Class ___t.J_7_Sl__ .f Coiyiiglitr_lQ)2>0 , CQEOUGHT DEPOSIT. An immigrant ship entering New York Harbor SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL. D. •I PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT HARVARD UNIVERSITY Author of "New American History'''' REVISED \J AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA E I7S Copyright, 1918, 1920, by ALBERT BUSHNELL HART All rights reserved SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE DOTTED STATES Q.B.I JAN -3 1921 ^CU6052ll INTRODUCTION Why should a new School History of the United States be written? Chiefly in order to put at the disposition of the upper grades a book embodying a broadly national point of view and presenting adequate treatment of certain topics which hitherto have been too little stressed in the study of American history. (1) The European background of our history is clearly sketched, with due recognition of our inheritance of language, law, and political methods from England. Due attention is also paid to other influences from overseas. (2) Great pains have been taken to treat adequately the various sections of the country, which differ somewhat from one another. Hence there are special chapters on the West, the far West, and the new South, as well as a brief but clear account of the thirteen English colonies and of the distribution of American territory among the colonizing nations. (3) Another important feature is the fullness of treatment of the social and industrial conditions of the colonies and the later United States, for which twelve of the thirty-seven chapters are set apart. (4) Wars are treated as intense experiences of the American people; the aim is not merely to give the causes and results, but also to show how the problems of raising armies and carrying on the struggles have been solved, and what was the effect on the life of the community. Military and naval movements are subordinated. (5) A special effort is made to bring home to the minds of children the way in which our government is carried on. The book includes not only- brief accounts of elections and political events, but also simple descriptions of important parts of the machinery of government, such as the Federal Convention, national banks, and the tariff. (6) As one of the main purposes of history is to bring boys and girls to understand such political questions as they themselves are likely to confront, about a third of the book is devoted to the period since the Civil War; the effort has been made so to simplify the questions of currency, banking, transportation, and business combinations, as to make them understood by school children as a part of the problems of their own national and state governments. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART 3 FOREWORD TO TEACHERS This School History is intended first of all to be a textbook which children will study. It is illustrated by pictures and maps which ought to be used as a part of their study; beyond that, it contains references and topics which will make it easy to extend the work somewhat outside of the textbook by additional reading and essay writing. All the work of the children is intended to fix in their minds the impression that history is continuous and that those who came before us were living human beings like ourselves. Recitations. — -The text is written in simple language so as to be easily understood by pupils in the grades. Some subjects, as for ex- ample the Federal Convention, banks, slaven,', specie and paper cur- rency, conservation, etc., involve ideas which may be novel to the chil- dren, but which every American school child can and should acquire. The questions at the ends of chapters referring to parts of the num- bered sections are about twelve hundred in number, and cover the whole text. Most of them, however, cannot be answered by a mere repetition of the text, and children should be encouraged to make all statements in their own words. Pictures and Maps. — The illustrative material has been chosen with great care so as to make the text clearer. Children should be encour- aged to search the pictures for details, and to use the picture references at the ends of chapters to find other illustrations on the same subjects. The maps also will be found directly helpful to the pupil. The teacher ought to bring out geographical details in the recitations and use the black board for further information. Properly taught, political geog- raphy is a great aid to history. The chapter references will lead to the use of additional maps. Topics. — Where the conditions allow, the work of the children will be enlivened if they can do something constructive. Carefully selected references are therefore made to standard histories, especially the briefer ones, and also to easily available sets of sources; for nothing gives such vitality to a child's knowledge as some use of things actually 4 FOREWORD TO TEACHERS 5 written by people of past times. The essay subjects offer a good op- portunity to connect the work in English with that in history; and the chapter references will lead to good materials for the knowledge neces- sary to the essay writer. Children should also be encouraged to read stories which have an historical background, and the references provide for that pleasure. Scope of the Book. — In the Introduction attention is called to the social and economic trend of the volume; the spirit of modern times calls for knowledge of and constant use of this significant side of his- tory. In the nature of things it is not so easy to study conditions and inventions and methods of business as to take up the personal, narra- tive part of history ; but social life, the opening up of the frontier, the growth of mechanical devices, and the improvement of business are among the things that count most in the development of our nation. It is just as important for children to learn how their forefathers worked and lived as to learn about their wars and their government. Brief List of Desk Books. — Every teacher ought to have at hand a few historical aids, some of which should be at all times available for the use of the pupils. A list of the most important books referred to in the chapter references will be found in the Appendix. Here is a carefully selected list of about twenty works out of which the teacher should choose at least one from each of the four groups for personal and desk use: 1. Methods and Materials. American Historical Association, Committee of Seven, The Study of History in Schools. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1899.) Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary School. (N. Y., Longmans, 1902.) Channing, E., Hart, A. B., and Turner, F. J., Guide to the Study and Read- ing of American History. (Boston, Ginn, 1912.) History Teachers' Magazine (monthly). (Philadelphia, McKinley, 1909.) New England History Teachers' Association, A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Part IV. (Boston, Heath, 1904.) — Historical Sources in Schools. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1902.) 2. Collection of Sources. Caldwell, H. W., ed., Survey of American History. (Chicago, Ainsworth, 1900.) Caldwell, H. W., and Persinger, C. E., eds.. Source History of the United States. (Chicago, Ainsworth, 1909.) Hart, A. B., ed., American History told by Contemporaries. (4 vols., N. Y., Macmillan, 1897-1901.) — American Patriots and Statesmen. (5 vols., N. Y., Collier's, 1916.) — Source Book of American History. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1900.) — Source Readers in American History. (4 vols., N. Y., Macmillan, 1902-1903.) 6 FOREWORD TO TEACHERS Hart, A. B., and Channing, Edward, eds., American History Leaflets. (36 nos., N. Y., Simmons, 1892-1910.) Hill, Mabel, cd., Liberty Documents, with Contemporary Exposition and Critical Comments. (X. Y., Longmans, 1901.) MacDonald, Wm., cd., Documentary Source Book of American History. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1908.) 3. Single Volumes and Brief Series of Histories. Bassett, J. S., Short History of the United States. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1913.) Epochs of American History. (3 vols, by Thwaites, R. G.; Hart, A. B.; Wilson, Woodrow. N. Y., Longmans. Rev. eds. about 1914.) Home University Library of Modern Knowledge. (5 vols, by Andrews, CM.; Smith, T.C.; MacDonald, William; Paxson, F. L.; Haworth, T. L. N. Y., Holt, 1911-1914.) The Riverside History of the United States. (4 vols, by Becker, C. L.; Johnson, A.; Dodd, W. E.; Paxson, F. L. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1916.) Fish, C. R., Development of American Nationality. (A history of the American People from 1783 to the present. N. Y., American Book Company, 191 3.) Sparks, E. E., The United States of America. (2 vols., N. Y., Putnams, 1904.) 4. Maps. Shepherd, William R., Historical Atlas. (N. Y., Holt, 191 1, new ed.) TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. Forerunners of American History (1200-1550) 11 II. Discovery and Discoverers (1000-1604) 23 III. First English Settlements (1607-1660) 43 IV. Rivals and New Colonies (1604-1689) 59 V, Colonial Life (1689-1750) 75 VI. War and the West (1689-1763) 92 VII. Colonial Labor and Colonial Business (1689-1763) 107 VIII. Why There Was a Revolution (1763-1774) 120 IX. The Revolutionary War (1775-1783) 131 X. Independence AND THE Union (1775-1781) 144 XI. The Old Roof and the New Roof (1781-1789) 155 XII. How People Lived a Century Ago (1790-1820) 168 XIII. The Fedicralists in Power (1789-1801) 178 XIV. Expansion and Neutral Trade (1801-1812) 190 XV. W.AR with Great Britain (1809-1815) 204 XVI. Going West (i 790-1830) 215 XVII. How the Nation Came Together (1815-1829) 229 XVIII. The American People (1829-1860) 245 XIX. New Parties and Politics (1829-1841) 258 XX. New Business IMethods (1829-1860) 269 XXI. Westward Expansion (1840-1850) 285 XXII. Young America (1829-1861) 300 XXIII. Sectional Feeling (1850-1860) 312 XXIV. First Period of the Civil War (1S60-1SG3) 329 XXV. The People During the Civil War (1861-1865) 342 XXVI. Conclusion of the Civil War (1863-1865) 357 XXVII. Reconstruction (1865-1869) 369 XXVIII. The West and the Pacific Slope (1870-1885) 380 XXIX. Politics and Parties (1869-1885) 394 XXX. The New South (1869-1885) 407 XXXI. Business and Labor (1869-1890) 417 XXXII. Democratic Administrations (1885-1897) 431 XXXIII. The Spanish War and its Results (1897-1907) 446 XXXIV. Big Business (1890-1916) 45^ XXXV. The People's Life (1900-1916) 469 XXXVI. New Problems for Americans to Solve (i8go-i9i6) 479 XXXVII. Political Development (1905-1917) 492 XXXVIII. America in the World War 502 APPENDICES A. Declaration of Independence i B. Constitution of the United States v C. Table of the States xix D. Table of the Presidents xx E. List of Important Books xxi SCALE OF MILtS 'Jill I ' 4iin ' So -=>. V T M /^ C SCALE OF MILtS •5s/.J^ ' * ** i'<<^'^ iH ^ ' all. ■ 4i)n --^^ /■•*•■' '^-.'' '"[ /-• I One liaU scale nr map ^/.^^^ P jA Iho Hulled SlaUl t la n "^ -^^^^ 170" I/.ii;lliii1c lio" •Went (r °m liO' firnmnri e 1?7" Pacific Occhn a 95^ Greenwich 90 Lo'ig- 13-1° £ast- REFERENCE MAPS Paces Territorial Development of the United States, 1783-1916 8, 9 Physical Map of the United States, with Location of Impor- tant Indian Tribes 31 National Settlement in North America, 1750 94 Colonial Trade and Commerce, 1689-1775 113 Revolutionary War 132 United States in 1802 182 Opening of the West, 1815-1830 222 United States, 182 2-1830 239 Principal Transportation Lines in the United States, 1850 2S1 Acquisitions of Territory, 1845-1853, and Campaigns of the War with Mexico 290 United States in 1861 328 Eastern United States. Emancipation, 1863-1865 374 The Far West and the Pacific Coast, 1890 433 United States and its Possessions 444, 445 United States (Showing Admission of States ant) Principal Agricultural, Mining, and Manufacturing Regions) 482, 483 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER I FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY (1200-1550) 1. What is the United States? — Upon any globe that shows the world there will be seen a continent marked " North America." Across it, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, lies a broad ex- panse labeled " United States," which is di- vided into forty-eight parts called " states." That is our home, three thousand miles west of the coast of Europe and five thousand miles east of the islands off the coast of Asia. Hundreds of volumes have been written about the United States, telling of its harbors, its rivers, and its lakes, and describ- ing such natural won- ders as Niagara Falls with its plunge of one hundred and sixty feet of bright green water; the marvelous Yosemite Nevada Falls (about 600 feet high) in Yosemite National Park, California 12 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Valley ; the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, scooped out of solid rock, in places six thousand feet deep; and Glacier National Park on the northern border. Still, however interesting this land may be, a description of it would belong to geography and not to history; for history is an account of the origin and growth of the people who live upon a land. 2. The American People. — The phrase "the United States " is sometimes loosely applied to the people who live within the country, as for instance: " the United States has a federal government." We mean by that phrase that the people of the United States live under a federal government. Both at home and abroad, the people of this land are usually known as "Americans," though the native Indians are also Americans and there are other North and South Americans who do not live within our boundaries and rather resent it that we should think of ourselves as especially " The Americans." This School History of the United States aims to tell how there came to be an American people and what they have done; for the land is important only because it is inhabited by wide- awake, industrious, and thoughtful men, women, and children. It would take a million books to tell the whole story of the beginnings and growth of the United States, for scores of millions of people have come to this land or have been born here, have lived and died here, have worked and suffered here, in order to make the nation. In one small book we can select only a few people, events, and governments, such as stand out most clearly. We can learn much about the history of our country from the lives of the great leaders who made discoveries, founded colonies, built up the states, and helped to make the American nation. We must also learn what was thought and what was done by the plain common people who did the hard work, fought the battles, and elected the statesmen to office. We must try to see them at work, hunting for furs or fishing or farming, weaving cloth, build- ing ships, opening mines, starting factories, running railroads, digging canals, or manning ships of war. W^e must learn what sort of governors, presidents, legislatures, congresses, and courts the American people have had; how they have framed AMERICAN PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 13 a system of " government by the people." All these things are parts of our history which young Americans ought to know. 3. The United States a Part of the Greater World. — The physical United States, the land and water which make up the face of the country, cannot be cut off by the hand of man from the rest of the North American continent. That conti- nent cannot be set apart from the rest of the western hemi- sphere; and that hemisphere is not far away from the eastern hemisphere. They are all parts of the same world. So with the people of the United States. They are not a race by themselves, but are made up of descendants of all the races of Europe and of many of the races of Asia and Africa. No one can write a history of the United States without taking into account the other parts of the earth where the ancestors of the present Americans lived. We must remember that every American, except those of the native Indian race, is an immigrant or the descendant of an immigrant. Nearly all the immigrants to North and South America down to 1820 came from those parts of Europe which lie on the Baltic Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Mediterranean Sea, or from Africa. Therefore, the first step in the study of our own history is to find out what kind of nations and people discovered and occupied America. 