imported and exported cargoes car- ried in American vessels averaged §^475,000,000 a year. With the outbreak of the Civil War, this trade fell away to e*200,0r0,- X> an I under, and remains at about that figure to-day. The percentage of trade carried in American vessels in ISaG was75.iI; in ISiU, the percentage Avas 11.04. There was a large increase in the coastwise trade from 1S60 and on. which led to the build- insf of schooners, now the recognized type of coastwise ships. One of the largest schooners ever built was the Governor Ames, which was built in 188S in Maine ; her keel is 2(55 feet lotig, the lenorth over all is '265 ; beam 50 feet, depth 20 feet, tonnage 1,S00. She has 460 tons of Virginia white oak in her framework ; her planking is six inches thick, and 7^ inches at the gunwales. She his four masts and is employed in trade with South Ameri- can ports. Mississippi River Navigation took a great spurt with the advent of steam navigation pvhich see), although several sailing vessels had made the voyage from Xew Orleans to Louisville, Iventuokv, in from sixteen to twenty days. Iron ships were built after 1838, in which year theCodorus, an iron ship, was built for the Susquehanna River trade. These hulls were crude in shape. J SHIP-BUlLniNG. 359 TV 3ti0 SHip-BuiLDma. and the effort to fashion theiu on the linos of woodon hiills Mas not at first suocossfiil. Sleain Navigation. — Tlio tirst successful attonipt at steam navig.itiou was ixobovt Fulton's steamboat Clermont, which in 1S07 made the trip from >>'o\v York to Albany, 148 niiles, at the rate of tive miles an hour, and returned at the same speeil. Previously several Englishmen and Americans had experimented with steam as a means of propulsion. In 17S4 and 178l>, James liuiuscy, of Chester, l*a., drove a boat on the Potomac fom- miles an hour by a water jet forced out at the stern. John Fitch abo\ic the sauie time tried to propel a steamer on the Dolawan^ River by means of paddles turned by oranks. Fulton's Steam- boat, liowever, was a complete success, and it revolutioni/.ed the liver and ocean navigation of the world. The Clermont was loa feet in length, IS feet beam, 7 feet in depth, and 100 tons bur- den. The engine had a steam cyHnder '2A inches in diameter and a stroke of 4 feet. Not long aftei-, Col. John Stevens, of New Jersey, who had been experimenting with steam about Ful- ton's tini.s made the voyage in a steam side-wheeler, called the Phaviix, from New York to the l^elaware Kiver. This was the First Ocean Voyage by a steam vessel. The next ocean voy- age by a stenu vessel was more daring. It was that of the Savannah, Capt. Moses Rogers, which sailing from Savannah, Ga,, on May "J 1, 18l!>, niade tlie voyage to Liverpov>l, arriving there on June 'iO, having used both steam and sails. The sauu' ship made the trip from St. Petersburg to New York tlirect in •Jii days. Tlu> First Transatlantic Line of steamships was the Cunard line, which on July 4, I84l>, sent from Liverpool the steamship Brittaniiv, LooO tons, and thereafter sent steamers reg- ularly. The tirst transatlantic screw steamer was the ^lassachu- setts, Capt. R. B. Forbes, who also introduced steam vessels into the China trade. The largest steam vessel ever constructed was the Great Eastern, which was OSO feet long, 8i> feet beam, 58 feet deep, 'J8 feet draught, and 'J, 400 tons burden ; she had four paddles, four screw engines, and had a speed of llU statute miles an hour. Ocean Steamships. — What is called the transatlantic fleet of steiuiship^ consists of 100 vessels, sailing regularly to and from New Yoi'k and European ports. Sonu^ of them sail to and from Boston. The European destination of :>1 of these steamshij^s is Liverpool ; of 10, Glasgow ; of 17, Hamburg, via Southamj^on ; of 11, Antwerp; of 0, Boulogne and Ixotterdam ; of 10, Rrenuui, via Southampton ; of t>, Havre ; of o, Bordeaux. Nearly all of these steamships are owned abroad. Not all of these vessels carry tii-st -class passengers, but all of them carry valuable cai-goes 1 Snir-HUiLDING. 361 of morohaTuliso. There are many more steaniors which are smaller ami less speedy ; in fact, there are upwards of 85 lines between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Euri^pean ports. There were in ISDl 41G steamships sailing from .Ameri- can ports to foreign jiorts. Their tonnage was f)17,8l)4, theii- value was §; 42,000,000, and the value of their merchajidise was $1,-402,500,000. (Jreat Britain, in the same year, had 0,40;? steam vessels, with tonnage of 8,'ioo,8r>l; their value was -^r)r)O,O00,OO0, and the value of their merchandise was ^o,47('),rH)0,000, Ger- many had 741 steam vessels, with tonnage of 9'i8,t>ll ; tlieir value was '803,500,000, and that of their merchandise was $1,()-J4,000,- 000. France had fvJG steam vessels, whose tonnage was 809,598 ; their value was ^4S,50(»,000, and their nu'rchandise was valned at 81,471,000,000. The United States thus stood fourth among the nations of the world. The centre of the United States Ocean Carrying Trade is New York, where steamers leave not only for the ports on the regular transatlantic routes designated above, but also fm- Amsterdam, Antigua, the Azores, Harbadoi's, liarcelona, Bermuda, Bristi>l, Kng., Buenos Ayres, Cardenas, Colon, Copenhagen, Deme- rara, Dominica, Genoa, and Gibraltar,Gonaives,Greytown, Guadeloupe, Halifax, Havana, ;aii. 11, vx of a ship, 1 Flvinsr jib; 2, jib; 3, foio topniast. stay- skvs:ii ■ llai liiu Honr>: Ivono;, Jamau-a, Leg- sail; 4, fore oourse; 5, foio t 1 ^ T 'ii ^T 1 All" toiiuallant sail ; 7, fore roval ; S, fort horn, Leitll, London, .Maiao-;!, o, KTro roval stiuUiiim-saii ; lo, fore topualUmt Marseilles, M:irtini(iue,Matan- stnrid^ its llo^^ laiges tnuKftorth^ aamwaUT uilficas cif toi^ of tbe pod^c ts of lth»"riehly |p««>daetxre eoontiy m whicik it is sitaatod. TW c«raa^ tbe be«f , tli& faanber, l]i» eoppw^ idie salt* tbe iroii «««» tli» ilocur and this ec)aL. ef tW great XcvAve^. tdies^ are tlie inportaut produets vliielk fiikd a natwal and easr tlie marts of trade in tlie £»st and in Enrojpe. TKe Cargo Ton- na^ «< tbe Gj^e^at: lake? >iirMr* 1 S^) has neail]r do«l>led. In l^?9i^ itamonnlted t^o^ o>vief d>>j:^^Ol>0 t«<»s, c^qs^t in gnan and wQl pviv dvets> Inttiber, o<>aL auiad irv>n c?»ev and wasralwed at #l>5 This fe spreatw" than the eaur^T tonna^ cf Xew Yott br over IW p««- 5fc "■ '^•--■■" ~;"irs amid firvii:-... ^ - ^ .- -- r onbr, i*§-. ~ . :^ and SiH baurs??!* ; .^ ^>HH.aT. twana^^f V-: i-L^.-tri. "^^'^ ~ "■. . '- - *' '^'^ nnnsWr v'^5 x~'essie^ "^^^^ .- aex«feK*--:v>: ^ PerTc the lake -- ^ ^^ - the same eairgv^ : < - railroad tt ^ronld l» #;l4«iKM«)k».^ inteivsting featnro of the lako tnirtio is tho intnxiuoiion ot tho "whalolviok" sloamer. so-ealled on Sivount v>t its ivuiuioil dock. Tho deck is fiv^ from tho masts and rijjfging onlinarily fotimi on a« stoamsliips. Tho " whaK^lviok " is dosijrnod osyHH'iall y for oarrvino: irrain. Within a yoar, tho oxj>oriniont has Khmi triod siKvos-stnliy ot carrying gnvin in whalolvioks diroi't to Kuropoan pv^rts, via tho St. l-awroniv IJivor, tho mouth of whioh is ovor 1/JOO milos fnnn Cluoairo. American Carrying Trade. — Tho imnionso oxport and impv^rt n-;ulo Iviwoon this country and tho nations of tho oarih, is carriod on, oxivpting 1 1 .lU por ooiit. <»f it, in vossols ownod and mjumoil by foroignors. AVhat is calKHi tho vloi^line in tho carry- ing tr:»do has roivntly Wconio a subjoct of serious consideration by the statosnion of tho nation, and tho rx^storation of AnuM-ican siiipping to its pristino glory will henceforth bo their earnest en. vloavor. To this ond» tho Fifty-tirst Con- gross passed tho Postal Subsidy Bill, which oin[K>wors tho Postm.astor-Gou- onil to make i\Mitraets with American own- ers of American-built and American mannotl steamships for carry- ing tho mails between tho I'nited States and foreign ports (Canada exchuUHlH. Tho ves- J.. • sols are to bo con-'^^t structoil .aft^r the latest and most a[>- proved types, divided into four classes as foUo>vs : First elass, iron or steel 20-knot vessels of not less than 8.lHH^ tons. (Tho American- English mails are to be civrriod on this class entirely.) Second class, irv>n or stool 14-knot vessels of not less than 2,500 tons ; fourth class, iron, steel, or wooden l*2-knot vessels of not less than 1.500 tons. Vessels of the rii-si, second, and thinl classes are to W eonstructed with particular r^^feronce to prompt and economical cimversion into auxiliary naval cruisoi-s on plans approved by the Secretary of the Navy, strouii enough to carry six-inch ritles anvi of tho higliest known maritime rating. The compens;ition to Iv paid is as follows: First-class, 1^4 }M?r mile ; second cKass, ^2 piM- mile by tho shortest DRV-ItOCKSIk. 366 SIGNAL SEKVICK OF TUK INITKD STATES. praotioal)lo route for each outward vovago ; third class, ^1 per mile; fourth (.'hiss, 6t5| cents i)er mile for the number of miles required by the Post-Otiiee Departmunt to be traveled on each outward voyage. In May, 180:2, a bill ^vhich permits foreign-built vessels to receive an American registry upon application of their owners, became a law and under it the City of Paris .and the City of New Vork were so registered. Hereafter they will dy the American tiag instead of the English Hag, and will reoeive the subsidy provided by the Postal Subsidy Act. It was by the subsidy 'system that England built up her ex- tensive system of ocean steamships, many of Avliich have made their profits solely from the American carrying trade. AVhile this country has made marvellous strides forward in the develop- ment of its natural resources, that of its shipping has been neglected. Capital has been put into almost anything but ships, but the past three years show signs of a revivification of the ship- building industry. The number of vessels built in the United States in 1888 was 1,014, of ^vhich 430 were steamers; in 1880, the number was 1,077, of which 440 were steam; in 1800, 1,051, of which 410 were steam ; in 1801, l,o84, of which 488 Avere steam. The Tonnage of our merchant navy in 1801 was 4,684,750, a steady but sniall increase since 1870. Great l>ritain's merchant tonnage in 1801 was 11,0128,624. Germany's was 1,678,446, and Norway, the fourth in rank, was 1,665,477. The number of United States vessels in the foreign trade ni 1801 was 1,516 ; in the coastwise trade, 20,820. Shoe-String Disitrict. (See Gerrymander.) Signal Service, The United States. Weather Conditions. Cold Waves. Frosts and Floods. Rainfall. Crop Bulletin Storni Signals. This department of the United States service was established by the Act of Congress of February 0, 1870, and its cave and supervision placed in the hands of Brig.-Gen. Albert J. Meyer, the chief signal otticer of the United States Army. Hence the Tiame — - Signal Service — by which this department has been known uTitil recently. It was strictly military in its organization. On account of the peculiar value to agriculture of its weather indications, the service was o>i July 1, 1801, transferred to the Department of Agriculture. Its Duties, as set forth in the act establishing the service, were " to take and record meteorological observations, and to report, and give notice, by electric tele- SIGNAL SERVTCK OF THK UNITKD STATES. 807 grapli, of the approach and the forco of stoi-nis, for the benefit of connneree and agriculture." The elements of its observations are: Teniperaturo and ])ressure of the air; the percentage of moisture or relative humidity; (he temperature of the dewpoint; direction, force, and velocity of the wind ; kinds and amount of clouds; amount of precipitation — rain or melted snow — in inches and hundredths ; character of the sky, and tlie state of the weather. In addition to these a record of all Special Phenomena, sucli as aurora', halos, thunderstorms, tornadoes, waterspouts, earthquakes, etc. These data are telegraphed to Wasliington the central station -at stated timt's, and from there transmitted in the same manner to offices located at the commercial centres of the entire country, from which the information is disseminated through the daily papers, by the public display of bulletins and other methods. Thus far the hibors of this service were chiefly in the interest of agriculture. The next step was the dis])lay of Storm Signals at stations on the seaboard, the (tulf, and the (ireat Lakes, by r.ieans of large Hags by day and colored lights by night. At lirst, twenty such stations were established ; now a chain of them ex- tends from the llio Graiule, (iulf of IMexico, to Eastport, Me., throughout the great lakes and along the Paciiic coast, all in the interest of commerce. There is a department for the study of Gold Wa*ves, of the approach of which Avarnings can be given from twelve to thirty-six; h(Mirs ahead for the benefit of growers and shippers of fruits and other jiei'ishable goods; and also fore- casts or daily weather from thii-ty-six to forty hours in advance. The vast territory of the ll^nited States has been divided into districts, and, by makingasj^ecial study of each, the " Forecasts" are made more detinite and exact for each of them, thus more effectually promoting the interests of the fariners therein. In the cotton belt a special system of Rainfall and Temperature obser- vations has been adopted for the benefit of the pl.intcr ami dealei*. So in the great strawberry-growing region of New Jersey and adjacent territory, foreknowledge of weather and temperature is of the highest importance, and is watched as closely by dealers elsewhere as by the Jersey culturists. The Flood- Warnings of tlu' great valleys of the Mississippi and triliutaries have been of incalculable value. The Flags adopttxl by the Signal Service are five in number, and the foi-ms and dimensions are indicated below : — Number 1, white flag, six feet square, indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2, blue Hag, six feet square, indicates i-aiu or snow. Nund)er 3, white and blue Hag, six feet square, indicates 3G8 SIGNAL SERVICi: OP THE UNITED STATES. local rains or showers. Number 4, black triaiigulivr Hag, four feet at the base and six feet in length, always refers to tempera- ture ; when placed above numbers 1, 2, or 3, it indicates warmer weather; when placed below numbers 1, t2, or 8 it indicates colder weather ; when not displayed, the indications are that the temperature will remain stationary, or that the change in temper- ature will not vary more than four degrees from the temperatuie of the same hour of the preceding day. Number T), white flag, six feet square, with black square in centre, indicates the approach of a sudden and decided fall in temp e r a t u i- e . This signal is usuall}^ (irdeii'd at least twenty- four hours m ad- vance of the cold w a V e . W h e "n Oea^ "'■TiQtion Signal. Number 5 is displayed, Number 4 is always omitted. When displayed on poles the signals should be arranged to read downward ; when displayed from horizontal sujjports a small streamer should be attached to indicate the point from which the sii>;nals are to be read. INTERPRETATION OF DISPLAYS, , No. 1, alone, fair weather, stationary temperature. No. 2, alone, rain or snow, stationary temperature. No. 8, alone, local rain, stationary temperature. No. 1, with No. 4 above it, fair weather, warmer. No. 1, with No. 4 below it, fair weather, colder. No. 2, with No. 4 above it, warmer weather, rain or snow. No. 2, with No. 4 below it, colder weather, rain or snow. No. 8, Avith No. 4 above it, warmer weather M'ith local rains. No. 8, with No. 4 below it, colder weather with local rains. No. 1, with No. 5 above it, fair weather, cold wave. No. 2, with No. 5 above it, wet weather, cold wave. Another important service rendered by the Bureau is the issuing at intervals of bulletins regarding the outlook for the crops in the great crop-belts. Having exi)erienced observers m the immediate vicinity, its information is generally authentic and is of much value to the business interests of the country. The Signal Service also issues a series of Storm, Caution- ary, and Wind Signals, which are chietly for the informa- tion of steamship companies, masters of sailing vessels, and man- 1 SIGNAL SEKVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. 369 a ners in general. The flags and the signals they are intended to carry are as follows : The square flags indicate the character of the storm, whether moderate or severe. A yellow flag with a white centre indicates that the Avinds exi)ected ■ will not be so severe, but well-found, sea- worthy vessels can meet them without danger. A red flag with a black centre indicates that the storm is expected to be of marked vio- lence. The pennants displayed with the flags indicate the direction of the wind : red, easterly (from northeast to south) ; white, westerly (from southwest to north). The pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is expected to blow from the northerly quadrant ; below, from the southerly (juad- rant. By night a red light will indicate easterly winds, and a white light above a red light westerly winds. The " Information Signal " consists of a yellow pennant of the same dimensions as the red and the white pennants (direction signals), and when dis- played indicates that the local observer has received information from the central oftice of a storm covering a limited area, dangerous only for vessels about to sail to certain ^fi, points. The signal will serve as a notihca- tion to shipmasters to apply for information to the local ob- server. Silver Greys. (See Political Parties.) Silver, Production of. (See Mining.) Single Tax Party. (See I'olitical Parties.) Sir Veto. (See Presidents of the United States.) Sitting Bull. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) SlaUil? of Politics. — The vocabulary of American politics co'ntains a motley collection of curious words and phrases, many of which, while they are vulgar, yet are most exf)ressive. As a rule, they have originated with professional politicians and the nevvs- ])apers. Some of the more expressive, besides other words and phrases of a political origin which have passed into common use, are grouped below : — Another County Heard From. — When a State or Na- tional election is in doubt, it frequently happens that the votes of S.yV-H/";cis S£JV'ods Ere Sto RfA 570 SLANG OF POLITICS. counties are necessary to establish the result. The phrase vra* heard first in the campaign of 1876, when returns arrived from some of the doubtful States very slowly. Bandanna. — Allen G. Thurman, Democratic candidate for Vice-President in 1888, made use of a red bandanna handker- chief. In the campaign the bandanna became a badge of Democracy. Bar'l, To Tap I he.^ A phrase applied to rich candidates for office who are popularly believed to be possessed of a "barrel" of money for campaign use. Bee in His Bonnet. — A popular expression to mdicate a man's desire to secure public office, but usually applied to would- be candidates for President. Billion Congress. — Applied to the Fifty-First Congress because of its appropriations, which in the rough aggregated a billion dollars. Blaine and Business. — A battle-cry of the adherents of Secretary Blaine, when in 1891 it appeared that he might again stand for the Presidency ; it was hoped that he would, if nom- inated, make a campaign on the issues of reciprocity and the extension of foreign trade generally. Bleeding Kansas. —An epithet of ridicule for Kansas, originating from the bloody strife over the Kansas-Xebraska bill in 1854. Since then, orators in Congress have used the phrase frequently. Blocks of Five. — In the Harrison-Cleveland campaign of 1888, it was brought to light that the Republican National Com- mittee, through its treasurer, Col. W. W. Dudley, gave instruc- tions to secure- the "floater" vote in Indiana in "blocks of five" men at a time. The campaign in that State was fought so fiercely that every cross-roads was officered by " strikers" of both parties, each instructed to see that a certain designated number of men should vote. Bloody Chasm, To Bridge the. — An oratorical expres- sion intended to convey the idea of wiping out the animosities growing out of the Civil War. Bloody Shirt, To Wave the. — Certain Republican ora- tors, in Congress and out of it, hal>itually favore«i a rigorous policy of reconstruction in order to whip into line the rebellious States, in the years immediately following the Civil War. Gov- ernor Morton, of Indiana, is credited with having originated the phrase. Nowadays, whenever an orator is especially severe toward the South, the Democrats taunt him with " waving the bloody shirt," which in later years has come to be regarded in the light of a dead issue. SLANG OF POLITICS. 871 Bolter. — A bolter is a man who refuses to support the can- didate or the policy of a party. Under such circumstances, he bolts the party. This does not mean necessarily that he will not return when his disaffection lias been nioUitietl. Boodle. — Among ^politicians this means money for political use, generally for purposes of corruption. The arrest ot (he so- called *" boodle " aldermen in New York, Avho were accused of having sold public franchises for money, gave the word a promi- nent position in the vocabulary of American slang. Boom, Boomer. — A boom is a well-organized movement, political or otherwise. Politicians have "booms," and so do towns, cities, commercial enterprises, etc. The "•boom" prom- ises great success cr prosperity, aiul a "boomer" is an active agent in helping on the *'boom." "Blaine boomers" were men who saw that the Plumed Knight's politic;d welfare was not lost sight of, and who "boomed" him on every i)ossible occasion. Boss. — In politics a boss is the party or faction leader, lie holds indisputable power; any Avho refuse to yield to him, or who question his autonomy, are subject to political death. In the large cities the boss wields tremeiulous intluence by virtue of the large patronage in the "way of offices at his disposal. Rarely is lie himself found in office, but he is the power behind the throne. Fretpiently the important officials of a great city are merely his henchmen, put in office for his })ersonal profit. The chief of Tammany Hall, in New York, always receives the title of Boss. The more famous Bosses have been Boss Tweed and Boss Kelly ; Richard Croker, Avho is the inspiring genius of Tanmiany at the present time, wears the title to-day. Wai>I bosses are politicians who wield an influence which is confined to one ward of a city. Tins they are sometimes si)oken of as " carrying in their vest pocket." ' Boys, The. — " Ileclers," or the hangers-on of a candidate who expett him to do the right thing in the way of entertain- ment after election, in return for services in his behalf on election day. They are so mimerous, and so efficient in the peculiar sort of work they have to do that no discreet politician will do other- wise than keep himself " solid with tlie boys." Caesarism. — Used in the "boom" for a third term for ex- PresideJit Grant. It implied the notion that the supporters of Grant wanted to make a Ca'sar of him, that is, a despot. Campaign of Education. — This ])hvase arose from the determination of the Democracy after the defeat of Cleveland on the tariff issue in 1888, which it was claimed was due to the popular ignorance of the principles and operation of the tariff system, to so educate the voters that the cause of tariff refoi-m 372 SLANG OF POLITICS. would ultimately be victorious. They announced their intention to begin a "campaign of education," Glean Sweep. — This refers either to an overwhelming vic- tory by a party, or to the wholesale discharge from office of gov- ernment employees. Colonization. — It has been charged repeatedly in New York City that the Democratic managers, principally those of Tammany, have increased their majorities in the down-town wards by " colonizing " these wards, a short time before election, with voters imported from the outside, and paid to vote the Democratic ticket. The practice is known as colonization. Count Out, To. — When a candidate has actually received a majority of the votes in an election, but in counting the votes, enough of them are thrown out for one reason or another, the candidate is said to have been counted out. Dark Horse. — A dark horse is a candidate who in the early ballots at political conventions shows little strength, but who ultimately gets the nomination. Garfield was a dark horse, and so was Benjamin Harrison. Democratic Rooster. — The rooster has been an emblem of Democratic success since 1842. At that time a man by the name of Chapman was editor of the Indiana|)olis Sentinel^ a Demo- cratic sheet. The result of a local election being in doubt, the editor of a rival organ accused Chapman of " crowing " before he was justified in it, and in a headline in his paper one morning, used the expression, "• Crow, Chapman, Crow ! " In his next issue, the election haying resulted in victory for the Democrats, Chapman used the headline, "We Crow," accompanied by the picture of a rooster in the act of crowing. Drys. — The name given to those who vote to prohibit the sale of liquor, in town, cities, or State elections. The word was first extensively used in Georgia. (See Wets.) Dudes and. Pharisees. — Synonymous with Mugwumps, and applied to the Republicans, commonly aristocrats, who " bolted " Blaine in 1884. " Pharisees " indicates that spirit actu- ating them in their principles to which the Republican and part of the Democratic press referred to as a " holier than thou " spirit. The phrase sometimes is " dudes, Pharisees, and hypocrites." Fire- Eater. —A bitter partisan, usually a Southerner, but used by either party of members of the other. Floaters. — This is a political designation for doubtful, often disreputable voters who offer their votes to the highest bidder. In New York and other doubtful States, the "floater" vote re- ceives careful attention from the managers of the campaign, who SLANG OF POLITICS. 37o 374 SLANft OF POLITICS. appreciate the fact that several hundred " floater " votes may win the day. G. O. P. — Initials for " Grand Old Part}^" used by Repuh- lican orators, but afterwards ridiculed by the Democrats, and seldom heard now except in derision. Innocuous Desuetude. — A phrase used by President Cleve- land in 1886, in a message to Congress regarding removals from office. The words referred to certain laws which were no longer observed. The novelty of the words far more than their ai^pli- cation gave the phrase a wide currency. Ins and. Outs. — A slang political term for office-holders and their would-be successors. Jeffersonian Simplicity. — Hatred of all display in gov- ernmental conduct. Jefferson rode to the Capitol on horseback, abolished Presidential levees, preferred to be addressed as Mis- ter, and refused to wear knee-breeches and silver buckles. "Jefferson Simplicity "is a favorite phrase with Democrats, as bein.5 expressive of superior political instincts. A Jeffersonian. Democrat is a man who regards Jefferson's democracy as ideal. Jingoism. — A w^ord to designate a policy of national bluster. It was used with reference to Secretary Blaine's South American policy. Jun ket. — - When politicians make a journey, or otherwise entertain themselves at the public expense, they are said to go on a" junket." The w^ord carries with it the suggestion of cham- pagne and cigars, parlor cars and hacks, and other indispensablcs of politicians when serving the people. Kicker. — In politics, a kicker is a bolter, or one who while remxiaing loyal is yet only passivel}^ so. Kid Glove Politicians. — The "better element" of politi- cal leadership, usually men of wealth and social position who enter the political arena from motives of patriotism and with the purpose of purifying a supposedly corrupt government. The Mugwumps have often been called kid-glove politicians," but a kid-glove politician is not always a Mugwumj). Kindergarten Politics.- — A phrase used by "machine" or professional politicians in speaking of the political methods of inexperienced leaders. It implies a certain superiority on the part of the " machine " men, due to their longer and more intimate connection with the conduct of campaigns, and a derisive con- tempt for the efforts of the novitiates, who usually follow their own intuitions, irrespective of what has been done before. Kniflng. — This is a form of political treachery. A politician wlio knifes the candidate of his party does it by marshalling his men on the eve of the election, and instructing them to pass SLANG OF POLITICS. 375 along the word to vote for the opposing candidate. The knifing does not appear to have been done until the votes are counted, and an unexpected falling-off from one candidate and an equally large gain by the other are found. The charge has always been made that Tammany knifed Cleveland in 1888. Log Rolling.-- This is the term for the combination of legislators who have not sufficient strength to carry their measm-e through unaided, and who combine Avith another set of men who are harassed by a like predicament. The jjhrase is taken from the cutting of timber. Mending Fences. — This term refers to a politician's manoeu- vres in his own interest. When Congressmen are absent from Washington, it frequently turns out that they are at home " mending fences." The phrase originated with the brother-in-law of Senator Sherman, who was at work repairing some fences on his farm. At the time the Senator was a prominent candidate for the Presidential nomination. To a reporter who asked if he might see the Senator, the reply was made by the Senator's brother-in-law, that he was about the farm " mending fences." The phrase was uttered in perfect innocence of any political significance, but when it got into print it became a by-word of politics. Nepotism. — A word ai)plied to the appointments to office under the government of relatives of the family of President Benjamin Hari'ison, the number of which was so large as to call forth the criticisms of the Democratic press. Offensive Partisans. — This phrase and also "offensive partisanship" have come into common use since the first was coined by Postmastei'-General Vilas, in a letter regarding the re- moval of postmasters for political reasons. On the Fence. — In its political signification it means neu- trality toward opposing parties or principles. When a politician is afraid to commit himself on a political question he sits " on the fence." One Man Power. — This is a phrase indicating the almost imperial authority of a public officer. It developed in the early days of the Union, when there was a jealousy of the power vested in governors, mayors, and other public officials. Pair Off. -- When two members of a legislative body agree to refrain from voting, they are said to pair off. Pasters. — These are narrow slii)s of paper having the printed names of candidates other than the regular nominees, which are distributed by politicians so that voters may rearrange their bal- lots, if necessary. Peanut Politics. — Any political act which is apparently of 376 SLANG OF POLITICS. trivial importance, and is done purely for politics' sake, is char- acterized as peanut politics. Pipe-Laying. — In political parlance tliis means the procur- ing of votes fiaudulently, or by any other illegal means. It is said to have originated in New York City about 1848, when the Croton water-pipes were being laid. Practical Politics. — Practical politics includes the inside workings of party managements, not onl}^ those Avhich are legiti- mate, but more especially those which are corrupt. Pull. — The man with a pull, in politics, is he who by some means, not always manifested, has special influence with the gov- ernment, or who has influence of another kind which biings liim prominently before the public. Railroading. — When a bill is hurried through a legislative assembly, it is said to have been railroaded tln-ough. The impli- cation is that corrupt methods have been used. Rainbow-Chasers. — This phrase was applied first by the New York *Sun, and afterwards by other newspapers, in the Presidential campaign of 1884, to Chairman Calvin S. Brice, of the Democratic National Committee, and to other prominent Democrats who sought to carry the country for Cleveland on the tariff issue. Rider. — A rider is a provision attached to a legislative bill, which has no bearing upon the bill itself. By itself, the bill would stand no chance of passage, but as thus amended it is in- separable from the rider, in the voting both bill and rider are ])assed. As a rule, the rider is attached to an approj^riation bill. Salt River. — When a candidate for public oftice has been defeated his opponents playfully say that he has gone up Salt River. Salt River is a narrow, crooked stream in Kentitcky, and was once a favorite stronghold for river pirates. Whenever anything was lost or stolen, the saying was, that it had been rowed up Salt River. Slate. — When politicians make up the slate, the meaning is that they have drawn up the list of ])arty nominations, prelimi- nary to presenting them to the nominating convention. Smelling Committee. — This is political slang for an investigation committee. When there is a suspicion abroad of the existence of corruption, and an inve^^tigation committee is appointed, the politicians suspected speak of the committee as a "smelling" committee. The Democratic party in Massachusetts, in 1886, appointed a smelling committee to find out and make report regarding the Republican ofiice-holders who had been ke])t in office by a Democratic Federal officer, although in this instance SLAN(i OF POLITICS. 377 the only offence was a violation of the doctrine that " to the victors belong the spoils.'' Snap Convention.. — Snap is a word which in a certain sense means that which is sudden and unexpected, and in a degree unwarrantable. It implies the notion of superficialty, and somewhat of conspiracy. The Democratic convention in New York State in the early part of 1892, was called a "snap" convention, because it did not represent the party at large, and was called unexpectedly by a ring having m view the political advancement of Senator David B. Tlill. Soap. — In the campaign of 1880, the Republican managers used the word " soap," meaning money, in their telegraphic despatches. It was brought out at a dinner in New York, in celebration of the Republican victory, that " soap " had carried the election in the doubtful State of Indiana. Sore-head. — A sore-head is a politician who has become dis- gruntled because his party has failed to recognize his services, and who resolves thenceforth to use his influence against it. Soup. — The phrase " in the soup " is believed to have orig- inated with a New York newspaper reporter, who in writing up a base-ball game, spoke of the defeated nine as having fallen into the soup. Since then it has become part of the slang of the street, and in a political sense it means that a candidate has met with ignoble defeat. Spellbinder. — In the campaign of 1888, some of the Repub- lican orators, in telling of their oratorical triumphs, habitually used the word " spellbound." A political wag playfully referred to the orators as " spellbinders." The word was taken up by the press and had a wide circulation. Spoils System The phrase " to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy," originated with Senator William L. Marcy, of New York, in a speech in the United States Senate, in 18H1. The doctrine Avas accepted by the Democrats and put into prac- tice first by Andrew .Jackson, and later by the Republicans. Star- Eyed Goddess. — Usually written " Star- Eyed (God- dess of Reform," a striking i)hrase orignial with Editor Hcniy Watterson, of Louisville, Kentucky, who made use of it in a Democratic editorial. The opposition press since then has play- fully dubbed him the « Star- Eyed Goddess." Striker. — A striker in politics is a man who makes his living by seeking corruptly to influence legislation. He is generally in the employ of jirivate individuals Avho are interested in the legis- lation under consideration. The striker holds himself ready to do the dirty Avork necessary to secure the passage of a bill. In another sense, a striker is a " heeler." 