Class Hook^iiLS IS o ^ SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT. Volume 1 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS IN EDUCATION 1893-1899 NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD MILICENT WASHBURN SHINN BERKELEY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS <^^- UNIVERSITY OF CALfFORNSA PUBLICATIONS Note.— The University of California Publications are offered in exchange for the publi- cations of learned societies and institutions, universities and libraries. Complete lists of all the publications of the University will be sent upon request. For sample copies, lists of publications or other information, address the Manager of the University Press, Berkeley, California, U. S. A. All rnatter sent in exchange should be addressed to The Exchange Department, University Library, Berkeley, California, U. S. A. EDUCATION.— A, P. Lauge, Editor. Cited as Univ, Calif. Pulsl. Educ. Vol. 1. Notes on the Development of a Ghlld, by Milicent Washburn Shinn. 1893-1899... 424 pp ; -.: -..., : ^ : ?2.25 (Issued as "University of California Studies, Vol. I, parts 1-4," 1893-1899.) Vol. 2. 1. Notes on Children's Drawings. Editecl by Elmsr E. Brown. Pp. 1-75; 64 text figures ..-...., .-.. - .75 (Issued as "University of California Studies, Vol. II, No. 1," 1897.) Vol. 3. 1. The Origin of American State Universities, by Elmer Ellsworth Brown. Pp. 1-45. April, 1903 -. -- .50 2. State Aid to Secondary Schools, by David Rhys Jones. Pp. 47-150. De- cember, 1903 : - - - 75 Vol. 4. Notes on the Development of a Child II. The Development of the Senses in tlie First Three Years of Childhood, by Milicent Washburn Shinn. 258 pp. July, 1908 ..:„.-.........._... $2.50 Vol. 5. 1. Btiperstition and Education, by Fletcher Bascom Dresslar. 239 pages. July, 1907 :: -.; -.- ?2.00 AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.— F. W. Putnam, Editor. Price per volume. $3.50 CVolume 1, $4.25). Volumes 1-4 and 6 completed. Volumes 5, 7, and 8 in progress. Vol. 5. 1. The Phonology of the Hupa Language. Part 1, The Individual Sounds, by Pliny Earle Goddard. Pp. 1-20.; pis. 1-8. March, 1907 .35 2. Navaho Myths, Prayers, and Songs, with Texts and Translations, by Washington Matthews, edited by Pliny Earle Goddard. Pp. 21-63. September,^ 1907 .-. .75 3. Kato Texts, by Pliny Earle Goddard. (In press, April, 1909.) Vol. 7. 1. The EmeryviUe Shellmound, by Max Uhle. Pp. 1-106, pis. 1-12, with, 38 text figures. June, 1907. ;... ,.....,. $1.25 2. Recent Investigations Bearing upon the Question of the Occurrence of Neocene Man in the Auriferous Gravels of California, by William J.Sinclair. Pp. 107-132; pis. 13-14. February, 1908 .35 3. Porno Indian Basketry, by 3. A. Barrett. Pp. 133-308; pis. 15-30. De- cember, 1908 , :..:....: $1.75 Vol. 8. 1. A Mission Record of the California Indians, from a Manuscript in the Bancroft Library, by A. L. Kroeber. Pp. 1-27. May, 1908 .25 2. The Ethnography of the Cahuilla Indians, by A. L. Kroeber. Pp. 29-68; pls.^ 1-15. June, 1908 .75 3. The Religion of the Luiseno Indians of Southern California, by Con- stance Goddard Dubois. Pp. 69-186; pis. 16-19. June, 1908 $1.25 4. The Culture of the Luiseno Indians, by Philip Stedman Sparkman. Pp. 187-234; pi. 20. August, 1908 50 Vol. 9. Yana Texts, by Edward Sapir. (In press, April, 1909.) UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS EDUCATION 'Tjn VOLUME 1 BERKELEY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1893- 1899 Reprinted March, 1909 PUBLISHER'S NOTE. In this edition of the Notes on the Development of a Child (originally issued as University of California Studies, Volume 1) pages 1-178 are reprinted from the original plates. A slight change in the wording has been made on page 93 m the last paragraph, and on page 104 the erro- neous citation of a title has been corrected. A title page and a table of contents for the volume have been added, and a list of errata. The latter have been furnished by the author from her own copy of the earlier edition, and the list contains all the corrections, including a few of only minor importance, which she has noted. A continuation of the author's studies has been issued under the title The Development of the Senses in the First Three Years of Childhood as Volume 4 of the University of California Publications in Education, of which series the present volume now forms Volume 1. This later volume contains an index to both volumes 1 and 4, which may be regarded as comprising parts 1 and 2 of the Notes on the Development of a Child. March, 1909. CONTENTS. PAGE Publisher's Note. List of Errata. Introduction. By Joseph LeConte -.. iii Author's Introduction 5 Measurements and Health, First and Second Years 7 Sight, First and Second Years 10 .^1. Sensibility to Light , 10 2. Movements of Lids : 12 3. Movements of Balls : 13 4. Fixation :....; 14 5. Direction 22 6. Color ■.. 25 7. Form 57 8. Pictures and other Eepresentations 71 9. Interest in Seeing 79 10, Interpretation , 85 Measurements and Health in the Third Year 89 Sight in the Third Year 91 '1. Sensibility to Light 91 2. Color 91 3. Form ;..; ...^ .....:. 96 4. Pictures ....:. 103 5. Interest in Seeing : : 105 Hearing .: , 107 1. Sensibility to Sound , 107 2. Direction :.....:.. : ...^. : 109 3. Eecognition and Discrimination of Sounds Ill 4. Music : 115 5. Interest in Hearing .- 129 The Dermal Senses 136 1. Sense of Contact 136 1. General and Local Sensibility 136 2. Discrimination by Touch 139 3. Interest '. 142 2. Pain 144 1. Sensibility ' '. 144 2. Interest 151 3. Temperature Sense 154 4.. Other Dermal Sensations : 157 5. Words of Dermal Sensation 157 PAGE Taste ^^^ 1. Sensibility 160 2. Special Preferences 163 3. Interest 167 Smell. - 1'^ 1. Sensibility 174 2. Interest ^"^^ Sensations of Muscular Activity, Motion, and Position 179 1. Muscular Sensation 179 2. Sensation of Motion 200 3. Sensations of Position 207 4. Sensations of Equilibrium 209 Organic Sensations 211 1. Hunger and Satiety 211 Dietary and Digestion 230 First Year - 230 Second Year 232 Third Year 233 2. Thirst - 234 3. Nausea 234 4. Other Organic Sensations 235 General Sensation 237 1. Sensations of Well-being and Discomfort 237 2. Sleep, and Attendant States of Sensation 252 Spontaneous Movements 299 Eeflex Movements 303 Instinctive Movements 306 1. Grasping 306 Differentiation of the Forefinger Tip as Special Organ of Active Feeling 322 Use of Right and Left Hand 323 2. Equilibrium and Locomotion 325 First Two Months: Holding up and Turning the Head, and Progress toward Sitting 325 Third Month to End of the Half-year: Sitting, Turning Over, and Primitive Leg and Trunk Movements 327 Seventh and Eighth Months: Secure Sitting; Raising Self to Sitting Position; Rolling, and First Creeping Move- ments; Beginning of Standing 335 Ninth Month: Raising Self to Sitting Position; Progress in Creeping; Varied Scrambling About; Progress in Stand- ing; First Walking Movements 339 Tenth Month: Rapid and Free Creeping; Standing Alone; Stepping by a Support; Beginning of Climbing 344 Eleventh Month: Progress in Standing Alone, Climbing, and Stepping by a Support _ 350 PAGE Twelfth Month: Eaising Self to the Feet; Climbing; Begin- ning of Walking Alone 357 Thirteenth Month: Walking Alone; Climbing; Decline of Creeping - 359 Fourteenth Month: Secure Walking; Beginning of Running; • Progress in Climbing 362 Fifteenth Month to End of Third Half-year 365 Fourth Half-year 373 Third Year '. 381 3. Instincts Connected with Food-taking 386 Sucking, Licking, Smacking, Biting (with record of denti- tion). Spitting Out - 386 4. Other Instinctive Movements 392 Summary and Tables Relating to the Non-Ideational Movements.... 397 I. Spontaneous Movements. Table 1. Spontaneous Movements 397 II. Reflex Movements. Table 2. Commoner Reflexes 398 III. Instinctive Movements. Table 3. Development of Grasping 399 Table 4. Priority of Mouth in Touch and Prehension 401 Table 5. Sequence of Stages to Hand-grasping 302 Table 6. Grasping: Comparative Chronological Table 405 Table 7. Movements of Equilibrium and Locomotion; Chronological Succession 406 Table 8. Extreme Dates of Acquiring Instinctive Move- ments 412 Table 9. Instincts Connected with Food-taking 419 Other Records of the Instinctive Movements 320 From Mrs. Beatty's MS Record 420 From Mrs. Sharp's MS Record 422 From MS Records of Mrs. Edith Elmer Wood, B.L., Smith College.... 423 ERRATA. Page 14, line 8 from bottom, for aquired read acquired. Page 18, line 10, for latter part of eighth month read latter part of ninth month. Page 97, lines 1, 2, and 5, for 56th week read 109th uwek. Page 98, line 1, for 56th iveeli read 109th week. Page 98, line 4, for 58th week read 110th uwek. Page 99, line 1, for 60th loeek read 113th week. Page 100, line 1, for 58th week read llOth week. Page 100, line 2, for 61st tueek read 113th week. Page 100, line 9, for 6^d week read 114th week. Page 100, last line, for 63d week read '115th week. Page 101, line 1, for 99th week read 15Sd iveek. Page 110, line 18, for 59^d day read 590th day. Page 114, line 15, for 633d day read 635th day. Page 118, line 11, for in the twenty-prst month read in the twenty-second month. Page 118, line 11, for twenty-fi^rst month, 632d day read twenty-second month. 662d day. Page 118, line 16, for A month later, the 665th da^ read A week later, the 670th day. Page 134, line 21, for at eighteen months read at thirty months. Page 153, line 14, for fourteenth month read fifteenth month. Page 153, line 11 from bottom, for end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth read end. of the fifteenth and h eg inning of the sixteenth. Page 159, line 1, for nineteenth month read fifteenth month. Page 170, line 5 from bottom, for twenty-sixth month read twenty-second month. Page 175, line 4 from bottom, for and in the latter part of the tiventieth month read and in the twentieth month. Page 176, line 4 from bottom, for twentieth month read tiventy-first month. Page 181, line 19, for first week of the third month read last week of the second month. Page 183, line 13, for twenty-first month read ttventy-second month. Page 183, line 18, for eighteenth month read twenty-first month. Page 185, line 13, for thirteenth month read fourteenth month. Page 185, line 17, for nineteenth month read twenty-first month. Page 185, line 11 from bottom, for twenty-first month read twenty-second month. Page 186, line 15 from bottom, for tioenty months read twenty-one months. Page 186, line 11 from bottom, for on one day in the twenty-first month read on two days in the twenty-second month. Page 232, line 11 from bottom, for S7th week read 57th weeJc. Page 236, line 3, for 87th weel: read 86th week. Page 249, line 16, for 34"- C. read 35i° C. Page 284, line 4 from bottom, for 6^1st day read 6i5th day. Page 285, line 17, for 6mth day read 6£8th day. Page 286, line 11, for twenty-fi,rst month read twenty-second month. Page 287, line 15, for at the end of the twenty-fi.fth month read on the first night in the twenty-sixth month. Page 287, line 21, for fowr nights read three nights. Page 294, line 7 from bottom, for twenty-seventh month read twenty-sixth month. Page 295, line 14, for fourteenth month (4S3d day) read fifteenth month (450th day). Page 391, line 11 from bottom, for lower first molar read lower first molar, right. Page 391, line 7 from bottom, for lower first molar read lower first molar, left. Page 405, under Beatty, line 7, after ' ' Grasping upon Accidental Contact, ' ' insert 17th tveek. Page 405, under Beatty, for 19th iveek read 15th week. Notes on The Development of a Child By MiLicENT Washburn Shinn, Cand. Phil. INTRODUCTION. It is a well-recognized fact in the history of science that the very subjects which concern our dearest interests, which lie near- est our hearts, are exactly those which are the last to submit to scientific methods, to be reduced to scientific law. Thus it has come to pass that while babies are born and grow up in every household, and while the gradual unfolding of their faculties has been watched with the keenest interest and intensest joy by in- telligent and even scientific fathers and mothers from time imme- morial, yet very little has yet been done in the scientific study of this most important of all possible subjects, — the ontogenic evolution of the faculties of the human mind. Only in the last few years has scientific attention been drawn to the subject at all. Its transcendent importance has already enlisted many ob- servers, but on account of the great complexity of the phenom- ena, and still more the intrinsic difficulty of their interpretation, scientific progress has scarcely yet commenced. What is wanted most of all in this, as in every science, is a body of carefully observed facts. But to be an accomplished in- vestigator in this field requires a rare combination of qualities. There must be a wide intelligence, combined with patience in observing and honesty in recording. There must be also an earnest scientific spirit, a loving sympathy with the subject of in- vestigation, yet under watchful restraint, lest it cloud the judg- ment; keenness of intuitive perception, yet soberness of judgment in interpretation. Now I am quite convinced, from my intimate acquaintance with her, and especially from a careful examination of her work, (iii) iv Introduction. that Miss Shinn possesses many of these qualities in an eminent degree. The careful, painstaking, patient, intelligent character of her observations must be evident to every reader. The perfect honesty of the record and the really earnest scientific spirit in which the investigation is undertaken and pursued to the end, are equally certain. I am sure, too, I easily detect evidence of the loving, sympathetic relation with the subject, necessary for insight and yet not sufificient to obscure the judgment. I am quite convinced, therefore, that the observations herein recorded are thoroughly reliable. If so, it is impossible to over- estimate their importance. Of course, interpretation must go hand in hand with observation and record; and interpretation in a subject so difficult, must be more or less doubtful ; but Miss Shinn has shown singular wisdom in the caution and modesty with which she draws her conclusions. I feel quite confident that the work as a whole deserves, and will receive, the thought- ful attention of Psychologists as a valuable addition to the ma- terials of their science. Joseph Le Conte. NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CHILD. The child of whose development the following record was kept was born and has continuously lived on a fruit ranch near Niles, in the neighborhood of San Francisco Bay. Her parentage is purely American, all four grandparents being descended from early colo- nists, — three from New England settlers, the fourth from New Jer- sey and Virginia Quakers. I have a detailed record of the condi- tions of health and longevity of her kin for two generations pre- ceding her; in general these were good, and there is in none of the four grandparental lines any family tendency to disease of any sort. The temperaments of both parents are sanguine, fond of pleasure and change. The education of the father was a university special course in history and sociology, taken after thirty years of age; the earlier education was considerable but unsystematic, mainly literary and historical. That of the mother was systematic through the high school period, ending at seventeen years. The occupation of the father up to the time of her birth had been chiefly journalistic and literary; of the mother, teaching for two years before marriage; her remoter ancestors were almost all farming and seafaring people. The ages of her father and mother at the time of her birth were re- spectively thirty-eight and twenty-two years. She was at birth a strong, active, good-natured baby^ without defect, and her health has been (now up to the last quarter of the third year) practically perfect. She was born two weeks late, — a point that may have some bearing on the rapidity of early develop- ment. The conditions of climate and opportunities for outdoor life have been singularly favorable. She has been the only child in a large household of grown peo- ple, and the object of a great deal of attention. She has never been for an hour in the care of a servant, has never been secluded in a nursery, but kept in the midst of the family. She has been taken (5) 6 University of California. [Vol. i. about a great deal with her parents upon short raih'oad and hotel trips. The general tendency of her environment has been in my judgment toward developing a liking for change and excitement,, and unfavorable to continuous attention. The record as here given is an abstract of copious notes kept from day to day, set down in many cases instantly upon the occur- rence, and always very promptly. I have admitted in a few instances- occurrences reported to me by the child's mother and grandmother,, but none reported by any other person (except two in the first month by the nurse); in these cases I have always stated that the note was at second hand. I am under obligation throughout to the mother for invaluable co-operation. Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. MEASURExMENTS.i Weight. Height. Weight. Height. At birth I mo 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lo II 12 9 lbs. (naked) ... II " (in clothes) 13 " 15 " (measurement unsatis 17^4: lbs 19X 20 21 2I> 21 22 23 19 in 19K 23 factory) 24 25 26K 27^ 27 27K 28 28;^ n. At i3mos 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Girth around breast, in first month, 15 inches; at six months, 17^ inches; at one year, 18^ inches. The measurements of height during the first year seemed to me of little value, because the child's struggling disconcerted them, in spite of every care. Each measurement, however, was repeated three or four times. They were taken by holding the baby straight upon a sheet of cardboard, the head against a fixed point, and marking at the heels. The measurement of height at eight months seems certainly wrong. At twelve months the measurement was taken both by laying her upon a sheet of cardboard, and by having her stand against the wall. Standing she measured 28 inches. During the second year, the measurements were taken standing, each one three times or more. The child was interested in the process, and tried to stand still and straight. I have compared the record of weight carefully with my notes Following Galton's charts. 8 University of California. [Vol. i, as to the child's health, appetite, spirits, etc., but without finding a constant relation. During the first half year the weight increases without any marked fluctuation, though between the third and fifth months the ratio declines, and this may be due to the fact that near the end of the fifth month the mother's nursing was slightly supple- mented by other food; after this change she was a little fretful for about a week; she also had two teeth coming, which were cut just after the close of the month. In the ninth and tenth months six more teeth were cut, and during these months and the eleventh she was weaned; durmg the eleventh her appetite was noticeably dimin- ished, and she had several slight colds and touches of digestive derangement, and during the twelfth a persistent cold. Yet the only month that shows any falling off in weight, or even any marked check in increase, is the tenth. In the second year again the only month that shows a decrease of weight is the thirteenth, in which no reason appeared for this be- yond a slight digestive derangement in the third week, with im- paired appetite. During the fifteenth month the increase in weight is especially large and an increase of appetite was noticed; yet by this month dentition had fairly begun again, and the first molar came through early in the moni-h. In the rest of the year, the in- crease in weight month by month is very uniform^ except for a check in the nineteenth and twentieth, and another somewhere between the twenty-first and twenty-third. Yet the teething was distributed quite equally through these months to the end of the nineteenth, with accompanying rash; and she had more or less cold each month before the twentieth. The severest cold and cough was in the nineteenth month, and was quite enough to account for the check in increase of weight; but no corresponding reason for the continued check in the twentieth appeared; nor, on the other hand, does any marked increase in weight attend the perfect physical vigor after the completion of dentition. In the seven- teenth month and thereafter till the twenty-third, a vague loss in gayety and physical buoyancy was quite perceptible, though there was almost no fretfulness, and the child's muscular strength was considerable, for late in the eighteenth month (538th day) she ^ More rigidly so as the scales recorded no fractions under half pounds. Shinn.] The Dcvelopjuent of a Child. 9 picked up with one hand a flatiron, which weighed seven pounds, and walked off a yard or two with it. In the latter part of the year, and especially the twenty-fourth month, she seemed over- flowing with physical energy, often jumping about and squealing in sheer exuberance of spirits. Yet her increase of weight was the .same in the seventeenth and twenty-fourth months. A weekly record would very likely give clearer results. SIGHT. I. Sensibility to Light. The child seemed quite conscious of the difference between light and darkness the first day. At about an hour old, she stopped cry- ing instantly when a cover was lifted from her face; and her eyes certainly turned toward any person who came near her, from this time on through the first and second weeks. As she did not really look at anyone before the fourth week, I could only suppose that she saw an approaching person as an interruption of the light; her eyes turned toward us, however, when we did not pass between her and the window. The nurse said that her head and eyes turned toward the lamp from the first night on. In the third, fourth, and fifth weeks she gazed at light surfaces with apparent satisfaction, especially the light of the lamp on the ceiling, the face of one holding her, if it was turned toward the light, and most of all her mother's forehead, where the wave of dark hair rolled away, contrasting with the white skin. On the twenty-first day her mother and grandmother noticed her steady gaze at a black silk dress crossed with white stripes. The twenty-fifth day I observed convulsive shutting of the eyes against dazzling light, or against moderate light after sleep or after darkness, exactly as described by Preyer; at moderate light under other conditions the baby gazed with apparent comfort. In the fifth week, twenty-ninth day, she first went outdoors; she seemed to dislike the light, and kept her eyes shut. After this, pleasure in gazing at bright surfaces was gradually displaced by interest in faces. In the sixth week, however, the baby gazed a good deal at the angle of the ceiling and wall where a dark border joined the light ceiling. In the seventh week (forty- seventh day) she stopped in the midst of fretting to gaze through an open window at white clothes hanging in the sunlight. In the twenty-fifth week she was evidently interested in pro- ducing a change of light in playing "peekaboo;" when a handker- ( lO ) Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. 1 1 chief was thrown over her face she would first stare about the room through it some seconds, then pull it off. In the second year, the difference of light and darkness was a matter of a good deal of interest. In the twentieth month, 590th day, I saw her outdoors, especially when driving, cover her eyes several times with her hands. I thought the sunlight might be too brilliant, but it is more likely she was experimenting, for in the fol- lowing weeks she would often cover her eyes with her hands and take them away; hide her face in a cushion, or on her own arms, often saying, "Dark!" then lookup, — "Light now!" The 598th day, on waking, her first remark was "Light. Aunty make light," pointing to a place on the wall where the light must have fallen from a concealed candle I had lit in the night. The 6iith day I was told she pointed to a mass of dark clouds hanging low, and said, " Dark over there." The same day, after hearing a story about the moon that interested her much in the twentieth and twenty-first months, she asked over and over, " Dark?" Answered, "No, it was light after the moon came," she would say, "Light now?" or " Dark? No." She then buried her face in a cushion; then looked under the cushion, saying softly, "Dark," then down behind the lounge, saying, " Dark there." When a curtain was raised higher, producing a change in the light, she would comment at once, " Light."' I was told that on a railroad trip, 641st day, she made no comment on entering tunnels, but regularly ejaculated, on -emerging, "Light!" In the twenty -third month, 699th day, the moonlit garden, seen from the window, seemed to be quite a strange place to her ; she did not recognize objects, and when I spoke of the lilies, e.g., would say, "Where lilies?" In the twenty-fourth month, 720th day, she saw heat lightning. When she had been told its name, she ran from one member of the family to another, saying earnestly, "Ruth saw flash lightning!" — "What did it look like?" she was asked. She shut her eyes as tightly as she could, and clinched her hands, saying, " Looked like just this way." 12 University of California. [Vol. i. 2. Movements of Lids. I watched for the various asymmetric movements mentioned by Preyer, but no one about my niece was able to see as much asym- metry as in the case of his child. The lids were never but twice — on the 5 3d and 54th days — unequally raised to any extent that was perceptible without close scrutiny; both times were immediately after sleep. On the 27th day her mother saw the lids raised with a downward look, just as noted by Preyer; and for some days after I saw this repeatedly myself, the sclerotic coat visible above the iris; I have no note of it except when she was in the bath, at which time the movements of her eyes were more active and more asymmetric. After the first month this look was rare, noted not at all in the sec- ond month, but several times at the end of the third and during the first half of the fourth, 90th to 105th days; so far as my notes indi- cate, it was always when the'baby was being bathed, or wiped after her bath. On the 104th day I first saw the brow wrinkled in looking upward; but for some days before, the skin between the forehead and fontanel had wrinkled with this look. Contrary to Preyer's observation, she nursed from the first with eyes closed ; after the 47th day, the lids were dropped oftener than entirely closed; I never but twice saw them open, and on one of these occasions it was because she caught sight of a candle as she was placed at the breast, and stared at it awhile before closing her eyes. I have since watched and inquired about several other babies^ and found none that nursed with open eyes. We were not able to observe any regular relation between widely^ opened eyes and pleasure in the case of my niece. Up to the fifth, week her eyes at no time opened as widely as they did from that date; and it was not till the seventh week that I noticed them, stretched widely, in the bath and while wiped, in connection with, signs of satisfaction, — panting, and movements of limbs. She had then had instead for a couple of weeks a habit when bathed, or undressed by the fire, of fixing her eyes on her mother's face and turning her head away, so as to give a curious sidelong look,. Shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. 