4. European Coun- tries and Commerce (1200-1500). — Out of the territory which a thousand years before had been occu- pied by the mighty Roman Empire, a group of European countries slowly grew up — England, Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Greek Empire of which Constanti- nople was the capital. These were all commercial nations; and the boldest and bravest of the people engaged in business ^^^IM m \^^m ^^^g Only the boldest mariners would venture into un- known seas believed to abound in fabled mon- sters. (From a picture published in 1555) 14 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY and made money with which they could build strong walls and hire soldiers to defend them. Cities such as Venice and Genoa were rich enough to fit out powerful navies and to Early traders' routes between Europe and Asia. Showing also Portuguese discoveries along the west coast of Africa to 1487 raise armies of foot soldiers. Their pack horses and wagons and boats carried goods along the streams and across the mountains to every part of Europe. Their ships sailed to Constantinople and the Black Sea, to Egypt, to England, to the " Low Countries," now Belgium and Holland, on the southern coast of the North Sea. They fought with land robbers and with sea pirates; they fought with enemies of COMMERCE WITH ASIA 1 5 their country; they fought with each other; and notwith- standing the losses of those wars they grew richer and more populous. For thousands of years Europe was constantly receiving goods from eastern Asia, a part of the world which was almost as hard to reach as the north pole is now. It seems strange that people should have bought and sold diamonds and peacocks, sugar and spices, pearls and silks, carpets and drugs, without ever seeing the lands from which they came or the people who produced them. For ages caravans had been passing to and fro, overland from northwestern India to the Caspian Sea and the eastern Mediterranean. For ages Arab traders had carried goods from India up the Red Sea to Egypt. Never- theless almost the only European who was ever moved to go into those distant lands was Marco Polo, a Venetian, who about 1275 made his way overland to China, heard tales about Japan, and after many years got back home to tell his story in a famous book of travels. This ignorance about Asia was unfortunate, because China and India knew many things that would have been useful to Europeans. The Chinese Empire was older than, and as great as, the ancient Roman Empire. The Chinese, ages before this time, had invented the mariner's compass, gunpowder, the art of printing, the use of paper money, the making of fine porcelain, and other arts not known in Europe. Yet most of Asia was an unknown land to Europeans. 5. The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation (1300- i55o)« — About the year 1300 all western Europe began to pass through a sort of awakening which is commonly called the "Renaissance"; that is, the rebirth. Many travelers visited Rome, which though partly in ruins gave them an idea of the wealth and power that the Roman Empire had once possessed. Artists studied the buildings and sculpture, literary men read and translated the ancient writers, and people felt a new desire to learn something about the past and to know what the world was really like. Several Popes were leaders in the Renaissance. New arts were discovered or brought from distant lands. 1 6 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY A German named Gutenberg invented for himself the art of printing with movable types. Sailors began to use the magnetic compass and felt freer to venture out of sight of land. Learned men began to study chemistry, which was then called alchemy. This new spirit led to a new idea of the education of children so that they might be taught to think more for themselves. The interest in new things spread to voyages of exploration. At that time nearly everybody in Europe believed that the world was a sort of irregular flat pancake with frozen rivers and burning deserts all around the rim. The best sailors of that time were the Italians. Whenever they came home they made a chart of the lands that they had discovered, for the benefit of other sailors. The method of "sailing on the wind" had been discovered not long before this time and made it safer to go on long voyages in unknown seas, for it was possible to get back home against head winds. To find one's place at sea was very important, and rude instruments, such as the " astrolabe," were invented, by which the navigator could tell how far he was north or south of the equator, though he could not be sure of his easting or westing. One of the results of the Renaissance was that men began to differ about religion. There was 'the Armenian Christian Church in Asia Minor and the Greek Christian Church in the Greek Empire and Russia. The Roman Catholic Church was the only church in central and western Europe. In 1517 some German priests, monks, and laymen, headed by Martin Luther, set out to reform the church, and after a few years broke away from it. This movement took the name of the Protestant Reformation. It spread into other countries — Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, France, the Scandina\ian countries, and England — and western Europe was thus di- vided between two religious faiths. 6. European Business Methods (1200-1500). — Under the influence of the Renaissance, which led people to enjoy more luxuries, the trade of Europe increased. The Venetians and the Genoese had most of the trade with the Greek Empire and handled most of the wares that came from the interior EUROPEAN BUSINESS METHODS 17 of Asia. From Genoa and Venice there were roads by land into northern Europe; and the Spaniards, French, and EngHsh were eager and successful traders. The Germans also were excellent seamen and controlled nearly all the trade in the Baltic Sea. The richest district in Europe was the so- called Low Countries, in which were the cities of Antwerp, Ghent, and Bruges with their great manufactures of fine cloths. Merchants had to seek large profits, for they ran many risks. Vessels were not strongly built, and many were wrecked for lack of lighthouses and charts of the dangerous rocks and shoals. Pirates cruised everywhere, especially in the Medi- terranean Sea. When war broke out, and often before it broke out, vessels from one country would be seized by vessels of war on the other side, or by other armed merchant ships. Sailors especially dreaded the row-galleys, propelled by slaves so that they could move against wind and tide, and could thus A row-galley of the i6th century. The lilies on the banners show that it is French. Notice that the craft also carries sails capture a vessel that was becalmed. Nothing in all the history of mankind has been more cruel and pitiless than the treatment of the galley slaves, who were chained to their oars and forced to work by the lash. Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice is a lively picture of how business was conducted at that time, how money was borrowed, and how a merchant could be ruined by wrecks and pirates. i8 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY Interior of the Grammar School in Stratford-on-Avon where Shakespeare went to school 7. European Ideas that Affected America. — The reason for telling this brief story of European conditions is to make us understand what kind of people crossed the ocean and founded new communities in the New World. For the first colonists did not think of themselves as Americans at all. They were simply Spaniards or F'renchmen or Englishmen, who chose to live across the sea, and who continued to live as nearly as they could in the same way as at home. Among the ideas which the colonists all brought with them was the European notion that some people were kings, some lords, and some just common people. They felt that who- ever was king must be obeyed, no matter what his character was; and that a man or family with a noble name was more important than ordinary people. Another European idea was that the Christians ought to convert the heathen. The Catholics had for ages sent mission- aries among the pagans in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They continued that good work in the Xew World, and were fol- lowed in it by the Protestants. In European cities were schools and universities, and similar schools and colleges were set up in America. EUROPEAN IDEAS 1 9 The methods of European trade were used in the New World, and the rival merchants of different countries fought with and plundered each other, much as they did at home. We Americans ought to be especially thankful for certain European ideas about human freedom. Both Catholics and Protestants thought it wrong to hold Christians in slavery, and hence nearly all the Europeans who settled in America were treated as free persons. On the other hand, most Europeans thought it right to make slaves of pagans and therefore saw no objection to enslaving the Indians in America. A privilege highly prized in Europe was a written document commonly called a " charter," by which a king granted lands or rights which later kings had not the power to take away. Some such charters were granted to the whole nation, par- ticularly the famous " Magna Charta," or " Great Charter," extorted from King John of England in 1215. In it he prom- ised that " No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned — unless by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land." The English colonists never forgot that they were " freemen," and could not be deprived of their liberty so long as they obeyed the laws. Another form of charter was a grant from a king to an in- dividual or an association or " company," which gave the right to plant colonies and to govern the settlers. Such charters were the beginnings of the English colonies of Vir- ginia and Massachusetts. 8. Summary. — The foregoing chapter is a brief account of the people and the countries from which the people of the United States have sprung. The words " United States " mean the land in which we live, and also the American people who live here. This history tells how they came to this continent, what they have done, and what sort of country they have built up. The people of western and southern Europe, from which America was colonized, were strong, prosperous, and fond of trade. They received goods from Asia, though they never went there. About the year 1300 there arose among them 20 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY what we call the Renaissance, a period in which people began to write new books, make new inventions, think out new forms of religion and government, and explore new countries. The Renaissance was followed by the Protestant Reforma- tion, which divided western Europe into two religious groups. One of the results of the Renaissance was a greater interest in strange countries, and many voyages were made in spite of the dangers of shipwreck and pirates. Frcm these countries, after the discovery of America, came thousands of immigrants who looked upon themselves not as Americans but as Eng- lishmen, Frenchmen, or Spaniards that had chosen to live across the ocean from their home country. They brought with them their home ideas about kings and nobles, about the church and education, about trade, freedom, and the pri\i- lege of doing business or founding colonies under a written charter which could not be taken away from them. REFERENCES Maps. Cheyney, European Background, 25, 35, 55. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 81, 87, 99. Histories. Atkinson, Europ. Beginnings of Am. Hist., ch. xx. — Becker, Beginnings, 1-17. — Brooks, Story of Marco Polo. — Fiske, Discovery of Am., I. ch. iii; New England, ch. i. — Moore, Industrial Hist., ch. i. — Southworth, Builders of Our Country, I. ch. ii. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People, ch. i. — Zimmern, Hansa Towns. Sources. Cheyney, Readings in Engl. Hist., ch. xil. — Ogg, Source Book of MedicBval Hist., chs. .\xvi, xxvii. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 30, 32. — Robinson, Readings in Europ. Hist., I. §§ 161-168 (Medieval life, Hansa, etc.), 218-230 (Renaissance), II. §§ 231-249 (Reformation). — Whitcomb, Source Books of Renaissance. Side Lights and Stories. Charles, Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family (Reformation). — Irving, The Alhambra. — Pyle, Men of Iron (Chivalry in England). — Scott, The Talisman (Crusades). — Yonge, The Armourer's Prentices (Henry VIII). Picttxres. Mentor, serial nos. 60, 83, 113, 116. — Traill and Mann, Social England (new illustr. ed., pt. ii). — Wright, Hist, of All Nations, IX, X. QUESTIONS (§ i) I. What is meant by the words "United States"? 2 (For an essay). Describe one of the following: (a) Niagara Falls; (b) Grand REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 21 Canyon of the Colorado; (c) Yosemite Valley; (d) Glacier National Park. 3. What is the " history " of a country? (§ 2) 4. Who are "The Americans"? 5. Why is it hard to write the history of the United States? 6. What things should be treated in a history of the United States? (§ 3) 7- Is the United States geographically separated from the rest of the world? 8. Are the people of the United States a separate race? 9. Who are the immigrants? (§ 4) 10. What were the principal European countries when colonization began? 11. How did the Europeans carry on trade? 12. What products came from Asia? 13 (For an essay). Account of Marco Polo's travels. 14. What did the Chinese do for civilization? (§ 5) 15- W'hat was the " Renaissance"? 16. What were some of the early inventions? 17. How did the early peoples navngate the seas? 18. What was the Reformation? (§ 6) 19. How were goods distributed through Europe? 20. What were the richest parts of Europe? 21 (For an essay). Account of pirate life. 22. What were galley slaves? (§ 7) 23. Mention some European ideas brought by the early colonists. 24. What was a king? 25. What was slavery? 26. What was a charter? 27. What was a trading company? 28. What was a colony? Columbus discovered land in America, October la, 149a CHAPTER II DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS (1000-1604) 9. Discoveries West and East (985-1487) . — When Europe- ans knew so little of neighbors who could be reached by a land journey eastward, it is not strange that they had no knowledge of wild people who were living in an unknown land at the distance of several weeks' journey to the westward across an untraveled sea. Yet in one part of the known world there was a tradi- tion of such a land and people. The Scandinavians, often called Norsemen, were the boldest people in Europe, splendid sailors and great fighters. Some of them occupied Iceland. In the year 985 a party of Icelanders reached Greenland and little colonies were planted there. In the year 1000 an Icelander named Leif Ericson, "the Lucky," sailed beyond Greenland to a coast farther south which is now supposed to have been Labrador or the islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Accord- ing to certain " sagas," or traditions handed down by word of mouth, the Norsemen found " self-sown wheat," " vines," and " grapes," which perhaps were only wineberries. Some natives, whom they called " skraelings, swarthy men and ill- looking," came in skin canoes to meet them; " even the hair of their heads was ugly." After a few voyages the Norsemen ceased going to America and the story of their voyages seems not to have been known outside of Iceland. In fact, most Europeans were not interested in western voyages. They wanted to find a road eastward by sea. Their object was to avoid the Ottoman Turks, from central Asia, who about the year 1300 broke into the Greek Empire, occupied Asia Minor, finally captured Constantinople (1453), and pushed up through the Balkan region into Hungary. HART'S SCH. HIST. — 2 23 24 DISCO\^RY AND DISCOVERERS They were a rude people who could not keep order on the land routes into Asia. Somewhat later they captured Egypt also and cut ofT the Red Sea route to India. Hence the European merchants wanted to find a direct passage by sea; and the Portuguese, beginning about 1420, sent ships down the west coast of Africa, hoping to sail around that con- 9 1 Columbus's First Voyage U02 ^2 .. Second •• 1493-96 y 3 Cabots U97 4 VfbpuciusforRpain H99 * 5 Columbus's Third Voyage 1198-1000 6 Cabral 1500 7 Vespucius for Portugal 1501-02 g Columbus's Fourth Voyage 1002-01 9 Verrazaoo 1621, Routes of early voyages to America COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 25 tinent (map, page 14). Finally, in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz discovered the Cape of Good Hope and the open sea to the eastward, and it was expected that the Portuguese would shortly reach the coast of Asia by water. But such a route to India would be roundabout and more than 10,000 miles long. 10. Columbus Discovers America (1492). — If the world was really flat like a pancake, the Portuguese had followed around the edge and there was no other sea route to the Orient; but suppose the world was a globe — ^then anybody could get to China and India by sailing directly westward. The idea that the world is round was a very old one, but had been rather lost sight of, till it was taken up by a Gen- oese sailor named Christopher Columbus. He was born in Genoa, probably in 1451, the son of a wool worker. He sailed in some of the African voyages, and visited Iceland. He turned his mind to this question of westward sailing and asked advice of an Italian astronomer, Toscanelli, who assured him that the world is round, sent him a map, and guessed that the distance from Portugal westward to the continent of Asia was only about 6000 miles. It is really about 12,000 miles. Columbus figured out that Japan must be 4000 miles away. , Columbus was a poor man and little known, and he tried in vain to interest the king of Portugal and the king of England and the king of France. With great difficulty he got the attention of Queen Isabella of Spain and her hus- band, King Ferdinand. They fitted him out with ninety men and three little vessels. Setting sail from Palos in 1492 he stopped for a time at the Canary Islands, and then pushed out into unknown seas. After a thirty-three days' voyage on a landless sea, during which he sailed about 3200 miles, he landed October 