378 SLANG OF POLITICS. Stump Speaker.^— A stump speaker is an orator wlv; engages with a political committee to make speeches in a given territory, in which he is spoken of as having taken the stump, or of "being on the stiunp." In rural localities, orators make their speeches from the most convenient places, and more often than not in olden times, the place chosen was the stump of a tree. Swinging Round the Circle. — In 18G6 Andrew Johnson made a trip to Chicago, ac(!ompanied by a large party. He made stoi)S at all the large cities, and delivered speeches of a political nature. Hence the phrase. Since then other Presidents have swung round the circle, the most notable instance being Pi-esi- dent Harrison's tour of the country in 1891, when he started from Washington, visited the South, and thence travelled through the Southern belt of States to California, whence he travelled up the Pacific coast to Oregon and Washington, and thence eastward. Trading. — In politics trading is of frequent occurrence. Sometimes by a trade the weaker candidate is able to secure a majority of the votes ; but he does so by holding out certain promises to the j)eople Avitli whom he mak^s the ti'ade, which usually concern the patronage of the offices. Thei-e are in every party professional traders, men who possess some small following which they will sell out to the opposing l)arty or candidate for a consideration, which is sometimes money, but more often apjioint- ment to office. Tidal Wave. — In a political sense, a tidal wave is a " clean sweep," a Waterloo. As a rule, it refers to the nation at large rather than to the States. If, for any reason,' one party carries an unprecedentedly large number of States, it is s2)oken of as a tidal wave. Voting in the Air. — William JM. Evarts, of New York, used the phrase in referbi.oe to those who intended to vote for St. John, the Prohibitionist candidate, in 1884. Wets. — This word originated in the anti-liquor campaign in Georgia; it is used in contradistinction to " Drys." Whitewash. — When an investigation committee makes a non-committal leport on charges of wrongdoing where there is reason to believe the charges are well founded, the charges are said to be '^ whitewashed," Wire Puller. — The wire puller lays deep and well-conceived plans for securing political advancement. He does this unsus- pected, and at the right moment comes to the front betraying wonderful strength. Slate. (See Slang of Politics.) Slippery Sam. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) SONGS OF TUB NATIO>l. 379 Smelling Committee. (See Slang of Politics.) Snap Convention. (See Slang of Politics.) Soap. (See Slang of Politics.) Sobriquets of Presidents. (Seo Presidents of the United States.) Sockless Jerry. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Softs. (See Barn-Burners, under Political Parties.) Soldiers' Homes. (See Army, United States.) Songs of the Nation. Star Spangled Banner. Hall Columbia. My Country, 'tis of Thee. Dixie. It is not easy to say which of the national songs most reflects the national spirit. The "Star Spangled Bannei," " Hail Colum- bia," and " My Country, 'tis of Thee," all breathe forth liberty and patriotism. Possibly the most stirring, the most suggestive of the martial spirit, the spirit whic-h leads men to battle for their flag, is "The Star Spangled Banner." It was written by Francis Barton Key during the light between the British and the Ameri- cans at Fort McIIeniy, Baltimore, JMil., in tlie war of 1812. Under a flag of truce, Key had gone on board the British flag- ship to solicit the release of a prisoner, Avhen the attack of the fort was begun. He was therefore an eye-witness of all that took place in the battle, and this ho has admirably described, in thrill- ing words, in the song, as follows : — THE STAR SPAXGLED BANNEIl. Oh! say, can you see by the dawn's early lis'ht, What so proudly we hailed at the twiliglit's last i;leaming; Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous light, O'er tiie ramjiarts we watch'd, were so gallantly streaming; And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof thiough tlie niglit that our flag was still tliere. Oh, say, does the star spangled banner still wave. O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the dce]>, Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the l)reeze, o'er the towering steep. As it litfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of tiie morning's first beam, In full glory rejected now shines in the stream. 'Tis the star spangled banner, oh! long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And wliere is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion, 380 SONGS OF THE NATION. A home and a country shall leave us no more ? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution; No refuge can save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave. And the star spangled banner in triumph sliall vi^ave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. Oh! thus be it ever when freemen shall stand Between their lov'd home and the war's desolation; Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued laud Praise the power that has made and jireserved us a nation. Then conquer we must when our cause it is just, And this be our motto, " In God is our trust " ; And the star si)angled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. Yankee Doodle. — The oldest of the songs of America is Yankee Doodle. This ever popular air was written, with origi- nal words, by an English officer in the War of the Revolution. The volunteer soldiers who were recruited in 1775 to defend Ticonderoga were of so motley an appearance, and their weapons of so primitive a character, that the officer caricatured them in a song w^hich he entitled Yankee Doodle. lie dedicated the song to the recruits, who took the joke in excellent good part. The air hit the fancy of all lovers of sim])le songs, and in the Conti- nental Army it was adopted as a cainp-iire song. The tune, bv some, is said to be of ancient origin. The original version of " Yankee Doodle " is given as folloAvs : — YANKEE DOODLE. Father and I went down to camp Along with (.Captain Goodwin, Where we see the men and boys As thick as hasty puddin'. There was Captain Washington Upon a slapping stallion, A giving orders to his men — 1 guess there was a million. And then the feathers on his hat, They looked so tarnal fine, I svanted pockily to get To give to my Jemime. And then they had a swampin' gun As large as log of maple, On a deuced little cart — j A load for father's cattle. ' And every time they fired it off It took ,a horn of j)owder, It made a noise like father's gun Only a nation louder. SONGS OF THE NATION. 381 OHBISTOPHEK COLUMBUS. 382 SONGS OP THE NATION. I went as near to it myself As Jacob's underpinnin', And father went as near again ■ — I thought the deuce was in him. And there I see a little keg, Its heads were made of leather — They knock'd upon't with little sticks, To call the folks together. And there they'd fife away like fun, And play on cornstalk tiddles, And some had ribbons as red as blood All wound around their middles. The troopers, too, would galloi) up, And fire right in our faces; It scared me almost half to death To see them run such races. Old Uncle Sam came there to change Some pancakes and some onions, F'or 'lasses cakes to carry home To give his wife and young ones. But I can't tell you half I see, They keep up such a smother; So 1 took my hat off — made a bow, And scampered home to mother. My Country, 'lis of Thee. — The national liymn, " Amer- ica," was composed in 1832 by Rev. S. F. Smith, of Newton, Mass., in response to the reqnest of J^owell Mason, Esq., who had charge of the musical programme of the Fourth of July exercises at Park Street Church, Boston, at which the hymn was sung. Mr. J\[ason asked Mr. Smith, who was a successful writer of hymns, for an original hymn suitable to the day. The words are as follows : AMERICA. My country, 'tis of thee. Sweet land of liberty. Of thee I sing; Land where my fathers died, Land of the pilgrims' pride. From every mountain side Let freedom ring. My native country, — thee. Land of the noble, free, — Thy name I love; I love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and templed hills, — My heart with rapture thrills, Like that above. SON(;S OF THE NATIOX. 383 Let music swell the breeze, And ring from all the trees Sweet Freedom's song; Let mortal tongues awake, Let all that bi-eathe partake. Let rocks their silence break, — The sound prolong. Our fathers' God, to Thee, Author of liberty, To Thee we sing; Long may our land be bright With freedom's holy light; Protect us by Thy might. Great God, our King. Hail Columbia.— The words of Hail Columbia were written by Judge Joseph Hopkinson, son of Francis H. Hopkinson, who was one of those who signed tlie Declaration of Independence. Hopkinson wrote the wonis to the tune of the President's March, as a favor to a young actor in Philadelphia, in 1798, on the occa- sion of his benefit, when the President's inarch was played by the orchestra of the theatre. The inspiration of the song- writer was derived from the war spirit prevailing in consequence of the threatened trouble with France. The President's March was the composition of a German by the name of Fayles, and was first played in a theatre in New York Avhich Washington attended in 1789. Dixie. — The popular song of the South during the war was " Dixie." Dixie was a rich slave-owner, his estate being known as " Dixie's land," and the song is believed to have been a melody sung by the negroes on liis plantation. In a book of army songs, now out of print, published in the South during the Civil War, is the following version of the original Dixie : THE ORIGINAL DIXIE. I wish I was in the land of cotton — Old times dar are not forgotten. Look away! Look away! Look away! In Dixie's land, where I was born in. Early on one frosty mornin'. Look away ! Look away ! Look away ! ~^ Chorus. — Den I wish I was in Dixie, Hooray, hooray! In Dixie, and I took my stand To lib and die in Dixie, Away, away, away down South in Dixie. Old missis marry Will d' Weaber; William was a gay deceaber. Look away, lic works; it grants charters to corporations, including railroad companies and in- vestment companies. The more clearly to sejxirate the powers of States from those of the Federal government, the States are debarred from making agreements with one another, or with foi'eign powers, from engaging in war, except in case of self- defence, from maintaining a military or naval fore© without the consent of Congress, from issuing money, or bills of credit, from conferring titles of nobility, etc. In most of the States, nu'mbcrs of the legislature are chosen on the basis of population, but in one State, Connecticut, two membei-s are chosen from each town or city, a system which gives the rural members combined more ])ower than those from the city. As a rule the Term of office of the Representatives is two 3'ears ; in twenty-eight States and Territories, however, the Senators are chosen every four years. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island, they are chosen, like the nu'inbers of the lower house, every year. The Salary of members is either by the 3'ear, or per diem. Tlu' avi-rage pay per (hem is |i5.00, exclusive STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. S93 of mileage. In Pennsylvania, the pay of both Senators and Representatives is $1,500 a year. In all the States the Judicial Function is vested in the Supreme Court or the Couit of Appeals. ^\s a rule, the mem- bers of the Supreme Court are chosen by vote of the people at an election, which may or may not be at the same time as that of the election of State officers. In other States, however, judges are appointed by the governor, with the advice and con- sent of the council, or of the legislature. This plan is followed in order that the appointment of the judiciary may be divorced from politics, and that judges of high personal character and legal acumen may be had. When Supreme Court judges are appointed by the governor, the appointment is for life. Cities, Government of. — The executive branch of the government of cities consists of the Mayor and his assistants, who are heads of de])artments, Street Commissioners, Fire Com- missioners, Police Commissioners, Overseers of the Poor, the Board of Health, Superintendent of Parks, Water ConiKiissioners, Assessors, etc. Besides, there is the City Treasurer, the City or Corporation Counsel, the Comptroller, the Auditor, the Regis- trar, the Tax Collector. The legislative department consists usu- ally of a Board of Aldermen, but in many cities there is another body called a Common Council. Their power is delegated usu- ally to committees, such as committees on public buildings, or streets, or sidewalks, or almshouses, and all legislation depends upon the report of these committees. There are many Minor Gily Officers appointed, some by the mayor, some by the alder- men, such as superintendents of sewers, street lights, bridges, ferries, printing, inspectors of milk and provisions, sealers of weights and measures, pound-keepers, boiler and building inspec- tors, besides constables, election officers, and various deputies. There is always a School Committee, or Board of Education, whose members are elected by the people, but in some cities they are appointed by the Board of Aldermen. Justices of the peace are many in number, and receive their authority, as a rule, from the city. In cities, the judiciary is most often elected by the people ; in Massachusetts cities, however, the judiciary of both municipal and county courts is api)ointed by the governor. The Veto Power is vested in the maj'or, but may be over-ridden and his appointments may be rejected by the aldermen. Tlie city of Brooklyn, N. Y., a few years ago, revolutionized the administration of its government, and now has, besides the mayor, a Board of Aldermen (the so-called Board of Super- visors having been abolished), and two other elective officers, the Comptroller and the Auditor. The maj'^or appoints, inde- 394 STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWN'S. pendont of the aldermen, the lieads of departments, who are individuals and not boards. Tlie aim was to rid the government of a Superfluity of Ofllcers whose chief duty consisted merelv in drawiinj^ a good salary, and also to divorce the gov- enwnent from politics. Counties, Government of. — The system of dividing States into ccjunties has an intimate relation with the shire-mote of primitive times in England. The Shire- Mote was a legis- lative body and court of justice for the jteople of the clans. Each clan lived separately, and had its own laws and customs. As time went on, its civic organization took the name of shire and had certain specified limits of territory under a distinct local government. When, in 108;'), the English Colonists in Massachu- setts, through their General Court, other- wise kn£>wn as the legislature, designated four towns where courts should be convened at regnlar inter- vals, it was not long before these towns be- came the cen- ties of shires, and were called Shire Towns. The towns, how- ever, main- tained their own individual existence, majwiged their own affairs, and elected their own officers, the shire or county being formed merely for convenience in the settlement of legal disputes, or the punishment of crime. The militia of each town formed a com- pany, and the companies of the shire formed a regiment. The County was organized as a judicial district, with a court com- posed of justices of the peace appointed by the governor, and a county courthouse in the shire town. From this beginning the system of counties in the T^nitod States had its origin. In Virginia, on the other hand, the counties were made up of Parishes. The ])lantations buing so far apart, and the ])lanters themselves being aristocratic and unwillinc: to minixle with those STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AND TOWNS. 395 who were not planters, the town system did not flourish. The planters imported the English parish, whose officers were church- wardens, a clerk and the vestr^^, which Avas the chief legislative power of the parish, and consisted of twelve men. There were no town-meetings. The Vestry ultimately filled vacancies in their number, levied taxes, looked after the poor, and otherwise assumed power. The minister of the parish presided at the vestry meetings, and was paid for his ministerial functions gener- ally in tobacco, the amount of which was fixed by the vestry at about 16,000 pounds. The common people, therefore, had no voice in the parish government. The chief County Officers were the justices of the peace, who were appointed by the governor, and constituted the county court, sitting in judicial cases. The sheriff executed their judgments, acted as tax gatherer and county treasurer, and was presiding officer at elections. Pie was usually one of the county court. The Military were in command of a county lieutenant, who wore the title of colonel. In general, it may be said tKat in Virginia the county governed the towns, and in New England the towns governed themselves. In South Carolina, the parish system was also in vogue, but after awhile the State was set off into districts, whose officers were at first chosen by the governor, but ultimatel}^ by the peo- ple themselves. In Maryland, old English. Usages, such as lords of the manor, bailiffs, and seneschals, and courts baron and leet, prevailed at first. Afterwai-ds, the Hundred, a designation of an administrative district borrowed from early England, repre- sented the divisions of the people. Finally counties were set apart. In Delaware, which also adopted the hundred as the unit of an administrative body, the system prevails to-day, but with certain modifications of a modern nature. Early New York had local self-government by towns, and in Pennsylvania the county was the unit of representation in the legislature, the peo- , pie choosing the sheriff, the county commissioners, the treasurer, and the coroners. These are the chief officers of counties in the several States to-day. The Sheriff attends all county courts, maintains the peace, has charge of the prison and its inmates, and makes arrests. He has several deputies, and in cases of emer- gency he is empowered to call upon the people or the governor for assistance. The County Commissioners have charge of the roads, the levN'ing and ap))ortioning of taxes, and the county institutions and l)uildings. Tlie Treasurer receives and dis- burses the county moneys. The Coroner represents the govern- ment in cases of unnatural death, and makes niquests as he sees fit. There are other officers, the Register of Deeds, whose 396 STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, AXD TOWNS. books sliow to whom all tlie lands in the county belong and M-hencver any land changes hands, and the County Clerk, who keeps the records of the court8. Especially in the Southern and some of the Western States, where there is no real town government, the county officers liave charge of the business which in P2astern towns is managed by the selectmen. The judiciary of the county consists of a Superior Court, a Probate Court, and a Court of Insolvency, the officers of which in most States are chosen by the people ; in others they are appointed by the governor. Towns, Government of. — The chief officers of a town are the Selectmen, who call town meetings, levy taxes, lay out higli- Avays, grant liquor licenses, have charge of the })Oor-house, and in general conduct the town business. They are elected by the people. There is a Town Clerk who keejjs the records of town-meetings, records the marriages, births, and deaths, and issues marriage certificates. The Town Treasurer receives and disburses the town moneys. The Constable, or constables, summon jurors, serve writs, make arrests, and in some cases act as tax-collectors. The justice of the peace sits in petty cases ; other cases are referred to the county court. In some towns there are overseers of the poor, tax assessoi-s, surveyors of liigh- ways and bridges, and sealers of weights and measures. Then there is the School Committee, an important body, haviiig the care of the schools of a township. They appoint the teachers, choose the text-books, and are required to make a tour of inspec- tion of the schools at regular intervals. In many towns of the country, women are ]>ermitted to vote for members of the school committee. (See Ballot Iveform.) Taxes are of two kinds, that on personal ])roperty, whieli im-ludes b(inds and stocks, furniture, ])ictures, and household furnisliings of all kinds, besides cash and in some (if over ^2,000) from employment or from profits in business. The other kind of tax is that on real estate, whether in lands or buildings. Churches, graveyards, charita1)le institutions, etc., are exempt*. In some States, the poll-tax is levied, irrespective of the other taxes, and is collected of all males over twenty-one years of age. Each town pays a tax to the county, and its pro-rata share of the county tax to the State. State Departniont. (See Federal Government.) Statue of Liberty. (See Monuments and Statues.) Steainsliips, Transatlantic. (See Ship-Building.) Step-Father of His Country. (See Presidents of the United States.) STOCK-KAISING. 397 Stock-Raising. — Side by ^ide with the agricultural develop- meut of the West, there has groAvn up an immense industry in the trans-Mississippi States, in the raising and slaughtering of cattle for beef. What may be called the cattle-raising belt extends fi-om Montana to Southern Texas, and from the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific. On the prairies of this vast region, and on many of the upland plateaus, millions of cattle, sheep, and SAvine roam at will, foraging for themselves, and requiring for their care a mininnim of effort. By fortunate climatic conditions the soutli- ern half of this area may be utilized to advantage for breeding purposes, and the northern half for feeding and fattening. Ex- ))erience has shown that steers bred to their full development in the warmer climate of the South, when sent to WyomiuL;;, for in- ¥^=;^^^^iiS5Ul),()U0 each. Cattle Receipts. — Tho chief receiving-centres for cattle are Chii'ago, St. Louis, Kansas City, and Omaha; in each of these cities are extensive stock-yards and meat-|»acking establishments. The receipts of cattle in ISIH), at Chicago, were 3,484, li8() ; at St. Louis, 030,014; at Kansas City, l,47'J,li'J0 ; at Omaha, (;()(;,()!I0. Of shec]), in ISOO, the receipts at Chicago were 'J,1H2- ()()7 ; at St. Louis, 8;')S,r)UG ; at Kansas City, r);ir),HGO ; at Omaha, I ;")(•, ISO. Of swine, in LSOO, the receipts at Chicago were 7,G(;;5,S28; at St. Louis, 1,350,780; at Kansas City, '2,8().'i,171 ; at Omaha, 1,673,314. The receipts of cattlo at these principal points have increased 70 ])er cent, in five years ending 1890. Till' export trade in American beef and hog jiroducts has devel- oped into a most ]»ro(itable industry (see Kxpoits ami Imports) ; the exj)orts of beef jirodiu'ts in the year ending Juno 30, 1801, wei-e $35,088,315, of hog products, !J84,008,G08. Slonn Signals, etc. (See Signal Service.) Street Kjiihvjiys. (See Kailroads and Bridges.) Striker. (See Slang of Politics.) StullVd I'ropliet. (See Presidents of the United States.) Stump Speaker. (See Slang of Politics.) Sub-Treasuries. — The su1)-treasury system wruary 15, 1S16, the additional duties imposed by the Act of 1812 were rej)ealed, and additional duties of 42 per cent., to take effect on July 1, were substituted, but the law did not go into operation. From 1812 to 1816 the average rate on all im- ports was 32.73 per cent., the range being from 6.84 per cent, in 1S15 to 09.03 in 1813. Tlie next great tariff measure is knoM'n as the Lowndes- Calhoun bill. It Avas approved April 27, 1810, took effect the following July, and may be said to be the first of the protective tariffs. It was regarded as a Southern measure, from tlie fact that the Soutli at the time favored protection, while the North did not. The ad valoi-em duties under it ranged from 7^ to 33 per cent. The unenumerated goods |>aid 15 per (hmiL, the manufactures of iron and other metals generally 15 per cent., the majoiity of TARIFFS OF THE UNITED STATES. 401 ■iO'2 TARIFFS OP THE UNITED STATES. woollen goods 25 per cent., cotton goods 25 per cent., " with clau>d or colored yarn, 75 cents ])er jxmnd. These rates bocaino practically prohibitory on the cheaper goods. Tiie law wa-; amended April 20, 1818, and again on March 8, ISIU. From 1817 to 1820 the average rate on imports was 26.52 per cent.; from 1821 to 1824,85.02 per cent.; and from 1821 to 1824, on dutiable goods only, oG.88 per cent. This general increase of duties was duo to the necessity of providing for the interest on the heavy debt incurred by the second war with Kiigland. 'hie Clay TarilT followed in 1824. The vote in the House was close — 107 to 102, and tlie bill liaunishablo offence, exacted an oath of obedience to this ordinance, and warned the country that any attempts at force would be followeoi-t. The South was earnest in opposition, aner cent., and on dutiable articles 33.47 per cent. The Tarillof 1846, known as tlie Polk- Walker Tariff, laid down tlie j)i'inciple of a tariff for revenue only, and not for pro- tection. This act passed the House, 114 to 95, and the Senate by the vote of tlie pr(!sidiiig ofliccr, and b('(\ame a law. The East opj)Osed it, and the South and West favored it. It swept away specific and compound duties and divided ail dutial)le mer- chandise into eight classes, which introduced greater simplicity into the whole system of customs regulations. The average duty on all imports was, from 1847 to 1857, 23.20 per cent, and on dutiable articles 2G.22 per cent. It remained in effect until ISGl, meantime having increased the revenue largely. The TariiTof 1857 reduced the duties to an average rate of 15.(50, and on dutiable goods to 20.12 per cent. The Morrill Tariir of 18GI was avowedly protectiv(!, although the i-evenue derived from it was needed by the government. The (bities in some cases were actually ])rohibitive. This tariff was frecpiently changed during the war, for purposes of revenue. At one time the number of rates ^as over two thousand. From isGl to 18G9 every year produced some enlargement. In 1870 there was some modification of rates, generally in the line of reduction. Tea and coffee, ta.ted since 18G1, were then i)ut on the free list, and the duties on sugar, cotton, and woollen goo, 0(U), 000 annually. The House declarcMJ the substitute bill unconstitutional, and in the wrangle both bills were put aside. In 1800, the McKinley TaritT Hill bec-aine a law. It ])la(H'd duties on several thousan. In round numbers (he Income from Customs Duties is over ^•J00,000,000 annually. Custom Houses for the collection (^f duties art> situated at all jiorts of entry, both on the seaco.ist and the Great Lakes, as well as on the northern and southern frontiers. The chief officer of Custom Houses is the Collector, who is responsible to the government for the faithfid collection of customs on all dutiable artich'S entering ports in his jurisdiction. In tlu' cities there are also several deputy col- lectors, besides a])praisers, gangers, weighers, etc. Revenue Marine, The. —At all the important ports of oiitry, Avlicro tliere is considerable l)usiness in the collection of im- j)ort (lutii's, there arc one or more revenue cutters whose esi(les tliese, there are twenty-four steamers which be- long to the ci-uising fleet, and patrol specified districts; ten steamers ai'e devoted exclusively to the collection of import duties. All of the steamers carry from one to four guns, and their ciews, usually eight officers and thirty to thirty-five men, cairy small arms for use in case of emergency. ]:>esides their duties in the collection of customs duties, I'cvenue cuttei's assist xcssels in distress, guard ])rop(irty of wrecked vessels, enfoi-ce the ijuarantiiie regulations and the laws governing the merchant iiiarinc, the laws with I'egard to the license, eiirollnicnt, and regis- try of mci-chant vessels, and various other duties in the interest of public and private business, and the safety and welfare of human lives. TarilT of Aboiniiiations. (See Tariffs of the Fnite(l States.) l\;aelier President. (See rresidents of the United States.) IN'IegrjlpIl, T\u\ (^^('r Inventions, (Jreat American.) TelepllOlie, TUv. (See Inventions, dlreat American.) Tell Them (o Obey the Laws aiul Sui»port tlie Constitu- tion. (Sec S.'iyings of Famous Americans.) l\^nn(^SSee. — The State was settled at Fort London in ITO.'), by people from North Carolina, 'i'he Appalachian Mountains are on its eastern ])oundar3', while the Mississipi)i River forms the wcsfcni Itoundary, and with the Tennessee and Cund^erland liivers drains about three foui-t.hs of the State. Theri; ai-e several other I'ivers affording valual)le water power. The fertile Valleys of the Mississippi and the Tennessee Ikivei's yii'ld every variety of product an to (),(iO(» foot in Iioi^lit, arc c'ovcroil with forests of pine, hemlock, chestnut, and hhick w.ihiut. The river conunercc of the State exceeds $;),OUU,0UU a year in hiniber, livestock, ore, grain, and niercliandise. Tennessee stantls next to Kentucky and Virginia in the raising of Tobacco, tlie average crop being from 'ir>,000,(t(M) to 35,000,- 0(1(1 poun'2r),G.si) tons ; it also j)ro(bi(H»s marble, limestone, fire-clay, all the granites, ))i'tro- leuin, magnesia, an(», 000 riiion soldiers. The i>opulation of 'I\'nMessee in KSSO was 1,542,359; in 1890, 1,703,723, of whom 1,332,071 were white, and 434,300 colored. Tlui net State debt was ij! 1 4,038,000 ; the real ju-operty was valued at *211,000,000, the personal property at ^01,000,000; the manu- factures were worth $37,074, 88t) ; the farm lands inchuU'd 20,- (160,000 acres, valued at *20<'),749,837 ; the farm products were worth ^70,070, 311. There were in 1 ^90 2,751 miles of railroad ami 202 newspap«'rs. The chief city is Nash ville, vvhi«'h, by the census of 1 S90, had a jiopidatioii ot 70,1(>S. There are several institutions for TKNUUE OK OKKICK ACT. 407 ll)f t'diioation of colored Klmlcnts here. It is tho iarj^cst Hour milling city in the South, and the iirst city in the country in tho inaiiul'actun! of lumlu'r. Tliere is a capital of |yO,0()0,0(M» in its incorporated companies. It has a number of fine public build- ings, over sixty churclies, and is un important railway centre. The second city is Memphis, whic-h had a poi)ulation in 1800 of ()4,4S)5 ; it is situated on the Mississij)pi Kiver on a blulT, and is the centre for a large railway and steamboat biisiiu'ss. It does a large wholesale and cotton exj)orting business, and is the; site of several cotton-seed oil mills. It is the centre of a great lum- bering district in which there arc 1,UU0 lumber mills. The third city is Chatta- nooga, which had a j)opulation in 1890 of 22,100; it is one of the rising cities of tile South, being the centre of a large iron and coal region. The manufactures of '^rennessee i n - elude 23 cotton mills, employing 10(1,000 H J) i 11 - dies, and using o'J, 000 l)ales of cotton a year ; 20 wo<»lleii mills, wliieh us(; over 2,000,000 pounds of cotton, and 18 iron and st(!el manid'actories, employing 5,(100 men. The Governor (A' Ten- nessee is John 1*. Buchanan (Democrat). His term of oflice ex- pires Jan. If), ISO;}. The State is Democratic. Tenuro of Ottlco Act. — The act which was known by this name came into existence in 1807, at the time of the contest between President Johnson snd Congress over the subje(;t of removals from othce. Congress sought to limit the I'resident's power, and j)assed a law which Johnson v(>toed, but wlii(Oi was passe(l over the veto, providing that no olliccr subject to conlir- niation l>y the Senate should l)e removed without the consent of that body, ]>ut during a recess of tli(( Senate, the I'resident might remove such ofMcer and aj)point a successor till the end of the next session of tlie Senate. There -were about thirty-five hundred ollicers sul>je('t to tlie provisions of these acts, which gave a power to the Senate tliat Avas not cont(unplatecame known as the " courtesy of the COTTON I'AOKKT ON I'MK MIS.SI8.S1 IM'l . lOS TKXAS. SiMiate" "w.-is merely a poliU; phrase wliich oxprossed the "I'owi. i of i);itrona>ie vc'stod in tlio Senate, ami which allottoti (o the St'iiators from carh vStato the control of the Federal offices in it. The Tenure of OtHce Act was repeak-d in 1887. (For Presiden- tial Ti-nu see Presidents of the United States.) Toxas. — The original settlers of Texas Avere Spaniards wlio established a niissioti at San Antonio, ,^K*!s^44^ ii, ](ilX). Texas Mas admitted to the Tnited States in 184.'). It fought for and secured its inde])endence of ]\Iex- ico, and in 1S;>7 it was acknowledj^ed is a repnhlic hy France and l>y the Ignited States in ISoO. It mamtained Us national existence for ten years, :intl then joined the United States. The di'velopnient of the State since then has heen no less wonderful than that of California. The immigration oKt-vr S1.AL oi iKXAs. 