13 wliich somehow had an unmistakable effect of high satisfaction. Up to the 45 th day the look appeared only when she was bathed or undressed; on that day once when lying dressed, but very comfort- able, on the lounge; after this I have no more note of it; it seems to have disappeared as an expression of satisfaction with the ap- pearance of the wide-eyed staring, — which, however, never became a marked habit. I never saw her shut her eyes under discomfort, as having nose or ears washed ; she either submitted indifferently, or expressed discomfort by wriggling and uttering little sounds. The fallen lids when nursing accompanied an expression of great content. In fear and in surprise her eyes were opened wide. The first time that she winked at having a head suddenly thrust close to her eyes was on the 56th day, when the wink followed slowly but regularly, six times without a failure. It had been tried in vain almost daily for weeks before. I have noted several in- stances of winking at sudden sounds. 139th day when someone snapped his teeth together several times a foot or so from her face, she winked every time, and looked much surprised; 167th day I was told of her winking at the wind; 185th day, banging her rattle down in high glee, she winked at every blow. As a general thing she was not easily startled, and I saw very few noticeable instances of winking. I did not watch for them carefully, however, knowing that one should be a physiologist to observe intelligently the reflex actions. 3. Movements of Balls. These also were generally symmetric; but occasionally in the first and second months, especially the first, there was a distinct crossing, and several times in the third month a slight one. When in the bath she rolled her eyes about more irregularly than at any other time. Notwithstanding that the movements of her eyes were generally in unison, there was about them always in the first two months a certain appearance of convergence, — as in the case of all babies of this age I have noticed; and this look was occasionally seen as late as the ninth month, when my last note of it occurs, 249th day. l^ University of California. [Vol. i. Fixation. I have noted her staring at faces especially, among light surfaces, during the third week; this increased in the fourth. On the 25th day, as she lay wide awake and comfortable in her grandmother's lap, staring thus at her face, with an appearance of attention, I leaned down close beside, so as to bring my face into the field of vision. The baby turned her eyes (not head) and gazed at my face with the same appearance of attention, even effort, in slight tension of brows and lips; then back to her grandmother's face, again to mine, so several times. This seems clearly Preyer's "second stage" of fixa- tion. At last she seemed to become aware of my red gown, or the lamplight striking the shoulder, and not only moved her eyes, but threw her head far back to look at my shoulder, with a new expres- sion, a sort of dim interest, or eagerness. The "third stage," the following of an object in motion, I did not fix satisfactorily. The nurse, who was a careful observer, said that the baby followed the motion of her hand on the 9th day. I could not satisfy myself that she did, even as late as the fifth week; her eyes seemed sometimes briefly to follow the moving hand, but she was so active, moving head and eyes constantly, that I could not trust the appearance ; her mother was satisfied that she followed the motion. On the 33d day I tried a candle, and her eyes followed it unmistakably, rolling as far as they could, and then the head was turned to follow still farther. Had I tried a luminous object earlier, I might have found that she could follow it. I find that almost all mothers and nurses place the attainment of power to follow a mov- ing object much earlier than this, usually in the first week. In this same week, the fifth, she aquired the h^ibit mentioned above of fixing a sidelong look on her mother. In the fifth week, too, when held up against the shoulder, she would straighten up her head to see around; and thereafter looking about, as if to see what she could see, became more and more her habit, and together with gazing at faces, was her chief occupation till grasping was established. By the tenth week, she would turn her head to look about thus. Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. 1 5 On the 40th day, her eyes for the first time followed the move- ment of a person (who had possibly attracted her attention by a voice and appearance novel to her) as he moved slowly in a semi- circle about the knee where she lay. At the close of the eighth week, on the 56th day, as she lay on her mother's lap by the fire and I sat close by, she gazed fixedly at my face some fifteen minutes without removing her eyes; indeed, as her mother turned her, in undressing and rubbing, she screwed her head around comically to keep her eyes fixed on me. At last she turned her head clear over and looked at her mother's face. Her mother turned her again toward mine, which she surveyed for a time, then again turned and looked at her mother's; all this with serious attention and effort. Whether she had arrived at a clearer focusing of our faces than before, and was interested in it, or whether this incident was the dawn of recognition of us as separate persons, I cannot tell. It was the same day that she had first responded by a wink to a threat at her eyes. Soon after, 60th day, I saw some indication that she recognized her mother, for she stopped fretting when hungry on seeing her come in at a door in her line of vision, not three feet away; no cer- tain indication, however, for anyone's entrance might have diverted her attention. The first unmistakable recognition by sight alone was on the 80th day, when she smiled and gave a joyous cry on seeing her grandfather enter. She certainly knew her mother before this, but whether by sight alone, or by the aid of hearing and touch, I could not tell ; and though during the next six weeks she showed in many small ways that she distinguished the persons about her one from another, I could not get proof that it was by sight only. For instance, when I came in in the morning and spoke to her, she was accustomed to greet me with smile or cry; on the 167th day, I came in without speaking, to see if she would make the same demonstration; she looked at me seriously, then fixed her gaze on a lamp I held; I set it away, then came and spoke to her; but she made no response till I bent down, then caught my face familiarly in her hands. By such vague behavior, she defeated efforts to establish certainly her discrimination of our faces until long after I was sure that she did know them. Late in the fourtli month, she noticed any change in our appearance wrought by headgear or 1 6 Univei^sity of California. [Vol. i. wraps, with surprised looks at the articles, however unobtrusive in form and color; and on the i6oth day, though staring with the usual surprise at our hats, she paid no attention to that of a stran- ger who had come in with us. As she would answer a smile by laughter and movements; once laughed at a grimace (130th day); in the sixteenth week, when especially interested in an uncle, would smile when he looked at her; and {e. g., 119th day) watched our lips, even looking from her mother's lips to mine, when interested in a sound we made, — it seems certain that by the fourth month at least, our faces must have been clear to her. In the sixth month, being separated from her mother when hungry, she cried hard for her, watching at every turn in a corridor and every door passed through, and was instantly comforted at sight of her; but I had no dQubt she had recognized her perfectly weeks before. The 141st day, she seemed to recognize her grandmother through the window; but the day before, I was told, this slight obstacle had prevented recognition till her grandmother raised the sash and smiled at her alternately with and without its interven- tion; and on the 143d day she seemed to find me unfamiliar seen through the pane. On the 158th day she held out her arms to me when she was some ten feet from the closed window through which I looked at her; and in the eighth month, 228th day, she recog- nized her grandfather's head some thirty feet away, through two closed windows. Yet as late as the twentieth month, being in a company of strangers in a room not strongly lighted, she took them for neighbors, calling one and another by the names of persons to whom they bore slight resemblance. Once in the fifth month, 136th day, I called to her, the back of a willow chair being between us. She looked each side of the chair with growing surprise, and at last directly at the back several times, but without seeing me, though it was easy to see through the open work: either she could not recognize my face crossed by the wil- low rods, or did not understand carrying her look past the obstacle; her face was somewhat troubled as well as amazed, jaw dropped and brows lifted.^ ^ Professor Joseph Le Conte reminds me that if she looked at the chair back she saw my face doubled. Shinn.] The Development of a Child. 17 The objects early noticed by her, other than bright surfaces or shining points, and faces, were (if I pass by the hghted surfaces of color, 25th and 37th days): 42d day, bunch of yellow flowers; 56th and 57th, knot of red ribbon; 62d, red and yellow strips; 68th, bunch of bright sachets, shadows of chandelier quivering on the ceiling; 80th day, she became silent when fretting, and watched attentively the leaves of a small notebook fluttered before her, mov- ing hands and feet with interest; 87th, an eyeglass dangled from a strino". Up to nearly three months old, therefore, she had not, so far as I saw, in spite of her looking about, really looked at any spe- cial objects that were not lighted up, colored, or in motion. On the 87th day, however, she twice looked seriously, but without appearance of curiosity, at a rattle in her hand; after this, fixing her eyes with attention on various objects became common. Bright or colored ones did not seem to keep their ascendency after the third or at all events the fourth month, nor moving ones whose motion was not followed, though they continued to attract: 105th day she watched the moving landscape from the car window for a half hour with pleasure; 130th day watched the windmill; i62d, noticed especially of all the sights in the city, passing cable cars, walls of the elevator as it rose and sank, and trees blowing outside a win- dow. I had noted especially that up to the incident of the rattle on the 87th day she had never looked at anything held in her hands, even when she showed interest in having it there; and thereafter she looked at such objects rarely and with slight attention, till grasp- ing was fully established. This process was gradually acquired during the whole of the fourth month; I did not see her fix an object with her eye and then try to reach it before the 113th day. There was a constant progress in co-ordination of eye and touch in learning this. I shall hope hereafter to give details of this under the subject of Grasping. I never but once saw her hold up an object, — her rattle, as she lay on her back in the sun, 134th day, — and inspect it long and carefully; nor did she ever at any time look with attention at her own hands, as some babies do ; not even when, 97th day, she was pounding her fist down hard on the table, did she look at it. As to the size of objects of which she had clear enough vision 1 8 University of California. [Vol. i. to try to grasp them : the rattle, an unusually small one, was the smallest I have note of until the latter part of the fifth m^onth, when she would reach for, seize, and play with the curtain cord, and put the knot into her mouth; in the sixth month, 158th day, she tried to catch flies on the pane; i68th, tried to reach a fragment of red sugar on the floor, scarcely one-fourth inch in diameter, and there- after several times bits of paper, petals, etc., of similar size. In the sixth month also a few other very small objects were grasped, as a rubber ring, of the smallest size used for papers, and strings were favorites. In the latter part of the eighth month, the smallest scraps and shreds on the carpet, down to pin-head size, occupied her a good deal; once a single hair, I have mentioned that she followed the motion of a person in the second month. I did not myself see any advance in this power in the third, but was told that on the 84th day she watched her grandfather out of the room when he quitted her after a play, kept her eyes on him as he stood in the next room a few seconds, and gave a joyous crow when he turned to come back. By the fifteenth week, she followed moving persons constantly with her eyes, and thereafter my notes of it are frequent. By the nineteenth week she was fond of following them through long processes, as setting the table, without a deviation of attention. By the twenty-fourth, she would sometimes follow the movements of hands: e. g., she would watch closely the motion of forks and spoons to our lips at table. Meanwhile, in the fourth month, 119th day, she once followed a bunch of sachets with her eyes as it was swung back and forth be- fore her for many minutes. In the nineteenth week, 129th day, she once looked after a napkin ring on dropping it; but it was a solitary occurrence, and she did not begin to look at all intelligently after falling objects till the next month, the i6oth day; she could in the nineteenth week find her rattle if she dropped it on the tray of the high- chair immediately before her, but not in her lap or on the floor. After the i6oth day for about a week, she dropped articles on pur- pose to watch them, sometimes for as long as anyone would pick them up, or would hold her out to pick them up herself. She had another period of earnest and persistent experiment in this direction in the eis;hth month. Shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. 19 The 136th day she watched steam from the kettle, without try- ing to follow its motion; 158th, trying to catch flies on the pane, looked up after them when they went too high for her; i62d, watched objects from the train window, and would now and then look back to keep her eyes on one as the train moved. Early in the seventh month she would follow the flight of the pigeons as they flew up near by; no smaller bird till the 230th day I was told she followed a blackbird; about the middle of the tenth month she began to follow the flight of small birds if her attention was drawn by their twittering, or if she chanced to be looking as they flew up: in the eleventh month, 321st day and thereafter, she followed the flight of large, slow butterflies. As to the distance at which she seemed to see things, I have mentioned her watching her grandfather into the next room, some fifteen feet away, on the 84th day; by the fifteenth week she often noticed us and smiled at us across the room; in the seventeenth (i 15th day), at her mother once in the next room, fifteen or twent}^ feet away. I thought in the seventeenth week that she showed a special interest and a sort of curiosity over faces at that distance, and wondered if they looked to her conspicuously smaller. The objects that she would watch through the window in the fifth month were usually within fifty feet of the window. The 1 56th day I was told she watched me as I stepped into a phaeton and until it passed out of sight behind trees, perhaps one hundred feet away. The same day she watched her mother go some twenty yards away to gather flowers. She never reached arms to seize ob- jects much out of her reach, — never more than say three feet away ; if one held arms to her from a distance, however, she would respond, laughing; but this, I think, was merely a gesture, without expecta- tion that we would take her from that distance. In the sixth month, she had no difficulty in recognizing our faces at upper windows. On the 175th day she seemed to be watching a team passing about one hundred feet from the window, she herself being some eight or ten feet from the window, in the room. Early in the ninth month, 279th day, she noticed through a closed window a team some seventy- five feet away; 296th day she recognized my face at an upper win- dow when she was about forty feet from the house, but she also 20 University of California. [Vol. i. heard my voice. On the 292d she called for a red rose seen at a distance of perhaps eighty feet through trees and bushes, and kept her eye on it all the way as she was carried to it, jubilating as she saw she was to have it. I saw no indication in the first year that she ever looked really aivay, into the distance; but the day she was a year old she proved to know the moon, pointed out to her by someone three days earlier. After this she was taken to the window to see it, or outdoors when the weather was warm enough, every full moon until the days grew too long, about six months (as her birth was on October 6). In the fifty-fifth week, her attention was called to a star, and thereafter she was interested in looking for stars also, and would sometimes detect them very quickly and point, crying " Tar." She took great pleasure in looking at moon and stars, and would greet them with a shout of joy. Meanwhile, in the latter part of the thirteenth month, she began to recognize cows a half-mile away on the hills, not, however, from her knowledge of the appearance of a cow near by, but because they had been pointed out to her a little while before from a car window. It was late in the eighteenth month, 542d day, before she said anything that showed an idea that the moon could be reached; she then asked, "Ea'? Woo?"— "O, no, Ruth can't eat the moon." "Man?" — "No, men cannot eat it." "Laly?"— "No, nor ladies." "Owgu?" — "No, aunty cannot; it is up in the sky; it is too far to reach." The words, "too far," and "reach," were quite familiar to her before, in connection with things hung just beyond her grasp, and the like, but this seemed to be her first idea of great distance, and she was interested and curious; she stretched out her arm and cried, " Rea' ! Far ! " over and over. A week later she began asking me to get the moon. When told that we could not reach it, she de- sired to be shown that we could not, and wished each of us in turn to stretch an arm to show her how far our best efforts fell short. When we went into the house, and she was told to tell grandma what she had seen, she answered, as usual, "Moon," then added, "Far!" Next morning at breakfast, hearing us speak of her wish to get the moon, she turned in her chair, and reached her hand prettily toward the ceiling, looking up as if far away, and crying, "Far!" This she did several times. Shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. 2i Up to the fourth six months, she certainly did not distinguish at as great a distance as we; we are all rather far-sighted, however. From the seventy-second to the seventy-fifth week she repeatedly misnamed men or boys at perhaps twenty yards distance; the less familiar person being almost always called by the name of the one better known. Any man in farmer's clothes at that distance would be called by the name of her uncle; any boy of eight or ten, "Ray;" any child under four or five, "Harrison." As the person mistaken came nearer, if he was known to her, she would correct herself; if a stranger, she would say, "Man!" or "Boy!" or "Baby!" — always with an air slightly surprised and crestfallen. She once mistook a strange young girl at a distance for one slightly known to her; but never made any error about women she knew at all well, perhaps because their garments made them recognizable farther away, per- haps because she really knew them better than the men of the family. On the 590th day, again, seeing her uncle (a tall man) about a hundred feet away, she called him by the name of a half- grown Portuguese boy, who worked about the place and was well known by sight to her; there was no resemblance in face, and none perceptible to us in gait or bearing. As he came nearer, she be- came doubtful, but did not call her uncle's name positively till he was within fifty feet. She looked at him very intently then, and later in the same day recognized him at once when seen more than one hundred feet away. This goes to show that her mistakes were due not so much to defect in distant vision as to failure to observe and fix in mind those general aspects by which we recognize per- sons at a distance. In this case, a chief element of error was failure to estimate sise; but not in the earlier instances. I never noticed an error in distant recognition afterward. The 626th day, however, seeing her grandfather occupied some twenty-five feet away, she said he was "eating," though he was in fact counting money, every outline and motion clearly defined against a window; and she could not make out what he was doing till she had come close to him. On the 645 th day, again, I was told that she mistook a white cow on a distant hillside for a goat, — the estimate of size here again evidently at fault; and quite recently, late in the third year, she called horses far away on the hills pigs.^ ^The following notes, from records kept by Mrs. Eleanor Sharpe, of San 22 University of California. [Vol. i. 5. Direction. On the 87th day I first saw her look/(?r something: she was much interested in a guest, a Hvely girl, and not only followed her movements, but would look for her when out of sight (89th day). 92d day, just before three months old, she turned her head and looked with an appearance of intention in the direction of a sound heard a few seconds before. I had been told of her doing this several times in this and the preceding week, once at the snap- ping of the fire; but could not get her to look by any sound I could make, though she would show attention by her manner. Thereafter she would sometimes turn her head to look for the source of a sound, but never at all regularly. On the I22d day she leaned first to one side then the other, to look around the chair back with quick, eager turns of her head, to see her uncle playing; when I took her to his side, she watched his fingers eagerly, and when he began to sing, gazed alternately up to his face and down at his fingers, throw- ing her head far back to look up, and alternating her gaze about ■every five seconds during the entire stanza. Her looking after objects dropped has been mentioned above. 1 3 2d day she looked repeatedly to see what touched the back of her head, when she had bent it back till it touched the floor. Francisco, and by Mrs. Mabel Beatty (B. L., University of California), and kindly placed at my disposal, bear on the subjects of Fixation and Direction : — I. Before the child was a month old, he turned eyes and head to follow a lighted car down the street. In the third month he was interested in watching his brothers at their play. In the fourth month, io6th day, he did not know his nurse when she was dressed to go out, and was on the point of crying until she spoke to him. In the tenth month, when in his bath, he would try to grasp the sponge ■or the stream of water from it, if held within reach, but never if much beyond reach. II. In the third month the child seemed to be studying faces. In first learning to grasp, in the 17th and i8th weeks, he did not always hit accurately. In the 23d week, he looked for a cable car in the proper direction. In the sixth month he began to follow the direction of a pointing finger; when told to look at anything, he would first look to see the pointing finger, then fix the object; yet as late as the eighth month he would sometimes look only at the finger. In the tenth month he began to point himself, indicating the direc- tion in which he wished to go. Shinn.] The Development of a Cliild. 23 On the 133d day occurred a rather striking incident. I had been holding her, but gave her to her mother to put to sleep; she was no sooner settled in her mother's lap than she began to turn her head to watch me; and when her mother turned to prevent this, she would screw her head over her shoulder; so I rose from my seat to the right of her, and crossing toward the left, sat down concealed. She did not follow the motion, but after a few seconds raised her head from her mother's arm, and screwing it about, searched the farthest leftAxdSvdi quarter of the room, and it was some time before she would be contented without seeing me there. She seemed able to infer from the direction in which I had passed from her field of vision that I was to be looked for somewhere on an extension of that line. Yet she did not, as a rule, show a sense of direction nearly so good: see Interpretation, below. Her earliest ability to direct her look, except when it was drawn along by something it was following, was when guided by a con- tinuous sound close by; from the fifth to the seventh week, she had stared into the face of a person striking the piano, as if the sound came thence; on the 45th day, she turned once and looked at the keys. On the 57th day she began to watch the keys. In the twenty-third week she would look around her on the floor for playthings she had dropped. The 165th day I looked at her and called, over the top of a tall screen, and withdrew my head and reappeared several times. She would watch the spot in the interval, — a few seconds. She had no difficulty in looking directly at the place whence the voice came, though it was so high I had to stand on tiptoe on a chair, and no one had ever spoken to her thence. Three days later I tried it again, appearing at different spots, several feet apart, along the long screen. She had no trouble in looking at me at once, though she became a little confused as to which spot to watch for my reappear- ance, and if I did not appear promptly at the last one, would go back and watch the first. About the same date, I called to her from an upper window; she looked assiduously, but never high enough, and grew troubled and surprised; her mother tried to make .her follow her pointing hand, but she did not get the idea of following on in the direction indicated, farther than the hand.' At last her grandmother rustled a paper sharply, which somehow drew her eyes up to the window, twelve or thirteen feet above her. In 24 University of California. [Vol. i. one or two other trials we found that a sufficiently sharp or strik- ing sound somehow enabled her to locate the source. When she discovered us, she apparently knew us at once, smiling and moving her arms. Although ordinarily so accurate in locating a voice, occasionally she would look at the wrong person when two were close together. I noticed in this week that her attention could be drawn in a given direction by motioning with the hand; but even through the seventh month this could be done but imperfectly, as she was apt to watch the hand or face, instead of looking on in the direction indicated. The 177th day (near the end of the sixth month) disturbed a httle while nursing, she sat up and looked around, and caught sight of a knot of cords on an ottoman close by, and reached for it. Her mother set her on it. She looked all about for it, leaning this way and that to look, and when taken back to be nursed kept stopping and looking for it at intervals. Her surprise at its disappearance and confusion as to its direction were very quaint. Nearly two weeks before I had observed that she would remember, even after nursing some moments, to look back to where she had noticed a bit of paper or the like on the floor. By the end of the sixth month, she would usually turn and look very intelligently into the face of anyone calling her. In the ninth month she became able to follow a pointing finger easily and correctly. Early in the tenth (281st day) she did it so well as instantly to locate a small black kitten's head thrust from a wood pile some fifteen or twenty feet away. By the middle of the second year she seemed to have a very clear sense of direction, judging from the precision with which she could go to any desired spot about the house and garden ; but I suspect this was largely a memory of objects that served as guides. In the 103d week she could not find the lounge in the dark, in a room perfectly familiar. The 623d day she was quite puzzled by a difficulty of direction. She had discovered the trick of looking between her legs, and, wishing to look at her mother in this manner, turned her face toward her and stooped. Surprised at seeing objects in the oppo- site direction, she tried it over again, with the same result, and her mother then helped her out. Shinn.