12, 1492, on a little island, which the Indians called Guanahani, in the Bahama group north of Cuba. He carried on shore the royal flag of Spain and took possession of the new land for Spain. Columbus did not in the least realize the greatness of his discovery. The natives were ready to worship these 26 DISCOVERY AND DISCO\TRERS strange beings who wore armor that seemed to them iron skins, and who could shoot thunder out of iron tubes. Co- lumbus thought these people were Asiatics, and expected to find the rich cities of Japan or China before long. In a few days he came to the coast of Cuba and then to another large island which he called His- paniola, now Haiti. Leaving here a few men, who made the first Span- ish colony in America, he reached home in safety. Throughout Spain the people were excited by his story, by the savages he had brought back with him, and by a few specimens of gold. Nobody seemed to doubt that Columbus had proved the world to be round by sailing westward to Asia. 11. The Demarcation Line (1493- 1498). — Ferdinand and Isabella at once began to fit Columbus out for another voyage. The Portuguese complained that the Spaniards were trying to compete with their sea route by getting to India first. To prevent disputes between the two nations, Pope Alexander VI (in 1493) issued a " bull " — that is, a written decree or order — that a " demarcation line " should be drawn north and south through the middle of the Atlantic; he decided that the Portuguese were to have all of the new discoveries to the cast of the line and the Spaniards all to the west. The two coun- tries next year agreed to this principle, but moved this line to the position shown on page 24. Therefore, when a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and landed in India in 1498, the Spaniards did not object. This settlement left out of account the fact that if one party sailed east and the other west, sooner or later they must meet somewhere in Asia. Finally that matter was arranged by An Italian knight in the beautiful armor of the 15th century SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE 27 drawing the imaginary " demarcation line " right around the world. No other European country ever felt bound by this divi- sion of the world, and in course of time England, France, Holland, Sweden, and Russia all claimed a right to discover and settle islands and continents anywhere in America or Asia. 12. Later Voyages of Columbus (1493-1504). — In the eleven years from 1493 to 1504 Columbus made three voyages to America, discovered many islands in the West Indies, coasted part of South America, including the mouth of the Ori- noco River, and skirted the Isth- mus of Panama. His colony of Hispaniola did not flourish and he fell into disfavor with the Span- ish sovereigns. Fourteen years after his first discovery he died a broken man. Columbus was a fearless sailor and a great discoverer. He ex- pected to find the civilized and wealthy people told about by European travelers in Asia. He dreamed of a splendid fortune, part of which could be devoted to a new crusade on the pagans who ■\JF^^^ — Jiruij^ held the Holy Land. His great Columbus Monument, erected in New , . 1 r 1 1 1 York on the four hundredth anniver- merits were his wonderful pluck, ^^ „f ^^ discovery of America his behef that he could do what had never been done before, and his ability to make his un- willing sailors continue the first voyage till it was successful. 13. Discoveries by Rival Nations (1497-1524). — Mean- while the Portuguese were spreading far eastward, where they conquered a magnificent empire in India, Ceylon, the Spice Islands, and China. In 1500 one of their captains, Cabral, on a voyage to India, sailed so far west that he struck the 28 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS coast of Brazil, It was found that the demarcation line passed to the westward of this part of South America; hence some Portuguese settled there, and their descendants are the Brazilians of to-day. Within about fifteen years after the discovery by Columbus it was known that the newly-found lands were not part of China or Japan or India; and the question arose, what name should be given to them. A Venetian sailor, Americus Vcspu- cius, had sailed, in behalf of Spain and then of Portugal along the continent of South America, which was clearly no part of Asia. Hence in 1507 one Hylacomylus (" Forest-Lake- Miller "), an obscure geographer in Germany, suggested that the part of the world thus discovered be called "Amerige; that is, the land of Americus, or America." The name thus first applied to South America eventually came to be used for both the new continents. The king of England was roused by the reports of Colum- bus and in 1497 he gave authority to John Cabot, an Italian, to sail west across the ocean. Cabot found land — probably the island of Cape Breton — and thus eventually gave the English a claim to a share in America. He also reported that codfish were plentiful in those seas; and fishermen at once began to come out from western Europe to the banks of Newfoundland. A second rival to Spain was France, which began to show an interest in 1524, when the king sent out Vcrrazano, another Italian. He coasted North America from the present Georgia to Nova Scotia, putting in on the way at what is now New York harbor. This voyage became the basis of later French claims to territory in North America. 14. First Voyage Around the World (1519-1522). — One reason why Spain paid little attention to the voyages of other nations was that there was still hope of finding open water through which Asia might be reached. Several Spanish ships coasted along the Gulf of Mexico and also the mainland as far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but found no strait leading west. In 1513 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, or Darien as it was then called, and reported that the distance be- ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND SPANISH 29 tween the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean — or South Sea, as he called it — was only a few miles. The next step of the Spaniards was to send out Magellan, a Portuguese sea captain, to seek a passage farther south (map, pages 36, 37). In 15 19 he set sail with five small vessels and touched at the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, where he first tasted pineapples, sugar cane, and sweet potatoes. He then entered the mouth of the Plata River. Proceeding down the coast, he discovered a passage which wound westward among snow-clad mountains, and which is now called the Strait of Magellan. It took great courage to push into these unknown waters and to reach the Pacific Ocean. Magellan sailed northwest- ward, the first white voyager in the Pacific Ocean, until he reached land at the Ladrone Islands. Then he came upon a large group of islands which were afterwards called the Philippines, for King Philip of Spain. Magellan was killed by the natives there, but one of his vessels kept on around the Cape of Good Hope, and after three years' absence returned to Spain loaded with valuable spices. In the end Spain held the Philippine Islands, though strictly they were in the region intended for Portugal by the demarcation agreement. 15. The Interior of North America. — About thirty years after the first discovery of America the Spaniards began to plant colonies on the continent of North America. Up to that time they knew nothing of the interior except what they could gather from the Indians, whose languages they did not understand. It interests us to know what sort of land they discovered, for they explored parts of the region that is now the United States. The Spaniards knew that there were splendid harbors all along the Atlantic coast, and rivers which must come down from higher country inland. They did not realize that there was a spine of mountains which we now call the Appalachians, behind which there was a magnificent system of rivers and lakes; or that far to the west rose the majestic mountain chains which later came to be called the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. They did not guess that in the in- terior were great deposits of iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, 30 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS silver, salt, sulphur, and mercury; stone and marble for building; clay for brick and pottery; coal for fuel; oil and natural gas for fuel and light. When they came to explore the interior, they found it covered with endless woods, which in the far Northwest and Southwest stretched beyond the Mississippi. These thick woods were due to the abundant rainfall which has made the Mountain of the Holy Cross, in Colorado, 14,000 feet high. One of the high peaks of the Rocky Mountains eastern United States so rich ; for rain causes good crops. The climate of the region is, we now know, very favorable to farming. The snow of the northern winters helps some crops, especially wheat, and makes abundant grass and hay for ani- mals. In the South it is warm enough for cotton and for such fruits as the orange and lemon. America is the native land of the potato, Indian corn, and tobeicco; and in one or another part of the country the farmers can raise wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, rice, and other grains; apples, peaches, cherries, strawberries, and many other fruits; sweet potatoes, squashes, beets, and other vegetables; grass, alfalfa, and other forage crops for horses and cattle; flax for linseed oil, hemp for cloth and cordage, cotton for clothing; even olives, dates, and sugar cane. The woods furnish timber for houses, 3^ DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS and the In- the ships, bridges, fences, and other uses. In the early days many animals roamed through the forests and over the prairies. Of these the most valuable for their skins or furs were the bear, the fox, the beaver, the deer, buffalo. 16. The Native dians. — Down to coming of the Euro- peans the only people in America were the natives whom we call Indians. Their skins were brown or copper- colored, but the}' were often called "red men" because many of them covered their faces with red paint. Nobody knows when or how their ancestors reached America. Some of them must have lived here thousands of years ago, when the mastodons were still roaming the plains, for tablets have been found in Iowa, scratched with rude pictures of those beasts. In Mexico and Peru there are ruins of stone buildings wonderfully carved, dating back nobody knows how far; and some of these buildings are very like certain temples and palaces in southern Asia. Still, if any wanderers came from other continents, the tradition of them was lost ages ago. The native Indians were divided into many nations or tribes, large and small, which were like great families. The land that they tilled and their hunting grounds belonged to the whole tribe, and not to the members. The various tribes spoke many different languages, none of them like any tongue known in the Old World. A beaver family. In the early days the beaver skin was the standard by which the settlers valued guns, clothing, and other furs. Beaver fur was an important export of this country NATIVE INDIANS 33 In the region that is now called the United States, most of the Indians were savages. They had no domestic animals except dogs; but horses and cattle were brought over later from Europe. Some of the tribes wandered from place to place and lived chiefly by hunting and fishing. Others, such as the Cherokees and the Navahos, were settled in villages and raised corn and vegetables for food. The Pueblo Indians, in the southwestern part of the country, built curious houses of sun-dried clay, like vast, rude apartment houses; each house stood by itself, and was the home of a whole village. Large mounds of various shapes, such as animals, temples, and forts, were found widely scattered over the western coun- try, and it is supposed that they were built by ancestors of the present Indians. In many parts of the country can still be traced " Indian trails," which were paths tramped down into the soil by bands of men following one another in single file, year after year. The tribes had chiefs or headmen, whom they hardly felt obliged to obey. Not even in the more civilized regions of Mexico and Peru was there what we should call a regular government, with laws, taxes, and protection for life and property. The Indians made few inventions, and had no religion except heathen rites. Most of them were fierce and cruel, and little wars between the tribes were going on much of the time. They proved to be dangerous enemies to the whites. 17. Spanish Colonies on the Continent (1521-1533). — Soon after the death of Columbus the Spaniards learned that there was a populous country to the westward which was called Mexico; so Hernando Cortes, with about 500 Spanish soldiers, marched into the land, found a quantity of gold, killed thousands of natives, robbed them of their treasures, and set up a permanent colony called New Spain or Mexico (1521). Twelve years later Francisco Pizarro broke up the similar nation of the Incas, an Indian tribe in South America, seized an immense quantity of gold, and founded the Spanish colony of Peru. These and other colonies were settled by " conquistadores ": 34 DISCO\TRY AND DISCOVERERS that is, Spanish leaders to whom the land was parceled out. For a long time they held the inhabitants practically as slaves. A few gold mines were found; and both in Mexico and in Peru immensely valuable silver mines were discovered, and worked by the forced labor of the In- dians. Most of the silver was sent to Spain, which for a time seemed the rich- est country in the world. This easy way of getting money taught the Spaniards to depend too much on the colonies and too little on their own efforts, and Spain soon began to decline. 18. Spanish Inland Discoveries (1513- 1605). — As early as 15 13 Ponce de Leon landed on a coast which he named Florida. Soon after the con- quests of Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards tried to open up the territory north and northwest of the Gulf of Mexico. They had already discovered the Missis- sippi River, and in 1539 Hernando De Soto with about 600 men started from Tampa Bay, Florida, hoping to find another country like Mexico. For two years he wandered through what is now Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and all the way he had to fight with wild tribes. Then he came out on the banks of the Mississippi, which he found to be " half a league over, very deep and very rapid, being always full of trees and timber; the water very thick and muddy." Carvings on an Aztec Temple near Cuernavaca, Mexico. The keeper is a descendant of the orig- inal builders INLAND DISCOVERIES 35 De Soto died and was buried in the river ; but the 300 men who were left, after great hardships, at last reached Mexico. A region farther west was reached by Coronado, who in 1540 started northward from Mexico in search of seven rich cities which had been reported to be located somewhere near the Rio Grande. He reached the seven cities to find that they The Spanish explorations in North America. The shaded area shows the extent of the country explored by them were only poor pueblo villages occupied by the Zuiii and other tribes in what is now New Mexico. Coronado set out in further search of a region called Quivira and marched as far as what is now eastern Kansas, without finding anything re- markable except herds of buffalo which he called " crook- backed oxen." After two years of vain wandering, he marched back to the city of Mexico, " very sad and very weary, com- pletely worn out and shamefaced." Some years later (1565) the Spaniards founded St. Augustine 36 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS The routes of in Florida, now the oldest town within the United States. In 1605 a Spanish settlement was made at Santa Fc, New Mexico, and then others near by. After being uprooted once by In- dians, these settlements re- vived and have continued to this day. 19. Exploration of the Pacific Coast (1521-1776). — After the Spaniards con- quered Mexico and Peru, they kept up a trade route across the Isthmus of Panama and another across the broader Isthmus of Tehuantepec; and they built vessels on the Pacific coast. Cortes began to explore the coast northward, but it was some years before the Spaniards learned that the Gulf of California was shut off from the open sea by the peninsula of Lower California. In 1542 the Spaniard Cabrillo probably went as far north as San Diego and Santa Barbara, and his pilot Ferillo discovered and named Cape Mendocino, the most western projection of California. Other Spaniards sailed on northward, but somehow they all missed the three most striking points on the coast. Not one seems to have entered San Francisco Bay, or the mouth of the Columbia River, or the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Indeed, it was two hundred years more before it was proved that Siberia and Alaska do not make a continuous land. It was longer than that (1776) before the Spaniards planted a colony on the spacious harbor of San Francisco. 