1»;«^ ^>i'on larger in Texas, and more ( apit il has been invested here than in any other one State west of the ^Mississippi. It is in area the Largest State in tlu' rnion, being fonr times as large as New England, six times as large as New Vork State, and seven times as large as Ohio. The IJio Grande Kivi-r forms the western boundary, and the other chief rivers are the Hra/os, the Colorado, tl\e tiuadalnpe, and the San Antonio. P]ast- ern Texas pro«luces iron, timber, sugar, tobacco, and fruits, and has valuable stock-farms. There is a vast area of Farm Lai\ds in tiie centre of the State, while northern Texas is esj)ecially rich in cotton and wheat. Western Texas is the region of inunense Gallle- Ranges. The Pan Handle is a great i)lateau covering :J7,0l»0 sipiare miles in tlie southwestern ]>art of the State, where the State sells land to the settlers. The Staked Plains are a ]>ortion of tlu> Pan Handle region, and atTord pasture to large herds of cattle. The Agricultural Products of Texas have an almost end- less variety. (.>f Cotton, in the pr«>duction of which Texas is the first State, it has pn>duced more than 1,1200,000 bales a year, and the ]>roduct is worth |5r)0,OtiO,000 a year. The product of Colton-Secd is over 500,000 tons a yeaV, of wheat i),t»00,000 bushels, of corn 'i."\000,0(H) bushels, of* oats 15,000.000 bushels. There are over S,0OO,0(H) acres of Texas lands mider cultivation, cut \ii> nito 40,(>00 farms, j.roducing yearly about ^80,000,000 TEXAS. 401) worth of liay. Sugar-catio, grapes, peaches, an(i bananas are produced ill large cpiantities. There are sugar-plantations of the Brazos Iviver which produce yearly over 10, 000, 000 jxiunds of sugar. It is estimated that Texas has above 3,000,000 cattle ; the sales for a single year average from 1,1200,000 head to 1,500,000 head. Of sheep, in 1891, Texas had 4,990,000, more than any other State. Of wool, the product amounts to '25,000,000 })ounds a year, valued at $7,000,000. The manufactures of Texas num- ber over 3,000, and employ 18,000 persons. The manufactur- ing product is upwards of #40,000,000 worth of goods. Tlie United States Army has lu'adquarters in San An- tonio, where there is also an arsenal which covers twenty acres. In this Department of the .\rmy there are ten military posts, having upwards of two thousand soldiers, covering the Mexican and Indian Territory frontiers. The forts are Fort Clarke, Fort Hancock, Fort Concho, Camp Pena Colorado, Fort Ivinggold, Fort Mcintosh, Fort Bliss, Fort Brown, and Fort Elliott. The State supports a School Fund in bonds and lands estimated at $100,000,000. There are eleven colleges and higher institutions of learning in the State, having 3,254 studiMits. All the jmblic schools are open to white and black children alike, and there is one normal school for colored students which is supported by the State. * The population of Texas in 1880 was 1,591,749 ; in 1890 it was 2,235,523 ; the white population is about 75 per cent, of the whole. The real property was valued at $348,000,000 ; the per- sonal property at $214,000,000. The acreage of farm lands was 30,303,454, valued at $170,468,88(5 ; in 1890 there were 8,lU3 miles of railroads and 542 newspapei's. The chief city of Texas is Galveston, situated on the Gidf of Mexico ; it has a beach extending over thirty miles. It is the third cotton-exporting point in the United States, exporting 700,000 bales a year. Steamships run to the Northern ports carrying cotton, cotton-seed, wool, lumber, and hides. The population of Galveston in 1890 was 29,084. Dallas is the first city in point of population, and is situated in the priiirie region of northern Texas, of which it is the com- mercial and railway centre, being surrounded by a rich and productive agricultural region. It has a, general trade of $25,000,000 a year, 120 factories, and sells more agricultural im- plements than any city of the South. The population in 1890 was 38,007. San Antonio, the second city in population, is the foremost wool market of Texas, handling in a vcar, sometimes, 15,000,000 •no THKATKKS. pounds. There is a large business here in horses and mules, and large quantities of hojjs and grain pass through here bound for Mexieo. Houston is the centre for a dozen railways which transport the jtroduets of a fertile and prosperous contiguous country. It lias immense machine shops, car works, cotton-seed oil mills, and had a jjopnlalion in 181K) of 27,551. In 181)0 it re- ceived !tci(),00t»,0(l(» of the cotton crop of the State, loading the cro|» onto vessels for export, besides ;J,000,000 gallons of cotton- oil, lli,(l»»0,000 poumls of sugar, and 1,000,(100 gallons of syrup. It also di had not been TIIIUI) TKRM. 411 marked, ted to the buildincj of tlieatros, in consequence of the (leniaiid for evenins^ enterta'nmient. While in the United States tliere are no tlieatres or public buildings capal)lc of seating as many people as several in Europe, a tendency is api)arent toward the construction of places of i)ublic entertainment of immense seating capacities. The two latest examples are the AuditoriuiTi lUiilding at Chicago, which seats 10,000 i)eople, and the Madison Scpiare (4arden at New Yoi'k, whose seating cai)acity is 8,443. Other larg(! theatres in this country, with tlieir seating capacities, are Musi Re])ublican party in 1880 went to the Republican National Convention 300 strong, in favor of the nomination of ex- President (iraiit for President, (irant had ali'cady been ]*i-esident two tci'ms, 18G9 to 1877. There Avas a widely pnivailing prejudice against the third term idea ; Washington had declined a third term, and the opponents of one-man power raised a loud hue and cry, which was iu)t with- out effect. Yet the Grant faction developed remarkable strength, and at the convention (see Presidential Conventions Under How the President Ts Elected) voted as ojie man. They w(5re under the leadership of lloscoe Conkling. The contest in the conven- tion was a nu'morable one, and it was not until over thirty-six l)allots ha|)0(*ail0e. (See Presidents of the United States.) Title of the President. (See Presidents of the United States.) Tobacco, Production of. (See Agriculture.) Torchlight Processions. Wide Awakes. Plumed Knights. Caps, Capes, and Torches. Bandannas. Flags. Transparencies. Great Parades. There is no record of the first political parade. Ever since the f(>i-in:ition of the Union, parades liave been held in the large fiilga"^. cities during the canvass. These demonstra- ^^^ ^' tions by the voters of loyalty to their candidate ^^^ ^-=-^ did not assume extensive projxn-tions until the Log Cabin and Hard Cider campaign of 1S40, when the temi)er of the AVhig voters, in- tluccd by the pronounced personal element upon which the campaign was ft)ught and won, was in keeping with the t^pirit which prompts men to attest in public their devotion to a man or a priiu'iple. In this animated contest for the Presidency, the Whigs paraded, and repro- \\ iincipal street shows, and -although torches were used little or no attempt was made toward uniform- ing the mari'hing clubs. In ISl'iO the Pepiiblicans fornu'tl marching A Tomii iit.vKKK clubs called " Wide- Awakes," an was worn literally by millions. In recent years Fireworks have almost entirely taken the place of the bonflres of former days as a means of illumination. In 1840 balls of cotton tied tightly and soakejd with alcohol were tossed from hand to hand, fireworks as known to-day being rather expensive. To-day every grand processioii marches with wagims loaded with j)yi-otechnics and the streets blaze and glow with colored fires. Another feature of political campaigns which has long been in vogue is Flag-Raising. As soon as the nominating conventions com])let:e their labors, 414 TOIJtIILKMIT I'liOCKSSIONS. flacj-raisiiig begins and tlie display of bunting becomes a marked feature of the streets in all the cities and towns. What with tlie cheap cotton flags costing a few cents to the huge banners with portraits and mottoes costing large sums, the dis]ilay is ahnost univei'sal, nearly every club and headcjuarters and many newspapers disj)layiiig the Star-Spangled Banner with their can- didates' names attached. Another and a more beautiful method of showing }>arty fealty is in Illuminations, Avhieh are generally made with pajier lanterHs, sometimes of the most elaborate and costly materials. Up to 18()0 these lanterns were almost entirely imported from Paris, Germany, or Japan, but since then American ingenuity and labor-saving maehuiery have revolutionized the prices so that lanterns that in ISOO were considered cheap at twenty-Hve cents apiece can now be bought at iivo cents. Torches are, of coui'se, a necessity in an evening parade, but apart from tlie Flambeaus, with their sudden and immense columns and llashes of flame (caused by lycopodium powder), and the colored glass lanterns occasionally used, torches have lieen pretty much alike in all the campaigns. Hundreds of ])atterns are j)roduced, but as all cats are l)lack in a dark room, so all torches are alike when viewed in a procession. 'J'he divi-rsity in marching illuminations is chiefly in transparencies, in whicli the variety in si/e, shape, color, ami mottoes is absolutely boundless. Notable Parades.— TUa largest political i)arades have been those in I'residential campaigns in New York City, a few days hefore the election. IJoth ))arties have a parade of their voters, within a night or two of each other. The Saturd.ay night before the election is usually chosen by one or the other party, the choice depending upon which of them flrst applies for per- mission of the city authorities. Large sums of money are sup- ])lied l)y the campaign con>jnitt(M's, for e(|uip]>iiig the clubs with uniforms, torches, banners, transparencies, etc., and for fitting illuminations along the line of march. When the uiiiforms are attractivt^ly gotten up, the spectacle is a grand one. The line of march almost invariably is up or down New York's aristocratic street, Fifth Avenue, and thence into Broadway. It is customary to inscribe the lianners and trans))arencies with mottoes expressive of the issues of the campaign, and the ingenuity and wit of the campaign managers are at such tinu's ])ut severely to the test in devising elYective catch-words and phrases. On Thursday night, November *2, ISTG, the Democratic voters of New Yoi k and vicinity paraded to the number of twenty-five thousand or more. Among the mottoes? on transparencies were the following : — TOKCHLIGHT PROCKSSIONS. 415 "Grand Old Tammany: the Democratic Fortress." " Equal rights for Foreign-Boni and Native-Born Citizens." " Reform is necessary to put a stop to the profligate waste of public hands." " Tilden and Reform." " Reform is necessary in the civil service," "Grantism means poor })cople made poorer." " No Bayonet Rule." " We demand that our custom- house taxation shall be for revenue only." " We demand a rigorous frugality in every department of the govei-nmeiit." '' Reform is necessary to establish a sound currency." " The Democratic Party stands now as il always has stood, for the Freedom of Cuba.'' (Cubaat the time was trying to secure its UNION SQUAl^E, NEW YORK. independence.) " Tammany welcomes the brave Cubans." " Let every son and friend of Cuba vote next Tuesday for Tilden and Hendricks." " No Sectional Hate, no Sectarian Strife." " Repub- licans as a diseased and corrupt party are hurled from Power." " Tilden, Hendricks, and Reform." " Democracy, the last refuge of personal and political rights, will give us back the ancient purity of government." " Let us have a clean sweep." " Ballots Not Bayonets." " Our Union Forever." "V^ictory!" "We will save the Nation." "Fifty thousand majority for Tilden." "In Unity is Strength." "No Thieves in Office?' "No more Whiskey Rings." "Let no guilty man escape — U. S. G," 416 TOKCIILliillJ' rUuCliSSIONS. "Reform in tlio Civil Sorvic-o.'" Pictures of Tilden bore the titles, — " Our iriu'lc Samuel " and tlie " Noblest Komaii of Tlicm All." On Saturday night of the same week the IJe|»iil)licans paraded, led by columns of " lioys in JJluc," nuniljcrinii; 9,(i00, accompanied by otlier local organizations which swelled the total to 2U,(>0(I men. The only emblem disi)layed was the "Ship of State," a small vessel with sails set, drawn xipon a wagon. The Republicans on the inght of October 11, 1880, held one of the largest j)arades New York had ever seen. Between forty and tifty thousand men were in line. Grant was on the review- ing stand in Madison Square. Beneath Grant's ]K)rtrait on a transparency, "Our (iuest" was inscribed, and "Our Next President " on a transparency illuminating the face of Garfield. One of the banners bore this inscription: " Irish- American Republican Association of American Citizens : We know our rights and dare to maintain them " ; on the reverse side was " No Free Trade." Other mottoes were : " No man can afford to be lukewarm." "Push Things. U. S. G. " "Welcome, Grant." "Welcome to the Nation's Hero." " We vote as our Fathers fought." '' It is a cold day when Democratic boasting can scare us." " GarHcld — born of the people, educated in adversity — the President of the People." On Thui-sday afternoon, October 30, 1884, the Republican Business Men of New York paraded on Broadway, marching from the Batter}' to Madison Square, a distance of nearly four miles. This and the parade of the Democratic business men a day or two later were the most impressive political demonstra- tions New York had ever witnessed. The bitter personal char- acter of the campaign, and the peculiar political conditions of the time, had arousetl the keenest excitement. In this parade of the Republican business men, of whom there were 25,000, there was no music, nor even the beat of drums, the absence of which made the spectacle all the more imposing. The solid phalanxes of bankers, brokers, merchants, lawyers, tradesmen, clerks, and students, marched with arms locked, in the midst of a drizzling rain, occupying five hours in passing the grand stand at Madison Square. The various branches of the commercial life of the metropolis marclied together. All of them kept time to the watchwords, shouted with emphasis clear and strong, "Blaine- Blaine -- James G. Blaine." Ohio in the October election having gone Republican, another cry was, " 0-0-O-hi-O." An- other was, " As-we-shout-so-we-vote." An original feature of the jiarade was the singing by the jiaraders of " Glory, Glory, Hallelujah," and the songs of the Columbia College students, to the tune of " Balm of Gilead," as follows : — TORCHLIGHT PROCESSIONS. 417 " Here's to James G. Blaine, He won't go down, He's a bully boy from Maine, He won't go down, down, down." Another cry was " No-No-No-Free- Trade." On Saturday night, November 1, 1884, nearly fifty thousand Republican :5 paraded in the metropolis, — keeping step to the cry " Blaine, Blaine, Blaine — ■ James G. Blaine," or to " Blaine, Blaine, Blaine — Hurrah, hurrah, hurrah ! " At times this was changed to " Hurrah — Hurrah — for James — G. — Blaine. He is free from any stain, James G. Blaine." The Irish- American Blaine men carried a transparency inscribed as follows : — " Skools and eddication is the cuss of the Demokracy." Other mottoes were these: — "No Free Trade." "Protect Home FEDERAL CAPITOL IN 1861, RICHMOND, VA. Industries." " Preserve Home Industries." " Three Times Three for Ohio." "Now for New York." "Push Things." "We legislate for the People of the United States ; not for the whole world — James A. Garfield." " The Republican Party : the log- book of this voyage cannot be too often read." " No Free Trade; we know what is." " 329 x Mulligan Letters= Zero." "Look at what $1.00 will buy in the United States and P]ngland." " A vote for Cleveland is a vote to enslave the laboring man." " Tell John Bull he can't make American laws." " We want American, not English legislation," *' No Free 418 TREASON. Ships." "No One Dollar a clay." "Grover, you will be left." " The British Lion cannot arrest the flight of the American Bird." " Destruction to vVmerican Industries is England's opjjor- tunity." " Protection is Prosperity. Free Trade is Beggary." " We have broken the brass collar of Party Slavery Forever." "For Union and Justice: Rifles and Leaden Bullets in 1864. Torches and Republican liallots in 1884." " Our Friends — the enemy — Push tiiem, Boys." "Blaine and Victory." "Dinna ye hear the slogan, Jimmy Blaine and Johnny Logan ! " " Down with Free Trade." " Labor is King." " Protection For Ameri- can Citizens." " We vote as we fought." " Our Friends, the Enemy: We propose to move at once u|)on their works." Forty thousand Republicans paraded in New York on November 3, 1888. On tlie l)anners, flags, and transparencies Avere dis- played such mottoes as these : " Give us a President in favor of American Shipping." " We want the American flag to be seen in every foreign port." " Protection to American Shipping." " Amer- ican Ships and American Wages." " Protection — Harrison and Morton." " Home Rule for L-eland." " Take the tax off tobacco." "Down with direct taxes." "Hurra for cent post- age." From time to time those in line sang a song the refrain of which was " Good-bye, my Grover, Good bye " — or kept time to the couplet : " Grover, Grover, take a rest; Your goose is cooked by Sackville West." Towns, Government of. (See States, Cities, etc., Govern- ment of.) Trading. (See Slang of Politics.) Treason. — Under the Constitution, Article 3, Section 3, treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to de- clare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attained. Treasnry Department. (See Federal Government.) Tree Planting. (See Forestry.) Twist the British Lion's Tail, To. — This is a favorite way of exi)ressing the tendency of some orators usually Irish or friends of Ireland, of abusing Great Britain. Freqiumtly tliis abuse is for political effect upon the Irish vote. The late " Riche- UNCLE SAM. 419 lieu" Robinson was -celebrated when in Congress for liis speeches of this character, although he was a native-born Irish- man, and believed everything that he said of Great Britain's ill- treatment of his native land. Uncle Abe. (See Presidents of the United States.) Uncle Jerry. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Uncle Sam. (See Presidents of the United States.) Uncle Sam. — Elbert Anderson, a New York contractor, in 1812, visited Troy, N. Y., and bought a quantity of provisions. The government inspector, Samuel Wilson, was known in the neighborhood as "Uncle Sam." Anderson's goods were labelled " E. A. — U. S." The latter abbreviation was quickly translated into " Uncle Sam," as a bit of facetiousness at Wilson's expense. In that way Uncle Sam came to be synonymous with Brother Jonathan, both being typical of the imaginary personage who is inseparably connected with the destinies of the country. Unconditional Surrender. (See Presidents of the United States.) Uncrowned King. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Underground Railroad. — This was the name of an organ- ized system of aiding fugitive slaves to Canada, where they would be safe. Those who were prominently engaged in secret- mg the fugitives did so at great personal risk, and arrest and im- l)risonment was of frequent occurrence. The president of the " railroad " was Levi Coffin, who it is estimated aided in the escape of over twenty-five hundred slaves. Uniformed Soldier. (See Presidents of the United States.) Union Jack. (See Flags of the United States.) Union La])Or Party. (See Political Parties.) Union Must be Preserved. (See Sayings of Famous Amer- icans.) Union Safeguard. (See Presidents of the United States.) Unit Rule. — It is the practice of Democratic National Con- ventions to determine the vote of a State delegation by the vote of a majority of the delegation. This practice is known as the unit rule. When the majority of the New York delegation at the Democratic National Convention of 1884 voted in favor of Cleveland's nomination, the minority made a vigorous attempt to break the unit rule, but the leadership of Daniel Manning pre- vented this result, and Cleveland's nomination was assured. United Labor Party. (See Political Parties.) 420 UTAH. United States Army. (See Army, The United States.) United States Mints. (See Coinage, etc) United States Navy. (See Navy, The United States.) United Workmen, Ancient Order of. (Sea Secret Societies.) Unprecedented Strategist. (See Presidents of the United States.) Unquestionably Skilled. (See Presidents of the United States.) Utah. — - The first persons to visit that section of the United States now known as Utah Territory were a party of Spaniards under Captain Cardenas in 1540. In 1S47 a permanent settle- ment was estabhslied by Brigham Young and a small party of pioneers, Avho ])receded a religious sect, the Mormons, who had been expelled from Illinois. These located at Salt Lake City. Year after year brought new acquisitions of religious enthusiasts, and finally a large and powerful community arose. In 1850, Utah, originally a portion of the Mexican concession of 1848, was organized as a Territory, containing 84,970 square miles, and bounded by Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, and Idaho. The average heiglit of this Territory is 6,1 00 feet above the level of the sea, while over five thousand square miles lie four thousand feet higher. It is traversed from North to South by the Wasatch Mountains, and a portion of the Territory forms a part of the Great American Desert. Great Salt Lakejwhich is within its borders, once covered an area of 42,000 square miles, varying from 1,700 square miles in 1849 to 2,360 square miles in 1870, since which time it has dimin- ished. In 1880 the population of the Territory was 143,963; in 1890, it was 207,905. Owing to the polygamous habits of mau}^ of the i)eople these have been disfi*anchised, and Utah's admit- tance to tlie Union as a State has been refused on account of the Mormon belief, which is that the laws of Church transcend the laws of State. Farming, Stock-raising, and Mining, are the chief in- dustries. The first engages 3,000,000 acres of arable lands ■watered by 1,000 miles of canals. The beautiful green valleys of the Mormon farmers have resulted from the outlay of much labor and money. Irrigation, which was first experimented with by these farmers, is rapidly turning barren lands into vineyards and adding to the area now under cultivation. This already yields about 6,000,000 bushels of grain, as many of fruit, and 5,000,000 tons of VERMONT. 421 liay. Wine, almonds, and raisins are liere ])roducc(l, and fields of cotton Avdiiten the valleys. Live stock has increased from 500,000 head in 187G to 3,000,000 at the time of the last census. Between 1871 and ISOl Utah produced about $100,000,000 in silver, about $40,000,000 in lead, and $10,000,000 in gold and copper, and was next to Colorado and Montana in the production of lead, yielding yearly niore than 24,000 tons. Many other minerals are also mined. PMucation, after the commissioner of public schools was made an appointee of the Supreme Court, has been maintained by the Mormons. The University of Deseret, a high and nor- mal school at Salt Lake City, is a Territorial institution, dating from 1850, and has fourteen teachers and 330 students. The Brigham Young College, founded at Logan, in 1878, is a Mor- mon institution with 200 students. Ogden also has a large military academy. The national institutions are Fort Logan, near (Salt Lake City, and Fort Duchesne. Four million acres of land are apportioned to the LTte Lidians, in reservations called the L^intah and LTncorapahgre Reservations, while the Shoshones in the north and Pintes in the south rove at will in those ])arts. The three largest cities are Salt Lake City, Ogden, and Provo, with a population respectively, according to the census of 18D0, of 45,840, 14,889, and abont 5,200. The manufactures employ only about 3,600 hands, yielding a product of 19^)00,000, the larger portion of which comes from Salt Lake City. The three princijial smelters, which are a few miles south of this city, represent a value of $400,000. The Governor of Utah Territory is Arthur L. Thomas (Kepublican), whose term of office expires December 30, 1893. Vermont. — The country was first visited by Cham})lain in the year 1G09, but the earliest M'hite settlements within the present limits of Vermont were made about 1724- 25 near Brattleboro, where a fort was erected by Massachusetts emi- grants. The French built a fort in 1731, near the southern extremity of Lake Cham})lain, but soon aban- doned it. About 17G0, one hundred and thirty-eight settlements were made under grants from the gov- ernor of New LFampsliire. New York also claimed the region, and a war resulted which became famous by reason of the exploits of Ethan Allen's "Green Mountain GREAT SEAL OF VERMONT. 422 VKU.MONT. Boys." The Green Mountains intersect the State from north to soiUh, and contain a iinmber of ])oaks from 3,000 to 4,r)00 feet liigh. A second range, of inferior lieight, hranclies off at Killington Peak and trends northeast. There are also some detached pealvs, of wliieli Mount Ascutney, 3,.3"i0 feet high, is tlie most conspic- uous. Lake Champlain extends for 105 miles along tlie western border, and receives many small rivers and creeks. The entire territory east of the mountains is drained by the Connecticut River and its numerous tril)utaries, the Connecticut separating Vermont from New Hampshire. The Connecticut is the only navigable river. Lake Champlain, 1"JG miles in length, and from forty rods to fifteen miles in width, has a depth of from fifty to nearly three hundred fi-et, and is navigable through- out by the largest vessels. The Vermont Marble Quarries yiebl three quarters of the product of the countiy. The State ])roduces also granite, slate, lime, some copper ore, and manganese. Farm values have not increased since the war, but the soil is fertile, yielding large crops of hay. The dairy ])roducts of the State are very valual)lc, aggregating 25,01)0,000 pounds in a year. The product of maple sugar is over $1,200,000 in a year. The chief manufactures are scales, organs, farm implements, paper and machinery, and aggi-egate $31,350,000 in a year. The population of Vermont in 18S0 was 332,28(3 ; in 1890, it was 332,205, a loss of 81. The real property was valued at $111,000,000, the i)ersonal property at $50,000,000. The farm land acreage Avas 4,882,588, valued at $109,346,010, yielding products worth $22,082,656. The school attendance was 46,081, the railroad mileage was 1,012, and the number of newspapers was 81. Burlington, the capital and the chief city, has a fine situation overlooking Lake Champlain. Here is located the University of Vermont. In 1890 the population was 14,590. Rutland, the second city, is a prosperous business and railroad centre. Its population in 1890 was 11,760. St. Albans is the third city (population 7,771), ami Brattleboro is the fourth city (|»opulation 6,869). At Bennington is located a fine monument commemora- ting the Battle of Bennington, in 1777. The monument is of dolomite, in the form of an obelisk, 301 feet high, and the top is reached by means of a stairway on the inside. Carroll S. Page (Hep.) is Governor of Vermont. His terra expires October 3, 1892. The State is Republican. Very Hungry and Very Thirsty. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) VIRGINIA. 423 Veto Power. — The veto is the weapon lodged by the Consti- tiition with the President, as a means of jn-eventing tlie enact- ment of hxws passed by Congress, but which he does not approve. Tlie same power by the constitutions of States and of cities is vested in governors and in mayors. To override the Executive veto, Congress must in both houses do so by a two thirds vote, and ill most of the States a two thirds vote of both houses of the Icgishiture is necessary. In otlier States, a simple majority or a three fifths vote is necessary, wliile Ohio, Delaware, Rhode Island, and North Carolina, deny the governor the power of veto. In vetoing a bill, the President returns it to the house in which it originated, accompanied by a statement of his objections. Faihire to return a bill within ten days (Sunda3^s excepted) is equivalent to signing it. The same limit applies to most of the States. Virginia. — Virginia is honored in having within her limits the First Permanent Settlement by the English in America. This was effected at Jamestown, in 1607. From 1609 there were con- stant accessions to the colony, although troubles with the Indians and misgovernment hindered tlie prosperity of tlie settlement. In (J 1624 the London company was dis- ,jj solved and Virginia became directly subject to the crown. The Shenan- doah, Alleghany, and Cumberland Mountains extend along the West \^irginia border from Harper's Ferry to the Tennessee line. The six great topographical divisions are known as the Tidewater, IMiddle, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley, and Appalachian sections, all of which extend across the State from northeast to south west, and have a general trend corresponding to that of the Atlantic coast and the Appalachian range. More than three fourths of Virginia is drained by the Potomac, Rappahannock, Rapidan, \'ork, Elizal)eth, James, and their tributaries, all of which iind their way at last to the Atlantic. The chief industry is Agriculture, and the staple product is leaf-tobacco, for which the State has a wide fame. There are over 127,1 503 2,087 309,791 8,983 4,.593 3,330 910 13,781 005,040 7,911 0,405 9,494 13.41S 4 1,1 22 1,500 101,282 1,001 503 . 2,087 2,772,408 The Number of Troops enlisted in tlie Confederate cause has never been authentically determined. The number ha-; been variously estimated, but it probably approximated 000,000. The Number of Casualties in the volunteer and regulai- armies of the United States, during the war of 1801-65, was reported by the Provost Mai-shal General in 18GG : Killed in bat- tle, 61,362; died of wounds, 34,727; died of disease, 183,287; AVASIIINGTOX. 427 total died, 279,876; total deserted, 199,105. Nuniber of soldiers in the Confederate service who died of wounds or disease (par- tial statement), 183,821. Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. Xumber of United States troo])s captured during tlie war, 212,- 008 ; Confederate troops captured, 476,109. Number of United States troops paroled on the fiehl, 10,481 ; Confederate troops paroled on tlie fiehl, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died while |n-isoners, 29,725 ; Confederate troops who died wlnle i^risoners, 20,774. Washington of tlie West. (See Presidents of the United States.) Washington, — The first settlement was at Turnwater, in 1845 by Boston traders. It was ad- mitted as a State in 1889. The Cas- cade JMountains traverse it north and south from British Columbia to Oregon, and divide it into two unequal portions, the eastern section containing about 50,000 and the western nearly 20,000 square miles. The highest peak is Mount Rainier or Tacoma, 14,- 500 feet, and tJiere are several others almost as high. The picturesque Columbia River enters tlie State from the north, trav- erses its whole breadth and witli its tributaries drains nearly its whole area. The Snake, Walla Walla, Spokane, Colville, and Clarke's Fork are its principal affluents. The State has a coast Ime on the Pacific of about 180 miles which furnishes many ex- cellent harbors. The Industries are lumbering, fisheries, and agriculture. The lumber industry yields over 1,200,000,000 feet, employing 5,000 men, and several hundred sawmills, many of which export to Australia. The forests contain red firs, cedar, pines, hemlock, and many other woods. The Fisheries include salmon, halibut, oysters, sturgeon, herring, and various other food fish. Agricul- ture yields 15,000,000 bushels of wheat, besides large quantities of corn, hops, and vegetables. Stock Raising has assumed extensive proportions, and irri- gating canals extend hundreds of miles. Coal is produced to the amount of over 1,000,000 tons in a year. Iron ore, granite, lead, gold, silvcu", cop))er, sandstone, and other minerals are found. The population in 1880 was 75,115; in 1890 it was 849,390. The manufactures are worth over $8,250,134; the farm land Vyv'v^v^j GREAT SEAL OF WASHINGTON. 428 WAYWARD SISTERS. acreage is over $1,409,000, vahied at over a!l3,844,000, yielding over $4,212,000 in a year. The daily school attendance is over 29,247. In 1890 there were 1,783 miles of railroad, and in 1892 therQ were 194 newspapers. Seattle, the capital, has a fine situation on Piiget Sound, with a niagniticent harbor. It is an extensive export, manufacturing, and commercial centre. Its population in 1880 was 4,000; in 1890, it was 42,837. It has a fine opera house, excellent hotels, a beautiful Chamber of Commerce, and substantial business build- ings. Tacoma, the second city (population 30,006), is at the head of Puget Sound navigation, and an important railroad and ship- ping centre. Shi})s leave the wharves here direct for Australia, China, and Japan. Spokane Falls, the third city (population 19,922), is the centre of an agricultural and mining region. The Governor of Washington is Elislia P. Ferry (Republican), whose term exi^ires January 4, 1893. The State is Republican. Washington Monument. (See Monuments and Statues.) Watchdog of the Treasury. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Wayward Sisters. — Gen. Winfield Scott, m a letter to William II. Seward, in 1861, used the jihrase " wayward sisters" in speak- ing of the slave States whicli had seceded. The allusion was that it would be better to allow them to go in peace rather than to precipitate a civil Avar. Weather Indications. (See signal Service.) We Have Met the Enemy, and They Are Ours. (See Say- ings of Famous Americans.) Weigllt of Coins. (See Coinage, Free Coinage, etc.) We Love Him for the Enemies He Has Made. (See Say- mgs of Famous Americans.) We Must All Hang Together. (See Sayings of Famous Americans.) West Point Military Academy. (See Army, United States.) West Yirginia. — The State was settled at Phillipi, in 1704, by Americans. It was formed into a State in 1863, and Avas comj)Osed of the northern and Avestern counties of Virginia. West Virginia is extremely hilly. The Alleghany range on its eastern boundary contains several large peaks, and Avest of this range and running parallel Avith it, at an average distance of thirty miles, are a series of mountains scarcely inferior in height, Avhich enclose many fertile valleys. "WEST VIRGINIA. 