^ The Development of a Child. 25 Color. On the twenty-third day I tried in vain to get any attention from the baby to a red silk kerchief, brilliantly lighted by the sun. But on the 25th day, in the evening, having caught sight of my dark red gown, barely within her field of vision, in strong lamp- light, she threw her head far back to see it, with an expression of interest, such as she had never had before. Yet on the 37th day she stared as earnestly at a dark blue sack I wore, where the high light from a window struck my shoulder. Neither of these garments was of glossy material, both soft wool; yet I thought it probable that the high light and not the color was in both cases the attraction. After this her eyes dwelt a good deal, for a few daj's, on the red gown, even when no direct light was on it, but there was no demonstration of interest. Later in the same week, the sixth, on the 42d day, her eyes followed persistently a bunch of yellow chrysanthemums, and returned constantly to dwell on another bunch pinned on my breast. I procured a bunch of bright red gera- niums of similar size and form, which was followed when I persist- ently attracted her attention, but less readily; a bunch of pink gera- niums scarcely at all; but fatigue counted for something in this, and when I returned to the chrysanthemums, she was not as intent as at first. At the beginning of the ninth week, 57th day, she once looked fixedly at my red ribbon, and her mother told me that the day before the baby had caught sight of a red bow at her neck, stopped nursing to stare at it, and would not go on till it was put out of sight. The first day of the third month, 62d day, I tried to find her preference by suspending two long strips, one red and one yellow, before her, at equal distance to right and left, so that she would have to turn her head slightly to look at either. She gazed at first one and then the other with some interest, then neglected both for the bright button heads in the canopy to w^hich they were fas- tened. The next day I found her, after a long sleep and in high good humor, making demonstrations of pleasure over them, with arms moving, smiles, and murmurs, but unfortunately, someone had knotted them together, so she saw both at once. On the 68th 26 University of California. [Vol. i. day, also, I was told of her making joyous demonstrations over i bunch of bright sachets hung from the canopy (not in motion . These were her first signs oi joy in color; but she was not in an^ respect as demonstrative at this stage as Preyer's child. During the fourth month I noted several instances of attentive gazing at bright-colored objects — a pink and white fan, yellow daf- fodils, a red shawl, e. g.; the I20th day she stared with raised brows and look of surprise at the flowers, which lay on the table, and the shawl, which lay on a chair, as if she recognized the color as unfamiliar in those places. From this time to about the middle of the sixth month, the daffodils were about the house in great quantities, and possibly helped to develop her perception of yellow. On the 1 3 2d day — early in the fifth month — I was told she stopped crying to look at a jar of them, and from that time I note her inva- riable interest in them; when she came to seize, her arms were always stretched out for them, and the first time she cried with the least persistence at denial was for them; ajar of them in the sui called out excited movements. She had never shown so uniforn. interest in any object. But with this exception, I have no notes of consequence of color interest during the fifth month till near the end; a few colored objects were noticed, but no more than uncol- ored ones. (It is worth observing, however, that up to the end of the third month colored objects attracted far more attention than uncolored.) Except for the daffodils, hard, bright objects were preferred to soft, colored ones to play with; a silver-nickel call-bell especially, a small steel bell, napkin rings, etc. Near the end of the month, 146th day, she first tried to pull off my neck ribbon, a yel- low one; she had not noticed the red and pink ones I had been wearing, and next day did not notice a red one. Yet the 141st day she took but little interest in a yellow Indian basket, about the size and color of a jar of daffodils that usually stood in the same place; and on the same day showed no interest in brown and yel- low figures on the piano cover, but tried to seize red ones on the table cover, while on the 147th, she reached arms for ajar of pink and purple hyacinths and one of daffodils with equal interest. Throughout the sixth month one of the most interesting objects to her was a colored picture of daffodils, which hung low on the wall. I first note her reaching for this, among other objects, on the Shinn. ] The Development of a Child. 27 second day of the month (153d); and from this time to the last week of the month my notes record an invariable interest in it; she would be diverted by it even when crying. No picture at this time was recognized as a representation, and her liking must have been due either to the color, or to the fact that it was the only bright picture low enough on the wall for her to touch and look closely at. On the day that she first noticed it, she reached also for the yellow Indian basket; but so too for any flowers, and for objects not colored, — curtain cords, books, newspapers. On the 154th she reached for a colored linen book among all her toys, and spent some time dabbing at the pictures and trying to pick them up; and again, cared for none of her toys till a red and yellow celluloid ball was held to the light, — this she reached for with apparent excitement; three days later I note again her interest in the ball, but after this she ceased to care for it much. A few other colored objects were among those that she wished to have or liked to play with in the sixth month, especially a little bright blue bottle. We thought her more certain to grasp at our ribbons, and with more desire, if they were yellow, and once, when denied a yellow one, she remembered it with a whine for some seconds, but she would snatch even at white ones, and she plucked at my red gown (149th day). The i8ist day, just before the end of the sixth month, I tried to test her by dangling ribbons of various colors before her; but she grasped always the one that received the strongest light from the window; and when we put them in equal light, turned from one to another with equal joy. From the beginning of the sixth month to the end of the year, flowers were perhaps her favorite playthings. I took much note of her color preferences among them. The following were the most marked indications : — Sixth month, 156th day, regarded a patch of orange-colored marigolds (to which her attention was drawn) very earnestly, with motions of her hands toward them. When wheeled close to a hedge of Japanese quince, all cherry red, showed more excitement, leaning out with outstretched arms and babbling to it. This hedge continued to excite her as long as it remained in flower, — she never passed it without leaning out and reaching for it, or babbling to it. It made a very large expanse of color, however, larger than any 28 University of California. [Vol. i. other she saw, which may have had as much to do with her inter- est as the fact that it was red. I72d day, showed unusual excitement and desire over some yellow buttercups in her mother's hat; would not be pacified with- out them, and when her mother had left the room to put them out of sight, the baby looked for them on her reappearance, and ex- pressed discontent on seeing them gone. Seventh month, 202d day, cries of pleasure at a clump of yellow oxalis (to which, however, her attention was called). Ninth month, late, decided preference appeared for the orange- colored marigolds. Tenth, preference for marigolds lasts through the month, — she reaches for them past scarlet geraniums. Toward the end of the month, however, she would beg for other orange-colored flowers, for golden-rod, and for red flowers, also for oleanders and pink roses, even pale pink. White roses she became very desirous of about the middle of the month; but their contrast with the dark green leaves made them quite conspicuous on the vine. 292d day for the first time she showed pleasure and desire over a blue flower, a large and showy African lily; but never again in the first year. Eleventh month, pink roses seemed at first her favorites; but after the middle of the month, her preferences ceased to be fixed, — " she would want now pink and red flowers, rejecting large yellow primroses, and later the same day put everything aside for the marigolds again. Of course other things than color enter into these choices, chiefly convenience of form, texture, and taste for han- dling and mouthing; the advantage in these respects was with the roses. 321st day noticed "heliotrope-colored" flowers on a gown, and thereafter was interested in that gown and its flowers. Other color indications in the second six months : — Seventh month, 201st day, did not notice the substitution of a white rubber nipple for a black one, on which she was very depend- ent in going to sleep. Ninth month, last week, did not notice especially gilt braid and ornaments on a yachting gown, nor brass fittings on the yacht. Tenth month, 269th day, tested her again with ribbons of bright, clear tones, and the results seemed to show preference for yellow Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 29 and orange, next red; blue and pink were entirely neglected/ I had no green ribbon. In the middle of the eleventh month I tried again; preference for orange and scarlet, but not strong preference. Of five little books she was fond of playing with, which were dull shades of cream, yellow, brown, and green, she preferred the green; green leaves, however, never seemed to interest her. She was habitually interested in large yellow butterflies at this time. On the 321st day, I was told, she refused to have on her white sunbonnet, insist- ing on her pink one. Late in the twelfth month, 3 5 2d day, she distinctly preferred two bright blue books to a bright red and a bright yellow one on the same shelf My general impression of her color liking this year, both at the time and afterward in analyzing my notes, was that it did not play a large part in her interests. The small number of notes of color interest, considering how closely I gleaned, is noticeable. It was also unaccountably variable; a surface of bright color would occa- sionally bring out signs of great pleasure, and at. other times was passed with indifference, when no condition was perceptibly altered. But this variability was more or less characteristic of all her inter- ests. It was also the impression of those who watched her, even more decidedly than the notes indicate, that yellow attracted her most, then orange and red, and pink, while blue and violet were scarcely noticed, green still less. But we were also satisfied that a bright surface of the cold colors was preferred to a dull one of the warm colors. During the second year, the child's color sense was mainly ob- servable in connection with the learning of color names. In the first part of the thirteenth month it was a favorite occu- pation to turn over the leaves of a picture book, pointing to sepa- rate objects in the pictures, and asking with an interrogative sound to have them named; in this way it chanced that she was repeat- ^Mrs. Sharpe first tried her boy with colors in the seventh month, 219th day. He would drop red, blue, or green ribbons to grasp either scarlet or gray, but reached for the scarlet in preference to the gray every time. 30 ■ ' University of California. [Vol. i. edly told, "That is the zvhite kitty," "the brown kitty." When asked, however, " Where is the white kitty?" she could not tell, though in the habit of pointing out objects in the pictures when asked. The word zvliite evidently added nothing to the idea of kitty. By the end of the month she did know which was the " white kitty" in the particular picture, but not which kittens were white in other pictures; she had simply attached "white-kitty" as a name to that one, easily recognized by position. Meantime, on three sepa- rate days in the fifty-fifth week, after having had red Jiozver 3.nd zvJiite flower, red string and white string carefully named to her, {string and flower, like kitty, being already well understood,) she several times selected the color called for, though she also failed several times in the case of the "strings" (bits of zephyr). My impression was hardly that she fixed the difference in name by the difference in color, but rather that she managed to keep distinct for a few seconds, in spite of changes of position, the objects each as a whole. On the last day of the month, the 396th, I named over to her the colors of my books as they stood on the shelves; this interested her very much, and she urged me to continue, pointing with an asking sound. In the fourteenth month likewise, when someone named to her the colors of the roses in a panel picture, she was pleased, and would afterward (fifty-eighth week) ask, pointing to one rose after another, to be told, "That is a pink rose; a yellow rose; a red rose; a white rose." I could not see, however, throughout the month, that she remembered these names at all, or knew what they meant. I tried her several times, giving her always the color ad- jective in connection with the perfectly familiar nouns, book, rose, ribbon; but if the distinction was caught, it was with difficulty, and for but a few seconds, — a marked contrast to the ease with which she picked up and held the names of objects. Yet on the 416th day she put her finger on an ink spot, saying, "Dark!" — a word hitherto used of a dark room only; showing some ability to abstract the idea of a quality, a color quality at that, from one ob- ject and apply it to another. Toward the end of the fifteenth month I made a good many ef- forts to have her distinguish between the black, white, red, and blue stripes of an afghan, but in vain. Beyond these few experiments, and the incidental use of color words, like others, in talking with her, nothing was done to hasten her use of them. Shinn.] The Development of a Child. 31 Yet near the end of the sixteenth month she was suddenly- found in possession of " red." On the 481st day I was told that she had pointed to a red book, saying, "We! we!" and was not satis- fied till her mother asked, " Does baby mean red?" The next day, as she played by me on a red mahogany sofa, she put her hand on the wood, saying, "We!" persistently; at last I asked, "Does Ruth mean red?" and she assented. "Show aunty more red," I said, and after some hesitation, as the request was urged, she pointed out the red carpet, then the red table cover, without any help. Later in the same day I held her before a colored picture of flowers on the wall, and asked her, "Where is some red?" and she put her finger on some clear red nasturtiums. Again, after a con- siderable interval, I showed her red, yellow, and white ribbons, and told her to take the red; she did so two or three times, after slight hesitation. Then I placed a number of books, bright red, yellow, blue, and green, before her, and told her to find the red, which she did several times. I then took her to the picture of roses, but here she was confused between red and pink, and then once even pointed to white. It was strange that the mahogany, which, though quite a pure red, was so dark that even persons fairly versed in colors might have called it brown, should have been almost the first thing to which she applied the word; we had certainly never named any such shade to her as red. This incident proved one of the instances that I often noticed of a sort o{ anticipation of a power not really possessed till later. Two days after she was not able to point out the red book on a shelf, and seized yellow, green, and brown with confidence instead. I then dropped the experiment, and she showed no farther thought of naming colors for more than a month. On the last day of the seventeenth month (517th) hearing me say something of a red pencil, she began looking at two she held in her hand, first one and then the other, asking, "Red? red?" — "Which is the red one?" I asked. She offered the black one in- quiringly, and when I said, "That is n't red," withdrew it and offered the other, which was red, with confidence, crying, "Red." I now told her to point out the red in my gown; at first she dabbed at it anywhere, saying, " Red," then more carefully pointed out the red stripe. A disposition instantly to answer any question, right or 3 2 University of California. [Vol. i. wrong, doubtless caused many of her errors, first and last. Soon after, she pulled a red book from a shelf, crying, " Red! " A week later, in the eighteenth month, I asked her, as she was playing with some books, "What color?" She said, "Red" (We) then " Le," without fixing on a book. With some trouble, we sat- isfied ourselves that "IS" meant yellow. She then added, "Boo," pointing first hesitantly to a red book, then positively to a blue one. She seemed so clear and triumphant about the blue, and had so evidently picked up two new color names without any purposed teaching, that I brought out a set of Prang's color tablets and let her take them. Told to show red, yellow, and blue, she did so correctly often enough to be quite striking; but unfortunately I kept no account, as it happened suddenly, and I was unwilling to lose her streak of interest by going for paper and pencil. Once, being told to show the blue, she chose out one after another all the blue and violet tablets (four, I think, including light, dark, and green blues), and held up one after another, saying, " Boo," each time; afterward she gathered them together in her own hand and looked at them with interest. It is to be noticed that there were green tablets in the pile, but she seemed to experience not the least difficulty in separating the blue from them. Her interest in the newly named color overshadowed that in red and yellow (aided doubtless by our pleasure), and she was disposed to say, " Boo," hastily for any color. Besides the discovery of blue, a notable step was that she un- derstood the question, "What color?" — at all events knew when we said "color" zvliat trait of the object we wished her to name. Hitherto we had used the converse question, "Show me the red," and had heard it named by her only when she volunteered it. Three days later I tried her again with the tablets (I had tried her once in the interval, but have only note of "fairly correct an- swers"); and as I held up red, blue, and yellow, she called each cor- rectly; then, getting a little excited, gave wild answers, confusing red and blue, — the beginning, as it proved, of a thorough confusion. I did not try the tablets again within the eighteenth month; but on the 536th day, reaching for books, she asked for a blue one as "red." Told that it was not red, she tried "yellow," then "blue;'^ Shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. 33 then, apparently to be sure of being right this time, called one blue that was in fact red. A couple of hours afterward she pointed to a blue umbrella, calling it red; and when told that it was blue, turned to my red neck ribbon and asserted that it was blue, as also the red lacing cord of my blouse; both were bright red, nearly pure. From the end of the fourteenth month she had used the word black, confusing it more or less with dirty, perhaps because she often saw hands soiled with taking up coal, or soiled her own on the coal hod; she had first picked up the word in hearing it said of ink spots. She now, in the eighteenth month, nearly dropped its use to mean dirty, and in the seventy-sixth week would point out the black stripes on the afghan, saying, "Ba!" 533d day, asked, "What color are your stockings?" would answer, " Black." The recognition of blackness (including any dark gray, soiled aspect) as a quality was really earlier and more spontaneous than that of color proper. As to her color preferences during the six months, red seemed at first favored. In the thirteenth month, 375th day, she discovered and watched with interest a dull red sunset; 377th, took marked in- terest in my yellow ribbon, and chose her buff sunbonnet rather than her pink; but 382d, and for some days, was very desirous of an aunt's scarlet knitting. In the fourteenth month, 416th day, playing on a pile of fresh cobs, she carefully picked out the red ones; and on the 426th day she distinctly preferred red books on my shelves. Again, in the fifteenth month, 444th day, she chose out the red books; on the 450th, seeing her pink dress under a pile of others, white and dark blue, she drew it out and asked by mo- tions to have it put on, and clung to it for some time. The next quarter, however, outside of the interest in naming r^d and blue, yellow seemed the favorite. During the seventeenth month she was eagerly interested in daffodils, as she had been the year before; in the eighteenth, yellow oxalis was the flower con- stantly sought, though in this case I thought the long, flexible stems, which she enjoyed pulling and handling, the chief attraction. Orange-colored eschscholtzias and yellow mustards were next favor- ites after the oxalis; but she did not care for marigolds, nearly the same color as the poppies. At times, for some days in both seven- teenth and eighteenth months, her chief desire outdoors was to run 34 University of California. [Vol. i. to a mallow bush and pick off the white and scarlet seed vessels; she did not care much for them when picked, and when her hands were full would drop them and seek more. Roses always pleased her, and in the latter part of the month, lilacs; once I saw her inter- ested in some red-purple ixias and red and yellow dwarf fuchsias. The first time a blue flower was noticed in the second year was the 518th day, when she ran up to a periwinkle, crying, "Baby, fowa!" (a flower for baby); she did not care to pick it, however, nor pay any farther attention to periwinkles. The 5 36th day, she was much pleased with a blue-purple grass-flower. Late in the eighteenth month I saw several instances of compar- ison or association through color. On the 536th day, seeing a large piece of red cloth, she cried insistently, "Laly! " (lady); the only explanation was that a lady in a red dress had been at the house a month before. Next day, looking at a flower catalogue, she called a narcissus a rose. "But this is -a. yellow flower," I said idly, not expecting her to understand; but she cried, "Da!" (Then it is a daffodil). Yet the daffodils had been gone for two weeks. The length of the memory is more surprising in the first instance, but the second is more curious in the zvord's being the medium of mem- ory; for the resemblance of the narcissus in the picture to the daf- fodils was not close. A third instance was on the 544th day, when she recognized as a lemon one that by freak was shaped like an orange; it must have been by the paler color that she knew them apart. In the nineteenth month came a distinct ability to name col- ors, and with it a great increase in her interest in color; she often spoke of it, and tried to name the colors she saw. For example, on the 5 5 2d day she pulled a piece of blue silk out of a box, and said hesitantly, "Red," then decidedly, "Blue;" then pulled out a red bit and named it correctly. Later, chancing to look up to where a red flag was tucked in the rafters (she was in the garret), she cried, "Red!" Several times on this day and the next, pointing to white roses, she cried, "Rose! white!" (wo-wo! fwi, or fa!) Questioned, "What color is the rose?" she became confused; but when showed that it Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 35 was like her mother's apron, she soon pointed to it and cried, " White ! " No one had ever taught her zvhite since our futile efforts three months before to see if she could distinguish the "white rose," or "white kitten," but she had heard it used in talk. On the 557th day she set herself to name over the colors of my books as she pulled them from the shelf and piled them on the bed — red, white, blue. I again had no pencil at hand, but kept rapid count with my fingers, and she did not make more than four mis- takes out of fifteen names. She even pointed out on parti-colored books the red and white. This voluntary exercise with the books was repeated from time to time for months. The progress of my niece's color knowledge thus far differed so strikingly from that of Preyer's child, and she had so evidently passed the stage at which regular tests were begun with him, that I determined to apply these, and an hour or so later tried her with three tablets. The results were not nearly as good as in her spon- taneous exercises; but as the correct answers were almost always given with attention and decision, the incorrect ones either inquir- ingly or hastily and carelessly, the figures understate her real recog- nition. To the question, "Where is the red? the blue? the yellow?" she answered: — - Eight. Wrong. Red Yellow 2 2 3 Blue 3 To the question, "What color is this?" - Right. Wrong. Red 6 Yellow Blue 3 4 Two days later, naming the colors of books, and choosing white 36 University of California. [Vol. I. and red especially, she made no mistakes. Yet with the tablets, to the question, "Where is the red?" etc.: — Red Yellow Blue.... To the question, "What color?" — - Right. Wrong. Red Yellow Blue o 2 I 3 o 2 The test that required her to name the color thus far proved the more difficult one, yet M^hen she named colors spontaneously the demand on her memory of words was the same. These two tests were during the eightieth week. I purposed hereafter to give her a test once a week. But after the eighty-first week she began to coax for them, and so had them oftener. The first time, on her mother's suggestion of "the colors," she came to me coaxing, " Red!" Yet red was at the time least cared for, and she often refused to answer regarding it. The second time she came without suggestion, and begged, "Blue-green! blue-green ! " Next morning, the moment I entered the breakfast room, she cried, "Red- green! Upstairs! Find!" and recurred to it all breakfast time (574th day). Next day again, hearing something said of "lips getting blue," she broke in, crying, "Get blue! get blue!" and had to be persuaded to finish her lunch. Next day she began to ask for them as "red green-too" {i. e., red and green); 58istday, suddenly, in the midst of quietly eating her potato, broke out with a demand for "Red green-too!" By the end of the twentieth month the usual Shinn.] The Development of a Cliild. 