20. French and English in America (1534-1580). — While the Spaniards and the Portuguese were planting colonies, two other nations made attempts to take a share of the New World. Captain Jacques Cartier made voyages for France to the gulf FRENCH AND ENGLISH IN MIERICA 37 Drake and Magellan around the world and river of St. Lawrence (1534-37); and thirty years later a party of the French Protestants, who were commonly called Huguenots, tried to plant a colony in what is now South Caro- lina, and then in Florida. The Spaniards destroyed the colony (1565); and the French ceased to settle in this pleasant region and to dispute the Spanish claims. The English and the Spaniards were friendly at this time, and until Elizabeth became queen of England (1558). She was a strong Protestant, and England became the most active Protestant country in Europe. From that time suspicion and hatred arose between the two countries. Their hostility was increased by the " English sea dogs," who were as good sailors as the Spaniards, and daring fighters. Partly on their own account, and partly with the good will of Queen Elizabeth, they began to trade with the Spanish colonies in America, then attacked them, and then tried to plant colonies of their own in America. The most noted of the sea dogs was Francis Drake, who, in 1577, in a time of peace and without leave from his own government, went on a cruise to the Pacific. He sailed through the Strait of Magellan and then ran northward, capturing 38 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS ships and plundering wherever he could. None but Spanish ships had ever before been seen in those waters. Drake wintered at a spot not far north of San Francisco, still called Drake's Bay. Then he bore off westward and got safely home in 1 580, thus making the second voyage around the world. Queen Elizabeth pretended to be very angry, but he gave her a part of his spoils of jewels, and she came on board his ship and then and there made him " Sir Francis Drake." He and other Englishmen again attacked Spanish towns and cities along various parts of the American coast. 21. The Raleigh Colonies (1578-1587). — The two men who tried hardest to build up English colonies in America were the half brothers, Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. Gilbert vainly attempted to found a colony in Newfoundland under the first colonial charter ever granted to an Englishman (1578). Sir Walter Raleigh was not only a brave man and a good sailor, but a courtier who won the favor of the queen by laying his rich cloak on a muddy spot so that she might pass over dry-shod. His idea was to plant colonies which could live on the Indian trade, and at the same time be on hand to attack the Spanish colonies and fleets. Three different times between 1585 and 1587 he sent out settlers to Roanoke Island (map, page 49), on a part of the American coast, which Queen Elizabeth named Virginia after herself, as the Virgin Queen. All these colonies failed for lack of food or from disease or from attacks by Indians; and the Spaniards continued to claim all the coast along which their exploring vessels had ever sailed. 22. The Invincible Armada (1588). — The Spaniards, who were the proudest people and the best soldiers and shipbuild- ers in all Europe, resolved to give the English sea dogs enough of fighting. Therefore they prepared a fleet which they called the " Invincible Armada," consisting of 137 vessels and carry- ing 27,000 men, and in 1588 they set sail for the conquest of England. They thought it would be an easy task; but the English swarmed out of their ports with a large fleet of handy vessels, THE ENGLISH AND THE SPANIARDS 39 fought the Spaniards all the way up the English Channel, scared them with fire ships, and drove them into the sea to the east of England. While the Spaniards were trying to sail back around the north of Scotland, their fleet was scattered by a great tempest. Less than half the ships ever got back to Spain. The result was that the English found out the weakness of Spain. Therefore they could no longer be held back from taking a share of the land and the riches of America. After a few years the Spaniards and the English made peace again, but the English would not agree to keep out of the unoccupied lands in America claimed by the Spaniards. Thus the way was cleared for planting permanent English colonies. 23. Summary. — This chapter describes how the New World was discovered, and the exploration of the coasts and the inland country down to the end of the war between Eng- land and Spain (1604). The Scandinavians, commonly called Norsemen, reached the northeast coast of America about the year 1000 but soon lost sight of it. Europeans began to think about sailing west when the Turks choked up the old routes to Asia by land and sea. Columbus was the first man to act on the belief that the world is a globe, by starting to sail west to Asia; in 1492 he discovered the West Indies and afterwards the coast of Central and South America. By a demarcation line, first suggested by the Pope, the Portuguese agreed to keep out of the " West Indies " if the Spaniards would keep out of the " East Indies." England and France did not recognize this division of the newly re- vealed parts of the world, and so discovered parts of the coast of North America on their own account. Magellan, for the Spaniards, rounded South America and discovered the Philippine Islands, and one of his ships went on around the world. The Spaniards made a few inland explorations and began to discover some of the rich land of the interior ; for the present area of the United States is one of the richest parts of the world for farming, fishing, and mining. The Spaniards met 40 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS the Indians, some of whom had large towns and were partly civilized, but most of whom lived as savages in wild tribes. The Spaniards conquered Mexico and Peru, and discovered the Mississippi and the great plains west of it. They also coasted up the west side of the continent but failed to find the great harbors and valleys of the Pacific coast. The English sea dogs harassed and plundered the Spaniards both in the West Indies and on the Pacific coast, and one of them, Raleigh, tried to plant colonies in what was then called Virginia. The French also explored the mouth of the St. Lawrence River and vainly tried to plant colonies farther south. The Spaniards and the English finally went to war, and the Invincible Armada of the Spaniards was defeated in 1588. This disaster weakened the Spaniards so that they could not prevent the English from colonizing America. REFERENCES Maps. Avery, Un. States, I. — Bourne, Spain in Am. — Brlgham and McF"arlane, Essentials of Geography, Second Bk. — Shepherd, Ilist. Atlas, 105-112, 184, 186, 190. Histories. Atkinson, Europ. Beginnings, chs. xix, xxi, xxii, xxvi- xxviii. — Becker, Beginnings, .17-55. — Channing, Un. States, I. chs. i-iii, V. — Cheyney, Europ. Background, chs. iii, iv. — Eggleston, Our First Century, 1-14. — Fiske, Discovery, I. chs. iv-vi, II; Old Virginia, I. ch. i. — Higginson, Am. Explorers, chs. i-ix. — Soulhworth, Builders of Our Country, I. chs. i, iii, vii, xv. Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. i, 3, 9, 13. — Caldwell and Per- singer. Source Hist., 4-20. — Hart, Contemporaries, I. §§ 16-36, 44- 48; Source Book, §§ 1-4, 9. — James, Readings in Am. Hist., §§ 1-7. — Old Sotith Leaflets, nos. 17, 20, 29, 39, 71, 87-90, 102, I15-119, 122. Side Lights and Stories. Cooper, Mercedes of Castile (Columbus). — Coryell, Diego Pinzon (Columbus). — Eastman, Indian Boyhood. — Lane and Hill, Am. Hist, in Literature, ch. i. — Liljencrantz, Randvar tJie Songsmith (Vinland). — Linderman, Indian Why Stories. — Munroe, White Conquerors of Mexico (Cortes). — Sinims, Vasconcelos (De Soto). Pictures. Avery, Un. States, I. — Mentor, serial nos. 13, 22. — U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, Reports. — Winsor, America, I-IV. QUESTIONS (§ 9) I. Who were the Norsemen? 2. Mow did Leif Ericson discover America? 3. Why did the Turkish conquests lead to discoveries of new lands? 42 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS (§ lo) 4. Who was Christopher Columbus? 5. How did Columbus discover America? 6. What did Columbus think he had discovered? 7. How much did Columbus discover on his first voyage? (§ 11) 8. Why were the Portuguese alarmed? 9. What was the "de- marcation line ' ? (§ 12) 10. What additional voyages did Columbus make? 11. What kind of man was Columbus? (§ 13) 12. How was Brazil settled? 13. How did the continent come to be calle 1 America? 14. What did Cabot discover? 15. What did Ver- razano discover? {§ 14) 16. How and when was the Pacific Ocean discovered? 17. De- scribe Magellan's voyage. 18. How did the Philippines become Spanish? (§ 15) 19 (For an essay). What did the Spanish explorers find in the interior of North America? 20. What are tjje principal mineral products of the interior? 21. What are the principal agricultural products of the interior? 22. Why is the eastern United States such a good farming section? (§ 16) 23. How did the Indians come to America? 24. What were the Indian tribes? 25. How did the Indians live? 26. What were Indian mounds and trails? 27. What kind of government did the Indians have? (§ 17) 28 (For an essay). Conquest of: {a) Mexxo, (6) Peru. 29. What made Spain rich? (§ 18) 30. What did De Soto disco\er? 31. What did Coronado dis- co\er? 32. What were the earliest Spanish towns in Florida and New Mexico? (§ '9) 33- What did Cabrillo discover on the Pacific? 34. Why did the S|>aniards fail to push their discoveries on the Pacific? (§ 20) 35. What early attempts did the French make to colonize America? 36. How did hostilities arise between the English and the Spanish? 37 (For an essay). Drake's cruise around the world. (§ 21) 38. What were the Gilbert and Raleigh colonies? 39. Why did the Raleigh colonies fail? (§ 22) 40. Why did the Spaniards send out the Invincible Armada? 41 (For an essay). Defeat of the Armada. CHAPTER III FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS (1607-1660) 24. Immigrants to the New World (1492-1700). — During the first hundred years after the discovery of America, all the Europeans who actually colonized America were Catholic Spaniards and Portuguese. They belonged to the Latin race ; that is, they were in part descended from the ancient Romans, and spoke languages derived from the Latin tongue. In the next hundred years (1600 to 1700) came another group, made up of English, Dutch, Swedish, and German colonists, nearly all Protestants. They sprang from the Teutonic races of northern Europe, who were descended in great part from the ancient Germans and their relatives, the Scandinavians. What led these various people to leave their old and settled lands for the New World? Among the reasons were the following: (i) Farmers and workmen were poor and strug- gling, and hoped for a better living for themselves and their children in a new country. (2) Business men were attracted by the good chances in the fur trade and fisheries. (3) Spec- ulators fancied that rich mines of gold and silver would be found. (4) Some men who had means and influence at home liked the idea of becoming social and political leaders in a new colony. (5) A few came over to get away from what they thought was interference with their religious faith; among them were Catholics, English Puritans, and German Protes- tants. (6) Many thousands of convicts and negro slaves were taken across the ocean against their will. 25. Crossing the Sea. — Emigration from Europe was a serious thing. The ships were all small, and the whole space for passengers was below the decks. On some ships the sailors spread sand over the bottom of the hold ; there the passengers built a fire and grouped around it as though they were on land. All the travelers, even the richest, were subject to hart's sch. hist. — 3 43 44 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLE^IENTS long and miserable voyages — three weeks to two or three months on the sea. Provisions were scanty and often bad. One passenger says, " There was no rest night or day — it was a Babel. I have never in my life heard of such a disorderly ship. It was confusion without end." If a disease broke out, such as the dangerous " ship fever," it might run through the whole company. Once arrived in the New World, the first colonists had to build their own houses and clear the land by cutting down the trees. At first they did not know how to hunt for game or to raise Indian corn; and several of the early English colonies had a " starving time " and would have died out, had not food been brought to them from England. The Indians could give little help, for often they had not enough for themselves. So little was known of the country back of the coast that the early settlers missed the best land, and settled in low and marshy ground, The anopheles mosquito, which bccause it was con\'enlent to the spreads malaria, stands on its t t ^.i i ^ r r jjg^jj sea. Hence they caught levers; tor it was not till our time that people learned that malarial fever is caused by the bite of a mos- quito which is bred in stagnant water. What with disease, famine, and Indian attacks, more than three fourths of the English who landed within the first twenty years died not long after their arrival. 26. The English Puritans (1603-1620). — Among the early English settlers were many Protestants who inclined to strict doctrines. They thought that the Reformation in the English Church (§5) had not gone far enough; and they held meetings, wrote books, and preached sermons in favor of what they declared to be a purer kind of religion — hence they were called " Puritans." Part of the Puritans, who claimed the right of every congregation to choose its own minister, were called " Independents " or " Separatists." ENGLISH PURITANS AND TRADERS 45 When Queen Elizabeth died (1603), a Scotchman, James I, came to the throne of England. He looked upon the Puritans as enemies who were trying to take away part of his royal power. When a delegation of them came to ask him for re- forms in the church, his answer was, " I shall make them con- form themselves [that is, accept the established church], or I will harry them out of the land or else do worse." And the king ordered many of the Puritans to be arrested and im- prisoned. Therefore, when they heard of plans for planting colonies in the New World, some of the Puritans were eager to go as emigrants, so as to be free from the control of the king and to worship in what they considered the real Christian manner. 27. English Trading Companies (1606-1607). — The main reason for planting English colonies in America was the belief that America was a rich and fruitful land where profits could be made. Large sums had first to be spent in fitting out a colony, and a new method was now tried for bringing the necessary means together. This was the joint stock trading company, in which investors could buy shares; if the com- pany failed they could lose only what they had put into it, and not their whole fortunes. In 1606 a number of English gentlemen of wealth joined in securing from King James a charter which would give the right to form two companies to plant colonies in North America. One of these, the London Company, was to send out colonists to the southern part of the coast, and the other, the Plymouth Company, was to settle farther north. The attempt of the Plymouth Company to make a settlement on what is now the coast of Maine was a failure. The London Company, however, in 1607 sent an expedition in three ships which anchored a little way up the James River (map, page 49). There the 104 colonists landed and built a town, which they named Jamestown for their king. This was a bold step, for the Spanish government had warned the English that Virginia was their territory and that they would stamp out the little colony. But the English insisted that John Cabot had " discovered these northern 46 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS parts " (§ 13); and they paid no attention to Spanish claims upon coasts where Spain had no colonies and showed no in- tention of settling. 28. Virginia, the First Southern Colony (1607-16 18). — The James River colony, which from the first was called Virginia, was for a time all but a failure. The Indians in the neighbor- hood offered little trade, and soon became hostile. The English searched for gold mines and found none. The few farmers did not understand the soil of Virginia; and the weavers, tanners, wine makers, and silk workers whom the company sent out found no suitable material on which to work. Though the owners of the Virginia colony in England were losing money, they held together, and in 1609 secured a new charter giving them a definite stretch of the coast, 400 miles lortg, and thence back into the wilderness " up into the Land throughout from Sea to Sea, West and Northwest." The company supposed that the Pacific Ocean was only a few hundred miles back, about where Lake Erie lies. The man who appears as the biggest and best in the little colony was Captain John Smith, who had been a sailor, soldier, explorer, and map maker. He was almost the only settler who had the curiosity to explore the interior. He explored once too often, for he was caught by a band of Indian braves and delivered over to the powerful chief Wahunsona- cock, commonly called Powhatan. Some years later in England, Smith published a statement that the Indians were on the point of knocking out his brains when Pocahontas, the little daughter of the chief, rushed forward and saved him from the club. The English afterwards captured Poca- hontas, and thus compelled her father to keep peace with them. Then she married one of the colonists, John Rolfe. About ten years after the founding of the colony, the Virginians realized that they had the best of land for raising tobacco. Some of Sir Walter Raleigh's men (§21) had brought back the weed from America, and (so says tradition) Raleigh taught Queen Elizabeth to smoke. King James hated tobacco and wrote a violent book against it, but his VIRGINIA COLONY 47 In April, 1614, Pocahontas was married to John Rolfe subjects were eager to buy the fragrant plant at three shil- Hngs (about 75 cents in our money) a pound. From that time on, tobacco was the main crop and the principal source of wealth for Virginia and for the neighboring lands. 