429 GREAT SEAL OF WEST VIUGI>IA, The Scenery of tlie mount.iin regions is very fine, and forms a special attraction for tourists. The White (Sulphur Springs region is annually visited by thousnnds of ])eoi)le. The Po- tomac forms part of the eastern boundary. The JJig Sandy, Great and Little Kanawha, Guayandotte and Monongahela ai'e all navigable. The slack water navigation of the Kanawha and Monongahela is of much service to the commerce of the State, and by means of the Ohio tlie southern and southwestern citi(!s can be reached. Agriculture produces yearly about 1(),0()0,000 bushels of corn, 3,000,000 of wheat, and 3,000,000 of oats ; and employs nearly two thirds of the people. The cliicf rural vocation is the raising of horses, cattle, and sheep. The Pan-Handle counties have large flocks of sheep, favored by the limestone soil, abundant Avater, and genial climate. Tliere are 1,600,000 head of livestock. The tobacco industry yields 5,000,000 pounds in a year, valued at $400,000. Lumbering and Coal Mining are extensive industries; in coal-production. West Virginia stands fourth among the States, having an annual outjMit of G,.'iOO,000 tons, chiefly bitum- inous. In petroleum production tlie State stands third, averaging 360,000 barrels in a year. Natural gas, iron-ore, salt, sandstone, limestone, marble, copper are also produced. The population in 1880 M^as 618,457; in 1890, it wa> 762,794. The real property was valued at $119,000,000, the ])ersonal prop- erty at $60,000,000. The manufactures produce in a vcar over $22,860,000. The farm lands cover 10,225,000 acres, valued at $133,147,115, yielding $19,360,049. The daily school atten- dance is 121,700. In 1S90 there were 1,327 miles of railroads, and in 1892 there were 152 newspapers. Wheeling, the chief city, is a thriving manufacturing centre, admirably situated on the Oliio River. The population in 1890 was 35,013. Tlie second city is Huntingdon (population 10,- 108). Parkersburg is the third city (population 8,408), and tlie shipjiing point of the ]>etroleum region. Cliarleston (popula- tion 6,734) is tlie capital, and has many salt s|)rings. The Gov- ern(n- of West Virginia is William ll.Ohley (Democrat). His term of oftice expires March 4, 1893. 'J'he State is Democratic. Wets. (See Slang of I'olitics.) 430 Avii.Mor I'uoviso. WliJii A (lilorioiis 3Ioriiiiii:: Is This ! (See Sayings of Fatuous AiiuM'icans.) Mh'di Hath (Jod Wroil2:ht. (See TelegTa})h, The.) Wheat, Prod net ioii of. (See Agriculture.) WlliiJIS. (See ]\.litical Parties.) "Whiskey King, Tlie. — During tlio tirst ailmiuistration of President Grant, a conspiracy Avas brouglitto liglit Avhieli incrinii nated a large number of Federal oUicials. Investigation showeersons, and the confiscation of |!a,500,000 worth of whiskey, on May 10, 1875. "Whitewash. (^See Slang of Politics.) Widows of rresidents Jiiid Federal OHieers on Pension liist. (See Pension Office.) Widows of Kevolntionary Soldiers on Pension List. (See Pension Office.) Wilniot. Proviso. (See Omnibus Pill.) — So called from the fact that it was introdu^-i'd by Congressman Pavitl Wilmot, of Pennsylvania. On August S, 184(5, President Polk requested of Congress an appropriation of money with which to make a treaty with Alexico, by ]»urchasmg such of her territory as this govern- ment might Avant, and thus to settle the war then being carried on. The bill appropriating the money, §!2,000,(HH\ brought ui> the slavery question, "Wilmot, who acted upon the advice of Northern Democrats, offering a ]>roviso that " neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory, (to be purchased), exce])t for crime, whereof the ])arty shall first be convicted.'' The Whigs and Northern Democrats favored the proviso, and it })assed the House, but arrived in the Senate too late to be acted upon. In the next Congress, AVilmot introduced his proviso again, but lie failed in two attempts to put it through. In the discussion, the doctrine of "Squatter Sovereignty'" Mas eniinciated, which was in effect that the people of a State or Territory should settle the ipiestion of slavery themselves. Wire-Pnller. (See Slang of IVditics.) Wisconsin. — The country was settled at La Pointe, in U)i>5, by Frenchmen who built a mission there. The discovery in this AVISCONSIN. 431 region of prehistoric inijileiiu'iits, and of earthworks in the shape of mounds, have led ethnologists to believe that at some earlv age the country was inhabited by an unknown tribe who are supposed to have been what experts call " Mound-Build- ers." Wisconshi became a State in 1847, and its development since then has been rapid. Its general character is that of a large plain. The plain is from six hundri'd tolifteen hundred feet above the le\'el of the sea. The JMississippi, Fox, and Wisconsin Kivers have a considerable descent while passing through or along '1"^ the boundary of the State, thus fur- GRKAT SaAL OF WISCONSIN. nishing valuable water })ower. Be- sides the great lakes — Superior on the north and JVIichigan on the east — there are numerous bodies of water in the central and northern ])arls of the State. These lakes are from five to thirty miles in extent, with high picturesque banks, and as a rule, dee)) water. From those many rivers take their rise, a nund)er liaving beautiful cascades or rapids, and Howing through narrow, rocky gorges, or " dells," the scenery of Avhich has l)ec()me famous. Wisconsin has an endless variety of beautiful scenery. Tlie four lakes which surround Madison ; the Dells, near Kil- bourn City; the Aveird beauty of Devil's Lake, which in the mystery of its origin rivals Lake Tahoe ; and the calm peace which reigns at Geneva Lake, all possess attractions for summer tourists. The Wisconsin Forests are the most valuable of its resources, the annual output of lumber aggregating over 1,500,000,000 feet, besides an enormous <[uantity of laths and shingles. Pine, oak, birch, bassAVood, po})lar, s[)ruce here grow in the utmost i)ro- fusion. The Farms, according to the latest estimates, are worth |!lOO,- 000,000, yielding 40,000,000 bushels of oats, almost as many of corn, 20,000,000 of wheat, 12,000,000 of barley, 11,000,000 of potatoes, besides immense crops of hay and a})ples. Of tobacco, the yield is over 20,000,000 pounds. Fruit, llax, and wild rice yield large harvests. The Live-Stock. is valued at $75,000,000, including over a mil- lion cattle, 890,000 sheep, 400,(»00 horses, and 75O,0OO'^swine. The dairy industry yields 3r),0(»0,(tOO i)Ounds of butter and .■)0,000,. 000 of chcesi". In Iron ores, Wisconsin is the sixth State, 432 WOMAN SUFFRAGE, yielding in a year over 800,000 tons. Other valuable mineral products are quicklime, sandstone, lead, zinc, bricks, limestone, [)i|»estone, and cement. The Manufactures are most diversified, airtrresratinix in a 5'^ear upwards of $140,000,000. The mineral springs of the State are numerous, and are patronized by thousands. The chief educational institutions are llacine College at Ilacune, the ITniversity of Wisconsin at ]\[a(bson, Beloit College at Beloit, besides five State Normal Schools, and many sectarian institutions. The population of Wisconsin in 1880 was 1,315,- 407 ; in 1890 it was 1,686,880. The real property was valued at $455,000,000, the personal property at $125,000,000. The farm lands cover over 16,000,000 acres, valued at $400,000,000. The daily school attendance is 200,457. In 1890, there were 5,583 miles of railroad, and in 1892 there were 529 newspapers. Milwaukee, the chief city, had a population in 1890 of 204,468. It is situated on Lake JMichigan, having a fine harbor which is protected by a lai'ge breakwater. There are large grain elevators where grain is loaded onto vessels bound for the East. Steamers have left this harbor loaded with grain and niill pro- ducts direct to England. There is an immense Shipping Trade. In entrances and clearances it follows closely upon Chicago, the number last year exceeding twenty thousand. It is the centre of an immense beer- brewing business. La Crosse, the second city (po])ulation, 25,090), is a prosperous manufacturing city, situated on the Mississipj)i, Oshkosh, the third city, another manufactunng centre (population, 22,836), is situated on Lake Winnebago, Madison, the cai)ital (population, 13,426), is in the centre of beautiful lake -country, and has several fine public buildings. The Chautaucpum assemblies are annually held here. The Governor of Wisconsin is (4eorge W. Peek (Democrat), whose term expires January 2, 1893. The Stateis Republican. Wizard of Kinderkook. (See I'l-esidents of the Uniti-d States.) Woinail Suffrage. — Woman suffrage is credited with having begun in France in 1790, but it took no definite form. New Jer- sey in 1793 imposed certain restrictions on voters, and included both sexes. The act was repealed fourteen years later. The first woman's rights convention was held at Seneca Falls, N. Y., in 1848. The demand for suffrage was based on the ground that manv women are tax-payers, that all are interested in good government, and that it is unjust for women of intelligence to be AVOMKN's CIIKISTIAN TEMPKRA.NCK UNION. 433 (Icprivod of a vote while ignorant men liave a voice in the gov- ernment. Tliey assert that their iniluence will have a purifying effeiet on pohtics. Practically the same arguments are made to- day, 'i'he first National Convention was held at Worcester, Mass., in 1850. The proi)osition to admit women to suffrage has for many years been sul)iiiitted to the successive State and national conventions, and in some sections of the country the pubHc sentiment in its favor has assumed great strengtli. In 187U tlie Rei>ublican State Convention of JVIassaclmsetts admitted lAu-y Stone and Mary A. Livermore as delegates. The Kepuh- licau National Conventions of 1872 and 1870 resolved tliat "the honest demands " of this " class of citizens for additional riglxts . . . sliould be treated with respectful consideration." The Prohibition party, in its platform of 1872, liad a woman suffrage plank, and the Greenback national platform of 1884 favored tlie submission of a woman suffrage amendment to the people. The woman suffragists, organized as tlie Equal Rights Party (which see) in 1884, nominated Belva A, Lockwood for the Presidency. She had 2,500 votes. Tlie right to vote for School GommiLtees, etc., has been granted to women in Ari- zona, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Ken- tucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Wasliington, and Wis- consin, In Kansas women have ecpial suffrage with men in municipal elections. In Wyoming they have voted for State and municipal officers since 1870. In Montana the Constitution guar- antees women a vote on local taxation. In New York, women vote at scliool elections (3,000 voted in Bingliamton in 1890), at waterworks elections, and on questions of paving, grading, drain- age, street lighting, and other local improvements ; 47 women voted at the State election in 1887, and were not punished. In Pennsylvania they vote on local improvements (paving, etc.), by signing or refusing to sign petitions therefor. In 1889, a joint committee of Congress reported in favor of amending the United States Constitution to relieve the women of the whole country (about 13,000,000) from all disfranchisement. Congress did not act upon these reports. Twenty-nine States and Territories, in all, have given women some form of suffrage. Women's Christian Tomperance Union, The. — Unques- tionably the most powerful agency at work in the cause of temperance is the Women's Christian 1^emi)erance Union. The ol)ject of the Union is thus defincMl : To unify throughout the world the work of women in temperance and social reform and to circulate a petition addressed to all the governments of the 434 women's cheistian temperance union. world for the overthrow of the alcohol and opium trades. Metliods : Preventive, Educational, Evangelistic, Social, and Legal. Time of Prayer : Noontide. Badge : A Knot of White Ribbon. Watchwords: Agitate! Organize! The Union has been actively at work under its present organi- zation since 1874, and its aims are accomplished by the more modern methods of temperance agitation, which are along the line of education. The Union has a newspapei-, Avhich is published in Chicago, and has a wide circulation. It is published by a stock company, which also conducts the other publishing business of the Union, which is very extensive, over 1"25,000,OUO pages having been published in 1891. In order to impress the coming generation with the evils of tlie drink habit, the Union a few years ago sought to have the study of what is called scientific temper- ance introduced as a study in the common schools. Thirty- four States, through the efforts of the Union, have adopted laws requiring in the public schools the study of Scientific Tem- perance. Laws have also been secui-ed forbidding the sale of tobacco to minors, and the members of the Union in all parts of the world are collecting a monster petition against legalizing the sale of alcoholics and opium, M'hicli will be presented to the rulers of the civilized nations as soon as two million names have been secured. The Headquarters of the Union in this coimtry are in Chi- cago, where there is in course of erection tlie Woman's Temperance Temple, which will cost over one million dollars. The Woman's National Temperance Hospital is also in Cliieago. Connected with the Publication House is a Lecture Bureau which sends speakers to all parts of the country. The Union has interna- tional connections, already having auxiliary unions at work in thirty-three different nationalities. In this country there are 10,000 local unions, having a membership and following of nearly 500,000. A notal)le feature of the organization is that it is con- ducted entirely by women. Besides its work in the temperance cause, the Union has accomplished great reforms in the manage- ment of Industrial Homes for girls, and many of these homes have been establislied solely througli its efforts. Laws for the better protection of women and girls, refuges for abandoned women, and legislation raising the age of consent have all been secured through a department for the jiromotion of social purity, which is under the supervision of the President, Frances E. Wil- lard. The officers of the National Organization are : President^ Frances E. Willard, Evanston, 111. ; Corresponding Secretary, Caroline B. Buell, Chicago ; Recording Secretary, Mary A. Woodbridge, llavenna, Ohio ; Treasurer, Esther Pugh, Chicago. WOKLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 435 Wood-Pulp Miller. (See Nicknames of Famous Americans.) Wool, Production of. (See Agriculture.) World's Columbiau Exposition, The. State Exhibits. Foreign Exhibits. Buildings. Columbus Celebrations. Previous Expositions. World's Congress Auxuiaiy. In 1887, the proposition to celebrate the four hundredlli anniversary of the discovery of America by an International Exposition of arts, industries, and manufactures, and of the prod- ucts of the soil, mine, and sea was put forth. In 1889, the lead- ing cities of the East, besides Chicago, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, of the West, competed with one another for the site of the Exposi- tion. The contest was reduced to Chicago and New York, and Chicago won. The act j^roviding for the holding of the Exposi- tion was approved on April 25, 1890. It authorized the ap- pointment of commissioners who should organize the Exposi- tion, and when these preliminaries were completed, the President was required to make a public proclamation of the fact and officially invite " all the nations of the earth " to particijjate in the Exposition. This proclamation was issued December '24, 1890. The following States and Territories made Appropria- tions toward expenses at the fair in the amounts named : Arizona, 130,000 ; California, 1300,000 ; Colorado, $100,000 ; Delaware, * 1 0,000 ; Idaho, 120,000; Illinois, $800,000; Indian.a, 175,000 ; Iowa, $50,000 ; Maine, $40,000 ; Massachusetts, $75,- 000 ; Michigan, $100,000; Minnesota, $50,000; Missouri, $150,- 000; Montana, $50,000; Nebraska, $50,000; New Hampshire, $•25,000 ; New' Jersey, $20,000 ; New Mexico, $25,000 ; North Carolina, $25,000 ; North Dakota, $25,000 ; Ohio, $100,000 ; Pennsylvania, $300,000 ; Rhode Island, $25,000 ; Vermont, $20,000; Washington, $100,000; West Virginia, $40,000 ; Wis- consin, $65,000; Wyoming, $30,000 ; total, $"2,700,000. In other States upwards of a million dollars was subscribed by individuals Practically all of the civilized nations of the world will be repre- sented by exhibits. Jackson Park, the site of the Exposition, is in the south- eastern part of the city of Chicago. The section set apart for the site of the Exposition covered 666 acres, overlpoking Lake Michigan, with a park front a mile and a half long. The money spent in grading and filling this site, which originally was a half marsh and half prairie, was $450,400 ; in landscape gardening $323,490; in viaducts and bridges, $125,000 ; in piers, $70,000 ; in waterway improvements, $225,000 ; in railways (to the park) 436 WOKLd's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 1500,000 ; steam plant, $800,000 ; electricity, $500,000 ; statuary on buildings, $100,000 ; vases, lamps, and posts, $50,000 ; sew- erage, water supply, etc., $800,000. The Income of the Exposi- tion from all sources is estimated at $23,000,000, including $5,628,000 stock-subscriptions, $5,000,000 Chicago city bonds, gate r^?iceipts (estimated), $10,000,000 ; concessions, $1,500,000 ; saUd,ge, $1,000,000; interest, $27,000. This was supplemented by a bill introduced in Congress for the appropriation of $5,- 000,000 by the government. The plans for the Dedication' of the Exposition buildings, were decided upon as follows : On October 12, 1892, a national salute, and, in the early part of the forenoon, the troops, both of the regular army and the national guard, assembled und-er the command of Gen. Nelson A. Miles, U. S. A., and reviewed by the President of the United States at 11 a. m. Immediately after the review, the ceremonies proper in the great manufacturers' building, a march by the orchestra, composed especially for the occasion by John K. Payne ; 2, a prayer by Bishop Charles II. Fowler, D. D., LL. D., of California ; 3, presentation by the chief of construction, Mr. Burnhara, of the master artists of the Exposition and their completed work ; 4, report by the director- general of the Exposition, Col. George R. Davis ; 5, presentation of the buildings to the president of the national commission by the president of the local directory ; 6, vocal chorus, " The Heavens Are Telling," Haydn ; 7, presentation of the buildings to the President of the United States by the president of tlie national commission; 8, march and chorus from "Tlie Ruins of Athens," Beethoven ; 9, dedication of the buildings by the Presi- dent of the United States ; 10^ hallelujah chorus from « The Messiah," Handel; 11, dedicatory oration, by Hon. W. C. P. Breckinridge of Kentucky; 12, dedicatory ode, words by Miss Harriet Monroe, music by Professor Chadwick; 13, " The Star Spangled Banner " and " America," with grand chorus and full orchestral accompaniment; 14, national salute. In the evening a magnificent display of fireworks, and the grand allegoric parade, the " Procession of the Centuries." On October 13, receptions, military manceuvres, and a grand dress parade of all the troops, with more pyrotechnics and a repetition of the allegoric " Pro- cession of the Centuries." A grand Civic and Industrial Display, including illustrations of the leading events in the life of Columbus, and the history of the country. A dedication ball in the evening. The Exposition Buildings, for the construction of which $6,740,000 was appropriated, were designed to cover an area under roof of 150 acres, equal to the area under roof of the Paris (1889), WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 437 the Philadelphia (187G), and the Vienna (1873) Expositions com- bined. This area of 150 acres is exclusive of the State and for- eign buildings. The Adniinistralion Building is pronounced the gem. and crown of the Exj)osition ])alaces. It is located at the west end of the great court in the southern part of the site, looking eastward, and at its rear are the transportation facilities and depots. The most conspicuous object on the grounds is the gilded dome of this lofty building. This imposing edifice cost about $-1:50,000. It covers an area of 260 feet square, and con- sists of four pavilions 84 feet square, one at each of the four angles of the square and connected by a great central octagonal dome 120 feet in diameter and 220 feet in height. The general design is in the style of the French Keuaissance. All the depart- ments and most of the subordinate departments have exhibits. One of the unique exhibits is that of the Navy Department, a feature of which is a full sized model 348 feet long of one of the new coast-line battleships, built by the Cramps at Philadelphia. This Imitation Battleship of 1893 is erected on piling on the Lake front in the northeast portion of Jackson ]*ark. It is sur- rounded by water, and has the apjtearance of being moored to a wharf. The structure wilt have all the fittings that belong to the actual ship, such as guns, turrets, torpedo tubes, torpedo nets and booms, with boats, anchors, chain cables, davits, awnings, deck fittings, etc., etc., together with all. appliances for working the same. Officers, seamen, mechanics, and marines are detailed by the navy department during the Exposition, and the discipline and mode of life on our naval vessels are completely shown. The Transportation Building is exquisitely refined and simple in architectural treatment, although it is very rich and elaborate in detail. In style it savors much of the Romanesque. The main building measures 960 x 250 feet, and cost $300,000. The transportation exhibits naturally include everything of what- soever name or sort, devoted .to the purpose of transportation, and range from a baby carriage to a mogul engine, from a cash conveyor to a balloon or carrier pigeon. Machinery Hall has been pronounced by many architects second only to the Administration Building in ai-chiteotural beauty. The building is sj^anned by three arched trusses and the interior presents the appearance of three railroad train-houses, side by side, surrounded on all of the four sides by a gallery fifty feet wide. The trusses are built separately, so that they can be taken down and sold for use as railroad train-houses. In each of the long naves there io an elevated travelling-crane running from end to eiui of the building for the purpose of moving machinery. These platforms are built so that visitors may view the o])eration of the machinery from them. 48S world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Facing the gi-e;it lagoon in the nortliwestern part of the park is the superb Woman's Building, designed by a woman, Miss llayden, of Boston. The structure is liUO by 4»7 feet long by 787 feet Avide, its greatest dimension being north and south. It covers an area of oi)^ acres. It is rectangu- lar in form, its central hall being surrouncled by a nave and two galleries. The cost of the building is 11,500,000. The feature of the building is the great centi-al hall. It has .a clear space of 1,280 feet by 880 feet. Its roof rises to a height of 245^ feet at the apex, and the 380 feet space is covered by a single arched span, without a supporting column. The height from the floor to the centre of the arch is 201 feet, clear, and the height of the lantern above the arch is 44^ feet. TMcnty-two steel arches siippoit the centre of the roof. Each arch weighs 125 tons, and more than 5,000 tons of steel enter into the construction of the hall. Only by comparison with existing structures can anj'- adequate idea be formed of the size of this building. It is three times as large as St. Peter's Cathedral in Borne, and the largest church in Chicago can be placed Avithin the A'estibule of 8t. Peter's. Its central hall, Avhich .occupies but one third of its area, Avill comfortably seat 50,000 jx'ople. The f)ui]ding is in the Corinthian style of architecture and is severely classic. The Hall of Mines and Mining is 350 by 700 feet. Its architecture is the early Italian Renaissance, the exterior presenting a massive though graceful appearance. The principal fronts display enormous arched entrances, richly embellished witli sculptural decorations, emblematic of mining and its allied indus- tries. Marbles of different hues are used as facings, being also a part of the mining exhibit. The main fronts are 65 feet high and the main entrances 90 feet high. The roof is of steel cantih'A ei- trusses supported by steel columns (15 feet ajiart longitudinally and 115 feet and 57 feet 6 inches Avide transversely, making clear AVOKLI) S COLUMHIA.Y EXI'OSITIOK. 4;^9 space in the centre of the building 680 feet long and 115 feet Avide, and on each side a space of 57 feet 6 inches by 630 feet, leaving the central space encumbered by only sixteen supporting posts. It is said that the cantilever system as ap2)]ied to roofs was never l)eforo used on so large a scale. The cost of this liiiilding is |"J60,000, and it covers an area of 5.6 acres. (4recian-Ioiiic in style, the Fine Arts Building is a pure type of the most refined classic architecture. It cost over $500,- OUO. The building is oblong, and is 500 by 320 feet, intersected north, east, south, and west by a great nave and transept 100 feet wide and 70 feet high, at the intersection of which is a great dome 60 feet in diameter. The building is 125 feet to the top of the dome, which is surmounted by a colossal statue of the type of famous figures of Winged Victory. 'I'he transept has a clear space through the centre of 60 feet, being lighted entirely from above. On either side are galleries 20 feet wide and 24 feet above the floor. The Collections of sculpture are displayed on the main floor of the nave and transei)t, and on the walls both of the ground floor and of the galleries are ample areas for dis- playing the paintings and sculptured panels in relief. The corners made by the crossing of the nave and transept are filled with small picture galleries, Aroujid the entire building are galleries 40 feet wide, forming a continuous promenade around the classic structure. The main building is entered by four Great Portals, richly ornamented with architectural sculpture ami approached by broad flights of ste|)s. The walls of fthe loggia of the colonnades are highly decorated with mural paintings, illustrating the history and progress of the arts. The frieze of the exterior walls and the pediments of the principal entrances are ornamented with sculptures and ])ortraits in bas-relief of the masters of ancient art. The general tone of color is light gray stone. The Horticultural Building is 1,000 feet long, with an ex- treme width of 250 feet, and costs 1200,000. The plan is a central |>avilion with two end pavilions, each connected with the central one by front and rear curtains, forming two interior courts, ea(;h 88 by 270 feet. These courts are lioautifully decorated in color and planted with ornamental shrubs and flowers. The centre pavilion is roofed by a crystal dome 187 feet in diameter and 113 feet high, under which are exhibited the tallest palms, bamboos, and tree ferns. It was designecl to contain not only a complete exhibit of dairy )>roducts, but also a dairy school, in connection with which will be conducted a series of tests for d( termining the relative merits of different breeds of dairy cattle as milk and butter producers. 440 world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. The Dairy School, it is believed, will he most instructive and valuable to asj^riculturists. Tlie school will include a contest be- tween both herds and individuals of the chief breeds of dairy cattle, with a view of ascertaining the respective merits of each in milk-giving and butter-producing. Each hei-d will be charged each day with the food consumed, accurately weighed, and will be credited with the milk and butter produced. Spectators will be able to obtain an excellent view of the processes in all their stages. The Tests and all details of management will be under lules prepared by a committee com]>osed of one member from each of the dairy cattle associations in the United States, three from the Columbian Dairy Association, three from the agricultural colleges and United States experimental stations, and one from the manufacturers of dairy utensils. The results of this test and of the exhibition, which will be made of the latest and most ad- vanced scientifiG methods known in connection with the feeding and care of cattle, the treatment of milk, and the production of butter and cheese, cannot fail to be of great and lasting benefit to the dairy interests of this country. One of the most artistic of the Exposition palaces is the Fisheries Building, wliich embraces a large central structure with two smaller polygonal buildings connected with it on either end by arcades. It cost $20(),000." The extreme length of the building is 1,100 feet and the width 200 feet. In the central portion is the general fisheries exhibit. In one of the polygonal buildings is the angling exhibit and in the other the aquaria. The exterior of the building is Spanish-Romanesque, which con- trasts agreeably in appearance with that of the other buildings. The glass fronts of the aquaria are in length about 575 feet and have 3,000 square feet of surface. They make a panorama never before seen in any exhibition and rival the great perma- nent aquariums of the Avorld, not only in size, but in all othot- respects. The total Water Capacity of the aquaria, exclusive of reservoirs, is 18,725 cubic feet, or 140,000 gallons. This weighs 1,192,425 pounds, or almost 600 tons. In the entire salt- water circulation, including reservoirs, there are about 80,000 gallons. The supply of sea water was secured by evapt>rating the necessary quantity at the Woods lloll station of the United States fish commission to about one fifth its ])ulk, thus reducing both quantity and Aveight f(n' transportation about 80 per cent. The fresh water required to restore it to its ])ro]>er density was supplied from Lake JMichigan. In transporting^ the marine fishes to Chicago from the coast there was an addition of pi-obably 0,000 gallons of pure sea water to the supply on each trip. The Fish Exhibit is a wonderful one, and not the least intor- world's t;OLUMBlAN EXPOSITION. 