37 form of asking was for " red and green," sometimes with the addi- tion of " — and blue too." No other colors were ever mentioned, ex- cept that once in the twenty-first month (61 8th day) she begged, "Ruth have pink and blue," over and over; finally "pink and blue — and green." Yet at that time pink had never been included among her tablets. During the twenty-first month she was becoming more interested in their forms than in their colors, and began to ask for them under the names of these. On the 637th day: "Ruth see red and green?" — "Not now, dear; Ruth must go to bed." — "Ruth see red and green by and by?" — " Yes." — "And blue? " — "Yes." — "And triangle?" — "Yes." — "And round?" The next day, after she had treated them roughly, and they had been put away: " Have color? Play pretty!" a frequent (though rather valueless) promise under such circumstances, notable in this case as the first instance I have of the general word color, — "c6." The pleasure taken from the first in the exercises was increased when, at the end of the eighty-second week, I put the tablets into a little box, and allowed her to take out one at a time, naming it. The first time that I did this (575th day), she thus named them over and over for twenty minutes without fatigue. During the whole time the tests were carried on, I never (except on two or three oc- casions, when I was showing the procedure to others) continued them after her interest flagged. After the close of the nineteenth month she begged daily for them, often several times a day, but sometimes cared little for them when she got them, slapping them about roughly, or putting them into her mouth. Yet she would whimper and beg for them if they were put away. If they were restored, however, after she had once showed fatigue thus, it never proved possible to renew any real interest in them. After the .eighty-sixth week it was my custom to let her have them, one after another, upon naming correctly ; she thus had, after every lesson, the privilege of playing freely with them, and it was sometimes half an hour before she tired of them. She was also occasionally in the twenty-first month given the whole boxful to play with at will, ex- cept that they were withdrawn as soon as she began to play roughly. I watched her play in vain, for the most part, for significant results as to color. Such results as did appear related chiefly to form. In the eighty-first week, green was added. She was told the 38 University of California. [Vol. name when first shown the tablet, and never needed to be told again. The result of four tests, eighty-first and eighty-second week, was: — - Right. Wrong. Question. Red 4 4 7 9 5 Blue "Where is red?" etc. Green Red Yellow Blue I (I) 19 i8{i) 20 II I "What color is this?" and volunteered answers. Red 7 27 31 2n 17 I I I In all. 1 Blue In all these tests, when she has given an answer wrong, and at once, without suggestion, corrected it, I have noted it as right, but indicated it by parentheses. When, on the other hand, she has cor- rected her answer after being asked a second time, I have set it down wrong, though it was often heedlessly made in the first place and readily corrected; the one error noted above as to yellow was of this sort. It is to be noted especially that not the least confusion between green and blue appeared, now or hereafter. Once, 573d day, having pulled down my books, which I had arranged by color for her ben- efit, she wished to put them back herself, and put a green book be- tween blue ones. "O no," I said, "put the green book w^ith the other green ones!" and altered its place. After that she three or four times, carefully and after consideration, placed green and blue books in the proper group. The disposition to interchange the names red and blue, on the ^ One test is included here in which I failed to keep separate record for the two forms of question, and the figures therefore do not agree as totals with those in the tables above. SiiiNN ] The Development of a Child. 39 other hand, increased; and practically all the errors in red and blue recorded in the whole period of the tests, were of this nature. Blue was not so much affected by it as red, especially if she saw it before the red. On the other hand, I noticed in the eighty -third week that red was answered right without hesitation at first; then as soon as blue had been named she became confused between them. The confusion seemed to occur in the effort to remember; when she called the name without thought, on sight of the color, she had no trouble, but as soon as she began to think about it, she would remember the word blue, and lose confidence. It corroborates this view that when she named the colors of objects about her, which was generally done on impulse without the least thought, she was rarely wrong. The 562d day, e. g., she was greatly interested in a red jacket I wore, crying, " Red ! red ! " as soon as she saw it, and dur- ing the day from time to time, pointed all over it, sleeves, breast, col- lar, saying, " Red ! " So red and blue books, ribbons, handkerchiefs. Yet she did sometimes interchange the words in voluntary comments on color. The first time she saw my books arranged by color she sought the blue group at once, calling it red; the 590th day a red ribbon was at first called blue; the 598th, she asked if the red trim- mings of a railway car were blue; and the 612th day asked me ear- nestly and repeatedly for a "blue pencil," not even perceiving her mistake when I looked about in vain for such a thing before it occurred to me that she meant red. It seems to me unquestionable that the difficulty was purel)^ a confusion of names. Besides the evidence of incidents already given, the following could hardly have been possible if any confu- sion of vision existed: On the 573d day, on having the blue tablet shown her, she unhesitatingly called it blue, then instantly pointed to a bookcase where a large bright blue volume was conspicuous, and cried, "Blue!" I then laid a red book before her, and made her understand that I v/ished her to lay on it a tablet like it; and she did so, selecting the right red, though she had two different red tablets. The difficulty in naming red seemed to annoy her, and give her a distaste for the color in the tests, which did not perceptibly affect her liking for it under other circumstances. In the eighty-first week, asked, "What is this?" of red, she would give no answer, 40 University of California. [Vol. I. but instead point to and name the yellow or green. Once when red was pressed, she decisively picked up the tablets and handed to me, saying, "Way!" (Put away), and when I had several times ignored this request, she took them all, carried them over to the mantel, stood on tiptoe, and tried to put them up, saying, "Way!" The discrepancies in the nnniber of answers given for the differ- ent colors are due in part to such preferences and dislikes; but as there were two red, two blue, and two green tablets in the set I used at this time, and but one yellow, the degree in which yellow was sought was greater up to the eighty-sixth week than the fig- ures show. The light and dark green, light and dark blue, were recognized with equal ease, but the two reds were not so easily seen to be the same color, and about the end of the month I laid aside the light red for a time. The total result of tests for the three weeks of the nineteenth month during which they were carried on, was: — - Right Wrong. Question. Red Yellow. . 9 lO i8 15 5 2" 3 Blue Green " Where is," e'.c. Red Yellow Blue 10 20 27 28 18 4 10 " What color ? " and volunteer. Green Red Yellow Blue Green 20 34 50 51 24 6 14 I In all.i Meantime the child asked almost daily about the colors whose names she did not yet know. She would point to pink, olive, ecru, purple, asking, "Blue?" "Red?" "White?"— not, I think, that she supposed the colors were these, but that she knew no other way to put the question, as she had not yet the word "color" for her own use. We avoided answering concerning mixed or doubtful colors, ^ See note, page 38. Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 41 but it was impossible to keep her from widening very much her knowledge of each color beyond the typical ones in her tablets. Once on the 574th day, perhaps recalling something I had told her some days before of a baby whose hair was red, she put her hand on my hair, and suggested, " Red?" and was rather disposed to insist till I told her it was brown, which she accepted. She asked the same question about her own and her mother's, which are like mine, brown with no red tinge. This was like the usual for- mula for asking a new color name, but I was unable to resist the impression in this case that she was struggling wath some chaotic association or inference: "Hair, it seems, is a red object; this, then, must be red, in spite of appearances." The ^626. day I kept count of one of her voluntary exercises with the books, and found that she named them right (black, white, green, yellow, red) twenty-four times out of thirty. The 566th day, seeing a lamp extinguished, she cried eagerly, "White lamp! white lamp!" pointing to the porcelain shade, from which the reddish glow was now gone. Her interest in this change of color was the more striking as the lamp had been put out by the breaking of the chimney, amid a good deal of commotion, which she regarded with entire indifference. So repeatedly, "White roses!" White seemed especially to interest her at this time (eighty-first week). Three tests in the eighty-third week gave:^ — - - Right. Wrong. Question. Red Yellow Blue 5 5 6 5 2 " Where is," etc. Green Red 3 ID 14(2) 12(1) 6 4 "What color? " and Blue volunteer. Green Red Yellow 8 22 i3 8 4 In all. Blue , Green 42 University of California. [Vol. I. This week she called dark green or dark blue books black, especially by lamplight She showed some odd confusions in the very colors she was sure of in the tablet tests. The 577th day she called a white book yellow, and the next day called yellow roses red, and told, "O no!" tried "blue." The 562d day she called a white book green, and told, "No," tried "yellow." She now began to try herself to put "off" colors under the cat- egories she knew, and on the 582d day called an olive book green, and a red-brown one brown. The ability to discern the real color in the olive shade was surprising; and I was unable to tell how she learned to name the brown, for though she knew brown sugar and brown bread very well, and had had brown hair named to her, nei- ther of these browns resembled the color of the book at all nearly. She may have had a wide general idea of brown, or she may have been told this particular shade among her questionings. Black and white w^ere now added to the tablets. Two tests in the eighty-fourth week gave: — Right. Wrong. Question. Red 3(2) 4 8 8 3 3 I Yellow Blue "Where is the," etc. Green Black White Red Yellow 4(8) II 21(7) 26 6 2 I I 2 Blue Green "What color?" and volunteer. Black White And the total result of three in the eighty-fourth and eighty- fifth weeks was: — Red Yellow Blue.... Right. Wrong. 19 4 19 45 I Green Black White Shinn.] TJie Devclopme7it of a CJiild. 43 In the eighty-fourth week red suddenly recovered from the con- fusion with blue, but for the one week only. It is evident from the results of that week, as well as from all the former results with colors other than red and blue, that apart from the special difficulty in naming those two colors, it made no particular difference in which form the question was put; her habit of voluntarily attach- ing names to colors about her made it as easy as to find colors to fit the names. After the eighty-fourth week, therefore, I ceased to keep separate record; the usual form, however, was, " What color?" and in very many cases the colors were spontaneously named. The one case in which I ever heard blue called green occurred in the eighty-fourth week, and was evidently mere heedlessness. White in the same week was twice called yellow. In the eighty- fifth week, 590th day, she called pink roses white; I thought this might be due to ignorance of the word pink, but later occurred in- stances of real confusion of white and pink. She had fits of pointing to and naming all the colors about her. On the 590th day, e. g., she asked (correctly) for a "red book," and carried it about, commenting, "Red book! red book!" — then pointed to the walnut banisters, observing, "Brown!" then to a "red pail," then ran into an adjoining room and showed me "blue birdies" on a Japanese wall decoration. In the eighty-sixth week, orange was added. She had not heard this color name used incidentally, as she had black, brown, etc., but it delighted her very much, and never had to be named but once. It was given to her at the same time (598th day) that she received a present of a large number of new tablets, in various geometrical forms; and the first time that she had them in her hands, she sat for one hour in her mother's lap by a table, happily occupied in gathering out over and over all the orange and yellow tablets (some twenty in all), although she was tired, and kept awake far beyond her bedtime. Two days later they were put into her hands again, and she occupied herself again in the same way. If told to pick out the yellow ones she did not care to do so, but if left unnoticed gathered up every orange and yellow one, over and over, with absorbed interest. Yet an hour later, given them to oc- cupy her at a meeting, she did not care much for them. Until her interest was freshly stimulated by the addition of orange, she had not cared as much for the tests as in the nineteenth month. 44 University of California. [Vol. I. The results of nine tests in the eighty-sixth and eighty-seventh weeks follow. One of these was made before a roomful of people, after bedtime and by electric light; yet only the usual error as ta red and blue occurred. Three other tests were made in the eighty- sixth week, of which I did not keep record, beyond the note that the only error was this usual one, which she always corrected as soon as her attention was called to it. With the beginning of the eighty- seventh week red was withdrawn to give her an opportunity to recover from what was becoming a fixed habit of confusion; so that in five of the nine tests it does not have any part. Red.... Yellow Blue.... Green . R:ght. Wrong. 3 16 96 I 99 I 104 2 Black . White.. Orange Wrong. White was once called yellow again. The 6iOth day she called a piece of dingy white paper yellow. A roll of terra cotta wall pa- per was called, very doubtfully, orange. It was in fact a mixed and imperfect orange shade; but few grown people would have classified it as correctly. In the course of a trip made on the 597th and 598th days, she was alert to see colors. As I stood by with her in my arms while her mother was shopping, she began pointing out the stockings on a counter, and naming over the colors, — "Green stockings! Red stockings!" blue, white, pink, black, brown, — with scarcely a slip- I did not know before that she could name pink, but concluded that she had picked it up from hearing her pink dress and bonnet spoken of Having reason to think she knew a striped dress, I said, "Find some striped stockings." She looked all about, repeat- ing, "Find striped stockings! No striped stockings!" though she was looking at some; after some seconds it came to her, and she pointed to them, crying joyously, "Striped stockings!" and then pointed out several other pair. She then looked about the store, and pointed out near and far "blue shirt!" "red box!" "green box!" shouting her discoveries aloud, till all the departments looked and smiled, and I carried her close to the boxes to moderate her Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. 45 tones; she then named over quietly to me the colors of all the boxes in a row, and then asked for " more box." Soon after, taken into a strange parlor, her first act was to run to a small statue that stood on the floor, crying, " White man ! " and embrace it. She had never seen a statue before. Some hours later, after a railroad trip, she was taken to a strange bedroom, and though fretful and ab- sorbed in desire to go outdoors, the instant she entered the room, she ran across it to look at and name the silk balls hanging from the toilet stand, — "blue," "yellow;" then was puzzled by a brownish violet, and asked what it was. In the library she went as usual to the book shelves, naming the colors of the books, though she would not do this when strangers came in. Next day going home she asked about the color of the finishings in the railway car. Nearly two weeks later I was talking to her of this trip, and mentioned our taking the street cars; she broke in with, ''Green car ! " Her attention had in fact at the time been drawn to the colors of the cars. A more striking instance of color memory occurred on the 6ooth day; seeing for the first time a yellow primrose in bloom by the edge of the daffodil bed, she called it at first glance a daffodil ; yet she had seen no daffodil there or elsewhere for nearly twelve weeks. The 6oist day I tried whether she could hold the color idea in combination with another demand, as the Variety of form just intro- duced into her tablets seemed to have caused not the slightest con- fusion; she proved able to select a "square green," "oblong yel- low," "round black," tablet, and the like, with visible effort, and with some helping till she understood what was wanted, but in the main correctly. Having been shown the difference in color of ripe and unripe loquats, she proved able to use it quite carefully as a means of dis- crimination, selecting the yellow and rejecting the green. All the tests in the twentieth month give : — Red. .. Yellow Blue ... Green . Right. 25 121 Wrong. 24 I 7 4 Black.. White.. Orange Right. Wrong. 60 54 46 University of California. [Vol. I. Violet was introduced in the middle of the eighty-eighth week. The child seemed to care little for it, and several times refused to name it, and wished the colors put away when we came to it. She was apt to call it blue, but distinguished instantly when she saw them side by side. Seen in the shadow it was once or twice called black. Shadow did not confuse her as to yellow, blue, and green, which once fell behind the lounge, and were promptly named by her as she looked down; yet once in the ninetieth week a yellow tablet behind the lounge was called orange at first glance. Five tests in the eighty-eighth and eighty-ninth weeks gave: — Right. Wrong. Right. Wrong. Yellow Blue.... Green . Black . 46 63 55 29 White.. Orange. Violet.. 36 50 31 I made one effort to reintroduce red, but the old mistake was made, and I put it away again. The 624th day, playing with some little girls (an unusual thing) and in a new place, she answered questions as to the colors of flow- ers wildly, calling orange ones violet, pink ones orange, yet she an- swered other questions as difficult correctly. In the ninetieth week, pink was added. Although she had used this name of her own notion in naming objects, she could not name the tablet till told, and afterward asked for the word once or twice; she never misnamed it, however, and could always select it. She was interested in it, and sought the pink ones, once gathering them all out, but did not care as much for it as for orange on its first in- troduction. Red was then restored, and on the first trial but one mistake was made; on the second, she twice began to call it blue, then instantly caught herself up and corrected it. Once also she called blue red, hastily corrected to blue, then pointed to red, saying emphatically, " That red." Once or twice she picked up a red one of her own accord, saying, "That red!' My gown she instantly recognized as red. In the ninety-first week, brown (burnt umber) was added. With Shinn.] Tlic Development of a Child. 47 this, as with the pink, in spite of having seemed to know the word, she had to be told what the tablet was; and two days after had forgotten the name, though she would not miscall it, and answered readily when I resorted to the question, "Where is the brown?" She did not care much for it, and on one occasion when we came to it lost her interest in the lesson, refused to try to name it, and began turning over and naming those already earned and in her lap: "That one pink; that one blue;" etc. In the following results from seven tests, in the ninetieth and ninety-first weeks, red enters into five, brown into three. - Right. Wrong. - Right. Wrong. - Right. Wrong. Red 25(2) 30 30(1) 41 3 3 Black White Orange.... 13 j8 28 3 I Violet .... Pink 27 28 5 I Yellow Blue Brown I Green In one of these tests, 633d day, after once or twice naming white correctly, she began persistently calling it pink, and did not seem able to correct herself; this did not seem a whim, but a real confu- sion. Even when the question was changed to, "Where is the white?" she at first pointed to the pink, then to the white, then became much disinclined to go on. The one mistake made in orange, — the only one ever made, — was when, after she had gathered up all the pink tablets, she looked for more, picked up an orange one, and said that it was pink. This would have been quite natural had the pink used been salmon, which is an orange tint; but it was nearer rose. The 630th day she was playing with some samples of paper of various "off" colors, and her mother, for curiosity, asked her to name them. She not only named difficult greens and blues, but called lilac "violet," — this several times consistently. There were two tints, one very light, almost lavender, which her mother said she had before called pink; a week later she called a gown of the red violet shade called heliotrope, "violet." A vermilion she called orange ; salmon also she called orange. A tone between green and yellow she called yellow; we regarded it as green (perhaps wrongly) 48 University of California. [Vol. 1. and told her, " No." She then, without suggestion, found the yel- low tablet and compared them, then said the paper was green. This same day, on a street corner, I told her we must wait for a bine car. She recognized the right car as soon as it appeared, pointing and shouting, "Blue car!" In the twenty-first month (including one test in the ninety-sec- ond week), the results were: — - Right. Wrong - Right. Wrong. - Right. Wrong. Red ;8 82 lOI 103 4 I 3 Black .. 46 61 86 I 5 I Violet Pink 60 30 7 10 Yellow White Orange Blue Green Brown I In the twenty-second month she was away from home for a couple of weeks, and for eighteen days had no trial with the colors. I visited her when she had been away three days, and her first remark after greeting was, " Red and green?" but when told the colors were left at home, thought no more about them. On her return, after having been at home some hours, interested in other recognitions, she suddenly ran to the closet, crying out for "oblongs" (657th day). The forms interested her for about three- quarters of an hour; but finally she put her finger on an orange tablet, and said more than once, " That one red." "Why, no, it is orange," I said. She looked at it doubtfully, and finally said, "Orange color." This was by lamplight, however; and when I tried next morning she proved to know the whole ten, perhaps not as instantly as before the interval. She was not so easy to hold to the lesson now, having had the tablets to play with freely so much, and perhaps also having more will of her own as she grew older; on this day she was vexed at my holding them away from her till she had named them, and said repeatedly, "Hold down! let Ruth have!" Her interest, too, had gone away to the forms. It was indeed unnecessary to press color tests any farther, and I dropped them. She would sometimes, however, as she handled the tablets, mention their colors. I took one memorandum of such an occasion, and one formal test Shinn. ] The Development of a Cliild. 49 after her return; no error whatever was made, and no hesitation or disposition to error shown. Pink was five times named, brown four, black and white each twice, the other colors each three times. She now first showed interest in brown, naming it as she played oftener than the others, and once searching for it, — "Where brown? — There!" The colors were called, we (red), le (yellow), boo, gee, d cb (orange color), biby (violet), pa or p'lh (pink), bow (brown), bd (black) fa (white). Though I consider the regular tests as ending, and her familiar- ity with the colors complete, at twenty-one months, in making a table of the total results of the tests, I add in the fragmentary results from the twenty-second month, as the number of tests for the last color introduced, brown, is so small. But for this one small addi- tion, the period covered is exactly the third quarter of the year. — JUDGMENTS. 1 PER CENT. Right. Wrong. Right. ^^■rong. I. Pink 35 100 2. Orange 170 I 994 .6 3- Black 108 I 99.1 .9 4- Green 3it 8 97-5 2-5 5- Yellow 240 7 97.2 2.8 6 Blue 309 11 22 934 91.7 6 6 7. Brown I 8-3 8. White 117 II 91.4 8.6 9- Violet 63 10 86.3 13-7 lO. Red Total 76 52 594 40.6 1,440 113 92.7 7-3 This table is somewhat misleading as showing the comparative standing of colors. The single error in brown counts out of its due proportion in so small a number. Orange and pink were added to the list at a late period, when her power of remembering names, and probably of distinguishing colors, was much advanced. Had she ^ One test in the ninetieth week, in which over forty answers were given, without error, has been omitted, because my note fails to show the exact num- ber of answers for each color. The most important difference its inclusion would make would be as to violet, whose percentage of right answers would become 87.6. 