29. Later Virginia (1619-1660). — For a time the Virginia colonists were looked upon as existing only to make money for their company; but in 1619 they were allowed to hold an " assembly " of twenty- two members elected by their neigh- bors. This was the first American legislature. It sat several days and passed laws against idleness, gambling, drunkenness, fine clothes, Sabbath breaking, and other offenses. The Virginians never gave up this precious privilege of elect- ing an assembly, and as fast as new colonies were planted they insisted on the same right to take part in governing themselves. The London Company fell under the displeasure of the king, and in 1624 the charter was taken away. Of the 14,000 immigrants who had gone out, only 1200 were then left alive. 48 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS Thereafter Virginia was called a " royal colony " or " prov- ince," and had to accept a governor appointed by the king. Tobacco made it prosperous, but gradually a good part of the rich land fell into the hands of a small class of wealthy planters. In the year when the first assembly met, the Vir- Africans were brought to Virginia by the shipload to be sold as slaves ginians bought the first African slaves imported into the area of the present United States; and in the course of time the slave owners became the leading class in the colony, 30. Plymouth Colony (1620-1660). — Some of those ex- treme Puritans who were called Separatists had been try- ing to carry on a little church in the village of Scrooby, near the east coast of Enghmd. They were so disturbed by the authorities of the state church that they crossed over to Holland and lived for a time in the Protestant city of Leyden. Still they longed to have their children brought up in the PLYMOUTH COLONY 49 English [ J Dutch Swedish 1638-55 Dutch 1655-64 Present state boundaries SCALE OF MIL ES 5 60 Settlements and settled areas, i66o English fashion, and therefore they formed a plan to settle across the ocean. Friends in London loaned them money, and they char- tered the ship May- flower, and in 1620 steered for America. "The Pilgrim Fathers " is the name long since given to the men of this first shipload and others that followed. They meant to settle somewhere south of the Hudson River, but when they sighted land near the point of Cape Cod they decided to stay on the New England coast. As they had no charter or permission to settle there, they drew up a document, later called the " Mayflower Compact," by 50 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS which it was agreed " to combine ourselves together into a civil body politic . . . and by virtue hereof, to enact . . . such just and equal laws ... as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good." This is the first consti- tution ever made by Americans. December 21, 1620, they landed near a large bowlder, now famous as " Plymouth Rock"; and along the sheltered harbor they built a little town which they called Plymouth. At the end of the winter only about half the number were left alive, but they would not give up. A few more emigrants from England joined them, and their success in trading for beaver skins and in catching fish carried them through starva- tion, sickness, and the danger from Indians. The most inter- esting man in the colony was Captain Myles Standish, whose small body was full of courage. He was the commander against hostile Indians, and a true-hearted Pilgrim Father. Wherever the Spaniards went they obeyed laws made for them in their home country, and took orders from governors appointed from Spain. On the other hand, the Plymouth people, like their brethren in Virginia, knew how to govern themselves. For a long time all their laws were made by the grown men assembled in a mass meeting. Later the little colony was divided into sections called " towns," each of which had its own town meeting; and they all sent delegates to a little assembly very much like that in Virginia. 31. Massachusetts Colony (1629-1640). — In 1629 a body of Puritan gentlemen in England got from King Charles I a charter issued to " the Governor and Company of the Massa- chusetts Bay in New England." They were to possess the sea front between a line three miles north of the Merrimack River and a line three miles south of the Charles River, and thence westward to the " South Sea" ; that is, to the Pacific Ocean. One of the leaders in this company was a gentleman named John Winthrop, who in 1630 led overseas a colony of a thousand people. They built villages at Boston, Cambridge, and other places near Massachusetts Bay, and took in Salem and some other little settlements already planted. They brought with MASSACHUSETTS COLONY 51 them live stock, seeds, tools, and many hired servants, and began at once to break ground for farms. Nearly every place that they settled prospered. John Winthrop was for some years the governor of the little community, but he and his supporters were obliged to let the people share in their own govern- ment. The "great emigration," as this movement was called, went on for ten years. A large part of the farmers became "free- men," or stock- holders of the com- pany, and met every year in what was called the " General Court." When that meeting became clumsy, they set up an elective assembly to make laws, which from that day to this has been called the General Court of Massachusetts. 32. Growth of Massachusetts (1640-1660). — In a short time the settlers were raising their own food. Some of them became fishermen and found a market for their catch down in the West Indies, bringing back sugar, tropical fruits, and hard silver dollars that had come from Mexico. New Eng- land contained the best of timber for building ships. The colonists discovered iron ore, and began to make pig iron in little charcoal furnaces. They traded with the Indians for furs. They were even troubled with the high cost of living, and voted that nobody should make a profit of more than one third on goods brought from England. Though most of the people of the great emigration were ' ' "'^il "• ^Mm. ^ ■ ' t V ' ,., ^ , P' f. -^ - -%*- House in Salem, built about 1662. This is the place made famous by Hawthorne in The House of the Seven Gables 52 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS members of the Church of England, they soon gave up the Prayer Book of that church and became Separatists. Then an effort was made to separate from the Separatists. Rever- end Roger WilHams of Salem was so outspoken that the gov- ernment of the colony drove him out. In 1637 Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a friend of Roger Williams, was brought before the General Court on the charge that she was not sound in her religious doctrines. Her real offense was that she held meet- ings for women in which they criticized the ministers. She showed herself quite the equal of any of her judges, especially in her knowledge of the Bible and in her ability to argue; but her enemies had the votes, and they banished her from the colony. 33. Maryland (1632- 1660). — If Puritans could find a place in America where they could live and worship God in their own way, why should not Eng- lish Catholics have the same privilege? In 1632 King Charles I granted to a wealthy Catholic, Cecil Calvert (commonly called Lord Baltimore), a new kind of colonial charter. Baltimore was made " Lord Pro- prietary," with the right to appoint a governor and to make laws with the consent of the settlers. The grant of land was to extend from the Potomac River northward to the 40th degree of north latitude. The next year about two hundred people, nearly all Catholics, sailed for Baltimore's territory, which he called Maryland, in honor of Henrietta Maria, then queen of England. The most notable thing about Maryland was its Toleration Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore. This portrait shows the rich dress of an English Cavalier (§ 41) MARYLAND AND NEW ENGLAND 53 Act, by which all believers in Christianity were allowed to worship privately or publicly in their own way. This was one of the first laws in the history of the world which admitted that a man might have a right to believe and practice one religion, when his rulers had declared another to be the right religion. Maryland began to grow tobacco, and attracted so many settlers that the Protestants were soon more numerous than the Catholics. Most of the time during a century and a half the Baltimore family remained proprietors, appointed the governors, and helped to make the laws. 34. Connecticut and New Haven (1636-1660). — While Maryland was being settled, a group of colonies was estab- lished in New England, none of which had any charter or grant from the English government. The first of these was Connecticut, founded by Rev. Thomas Hooker. He had brought over a company of about fifty families from England to Cambridge, Massachusetts, but they were not content there, and in 1636 he led his company westward to the Con- necticut River. There they founded Hartford and other villages in the neighborhood. Since they had no charter they established a little government for themselves, and in 1639 called an assembly that drew up a brief document known as " The Fundamental Orders," which was somewhat like one of our modern state constitutions. In 1638 a group of families under Rev. John Davenport settled at New Haven, and several villages grew up near Long Island Sound, with New Haven as the center. They formed a colonial assembly, and gathered themselves together in the self-made colony of New Haven. The two settle- ments found the Dutch trying to establish themselves on the Connecticut. As the Connecticut settlers were at odds with the Indians, a band of soldiers and Indian allies attacked the winter camp of the Pequot tribe and killed nearly all the men, women, and children (1637). This was the white man's way of teaching the Indians the beauty of peace! 35. Rhode Island, Maine, and New Hampshire (1630- 1660). — A third self-planted New England colony was Rhode 54 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS Island. The founder was Rev. Roger Williams (§32), who in 1636 brought a few people together at Providence. Williams believed strongly that no state had a right to tell anybody to worship in any particular way. Hence in his little colony he welcomed men of various beliefs, including Baptists and Quakers. Jews were admitted later. Williams declared that he was not interested in " the chil- dren's toys of land, meadow, government, etc.," but cared much for " a great number of weak and distressed souls flying hither from old and New England." Natur- ally the Puritan neighbors did not like the Rhode Islanders. Yet none of the early colonists were so successful as Old blockhouse in North Edgecomb, Maiae. The projecting Williams in CCtting' upper story and the narrow windows were for purposes of • 1 1 r defense the gOod Will of the Indians, for he was a man who kept his word with them. For a time Rhode Island was made up of four or five little independent settle- ments, but at last they united in one assembly, which elected a governor. Many efforts were made to place colonies on the strip of coast called Maine (about 1630), but the land grants were tangled up and no settlement succeeded. Part of it was occu- pied by Plymouth, and later it was annexed to Massachusetts. New Hampshire was settled at first in separate little towns, beginning in 1630, which slowly united into one government for common purposes; but the colony had no charter, and for a long time its people joined in the Massachusetts government. 36. The Two Sections. — The Englishmen who settled the southern colonies and those who settled the New Eng- THE TWO SECTIONS 55 land colonies came from about the same class in England. Most of them were farmers, farm servants, shopkeepers, and some were ne'er-do-wells. Nevertheless the two sections had different ways of at- tending to their local concerns. The south- ern colonists settled mostly on plantations; that is, on scattered farms each with an owner's house and quarters for white ser- vants and negro slaves. Throughout New Eng- land the people settled in villages, partly for safety, and partly so that they could all be near the village church. The southerners had " parishes " which in- cluded all the settlers who went to one church. The people of the parish held ves- try meetings for some local matters; but most of the local affairs were settled by boards called County Courts or Courts of Quarter Captain Morgan came to this country in 1636, built a fortified bloclchouse on the Connecticut River, and was a prominent fighter in the early Indian wars Sessions, appointed by the governor from among the richest and most public-spirited planters. These boards laid taxes, built roads and bridges, and held the elections. In New England the people could easily gather in a " town meeting," which was a mass meeting of all the voters (§ 30). 56 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS Since most of the land-owning farmers were voters, the system gave them " local self-government"; that is, the opportunity to carry on their own affairs. The only political union of colonies was the so-called New England Confederation, formed by Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven in 1643. They drew up a doc- ument called " Articles of Confederation," some of the phrases of which can be found in our present national Constitution. Their main purpose was to present a strong front against the Dutch, who were trying to keep up a trading post on the Connecticut River. After New Netherland was annexed by the English (1664), the need of the Confederation grew less and it eventually died out. 37. Summary. — -This chapter deals with the planting of English colonies in two groups, one in New England and the other in the South, during the first half of the seventeenth century. Immigration was a tedious process, for the voyages were full of hardship and the first colonists suffered from famine and disease. English Puritans and Catholics desired to be free from the pressure of the estiiblished English Church, and men of means desired to make a profit. The two motives combined in bringing about the planting of the following colonies: (i) Virginia was founded in 1607 by the London Company. After heavy losses, the raising of tobacco became the main industry. In 1619 the Virginians formed the first colonial assembly, or legislature, and they bought the first negro slaves imported into our country. (2) Plymouth was founded by extreme Puritans in 1620. After barely living through the first winter, they established themselves and set up a little colonial government of their own. (3) Massachusetts (1630), founded by a strong body of moderate Puritans, was successful from the start in ship- building, trading, and farming. (4) Maryland was founded in 1632 by Catholics, who were SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 57 soon outnumbered by Protestants. This was the first pro- prietary colony and was governed by the Baltimore family. The principal industry was the raising of tobacco. (5) Connecticut was founded without any company or proprietor or grant behind it, the first of the self-planted col- onies (1636). It lived by agriculture and trading with the Indians. (6) New Haven (1638) was a similar self-planted colony without any charter. (7) Rhode Island (1636) was planted by Rev. Roger Wil- liams and others who were too radical to suit the people of Massachusetts. Other little towns joined, and the people lived by farming, fishing, and trading. (8) New Hampshire (1630) was a farming settlement with- out a charter. (9) Maine (1630) was a scattered group of villages and farms without a colonial government. The northern colonies were settled in villages called towns; the southern, in plantations or separate farms. Four of the New England colonies united in a little federal union called the New England Confederation, which is the first suggestion of anything like our present federal government. REFERENCES Maps. Avery, Un. States, II. — Epoch Maps, no. 2. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 185, 189, 190, 193. Histories. Charming, Un. States, I. chs. vi-xv, xviii. — Eggleston, Our First Century, 14-100. — Fiske, Old Virginia, I. chs. ii-ix; New Engl., 50-178. — Higginson, Am. Explorers, chs. x, xi, xiv, xv. — South- worth, Builders of Our Country, I. chs. viii-xi, xix. — Tyler, England in Am., 30-49, 62-72, 82-146. Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 7, 16,25, 27, 29, 31, 36. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 20-28, 36-71. — Hart, Contemporaries, I, §§49-75, 90-120, 127-131; Source Book, §§5-21; Source Readers, I. §§10-65 passim. — Hill, Liberty Docs., chs. i-vi. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 1-14; Select Charters, nos. 1-22. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 7, 8, 48-55, 66, 67, 77, 100, 120, 121, 142-178 passim. Side Lights and Stories. Coffin, Old Times in the Cols. — Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion. — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, chs. iv, vi, vii. — Hawthorne, Grandfather' s Chair, pt. i. chs. i-ii, v-xi. — Leslie, 58 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS Saxby (Pilgrims and Puritans). — Longfellow, Myles Slandish. — Otis, Ricfiard of Jamestown; Mary of Plymouth; Ruth of Boston; Calvert of Maryland. — Tappan, Letters from Colonial Children, chs. i, ii, v-xii. Pictures. Aver>', Un. States, II. — Wilson, Am. People, I. — Winsor, America, III, IV.' QUESTIONS (§ 24) I. What was the first group of American colonists? 2. What was the second group? 3. Why did Europeans want to colonize America? (§ 25) 4. How did people cross the ocean? 5. Why did so many of the early colonists perish? (§ 26) 6. Who were the Puritans? 7. Why did the Puritans wish to leave England? 8 (For an essay). Persecution of the Puritans. (§ 27) 9. What were the trading companies? 10. Name two of the English colonization companies. (§ 28) II (For an essay). Describe the colony of Virginia. 12. Why did the colony of Virginia go through hard times? 13. What did V'ir- ginia secure by the charter of 1609? 14. What did John Smith do for the colony of Virginia? 15 (For an essay). Describe the life of Indians in Virginia. 16. How did tobacco come into use? (§ 29) 17. What was the first American legislature? 18. How did Virginia become a royal colony? 19. How did the first negro slaves come into the English colonies? (§ 30) 20. Why did English Puritans settle in Holland? 21. How did the Pilgrim Fathers come to Plymouth? 22. What was the Mayflower Compact? 23 (For an essay). Life and adventures of Captain Myles Standish. 24. How did towns spring up in Plymouth? (§ 31) 25. What was the Massachusetts Bay Company? 26. How was the Massachusetts Colony planted? 27. How was Massachusetts gov- erned? (§ 32) 28. How did the people of Massachusetts make a living? 29. Why were Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson banished? (§ 33) 30. How was Maryland settled? 31. What was the Toleration Act? (§ 34) 32. How was Connecticut settled? 33. How was New Haven settled? 34 (For an essay). Events of the Pequot War. (§ 35) 35- How was Rhode Island settled? 36 (For an essay). An account of Roger Williams. 37. How was Maine settled? 38. How was New Hampshire settled? (§ 36) 39. What was the difference between the New England and the southern methods of settlement? 40. What was the town meeting? 41. What was the New England Confederation? CHAPTER IV RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES (1604^1689) 38. French Settlements in America (1604-1660). — While the English colonies were growing up, three other European nations — France, Holland, and Sweden — ^ planted settlements near by. The French strongly desired the profitable fur trade of the St. Lawrence, and also wished to Christianize the heathen Indians. Their missionaries went out among the wild tribes and endured hardship, poverty, and death; some of them were made martyrs by the Indians whom they came to save. The French were also interested in the fisheries on the shallows or " banks " south- east of New- foundland ; but their first perma- nent settlement was Port Royal on the Bay of Fundy (1604). They named the adjacent country Acadia. A more vigorous colony was planted by Samuel de Cham- plain at Quebec in 1608, and there has been a town of Quebec ever since, on that spot. Champlain was a captain in the French navy, and one of the boldest of explorers. He sought the friendship of the Indians who controlled the routes from the Great Lakes. When a party of their warriors asked him to help them against the fierce and hostile Iroquois, commonly Location of the " Five Nations " of Iroquois, enlarged by the adoption of the Tuscaroras in 1715 to the "Six Nations." They counted about 2500 warriors HART S SCH. HIST. 59 6o RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES called the "Five Nations," living to the southward, he and two other Frenchmen agreed to go along with them. They paddled nearly the whole length of a sheet of water since known as Lake Champlain, till they met a party of four hundred of the Iroquois. With their harquebuses (a sort of awkward gun), the Frenchmen drove the enemy off in great confusion. This victory drew upon the French the rage of the Iroquois, who for nearly a hundred years raided the French settlements, killing and burning. They made it unsafe to travel upon Lake Ontario or Lake Erie, and therefore Champlain and his successors followed up the Ottawa River and crossed over the The explorations and routes of French explorers in North America height of land to Lake Huron. Many farm- ers settled along the St. Lawrence, and a town was speedily built at Montreal w h i c h became the center of the colony of New France. Thence missionaries and fur traders set out for the interior, and planted missions and trading posts on the Great Lakes as far west as Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. THE FRENCH IN THE WEST 6l 39. Exploration of the Mississippi by the French (1660- 1684). — From the Indians the French heard tales of a great river to the westward which they thought might be the Col- orado. An adventurous young man named La Salle conceived the idea of finding that river. He ventured upon Lake Erie, which till then had hardly been visited by white men, and ex- plored the country south of the lake. While he went back to the St. Lawrence to get together men and means to reach the great river, a missionary, Father Marquette, and a trader named Joliet together went up the Fox River, crossed to the Wisconsin River, and so down to the Mississippi River, which they followed for a long distance (1673) in the hope of reach- ing the sea. La Salle was backed by the king of France, who gave him authority to discover and explore new lands for the king. With him went a missionary, Father Hennepin, who followed the river up to the Falls of St. Anthony, now the site of Min- neapolis. After many hardships and delays. La Salle and his company went from Lake Michigan up the Chicago River, crossed a short portage, and paddled their canoes down the Illinois River to its mouth, and then on down the Mississippi until they reached the salt water of the delta (1682). Thus the region that we now call the West was opened to Euro- peans. La Salle reported that along the banks lay " the most beauti- ful country in the world," and he talks of " cotton, cochineal, nuts, entire forests of mulberry trees, salt, slate, coal, vines, apple trees." According to the usual practice of claiming territory in America, the king of France considered himself entitled by La Salle's discoveries to the immense area drained by all the streams that flow into the Mississippi River and its branches. La Salle named the region Louisiana for his royal master, who was so pleased that he fitted out a fleet with which the explorer expected to reach the mouth of the Mississippi River by sea (1684). La Salle missed the stream, landed at Mata- gorda Bay in what is now Texas, and after months of misery for the whole party, was killed by one of his own men. No 62 RI\'.\LS AND NEW COLONIES Frenchman planted permanent colonies any\vhere in Louisi- ana till fifteen years later; but the French, who were the first to explore the Mississippi, laid claim to the whole of its mag- nificent basin. 40. The Dutch and the Swedes in America (1609-1660). — The early French and English colonies were far apart and separated by wide stretches of woods and mountains. A third group of European colonists took up land between the two groups of English colonies — the southern and the New England. These were the Dutch, whose home country of " the Netherlands " was usually called Holland by the Eng- lish. These prosperous, seafaring people had been ruled by the king of Spain, but they revolted and set up a federal government of their own in 1579; and they continued to fight the Spaniards at intervals for nearly seventy years. They w'ere rich traders and manufacturers, and were so strong at sea that they attacked and captured a good part of the Portuguese possessions in southern Asia. That is how modern Holland comes to own Java, Sumatra, and other Asiatic islands. Ktplica lit Htiiry Hudsun's Half Moon. This ship was sent to the United States by Holland in 1909 At the same time they turned their attention westward and in 1609 sent out Henry Hudson, an Englishman, to search DUTCH AND SWEDES IN AMERICA 63 for a new water route to India. In his ship, the Half Moon, he came into the bay now called New York harbor, and sailed up the stream afterwards called Hudson River for its discoverer. Five years later (1614) a little post was founded on the rocky island of Manhattan, and was called New Amsterdam (map, page 49). This was the beginning of the city of New York. In 162 1 the Dutch chartered a West India Company, which began to plant trading posts on the Connect- A school for children of the burgher class in New Axasterdam icut, Hudson, and Delaware rivers; and they called the whole region " New Netherland." New Amsterdam was well placed, for the Hudson led up into the country of the Iroquois, whose friendship the traders cultivated. The Dutch built a post at Fort Orange (now Albany), and others in the Mohawk Valley. Along with the traders came Dutch farmers, and the West India Company granted tracts of land to large owners called " patroons," who leased farms to immigrants. The Dutch were not so fortunate on the Connecticut, where English settlers came and crowded them out (§ 34). On the Delaware River also their claim was disputed by Sweden, which in 1638 sent out a colony and built a little post called Fort Christina (now Wilmington, Delaware). The Swedes 64 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES tried to send over enough settlers to hold the country, but were unable to resist the Dutch. After the Dutch annexed the little settlement (1655), there was an end of the Swedish colony of New Sweden. The Dutchmen were good traders but poor colonizers. Some of the inhabitants complained that the public school in New Amsterdam was irregular and ill taught; that there was no orphan asylum; that the governor, Stuyvesant, famous for his wooden leg, " was like a peacock, with great state and pomp." When one of the burghers threatened to complain to the Dutch government in Holland, Stuyvesant said, " I will make him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to Holland, and let him appeal in that way." 41. The English Revolution and Commonwealth (1640- 1663). — Why did England allow the Dutch and the Swedes to plant colonies that pressed against Connecticut on the one side and Maryland on the other? Simply because of troubles at home which took all the energies of England. The English Parliament, or national legislature, included the elected House of Commons, in which the Puritans became strong. King James I (§ 26) and his son, Charles I, tried to govern England without the aid of Parliament. In 1642 the Royalist defenders of the king (who were often called " Cava- liers ") and the Puritans (who were called " Roundheads ") began to fight each other in a civil war. The Royalists had the best of it for a time, but a Puritan officer named Oliver Cromwell organized a Roundhead cavalry known as the " Iron- sides " and defeated the Ro^^alists. King Charles was im- prisoned, tried, and executed. Then a Commonwealth (which is what we call a republic) was set up, with Cromwell at the head. A little later he be- came " Lord Protector," and almost king. Cromwell was a great ruler. One of his exploits was to send out a fleet which captured the island of Jamaica from the Spaniards; this was the first loss of a Spanish colony. A few English Cavaliers found their way to Virginia and Maryland during the struggle. Soon after Cromwell died, the Commonwealth collapsed, and Charles II, the son of the late king, was called to the COMMONWEALTH AND DUTCH TRADE 65 throne. This arrangement, commonly called the "Restora- tion," was accepted by all the colonies in America, and they took orders from the new government on the same terms as before the English civil war. The people of Connecticut made friends with the new king, and in 1662 received from him a charter for a new colony of Connecticut, which included both the Connecticut and the New Haven colonies. The next year Rhode Island also received a charter which was so liberal that the little colony became almost a republic. 42. Conquest of New York (1664). — During the Common- wealth, Holland and England fell to quarreling. The English One of the earliest views of New Amsterdam. From a sketch made by a Dutch officer in 163s had established an East India Company which competed with the Dutch for the Asiatic trade. The Dutch merchant ships in Europe also carried goods which the English would have liked to handle. The result was a contest of two kinds: (i) The rival countries fought three fierce naval wars (1652- 1674). (2) The English passed a series of laws called the Navigation Acts, or Acts of Trade (beginning in 1651), which were intended to prevent any but English ships from trading with the English colonies. 66 RIV.\LS AXD NEW COLONIES The English also disliked the feeble but troublesome Dutch colonies on the Hudson and Delaware rivers; and in 1664 they sent out a fleet which appeared before the town of New Am- sterdam and demanded its surrender, on the ground that this was English soil and the Dutch had no right to be there. There was nothing to do but to surrender, and with the town went all the rest of the Dutch settlements. Thus the English came at last to pos- sess the whole stretch of coast from Maine to \'irginia. 43. New York and New Jersey (1664- 1702). — The next step was to organize this splendid country. King Charles II had granted to his brother James, Duke of York, a charter making him the proprietor of all the territory between New Jersey, Delaware, and eastern Pennsylvania the Connecticut River and the Dela- ware. James set off the tract between the Delaware River and the Hudson and gave it (1664) to two of his friends, Berkeley and Carteret, who founded the two colonies of West New Jersey and East New Jersey. James did not attempt to take away the territory of the colony of Con- necticut, but set up a new colony, New York, which in- cluded the valley of the Hudson and Long Island; and the little town of New Amsterdam was renamed New York. In 1686 Dongan, who was then governor of the colony, granted a city charter to the town, which had long had a mayor, and it thus became the first regularly organized American city. THE MIDDLE COLONIES 67 Most of the Dutch and Swedes in all this territory stayed under the English system, and new settlers came out from England. The Jerseys received a mixed population: Scotch Presbyterians, Quakers, Church of England people, and Puritans from New England. The two settlements were finally united (1702) into the one colony of New Jersey. When King Charles II died, the Duke of York became King James II (1685). New York was then transformed, like Virginia (§ 29), into a " province " or royal colony with a governor appointed from England; like Virginia it had a colonial assembly, which made local laws. 44. Pennsylvania and Delaware (1681-1689). — The rich and beautiful country west of the Delaware River was not granted to the Duke of York and therefore remained within the power of King Charles II. In 168 1 Charles granted it to his personal friend, William Penn, son of a wealthy admiral and at the same time a member of the religious sect of Quakers. The new province was to extend three degrees (about 200 miles) along the Delaware River and thence about 300 miles west- ward. It was called Pennsylvania, which means " Penn's woodland." Penn was a man of wealth and planted his colony on a larger scale than any of the earlier settlements. Never up to this time had such a stream of people crossed the Atlantic as now came to the new colony. Penn welcomed Englishmen, Welsh- men, and Presbyterian Scotch-Irishmen, who always liked the adventure and variety of frontier life. He had a place for Quakers, for Jews, for Baptists, and other then unpopular sects. He advertised his lands in Germany and brought over the first group of German colonists that ever came to America. Penn at once laid out along the Delaware a city with broad streets, crossing at right angles, which he named Phila- delphia for an ancient city of Asia Minor, the name meaning " brotherly love." The proprietor and other colonists built handsome houses, market places, and wharves, and the town soon became one of the most important places in North America. Settlers began at once to push back west from 68 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES William Penn. From a portrait in carved ivory the river and founded Germantown and other places. Penn, from the first, got along well with the Indians, because he always kept his promises to them. The "Great Treaty" which he made with them lasted for many years. The Penn family were pro- prietors of the colony, just as the Baltimores were in Mary- land (§ 33), and Penn had the right to decide how the people should be governed. He freely allowed the settlers to draw up a kind of constitution for themselves called the " Great Charter." From this period to the Revolution the people had the habit of quarreling with the governors, who were from time to time appointed by the proprietor and who could veto the bills passed by the assembly. On Delaware Bay south of Philadelphia, the Penns had a separate grant of a tract which was long a part of Pennsyl- vania, but which was finally set ofT as the separate colony of Delaware. 