441 esting portion of it is the aquarial or live fish display. This is approached through one of the arcades from the main building. In the centre of the polygonal building is a rotunda 60 feet ir, diameter, in the middle of which is a basin or pool twenty-six feet wide, from which rises a towering mass of rocks covered with moss and lichens. From clefts and crevices in the rocks crystal streams of water gush and drop to the masses of reeds, rushes, and ornamental semi-aquatic plants in the basin below. In this pool gorgeous gold fishes, golden ides, golden trench, and other iishes disport. From the rotunda one side of the larger series of aquaria may be viewed. These are ten in number, and have a capacity of 7,000 to 27,000 gallons of water each. The Forestry Building is, in appearance, perhaps the most novel of all the Exposition structures. Its dimensions are 200 by 500 feet, and the cost was $'200,000. To a remarkable degree its architecture is of the rustic order. On all four sides of the build- ing is a veranda, supjjorting the roof of which is a colonnade consisting of a series of columns composed of three tree trunks each 25 feet in length, one of them from 16 to 20 inches in diam- eter and the others smaller. All of these trunks are left in their natural state with bark undisturbed. They are contributed by the different States and Territories of the Union and by foreign countries, each furnishing specimens of its most characteristic trees. The sides of the building are constructed of slabs with the bark removed. The Avindow frames are treated in the same rustic manner as is the rest of the building. The main entrance is elaborately finished in different kinds of wood, the material and workmanship being contributed by the wood-workers of the world. The other entrances are finished artistically to represent the woods of different countries and regions. The roof is thatched, not with straw, as was erroneously stated some time ago, but with tanbark and other barks. The interior of the building is finished in various woods in a way to show their beautiful graiiiing, suscejitibility to polish, etc. The visitor can make no mistake as to the kinds of tree trunks which form the colonnade, for he Avill see upon each one a tablet upon which are inscril)ed the cotnmon and scientific name, the State or country from Avhich the trunk was contributed, and other pertinent infor- mation, such as the approximate quantity of such timl)er in the region whence it came. Surmounting the cornice of the veranda and extending all around the building are numerous flagstaffs, bearing the colors, coats-of-arms, etc., of the nations and States represented in the exhibits inside. The Forestry Building contains a most varied exhibition of Forest Products in general — the most complete which could 442 world's columbmn" exposition. be gathered togethei-. It contains logs and sections of trees, worked lumber in tlie form of shingles, flooring, casing, etc. There are shown here rare woods and barks, mosses, galls, wood pulj^, wooden ware, rattan, rosins, gums, vegetable ivory, etc. The Electrical Building, the seat of perhaps the most novel and brilHant exhibit in the exposition, is based upon a nave 11.') feet wide and 114 feet higli, crossed in the middle by a transept of similar dimensions. The building is an attractive one, with many towers, and spires, and masts for display of banners and electric lights at niglit. In the design of this building it was j)roposed by the architects to so devise the details and general outhnes that they might be capable of providing an electrical illumination by night on a scale hitherto unknown, the flagstaff's, open porticoes, and towers being especially arranged with this in view. The building cost $375,000. One of the magnitieent structures raised for the Exposition is the Agricultural Building. The style of architecture is classic Kenaissance. The building is five hundred by eight hun- dred feet, its longest dimensions being east and west. The north line of the building is almost on a line with the pier extending into the lake, on which heroic columns, emblematic of the thirteen original States, are raised. A lagoon stretches out along this entire front of the buihling. The east front looks out into a harbor which aft'ords refuge for numerous pleasure craft. Tlie entire west exposm-e of the building faces a branch of the lagoon that extends along the north side. With these picturesque sur- rouiulings as an inspiration, the architects have brought out designs that have been pronounced all but faultless. For a single story building the design is bold and heroic. The general cornice line is sixty-five feet above grade. On either side of the main entrance arc mammoth Corinthian Pillars fifty feet high and five feet in diameter. On each corner and from the centre of the building pavilions are reared, the centre one being one hundred and foity-fonr feet square. The corner pavilions are connected by curtains, forming a continuous arcade around the toj) of the building. All tin-ough the main vestibule statuary has been designed, illustrative of the agricultural industry. Similar de- signs are grouped about all of the grand entrances in the most elaborate manner. The corner pavilions are surmounted by domes ninety-six feet high and above these tower groups of statuary. The design for these domes is that of three women, of herculean proportions, suppoiting a mammoth globe. To the southward of the Agricultural liuihling is a spacious structure devoted chiefly to a Livestock and Agricultural Assem- bly hall. This building is conveniently near one of the stations .'o WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 443 of the elevated railway. It is a very handsome building and was designed t-o be the common meeting point for all persons inter- ested in live stock and agricultural pursuits. An assembly room, seating fifteen hundred persons, furnishes facilities for lectures, by gentlemen eminent in their special fields of work, embracing every interest connected with live stock, agriculture, and allied industries. Such a building was never erected at any exposition, and its construction here sliows that the board of directors pur- posed affording every desirable facility that they could furnish to aid the great live stock and agricultural interestSo The Agricul- tural and Live Stock Buildings cost upwards of $800,000. World's Congress Auxiliary. — The World's Congress Auxiliary is an organization authorized and supported by the Exposition corporation for the purpose of bringing to Chicago a series of world s conventions of leaders in the various depart- nuMits of Inunan progress during the exposition season of 1893. The auxiliaiy has also been recognized by the Government of the United States as the appropriate agency to conduct this impor- tant work. Its general announcement was sent to foreign govern- ments by the department of State, and an appropriation for its expenses was made by Congress. The Congress will hold sj^ecial sessions at which all questions affecting the moral, industrial, and social improvement of the world will be discussetl, and the aim Avill be to have the ablest living representatives in science, relir gion, art, music, literature, social science, education, philosophy, etc., lend their presence to the sessions. The discussions of the Congress, the addresses made, and the papers read, it is expected, will be preserved in encyclopedic form. Other Columbus Celebrations. — A most interesting feature of the quadro-centenary will be a naval review in New Yoi'k Harbor in April, 1893, to which foreign nations have been invited to send ships of war to join the United States Navy in rendezvous at IIam|)ton Roads, and to proceed thence to New Vi>rk. It is also proposed to have the 13,000,000 j)ublic School Children in the United States, on a given day, unite in celebrat- ing the discovery of America, with fitting exercises. Brazil will also commemorate the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America by a world's fair to be held at Ili-o de Janeii'o, under government auspices, beginning November, 1892. In Spain a royal decree was issued, January 10, 1891, providing for the ap- pointment of a committee to organize the celebration of the quadi-o-centeiiary of the discovery of America. It is provided by the decree tliat Portugal and the United States be invited to be represented on the committee. A feature of the celebration will be a congress to be held at Iluelvato (lommemorate the departure 444 world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 1 of Columbus. In Madrid there will Le exhibitions of the arts and industries of the period of Columbus. The Madrid exposition will be opened September 12, 181)2, and will close December ol, 1892. The exhibits Avill be classified in their histoiical order, be- ginning with plans, models, reproductions, or drawings of ancient American caverns, and everything showing any trace of their having been used as human dweUings. Plans and models of prehistoric American monuments and dwellings, as well as stone arms, articles made of horn and bones, pottery, and ornaments, and arms, and utensils of the copper and bronze ages will be exhibited. Following these there will be exhibits of all kinds of articles of this historic period. The quadro-centenary will be celebrated at Genoa, the Birthplace of Columbus, under the auspices of the King of Italy. An exposition of Italian and American products will be a feature. A new opera, " Columbus," composed by Baron Franchetti, will be presented, and there will be a museum of Columbian antiquities. Columbia, South America, will have an exposition from July 20 to October 31, 1892, after which the best part of the collection will be sent to Chicago. The Circulo Colon-Cervantez, a Spanish and Spanish- American Society of New York City, will celebrate the Landing of Columbus, October 12,1892, with a grand historical pageant in the streets of New York, starting from the Battery. At Central Park, the statue of Columbus will be unveiled with cere- monies. It is desired to make this a public holiday, with fire- works and a general illumination of the houses of the city at night. The exercises are in cliarge of the president of the society, Juan N. Navarro, consul-general of Mexico. Previous World's Fairs. — The first World's Exposition was opened in London in 1851 ; its buildings covered 21 acres, the number of visitors was 0,039,195 in 141 days, and the re- ceipts were $1,780,000. At the Paris Exposition of 1855, the buildings covered 24^ acres, the visitors numbered 5,162,330, in 200 days, and the receipts were $600,500. The London Exposi- tion of 1862 was open 171 days, the buildings covered 231^ acres, the visitors numbered 0,211,103, and the receipts were $2,300,000. The Paris Exposition of 1867 was open 210 days, was visited by 8,805,969 persons, and the receipts aggregated $2,822,932. The buildings covered 37 acres. The Vienna Exposition of 1873 had 7,354,687 visitors, the l)uildings covered 40 acres, and the receipts were $2,000,000 in 186 days. The Philadelphia Exposition of 1876 was opened for 159 days beginning May 10. The gross receipts M^ere $3,815,724 ; the number of visitors was 9,892,625. The buildings covered 60 acres. The average daily attendance was 49,986. The WYOMING. 445 largest attendance on any one day was 274,919. Tlie Paris Exposition of 1878 covered GO aeres ; the luunber of vi.sitors in 194 days was 1(),032,725, and the receipts were $2,531,650. Sydney,' New South Wales, held an exposition in 1879, which was attended by 1,117,536 persons, and Melbourne held one in 1880, which was attended by 1,330,279 persons. The Glasgow Exposition of 18S8 was open iov 161 days, and the attendance was 5,748,379. The Largest Attendance at any exposition was at the Paris Exposition of 1889, which was open 185 days, was attended by 28,149,353 persons, and the receipts were $8,- 300,0t)0. The funds for the Philadelpliia Centennial Exposition were raised by subscription as ft)llows : City of Philadelphia, |>1,575,- 000; Pennsylvania, 11,000,000 ; New Jersey, 1100,000; Con- necticut, Delaware, and New Hampshire, $10,000 each; Con- gress, $1,500,000 ; Wilmington, Del., $5,000, and the various States contributed $234,000 for exhibits. World's Congress Auxiliary. (See AVorld's Columbian Ex])osition.) World's Fairs. (See World's Columbian Exposition.) Wyoillillg. — The first settlements within its limits were made in 1834, at Port Laramie, by Americans. There Av^as considerable immigration during the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad, and the Territorial organization was completed on May 10, 1869. Wyoming was admitted into the Union, July 10, 1890. The main chain of the IJoekies extends across the State, forming what is known as " The Divide." A large part of the State is 10,000 feet above sea level. Some of it is 14,000 feet, and no part of it is less than 6,000 feet above sea level. The rivers are the Big Horn, Tongue, Powder, Green, Little Missouri, North Platte, Medicine Bow, Laramie, and Sweetwater. The most interesting of the natural features of Wyoming, and those which ha\e most attracted the attention of travellers, are found in the extreme northwest corner of the Territory, in the section known as the Yellowstone National Park. This wonderful park has a length of sixty-five miles north and south by fifty-five miles in width, and an area of 3,575 square miles. No part of it is less than 6,000 feet above the sea, and the snow- covered mountains that hem in the valleys on every side rise to a height of 12,000 feet. It is a land of wonders, with its grand cafions and geysers, its beautiful lakes and rivers, with cataracts, cascades, and ra]>ids of unsurpassed beauty, and mountains towering far above the deep and rugged valleys through whicli the rapid streams flow. 446 X. Y. Z. MISSION. Wyoming has 5,000 miles of canals for irrigation purposes, built at a cost of tl(),000,0(Ui. Grazing is llio chief industry, there being ou its ranges upwanls of a million cattle and as many sheep. Tbe raising of horses is also a leading business. The live-stock interests of Wyoming have upwards of ^75,000,(100 of capital invested. Gold and silver mining is carried on with excellent results. There are extensive coal-tields, yielding 1,500,- 000 tons in a year, and employing 3,000 men. The United States Garrisons are Fort Russell, Fort McKmney, Fort Washakie. The State has 1,100 tS^iosUone Indians and 900 Arapahoes, on reservations. The popuhition of Wyoming in 1880 was 20,798; in 1890, it was 00,705. The assessed propeity was valued at fol,500,00() ; the manufactures aggregated $898,494 in a year ; the acreage of fai-in lands was 124,483, valued at $835,895, yielding products Morth $372,391. The school attendance was 3,750 ; the number of miles of raU- roads in 1890 was 1,000 ; the newspapers numbered 35. Cheyenne, the chief city and the cajutal, with a population in 1890 of 11,090, is a centre for railroads and supplies. It has all the attributes of an eastern city. The second city is Laramie, (population in 1890 6,407), which is also a bustling place, having many industries, good schools, and many churches. Rock Springs, the third city, with 3,317 inhabitants, is the coal-mining centre. The Governor of Wyoming is Ames W. Barber (Rejjublican). His term expires January 2, 1893. The State is Republican. X. Y. Z. Mission. — An interesting incident, and, one which redoimded to the credit of the United States, is connected with these initials, France having given valuable aid to the colonies iu the Revolutionary War, requested a like favor for herself in her war with Great Britain in 1789. AVashington, however, persisted in maintaining the United States in an attitude of neu- trality, whereat France was greatly angered. In 1797, C 0. Pinckney was sent as ]\[inister to France ; about the same time, the French Directory announced that they would receive no more American ministers. Pinckney was ordered to quit the country. President A(huns at once called an Extra Session of Con- gress, before which he made an address in whic-h he said that he Avas about to send three commissioners to France in the hope of making peace. The French navy at the time were attacking Amer- ican merchant vessels, and the navy. (See French Spoliations Claims.) The envoys, some months later, reported that they had been received by Talleyrand after having been kept waiting, that in other respects they had been discourteously treated, and, more- over, that a bribe to the Directory and a loan to the French government were the price of a peaceable arrangement with the YANKEK. 447 United States. In tlicir re])ort, tlie envoys indicalod the names of the persons Avho had tried to bribe them as X. Y. and Z. The result of this new insult was the enkindling of a War Spirit in the country, taking advantage of which the Federal administration passed a number of acts to make the nation ready for hostilities, among which were the ordering of a provisional army, with Washington as Commander-in-Chief, the increasing of the navy, and its establishment as a separate department, the negotiation of a new loan, and the imposition of a direct tax. France, however, the next j'car disavowed any authority of the persons designated as X. Y. Z. to act for the Directory, and hastened to smooth over the disagreement, which was quickly accomiDlished. Howe v e r , the vast power assumed by the Federalists in the con- duct of this affair with France alarmed the public mind, and brought about an undercurrent of })ublic sentiment, antagonistic to the centralization of great power in the government, which ultimately led to the downfall of the Federalists. A chief instrumentality in arousing the people were the two acts forced through by the F'ederalists, known as the Alien and the Sedi- tion Laws (which see). Yankee. — The lexicographers liave differed each witli the other regarding the derivation of this Avord. The most widely accepted explanation of its origin is that it came from the corrupt ))r<)iiunciation by the Indians of the word English or French Anglais. The Dutch settlers along the Hudson first applied the word to the New England j)eople, and to this day in its more general aj)plication it refers to the inhabitants of the six New England States. Englishmen, and other foreigners, however, use the term as referring to the entire body of Americans ; and in the South, it is quite common to speak of all Northerners as Yankees. As distinguis]ie'''V'-V-.^^>::--:''f-'^i WIUTKLAW KEID. WHITEI.AW REId's CAREER. 479 after having resigned his post, he brought with him the draft of a treaty of extradition witli France. His nomination as the Republican candidate for Vice-President was accomplished at the instance of the New York delegation, who argued that he would strengthen Harrison in the most important doubtful State. For many years it has been customary with tlie Republican party to nominate for the Vice-Presidency a resident of New York, except when the candidate for Presi- dent happened to be from an Eastern State. Mr. Reid is of Scotch descent. He is Ohio born, but two generations before his ancestors came over from Scotland into the wilderness beyond the Alleghanies and carved out places for themselves in the great West. Robert Charlton Reid was his father, and Marian Whitelaw Ronalds his mother. His paternal grandfather was a Covenanter. He had a large area of land on the Ohio River, but gave up its possession rather than retain it conditioned upon his operating a ferry every day in the week, including Sundays. The sturdy old Scot went up into Greene County, O., founded the town of Xenia, and it was there that Whitelaw was born on Oct. 27, 1837. The lad's uncle, tlie Rev. Hugh McMillan, was principal of the Xenia Academy and a trustee of Miami University. He took pains to give Whitelaw some private tutoring to test his mind, and was rewarded in finding that the lad had good grit and the acquisitive faculty. He placed him at the age of fifteen years in the sophomore class at Miami, where, in 1856, tlft youth was graduated first in his class. He had been well drilled in the classics and never neglected this part of his training. Pie has always been and is to-day a littera- teur at one end of the newspaper office and the shrewdest of Scotch financiers at the other. At once on leaving his alma mater Reid started in as a bread-winner. He took the posi- tion of principal of a graded school at South Charleston, O., and for a year served for a small salary. 480 M'HITET.AW HRId's PARTCEB. He has ever been noted for his inflexibility of mind. He held .strong convictions from his youth, and thus was en- dowed the first qualification of successful editorship, some- thing to sa}'. He bought the Xenia Neios and became its editor. The Republican party had just been formed. In the Fremont campaign he had taken tlie stump and became identi- fied with the Kepublican leaders of tlie State. With the iV^ws lie pitched in vigorously against the South. He said what he had to say ^^'ilh a vigor and variety that made his utterances quoted from the start. He met many public men and never lost a chance to talk with them on the issues of the day. He formed acquaintances and made friends. In 1860 he supported Lincoln for President, although he was the personal friend of Salmon P. Chase, the News being the first Western newspaper outside of Illinois to do so, and its influence caused the election of a Lincoln dele- gate to the Republican Convention from the Xenia district. The following winter he represented the Cincinnati Times at Columbus, as legislative correspondent: He next connected himself with the staff of the Cincinnati Grazette and the Cleveland Herald, and afterward became city editor of the Grazette. At the outbreak of the war he was sent to the front as the war correspondent of tlie Gazette, being recog- nized at the time as one of the best newspaper writers of the West. Reid was assigned to duty as volunteer aid-de-camp, with the rank of captain. He wrote over the signature of " Agate." His letters from the field were accurate, intelli- gent, and graphic ; consequently they were widely read and aided him to fame. He went through the first and second Virginia campaigns, and also the Tennessee campaign, and Avas present at Fort Donelson, and later at Pittsburg Land- ing. To witness the last battle Reid left a sick-bed against the doctors' orders, saw the great fight from beginning to end, and then sent a wonderful piece of pen-picturing, ten WHITELAW REId's CAREEK. 481 columns lung, descriptive of the battle. This letter was ap- plauded as an example of extraordinary reporting, and '• Agate " received numerous complimentary notices, besides an increase in salary. In 18G2, Reid acquired an interest in the Commercial- G-azette, and lived in Washington as correspondent. lie was appointed Librarian of the House of Representatives in 1863, and served three j-ears. In Washington he made many ac- quaintances, Horace Greeley among them. Reid's Xenia paper had been modelled after the ITcw York Tribune of Greeley, and he had read everything the great agitator had written. The pair became fast friends. Reid was an indus- trious worker, and while a political writer of vigor, never lost his knack as a i-cporter. He went to Gettysburg when that fight Avas on and gave a fine description of the battle. The war over, Mr. Reid accompanied Mr. Chase 0:1 a tour of the South, and collected his letters in a book puljlished in 18GG u:Hler the title of ''• After the War, a Southern Tour." This had a wide sale, and is a good example of his style. Later, he tried cotton-planting, having received financial support, but as a cotton planter he was a failure. He was not long idle, and the next two years he gave to the writing of a book entitled, " Ohio in the Wai-," which was the first of the State histories of the Civil War, and was used as a model for many others. Reid then returned to the Qazette as leader writer, but later became editor. He left his sanctum in order to go to Washington to write up the impeachment trial of President Johnson, which he did with characteristic cleverness. Greeley now invited him to New York to fill a place on the Tribune staff, but Reid declined. The next year he accepted a similar offer and he ha3 been with the paper ever since. Reid became Greeley's confidant ; by the law of opposites they got along admirably, the impulsive, erratic genius of the older nnn affording striking contrast to the calm, tactful, patient temperament of the younger. In 482 "WHITELAAV" KKII)'« CAUEKU. 1860, Reid succeeded Jolin Russell Younir <"is manasrinsr editor of tlie Tribune. Tlii'ii came the Greeley campaign of 1872, followed by the death of Mr. Greeley and the ascen- sion of Mr. Reid to the control of the Tribune. In 1878, he was elected by the legislature of New York to be a regent for life of the university. Besides the works above men- tioned and his contributions to periodical literature he has written " Schools of Journalism," " The Scholar in Politics," " Some Newspaper Tendencies " and " Town Hall Sugges- tions." He is a member of the Union League Club, of the Ohio Society, and many other organizations, and was for years President of the Lotos Club. He is a lover of hoi-ses and frequently enjoys a morning canter on his favorite Menlo in Central Park. In 1881 Mr. Reid married IMiss Elizabeth Mills, daugliter of D. O. ]\Iills, the California millionaire, who had made the metropolis his home. They met at " Millbrae," the Califor- nia country-seat of the INIills family. Two children have been born to them, Ogden Mills Reid and Jeanie Reid. In New Yoik Mr. Reid lias his home in the palace which Henry Yillard erected on Madison avenue at a cost of about 81,000,000. It is one of the regal residences of the metropolis. In the heart of Westchester County Mr. Reid owns a castle with a domain of eiglit hundred acres about it. The place is called Ophir Farm, and is one of the finest country places in America. In Paris his now ample fortune enabled him to enterta.in in a fashion befitting the reiu'csentativo of a great nation. In April, 1892, he returned from his post and laid down public ofiice to renew his chosen duty as a journalist. The honors paid him on his return to America, including the dinnei-s by the Chamber of Commerce of New York, the Lotos Club, the Ohio Society, and others, are still fresh in the public mind. On his departure from Paris, a notalble fare- well dinner was jjiven in his honor. Amonsf the tributes to WMITEI-AW KKId's CAREER. 483 the distinguished iVmciican was this one from M. de Blowitz, the correspondent of the London Times: I eainiot miss tliis opix^'tunity of testifying to the great suocess of ]\Ir. Iloid's mission. lie has smoothed down difficulties and has gained esteem hy wliieh ]>is eountry has profited. He lias heen hospitable and has made all his guests at home, seconded by Mrs. Reid. His efforts have led, first, to agreeable relations be- tween the government and himself, and next to improve relations between the two governments. Mr. Reid, who was good enough to call journalists his confreres, has proved that the intelligence of a journalist adapts itself with special flexibility and promptitude to all the positions intrusted to him. Knowing on his arrival but a few words of French he speedily familiarized himself with tlu^ lantruacfe so as to discuss with French statesmen the economic (juestions at issue. As humorously remarked by one of the speakers last night, he has been able in spite of the fierce opposition of the breeders of petit cochon national, to effect the introduction of American ))ork, and only this morning he signed an extradition treaty which will make America a less agreeable place of sojourn for French swindlers. His mission, in short, has been summed up thus by one of those who have watched his work : " Mr. Whitelaw Reid, to the great advantage of liis own coimtry and the great satisfac- tion of France, has combined the useful with the ornamental, in- ducing France to make concessions which would have been refused to a man less gracious and persuasive. He has added to the cleverness of the Americans the urbanity of the French." DEPEW NOMINATES HARRISON. The speech of Cliauncey I\I. Depew, of New York, in seconding the nomination of President Harrison, was as follows ! — Mr. Prksidext and Gkntlemen of the Convention : It is the pecuharity of Republican National Conventions that each one of them has a distinct and interestitig history. We are here to meet conditions and solve problems which make this gathering not only no exception to the rule, but substantially a new depar- ture. That there should be strong convictions and their earnest expression as to preferences and policies, is characteri ^tic of the right of individual judgment which is the fundamental principle of Republicanism. There have l)een occasions when the result was so sure that the delegates could freely indulge in the charm- ing privilege of favoritism and of friendshiit. But the situation which now confionts us demands the exei-cise of dispassionate judgment and our best thought and exj)erience. AVe cannot venture on uncertain ground or encounter obstacles jilaced in the pathway of success by ourselves. The Democratic party is now divided, but the hope of the possession of power once more will niake it in the final battle more aggressive, determined, and unscrupulous than ever. It starts Avith fifteen States secure without an effort, by processes which are a travesty u])on popular government, and if continued long enough will paraU'ze institutions founded upon poj)ular suffrage. It has to win four more States in a fair fight, States which, in the vocabulary of politics, are denominated doubtful. The Republican party nuist appeal to the conscience and the judgment of the individual voter in every State in the Union. This is in accordance Avith the principles upon which it was founded and the objects for which it contends. It has accepted this issue before and fotight it out with an extraordinary con- tinuance of success. The conditions of Republican victory from 1860 to 1880 Avere created by Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant. They Avere 4S4 .■^=5^: CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW. 1«5 DEPEW NOMINATES HARRISON. 487 that the saved republic should bo run by its saviors. They were the emancipation of the slaves, the reconstruction of the States, the reception of those who had fought to destroy the republic back into the fold without penalties or punishments, and to an equal share with those who had fought and saved the nation in the solemn obligations and inestimable privileges of American citizenship. They were the embodiment into the Constitution of the princij)les for which 2,000,000 of men had fought and half a million had died. They were the restoration of pul)lic credit, the resumption of specie payments, and the j)rosperous condition of solvent business. For twenty-five years there were names with which to conjure, and events fresh in the public mind which were eloquent with popular enthusiasm. It needed little else than a recital of the glorious story of its heroes and a statement of the achievements of the Republican party to retain the confidence of the people. But from the desire for change which is characteristic of free governments, there came a reversal, there came a check to the progress of the Republican pai-ty and four years of Democratic administration. These four years largely relegated to the realms of history past issues, and brought us face to face with what Democracy, its professions and its practices mean to-day. The great names which adorned the roll of Republican statesmen and soldiers are still potent and poi)ular. The great measures of the Republican party are still the best of the history of the century. The une(j[ualled and unexampled story of Republicanism in its promises and in its achievements stands unique in the record of the parties in governments which are free. But we live in practical times, facing practical issues which af- fect the business, the wages, the laboi', and the piosperity of to-day. The campaign will be won or lost not upon the bad record of James Polk, or of Franklin Pierce, or of James Bu- chanan ; not ui)on the good record of Lhicoln, or of Grant, or of Arthur, or of Hayes, or of Garfield. It will be won or lost upon the policy, foreign and domestic, the industrial measures and the administrative acts of the administration of Benjamin Harrison. Whoever receives the nomination of this convention will run upon the judgment of the i)eop]e as to whether they have been more j)rosperous and hapi)y, whether the country has been in a better condition at home and stood more honorably abroad under these last four years of Harrison and Republican administration -than during the preceding four years of Cleveland and Demo- cratic government. Not since Thomas Jefferson has any administration l)een called upon to face and solve so many or such difficult problems as 488 BEPEW NOMINATES HARRISOX. those which have been exigent in our e()n<1itions. No adminis- tration since the organization of the government has met difficul- ties better or more to the satisfaction of the American people. Chili lias ])een taught that, no matter how small the antagonist, no community can with safety insult the flagormuider American sailors. Germany and England have learned in Samoa that the United States has -become one of the poAvers of the world, and no matter how mighty the adversary, at every sacrifice American honor will be ni:;intained. The Behring Sea question, which was the insurmountable obstacle in the diplomacy of Cleveland and of Bayard, has hccn settled upon a basis which sustains the American position until arbitration shall have determined our right. The dollar of the country has been jilaced and kept in the standard of comniei-cial nations, and a coin has been agreed upon with foreign governments, which, by making bimetallism the policy of all nations, may successfully solve all our financial prob- lems. The tariff, tinkered with and trified with to the serious disturbance of trade and disaster to business since the days of Washington, has been courageously embodied into a code — a code which has preserved the principle of the protection of American industries. To it has been added a beneficent policy, sup2>lemented by beneficent t'caties and wise di])lomacy, which has opened to our farmers and manufacturers the markets of other countries. The navy has been builded upon lines which will protect American citizens, and American interests, and the American flag all over the world. The public debt has been re- duced. The maturing bonds have been paid off. The public credit has been maintained. The burdens of taxation have been lio-htened. Two hundi-ed millions of currency have been added to the people's money without disturbance of the exclianges. Unexampled prosperity has crowned wise laws and their wise administration. The main question which divides us is. To Avhom does the credit of all this belong ? Orators may stand upon this platform more able and more eloquent than I, who will paint in more brilliant colors, but they cannot put in more earnest thought the affection and admiration of Republicans for our dis- tinguished Secretary of State. I yield to no ]Jepublican, no matter from which State he hails, in admii-ation and respect for John Sherman, for Governor McKinley, for Thomas B. Keed, for Iowa's great son, for the favorites of Illinois, AVisconsin, and Michigan ; but when I am told that the credit for the brilliant diplomacy of this administration belongs exclusively to the Sec- retary of State ; for the administration of its finances to the Sec- retary of the Treasury ; for the construction of its ships to the DEPEW XOJnXATES II.VRRISOX. 489 Secretary of the Navy; for the. introduction of American pork in Europe to the Secretary of Agriculture ; for the settlement, so far as it is settled, of the currency question to Senator Jolin Sherman; for the fonuulation of the tariff laws to Governor ]\lclvinley ; for the removal of the restrictions placed by foreign nations upon the introduction of American pork to our Ministers at Paris and Berlin, I am tempted to seriously inquire Avho, during the last four years, has been President of the United States, anyhow? Cffisai', when he wrote those commentaries which were the history of the conquests of Europe under his leailership, modestly took the position of ^Eneas when he said : " Tlu-y are the narra- tive of events, the whole of which I saw, and tlie part of which I was." General Thomas, as the rock of Chickamauga, occupies a i)lace in our history with Leonidas among tlie Greeks, except that he succeeded where Leonidas failed. The fight of Joe Hooker above the clouds was the poetry of battle. The resistless rush of Sheridan and his steed down the valley of Shenandoah is the epic of our Civil War. The march of Sherman from Atlar.ta to the sea is the supreme triumph of gallantry and strategy. It detracts nothing from the splendor of the fame or the merits of the deeds of his lieutenants, to say that, having selected them witli mar- vellous sagacity and discretion. Grant still remained the supreme commander of the national arm}'. All the proposed acts of any administration, before they are formulated are passed upon in Cabinet council, and the measures and suggestions of the ablest secretaries wfuild have failed with a lesser President. But for the great good of the country anminate Benjamin Harrison*. THE REPUBLICAN PLATFORM. The representatives of the Republicans of tlie United States, assembled in general convention on the slioies of the Mississippi River, the everlasting bond of an indestructible republic, whose most glorious chapter of history is the record of the Repul)lican paity, congratulate their countrymen on the majestic march of tlie nation under the banners inscribed with the principles of our platform of 1888, vindicated by victory at tlie polls and ])rosperity in our fields, workshops, and mines, and make the following declaration of princi- ples : — We reaffirm the American doctrine of protection. We call attention to its growth abroad. We maintain that the prosperous condition of our country is largely due to the wise revenue legislation of the Republican Congress. We believe tliat all articles which cannot be produced in the United States, except luxuries, should be admitted free of duty, and that on all imports coming into competition with the products of American labor there should be levied duties equal to the difference between wages abroad and at home. We assert that the prices of manufactured articles of general consumption have been reduced under the operations of the tariff act of 1890. We denounce the efforts of the Democratic majority of the Mouse of Representatives to destroy our tariff laws piece- meal, as is manifested by their attacks upon wool, lead, and lead ores, the chief products of a number of States, and we ask the people for their judgment thereon. 491 492 THE REPUBLK^AX PLATFORM. We point to the success of the Republican policy of reciprocit}^, under which our export trade has vastly increased, and new and enlarged markets have been opened for the products of our farms and workshops. "We remind the people of the bitter opjjosition of the Democratic party to this practical business measure, and claim that, executed by a Republican administration, our present laws will eventually give us control of the trade of the world. Tlie American people, from tradition and interest, favor bi-metallism, and the Republican party demands the use of both gold and silver as standard money, witli such restrictions and under such provisions, to be determined by legislation, as will secure the maintenance of the parity of values of the two metals, so that the purchasing and debt-paying power of the dollar, whether of silver, gold, or paper, shall be at all times equal. The interests of the producers of the country, its farmers and its Avorkingmen, demand tliat every dollar, paper or ^oin, issued by the government, shall be as good as any other. We commend the wise and patriotic steps already taken by our government to secure an international conference, to adopt such measures as will insure a parity of value between gold and silver for use as money throughout the world. We demand that every citizen of the United States shall be allowed to cast one free and unrestricted ballot in all public elections, and that such ballot shall be counted and returned as cast; that such laws shall be enacted and en- forced as will secure to every citizen, be he rich or poor, native or foreign born, white or black, this sovereign right guaranteed by the Constitution. The free and honest popular ballot, the just and equal representation of all the people, as well as their just and equal protection under the laws, are the foundation of our Republican institutions, and the party will never relax its TFIE REPUBLIOAX PLATFOKM. 