50 University cf California. [Vol. i. not fallen, when but eighteen months old, into the name confusion about red and blue, these colors would have been recorded with scarcely an error. Apart from the difficulty between red and blue, the only consistent errors were mistaking violet for blue, and white for yellow or pink. Violet and white, therefore, properly occupy the lowest place, as regards distinctness of seeing. Our impression throughout was that she liked yeWow best, though the only distinct evidence was that in her joy in the new and pleas- ing orange tablets, she included with them the familiar yellow; and such indications as were given by her manner in hailing the tablets with joy or indifference as they emerged from the box, were some- what in favor of yellow. I have tabulated my experiments with reference to comparison with Preyer's. The first impression on comparing is of a surprising superiority in color perception on the part of my niece. Some cor- rections to this idea must be mentioned, (i) Professor Preyer marked all answers as wrong that were first given wrong, even if the child corrected them himself, while I mark such answer right if it was corrected without suggestion. If I had conformed to Preyer's method on this point, my niece's percentage of correct answers would fall to 91. (2) My withdrawal of red lest the confusion concerning it should become infixed, removed for some weeks the chief source of error; while Preyer at one time withdrew for two weeks the two best known colors. I have estimated (on the basis of the percent- ages of correct answers as to the colors in question, and the propor- tionate 7iuniber of answers usually given for them) that had there been no colors withdrawn, my niece's percentage of correct answers would have fallen to 90 per cent, or, combining with (i), to 88.7; while that of Preyer's child would have risen to 71.2. But the ad- vantage given to my niece by being allowed time to recover from confusion and to fix the name of blue firmly before having that of red again before her attention, cannnot be estimated in figures. (3) After the eighty-fifth week, I used only colors of medium bright- ness, and even before that no very pale tints or dark shades. The child's incidental experiences with tints and mixed tones show that she could distinguish them, but still they might materially have in- creased the proportion of error. Again, my list included white in- stead of gray, which may have saved some errors. Soon after the s«iNN.] TJie Development of a Child. 51 suspension of the tests, however, having heard us speak of a paper sample she was playing with as gray, she took up the name, and thereafter named the color easily and without any error that we ever observed. (4) Probably most important of all, new colors were more rapidly added in Preyer's tests, thus increasing the difficulty of keeping the names clear. My niece was undoubtedly much in advance in point of time, having before she was two years old as complete a knowledge of color as Preyer's child at three; and in the rapidity and spontaneity with which she acquired that knowledge. I credit the earlier devel- opment simply to her earlier acquisition of speech in general ; and while evidence is wanting, I am disposed to think that almost any child in the second year would show an equal comprehension of color if his language was sufficiently advanced to test it. Indeed, where the power of speech permits, it is not unlikely that tests would be better followed in the second year than the third, because the child's independence is less, — he is more amenable to sugges- tion, and has fewer interests of his own to divert him from one sup- plied by the parent.' My niece may have received stimulus toward 1 On this point compare the notes kindly suppHed me from the record of Mrs. Lulu M. Chapman (A. B , University of CaHfornia):— •'Before the child was two years old, no attempt had been made to teach him color, and he showed no liking for it, as in colored pictures. "At two years and seven days he was shown the colored tablets,— wanted to take all, and showed no preference. Two other experiments in the next ten days gave the same result. "One hundred and eighth week, being unable to interest the child in the color, I gave up the tablets, and began to speak of the color of common objects, 'Let 's put on your blue dress,' etc. He began to use the names of colors im- mediately, but as a mere wanton use of words, delighting in using new ones, without any reference to the real colors of objects: e.g., he often remarked, 'Seeg-rin horse,' and the like. "One hundred and nineteenth week, I gave him the Hailmann beads, and as he played with them tried to get him to help me match them. He showed little interest; confounded red and orange, purple and blue, constantly. "One hundred and twenty-second week, asked him for a red bead, — he gave me a yellow one. I said, ' No, that is yellow.' He then picked up all the yellow ones, saying with each, ' Yellow,' ' Yellow; ' then collected the red ones easily; then lost interest. Two days later he picked up and named the yellow ones, then grew obtuse and refused to do anything. Next day when I pro- 5 2 University of Califoi'nia. [Vol. i. interest in color from having always lived in bright sunshine, amid profuse color, with flowers as her constant playthings. I do not think that our early efforts to see if she could grasp color names had much to do in stimulating their use, for after all it arrived at about the same time as the use of other adjectives. The usual superiority of women over men in color discrimination is so easily accounted for by their attention to dress and household furnishing that it would be mere speculation, until further evidence, to conjec- ture that sex had any bearing on the question. I now showed her, 659th day, the difference between light and dark green. She at once grasped it, and named them correctly half a dozen times. A week later I showed her the light green, and asked, "What kindof green is that?" — "Lightgreen." "Andthat?" — She hesitated : " Black green — no ! " I gave her the word dark, then altered positions and asked for it, and she selected it promptly. I then put the dark and light blue side by side, and asked her which was which: she could distinguish at once, following the analogy of the greens. Two days later, I asked her again and found that she stumbled over the light blue and dark blue when shown them sep- arately, but shown them together distinguished at once; then of her own accord she selected "li gee" and "da gee" several times. Nothing could have been more quick and clear than her compre- hension of the nature of the distinction. From time to time since I have asked her the question as to red, yellow, gray, etc., and she never failed to distinguish if the two were seen together. duced the box of beads he forestalled all experiments on my part by saying, ' You are my baby, — you say what color that. ' "In these experiments I did not ask the child directly the color of the beads, but suggested making a yellow train of cars, a red fence, etc. If he picked up the first bead at random, as he usually did, I rejected it, saying em- phatically, ' No, we want yellow ones. ' "At no time did he appear to take any real interest in the color, just a forced one for the sake of something else." Mrs. Katherine Slack (Ph. B., University of California) had a similar expe- rience witli her daughter, about two years old. It was impossible to occupy her mind with the simple color demand; she wished to have the tablets, to play they were money, to do this and that. Both these children were more ingen- ious and imaginative than my niece, and more advanced in speech. I judge they were quite as able to distinguish color, but not interested in so simple an occupation. They are both city bred. Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 53 The next day she showed a curious lapse in what seemed per- fectly fixed knowledge, by calling a blue bird on some Japanese panels red, and a brown bird blue. It was the last instance of such confusions: the next day while in the midst of a wail over a bump, she chanced to glance at the book shelves, and cried: "Blue book up there! Violet book up there! Blue book and violet book!" pointing. The "violet book" was a very violet blue, and standing next a pale, unmixed blue, looked still nearer violet. She was fascinated with the shelves for some time, pointing to book after book, and naming its color, — red, green, and blue, all correctly; green especially was recognized in various indeterminate tones. A brown that approached an orange-red shade, she first called orange, then, dissatisfied, asked, "What that?" I told her a sort of brown. "No. That brown," she said, pointing to one nearer the burnt um- ber; "that brown; that brown," indicating one after another discrim- inatingly. A dark greenish blue, exceedingly difficult to determine, called out the comment, "That blue." Having gone about my af- fairs, I found her a little later trying with zeal to collect all the red books she could climb up to, — "There another red one; Ruth want red book." Later in the day she found some tablets I had laid aside, which were meant as transitions between the colors, and pulled them from the envelope, saying of the orange-red, "That orange," but of the red-violet, blue-green, orange-yellow, "What that?" Her mother said that during the early part of the month she insisted on calling a bright brown dog orange. Though she desired the tablets chiefly for their forms, the next day she occupied herself in gathering out the white ones, without reference to figure; the day after, the white circles only were culled out. In the twenty-third month, 685th day, I again noted some com- ments as she pulled out the books. Once, "That white — these white," glancing from the book she held in her hand to the row of white ones. Red-brown books she called red, other browns brown. She declined to recognize a light blue as blue, though she gave it no other name. When I called a violet-blue "blue," she corrected me, "That violet." It was really almost as near to violet as to blue. Color names were in this last quarter year used as freely as any words in her talk. Thus, 666th day, gathering seeds from an 54 University of California. [Vol. i. acacia branch where both ripe and unripe ones hung, she kept up a broken comment: — " Have black seeds. Ruth got green seeds, — black seeds. — No; green: aunty hold down \i. e., I wish to have black seeds. I have green, — I am going to get black. — No, I have green again: I wish aunty to hold down the branch.] — Black seeds way up there. — There black seeds. — These green seeds. — Ruth have black seeds; aunty have these [green ones]." So in the twenty-third month, e. g., she begged for "aunty's white hat;" and as we drove away from a standing train at twilight, losing sight of the lantern at the rear, "I don't know where green light"; as she failed to string a bead, "That time Ruth didn't get red ball;" seeing her dress on the line, "Aunty, that Ruth dear little pink dress;" of a lamp chim- ney, "That get pretty black." In the twenty-fourth month, e.g., looking out of the window to see things in the garden, "Where red geraniums?" selecting among colored lozenges, "Ruth did take violet;" seeing a bunch of balloons, "Mamma, see that balloon! Ruth want that beautiful violet balloon, and that beautiful green balloon too!" (The last two instances from her mother's notes, during an absence.) The most marked form of color interest during the twenty-third and twenty-fourth months was with regard to our gowns. She had anticipated this once at the end of the twenty-first month: seeing me about to change my gown, she urged, "Aunty, put on blue dress ! " I brought out the heliotrope gown I was about to put on, but she persisted in urging the blue, and I indulged her. She now recurred to the interest as a habit: the 674th day she cried out the moment I entered the breakfast room that I had another dress on, not my blue dress; and next day came to my room just as I was dressed, and seeing the brown gown laid aside, commented, "Aunty need blue dress; aunty does n't need that dress anymore." She was also interested to have me wear a figured challi with lemon ground, which she called yellow. She often came to my room in the morning before I was dressed, and at such times I usually had to reason with her if I wished to put on a dull -colored gown. The 719th day, seeing a brown gown laid out, "Aunty don't need this dress," and running to the closet she managed to jerk from the hook a blue one, and urged me to wear it. The 729th day she had been away all day, and in the afternoon I had changed a brown gown Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 55 for the lemon one; on her return at twihght I went out to Hft her from the carriage, and was greeted, "Aunty, you did n't want your brown dress on; you want your yellow dress." After she had had her dinner, she returned to the subject, and asked why I did not wear my "black dress," a gown that had excited her curiosity sev- eral times, being seldom seen. Next morning, after remarking as usual on my gown, she asked if I did not wish to put on my " black silk." I never thought her preferences among my gowns altogether due to color; she doubtless had choices as to cut and trimming, and association counted for something, — the dull gowns were oftener worn when I went to the city, the brighter ones when I stayed with her. Finally, as to the light thrown upon color interest and color preference, aside from what has already been given in connection with the color names: — In the nineteenth month, the flowers that interested her (besides roses, which were always favorites) were nasturtiums and fuchsias, — red, yellow, and purple. In the latter part of the twentieth month, she was perfectly fascinated with red gladioles just coming into bloom, and hung about the buds trying to peep in where the color showed. The yellow and yellow-mottled leaves on a euonymus attracted her like flowers, and she was very desirous of picking them. She was especially fond of sweet peas, pink and purple, but their long stems had much to do with it. She seemed at this time to prefer the blue and green books on my shelves, but size and convenience of carry- ing about was her chief standard of selection. In the twenty-third month she was often occupied in stringing Kallmann beads; the first time she seemed to prefer red and orange, showing no great liking for yellow; the second, she chose first the red, then orange, then yellow, and though she gave preference to balls to string, would take the cubes of warm colors before the balls of cold, — when all the warm colors were gone she took green, blue, and violet at ran- dom. This was in the evening; the next time, by bright morning light, she took first yellow, then red, and one blue bead in the midst of the red and yellow. I thought the red beads better liked than the red tablets because they were of a yellower tone. A few days later, in still brighter light, outdoors, she seemed better pleased with the violet, green, and blue beads than in the house, but still pre- 5 6 University of California. [Vol. i. ferred the warm colors. On another occasion she gave some preference to green; on another to orange, then red. In the twenty- fourth month, red, yellow, and orange was once the order of pref- erence, then violet or blue; another time yellow was slightly pre- ferred; another time, at the very end of the month, violet was first selected, then yellow, green, and blue, while red and orange were rejected altogether. In all other cases the colors were taken at random. It is scarcely possible to generalize from these contradictory choices, but it is sufficiently evident that the warm colors were still, throughout the second year, better liked than the cold, though the difference was not so marked as in the first year. Yet although I watched with the expectation of finding evidence that the cold colors were not clearly see7i by her, I never saw any reason to think that in the last half of the second year there was any material difference between her color seeing and ours. Indeed, her dis- crimination of mixed colors was sometimes better than mine, as I would learn by later comparison with standards.^ That the cold colors were duller to her than to us seems likely; but the difference from adult vision certainly could not have been great. I never heard her miscall any of them as gray, in whatever tint; though she did sometimes call their dark shades black, especially in dim lieht ^ Bradley's Educational Colored Papers. shinn Tlie Development of a Child. 57 7. Form. This subject belongs in the main under Sight; and though the perception of soHd form brings in both Feeling and Inference, I do not wish to divide the topic, and so place it here. Passing over for the moment^ those primitive observations by which a baby familiarizes itself with form, first in looking from all sides at objects, then in handling them, the first definite observations I made were with reference to the confusion of plane and solid form. This was not frequent. In the twentieth week, as soon as seizing had fairly become a habit, the baby would put out her hands for pictures on the wall, figures on the tray, roses on the quilt; but seemed easily to learn what could be taken hold of, and I have no farther note of such errors (unles's her putting out her hands to touch pictures on the wall, to which she was held up) till the 154th day, when she spent some time dabbing at the pictures in a colored linen book and trying to pick them up, but never afterward that I saw; and again on the 167th day she tried to pick up figures on the car- pet, and the 177th to take in her hand a hole in a knit shawl, which looked dark in the colored wool. I have no note of a similar error later than the sixth month, except that at the end of the ninth, 271st day, she tried with some persistence to pick up the moving shadow of a rope end on the deck of a yacht; the motion probably deceiving her in this case. Two odd indications of entire dependence on former experience instead of direct comprehension of form, occurred just before and just after she was six months old. She was very fond of drawing our hair through her fingers; and the i8ist day, getting a chance to try her uncle's, which was visibly unpullable, scolded with com- ical disappointment at finding the close-shorn ends could not be seized. This happened again on the 185th day. On the same day she was given a round cracker for the first time. She turned it about carefully, as she was accustomed to do with a square one, seeking the corner to bite. All her recognition of objects, of course, rested largely on dis- ^ See Interpretation below. 5 8 University of Calif orjiia. [Vol. i. crimination of form; and still more her recognition of uncolored pictures, which began in the eleventh month. She never, from this time on, showed any distinct preference for colored over uncolored pictures. I have so many notes on recognition of pictures, however, that I shall make a separate group of them. About the beginning of the twelfth month her grandmother taught her the letter O, which she first pointed out correctly the 343d day and always knew thereafter; a little later the same day she found a large Q, on the letter card she was playing with, and held it out to her grandmother with a questioning sound. She ev- idently recognized the resemblance to the figure she knew, and yet regarded it with doubt, conscious of a difference. By the middle of the thirteenth month she knew O in all sizes large enough to be clear of the context, rarely smaller than bour- geois upper case (0), but the 382d day she picked it out in the midst of bourgeois text (o). In the next few days she was disposed to hunt for and announce lower case o's in books, but sometimes mistook c for o. Near the end of the month, 393d day, her grandmother taught her S, which she learned without trouble. Her curiosity and ques- tions about Q led her mother finally to give her its name, and be- fore the end of the sixteenth month she knew it well. In the eighteenth month she pointed out and named O and S frequently. The 543d day her mother marked a square and circle on paper, and named them once to the child, who thereafter distinguished them with ease; this I did not see, but later in the day, being told of it, tried it myself, and found that she named the two figures readily without mistake. Her mother had named the circle to her as "round O," and this was not entirely replaced by "circle" before the third year. The 553d day, in the nineteenth month, she called a roughly made square "ka," without the least hesitation. She often asked to have "wou' O" made for her on paper; and on the 559th day began without suggestion to try to make it herself, carrying the line around to meet itself in a long, uneven loop, saying, "Wou,' wou' O ! " as she did it. She liked to see a square drawn, laughing when I began it, and calling, "Ka!" and "More!" till I had drawn a great many. The 563d day she started to draw a "wou' O," then began SlIINN.] The Development of a CJiild. calling it a "wou' ka," round square. I thought from the motion of her hand she was really aiming at a square; however, it did not approximate one, and she made no further attempt at squares. She continued to ask to have the figures she knew drawn for her at in- tervals throughout the year, and to try circles and later ellipses her- self First attempts at circle, 559th day.' ^ In tracing these attempts for reproduction (with the exception of Fig. 2), pains has been taken to preserve the character of the line, but it has neces- sarily lost a trifle in decision. Figs. 2 and 4 are % the original diameter. 6o University of California. [Vol. Fig. 2. Early attempt at circle, 566th day. Fig. 3. Circle and problematic attempts, 662d day. Shinn.; Tlie Development of a Child. 6i Fig 4. First attempt at ellipses, 673d day. Very typical of drawings in 23d month. 52 University of California. [Voi.. i. Here was an interest in form, and an ability to discriminate it, that should perhaps have given it precedence over color in my experi- ments; certainly to distinguish and name a lower case bourgeois o in the middle of text in the thirteenth month, was proof of ability to distinguish and name a circle, and probably other figures, some time before she could name colors. My attention, however, was on the color tests, and I deprecated following up the subject of form for fear of making too much demand on her attention. Beyond the occasional drawing of the figures for her, and probably a few ran- dom inquiries as to their names, nothing more was said to her about it till late in the twentieth month, 598th day, when the new tablets mentioned under Color, — squares, circles, and oblongs, — were given her; those I had used before were all oblong. After turning them over a little, she noticed that some were circles, and spoke of it. I then asked, "What is this? " showing a square. She did not at first understand what I wished; then suddenly cried that it was a "bi' boo ka!" a big blue square. The combination of the color and form observation spontaneously made on this occasion, she found harder to make on request a few days later, as related above under Color. For a few days after the gift of these tablets her interest in them was to gather out the yellow and orange ones ; but within a week she began to select by forms, and would pick up all the circles, or the oblongs, never the squares, and pile them in her hand with the remark, " Ruth pile; " a method of occupation with them that lasted with little decline of interest till the twenty-fourth month. Oblongs were from the first somewhat favored in these selections, and in the latter part of the twenty-first month, this preference and the indiffer- ence to squares became quite marked. The 628th day I had been giving her a color test, in which she had answered cheerfully and correctly till I came to the squares, then had refused to go on; I then laid the oblongs away in the box and gave her the other figures; but she began to call, "Oblong! Oblong in box!" and continued to appeal till I gave them to her. If I asked whether she would have squares or rounds, she would always say "rounds," and sort out the squares and hand to me, but carefully stow every circle in her own hand; once in the last week of the month, however, left with- out any request from me, she took the oblongs for herself, turning Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 63 over the squares as usual to me. It evidently required absorption of mind thus to carry two sets at once in her attention, and she would be annoyed when sorting squares and oblongs to be asked about circles or triangles. On the 63 2d day she began to call for the tablets under the name of "oblongs," instead of "colors;" this, unlike her "red and green" for the colors in general, corresponded to her preference. In the twenty-fourth month she called them "shapes." The 657th day, having the evening before just renewed her acquaintance with the tablets after some two weeks' absence, she asked for the "oblongs" before breakfast, and when I took occasion to give her a color test, wished only the oblong ones used. After her bath and breakfast, she went immediately to look for her cap to go outdoors, and asked for the "oblongs" to take with her. Allowed to play with them on the doorstone, and offered a square, she protested, " Ruth want oblong." I gave her the box and she shook them all out, then picked up every oblong. As she took the last one from each little group in which the tablets lay scattered, she would say, "No more oblong there." At first I said, "Why, yes, aunty sees more oblongs," but she answered, "No more oblong there,'^ and turned to another group. After getting all the oblongs, she picked up the squares one by one, put them in the box, and suggested that it be put away. The others she treated with indif- ference. Two days later, having asked for "oblongs" and received the box, she at once chose out all the oblongs, and then ignoring the rest, proposed she should "go outdoors with the oblongs." Upon suggestion, however, she chose out the circles and squares and handed me. "Aunty don't want oblong; aunty want square," she observed, probably interpreting thus my efforts to prevent the square's being entirely forgotten. When I ranged them in rows by shape, she was interested and tried to help, but did not get the idea of a row; when I began to arrange them by color, she objected whenever I put an oblong aside and rescued it each time, with, " No, Rtith want oblong." Two days later I asked her, "Which does Ruth Hke best?" nam- ing over the shapes. She did not understand the form of question, so I asked again, "Which does Ruth like?" and she answered, "Oblong." On the 669th day, as I took down