45. The Carolinas (1663-1689). — Before seizing New York the English had begun to extend their southern colonies into a region where there were no settlers of other nations, but where Spain still claimed to own the territory (§ 18). In 1663 the king granted a tract, which had once been the southern part of Virginia, to eight proprietors, and gave them the right to start a colony called Carolina. They tried to set up a system of land-holding lords called " landgraves " and " caciques," under a kind of constitution which they called the " Grand Model." The people did not like this form of government and it never worked; instead, the settlers de- manded and received popular assemblies like those of the other colonies. THE CAROLINAS 69 36^30^ , Carolina occupied a broad and valuable tract running back from the seacoast, nominally to the " South Sea," but actu- ally only to the mountains. The early settlements were nearly all made on the seacoast, especially at several points on Albemarle Sound and at Charleston, which was situated on a splendid harbor. The settlers raised tobacco, and down near the seacoast they planted rice. From the great pine forests they made pitch, tar, and turpentine, commonly called " naval stores " because they were used with other materials for the building of the ships of the time. Later the colony was subdivided into North Carolina and South Carolina, each of which had about the same boundaries as the present states which bear those names. The people of Virginia, having lost their charter years be- fore (§ 29), could not prevent the planting of Carolina within what once had been their territory. Virginia was harassed by Indian wars and in 1676 a short rebellion broke out. Some of the planters under Nathaniel Bacon rose against the tyran- nical governor and burned the public buildings at the little capital of Jamestown. When their leader died, " Bacon's Rebellion " came to an end. 46. Troubles in New England (1660-1691). — All the col- onies were exposed to Indian wars, and Virginia twice came near being swept out of existence. New England's turn came in 1675 when King Philip, the sagamore or chief of the Po- kanoket tribe, attacked the Massachusetts towns. Twelve Carolina, as enlarged by the king in 1665 70 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES settlements were destroyed by the Indians before King Philip was pursued into a swamp and shot. In 1685 the new king, James II, formed a plan of binding all the New England colonics into one, and sent over Sir Edmund Andros to bring it about. The charter of Massachusetts had already been taken away (1684), and Sir Edmund Andros forced the people of Connecticut and Rhode Island into giv- ing up theirs. Before his plan could be carried out, the people in England rose against their king, as they had done in 1642. When the news arrived (1689) that James II had been driven from his throne, Andros was imprisoned in Boston and then sent home in disgrace. The result was that Rhode Island and Connecticut got back their charters; Massachusetts was allowed to take in Plymouth and Maine under a new charter (1691); and New Hampshire was reorganized as a separate colony. 47. Persecution of the Quakers (1660-1689). — The sect or church of the Quakers has been mentioned in connection with Pennsylvania, where they were numerous and highly respected. In England, however, and in some of the other colonies they were looked upon with dislike and even horror. Their offense was that George Fox, who founded the sect in Oomwell's time, and all the Quakers who followed him, thought that the usual forms and ceremonies of church services inter- fered with the true worship of God. Hence the Quakers had no ministers and used no preaching or formal prayers, but held that any man or woman might speak in their meetings " as the spirit moves you." This was disliked by the Puritans, who also objected to women being allowed to speak in a public religious gathering. In private life the Quakers were the best of people, with customs of their own. They used no oaths and would not take oaths even as witnesses before a court. They used very plain speech, calling each other " Friend " instead of " Mr." or " Mrs.," and saying " thee is " and " thee does " instead of " you are " and " you do." They wore simple clothes and would not adopt new fashions. At first most of the Quakers were poor, but they were a thrifty and God-fearing folk, and many rich and powerful men joined them. They were wel- THE QUAKERS 71 corned in Rhode Island, and many settled in Maryland, but they were especially prosperous in Pennsylvania. As a Quaker always made it a point to tell the people of other churches that they were proud and formal in their worship, the sect brought down upon themselves the wrath of several colonies. About 1660 four Quakers were put to death in Boston, because they would speak in public contrary to the Puritan laws, and sometimes interrupted religious serv- ices. One of them was a woman, Mary Dyer. This was nothing but the persecution of a harmless sect because they disagreed with the religion of the state. To be sure, it was at that time the practice of all European nations to imprison, whip, or burn men and women who ventured to set up a new form of worship contrary to the established forms of the official state churches. But such intolerance is hardly excusable in the Massachusetts Puritans, who claimed for themselves the liberty to try to establish a higher form of Christianity. Moreover, they might have seen that no harm came to the colonies of Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Maryland because Catholics, Quakers, and Baptists were allowed to hold their own services. 48. Progress Toward the West (1607-1689). — In 1689, after eighty-two years of colonization, the English were firmly settled in North America. Their total population was about 200,000, more than half of whom lived in the two largest colonies, Virginia and Massachusetts. As yet few of the settlers were farther than ten or twenty miles from tidewater, and little was known of the mountain region to the west. In fact, only the three following explora- tions seem to have attracted attention: (i) Edward Bland in 1650 crossed the mountains west of the headwaters of the Appomattox, but he did not go beyond the Shenandoah River. (2) A little later an Englishman named Batts and a German Swiss named Lederer forced their way through the mountain forests until they reached the headwaters of the New River, which flows into a branch of the Ohio. (3) In 1673 Colonel Abraham Wood sent some traders to the far Southwest among the Cherokees. 72 RI\^ALS AND NEW COLONIES The Spanish neighbors in Florida, who still claimed the coast as far north as the Savannah River, were not more enter- prising; but the French had sent traders and missionaries through the Great Lakes and to the Mississippi (§ 39). One reason why the English were so shut in was that the Iroquois Indians would allow neither French nor English to pass through their territory. 49. Summary. — This chapter is devoted to the French, Dutch, and Swedish colonies from their beginnings to 1689, including the discovery of the West. It includes also the Eng- lish colonies founded after 1660. During the first half century of English colonization, the French were settling alongside the English in Acadia (now Nova Scotia) and Canada. They early came into contact with the warlike Iroquois, who compelled them to pass around them northward in order to reach the Great Lakes. From the Lakes the French pushed into the far West. Four different explorers, Marquette, Joliet, Hennepin, and La Salle, reached the Mississippi River. La Salle followed it to its mouth and named the country Louisiana. His dis- coveries were the beginning of our present middle-western states. The Dutch planted a colony on the Hudson River, with other settlements on the Connecticut and Delaware. Their principal profit came from the fur trade with the Indians, especially the Iroquois. The Swedes also planted a colony on the Delaware (1638), which was absorbed by the Dutch (1655). English immigration was stopped about 1640 by the break- ing out of civil war in England, which resulted in the execution of the king and the setting up of a sort of republican govern- ment called the Commonwealth, with Cromwell at its head. After Cromwell's death, Charles II became king. The Dutch colony of New Netherland was taken by an English fleet (1664) and renamed New York. New Amsterdam became New York, the first organized city in English North America. In addition to New York the following English colonies were founded after 1660: SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 73 (1) New Jersey (1664), for a time subdivided into two small colonies, and inhabited by Quakers, New Englanders, and others. (2) Pennsylvania (1681), the most successful of all the colonies, granted by Charles II to William Penn, the cele- brated Quaker. (3) Delaware, a little colony, for a long time treated as part of Pennsylvania. (4) Carolina (1663), a planting region, producing also naval stores. This colony was later divided into North Carolina and South Carolina. New England suffered from Indian wars, and was disturbed by a persecution of the Quakers. Meantime, explorers were pushing out to the western mountains and a few of them reached streams flowing into the Ohio. Philadelphia, about 1718, showing the growth of the city in thirty-six years REFERENCES Maps. Andrews, Col. Self-Government. — Avery, Un. States, II, III. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 190, 192, 193. Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 72-97, 111-115. — Channing, Un. States, I. chs. iii, xvi, xvii, II. chs. i-vii. — Eggleston, Our First Century, chs. x-xvi. — Hasbrouck, Boys' Parkman, chs. i-vi. — Higginson, Am. Explorers, chs. xii, xiii. — Thwaites, France in Am., chs. i-iv. Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 16. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 28-33, 75~97- — Hart, Coyitemporaries, I. §§37-43, 76-81, 112- 126, 132-136, 150-168; Source Book, §§6, 16, 22-26, 36. — James, Readings, §§ 15, 16, 20-22. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 15- 23; Select Charters, nos. 23-42. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 46, 69, 88, 91, 94-96, 155, 168, 171, 172. Side Lights and Stories. Bennett, Barnaby Lee (N. Y. and Md.). — Brooks, In Leister's Times. — Catherwood, Heroes of the Middle West. — Cooper, Wept of the Wish-Ton-Wish (King Philip). — Ellis, 74 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES Last Emperor of the Old Dominion (Bacon's Rebellion). — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, chs. v, viii, ix. • — Kennedy, Rob oj the Bowl (Md.)- — Otis, Peter of New Amsterdam; Stephen of Philadelphia. — Simms, Cassique of Kiawah (Carolina). — Smith, Young Puritan Series (King Philip's War). — Stockton, Stories of New Jersey, 24-31, 51-68. Pictures. Avery, Un. States, II. — Wilson, Am. People, I. — Winsor, America, III. QUESTIONS (§ 38) I. What led the French to colonize in the New World? 2 (For an essay). Chaniplain's travels and adventures. 3 (For an essay). The Iroquois. 4. How was New France settled? (§ 39) 5 (Foi" 'in essay). Adventures of La Salle. 6. What Euro- peans discovered the Mississippi River? 7. How was Louisiana founded? 8. Early canoe voyages on the Mississippi River. (§ 40) 9. How did the country of Holland arise? 10. Why did the Dutch settle on the Hudson River? 11 (For an essay). Early accounts and pictures of New Amsterdam. 12. How was New Sweden founded? 13. What sort of government did the Dutch have in New Netherland? (§ 41) 14. Who were the Royalists and the Roundheads? 15. How was a republic set up in England? 16 (For an essay). An account of Oliver Cromwell. 17. How did the Restoration aflect the American col- onies? (§ 42) 18. How did New Amsterdam become New York? 19. Why did the Dutch and English quarrel? (§ 43) 20. How were the New Jersey colonies founded? 21. How did New York become a city? 22. What kind of people came to New York and New Jersey? (§ 44) 23 (For an essay). Life and experiences of William Penn. 24. How was Pennsylvania founded? 25. How was Philadelphia founded? 26. What was the "Great Charter"? 27. How was Delaware founded? (§ 45) 28. How were the Carolinas founded? 29. What was the "Grand Model"? 30. How did the Carolina people make a living? 31 (For an essay). Bacon's Rebellion. (§ 46) 32 (For an essay). Incidents of King Philip's War. 33. Why was Andros so unpopular? (§ 47) 34- Who were the Quakers? 35. Why were they so much dis- liked? 36. Why were the New Englanders so intolerant of Quakers? 37 (For an essay). Witchcraft trials. (§ 48) 38. What English expeditions crossed the mountains westward? 39. What neighbors had the English on the north and the south? CHAPTER V COLONIAL LIFE (1689-1750) 60. The Settlers. — As we have seen in the previous chapters, it was almost two centuries after the discovery by Columbus before the eastern coast of North America was taken up by English colonies. During the process the Eng- lish settlers went through many hard fights with the Spaniards, with the French, with the Dutch, with wild beasts, and with wild men and pirates, before they felt safe. After 1689 these colonies grew so fast that in 1750 they contained about 1,200,000 inhabitants. Land was plentiful and cheap ; and there were work and food for all the members of the large families. Few immi- grants from Europe came to New England after 1640 (§41), but thousands flocked into the other colonies. The largest element among these newcomers was always the English, including the Scotch and the Welsh. A few French Protestants, commonly called Huguenots, and some Catholic Scotch Highlanders sought the southern colonies. Great numbers of Scotch-Irish went to Pennsylvania, and soon made up a fourth of the population. By natural preference they sought the frontiers; some drifted later along the valleys southward into the mountains of Virginia and the Carolinas, where many of their descendants still live. The landing of Huguenots at New Rochelle, N. Y. hart's sch. hist. — s 75 76 COLONIAL LIFE The only considerable number of immigrants who did not speak English when they arrived were the Germans. Many German-speaking Protestants, whose worship was restricted at home, took refuge in Pennsylvania, and a few in New York. Among them were Mennonites from central Germany, and Moravians from Austria. Many Germans went to the Vir- ginia mountains. Besides these willing immigrants, the colonies received thousands of negro slaves from the West Indies or direct from Africa. All the colonies shared in this s\'stem of forced labor, but the negroes were so well suited for the work in the southern tobacco fields that about nine tenths of them were taken to the South. 51. The Indians. — The different colonizing races followed different methods in dealing with the Indians. The Spaniards were cruel to them but often married Indian women; and they planted missions among the wild tribes, with splendid stone churches and convents, around which the Indians lived almost like slaves. The French knew how to attach the Indians to themselves. Many young Frenchmen, the so-called " cou- reurs de bois," ("wood-rangers") put on paint and feathers and lived among them; many others married squaws and raised families of " half-breeds," as the children were called. The English never made the Indians their fellow citizens or intimate friends, but kind-hearted colonists tried to Chris- tianize them by planting missions among them. On the other hand the English ahvays admitted that the Indians preserved a " right of occupancy " in their lands. Whether they lived within the grants to a chartered company, or in proprietors' colonies, or in " royal provinces," the Indians could not be de- prived of their hunting grounds except by their own consent, usually set forth in a solemn written treaty. A few Indians accepted the white man's religion; but most of them were wild tribes, living beyond the frontier, and no better off because of the coming of their white neighbors. Indeed, the settlers brought to the Indians such dread diseases as smallpox, which swept off thousands. The Indians taught their white neighbors several useful things, such as how to INDIANS 77 make small shells into wampum, which was used by the Indians as a kind of money; how to grow Indian corn; how to boil down maple sugar; how to combine corn and beans into a dish called succotash; how to build canoes out of solid trees or birch bark; how to find their way in the woods. From the whites the Indians bought such goods as iron kettles, hatchets, beads, and ornaments; " matchcoats " (that is, blankets) ; guns, powder, and shot, sometimes used to kill the men who sold them. They prized especially the " fire water," as they called the alcoholic liquid which would burn if poured on a fire, and which changed the Indian who drank it into a fool or a demon. 