493 efforts until the integrity of tlie ballot and the purity of elections shall be fully guaranteed and protected in every State. We denounce the continued inhuman outrages perpetrated on American citizens for political reasons in certain Southern States in the Union. We favor the extension of our foreign commerce, the restoration of our mercantile marine by home-built ships, and the creation of a navy for the protection of our national interests and the honor of our flag; the maintenance of the most friendly relations with all foreign powers ; entangling alliances with none, and the protection of the rights of our fishermen. We reaffirm our approval of tlie Monroe doctrine, and believe in the achievement of tlie manifest destiny of the Republic in its broadest sense. We favor the enactment of more stringent laws and regu- lations for the restriction of criminal, pauper, and contract immigration. We favor efficient legislation by Congress to protect the life and limbs of employees of transportation companies en- gaged in carrying on interstate commerce, and recommend legislation by the respective States that will protect employees engaged in State commerce, in mining, and manufacturing. The Republican party has always been the champion of the oppressed, and recognizes the dignity of manhood, irre- spective of faith, color, or nationality ; it sympathizes with the cause of Home Rule in Irel.md, and protests against the persecution of the Jews in Russia. The ultimate reliance of free popular government is the intelligence of the people and the maintenance of freedom among men. We, therefore, declare anew our devotion to liberty of thought and conscience, of speech and press, arid approve all agencies and instrumentalities which contribute to the education of the children of the land ; but, while insisting 494 THE iii<:rui;Mc.\\ j'La ri-oUM, upon the fullest measure of I'eligious liberty, we are opposed to any union of Clmrch and State. We reaffirm our opposition, declared in the Republican platform of 1888, to ail combinations of capital, organized in trusts or otherwise, to control arbitrarily the condition of trade among our citizens. We heartily endorse the action already taken upon this subject, and ask for such further legislation as may be required to remedy any defects in ex- isting laws, and to render their enforcement more complete and effective. We a[)prove the policy of extending to towns, villages, and rural communities the advantages of the free delivery service now enjoyed by the larger cities of the country, and reaffirm the declaration contained in the Republican platform of 1888, pledging the reduction of letter postage to one cent at the earliest possible moment consistent with the maintenance of the post-office department and the highest class of postal service. We commend the spirit and evidence of reform in the civil service, and the wise and consistent enforcement by the Republican party of the laws regulating the same. The construction of the Nicaragua Canal is of the highest importance to the American people, both as a measure of national defence and to build up and maintain American com- merce, and it should Ijc controlled by the United States Government. We favor the admission of the remaining Territories at the earliest practicable date, having due regard to the interests of the people of the Territories and of the United States. All the Federal officers appointed for the Territories should be selected from bona fide residents thereof, and the right of self-government should be accorded as far as practicable. We favor cession, subject to tlie homestead laws, of the aiid public lands to the States and Territories in which they lie, under such Congressional restrictions as to disposition, THE REPUBLICAN PLATFORM. 495 reclamation, and occupancy by settlers, as will secui'e the maximum bene tits to the people. The World's Columbian Exposition is a great national undertaking, and Congress should promptly enact such reasonable legislation in aid thereof as will insure a discharge of the expense and obligations incident thereto, and the attainment of results commensurate with the dignity and progress of the nation. In temperance we sympathize with all wise and legitimate efforts to lessen and prevent the evils of intemperance and })romote morality. Ever mindful of the services and sacrifices of men who saved the life of the Union, we pledge anew to the veteran soldiers of the republic a watchful care and recognition of their just claims upon a grateful people. We commend the able, patriotic, and thoroughly American administration of President Harrison. Under it the country has enjoyed remarkable prosperity, and the dignity and honor of the nation, at home and abroad, have been faithfully main- tained, and we offer the record of pledges kept as a guarantee of faithful performance in the future. THE VOTE BY STATES. President Harrison was iioiiiiuaiud on the first ballot. Tlu; vote by States was as follows : — Whole number of votes cast 904 l-'A Necessary to a choice 453 Beujainiii Harrison received 585 l-fi James (i. Blaine receiveil 182 1-0 William McKinley 182 Robert T. Lincoln 1 Thomas B. Reed 4 The fi)lli)\ving' is the ofliuial vote by States: Staihs. HAituisoN. Blaink. iMeKiNr,i.\ Alabama. 15 . . 7 Aikaiisas 15 . . 1 California 8 9 1 ("oloradci 8 Conneeticiit 4 . . 8 Delaware 4 1 1 Florida 8 (Jeori^ia 26 Illinois 34 14 blabo 6 Indiana 30 Iowa 20 5 1 Kansas 11 . . 9 KentueUy 22 2 1 Louisiaria 8 8 Maine 12 .Maryland 14 . . 2 Massaeluisells 18 1 11 .Micln-an 7 2 19 .Minnesota 8 9 1 IMissouii 28 4 2 iMis>issii)pi 13 1-2 4 1-2 Montana 5 1 Nebraska 15 . . 1 Nevada 6 New TIami).«;liiie 4 2 New Jer.sov • 18 2 New York" 27 35 10 North Carolina 17 2-3 2 2-3 1 North Dakota 2 4 THK VoTK HV STATES. 497 States. Ohio . . . . . ( (regon . . . , I't'iinsylvania . Rhode Ishind . . South Carolina South Dakota . . Tennessee . . . Texas ... Vermont ... Virginia . . . , Wash i nolo) I . West Virginia . Wisconsin . . Wyoming Arizona . . . District of Coin ml New Mexico Oklahoma . . , Utah Alaska . . . Indian Territory , Harrison. 1 1 19 5 13 8 17 22 9 1 12 19 4 1 Blaine. McKini.ky. 45 7 3 42 1 1 3 2 ' 4 '3 6 13 6 '2 2 1 2 Total 535 1-6 182 1-6 182 Ex-Spe;iker Reed received 4 votes, 1 from New Hampshire, 1 fioiii Rhode Island, and 2 from Texas, and Robert T. Lin- cohi 1 vote from New Hampsliire. There were 2^ votes absent. BIOGRAPHICAL STORY Career, with Anecdotes, Reminiscences, and the Family Life of Q ROVER CLEVELAND The Democratic Presidential Nominee Aim ADLAI E. STEVENSON The Democratic Vice=PresidentiaI Nominee. w^' GHOVKK CLEVELAND. 500 CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. The political rise of Grover Cleveland has no parallel in history. Mayor of an inland city on January 1, 1882 ; Gov- ernor of the greatest State in the Union on January 1, 1883 ; President of the United States on March 4, 1885, he reached the highest position of national eminence, and displayed well-developed qualities of leadership in a shorter period of time than most public men occupy in finding an entrance to the arena of political action. Such a career would have been impossible in any other country of the earth. In it we find epitomized the possibilities for the indi vidual in a government by the people. It would not far overshoot the mark if it were said that any man who has been elected to preside as Mayor over any American city of more than 200,000 inhabitants, and Avho has performed his duties wisely and faithfully, is a good enough public adminis- trator to make a Governor of a State, and that any man who has made a fitting Governor of a large and important State is generally pretty good Presidential timber. Cleveland as President conducted his office in accordance with tlie same principles which were the inspiring motives of his adminis- tration as Governor, and as Governor he was simply perform- ing the duties of Mayor for a larger community. In neither ofhce was he what is commordy known as brilliant. He was earnest, painstaking, faithful, and at the same time cour- ageous ; bound to do what he felt to be his duty, and always susceptible to what he l)elieved was the public interest. The high estimation with whicli liis public services were regarded by his party was attested by the liandsome compliment it 502 CAREER OF GROVEK CT.EVELA1>^^D. paid him in renominating^ him for the Presidential office, not- withstanding his defeat of 1888. The original ancestor of the Cleveland family, in this country, was Moses Cleveland, who in 1635 emigrated from Ipswich, England, to IMassaclmsetts, and settled near Woburn where he died in 1701. His grandson, Aaron Cleveland, was graduated at Harvard College, and later was ordained as a minister of the Episcopal Church. One of his charges was in Philadelphia, where he met and was on terms of intimacy with Benjamin Franklin. He died in Franklin's liouse in 1757. Another Cleveland, Timothy, a member of the branch of the family which settled in Connecticut, fought with the patriots at Bunker Hill, and was a lieutenant in the Continental Army during the War of the Revolution. Of the Rev. Aaron Cleveland's sons, the second, named after the father, settled at Norwich, Connecticut, and rose to political prominence in the State, being a member of the legislature, and an ardent advocate of the abolition of slavery. In middle life he entered the ministry, being identified with a CoiiGfreg'ational church in Vermont, and after that in New Haven, Conn., where he died in 1815. The second Aaron Cleveland had thirteen children, the second of whom, William, set up as a silversmith and watchmaker in Norwich, Conn. The vicissitudes of business carried him to Wortliing- ton, Mass., thence to Salem, and finally back to Norwich, Conn., where he was prominent in the Congregational church. William's son, Richard Falley Cleveland, was the father of Grover Cleveland. Richard was born in 1805, at Norwich, and was educated at Yale College. His father desired the son to enter the ministry, but the years immediately suc- ceeding his graduation, he spent as tutor in a private school in Baltimore, Md. In this city, he met Anne Neale, daughter of a prosperous law-book publisher of Irish extraction, and a famous beauty, whom lie married as soon as he assumed the duties of his first pastorate. This Avas the Congregational CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 508 church at Windham, Conn., where he lived until failing health compelled him to seek a home in the South. Returning to the North at the end of a year, he took a church in Cald- well, N. J., where on March 18, 1837, a son named Stephen Grover, in honor of the minister the father had succeeded, was born. There were three other children, Anne, William Neale, and Mary, all older than Grover, and after him, Cecil, Frederick, Margaret, Susan, and Rose. When Grover was three years old, his father accepted a call at Fayetteville, N. Y., at $G00 a year. Here Grover went to the district school, where he did not especially distinguish himself. In fact, there was nothing in his school-boy career °to mark him as superior to liis fellows. At this time, Richard Cleveland's means being limited, he determined that it would be well to give Grover some practical business experience, which he did by finding him a position as a clerk in a Fayetteville store at 150 a year. A biographer says of tins period of Grover Cleveland's career : " There is unimpeachable testimony that whatever the boy's hand was given to do, he did witli all his heart, and that he left behind him the reputation for bravery, fidelity, and candor that has outlived all these years." The family removed to Clinton, N. J., the seat of Hamilton Col- lege, when Grover was eleven years of age, the intention being to place Grover in the college, William being already there. Richard Cleveland's salary was now $1,000 a year, larger than it had ever been, and he was encouraged to hope that he would be able to give his sons as thorough an educa- tion as his own had been. At Clinton, Grover resumed his preparation for college, but was compelled to give it up in his sixteenth year, when his father, who had been called to Holland Patent, near Utica, N. Y., died there a month after his arrival. This event made a complete change in the situation and prospects of the family. The fatlier'.s income had barely sufficed for the support and education of his children. It became appar- 504 CAREER OF OROVER CLEVELANO. eiit that such of them as were old enougli would have to i;ike care of themselves and help to take care of the others. jVlthough the gaining of a college education had been the dearest Avish of his life, Grover cheerfully gave it up and went to work. His oldest brother, William, was at this time a teacher in the Institute for the Blind in the city of New York. He procured for Grover the pLu^e of clerk and assistant teacher. William liad recently graduated from Hamilton College, and under his tuition Grover devoted all his leisure time to the study of Latin and English literature. At the end of a year's engagement he returned to his mother's house, where, between the times of seeking more lucrative emjiloyment he still continued his studies. He searched for work in SyrsL- cuse and Utica, but without success, and finally made up liis mind to go West. On his way he stopped in Buffalo to visit his uncle, Lewis F. Allen, a stock-breeder. He made the journey thither with twenty-five dollars in his pocket, the amount of a loan from a deacon in his father's church, for which he gave a note, dated May, 1858, to repay the sum on demand. His ultimate destination was Cleveland, O., but his uncle induced him to remain in Buffalo, and placed him at work compiling a " herd-book " containing the pedigrees of full-blooded short-horn cattle. For this work he received sixty dollars ; the book was accurately compiled and became a standard work, and is such to-day. Grover's uncle now endeavored to find him a place in a law-office, where the lad might realize his ambition to become a lawyer. After refusals from several other firms, Rogers, Bowen & Rogers gave Grover a place as office boy. He at once set to work with the dogged perseverance and unflag- ging industry which have characterized his whole career, to master tlie rudiments of the law and to make liimself useful. Althougli living witli his uncle two miles out of town he was always the first to arrive in the morning and the last to go OAREEK OF (tROVER CLEVELAND. 505 at night. His industry was appreciated, and in a few months he received a salary of four dollars a week. This was in- creased from time to time, and after his admission to the bar in May, 1850, ho was made managing clerk at -fsBOO a year. In 1861 this had been increased to $1,000 a year, and then, at the age of t\^"enty-five, he left the office to become assist- ant district-attorr.cy of Erie County. Tliose who knew Grover Cleveland at this period of his life have said that he won success by his industry, courage, and honesty. He was thorough in all he undertook, and, once his convi'-tions were formed npon what he believed to be reliable data, nothing could change them. On any question he was studying, he was reticent until he had familiarized himself with all its bearings, then ho made conclusions from which it was impossible to swerve liim. He adopted a rule to complete every day's work so that it would not have to be done again, and the late hours kept by the President at his desk in the Executive Mansion bear testimony to the habit he contracted in his young manhood. Plis appointment as assistant district-attorney came to him without any solicitation on his part. He was reluctant to accept it, because the salary was only six hundred dollars a year. Having accepted it at the earnest advice of friends, he entered npon his new work witli all the energy and zeal of youth. The district-attorney lived twenty-iive miles out of town, and therefore most of the work devolved upon the assistant. He was in attendance at every one of the twelve grand juries which met during each of the three years of his term in office, and presented in full the large majority of the cases. Nearly all tlie indictments during that period were drawn by him, and more than half the cases he tried in court. On more than one occasion he conducted four cases before a jury, won a favorable verdict in each, and sat down at eight ij'clock in tli(! evening to make preparations for the next day, not rising from his desk until three o'clock in the morning. 506 CAREER UF GROVER CLEVELAND. Eight o'clock found liiin again at tlie office for the day's con- test with some of the best criminal practitioners in the country. During his term of office, he was drafted into the military service of the United States. Two of his brothers, Cecil and Frederick, were already at the front. His brother William at Southampton, Long Island, had a family to provide for. Grover was supporting his mother and two sisters on his salary of six hundred dollars. At the advice of friends, therefore, he determined to find a substitute, and did so, the bounty money being borrowed from tlie district-attorney. In 1865, at the age of twenty-nine, he was nominated for district attorney by the Democrats, but was beaten by his intimate personal friend, Lyman K. Bass, with whom he afterwards formed a law partnership — in 1866. Mr. Cleveland formed a partnership with tlie late mayor of Buffalo, Isaac V. Van- derpoel, which lasted till 1869, when he joined the firm of Laning, Cleveland & Folsom. In 1867, the late William Dorsheimer, then United States District Attorney for the Buffalo district, offered Mr. Cleveland the position of assist- ant, which he declined. In 1870, his friends suggested his name as candidate for the office of sheriff, and, without any effort on his part, he received the unanimous vote of the Demo- cratic party, and was elected for three yeai's. The office of sheriff is the most important executive office in the county, under the system in the State of New York. The duties of this position were filled by Mr. Cleveland w ith the same at- tention and business-like fidelity that he had always shown in such positions as he had held, either in i)ublic or private life. In this, the first important executive position which he had filled, he did justice to himself and to those whose con- fidence he had secured, and by whom he was selected. He had for the first time in many years sufficient leisure for self- imjjrovement, and the income of the office was large enough to jjermit him to save some money. His position in Buffalo CAREER OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 507 politics was now assured, and there was no man in the h^cal Democracy who was more highly esteemed. At the expiration of his term as sheriff, with Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell, the law firm of Bass, Cleveland & Bissell was formed, and was one of the strongest in Westeiii New York. Judqe Georo-e W. Clinton said of him at thiy time : " In his jury addresses he never fired over the heads of the jury in rhetorical eloquence. He addressed himself to them directly, as an honest, sensible man speaking to his fellows, and he won his verdicts by his close and full argu- ment and his thorough knowledge of all the evidence in the case. He was strictly honorable, and never endeavored to take petty advantages of the opposing counsel or of the jury. At the time he became mayor, he can truthfully be said to have been eminent at the bar of Erie County." In 1881 the Reform movement in Buffalo was organized, with the view of purging the city of the corrupt influences by wliich its municipal administration was surrounded. Party lines were to a certain extent disorganized. The city had been badly ruled by a combination of Republican managers, its revenues were stolen or wasted, and no mayor had been found, for many years, who possessed the courage and ability to attack the existing abuses. The Democratic leaders turned to Lawyer Cleveland a-s the man to win the election. He was nominated by acclamation, and in his speech of acceptance pledged himself if elected to conduct the office of mayor in the interest of the people of Buffalo. After an exciting canvass, he was elected by a majority of 3,530, while on the same day the Republican State ticket had carried the city by a majority of over 1,600. During the short time that he renrained in office, being raised to the governorship before tlie expiration of his term as mayor, he saved the city more than $1,000,000 by preventing the consummation of corrupt schemes and bargains by the city council. 508 CAREER OF (iRDVKJl CLEVELAND. He displayed indomitable pluck and grit, a thorough knou IimIo'c of the law, a clear perception of the needs and rights of the eity, and of the best way to secure them, and a sincere determination to place the public interests ab.^ve the claims of paity. He showed how easily a man who is thoroughly honest and tlioroughly earnest can gain victory over corrupt combinations. In September, 1882, the Republicans of New York nom- inated Charles J. Folger, Secretary of the Treasury, for Gov- ernor. Tlu^ inliuences m liidi ])roiight about his nomination led to the revolt of several influential Republican news- papers, and many of the Rejuiblican voters announced their intention not to A'ote for him. The Democrats nominated Mayor Cleveland to oppose F'olger ; Cleveland's letter of acceptance, written in his characteristic, vigorous style, calltMl forth heart}' commendation, and a campaign was inaugurated which was notable for the listlessness of the Republicans, and the desertion of thousands of them to rally to the cause of the Democracy. Cleveland achieved ;i. wonderful triumph at tlie polls, his majority being 192,854. Tlie traits of tireless industry, unostentatious dignity, thoi'oughness and simplicity noted in Grover Cleveland's early career Avere obser\'ablo during his stay in Albany. On the day before his inauguration as Governor he came from Buffalo with his law partner, Mr. Bissell, went to the Executive Mansion and spent the night. The next day the city was excited with the ap})roaching ceremonies. The streets were crowded, but there was no military parade and no procession. Mr. Cleveland would not allow it. He Avalked from the Executive Mansion, accompanied by Mr. Bissell, to the Capitol, a mile distant, making one of the throng that was going that way. He entered the building uni-ecognized, went to the executive chamber, where he was met by Governor Cornell. The moment the inaugural cere- 3ms. FBANCKS CLEVELAND. CAREKR OK (iKOVER CLEVKLAKD. 511 mony was over he passed into the hirge reception room, which had been set apart for his use, ordered tliat the doors should be open to admit everj^body, and wlien the handshak- ing was over he went immediately to work. Never was an important jjublic event so completely stripped of fuss and feathers, and never was a more radical change effected in the oflieial regime of the executive department. His lirst message to the legislature was a disa[)pointment. He intimated that a newly elected Executive could hardly be expected " to present a complete exhibit of State affairs.' The opposition newspapers throughout the State made fun of the message without stint, but the truth was that Mr. Cleveland did not know much about the details of the Gov- ernor's ofiice and he did not hesitate to say that he did not. He would not pretend to a knowledge which he did not possess. But shortly after his inauguration he began to send vetoes to the legislature, which called down upon him a stoi'm of criticism, and drew sharply the line between the friends and the opponents of the policy in government which he had announced while Mayor of Buffalo. As Governor, he displayed the same fearless devotion to principle which had characterized his administration as INIayor of Buffalo. His numerous vetoes earned him tiie title of " V^eto Governor." He worked harder than any of his subordinates, and systematized the ofilice work thoroughly. His attention was directed to the subject of pardons, the decision upon which had heretofore been in the hands of a pardon clerk, and he at once assumed the responsibility of the examination and decision upon all pardons himself. He was especially anxious to give proper attention to all that related to the amelioration of the condition of laboring men, and thi'ough the fearless use of his veto power he prevented the enactment into statutes of several measures which would have been injuiious to this class. Under his administration a State Civil Sei'vice llcform l)ill and a l)ill prohibiting politi- 512 CAREER OF CUoVKK CLEVELAND. cal assessments became laws. A bureau of labor statistics was also established with his approval, and with results of great advantage to the State. Many of his acts excited adverse comment, and antagonized the politicians, but the great body of the people expressed their approval of his course. No one questioned his earnestness, and his mistakes were of the head rather than of the heart. Being Governor of a pivotal State by an overwhelming majority, he became a })residential possibility from the mo- ment of his election. In 1884, the first name prominently mentioned for the Democratic nomination for President was Samuel J. Tilden. He having declined, the leaders of the New York Democracy put Governor Cleveland forward. This was in the eighteenth month of his term as Governor. Tliere wore at the time mutterings of discontent among cer- tain classes of Republicans due to the prospective nomination l)y that party of James G. Blaine, The conditions, therefore, were admirably fitted for the nomination of such a candidate by the Democrats as would in l)oth his personal and political charactti' commend himself to his party and to those Repub- licans who were about to "bolt" the nomination of Blaine. Such a candidate was found in Govei'iior Cleveland. Led by Daniel Manning, who afterwards was Secretary of the Treas- ury under President Cleveland, the New York delegation to the Democratic National Convention cast 72 votes for Cleve- land and thereby made his nomination certain. Cleveland was nominated on the second ballot, receiving 683 votes. Tliomas F. Bayard, of Delaware, receiving 81^ votes, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, receiving 45^ votes. The campaign which followed will ever be memorable for the personal abuse of both candidates, which characterized it. It was a bitterly fought contest from start to finish, and re- sulted in the election of Cleveland. The decisive votes were those of New York State, which he cai-ried by the narrow plurality of 1,047 in a total vote, aggregating about one CAREER OF GROVIiR CLEVELAND. 518 million. He received 219 electoral votes to 182 for Mr. Blaine, and a plurality of the popular vote of G 9,806. The support which Cleveland received from the Mugwumps, to- gether with the effect of Dr. Burcliard's famous alliteration, undoubtedly increased his strength. Tlie independent support of Cleveland was due princi- pally to tlie belief that as President he would set himself above the politicians of his party and conduct his office in accordance with the principles of civil service reform. Soon after liis election but before his inauguration the National Civil Service Reform League addix'ssed to him a letter requesting an explicit statement regarding liis views on the civil service. In his reply he expressed himself against the removal solely on partisan grounds of a certain class of office- liolders, but in favor of the removal of those who had proved themselves "offensive partisans and unscru[)u]ous manipula- tors of local party management." Tlie month after his inauguration he gratified tlie reformers but antagonized the politicians by reappointing the Republican Postmaster at New York, Henry G. Pearson. This act was another proof of his ability to withstand the pressure of partisanship, and of his courage in the face of ceiiain condenniation nnd loss of political advantage. What \\ iih the demands upon him for the " spoils of office," and his pledges to observe the letter and spirit of the civil service law. President Cleveland fre- quently expeiienced eml)arrassments which Avould have been intolerable to a less patient man. Many times he antagonized his Mugwump admirers, but no less often tluui he did the machine politicians. His manifest desire to do what he thought was right, liowever, strengthened him ijuite as much as liis failure to satisfy the politicians weak- ened him. The Republican Senate tried to make political capital out of his a])pointments and removals l)y demanding the papers upon wlii<-li leiiHtvals jiiid appoint niciits were made. But 514 CAREER OF GROVER (I-EVELAND. in this their efforts were wasted, and his appointments were confirnied. His annual messages to Congress were always characterized by a n igorous discussion of public questions, in which be fearlessly expressed his own opinions, sometimes to the great dissatislaction of the party leaders. His exer- cise of the veto power as Governor was carried to equal, if not greater length, as President. Bills in\olving the pay- ment of private claims and bills appropriating money for public buildiiigs, many of them met with his disapproval. The Dependent Pension Bill, permitting a pension to soldiers and sailors who served in the Civil War " u[)on tlu^ ground of service and present disability alone, and in the entire absence of any injuries received by the casualties or incidents of such service," was vetoed b}- President Cleveland, " as an avowed departure from the princi})le thus far adhered to respecting Union soldiers, that the bounty of the Government in the way of pensions is generously bestowed when granted to those who, in their military service and in the line of military duty have, to a greater or less extent, been disabled." In his message he called attention to the alleged disregard of truth and good faith, stimulated by pension agents, in submitting claims for pensions. jNIany private pension claims submitted for his signature w^ere vetoed, and he thus laid himself open to the charge of being unfriendly to the soldier, an accusa- tion which his friends have always stoutly denied. Another incident of his administration Wiis that which grew out of his order to Adjutant-General Drum to return to thci ex-Confederates the battle-flags, then in a dilapidated con- dition in the Ordnance Museum, which the Union armies had captured. This order aroused the members of the Grand Army of the Republic, whose leaders attacked the President with such fierceiiess that he revoked the order. He was at the time contemplating a tour of the South which should in- clude St. Louis, Mo., during the Grand Army Encampment, but it was declared that he would be publicly insulted if CAREER OP (iROVER OLEVELAXD. 515 he did so. This purpose of the offended Union veterans was rebuked by General Sherman, and tlie President visited St. Louis without indignity either to hini or liis high station. The third annual message of President Cleveland, submit- ted to Congress in December, 1887, seven months before the Democratic National Convention of 1888, was known as the Tariff Message, for the reason that in it he made direct ap- peal to the country in behalf of a radical reduction in tariff duties, in order to prevent the accumulation of a large surplus in the Treasury. The phraseology of the message was so GRAY GABI-KS. pointed, and the sentiments it expressed were so clearly in the nature of a challenge to the Republican party to make an issue on the jjrotection basis, that Democrats rnd Republi- cans alike were startled. Many of Cleveland's own friends criticised his audacity in thus forcing an issue of his own (;hoosing. The message, too, forced the Democratic party to renominate him, which was done by acclamation at the Con- vention at St. Louis, in July, 1888. Li the election which followed in November, there was but one issue, the tariff. Benjamin Harrison, the Republican candidate, was elected, carrying New York and Indiana. 516 CAREER OF (iliOVKE fLEVELAND. The marriage of President Cleveland to Miss Frances Folsom, was a notable event in the administration. It took place on June 2, 1886, in the Blue Room of the White House. The bride was then in her twenty-second year, having been born on July 21, 1864. Her father was Oscar Folsom, Cleveland's former hiAv-partner and intimate friend. At Mr. Folsom's death in 1875, Mr. Cleveland became her guardian. She was well educated, had the social instinct, and was beautiful withal, and was admiral)ly fitted to become the mistress of the White House. The receptions of the bride and groom lent an atinosp.here of gaiety to the White House life which it never had before, so that the Cleveland administration was distinguished quite as much for its social festivity as for its other features. U[)on the inauguration of Harrison, the Clevelands left Washington to live in New York City, where the ex-President entered upon the prac- tice of the law. One child, baby Ruth, has been l)orn to Mrs. Cleveland, the date of the birth being October 3, 1891. 