the box at her 64 Univa^sity of California. [Vol. i. request for "oblongs" she remarked, "Ruth not want square," then, "Not triangle." And she did in fact occupy herself gathering out circles and oblongs, — the white ones only, though she had been indifferent to color. The next day, the last of the twenty-second month, she chose white circles only, and during the twenty-third month collected circles rather than oblongs; but she was by this time losing interest in the tablets altogether, and in the twenty-fourth month did not occupy herself much with them. The interest in the oblong, which had for six weeks been so persistent, was probably simply due to convenience in holding; the oblong tablets fitted her little fist very nicely, and she was solicitous to have them laid in an even pile therein. On the 630th day she was displeased that they were uneven, and called on her mother to "fix" them. The 634th day she found two very long and narrow oblongs, which had been cut from colored card, and tried to fit them in with the others, but finding she could not, rejected them as "too big." Two others, which were smaller than her set, she did not object to as too little, but was delighted with them, crying out over them as "cunning little bit oblongs !" and losing tliem and finding again with joy. The circles were somewhat less convenient, and the squares, with their corners, least of all. Though her spontaneous sortings out showed 'i;hat from the first she distinguished the figures easily, she had up to the end of the twenty-first month some difficulty in naming them. In the first week that she had them, the eighty-sixth, though she had seemed to know two of the three forms well when drawn, if asked to give either one she chose it hesitantly, and not always rightly. The next week, told to gather out the "rounds" she did it, 608th day, hesitantly, but with growing confidence as we encouraged her, till she had them all. By the eighty-ninth week the oblong, though the favorite, was the only one she could not distinguish easily when called for; she confused it a little with the square. When asked to name them she made occasional mistakes in all. The next week she could find any one when called for, but could not always name the oblong and triangle. This fourth figure, with which she was much pleased, I had introduced to her in the eighty-ninth week, 6i8th day. The 630th Shinn] The Development of a Child. - 65 day, hearing- something said of triangles, she began to beg for "ti-a," and her mother made her one out of paper; then, thinking it well that she should have some among her tablets, a cousin present bisected several of the squares; she was much interested in this, and understood that they were made from squares, for she went and found another square and brought it to her cousin, asking for "more triangle." She also kept her mother cutting more out of paper, and wished to preserve these carefully with her tablets; and the 634th day neglected her favorite oblongs for a time to gather out the new form instead. After the ninetieth week I never heard her misname any of the plane forms. In the ninety-first, the last week of the month, I took occasion three times after a color test to ask a few questions as to the figures, and was always answered correctly. The number of answers noted was Circle 2, Square 5, Oblong 17, Triangle 12. After this she seemed as familiar with the names as with " table " or "chair." Upon her return on the 656th day from the two weeks' absence in the twenty-second month mentioned above, her first indoor interest was to run to the closet and ask for "oblong;" and while she pulled them over for nearly three-fourths of an hour, she commented: "That oblong;" "That triangle;" "That square;'' "Ruth don't want round O," handing it to her mother; "Aunty have round O;" etc. The 659th day, as she collected out either set, she would observe, "There another oblong. . . . No more oblong? — There oblong," — or square, or whatever the one she was collecting. If she picked up a wrong one by accident, she would say as she rejected it, "That round," triangle, etc. The forms drawn were as invariably called correctly as in the tablets. At this time, and indeed by the end of the twenty-first month, she could tell the letters O, S, and B instantly wherever seen. As the O seen in print is so often an ellipse, I had tried to disconnect its name from the circle, compromising with her name of " round O " by saying " round ; " she had not taken this up to any extent, however. Just before the end of the twenty-second month, the 669th day, she pointed out a small artificial pond in form an ellipse, as a "round O." This decided me to give her the word circle, which she atfirst objected to, saying, " No ! " but soon took up at least 66 University of California. [Vol. i. in part; and also to teach her the ellipse. She took this figure up with pleasure, and an hour later could name it, " el-li," or find it if asked for. She did not remember the word next day, but knew the figure very well, and distinguished it from circle without the least difficulty. She took much interest in it, and kept me drawing "another ellipse" for a long time. The 675th day she tried to draw ellipses as well as circles. The 693d day I began to set her oblong tablets in a row, saying by a slip of tongue, "Aunty will put the ellipses in a row." She cried out in deep concern *'Aunty, these not ellipse, — these oblong," and it was not till I had made the amplest retraction and apology that she ceased repeat- ing, " These not ellipse, these oblong ! " The effort to name the form of the pond was an instance of a habit taken up something over a week before — the application of her knowledge of figures to objects about her. As she sat on her mother's lap to be wiped after her bath she suddenly cried, pointing to the wooden frame of the tub, "Cunning little oblong!" There was a roughly oblong scar or spot on the wood. I pointed out to her another, approximately triangular, and she called it a triangle. Later I showed her the points of a man's collar turned over, and asked their shape; she said, "Triangle." Her mother said that the day before she called bobbins "cunning little oblong spools." The next day, again while being wiped after her bath, she cried suddenly, pointing to some circular figures in the border of the towel, "Round O there!" then, looking about the room, "No more round O;" then as her eyes rested on the door panels, she shouted with much vi- vacity and joy, "That oblong over there!" pointing; then pointing to the lower panels, which are smaller, "That cunning little oblong." As we laughed at this estimate of size, she thought it must be funny, and kept repeating, and made no farther search for forms. The 668th day she drew a hairpin from her mother's hair (again while being wiped after her bath) and pulled the points apart some forty- five degrees; then, struck by its appearance, held it up and cried, "Triangle!" A half hour later I gave her a hairpin and suggested that she make a triangle, and she drew the points apart as before, held it up, and announced, " Ti-a ! " The next day, 667th, she drew my attention to the triangles on the corner of a writing tablet, and Shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. 67 the 668th named those on the corners of a book thus finished orna- mentally. In the twenty-third month she recognized the plane fig- ures with pleasure when her mother laid building blocks to outline them (673d day) and later brought them to me to "make oblong." When I had made one she said, "That big oblong; make little ob- long." After it was made, "Make no more oblong. Ruth take back," and carried back the blocks. In the evening I made a tri- angle with my fingers and held them up to her without naming the figure. Perhaps because she was at dinner this seemed to annoy her, and she said, "Make no more triangle." The 691st day she tried to put a circle of cloth over her doll's feet, observing, " Ruth try put on round O — for Tommy feet — little drawers." The 695th day, she set her shoes with heels together and toes diverging, and said, "Ruth shoes make triangle;" then set them parallel, — "Now make oblong." The flexibility and perfection of her knowledge of these figures was surprising to everyone who saw her show it. From this time on, at intervals, she has always noticed and named the plane figures to be seen about her, in buildings, furniture, etc. Yet on the 699th day when I called her attention to the fact that the moon was round, she objected. "That not round O — that moon." — ''Yes, it is not a round O; it is the round moon." She made no further remon- strance and looked at the moon thoughtfully. Of course the forms she observed about her were often quite in- exact; I had observed from the middle of the twenty-first month that it seemed even easier for her to see the essential plane form in a rough approximation than the essential color in mixed tones. The day after I showed her the triangle, the 619th, I found her play- ing with rough paper shapes, which her mother had been tearing out of paper; her mother said that the child had herself torn off ob- longs from a strip of paper and named them rightly. As I looked on, she picked up two or three roughly triangular fragments and called them triangles. The oblongs cut for her from cardboard were of various proportions, but she called them all oblongs readily. That she could discriminate by comparatively small differences in form, however, was evident from her easily distinguishing the circle and ellipse. 58 University of California. [Vol. i- Just before the end of the twenty-second month, 666th day, I asked her as she played with some building blocks, long quadran- gular prisms, "What shape is that?" The question was unreason- able, for she had no reason to suppose "shape" referred to anything but plane surface; but she responded instantly, " Oblong." Shorter cnes were "cunning little oblongs;" a cube she called a square.' Showed the end of the form she called an oblong she hesitated, visibly puzzled by the contradiction, but said it was square. A cube cut diagonally she had no name for, and was not interested in. Early in the twenty-third month, 673d day, I gave her the Hail- mann beads, — small spheres, cubes, and cylinders for stringing. I gave her the spheres only, which I called balls, thinking the word simpler and quite as exact. She was greatly interested in them, but not at all disposed to string them, and wished merely to tumble them about. The next day I kept them in my own hands, and, using both cubes and spheres, insisted on her earning them to play with by first stringing them. With more trouble than I had had with any similar exercise, I established this habit. The cubes were easier to string, but she liked the balls best. She began at once to use "little balls" as a general name for the beads, and to coax for them. E. ^.,the evening after I had taught her to string them, she asked for them again and was put off till after dinner; and although the dinner chanced to involve a long and exciting contest on a point of table behavior, and also a great deal of concern over a plum that had been promised her some time before, when it was all over and hands washed, she ran to me, laid both hands on my arm and jumped up and down by it, reached up and kissed me on both cheeks, then cried, " Now little balls ! " The next morning she asked for them soon after breakfast. Within three weeks her inter- est flagged, but was renewed by my bringing out the cylinders on the 692d day, and lasted till the middle of the twenty-fourth month. It was hard to get her to accept the name "cube;" she called the cubes "squares." By the 676th day, the third of her acquaintance with them, she would point them out correctly if asked, but still did not have the word; the 680th day she still called them squares; ' I have repeatedly heard grown people call the prism an oblong, and the cube a square. •=""'^'^■1 TJie Development of a Child. 69 the 68ist instead of asking for "little balls," she asked fur the "squares— no — "and hesitated. I tried to get the word cube from her in vain, yet asked to point out the cube, she could do it unerringly. I brought out the square tablets and showed one to her beside a cube; she could tell which was which with ease, and was interested in the points of difference, and tried to carry on my exposition by turning over the cube and saying, "That got hole in." I had already provided against her regarding this an essential part of a cube by showing her the cubes among the building blocks, and when I reminded her that they had no holes, she assented Four days later she was still troubled by the word, and asked for it would hesitate, — "Ka?— no?" and finally "coo !" with an effort. With the name "cylinder" she experienced little trouble. During the iwenty-fourth month she asked for the beads either as cubes, or "my little cubes and cyhnders." The 67Sth day after showing her, as mentioned above, that the cubes among the building blocks had no holes, I asked her to find me some cubes in the box. She presently cried out with joy that she Jiad one and came to show me the half-cube. I turned it all over and showed her its shape, saying, "That is not a cube." *'No — that triangle," she said, and went back with me and found a cube. When I showed her the two side by side, she said again, " That triangle." Though she accepted the building blocks, which were not much larger than the beads, as cubes, it was very hard for her to generalize the idea of solid form, and at the very time we were so struck with her ready discernment of the plane forms every- where, she refused, 695th day, to accept as cubes her larger letter blocks. I succeeded, however, in having her accept an Indian bead, longer and slenderer than the Kallmann bead, as a cylinder; and the 699th day I told her to find a cube in her box of blocks, and she seized at once one of the large letter blocks and said, "There cube!" then searched in the box and found a prism that was of such length as to equal two cubes. "That not cube, that oblong," she said, then found the half cubes, saying of each, " That not cube,— that triangle;" finally a cube, "That cube." Finding an irregular piece from a door frame among the blocks, " What that? " She was interested on being shown that a rolled up picture was a cylinder. Once in the twenty-fourth month, asked the shape yo University of California. [Vol. i. of a straw, she said, "oblong," but agreed when told it was a cylinder. Although when told she could perceive some correspondence be- tween the forms of other objects and those so well known in her beads, she did not at any time apply the lesson herself, and though for a while she was fond of the beads as playthings, she took no such interest in solid form as in plane form, and showed no such power of comprehending it. The 678th day I showed her that the cubes stood firm, while balls rolled round at a slight movement of the box. Two days later, taking a ball to string, she laid it down, saying, "Ball won't stand." The 685th day again she commented, "Little balls roll, little cubes stand still." This point she never forgot, and it inter- ested her moderately; but I did not see her show any farther interest in the properties and differences of the forms. Once, 694th day, I asked her what was the shape of the shadows of the cylinders, and she answered oblong easily, but showed no especial interest, and never reverted to the fact in any way. Her playing with the beads had no originality, and unless closely supervised by me, degenerated at once into mere scattering them about. In the ninety-ninth week she tried a little to place them, and also the tablets in rows, but she had often seen me do this. There were also some interesting experi- ments in piling and grouping, but they have more bearing on the subject of number than form. The solid forms, as forms, were evi- dently not very interesting or suggestive to her. The last day of the year but one, I tried an experiment that I will for completeness place here, instead of under the head of Feeling. I put several beads of each form into a bag and let the child take out one at a time, telling me what it was before she brought it to sight. She named the cube three times right, and once said it was a ball ; the ball three times right, and wrong not at all ; the cylinder was once called a cube, once named rightly. The exercise amused her much, and she laughed aloud at each effort. This play was tried a few times in the third year with similar results. I will add that now in the third year I still fail to wake any de- cided interest, or any originality of observation concerning solid form; color and plane form are no longer matters of curiosity, and her attention is not on them, but they are matters of everyday in- terest, and color especially is habitually noticed and often com- mented on. Shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. yi 8. Pictures and Other Representations. Although from the fourth month the baby hked to look at pictures on the wall when held up to them, the first entirely spon- taneous notice taken of them was not till the tenth month, when she suddenly (277th day) noticed with joy a colored picture of a child, and thereafter noticed it persistently, and also desired to be carried about to see the other pictures/ About the same time she began to notice and desire a card photograph of herself and grand- father on the mantel, and with a little suggestion kissed them, but I donotthink she recognized them as representations. She was taught in the forty-first week to look at a picture on the wall when asked, "Where is Mr. Longfellow?" but had no idea of its meaning, and indeed for some time confused it with some colored figures in the frieze above. On the 286th day she became confused between her grandfather and the picture, which I attributed to mere confusion between the names, as she was but just beginning to understand words; but it may have been that the white beard and slight gen- eral likeness had something to do with it. The next day, asked for Longfellow, she turned and pointed to a companion picture of Emerson on another wall, showing that she had observed the re- semblance. After this she repeatedly showed unmistakably that she compared the three other portraits on the wall with Longfellow, but not two Raphael cherubs, not far from the same size. Yet as late as the 309th day, in other houses, asked for Longfellow, she would point to any picture in a similar location on the wall, but not to a similar picture of Longfellow in a different place. The 293d day I first thought she saw the relation of a picture to 3 Mrs. Beatty's boy was interested in tiie fourtli montli in uncolored pictures shown him, 113th day, and the next day seemed trying to get hold of flowers on the lounge cover. At eleven months he was much interested in pictures on the wall; the 336th day, taken into a room where a large engraving of Tenny- son had been hung, he noticed it at once, pointed to it, and wished to go near; looked at it with delight, then at his mother, then around at the other pictures. Every time he was taken into the room, during this and the next day, he wished to be taken to it and to look at it. A copy of the Sistine Madonna was also a favorite. 72 University of California. [Vol. i. an object. She was shown a Hfe-size painting of a cat, and told it was "kitty." The cats were at that time objects of exciting inter- est, and she now became excited over this picture, crying out as she did at sight of the cats, and thereafter seemed to recognize it without difficulty, judging by the similarity of demonstration toward it and the real cats. Within the next month she made discovery of the purpose of a smaller picture of a cat, uncolored, in a picture book. The pictures in this book had been named over to her as the pages were turned, merely to amuse her, without effort to teach, and I had no idea she knew any; but on the 327th day I asked at random, "Where is the kitty?" when, to my surprise, she turned over the leaves and found a picture of a cat's head, full front, and put her finger on it with a cry. She could not do this again that day, but a day or two later, proved to be perfectly sure of it, though other pictures of cats in the book, which were colored, were not noticed ; she would turn the leaves searching for it unasked. Earlier than this, however, on the 316th day, noticing her inter- est in flowers on my gown, I said, "Where are the flowers?" She leaned over and touched them, then immediately looked out to the garden with a cry of desire. Next day, standing near the wall, far from a window, I asked, "Where are the flowers?" She leaned from my arms and put her finger on a rose on the wall paper. I carried her nearer the window and asked again, and she pointed out of the window with a cry of desire. At another time, asked the same question, she pointed first to the pictured flowers, then to flowers in a vase. She never at this time pointed to rosettes or con- ventional figures as flowers. In the second year, however, and so late as the eighteenth month, she did occasionally mistake such a figure for a picture of a flower. The 333d day, she could point, when asked, to a picture of a dog on the wall, and probably under- stood what it represented. As she did not try to treat the pictured objects as real ones, yet attached the same name to them as to the real ones, and experienced desire for the object at sight of the representation, it would seem that at eleven months she understood the purport of a picture quite well. The only time up to this date that she had seemed to confuse one with the reality, was on the 329th and 330th days, when she offered her cracker to the portraits on the walls, but she also offered Shinn ] The Development of a CJiild. 73 it to other objects, and I thought it a sort of whim or play, partly suggested to her. In the second year, two other instances occurred ; the 402d day she bent to smell a picture of a rose, and the 477th, after asking each member of the family to reproduce a sneeze that had interested her, she appealed to the portraits to do it. The 499th day, also, she was perplexed by a realistic picture card, in which a donkey put his head through a window that was actually cut out; she turned this over and seemed surprised to fiad only blank paper and a hole, into which she put her fingers curiously, saying, " Fo! " (hole). She never tried to feel or pick up a picture. The twelfth month, birds on a screen and a cup, and cat, dog, and flowers in all pictures came to be recognized; once, 349th day, she pointed out a ball in an uncolored picture. In the thirteenth month, 378th day, she recognized a small picture of kittens, not more than an inch long; in the fifty-fifth week, without any teaching beyond her acquaintance with the objects represented, she could point out kitty's ribbon, kitty's eyes, the man's glasses, etc., in pictures, and would greet a pictured dog with "bow wow," as readily as a real one. In the fourteenth month, 399th day, she compared a cap on a cat in a picture with her grandmother's cap, and would sometimes point out eyes, hair, and feet in the small figures in her books. The 405th day she pointed to a small, uncolored photo-engraving of a horse, then through the window to a horse tied outside; she had for nearly a month been deeply interested in this and companion pictures of horses, and I thought from the first that she understood them. In the fifteenth month, 446th day, seeing a picture of the "three little kittens" seated at dinner, she began to smack her lips, pointing to the table. At sixteen months, though she had long known flowers in general in any picture, she recognized daffodils and violets, and at about twenty months, sweet peas, poppies, and poppy buds, only in colored pictures; yet by the end of the eight- eenth month she could point out flower, leaf, and stem, untaught, in rough and uncolored representations. At nineteen months (578th day), after being shown the beak of a little dead bird, she knew the beaks of birds in pictures. From the thirteenth month she could understand pictures of known animals in all positions^ showing that she must already have 74 University of California. [Vol. i. a clear remembrance of the living animal in all these. The 384th day, given a new picture book, she recognized all the cats and most of the dogs in it, in whatever positions; by the first week of the fourteenth month, flowers, trees, cats, dogs, cows, and probably other objects, were recognized in any good picture, in whatever color, size, or position, — a cow stamped on a butter pail once, 445th day. Very slight resemblances seemed enough, while large differ- ences were unobserved; indeed, she once said "moo" at a picture of a camel (445th day). Yet differences once accepted by her as sig- nificant were recognized without error; thus donkeys and horses were easily known apart. This was the more noticeable, as a don- , key, known only in a picture, was recognized at once in other pic- tures in quite different positions; this could only have been by the analogy of a horse, yet the characteristic differences were kept clear. Her mother believed on the 405th day that she recognized a barnyard cock from a picture in her book; and certainly a few names learned from pictures, as cow, were easily and without surprise transferred to the real object. Apparently human features in pictures were not as easily recog- nized as flowers and animals. At a year old she possibly knew in a general way photographs of babies, for she would kiss a new one without suggestion; yet I saw her kiss the back of the card once, 365th day. In the thirteenth month, she wished to be lifted to kiss the Raphael cherubs, took especial interest in the portraits on the wall, could point out their eyes and hair, and knew Whittier's by name and preferred it to Emerson's; these, however, were life-size or more. In the fourteenth month, 402d day, she managed with some help to identify the Whittier portrait with a small copy of the same. Three days later she recognized her father's photograph (the face scarcely more than one-fourth inch in diameter), grouped with eight others; then after hesitating and being asked many times, her uncle's. In cabinet photographs she pointed out four other members of the family. None of these photographs had ever been shown her before. Early in the eighteenth month she recog- nized as a " lady" a dim reproduction in an advertising pamphlet of a vignette photograph, and showed it to us with interest. After her indentification of the first few objects in pictures in the eleventh and twelfth months, she began in the fifty-third week Shinn.] TJie Development of a Oiild. 75 to ask to have them named, turning over the leaves of her book and putting her finger on one after another, then looking up into our faces with an asking sound. She pointed not to pictures as a whole, but to individual objects in them, the same each time, those that had attracted her interest; now and then a new one would catch her attention, and would be added to the list.