52. Indian Warfare. — Another thing that the white man learned was to be forever on the watch for the savages. The Indians looked upon every man, woman, and child who be- longed to a hostile tribe as a personal enemy; therefore, if an Indian were injured by a white colonist, his friends felt them- selves entitled to kill at sight any inhabitant of that colony. Their warfare was fierce and terrible. Indians would not spend days in besieging a fort; their method was to burst into a house or village, shooting right and left, and taking as captives the people still living. Then they would hurry home again with their party, tomahawking on the way the unhappy captives who could not keep up. They scalped dead enemies and sometimes live ones, and saved some of the prisoners for awful scenes of torture. The colonists, whether English, Spanish, French, or Dutch, had little right to complain of such barbarity, for they often surprised Indian villages and killed Indian women and chil- dren in cold blood, and sometimes offered rewards for the scalps of Indians. It was an age of blood and cruelty. 53. Home Life. — Since most of the colonists lived on separate farms or in small villages, the larger part of the lives of young people was spent on their own places. It was easy to make a home, for the early settlements were in the woods, and two or three men working for a week could build a log house. When the cracks between the logs were properly filled with moss and clay, such a house would be comfortable COLONIAL LIFE for years. Some of the colonists were carpenters who built good frame houses, a few of which are still standing. Some of the Dutch and German farmhouses in the middle colonies were built of brick. In the mild climate of the South most of the early houses were simple log or frame structures, except that a few well-to-do families built handsome mansions; for example, the Byrd house near Richmond, Virginia. Inside ordinary houses the prin- cipal feature was the great chimney, with a fireplace, sometimes made large enough to take six-foot logs. There the cooking for the family was done, and at night there was often no other light than that of the burning logs. The big room upon which the fireplace opened was kitchen and living room and best parlor and bedroom all in one, and contained the simplest furni- ture. The colonists made " punch- eons " by splitting trunks of trees in two; and they made seats and tables by setting these puncheons flat side up and fitting them with legs. An iron pot was the principal cooking utensil. Well-to-do people brought beautiful pieces of furni- ture from England or had them made in the neighborhood. A few rich merchants, like William Walton of New York and Robert Morris of Philadelphia, owned mansions stocked with beauti- ful china, silverware, pictures, and Turkey carpets. Rich and poor alike were very subject to illness. Little children died off in great numbers, and their elders also suf- fered from many diseases, especially from the dangerous " jail fever," or " ship fever," which we call typhus; from rheuma- tism and consumption; from malaria in many forms, includ- ing the dreaded " breakbone fever." Doctors were few and Dress of Nabby Bishop of Medford Worn by a descendant HOME AND SOCIAL LIFE 79 gave strong and nauseous drugs, including pounded toads and liquid mercury. Smallpox was one of the worst scourges, and its ravages were not much lessened by the treatment called " inoculation," which consisted in deliberately taking smallpox in such a way as to make it a light case. 54. Social Life. — In colonial times, as now, people liked to get together and have a good time; but there were prac- tically no theaters, no excursions, and little music except that in the churches and the unskilled scraping of a few fiddlers. In New England the principal recre- ation was going to church, for that was the one place where all the people, men, women, and chil- dren, came together and had a little opportunity to gossip after the sermon. The Puri- tans frowned on cards and dancing; nevertheless their children had plenty of fun and jollity. Young people romped and dressed in queer costumes, and slipped out of bed to eat pie and oysters at midnight. Southerners would ride many miles on horseback or in coaches to visit friends and dine and play games and dance. Lucinda Lee, a lively Virginia maid, relates how she made one of her friends " play on the forti-pianer," by which she meant the piano. In the middle colonies the Quakers and many of the Dutch and German sects were strict, but other people enjoyed parties and suppers, and plenty of amuse- ments. Cooper, the novelist, describes a feast where each guest had at his elbow a whole circle of pie made up of six pieces cut from as many different kinds of pie. Harpsichord (early form of the piano) and Washington's flute, now in Mt. Vernon 8o COLONIAL LIFE EveryAvhere young people got together on the farms, for quilting bees or corn-husking parties, or weddings. Funerals were held in state, throngs of friends sometimes walking miles to the graveyard, or " burying ground," as it was called. Horse racing was a favorite amusement in the South, and there was hard drinking and gambling in every colony. Lot- teries were a favorite kind of gambling, and they were allowed for all sorts of purposes, including the raising of funds for a college building or a parson- age. 55. Colonial Church- es. — The church sltn'- ices were the only schools for thousands of poor and ignorant families. The Church of England, now com- monly called the Epis- copal Church, spread even to New England. It was " established in Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and part of New York; that is, the c h u r c h e s w ere built and maintained and the ministers were paid out of general taxation. The Episco- palians were fond of building churches, and a good example of their art is the church at Goose Creek, South Carolina — one of their oldest buildings — which is still in use. The Independent, or (as it came to call itself) the Congre- gational Church, was strong in New England and also in east- ern Long Island, in New Jersey, and in parts of North Carolina. (c) Detroit Pub. Co. Old North Church, Boston, built in 1723. Paul Revere's alarm lights were hung in the tower of this church on the night of his famous ride. The high square-back pews and the slaves' gallery, above the organ at the right, are interesting fea- tures of this church COLONIAL CHURCHES 8i Each congregation chose its own minister and looked after itself. In New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts the Congregational Church was established and everybody had to pay taxes for its support. { The leading church in the middle colonies was the Presby- terian, in which assemblies of ministers and laymen decided on the church doctrines and policy. The Dutch Reformed Church of New York was much like it. The Baptist Church appeared first in Rhode Island, then in the middle colonies, and later in the South, especially on the frontier. The Baptists, like the Congregationalists, left each local church free to make its own decisions and to appoint its own minister. The Methodist Church, commonly called the Wesleyan Church in England, was founded about 1740 by John and Charles Wesley, clergymen of the Church of England. They were distressed by what they considered the deadness of that church, and started a movement of reform. Since it was not accepted by the church, they set up a new organization. Both the brothers visited America, and John Wesley stayed for some time in Georgia (§ 65). Their church, like that of the Baptists, was especially fitted for work on the frontier, and these two religious bodies had a great influence in the West. The Quakers, like the Congregationalists, had no central authority, but formed state " meetings," in which they ex- changed views. They were strong in Rhode Island, Penn- sylvania, and New Jersey. The Germans founded several Protestant churches, among them the Lutheran, the Dunkard, and the Mennonite, a Ger- man sect much resembling the Quakers in prim dress and horror of outward show. The German Moravians built great community houses in Bethlehem and Ephrata, Pennsylvania, and elsewhere. The Catholic Church in this period included the descendants of the Maryland Catholics, and a few Frenchmen, Spaniards, and Irishmen in other colonies. 56. Colonial Ministers. — Most of the colonists enjoyed church services, discussions about religious doctrines, and 82 COLONIAL LIFE long sermons. A young minister, who forgot to turn the hourglass before he began, once preached two hours, and the congregation seemed to " like it well." The New England ministers were leaders in the life of their colonies. One of the greatest among them was Cotton Mather of Boston, who is a fair example of the Puritans at their best. When he entered college at twelve years of age he had read Caesar, Ovid, Vergil, and many other authors ; he could speak Latin, had read much Greek, and had begun Hebrew. When nineteen years old, he preached his first sermon. He soon after became the minister of one of the principal Boston churches, and remained there through- out his life. He was married three times and had fifteen children, of whom only two outlived him. Besides preaching thousands of ser- mons, Mather read in his library of three thousand volumes, and wrote many books, including the Magnalia. This is a kind of history, but is full of poems, stories, and all sorts of material. Mather was also one of the few scientific men of his time, and was the friend and correspondent of many learned men in England and in Germany. He was a man of public spirit, and interested in schools. Therefore he wrote to Elihu Yale, a wealthy mer- chant in London, suggesting that he give money to a little college that had been started in Connecticut. Yale did so, and the college was named for him. In the middle colonies, especially along the frontier, many uneducated men became ministers. In the South there was difficulty in getting good ministers, though an English so- ciety, usually called the " Venerable Society," sent over min- isters and libraries, and tried to raise the standard. As lawyers at this time were few and much disliked, and as the doctors had little education, the ministers were in many places the only trained men. A two-hour pulpit glass. From the Salem Museum Guests arriviiig at a Southern mansion in Colonial days 84 COLONIAL LIFE 57. Witchcraft. — During the period of colonization the world was full of a belief in unseen evil spirits. Many of the immigrants though'' the Indians were devils, and the belief was widespread that ghosts sometimes appeared and talked with living persons. People held the harmful belief that human beings who so desired could become acquainted with evil spirits, and with their aid could harm other persons, whom perhaps they had never seen. Such beings were called witches. Throughout Christian Europe at this time men and women were arrested on the charge of witchcraft; and hundreds of thousands of supposed witches, most of them women, were fearfully tortured and executed by burning, in order to make them confess to crimes that nobody could possibly commit. Some of the few brave men who had the courage to teach that there could be no such things as witches were themselves executed as witches. This awful delusion prevailed in Eng- land and extended to the English colonies, so that a supposed witch was once executed in Maryland. In 1692 the insane belief in witchcraft took strong hold of Massachusetts. Some children in Salem invented a set of stories that an Indian slave and other women were witches; and witnesses would fall down in the court, shrieking and de- claring that prisoners there present were pricking them, with pins. The so-called witches were accused of making compacts with the devil, who in turn gave them power to injure others. In vain did they cry, " I am innocent "; nineteen were hanged at Salem. This fate was merciful in comparison with the tortures usual in such cases in Europe. After a few months the people of Massachusetts slowly came to their senses and were almost the first people in Christendom to acknowledge that there could be no such thing as witches. Gradually the same ideas crept into the minds of Europeans; and belief in witchcraft is nowadays left to savages and bar- barous people. 58. Colonial Children. — Many immigrants in America hoped to improve the chances of their children. In the time of Raleigh's unsuccessful colony (§21) the settlers noted the birth of a little girl, and because this child was the first Chris- COLONIAL CHILDREN 85 tian born In Virginia, she was named Virginia Dare. In the ship Mayflower were httle children, one of whom was named Peregrine (that is, Pilgrim) White. One of the colonial founders thought that " children of twelve or fourteen years of age, or under, may be kept from Idleness In making a thou- sand kinds of trifling things which will be good merchandise for that country." The Dutch in New Amsterdam brought over children from the poorhouses of Holland and " bound them out"; that is, assigned them to families that agreed to take care of them for a term of years and meanwhile had the benefit of their work. The Puritans were commonly thought to be severe with their children, but many of them showed great love and tenderness. Cotton Mather said that he tried " to form in his children a temper of benignity." He would set them to doing services and kindnesses for one another and for other chil- dren, and he would let them see that he was not satisfied " excepting they had a sweetness of temper shining in them." Children could be naughty in those days; and the grown-ups did not always show much wisdom in correcting them. The great preacher Whitefield tells us that on board ship he found a little boy under five years of age who would not say his prayers; so he plumped the child down on his knees, gave him several whacks, and then the little boy said his prayers nicely, gave the lad some figs for a reward. Most children had a happy outdoor life, wore simple cloth- ing, and were accustomed to pay deep respect to their fathers and mothers. Well-bred little girls curtsied to older people. Sometimes the children had to join in defending their homes Dress of a colonial boy, about 1750. Children were dressed much like their elders Whereupon the minister 86 COLONIAL LIFE from Indians and other enemies. John Fontaine, a Virginian, tells us how with four servants and five of his young sons he for hours fought off the crew of a French privateer. Well-to-do families fitted out their children in handsome style. Thus John Livingston of New York, when he was sent on a journey, was furnished with " eleven new shirts, four pairs of lace sleeves, eight plain cravats, four cra- vats with lace, four striped waistcoats with black but- tons, two hats, six pairs of breeches, silk and thread to mend his clothes." 59. Colonial Schools. — Many of the colonists had been taught in English, Dutch, or German schools, and some were graduates of English universities. Therefore early steps were taken to give the boys simple schooling. Virginia was the first colony to try to set up a free school, but in colonial times fees were paid, even in the so-called " public schools," for those pupils whose parents could afford it. Nowhere outside of New England was money regularly raised by taxation to educate the children. In 1647 the Gen- eral Court of Massachusetts required that every town of fifty families should keep up a school, and every town of a hundred families should keep up a " grammar school " ; that is, a school where Latin was taught. Not every town obeyed the law, and not every boy went to school; and there was no require- ment that girls be taught. An early form of primer. This was called a " hornbook " because a thin sheet of horn over the paper served to protect the printing COLONIAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 87 Both private and public schools were housed in rough little buildings poorly heated and lighted. Schoolmasters were often cruel, for it was then the custom throughout the world to make children learn by beating them. Textbooks were crude and badly printed, and the children learned little but what was later called "the three R's," "Reading, 'Kiting, and 'Rithmetic." Little girls could go to the so-called " dame schools," paying small fees, and older girls could go to the few ill-kept boarding schools. Yet somehow the liveliest people of the times were these same colonial girls, who were taught by their fathers and mothers, and elder brothers and sisters. A daughter of Cotton Mather learned Hebrew. Anne Bradstreet of Mas- sachusetts com- posed poems. Eliza Lucas of South Carolina wrote a clever ac- count of home life during the Revo- lution. Hannah Adams published one of the first school histories of the United States. Bright girls would learn with or with- out a good chance. 60. Colonial Col- leges. — Between 1636 and 1 70 1 three little colleges were founded, Harvard in Massachusetts, William and Mary in Virginia, and Yale in Connecticut. In the next seventy years seven more were set up, including Kings (now Columbia) in the city of New unto hi'm r and they brought him forth, and set him witliout the city. A...I »l..l.. I.I- I liiid liolil upon his Imnd, oml iiprin Ihe linnd