518 ADLAl E. STEVENSON'S CAREER. The Democratic candidate for Vice-President, Gen. Adlai Ewing Stevenson, of Bloomington, 111., is another of the Kentuckians b}" birth who, as citizens of Illinois, have been named for national political honors. He was Ijorn in Christianson County, Ky,, near the county seat of Ho[)kinsville. He was the eldest son of Mr. and Mrs. J. T. Stevenson. The family originally came from JNIecklenburg, N. C. He began to attend school at the age of five years, his uncle, Dr. T. F. Worrell, who died in Bloomington a few years since, being the instructor. Young Stevenson was fond of history and always showed great interest in politics. A great reader and a liard student, he rapidly went to the front among his schoolfellows. At the age of sixteen he came with the family to Bloomington, where they resided on South Albert Street. He immediately entered llie Illinois Wesleyan University at that place, which was then in its infancy. When twenty-one years old he went to Danville, Ky., and entered Center College, then pre- sided over by the Ilev. Lewis W. Green. In 1857 he was called home to Bloomington because of the death of his father. He soon began the reading of law with the firm of Williams & Packard, later_ the firm of Williams & Burr. He was admitted to the l)ar in 1858. He did not practise in Bloomington at first, but went. to Metaniora, Woodford County, where he remained for ten years, having been twice elected prosecuting attorney, and master in Chancery of the Circuit Court for four years. While at Danville pursuing his studies, he met Miss 519 520 ADLAi K. Stevenson's career. Letitia Green, daughter of the Rev. Lewis W. Green, Presi- dent of the college at which he was a student. The court«lii[) was at the home of jNlrs. Scott, a sister of Miss Green, who lived in Chenoa, 111., and there the marriage ceremony took place in December, 18(36, the officiating clergym-an being the Rev. Dr. Craig, now of the INIcCormick Seminary in Chicago. The couple afterwards made a trip through Kentucky, visit- ing the places where they were known, being Avelcomed with a characteristic Avarmth, the memory of which is still fresh in the minds of the people of that section. Four children, all of whom are living, have been born to them : Louis Green Stevenson, aged twenty-four years ; Mary E. Stevenson, aged nineteen years ; Julia »Scott Stevenson, aged eighteen years ; Letitia Ewing Stevenson, aged sixteen years. General Stevenson's partnership with his cousin, James S. Ewing, which still exists, began in 1868. The young men had been fast friends from boyhood, and were at school and college together. An incident of the boyhood in Blooming- ton, is related as follows : — " When Stevenson and Jim Ewing first came here they had a potato patch just out of town. They were poor, and relied on the potato crop to bring them in spending money. One day they brought a load of potatoes to town, and while passing a livery stable the liveryman began to guy them. This incensed the boys, and they decided he couldn't have them. After they had sold their potatoes, they found a thumper who ^^-as loafing about the corner and asked him if he wanted a job. They told him they wanted him to thrash a man. The thumper asked them how much they would pay, and they said they would give him all they had realized on the potatoes. He accepted the job and they told him to get in the wagon and lie down. Then they drove back past the livery stable. The livery man was still standing in the doorway, and young Stevenson asked if he had changed his mind about them. The livery man said he hadn't. Then the boys threw the liiic^ ADLAi E. Stevenson's career. 521 over the dash-board and made a rush for the 'soothless in- sulter.' Before the lust blow was dealt, the thumper, who had beeu concealed in the wagon, leaped over the wheels and tackled the livery man, who was laid up for rei)airs in con- sequence for several days. Adlai told me that was the first time and last time he had ever spent any money for a fight." General Stevenson's ability as prosecuting attorney of Woodford County brought him into prominence before the people, and in 1864 he was named as the Democratic Presi- dential elector for that district. In the campaign of General McClellan as the nominee of his party for the Presidency he canvassed the entire State, speaking in every county. In 1874 he was elected to Congress in the Bloomington district, which then included Tazewell County, and which had been up to that time a large Republican majority. He defeated Gen. John McNulta, one of the best political debaters in Illinois, after a most exciting and bitter canvass. In this campaign Mr. Stevenson won the appellation of " The Great Strad- dler " for the ease and success with which he rode two horses at once — Democracy and Greenbackism. He made a close and energetic campaign, and liis election was a genuine sur- prise, especially to the Republicans. In 1876 he was defeated by the Hon. Diedrich C. Smith, of Pekin, soon after which the district was changed by putting Tazewell County into the district with Sangamon, and outlining the present Fourteentli District. He was again nominated in 1878, and was elected. He was a delegate to the National Democratic Convention in 1884, and in 1877 president Hayes appointed him a member of the Board to inspect the Military Academy at West Point. His military title was not won in the field of wars, but is a relic of liis service of the United States Government as First Assistant Postmaster-General in the Cleveland adminis- tration. At this time he was styled the "axeman" of the administration, because he decapitated thousands of Republi- can post-masters and appointed Democrats in their places. 522 ADI.AI K. Sn'KVKNSON's CAKEER. Since li-is return from Wiishiiigton in 1889, (ieneral Stev- enson has not taken an active part in the business of liis law firm, but lias devoted his time hirgely to the interests of the Workl's Fair. This has called him to nearly every State in tlie South and several times to Mexico. Two years ago he Was elected President of the Inter-State Building and Loan Association and holds that office at present, the headquarters being Bloomington. He has for many years been a stock- liolder of the McLean County Coal Company, whose mines are in Bloomington, and is its president. The company has always employed non-iniion laboring men, and under the management of IMr. JNIutthew T. Scott some years ago dis- putes with the miners were frequent and strikes not uncom- mon. General Stevenson lias had nothing to do with the active management of the mines which are controlled by the Scott estate. He is also a stockholder and director of the People's Bank of Bloomington. General Stevenson's personality has won him liosts of friends, and in Bloomington liis political opponents were quite as delighted with his nomination as were those who have been affiliated with him. On his arrival from Chicago, on the evening of the day of his nomination, Bloomington welcomed h;m in a manner whicli proved that he is one of her favorite citizens. A procession, in which the citizens joined, irrespective of party, escorted the General to the Soldiers' Monument, where, standing on a gun-carriage, he listened to a speech of welcome and of eulogy deliveied by his t\^-ice- defeated Pepublican opponent. General ^IcNulta. Replying General Stevenson said: — "Mr. Mayor, Gex, McNut.ta, and my TowNSForK, Neigh- bors, AND Fkiknds : I have no word with Avhich to express the deep gratitude of my heart for tl.o generous welcome you have given me. Tlie memory of it will ])erish only with my lite. To have such a greeting from the people amojig whom I have lived for more than a third of a century, in a home which I esteem even more than the great honor that the Democrats of this great ADi-Ai E. Stevenson's career. 523 and glorious nation have conferred on me, is an honor of which any citizen miglit well be proud. This has been my home from early boyhood. All that makes up life, the joys, the sorrows, have been here, and I have been proud of it. I have loved it, but I never have loved this beautiful city and its noble people as I do at this moment. Words cannot express my gratitude, my love; I can only say I thank you from the bottom of my heart. "Yon cannot expect an extended speech. I am worn out with the exacting labors of the Convention. I have not had the time nor the energy to collect my thoughts for a speech. 1 feel that I cannot say what I want to say to you; that I coi-dially respond to the wish of General McNulta tliat the jiolitical contest upon which we now enter shall be one of intelligent discussion and not of personal vilitication ; that it shall be a fight for the great principles of Democracy and for the great reform for which Democracy stands, dilfer as we may as to the principles and methods of government. We all desire the best interests of our common country. " Should my candidacy be successful, I can hardly hope at the close of my term of office to be welcomed to my home as I have been welcomed to-day. Should I be doomed to defeat, I shall have the satisfaction of knowing that it was not caused by the personal hostility of my countrymen, and that the few remaining years of my life will be spent in the most beautiful city and among the most generous people upon this earth. Again, my neighbors, my friends, I thank you." A Bloomingtoii man who lias made a stud}^ of Mr. Steven- son's peculiarities, says : " When Stevenson is not telling a funny story he always has a key-ring full of keys on his thumb. He has a way of throwing one key at a time over his thumb with his first finger. When he is in that attitude you can always bet he is thinking up some Jiew story or plotting a joke on somebody. When he Avas First Assistant Postmaster-General he always went through that motion before he fired some Republican out of the post-office. " Stevenson is one of tlie best after-dinner talkers in the West. ITe is full of what is known as the Kentucky suavity. But as an orator I do not regard him as a howling success. lie forgets some of his Kentucky polish when he gets on the stumj). As he Avarms u]) to his subject, he takes off his cuff's, then his necktie, then his shirt collar, and if the weather is very warm he ])u]ls otf his coat, and he thrashes around like a young hurricane. His voice on an occasion of this soil becomes husky, a);d he gets red in the face and looks as if he was going to have an attack of apoplexy. 524 ADLAi E. Stevenson's career. " He has had remarkable success at the bar in criminal cases. In any case where he appears for a woman he is effective. One of the most brilliant speeches he ever made was in a case of this sort. In his office, at a street conit-r, or at the club, he is one of the best story tellers I ever heard, but Avhen he gets on the stump his fund of humor seems to run out. " He is a member of the Presbyterian church, doesn't drink much, never swears, and never tells a salacious anecdote. One of the most prominent traits in his character is his devotion to his family. There is not that man living who ever heard of his neglecting the slightest wants oi Ins household." Of this filial trait in the General, Mrs. Stevenson herself says : " Before I knew him I had almost learned to love him on ac- count of his devotion to his mother. It may seem strange that any son should receive special credit for being so obedient and dutiful to his mother, but in the case of Mr. Stevenson his devo- tion always seemed more mai'ked than in anyone of whom I ever heard." Another observer of General Stevenson's career says : " Much of Stevenson's popularity is due to his gallantry to women. He wins them and thoy become his advocates. If the women of this country had the right of suffrage, Stevenson would be elected Vice-President by an overwhelming majority." MH-I.IAM C. WHITNEY. 526 NOMINATION OF CLEVELAND. Grover Cleveland was placed in nomination by Leon Abbett, Governor of his native State of New Jersey, in tlie following speech : — Mb. Chairman axd Gentlemen" of the Convention : In placing a name before this Convention, I speak for the united Democracy of the State of New Jersey, whose loyalty to Demo- cratic principles, faithful service to the party, and whose contri- butions to its success entitle it to the consideration of the Democrat'}^ of the countr}'. Its electoral vote has alwaj's been cast in support of Democratic principles and Democratic candi- dates. In voicing the unanimous wish of the delegation of New Jersey, I present as their candidate for the suffrage of this con- vention the name of a distinguished Democratic statesman born u])on its soil, for Avhom in two presidential contests the State of New Jersey has given its electoral vote. The supreme consider- ation in the mind of the Democracy of New Jersey is the success of the Democratic party and its principles. We have been in the past, and will be in the future, ready to sacrifice all personal preferences to the clear expression of the will of the Democratic party. It is because that this name will awaken throughout our own State the enthusiasm of the Democracy and insui'c success; it is because he re])resents the great Democratic princi- ples and policy u])ou which this entire convention is a unit; it is because we believe that, with him as a candidate, the Democracy of the Union Avill sweep the country and establish its principles throughout the length and breadth of the land, that we offer to the convention as a nominee the choice of the Democracy of New Jersey — Grover Cleveland. If any doubt existed in the minds of the Democracy of New Jersey of his ability to lead the great Democratic hosts to victory, they would not present his name to-day ; with thc^m the success of the party and the establishment of its ])rinciples are beyond their love of admiration for any man. We feel certain that every Democratic State, though its pref- £27 528 NOINIINATIOX OF CI.KVELAND. erence may be for some other distinguished Democrat, will give its warm, enthusiastic and earnest snj^port to the nominee of tliis Convention. The man Avhom we present will rally to his ])arty thousands of independent voters, whose choice is delerniined hy their personal conviction that the candidate will represent j^i'in- ciples dear to them, and whose ]Md)lic life and policy gives assurance that, if chosen by the people, they will secure an honest, pure, and conservative administration, and the great interests of the country will be encouraged and ])rotected. The time will come when other distinguished Democrats who have been mentioned in connection with this nomination will re- ceive that consideration to which the great services they have rendered their l>arty entitle them. But we stand to-day in the presence of the fact that tlie majority of the Democratic masses throughout the country, rank and file, the millions of its voters, demand the nomination of Grover Cleveland. The sentiment is so strong and overpowering that it has attracted and controlled the actions of delegates who would otherwise present the name of some distinguished leader of their own State, with whom they feel victory Avould l)e assured, and in Avhom the entire country would feel confidence. But the people have spoken, and favorite sons and leaders are standing aside in deference to their will. Shall we listen to the voice of the Democracy of the Union ? Shall we place on our banners the name of the man of their choice, the man in whom they believe ; or shall we for any consideration of policy or expedi(mcy, hesitate to obey their will V I have sublime faith in the expression of the people when it is clear and distinct. When the question before them is one that has excited discussion and debate ; when it appeals to their interests and their feelings; when it calls for the exercise of their judgment, and when they say we want this man, and we can elect liiui, we, tlieir representatives, must not disobey or disap- point them. It is incumbent upon us to obey their wishes and concur in their judgment. Then, having given them the candi- date of their choice, they will give us their best, their most ener- getic efforts to secure success. We confidently rely upon the loyal and successful work of the Democratic leaders who liave advocated other candidates. We know that in the great State across the river from New Jersey, now controlled by the Democracy, there is no Democrat who will shirk the duty of making an effort to secure the success of the candidate of this convention, notwithstanding his judgment may differ fi-oni that of the majority. The Democracy of New York and their great leaders, whose efforts and sj)lendid general- NOMINATION OF CLEVELAND. 529 ship have given to us a Democratic senator and governoi-, will always be true to the groat party they represent ; they Avill not waver in the coming canvass, nor will they rest until they have achieved success. Their grand victories of the past, their natural and honorable ambition, their unquestioned Democracy, will make them arise and tight as never before, and with those that they represent and lead, they will marshal the great independent vote, and we will again secui-e Democratic victory in New York. The grand Democrats, under whose leadership the people of New York are now governed, will give to the cause the great weight of organization. The thundering echoes of this Convention announcing the nomination of Grover Cleveland will not have died out over the hills and through the valleys of this land before you will hear and see all our leaders rallying to the support of our candidate. They will begin their efforts for organization and success, and continue their work until victory crowns their efforts. All Demo- ci-ats will fight for victor^^ and they will succeed, because the principles of the party enunciated here are for the best interests of the country at large, and because the people of this land have unquestioning faith that Grover Cleveland will give the country a pure, honest, and stable government, and an administration in which the great business interests of the country and the agricul- tural and laboring interests of the masses will receive proper and due consideration. The question has been asked why it is that the masses of the party demand the nomination of Grover Cleveland. Why is it that this man Avho has no offices to distribute, no wealth to com- mand, should have secured the spontaneous support of the great body of Democracy? Why is it that, with all that has been urged against him, the people still cry : " Give us Cleveland " ? Why is it that, although he has pronounced in clear, earnest, and able language his views upon questions upon which some of his party may differ with him, he is still near and dear to the masses? It is because he has crystallized into a living issue the great prin- ciple upon which this battle is to be fought out at the coming election. If he did not create tariff reform, he has made it a presidential issue ; he vitalized it and presented it to our party as the issue for wiich we could fight and continue to battle until upon it victory is now assured. There are few men in his position who Avould have had the courage to boldly make the issue of tariff reform and present it clearly and forcibly as he did in his great message of 1887. I believe that his policy then w^as to force a national issue which would appeal to the judgment of the iseopLc. 530 NOMINATION OF CLEVELAND. We must honor a man who is honest enough and bold enough, under such circumstances, to proclaim that the success of the party upon jiriuciple is better than evasion or shirking of the true national issues for temporary success. When victory is obtained uj>on princi})le it forms the solid foundation of party success in the future. It is no longer the question of a battle to be won on the mistakes of our foes, but it is a victory to be accomplished by a charge along the whole line under the banner of principle. There is another reason why the people demand his nomina- tion. They feel that the tariff reform views of President Cleve- land and the j)rinciples laid down in his great message, whatever its temporary effect may have been, gave us a living and vital issue to fight, which has made the great victories since 1888 possible. It consolidated in one solid phalanx the Democracy of the nation. In every State of this Union that policy has been placed in Democratic platforms, and our battles have been fought upon it, and this great body of representative Democrats has seen its good results. Every man in this convention recognizes this as the policy of the party. In Massachusetts it gave us a Russell ; in Iowa it gave us a Boies ; in Wisconsin it gave us a Peck for Governor and Vilas for secretary. In Michigan it gave us Wv- mans for Governor and gave us a Democratic legislature, and will give us eight votes for President. In Ohio, in 1889, it gave us James Campbell for Governor, and in 1891 to defeat him it required the entire wealth and power of the Republican party. In Pennsylvania it gave us Robert E. Pattison. In Connecticut it gave us a Democratic Governor, Avho was kept out of office by the infamous conduct of the Republican party. In New Hamjishire it gave lis a legislature, of Avhich we were defrauded. In Illinois it gave us a Palmer for senator, and in Nebraska it gave us Bo}^! for Governor. In the great Southern States it has continued in power the Democratic paity. In New Jersey the power of the Democracy has been strengthened, and the legislature and executive are now both Democrat. In the great State of New York it has given us the great David B. Hill for senator, and Roswell P. Flower for Governor. With all these glorious achievements, it is the wisest and best policy to nominate again the man whose policy made these successes possible. The people believe that these victories, which gave us a Democratic House of Representatives in 1890 and Democratic governors and senators in Rcjuiblican and doubt- ful States, are due to the courage and wisdom of Grover Cleveland. And so believing, they recognize him as their great leader. NOMINATION OF t'LKVKLANI). 631 In presenting this name to the Convention, there is no reflec- tion upon any of the masterful leaders of the ]»arty. The vic- tories which have been obtained are not alone the laeritage of those States ; they belong to the whole party. I feel that every Democratic State, and that every individual Democrat, has reason to rejoice and be proud and applaud these splendid successes. The candidacy of Grover Cleveland is not a reflection upon others; it is not antagonistic to any great Democratic leader. He comes before this Convention, not as the candidate of any one State. He is the choice of the great majority of Demo- cratic voters. The Democracy of New Jersey presents to this Convention, in this the people's year, their nominee, the nominee of the people, the plain, blunt, honest citizen, the idol of the Democratic masses — Grover Cleveland. THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. Section 1. The representatives of the Democratic party of the United States, in national convention assembled, do reallirm their allegiance to the piineiples of the party as formulated by Jefferson and exemplified by the long and illustrious line of his successors in Democratic leadershi[s from Madison to Cleveland ; we believe the public ^Yelfare demands that these principles be applied to the conduct of the Federal Government through the power of the party tlial advocates them ; and we solemnly declare that the need of a return to those fundamental principles of a free popular government, based on home rule and individual liberty, M^as never more urgent than now, when the tendency to centralize all power at the federal capital has become a menace to the reserved rights of the States that strikes at the very roots of our government under the Constitution as framed by tlie fathers of the republic. Sec. 2. We warn the people of our common country, jealons for the preservation of their free institutions, that the policy of federal control of elections, to which the Republi- can party h;is committed itself, is fraught Avith the gravest dangers, scarcely less momentous than would result from a revolution, practically establishing monarchy on the ruins of tlie. republic. It strikes at the North as well as the South, and injures the colored citizen even more than the white ; it means a horde of deputy marshals at every polling 2:)lace, armed with federal power, returning boards appointed and controlled by federal authority, tlie outrage of the electoral rights of the people in the several States, the subjugation of 532 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. 533 the colored people to the control of the party in power und the reviving of race antagonisms, now happily abated, of the utmost peril to the safety and happiness of all, a measure deliberately and justly described by a leading Republican senator as " the most infamous bill that ever crossed the threshold of the Senate." Such a policy, if sanctioned by law, would mean the dominance of a self-perpetuating oligarchy of office-holders, and the party first intrusted with its machinery could be dis- lodged from power only by an appeal to the reserved rights of the people to resist opposition, which is inherent in all self- governing communities. Two years ago this revolutionary policy was emphatically condemned by the people at the polls ; but, in contempt of that verdict, the Republican party has defiantly declared in its latest authoritative utter- ance that its success in the coming elections will mean the enactment of the force bill and the usurpation of despotic control over elections in all the States. Believing that the preservation of republican government in the United States is dependent upon the defeat of this policy of legalized force and fraud, we invite the support of all citizens who desire to see the Constitution maintained in its integrity, with the laws pursuant thereto, wliicli have given our countiy a hundred years of unexampled prosperity ; and we pledge the Democratic part}', if it be intrusted with power, not only to the defeat of the force bill, but also to relentless opposition to the Republican j)olicy of profligate expenditure which, in the short space of two years, has squandered an enormous surplus and emptied an overflowing treasury, after piling new burdens of taxation upon the already overtaxed lal)or of the country. Sec. 3. We denounce Republican protection as a fraud, a robbery of the gieat majority of American people for the benefit of the few. We declare it to be a fundamental princi[)le of the Democratic party that the Federal Govei'ument 534 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. has no constitutional power to enforce and collect tariff duties except for the purpose of revenue only, and demand that the collection of such taxes shall be limited to the necessities of the government, and honestly and economically administered. We denounce the McKinley tariff laAv enacted by the Fifty-First Congress as the culminating atrocity of class legis- lation ; we indorse the efforts made by the Democrats of the present Congress to modify its most oppressive features in the direction of free raw materials and cheaper manufactured goods that enter into general consumption ; and we promise its repeal as one of the beneficent results that will follow the action of the people in entrusting power to the Democratic party. Since the McKinley tariff went into operation there have been ten reductions of the wages of laboring men to one increase. We deny that there ha*s been any increase of prosperity to the country since that tariff went into operation, and we point to the dulness and distress, the wage reductions and strikes in the iron trade as the best })Ossible evidence that no such prosperity has resulted from the McKinley act. We call the attention of thouglitful Americans to the fact that, after thirty years of restrictive taxes against the im- portation of foreign wealth in exchange for our agricultural surplus, the homes and farms of the country have become burdened with a real estate mortgage debt of over $2,500,- 000,000, exclusive of all other forms of indebtedness ; that in one of the chief agricultural States of the West there appears a real estate mortgage debt averaging one hundred and fifty-tlu'ee dollars per capita of the total population, and that similar conditions and tendencies are shown to exist in the other agricultural exporting States. Vn^e denounce a policy which fosters no industry so much as it does that of the sheriff. Sec. 4. Trade interchange on the basis of reciprocal ad van- THE PEMOCKATIO PLATFORM. 535 tages to tlie countries i^articipating is a time-honored doctrine of the Democratic faith, bnt we denounce the sham reciprocity whicli juggles with the people's desire for enlarged foreign markets and freer exchanges l)y pretending to establish closer trade relations for a country whose articles of export are almost exclusively agricultural products with other countries that are also agricultural, while erecting a custom house bar- rier of prohibitive tariff taxes against the richest countries of the Avorld that stand ready to take our entire surplus of products and to exchange therefor commodities which are necessaries and comforts of life among our own people. Sec. 5. We recognize in the trusts and combinations, which are designed to enable capital to secure more than its just share of the joint product of capital and labor, a natural con- sequence of the prohibitive taxes Avhich prevent the free competition which is the life of honest trade, but we believe their worst evils can ])e abated by law, and we demand the rigid enforcement of tlie laws made to prevent and control them, together with such further legislation in restraint of their uses as experience may shoAv to be necessary. Sec. 6. The Republican party, while professing a policy of reserving the j)ublic land, for small holdings by actual settlers, has given away the people's heritage till now a few railroads and non-resident aliens, individual and corporate, possess a larger area than that of all our farms between the two seas. The last Democratic administration reversed the improvident and unwise policy of the Republican party touching the pul> lie domain, and reclaimed from corporations and syndicates, alien and domestic, and restored to the people nearly 100,- 000,000 acres of valuable land, to be sacredly held as home- steads for our citizens, and we pledge ourselves to continue this policy until ever^ acre of land so unlawfully held shall be reclaimed and restored to the people. Sec. 7. We denounce the Republican legislation known as the Sherman act of 1890 as a cowardly makeshift, fraught 536 THE DEMOr-RATIO PLATFORM. with possibilities of danger in the future which should make all of its supporters, as well as its autlior, anxious for its speedy repeal. We hold to the use of ])oth gold and silver as the standard money of tlie country, and to the coinage of both gold and silver without discriminating against either metal or charge for mintage, but the dollar unit of coinage of both metals must be of equal intrinsic and exchangeable value, or be adjusted through international agreement, or by such safeguards of legislation as sliall insure the maintenance of the parity of the metals and the ecjual pcnver of every dollar at all times in the markets and in the payment of debts ; and we demand that all paper currency shall be kept at par with and redeemable in such coin. We insist upon this policy as especially necessary for the protection of the farmers and laboring classes, the first and most defenceless victims of unstable money and a fluctuating cun-ency. Sec. 8. We recommend that the prohibitory 10 per cent, tax on State bank issues be repealed. Sec. 9. Public office is a public trust. We reaffirm the declaration of the Democratic national convention of 1876 for the refoi'ui of the civil service, and we call for the honest enforcement of all laws rep-ulatino- tlie same. The nomina- tion of a President, as in the recent Republican convention, by delegations composed largely of liis appointees, holding office at his pleasure, is a scandalous satire upon free popular institutions, and a startling illustration of the methods by which a President may gratify his ambition. We denounce a policy under which federal office-holders usurp control of party conventions in the States, and we pledge tlie Democratic party to the reform of these and all other abuses which threaten individual liberty and local self-government. Sec. 10. The Democratic party is the only party that has ever given the country a foreign policy consistent and vigo- rous, comjjelling respect abroad and inspiring confidence at home. While avoiding entangling alliances, it lias aimed to THE DK^rOCRATIC PLATFORM. 537 cultivate friendly relations with other nations, and especially with our neighl)ors on the American continent whose destiny is closely linked with our own, and we view with alarm the tendency to a policy of irritation and bluster, which is liable at any time to confront us with the alternative of liumiliation or war. We favor the maintenance of a navy strong enough for all purposes of notional defence, and to properly maintain the honor and dignity of tlie country abroad. Sec. 11. This country has always been the refuge of the oppressed from every land, exiles for conscience sake, and in the spirit of the founders of our government we condemn the oppression practised by the Russian government upryn its Lutheran and Jewish subjects, and we call upon our national government, in the interest of justice and humanity, by all just and proper means, to use its prompt and best efforts to bring about a cessation of tliese cruel persecutions in the dominions of the Czar, and to secure to the oppressed equal rights. We tender our profound and earnest sympathy to those lovers of freedom who are strugghng for home rule and the great cause of local self-government in Ireland. Sec. 12. We heartily approve all legitimate efforts to pre- vent the United States from being used as the dumping ground for the known criminals and professional paupers of Europe, and we demand tlie rigid enforcement of tlie law against Chinese immigration or the importation of foreign workmen under contract to degrade American labor and lessen the wages, but we condemn and denounce any and all attempts to restrict the immigration of the industrious and worthy of foreign lands. Sec. 13. This Convention hereliy renews the expression of appreciation of the patriotism of the soldiers and sailoi-s of the Union in the war for its preservation, and we favor just and liberal pensions for all disabled Union soldieis, their widows and dependents, but we demand that the work of the 638 THE DEMOCRATIC PLATFORM. pension office shall be done industriously, impartially, and honestly. We denounce the present administration of tliat office as incompetent, corrupt, disgraceful, and dishonest. Sec. 14. The Federal Government should care for and im- prove the Mississippi River and other great waterways of the republic, so as to secure for tlie interior States easy and cheap transportation to the tide water. When any waterway of the republic is of sufficient impor- tance to demand the aid of the government, such aid should be extended by a definite plan of continuous work until per- manent improvement is secured. Sec."