^ Throughout the thirteenth month this was her chief indoor interest, and afforded her singular pleasure ; she would bring the book to her mother, grand- mother, or me, begging for such an exercise, and would be happy in it sometimes for twenty minutes. In the fifty-sixth week having been told, by way of amusing her, the noises made by the various animals in the pictures, she would, after asking and being told the name of each one, continue to point and urge until its note was given. At the end of the sixteenth month, she would go through the book, naming the pictures herself, usually by these notes, — "moo" for the cow, etc. In the latter part of the eighteenth month, she had a recurrence of especial interest in pictures, which lasted more or less through the twentieth month. The 528th day, turning over a picture book, and coming to a page of text, she put her finger on it, and said decidedly, "Read! " then on a picture, saying, "Picture! " Anything not text — any decoration, or conventional figure — was a "picture." Turning over the leaves and naming the pictures as she came to them, she would say, "Picture," if she came to an unknown one. Seeing a book she would ask if it contained pictures, "Picture?" When pulling down mine and piling them on the bed, she would stop from time to time, sit down and open one, and examine it: "Picture? . . . . Find? . . . . No?" In the middle of the nine- teenth month, at sight of a picture of a bird, on the 561st day, the interest in pictures narrowed to an almost exclusive desire for pictures oi birds, which was for some days a passion; and for weeks to "see birdy in book" was a frequent appeal. She had other favor- ites, however, usually pictures of animals and children. Her interest in pictures during this second period of fondness for them was far more complex and intellectual. The picture sug- ^ In this way some names were first learned in pictures; but where possible I would always follow up the picture acquaintance promptly by showing her the real object, which greatly increased her interest. 76 University of California. [vol. -i gested not merely the object, but much associated with it. Thus in the eighteenth month, 537th day, having picked up a pamphlet, with the remark, "Book," she sat down on the stairs saying, "Read," discovered a small advertising cut of a dog on the back, and commented : " Dog. . . . Bark. . . . Wow-wow-wow- wow-wow-wow ! " She stopped to laugh at her imitation, then: "Muzhik. . . . Bark. . . . Wow-wow- wow-wow- wow- wow! . . . Ruth." (That is a dog. He barks. He barks thus, etc. Muzhik also is a dog. He barks. He barks thus, etc. Ruth too can do it.) Two days after, seeing a picture of a bell, she asked, " Ring ?" In the nineteenth month she showed that she understood the action of pictures. The 564th day she commented on a child digging with spoon and pail, " In bucket" (Puts the dirt in the bucket) ; and on a boy with hand in his pocket, — being asked where his hand was, — "Get purse." A more complex comment, but probably based on former explanations, was on the 603d day: " Ducks swim on water. Old hen." By the time she was twenty months old her greatest enthusiasm for pictures had passed, though she has had a moderate liking for them since, especially in connection with interesting description or story. By this time, too, her understanding of pictures was prac- tically complete. As to the understanding of other representations, the earliest ones that came in her way were toy animals and dolls; and the first sign of any relation observed between them and the objects they represented, was that when her first toy cat was given her, at thirty- three weeks, her demonstrations toward it were like those toward the real cats ; I thought, however, that this was due to the hairy skin more than to any observed likeness in form. On her first birthday, she was given a new doll, the old one having been for some time broken; the eyes of this doll seemed to interest her, and she felt and examined them with curiosity ; told to kiss the doll, she kissed its face properly enough, yet afterward presented the back of its head for someone else to kiss, Christmas day, which fell in the middle of her fifteenth month, she cried " bow-wow" at once on sight of a rubber dog, and imitated a mew at sight of a toy kitten. She had doubtless understood for some time then what her toy animals were SiiiNN.] The Development of a Child. 77 intended to represent. I have a good many not^s upon her behavior to her dolls, but will not enter them here. In the sixty-ninth week occurred a curious incident, which comes under the present topic as nearly as under any. Being in a dimly- lighted room with me in the evening, she suddenly cried eagerly, "Eye! eye!" pointing out of the window to the sky, where two planets (Jupiter and Venus approaching conjunction) stood close together. It was a striking instance of her quickness to see resem- blance and her neglect of difference. On the 497th day, as she sat in my lap, she suddenly began pointing and crying, "Baby! baby! " As I saw nothing that could suggest it, I put her down, saying, "Show aunty." She ran to the tray that held the hearth utensils, and showed me in the moulding of its back a conventional orna- ment shaped by chance with a rough likeness to a human figure. Later in the day I told her to show her mother the baby, and she came at once from the other side of the room and pointed out the same ornament. The 559th day she was amusing herself by bump- ing her chin with the handle of a large bronze bell, and did it a lit- tle too hard ; she broke out into a wail about the "mom," which I made out to be a. complaint that the "man" had injured her, the handle being a quaint little figure, not very obvious as such. . The 563d, she plucked at tufts of red zephyr with which a quilt was adorned, calling them roses; pulled out a scarlet shred, saying, "Leaf," and struck it on her hand, saying, "Snap." This she repeated ; and several times afterward recurred to it. I could not make out whether she really supposed the tuft a rose and the shred of zephyr a leaf that could be snapped, or was making believe, but I thought the latter. She accepted at this time with pleasure the shadow "rabbits" her grandmother made her. Her recognition of the first statue she had seen, the 597th day, as a "white man" (it was in fact a female figure, partly nude) has been mentioned. In all her behavior toward pictures and other representations, I was chiefly struck first by the ease with which the general purport of such things was accepted, after it had once dawned on her, — the primitive stage of development, so,to speak, at which pictures were comprehensible and interesting ; and next by the extent to which outline made up the representation, and the small part played by 78 University of California. [Vol. i. size, color, or even the shading to imitate sohd form. We were never able to see that there was any distinct preference for colored pictures over uncolored, and those first recognized were very much in outline ; before the eighteenth month she recognized at once as a cock an impression not a quarter of an inch long on a white stamp or seal ; in the nineteenth month she was especially interested in some old-fashioned children's books with their small, crude woodcuts, and little advertising cuts pleased quite as much as fine colored plates. It surprised me that she recognized trees and flowers very early, even slightly indicated in black and white, — the color plays so much part with us in the idea of trees especially. Analogous to this was her calling little seedling trees "tee" at first sight, as she did in the eighteenth month; yet the word had been learned in connection Avith large branching trees. In the same month, 539th day, she pointed to a twig of pink Japanese maple in a glass, cry- ing, "Tee!" and added, " Ba ! " — a tree in a vase. Here was neither color, size, nor surroundings to fix it as a tree ; yet in a sense, in her absence of knowledge as to what a twig was, she was right enough. The only instances in which color seemed noticed more than form were a disposition about the eighteenth month to confuse her aunt's house and a neighbor's, quite different in form and surroundings but of somewhat similar color ; the recognition of individiial varieties of flowers in colored plates only, as noted above; on the 586th day a failure to recognize an actual flower thoroughly familiar (a sweet pea), in a novel variety, quite different in color from those that she knew ; and the recognition of an orange-shaped lemon, mentioned above under Color. The roughness of resemblance necessary for recognition — the mere suggestion required — struck me over and over. This was analogous to what I observed both as to form and color, and seemed a consistent trait of all her sight recognition ; it coincides also with what I have observed of other young children, and repeatedly heard from those who have them in charge. shinn.] The Development of a Child. 79 9. Interest in Seeing;. Up to the 25th day, though the baby doubtless experi- enced a certain comfort in lighted surfaces or bright points, there was nothing I could call interest ; on that day her former staring at faces assumed an appearance of attention and effort, and a still livelier look was called to her face by a surface of lighted color, as noted above. Thereafter till the fourth month, faces were the objects of her almost sole attention; in the fifth week she began to smile in gazing at them ; I first saw this on the thirty-second day, and was told that she not only smiled but chuckled in gazing at her father's face the same day. From now on her gaze was constantly fixed on our faces as we talked and played with her, sometimes with demon- strations of intensest interest.pantingbreath, movements of hands and feet, and occasional smiles. How much of this interest was excited by face and how much by voice I cannot say. On the forty-second day her mother saw similar demonstrations over a spot of sunlight on the white spread, but I never saw them over anything but faces till the third month, sixty-third day, when she showed like excite- ment over strips of color; but there were instances of an earnest gaze at color in the meantime, as mentioned above. In the fourth month, besides the interest in faces, and the few incidents of interest in objects related above, especially in daffodils, looking about the room became very absorbing. This looking about, begun early in the second month, had come toward the end of the third to be accompanied by a look of surprise. This sur- prise now became very striking. Held above one's head, instead of showing gayety, the baby would look around silently, as though absorbed in the novel appearance of things (fourteenth week ; but a photograph of the seventh month shows something of the same expression when thus lifted up). She would iiispect the familiar room for many minutes, looking fixedly at object after object, till the whole field of vision was reviewed, then turn her head quickly, and examine another section; when this was done, she would fret till carried to another place, and there renew her inspection of the room in its changed aspect, — all this with an expression of surprise and 8o University of California. [Vol. i. eao^erness, eyes wide and brows raised. The window and its out- look were included in these surveys. The habit was striking from the fourteenth week through the seventeenth, most of all in the fifteenth ; it then declined, but would recur in a new room. Thus on the 141st day and about that time, taken into the kitchen she would look out of the window, then whirl round to look inside, and wish to be taken to different quarters of the room, just as earlier in the more familiar rooms. During these inspections occasionally an object, as sunshine on the carpet, would attract special attention, and even excite to movements of arms and pant- ino-. Yet after these close surveys for weeks, she would occasion- ally discover an object, as 1 19th day, a pink and white fan that had long hung in a corner, apparently for the first time. Outdoors till near the close of the seventeenth week she gazed happily around without fixing her look on any object; on the 119th day, she leaned forward to see me pluck something, and thereafter soon learned to watch objects outdoors as in, but never showed the surprise and curiosity. After the fifth month, though she continued to look about with interest, the surprised look, eager staring, and quick turns of her head were rare. The inspection of her surroundings with more or less look of surprise, was usually renewed in a new room, or an old one from which she had been for some time absent; and late in the sixth month (173d day) when I took her into the tankhouse and woodshed, places unlike any she had seen before, the look of extreme surprise, even astonishment, jaw dropped, eyes wide, and quick, eager turns of head, were as notice- able as ever. I stopped by a glass door to let her look out; she stared happily for about ten minutes, and when she saw her moth-er pass, going into the garden, and when two of the family passed through the shed behind her, she looked at each, turning her head and following their movements with deep attention. I then instead of carrying her back into the familiar room as she had come, through the kitchen, stepped across the veranda and re-entered by another door; it appeared to surprise her very much to find herself back there, and she would pay no attention to anything else till she had examined the room and everything in it as if it were novel. During the third and fourth month, and I think until she had Shinn.] Tlie Developjiient of a Cliild. 8i begun to roll about, when laid on her stomach, she always lifted her head high, and gazed around with a pleased and interested air, as if she saw things in a new aspect. So incessantly was she occupied with some activity in seeing that when on the 131st day I found her lying happy and wide awake, not looking at anything especially, I thought it worth not- ing; still I do not suppose it could have been by any means a solitary instance. In the fifth month, while grasping to some extent displaced her interest in looking, her attention to those things that did catch her eye was more persistent and absorbing ; 133d day, she caught sight of a brass caster on a chair, and remained gazing at it so fixedly that she could not be induced to resume nursing; her mother would bring her face to the breast and she would turn it back to stare at the caster. Finally her mother changed position so that the baby lost sight of the attractive object, and after looking about, at the fire, the high light on the coal-hod, etc., she consented to nurse again. She was interested in her toes when they were showed her, and looked for minutes from one scarlet-tipped sock to the other. She watched people and things long and earnestly; 134th day the whole process of setting the table, and later of clearing it, without a deviation of attention ; the bobbing of her little shadow head on the wall, when her mother began to put her to sleep ; 1 36th day was all the morning perfectly content to sit watching us hurry about, arrang- ing rooms for guests; during the whole presence of one guest, whose attentions pleased her, the baby watched her, hardly having eyes off her, perhaps a half hour. When thus absorbed in looking at any- th ng it was almost impossible to divert her. The next week — the twentieth — her desire to seize interfered with her willingness to gaze long at anything ; when the table was cleared, she desired the articles, and wished to get hold of her toes as soon as she saw them. On the 141st day, however, she sat about half an hour at the window watching the Chinamen as they dug a trench, and other sights; and so at several other times. She was always interested in movements to and fro, especially if there was any bustle. The 158th day she sat for an hour without atten- tion from us, playing with papers and watching us clear out and assort a closet of them. The sixth month, 175th day, e.g., she 82 University of California. [Vol. i. gazed awhile at her uncle writing, at her grandmother sorting eggs, then became absorbed in the Chinaman washing dishes, and stared at the process in breathless silence about fifteen minutes; when he left the dishes to take away her bath, she followed him with her eyes, so I carried her after him, and she watched him as he went through two rooms and carried out the bath, watched him through the windows while he emptied it, watched him back to the kitchen, and for some minutes longer as he washed the dishes. In the twenty-third week, she would lie and look pensively at a bright screen, e. g., and talk to it. In the second half-year, her pleasure and interest in seeing was so complicated with other growing bodily and mental activites, that I will mention here but a few instances of the simpler sort. From the seventh month through the year, the sight of animals interested her exceedingly; this was, however, complicated with a desire to seize. 199th and 200th day she was laid on a bed that had a high head with moulded figures; these held her gaze a longtime. In the eighth month, absorbed and attentive watching of new processes was noticeable, — e.g., thirty-second week, lighting the lamp (this interest was, however, stimulated by her father). In the thirty-third week, a Chinese toy, containing a moving turtle, caused for some days an especial interest, even to excitement. In the ninth month, wheeled in her carriage into new places, she was serious and deeply attentive to what she saw, though a lit- tle afraid (249th day); 257th day a spot of sunlight on the ceiling excited a marked demonstration ; 265th, she first looked up of her own accord to notice branches swaying in the wind, with surprise and interest in her expression; 271st, on a yacht, once looked over the side to watch for a little time the foam running by. Tenth month, 281st day, she discovered with a cry of joy and pointed to the sunlit tops of trees, perhaps forty feet tall and fifty feet away, and later (292d day) when on the lawn, she pointed from time to time to the tree tops, especially when yellow with the low sunlight, exclaiming with pleasure. On the 286th, she chanced to look where the sunlight brought out gilt figures on the ceiling; she smiled, pointed, then lifted both arms prettily toward it with laugh- ter and joyous exclamations; again on the 293d. During most of this month, she took great pleasure in standing at the window and Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. 83 looking out. She followed movements, e. g., sewing, with visible care and curiosity. When carried about the garden, she was satis- fied after being given a few flowers, and then was happy to be carried on, looking at her flowers and at the bright beds, crowing, murmur- ing, and laughing quietly with satisfaction; 285th day, delight in engines, especially in near approach, was first noted; this became a rapturous joy; and gave noticeable pleasure as late as the twentieth month. At just ten months she watched quietly, without offering to touch, but with absorbed attention, sitting on my lap, while I sealed and stamped letters. In the eleventh month, interest in the sights seen when driving, which had for weeks been growing, became very marked and joy- ous; she would nestle to us with murmurs of joy, give small shouts, lean to look at objects, utter syllables in joyous tones, smile and look up into our faces, clap and wave her hands; 317th day, from the bed in an upper room, she looked out of the window at a little distance, and overflowed with ejaculations of happiness at the spread of flowers and moving sunlit branches. Again, set down on the floor, shelooked out at the tops of walnut trees, now alone vis- ible, sunlit and moving, and cried out again and again with joy. She was much interested in looking down on her uncle from the window, and so thereafter. Her joy in standing at the usual window down- stairs continued: she would stand, watch, and laugh; the gardener would go by, occasionally the dog, — for the rest, she watched the trees, flowers, and birds. The 325th day she noticed a brown and white silk sofa pillow, pointing and reaching up toward it with many expressions of admiration. Part of the twelfth month she was absent, and my notes are meager ; in the fiftieth week she was deeply interested for a few days in watching the almond huller, but soon wished to get hold of and pull about the hulls. Of course there were all this time innumerable instances of interest in objects; these quoted come the nearest to simple interest in seeing; and in many of these the intellectual element is consider- able. In the looking on while things were done I saw from the tenth month a clear curiosity and effort to understand in her look and manner; and from much farther back this feeling must have been gradually increasing. 84 University of California. [Vol. i. In the second year, while her interest in sights multipHed, it is still more impossible to separate it from rrxore distinctively intel- lectual interest. The pleasure in gazing at the moon already related under Fixation, was a comparatively simple one. The principal interests falling even in part under the head of Sight during most of the second year, have been described under Color, Form, and Pictures. Most of her occupations were active, not receptive. I note in the twenty-first month that to sit without an occupation, merely looking about, even in a new place, seems impossible to her, though sometimes — rarely — she will remain still some minutes absorbed in a special sight. In this month, being once on the city street, she stared a good deal in at windows, and liked to stop along the streets to see what was to be seen. As an example of the rare instances of silent attention, in the twenty-third month, 691st day, she was silent, watching the men unload drying frames, perhaps five minutes, then went to see them dipping prunes, and watched in silence perhaps twenty minutes, then began to examine, comment, and touch. Her own consciousness of the act of seeing, as shown by her use of words, may here be spoken of. The first one she showed clear evidence of understanding was look, in the sixteenth month. She understood a number of verbs then, and if asked, "How does Ruth eat? walk ? cough ? " would illustrate. The S03d day I said to her idly, " How does Ruth look f" — when to my surprise she ran into the middle of the room, and thrusting head and body forward, . chin up, bent a dramatically exaggerated gaze before her. This experiment was repeated several times, with the same result. Within the month she began to use the word. The first time I heard her use "see," was in the eighteenth month, $226. day, when she shouted with joy at going out to see the moon, "Moo"! . 'Ky! . . . Baby! . . . Shee ! " Her mother had heard it at least a week earlier. She had certainly understood both look and see long before she used them. They did not come very early among verbs, for over thirty of these were used before any verb of seeing. In the twenty-first month, 613th day, as she stood and watched a butterfly, she looked at me earnestly and said, " Wa," repeatedly; I could not interpret it except as "Watch," Shinn.] Tlie Development of a Child. 85 probably referring to a story often read her in which a boy watched a bird. Three days later, asked, "What does Ruth do with her eyes ?" she answered, " Look." As this answer had never been taught, or suggested in any way that I could learn, it is evident that she had by this time referred the sensation of sight to her eyes; or at least had become conscious of directing her eyes toward objects in order to see them, for observe that she said " Look," not " See." 10. Interpretation. In adopting this heading from Professor Preyer, I have not used it just as he does. I wish to include here only those simplest interpretations by which we translate our oare sensations of sight into intelligent seeing, and not those in which some significance of a sight is perceived, through association and inference — as when the sight of a cloak and cap, e. g., wakes expectation of going out. Of such fundamental estimates of direction, distance, form, re- lations of bodies in space, etc., many instances have been given already in connection with other topics. Some comments and additional instances follow. The striking examination of a room from different quarters, as if to comprehend the changes in distance, relative position, and form of objects, was the earliest noticeable effort at interpretation, — very interesting to see, and giving a curious hint of the immense amount of such cerebral work necessary before the world can take orderly shape to a baby's sight. Preyer suggests that the length of a child's arm must be its first measure of distance; I should not say so, for even before it can seize it has repeatedly had opportunity to meas- sure the distance across the room by being carried to or from ob- jects whose appearance it is familiar with; it sees them in every possible position and at every distance, and in the case of my niece these changes were viewed with the intensest curiosity and effort to comprehend them in some fashion. Again, this has a bearing on Froebel's suggestion that the regular training of the sense of form should be begun with the young infant by the systematic move- 86 University of California. [Vol. i. merits of forms before it in the order of geometric simplicity; the fact that the child of its own accord, as it is moved about the room, takes a vast number of observations on the complex forms of furni- ture, etc., and most of all on the living forms about it, as they ad- vance, recede, turn, seems likely to defeat the purpose of inducting it by systematic degrees into the conceptions of form. These spontaneous observations did not begin, however, in the case of my niece, till the fourth month, and might perhaps be anticipated in the third by more systematic observation of simpler objects and movements. In the fifth month, I32d day, I swung the baby on my foot, and as she had then begun to look to our faces for sympathy in pleasure or trouble, she looked up to her grandmother, who sat beside me; and as I sat a little to the rear, saw the back and side of her grand- mother's head. Her face took on a puzzled look, and she watched the head with great steadiness till her grandmother turned and made some sound to amuse her. This she received with a look of great surprise; her jaw fell, and her brows were raised; and this was repeated several times. I then began to swing her on my foot again, and at each pause she would gaze up at her grandmother till she turned and did something to amuse her, then would be satisfied. I thouo-ht from her behavior that she was puzzled to identify the part of the head she saw with the face she expected to see when she first looked up, having known her grandmother was beside her when we sat down. This also suggests that when she gave up her eao-er study of a room grown familiar, it might have been because she had become able to identify the principal objects from any side. About a week after she was so puzzled by the back of her grand- mother's head, 141st day, I came up behind her grandfather's chair with her in my arms, and looking down at the top of his head, she set up a cry of desire to be taken, apparently knowing him from that point of view without hesitation. The sense of touch was not used to supplement that of sight in investigating the properties of bodies, until grasping was very well established; the first desire to touch and hold objects seemed vague and instinctive, but from the middle of the fifth month to the end of the year, there was a growth in disposition to use the senses jointly, with more and more definite curiosity and investigating spirit. Shinn.] TJlc Development of a Child. 