^15. For purposes of national defence and the promo- tion of commerce between the States, we recognize the early construction of the Nicaragua Canal, and its protection against foreign control, as of great importance to the United States. Sec. 16. Recognizing the World's Columbian Exposition as a national undertaking of vast importance, in which the general government has invited the co-operation of all the powers of the world, and appreciating the acceptance by many of such powers of the invitation extended, and the broadest liberal efforts being made by them to contribute to the grandeur of the undertaking, we are of the o[)inion that Congress should make such necessary financial provision as shall be requisite to the maintenance of the national honor and public faith. Sec. 17. Popular education being the only safe basis of popular suffrage, we recommend to tlie several States most liberal ap[)ropriations for the public schools. Free common schools are tlie nursery of good government, and they have always received the fostering care of the Democratic party, which favors every means of increasing intelligence. Freedom of education being an essential of civil and religious liberty, as well as a necessity for the development of intelligence, must not be interfered with under any pretext ^\'hatever. We are opposed to State interference with parental rights and THE T>KMOrRATI0 PLATFORM. 539 rights of conscience in the education of children, as an in- fringement of the Democratic doctrine that the largest indi- vidual liberty consistent with the rights of others ensures the highest tj-pe of American citizenship and the best government. Sec. 18. We approve the action of the present House of Representatives in passing bills for the admission into the Union as States of the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona, and we favor the early admission of all Territories having necessary population and resources to admit them to statehood, and while they remain Territories we hold that the officials appointed to administer the government of any Terri- tory, together with the District of Columbia and Alaska, should be bona fide residents of the Territory or district in which their duties are to be performed. The Democratic party believes in home rule and the control of their own affairs by tlie people of the vicinage. Sec. 19. We favor legislation by Congress and State legis- latures to jDrotect the lives and limbs of railway emploj^ees and those of other hazardous transportation companies, and denounce the inactivity of the Republican party, and particu- larly the Republican Senate, for causing the defeat of meas- ures beneficial and protective to this class of wage-workers. Sec. 20. We are in favor of the enactment by the States of laws for abolishing the notorious sweating system, for abolishing contract convict labor, and for prohibiting the em- ployment in factories of children under fifteen years of age. Sec. 21. We are opposed to all sumptuary laws as an inter- ference with the individual rights of the citizen. Sec. 22. Upon this statement of principles and policies the Democratic party asks the intelligent judgment of the Ameri- can people. It asks a change of administration and a change of party, in order that there may be a change of system and a change of methods, thus assuring the maintenance unim- paired of institutions under which the Re[)ublic has grown great and powerful. THE VOTE BY STATES. Cleveland's triumph in the convention was largely due to the admirable generalship of William C. Whitney, who was Secretary of the Navy under the Cleveland administration. The nomination was accomplished on the first ballot, the States voting as follows : State. CLEVELANn. Hill. Boies. Alabama 14 1 2 Arkansas ..." 1(5 California 18 Colorado 3 5 Connecticut 12 Delaware 6 Florida 5 Georgia 17 5 Idaho . . G Illinois 48 Indiana 30 Iowa i'() Kansas -iO Kentucky 18 . . li Louisiana 3 1 11 Maine 9 1 Maryland Massachusetts 24 4 1 Michigan 28 Minnesota 18 Mississippi 8 3 3 Missouri 34 Montana Nebraska 1') Nevada . . 4 New Hampshire 8 New Jersey 20 New York 72 North Carolina 3 1-3 . . 1 North Dakota Ohio 14 10 Oregon 8 Pennsylvania (54 Rhode' Island 8 South Carolina 1 3 14 Soutli Dakota 7 . . 1 Tennessee 24 Texas 23 1 6 Vermont . . 8 Virginia 12 11 540 THK VOTE KY STATES. 541 State. . Clkveland. Hilt.. 7?oies. Washinj^ton 8 West Virginin 7 1 Wisconsin 24 AVyoming 3 Alaska 2 Arizona o District of ( oluml ii 3 New Mexico 4 Oklahoma 2 Utah .r 2 ,. .. • Indian Territory 2 Totals ()i(3]-3 112 103 SCATTERING. Alabama — Morrison, 4 ; Campbell, 2. Florida — Car- lisle, 3. Georgia — Gorman, 4. Kentucky — Carlisle, 6. Louisiana — Gorman, 1. Maine — Gorman, 1 ; Whitney, 1. Maryland — Gorman, 9 1-2. Massachusetts — Russell, 1. Mississippi — Gorman, 4. Nebraska — Gorman, 1. Nevada — Gorman, 2. North Carolina — Stevenson, 16 2-3 ; Morri- son, 1. Ohio ■ — Carlisle, 5 ; Gorman, 5. Virginia — Gorman, 1. West Virginia — Gorman, 3 ; Pattison, 1. Wyoming — Gorman, 3. Totals — Gorman, 36 1-2: Stevenson, 16 2-3; Morrison, 5 ; Carlisle, 15 ; Campbell, 2 ; Pattison, 1 ; Whit- ney, 1 ; Russell, 1. THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. A curious phase of national politics is the puhlic curiosity which has been manifested in tlie children of the Harrison family, and tlie more recent, and if possible, more intense interest wliich the birth of " Baby Ruth " Cleveland has aroused. The childi*en of no royal family have been regarded with more ardent admiration, altliough neither of them have been seen to any extent outside their respective home circles. In a certain sense, this display of the public interest, with its consequent exaltation of the youthful persons concerned, has a salutaiy effect upon the mind of j'oung America. It impresses the thinking l)oy and girl with the cardinal feature of the republican form of government, viz., that the people choose their rulers from among themselves, and that the boy or girl, who by the fortunes of politics goes to live at the White House, may bo more fortunate, but in the eye of the law is no better than the child of the humblest citizen. Children in America are democrats first and last. Far more than their ciders, they have a common feeling one towards another ; all boys and girls, to a certain age, are brothers and sisters, recognizing in their mutual contact neither the accidents of birth nor the artificial barrier of social position. It therefore happens that the boy in the White House is, in imagination, the playmate of every other boy in the land. In a monarchy this would be impossible, for there the breach between the children of the royal family and those of the people makes itself felt in a multitude of ways. Never until the Harrison administration has so much been made of the child occupants of the Executive Mansion. In 542 BENJAMIN HAKRISON MOKEE. THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. 545 fact, rarely has it happened that young children have been membei's of the Presidential household, Washington, who had no children of his own, adopted the two youngest children of his foster son. Colonel Custis, — Eleanor Parke Custis and George Wasliington Custis, and both were present at the time of his inauguration as President, being respec- tively eleven and nine years of age at that time. There was no White House in those days, and the nation's first President lived in New York Citj^ where the youngsters were important members of the social circle which Washington drew about him. President John Adams had Susanna, the three- year-old daughter of his deceased son Charles, at the White House during part of his administration. Jefferson's daugh- ters Martha and ]\Iary, " Patsey " and " Polly," as they were familiarly styled, were both married during his occupancy of the White House. The former married Thomas Mann Randolph, and by him had a child, James Madison Randolph, who was born at the White House in the winter of 1805-6, and was the first child born in tliat historic dwelling. In February, 1829, when the administration of John Quincy Adams was within a month of its ending, the White House was the scene of a christening which was a good deal of a social event. The infant was the baby girl of the President's son John, by tlie latter's wife, born Miss Mary Hellen, and was christened Mary Louisa in the presence of the Cabinet officers, the Justices of the Supreme Court, the Diplomatic Corps, and other notables at the Capitol. Mary Louisa became one of the family circle, and was muctli beloved by the President, of wliom it is related that he penned some verses in honor of the baby, a couplet of whicli declared that he was ever ready to " Clap the hands, and laugh, and sing To catcli that heaven, an infant's smile." This administration baby was the possessor of a doll known 546 THE AVHITE HOUSE CniLDREN". as " Sally," which achieved a national reputation as the " White House Doll." Mary Louisa's tenure of office, how- ever, was cut short by the inauguration in March, 1829, of President Andrew Jackson, whose eight years' occupancy of the White House was significant, from tlie present point of view, in that it was the birthplace of three of the four children of Major Andrew Jackson Donelson, who was Mrs. Jackson's nephew, and with his wife, went to live at the White House upon the General's inauguration. A biogra- pher says : " There was such frolicking there as has never been known before or since ; the common desire was to create sunshine for the President, for his public life was most stormy and trying." Between the intervals of his exploitation of the doctrine that to the " victors belong the spoils," the liero of New Orleans found exceedino- delisrht in dartingf into tlie bath-room while the Donelson cliildren were bathing "■and sprinkle them with water, pretending to whip them with a wash-cloth, and would laugli and chuckle when any of them were quick enougli to return the splashing." Lincoln's children were favorites both with the men who were associated with him during the crucial period of the nation's life, and with the people generally. Robert Todd, the elder, is now the present Minister at the Court of St. James. William's death at a tender ao'e at the White House called forth the nation's sympathy, and jirayers were uttered in behalf of the grieving parents. The third son was Thomas, known as " Tad," an abbreviation of Tadpole, an affectionate name given to him by his father. A favorite picture of Lincoln represents him seated with " Tad " on his knee reading an open book. The young man who, for the best part of four )^ears, has lived at the White House, has been more prominently in the public mind than any other of the " administration " young- sters. Li many respects lie lias been the subject of more adulation than has his grandparent. Although he is but five iDHE "WHITE IIOITSE CHILDREX. 547 years old, his picture has been published more often than that even of the President, while columns of narrative set- ting forth his attributes, mental, moral, and physical, have been provided in response to the widespread demand for knowl- edge regarding him. Yet there is no evidence that Benja- min Harrison McKee's head has been turned by all this greatness thrust upon him ; on the contrary he has carried himself with a becoming dignity and a modesty of demeanor befitting his exalted position as the First Boy in the Land. Like all inveterate office-holders, he shakes hands after a sort of automatic fashion due to tlie obligatory nature of his duties ; the Harrisons never are demonstrative in their show of feel- ing, any\A'ay. " Baby " McKee is not an exception to the rule. However, he has found himself confronted with a- condition, the theory of which he feels he long ago deserved to have outlived, l)at wliich he seems to be powerless to over- come, viz., the national disgrace he suffers in being called " Baby " IMcKee. It is declared to be a fact that whenever any visitor at the White House asks liim ever so sweetly " Is this Baby McKee ? " or, " How do you do. Baby McKee ? " tlie grandson of the President invariably replies, " I'm not Baby AIcKee ! Vm Benjamin Harrison McKee ! " In accordance with his wishes, the doorkeepers about the White House are careful to speak to and of him as Benjamin, and never as Ben or Benny. He readily comes forward when his presence is requested by visitors, but always with a grave reservation, born of his liabitual appearance before strangers. He is absolutely fearless in their presence, being perfectly composed, in this respect following the habit of his grandfather in receiving a crowd of people. But this is not the sole point of similarity between the grandparent and his grandcliild. Observation of the picture of Benjamin Harrison McKee shows that the boy has the President's breadth and height of forehead, eyes of the same color, and a similar facial contour; in fact, he could not more / 548 THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. closely resemble the President if he was the President's own son. Benjamin Harrison McKee is the son of James R. McKee, formerly of Indianapolis, who married President Harrison's daughter. Mrs. McKee said recently : — " The name ' Bahy ' McKee belongs to Benjamin, altliougli yon may see from the picture that he is older. My little girl was born just two weeks after my father Avas nominated, so during that summer she was too small to be much in company. As Benjamin was constantly in the yard and about the house where the strangers Avho called saw him, the title ' Baby ' McKee was given him by the people who flocked to see my father." Benjamin's German nurse has taught him the language of the Fatherland so well that he uses it quite as fluently as the mother tongue. He is an expert rider on the velocipede, and an adept at carpentry after a rude juvenile fashion. He takes most delight, but not less than the President himself, in playing with his distinguished grandparent, whom he leads in many a boisterous romp tlnough the Executive Mansion. The majesty of Benjamin's greatness has dimmed the lustre which otherwise might attach itself to his fair young sister, Mary Lodge McKee, who is three and a half years old. The world hears very little of this member of the Wliite House family, but she has a sweet disposition and wins many friends. " Baby Ruth " Cleveland achieved instantaneous fame on October 3, 1891, when she was born at her father's home in New York City. The rejoicing which accompanied this notable event was widespread and heartfelt, and congratula- tions came thick and fast to the overjoyed father. A re- markable fact in connection with Baby Ruth's birtli was the unanimity with which it was said tliat she would help re- elect her father to the Presidenc}'. She at once rose to the dignity of a political force, and it was felt that she would make an excellent rival for political honors against the juvenile candidate of the Republicans. If there was any MRS. CLEVELAND ANB BAI5Y KUTH. 549 THE WHITE HOUSE CHILDREN. 551 advantage to the Harrison administration in the person of Master Benjamin Harrison McKee, it was argued that it would be more than offset by the winning personality of " Baby Ruth," who, all the accounts agreed, was as beautiful as her beautiful mother. At all events, Candidate Cleve- land measurably rose in the public estimation. The cartoon- ists, the newspaper funny men, the song writers, and the poets, who previously had utilized Baby McKee as a source of inspiration, now warned that young man he must look after his laurels, and they f;nthwith devoted a large part of their printed pleasantries to the infant daughter of the Democratic ex-President. The accounts of little Ruth have been rather meagre, but those who care for details may be interested in the following : — "Half of her face is strikingly like his (her father's) — large forehead, heavy brows, small eyes, strong nose, and large facial angle. There is remarkable width of the face from temple to temple. In the lower face the mother's likeness is seen. Mrs. Cleveland has a very pretty mouth and as lovely a chin as nature ever modeled in a human face. Miss Cleveland has the same pretty month, the same lovely chin, the same smooth curve of the cheeks, and the same laughing dimple, heightened in charm by the faultless delicacy of infantile beauty. Her bright little eyes are gray-blue, and she has quite a shock of long hair, V>lack as jet and fine as corn-tassels. Oddly enough, she is not a dimpled baby ; nobody could call her roly-poly. An authority on babies would take her to be a boy. She is strong and muscular, has a large frame, superb respiration, good appetite, perfect digestion, and the promise of developing into a large woman. Although a ten-pounder, she is a magnificent specimen of humanity, well- formed, beautifully hinged, and perfectly able to support her own weight. Her head doesn't lop over when she is raised up ; she doesn't give one the impression that she will go to pieces at the bath. She takes to water like a web-foot and shows a decided taste for white castile soap and velvet sponges." SKETCH OF GEN. JOHN BIDWELL. John Bidwell was born on the fifth day of Augnst, 1819, in Chautauqua Count}^ New York. His father, Abraham iiidwell, was a native of Connecticut, and his mother, whose maiden name was Clarissa Griggs, was a native of Massachu- setts. The candidate of the Prohibitionists is, therefore, of Yankee origin, and his career shows that he has inherited in a marked degree the peculiar tact and shrewdness, the energy and industry for which New Englanders are noted. His grandfather fought in the "War of 1812, and was an indus- trious and successful farmer, who reared a large family of children. The candidate's mother was noted for her many amiable and estimable qualities. The boy received a limited education ; but he was a hard student and had a natural apti- tude for books. During his roving life in the far West he passed much of his time in self-improvement, a fact which accounts for his creditable literary abilities. His youthful life was an unsettled one. When ten years of age, his father moved to Erie, Penn., and, two years later, to Ashtabula County, Ohio, and, in 1835, to Darke County, Ohio; the next year, at the age of seventeen years, feeling the necessity of further schooling, the son returned to Ashtabula County, where, in the Kingsville Academy, he studied less than two yeai-s, and ended his scholastic education. In 1838 he returned home, spent one winter, and left, at the age of nine- teen, to seek his fortune in the West, single-handed, and without means. He went to Iowa, then into Missouri, and up the Missouri River to the extreme western boundary of the State, These 652 SKKT* II (IF CEN. .lolIX HI DWELL. 553 travels occupied several months. Spending nearly two years ill Missouri, he formed a wide acquaintance, and in the spring of 1841 he aided in organizing the first party to cross the Rocky Mountains direct to California. He enlisted in defenpp of California against the insurrection of the native chiefs, Castro and Alvarado, in tlie revolt of 1844 and 1845, and acted as aide-de-camp to General Sutter till the war ended by the expulsion of the Mexican Governor Michelto- rena. hi 1846 General Fremont began the war which gave California to the United States. Onj of Fremont's first acts after the war was thouglit to be closed was to appoint young Bidwell, then twenty-seven years old, magistrate of San Luis Rey District. In 1849, at the age of thirty, he was chosen a member of the first Constitutional Convention of California at Monterey, then the capital, but circumstances prevented his attendance. The same year he was elected to the senate of the first legis- lature of California. In 1850 he was appointed one of the commissioners, by Governor Burnett, to convey to Washing- ton City the block of gold-bearing quartz, as California's con- tribution to the Washington monument. In 1855 he was acraiii a candidate for the State senate. In 1860 he was a delegate to the national Democratic Presidential Convention at Charleston, S. C, and that year was a Union or Douglas Democrat. In 1863 he was appointed by Governor, and now U. S. Senator, Lelaiid Stanford to command the Fifth Brigade, California Militia, serving till the close of the Civil War. In 1864 he was a delegate to the Baltimore Convention, which re-norninated President Lincoln for the Presidency. In the same year he was nominated and elected to the Thirty-Ninth Congress. Two years later, he was tendered a re-nomination, but declined. In 1875 he was nominated for Governor of California on the Anti-monopoly or Non-partisan State ticket, polling 30,000 votes. April 4, 1888, he was chosen to pre- S54 SKETrll erty for ourselves and our posterity. We declare, therefore, that the union of the labor forces of the United States this day consummated shall be permanent and perpetual ; may its spirit enter into all hearts for the sal- vation of the republic and the uplifting of mankind. Wealth belongs to him who creates it ; every dollar taken from industry without an equivalent is robbery. " If any will not work neither shall he eat." . We believe that the time has come when the railroad cor- porations will either own the people or the people must own the railroads, and should the government enter upon the work of owning and managing all railroads, we should favor an amendment to the constitution by wliich all persons engaged in the government service shall be placed under a civil service regulation of the most rigid character, so as to prevent the increase of the power of the national adminis- tration by the use of such additional government employees. We demand free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1. We demand that the amount of circulation medium be speedily increased to not less than $50 per capita. We demand a graduated income tax. We believe that the money of the country should be kept as much as possible in the hands of the people, and hence we demand that all State and national revenues shall be limited to the necessary expenses of the government economically and honestly administered. We demand that peoj^le's savings banks be established by the government for the safe deposit of the earnings of the people and to facilitate exchange. THE people's party PLATFORM. 565 Transportation being a means of exchange and a public necessity, tlie government should own and operate the rail- roads in the interest of the people. The telegraph, telephone, like the post-office system, being a necessity for the transmission of news, should be owned and operated by the government in the interests of the people. The land, including all the natural sources of wealth, is the heritage of the people and should not be monopolized for speculative purposes, and alien ownership of land should be prohibited. All land now held by railroads and old corpora- tions in excess of their actual needs, and all lands now owned by aliens should be reclaimed by the government and held for actual settlers only. A supplement to the platform was adopted, demanding a free ballot and a fair count without federal intervention ; favoring a graduated income tax and fair and liberal pen- sions ; demanding further restriction of undesirable immigra- tion ; expressing sympathy with the eight-hour movement ; demanding abolition of the Pinkerton detective system ; favoring a single term for Presidents, and election of senators by the direct vote of the people ; and opposing subsidies. On the roll-call of States for presentation of candidates for President, Gen. J. B. Weaver, Senator Kyle, General Field, of Virginia, ex-Senator Van Wick, of Nebraska, Mann Page, of Virginia, and Ignatius Donnelly were placed in nomina- tion. Virginia withdrew her candidates. The first ballot resulted: Weaver, 995 ; Kyle, 265 ; Norton. 1 ; Page, 1 ; Stanford, 1. Gen. J. G. Field, of Virginia, was nominated for Vice- President. "BUTLER'S BOOK." The Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences of IVIajor-Ceneral BENJAMIN F. BUTLER, The Great General, Lawyer, Politician, and Student. No American has had a more interesting career, £rom child- liood to old age, than Benjamin F. Butler. No autobiograpliy could be more interesting than the large volume in which this most unique character among all our public men has' told tlie story of his long, turbulent, triumphant life. It is a vivid 2:)icture of more than two generations of American life. It has lots of humor, and a fair proportion of paAos and heroism. It would be hard to imagine an autobiography con- taining more of the element of popular interest. The story of General Butler's life falls into four divisions, as follows : Childhood and Education. The War. Politics. The Law. If Benjamin F. Butler had lived in the day when bralins and iron nerves could win a throne, he would have been an emperor. As it is, he has hewn his way to immortal fame. It will be a long time before another man like him is seen, and longer still before there will be another such autobiography to study. A graphic description and vivid portrayal of his life — his pri- vate, legal, political, and military career. One royal octavo volume of 1 , 1 60 pages, 150 original engravings, portraits, and maps. The t}'pical American autobiography. The greatest book of personal history and reminiscences ever published. A great book at a pojjular price, accessible to the poor man. Four styles of binding from $3.75 to $6.50. Universal Interest and Unparalleled Sale. Three Editions Sold in One Month. The Verdict o* the People on "Butler's Book" is expressed in VOX POPULI, VOX DEI. Sixty pages neatly bound, containing vipwards of 150 fac-simile repro- ductionsof personal letters Iroin the most distinguished politicians, gen- erals, judges, clergymen, and extracts from tlie greatest newspapers of tiie country. A gem of art. An album of autographs and treasure of current literature. Sent gratis ijostjiaid on application. Agents wanted. The Story of Government. An attraction such as the Story of Government has never before been offered to the great book-loving American i)eople. It is an entirely new conception, yet something ■which the public and political scholars have long felt to be necessary. The rudiments of evolution and government traced from animals to eavage and wandering tribes, upwards through the successive stages of barbarism and civilization. Narratives of all the forms of government nuder which the huu^au race has lived in the past and as they exist at present. Law and Order Among all Porms of Animate Creation. Animals to !Man. Family to Federation. Savagery to Civilization. Ignorance to Enlightenment. Despotism to Self-Government. Government Aacng Animals. The Dog Democracy of Constantinople. The Queen Bee's Monarchy. The Republic of the Ants. The Royalty of the Roaches. The Caucus of the Crows, etc. Curious Forms of Government Among Men. The Mysfei'ioiis Gypsy Monarchy. The Thieves' Aristocraey. Sovereignty among Secret Societies. The Modern Amazons of Dahomey, etc. Masonic orders and the Tammany Powet' of Xcw Yorh, about which so uuich is spoken and nothing known. Assassination Societies. The Camorra antl Mafia. Monarchies. An Absolute ISIonarchy (Persia). A Scholastic Empire tcith Fignrehead Emj'cror (_China). A Ckiuntry of Misntanugcment and Atrocities (India). A Semi- Constitutional iMonarchy (Germany), etc. A Constitutional Jlonarchy evolved from a Feudal Kingdom (England). Churcli GoveMunents, Theocracj' or Priestly Government among the Ancient, Early, and Christian Chnrches Spiritual Authority and Government of the Present Church, etc. Women in Governments. Her influence on the destiny of man. Cleopatra — Maria Teresa — Catherine of Russia — Louise of Prussia— Isabella Jean D'Arc, etc. Wonjan Suffrage. Rise of woman as a political factor. Self Governments Triba> Governments; American Indians. Paternal Socialism; The Incas of PervL The Simple Republic, Switzerland. .1 Military Jiepnhlic, France. A JHctatorial Itepnblic, Jlexioo. The Hcpnblic of the T'niicd States, as a Nation and as a Sister- hood of States, the ^Nlodel Government of tlie Ages. A detailed descrijttiou of our National and State Government. Dc^iartments and Institutions. Officers oj id their fa nctioHS, etc. A Treasury of Knowledge Previously Unpublished. Taught in no Te.rt-Iiooks. XJnhnotpn in Universities. Kevealing an Unexplored Field of Political Economy. So simple th.at a child will understand and a philosopher enjoy. An Epoch-Making Hooh Indispensable to Every Progressive .l/a/j or Woman, Its field is the world, and its audience humanity. Magnificent royal octavo, betireen SOO and 900 pages, illustrated tvith tvejarltf 300 engravings. Price within the reach of the millions, $3.50 to $4.S0, Agents wanted. Oracle of the Age. BY REV. WILLIAM M. THAYER. The latest and greatest work of a renowned author Autl^or of "Marvels of the New West," " White House and wofksf". ;■"■'• '""^'''^ ^^^^'' '^"^^ '^'-'y ^^h- standard Mo.ks of wiiieh milhons of copies in transLations have been sold .rfnhi "7'f ^"f ""^ f "'"'''' '""'^- ^^^^g^^"«' hi«t-i<^' bio- giapluc, philosophic, and anecdotal. Incidents and anecdotes of self-made men and women, illus- tiated by chanu-ter traits that will be easily remembered, enabling, one to become familiar with the lives of all g.eat men and womeS of the time It recounts their successes and failures, and shows the possibilities afforded in our country and century to every en- ergetic, aspiring person. ^ A COMPANION FOR LIFE, weal! '' ''"''''''' ' "^""''"■' "" -P^^'-^tion, and accumulate 200 Photogravures; All Works of Art. From original designs engraved expressly for this work A magnificent full-page engraving ilhJstrates the subject of each chapter. *' Vivid in art and eloquent in words. The rarest book of the times. Koyal Octavo, GUU pages. Elaborately bound, at^popular prices, $2.75 to $3.75. Entirely new. A great compliment to author and publisher of a popular subscription book. ^ ^puiar Geo. Williams, Esq., the merchant prince of England ^r,^ founder of the Y. 31. C. A. of the world, purchased five hundred nid fifty copies of Mr. Thayer's latest and greatest work, "Oracle >^ the Age,' and presented same as a gift to each of his five lundred and fifty clerks. Agents wanted. Mysteries of America. The Jtomances of a Continent. Glimpses of unwritten history of ancient America. Uiatory Jiriwrsed. How Guacanagari Discovered Columbus, Tlie Marvellous Tra- dition of an Indian Cacique, and Curiosities of Art and Literature, hitherto acces- sible only in museums and archives of European and Soutli American Governments set forth in popular form. Was Columbus « firate? The Prophesy. The Holy Virt;'in appears to Columbus in a dream, and thenceforth he devotes his life to this divinely revealed mission. The Voifuge of Discovery, Columbus sailinp; for the Indies. The most heroic and atlventurous quest the world has ever known. Told by the Boy who Sailed with Columbus. A page of Queen Isabella's Court, from a Spanish manuscript preserved 350 years m a monastery. A romantic and fascinating revelation of history Tlie li'utnre of America. Revealed in Columbus' death dream. Legends and Myths of Prehistoric Inhabitants. Ancient Religions, Science, and Forms of Gov- ernment. Musty manuscripts recently discovered. Earlier Discoveries. St. Brendan, the Catholic Missionary, discovers the earthly paradise, America, in the seventh century. Strange Origin of tlie Madoc Tribe. An ancient Prince of Wales in the ninth century sails to an unknown land, joins the natives, and becomes their chief. The Saga of Eric the Med. Voyages of the Norsemen transmitted in medieval legend. The fre-Columbiati Age. The age of pirates and banditti. Conquest, plunder, and lawlessness. European conditions that necessitated the search for new lands. Kew ideas struggling for expression, The advance of art, science, and inventions, pre- paring the way for a new world. The Story of Religion and Revolutions. An age of superstition and fanatic zeal. Conquering new lands for the spread of Christianity. The Crusades. The infidel Moors and the victory of Christianity. The Church. Subjecting governments. Monastic life. The Inquisition, etc. The Stories of Science. The ignorance of the Dark Ages. Alchemists; Their vain experimenting for gold. Astrologers Forecasting Fate, Scientific Laws and Discov- eries from the Revolutions of the Stars. Speculations of the Foundation of the Earth. The Short Way to the Indies. Geography, Mathematics, and Sciences to meet the demands of expanding Commerce and Exploration. Sttjmrsfition of the 14th and 15th Centuries. Superstitions of the Seas, Land, Heaven, and Hell. The World Flat, Danger of Sailing off the Edge. Distant Seas Believed to be Boiling Caldrons, Strange Seas the Whirlpools and Gates to Hell. Ship-Devouring Monsters, Mermaids, and Decoying Mariners, etc. Story of Navigation. The Raft and Canoe. The Ships of Mythology. The PhcBni- cian and Venetian Galleys and Merchant Ships. Pirates, their Life, Ships, and Ex- plorations. Spanish Caravels, Columbus' Ships. Commerce and Conquest on the Sea. The Compass Extending the Range of Trade. The Spirit of Adventure and Exi)loration. The Creed for Gold. Horrible cruelties to extort secrets of hidden treasures. The Eountain of Youth. The Indian tales of a land of gold to the West. Traditions of I're-historic America. The Fabled Continent of Atlantis. Dragon Rock of Alton, III. An In lian Superstition of the Mississippi. The Lost City of Venezuela. More „fagic than the burial of Pompeii. Extinct Races and Civilizations, tliei,!- religious and superstitious customs, arts, and forms of government. Peru, the Ineas, and Pizarro. Mexico, the Aztecs, and Montezumas_. Cliff and Cave Dwellers and Mound Builders. The Indians and Esquimaus, their Life, Religions, Customs, Habits, Governments, Wars, etc. Splendid Architecture of Yucatan and Central America. Four Creat Theories of the Origin of the American Indians. Red men indig- enous to the soil. Descendants of the lost tribes of Israel journeying eastward from Palestine and crossing Behriug Straits into America. Fiisang records a migration of Mongols, who became a race of rulers, the Aztecs. Europeans crossed from Africa and South America by the ancient continent of Atlantis. This wealth of unpublished lore forms a striking contrast to the dry record and innumerable lives of Columbus and arrounis of the discovery with which the coun- try is surfeited. It throws a flood of light on American history which has previously been involved in total darkness. Out of traditions, and exhumed relics, and hiero- glyphic records, is evolved a new history of the Western World. The outcome of centuries of research and study, and the work of years of authorship and painstak- ing arrangement. A rare American historical book. It will meet the universal demand for enlightenment on subjects that have hitherto been enveloped in the obscurity of unrecorded antiquity. What the People want they will Buy. Large size quarto folio, nearly 900 pages, profusely illustrated tinth 4O0 engrai'ings. I'optilar Prices, $3.50 to $4.50. Canvassing Prospectus ready >Tuly 15. liook ready for delivery in August, Descriptive circulars sent on application. Agrents wanted. 3?