87 Some interpretations as to place and direction more complex than those already mentioned, follow. The disappearance of peo- ple from a room, and reappearance outside the window, seemed to cost her much perplexity; the first time I noticed this, was near the end of the fourth month, when from a place that commanded view of both inside of door and outer step, through a window, she watched her grandfather disappear and reappear on the outside, with a look of great surprise (119th day). This 'was two weeks before the incident related above (page 23) of her correct estimate of the place to which I might be expected to have moved across the room, but that was a simpler case; in this, the intervention of the door and wall, which apparently closed the view, was the puzzle. Early m the 6th month, 156th day, she desired som^ flowers in her mother's hand, and to hide them from her, her mother tucked them under the carriage blanket at her feet; but the baby seemed to know where they were, and leaned forward, plucking at the blanket and complaining. Yet it was the tenth month before she became habitually able to trace up objects which she had seen put out of sight. Late in the sixth month, 175th day, in another room from the one where she had become somewhat familiar with the passing of people through the door and reappearing outside, I was surprised to see her turn to the window to look for someone who had passed out of the door as she watched him ; then, as he passed that win- dow, to the next one, as if understanding that he would pass by that. I concluded that this was pure inference from experience, for a week later, the last day of the sixth month, she turned and looked expectantly from the window on seeing her mother leave the room by a door on the- opposite side, which led upstairs. In the eighth month she seemed to understand clearly where people would be seen when they had passed out of the door first mentioned, and turning to look, or waving adieu, became habitual ; but at no time in the first year did her understanding of the other doors and win- dows seem to be clear. Her experience in the woodshed late in the sixth month (page 80), made a very heavy demand on her sense of locality and direc- tion; and her deep attention to familiar persons moving in part in places not unfamiliar, but seen from a new quarter, and most of all 88 University of California. 'Vol. i. her surprise in finding that a new road from a strange place brought her into the old room, shows that she had some sort of precon- ception of local relations, however vague, to be jarred. The expe- rience is one that, in a more definite psychological form, I can parallel from my own memory. In selecting the foregoing notes from my record, I have ex- cluded much that relates more or less nearly to Sight, wishing to keep as nearly as possible to the subject of the mere sense percep- tion, and the closely related eye-movements, interpretations, etc. It is absolutely impossible, however, in recording incidents as they occurred, to preserve a rigid classification of topics, for the grow- ing powers of the child show themselves all together in the most complex manner, especially after the first year. MiLicENT Washburn Shinn. MEASUREMENTS AND HEALTH IN THE THIRD YEAR, The child's height at two years was 33 inches, her weight 28 pounds. At three years, her height was 36^ inches, her weigh •. was set down at 34^ pounds. I did not see this weight taken, and as one month earlier she weighed 32 pounds, and one month later 33/4, while her growth to all appearances was uniform, I have little doubt that 33 pounds was nearer the true weight. Monthly records were not strictly kept: so far as they go, they indicate a fairly uni- form growth, with no long stationary periods, and no decrease. The child's health was in general robust, and her spirits high. Some half-dozen slight derangements, — cold or indigestion, — are recorded. They usually affected her spirits very little ; but a few instances of peevishness are noted. For example, in the last week of the twenty-fifth month, after having had a cold for two weeks, she whimpered one day at trifles, — because her sleeves did not suit her, and because her mother brushed her hair back; and hear- ing her father go upstairs from another room, where he had been occupied without reference to her, she whined unreasonably, " I don't want papa to go upstairs," and put up her lip to cry. In the latter part of the twenty-seventh month, two molars were cut: she was noticeably joyous during these very weeks, running, frisking, shout- ing, and trying to sing; but a few days before the first of the teeth came through, she surprised us one day by crying clamorously at trifles. From the last week of the thirtieth month to the latter part of the thirty-fifth, I was impressed with a vague diminution of spirits; the child showed less good will, less spontaneity, and though much of the time she was running over with a desire of noise and motion, jumping about, shouting, and squealing, she seemed to us rather noisy than merry, and we often noticed a dull expression of face. During much of the thirty-fourth month she was quiet, willing to sit on our laps, and said it made her tired to run. She seemed in excellent health all this time, and her muscular strength was good, for in the middle of the thirty-fifth month she for some minutes dragged about in a toy wagon, at a run, a large, heavy boy twenty- (8q) go University of California. [Vol. i. one months old, — on a smooth tiled surface, to be sure. In the latter part of the thirty-fifth month, I noticed increasingly happy .spirits, more frequent laughter, and a charmingly spontaneous gay- ety. The highest health and spirits continued to the end of the year and beyond. This coincides with my observations in the second year, the months of less brightness being the same, — from latter March or early April to September. Yet there is no depressing spring or summer heat in this climate, and April and May are not warmer than September and October; while the summer months are those of her most constant outdoor life. During the first year also I noticed a change of expression, — a more bright and joyous look and manner, — as the fall months came on; and photographs of that year illustrate the difference. SIGHT IN THE THIRD YEAR. I. Sensibility to Light. In the winter (twenty-sixth and twenty-seventh months) the child was quick to notice the change of hght when the sun broke through the clouds. As we sat at lunch, in the sixty-fourth week, e. g., it broke dimly through, and she shouted jubilantly, "Sunshine! See sunshine!" An instance of observing and comparing brightnesses occurred in the thirty-sixth month, when, looking at the evening sky, she observed, "Two stars, — but one is darker than the other." It was odd that deficiency of light, rather than brightness, should be the means of comparison. 2. Color. I saw no decided signs of preference in color in the third year. Early in the twenty-fifth month, I thought violet somewhat favored, and red disliked, yet in this same month the child would insist that I button my shoes with a little red-handled button hook, instead of either a black or a silver one, and was interested in red leaves. In stringing the Hailmann beads, the order in which she took them was determined by form, not color. During the daffodil season, from the middle of the twenty-eighth month on for some si.y weeks, she hung about the flowers, saying, "Those your daffodils! " hardly able to keep her hands off them; and I was told that in making a scrapbook about this time she always preferred yellow pictures : but in the thirtieth month I noticed that neither form nor color of flowers seemed to affect her preference, — the flowers that interested her were the rare or novel ones, while those she was allowed to pick freely, as the abundant showy nasturtiums, were treated with in- difference. One day late in this month, in looking over many colored plates from the London Garden^ she showed admiration only when we came to bright pink flowers. Her solicitude as to the gown I should put on continued, espe- cially if she was in the room while I was dressing: she usually ob- (91) g2 University of California. [Vol. i. jected to brown, and oftenest wished me to wear the lemon and black challis slip that had been her favorite in the second year. Once, early in the twenty-sixth month, when I had told her I could not wear the "yellow dress," but must put on a brown one, she asked if I would not wear a yellow ribbon, and turned to a drawer whence she had once seen me take one. In the thirty-first month, comincr to my room for the first meeting after two weeks' absence, her only greeting was, " Will you put on your yellow dress, aunty?" I put on instead a dark red one, which she had not seen; she said she liked it, but when asked which she liked best, said the yellow one. Except in the fondness for this gown, I saw no consistent preference for yellow; and I think it probable that some other trait besides color had taken her fancy in this case. Among her own dresses she consistently preferred those with jackets, guimpes, sashes, or other decoration, whatever the color. In the twenty- ninth month, white seemed to please her best among plain slips ; in the thirty-sixth month I noticed that among these pink was always chosen, and her mother told me that at the beginning of the thirty- first month the child said to her, " Mamma, when you get little I going to get you a pink dress and a pink sunbonnet." Her discrimination of color was so far complete by the end of the second year that I kept no notes concerning it in the third, except a few as to difficult discriminations ; and even these are not a full record, but only instances by way of example, Thus at the end of the twenty-sixth month she called a lavender card " violet," without hesitation; and looking at a very dark olive book, called it (as many grown people would) "black," — then, "No, that ain't black; that is black," pointing to a really black book. A few days later, just at the beginning of the twenty-seventh month, I asked her, as she looked out of the window at sunset, "What color are the hills?" and she answered rightly, "Violet." Late in the same month, she called very pale lavender blossoms "white:" but when white was placed beside them she became doubtful, and said she did not know what color; it was really very near to white. A few days later, when I called a dark blue book with a shade of purple, "blue," she criticised me, calling it "violet." Of parti-colored books she would say, "That yellow and white;" "That red and white;" shinn.] TJie Developjnent of a Cliild. 03 once, " That part brown and part 'nother kind brown," which was right. She has not been formally taught any distinction between the many and various tones called brown, but to her "What's that?-" we have often had to answer, "Another kind of brown," having just told her something quite different was brown. She seemed to comprehend more or less the tract of color covered by the word. A week later, early in the twenty-eighth month, in put- ting back books on the shelf, she arranged a very light brown with the white ones; a light sage green she asked about as if it were a new color, and when pressed to say herself what it was, answered "Green" reluctantly, as if she did not think it really was so. About a week later, she was told she should see some yellow fish, and was shown goldfish; she called them orange, and presently asked where the yellow fish were. In the first week of the thirtieth month, she found an envelope in which some cards intended to connect the six leading colors had been placed, with other difficult tones; she wished to hand these to me, naming them. For the most part, she named each one rightly, according to the pure color it most resembled. One between green and blue she hesitatingly called blue. "What else does it look like?" I said. — "Green." The one between yellow and orange she could see only as orange. Interest in color increased in this year. The following incidents are mere examples of the way in which it was over and over shown: — Late in the twenty-fifth month, seeing a break in the clouds, the child pointed with a cry, "See! Blue sky!" A month or two before she had seemed entirely obtuse to the difference between sky and clouds when it was pointed out. At just twenty-six months, she pointed to the west after sunset, crying. See! See! Pretty red sky ! " Late in the twenty-eighth month, after hesitantly giving correct answers when asked about the yellow and gray markings of a cat, she volunteered, " The fire is yellow; but the coals are black." Late in the thirtieth month: "My trowel has a yellow spot on it. Where did that yellow spot come from ? " Two days later, she was looking silently out of the window. " What are you thinking about?" I asked. "I looking at those white cherry blossoms," she answered. In the middle of the thirty-first month, she cried to me with surprise that here was a piece of yellozv soap, a color that, 94 University of California. [Vol. i. it seems, she had not seen in soap. The same day, picking up fallen eucalyptus leaves, she commented, ' ' Here 's a red leaf, — - and a green one." In the middle of the thirty-second month, picking a strawberry, " That is red on one side, and green on one side." Early in the thirty-third month, watching her kitten, " Miss Gracie did n't give me a green kitty. Men don't make green kitties." Late in the thirty-sixth month, "These strawberries are red, like I are." — " Like you? " I asked. — " Red like my dress are." In the thirty-fifth month she first tried to compose a story, which was about little girls going to school; and in the thirty-sixth dwelt much on a romance about certain imaginary parrots : the color of the buckets carried by the schoolgirls and the colors of the parrots were always specified. On the other hand, she seemed all the year as much interested in small uncolored pictures as in the most gayly colored ones. Once, late in the twenty-eighth month, she insisted that some curved figures in a Persian embroidery, shaped like slugs but of totally different color, — bright red, blue, and green, — were slugs. In the thirty-sixth month, a curious incident showed that she had been able to look at a color many times without becoming conscious of it. She had been away from home all day, and as we drove into the home grounds, after she had already recognized that she was at home, her father confused her by asking, " Did you ever see this house before?" She looked it over, saying mechanically, "No," then cried suddenly, " It is a red house! " and repeated the excla- mation once or twice; then after a pause, " Manmia, it was n't red before." Yet she had all her life played about the house, driven from and to it, recognized it on return, and had never seen it of any other color than the decided Indian red she now first recognized. Of the instances of observation of color and interest in it men- tioned above, one or two show something like a pleasure in color that might be called sesthetic. I watched for a disposition to arrangement of objects by color, as having some rudiment of aesthetics. At twenty-eight months old the child began to take pains when putting back books on the shelves to put all the white ones together, imitating for the first time the practice I had observed for her benefit for many months; those with white backs and col- shinn.] The Development of a CJiild. 95 ored sides were ranged with the white ones. She did not keep up the practice long. In the thirtieth month, having her color tablets again for the first time in many weeks, she asked, " What can I do with them ?" and was interested in putting them into piles by color, which she had never cared to do before ; with my help she did it pretty well. It did not prove a lasting interest, however. In the thirty-third month her chief interest in the sticks of the kinder- garten eighth gift was to sort them by colors. Once I laid them in a spectrum of broad bands, while she handed me the colors. When I had completed the spectrum, she surveyed it and com- mented, " The green is between the blue and the yellow." Encour- aged, she went on and in like manner named the position of each band of color. I thought for a while that some sense of harmony in color was becoming apparent. Her mother had taught her that her pink sunbonnet must be worn with pink dresses, etc., and she was quite punctilious about it. Early in the twenty-fifth month, sent to get a sunbonnet, she was a long time gone and then came back with a brown silk cap she had sought out instead of any of her sunbonnets, saying she must wear this because she had on a buff dress. A month later, after asking me to put on a yellow ribbon with a brown gown, she added, " No, — brown ribbon." Again, a month later, she pulled off my yellow ribbon: "You mustn't wear that ribbon- You must wear brown ribbon, because you have brown dress." At the end of the thirtieth month a black lace hat that I put on when wearing the black and lemon slip she liked, displeased her, and she said, " I don't like you to wear that black hat with a yellow dress." This apparent interest in combination of colors never came to any- thing, and must have been mere imitation; and months later, when she had a fancy for dressing her dolls in sundry ribbons and rags, her disregard of color discords was absolute, — no combination was sought, and none whatever proscribed. ^6 University of California. [Vol. i. 3. Form. My notes for the third year supply a {^^ instances of discrimina- tion of plane forms, which may be added to those already given in the record of the second year. Early in the twenty -fifth month, I was told, the child called a square with the corners cut off a " round square." In the latter part of the month, playing with a string of the large Hailmann beads, she laid it in a circle; and when I pointed out the figure, she took up the suggestion and interested herself in making circles over and over. She then laid it down doubled on itself, and called it an oblong. In the last week of the twenty-sixth month she attempted to make an O, and then, surveying it, observed, " That ain't quite O." It was, as always, irregular; she now seemed for the first time to feel this, was visibly dissatisfied, and after trying once or twice more asked me to make an O, and gave an exclamation of satisfaction at mine. She was fond of scribbling at this time. In the middle of the twenty-seventh month she struck the idea of drawing an oblong by drawing parallel lines and then shorter cross lines, I saw her do this first on the slate, and so was not able to preserve the drawing. In the evening of the same day, she remarked that she was going to draw an oblong, and repeated the method; but drifting away from her intention went on to multiply the cross lines. The day after this she made her first attempt at pictorial drawing ; I shall not speak here, however, of drawing further than it illustrates her comprehension of simple geometric form. She not infrequently asked us to draw these figures for her; once, late in the twenty-seventh month, she asked me to "write lit- tle oblong," and kept me at it with grave interest till I had made over fifty oblongs, which she wished me to range in rows on the paper. Near the end of the thirty-second month, I gave her a box of the little colored sticks used in kindergartens, and showed her how to lay them in squares. A few days later she tried to make a square herself, but finding it not easy, wished me to doit, while she handed me the sticks. She was especially interested in seeing me lay as Shinn.] The Development of a Child. 97 3. ^ I, 2. 56th week. Circle and ellipse. 3. 56th week. Apparently meant for oblong, yet the child gave no sign that she recognized or intended it as such. It is entirely unlike the other draw- ings or scribblings of this period. 4. 56th week. Ellipses and circle, her usual method of drawing, — with a continuous line, one figure after another. 98 University of California. [Vol. I 5. 56th week. First attempt at imitating writing, — done with a careful, niggling motion, unlike the scribblings or figure drawings, while she said slowly, as she had heard us say in writing her name to amuse her, " R-u t-h." 6. 58th week. This figure began with the aimless scribbling (see Fig. 7) seen in the lower part; but having accidentally discovered a triangle amid her lines, the child began to alter their character, in order to produce more tri- angles; and later scribblings took more the character of the upper part of this figure, and triangles were from time to time sought among them. 7- 58th week. Typical aimless scribbling of that date. 8. 6ist week. Having made the four-cornered figure, the child cried out that it was a square. It may have been accidentally made. In the two attempts at circles intersecting it, note how nearly the line comes back to meet itself. The child was entirely indifferent to making her figures clear and sepa- rate, and constantly drew them over each other, as in this instance. As origi- nally drawn, several other figures crossed these three. 9. 62d week. The child, scribbling, cried to me that she had made an oblong, and showed me the upper figure (A) in this group. The other figures in it were all made in attempts to repeat the oblong. After making B, she ex- claimed that it was a triangle. 10. 63d week, oblong. / 100 ) TJie Development of a Child. lOI II. Square, oblong, enipse and circle, 99th week The inferiority of forms drawn in the thirty-fifth month to those drawn earlier seems partly due to the fact that she had not been handling the tablets for some time; pardy to more consciousness and effort, — she drew with less free hand. That the difference between square and oblong, circle and ellipse, was dis- tinct in her mind before she began to draw was evident by the way she went to work. I02 University of California. [Vol. i. iai'ge squares as possible, or dse one within another with sides parallel. She was occupied at least an hour thus, and for some weeks took mo;e or less interest in seeing forms made with sticks. About the middle of the thirty-third month, making a square for her, I asked her as usual to hand me four sticks. She selected four of the longest ones, then handed me another, saying, " Take five sticks, aunty; make me a big, big square." When I told her I could not make her a square with five, she seemed utterly uncom- prehending. I then showed her the figure they made, and had her count the sides; she admitted that it was not a square, but was silent and seemed puzzled. She did not show the marked interest of the second year in recognizing plane forms about her, but used their names easily on occasion ; e. g., she spoke of the stamp in the corner of a sheet of commercial note paper as "that ellipse." A few notes on solid form also were kept during the year. Early in the twenty- fifth month the child called a rectangular prism an "oblong cylinder." Late in the twenty-sixth she accepted readily a description of a stovepipe as a cylinder; and by the twenty-ninth month I thought she had the idea of the cylinder, and still more of the ball, fairly well generalized, — though nothing like as well as that of the plane figures. The cube she could not recognize except in the blocks and Hailmann beads with which she had been taught; a cubical box, for instance, never suggested the cube to her. Indeed, I have neither note nor memory of ever hearing her spontaneously recognize any solid form in the objects about her. In the middle of the thirtieth month I once asked her what shape her balloon was. "I don't know." — "Cube, or cylinder, or ball?" I asked. — "Not cube and cylinder, — ball., aunty." The same day I gave her the kindergarten "second gift," and in this she recognized the three forms at once. About the middle of the thirty-fifth month, I asked her what shape her arm was; she considered carefully, and said it was a cylinder. Next day I asked her the shape of the branches of a tree in which the typical shape is unusually apparent, and again after consideration she answered, "Cylinder." In the thirty-sixth month I cautioned her, "If you should drop your ball out of the buggy, the wheel might run over it." — "And make it a cy'der," she said, Shinn.] The Development of a Child. 103 — a somewhat remarkable suggestion, as she had not been told anything like this. (Even in the fourth year, her idea of the cylin- der is not altogether general; for when she was about thirty-nine months old someone asked her the shape of some cylindrical blocks shorter than their diameter, a novel form to her, and she at once resorted to the test of rolling them, and finding they would roll, answered that they were cylinders.) Two or three times in the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth months she selected the Hailmann beads according to form by their feeling, as in the second year, without difficulty. At the beginning of the year, in stringing and playing with the beads, she preferred the cylinders and cared least for the cubes; though she asked for the beads under the name of "cubes." In a few days, however, she began to ask for them as "my little cubes and cylinders." During the twenty-sixth month she would almost always select and lay aside, or hand to me, the balls, then amuse herself with the rest; this probably because the balls were trouble- some in rolling away, and could not be piled. Up to the middle of this month she took much interest in the beads, sometimes string- ing them, sometimes piling, sometimes assorting a little ; after this she ceased to care much for them; in the latter part of the twenty- sixth month, however, she played with them again for several days, and in stringing made unmistakable choice of balls first, then cylin- ders, then cubes, — once saying as she began, "First the balls, then the cylinders, then the cubes." 4. Pictures. ' I have frequent notes of interest in pictures during the early months of the year, but none from the thirtieth to the thirty-fifth (April — July). In the fall months, the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth, the interest revived. The freedom of outdoor occupation during the summer months may have had to do with the loss of interest, but I cannot but note its coincidence with the period of lowered mental, or temperamental, brightness noted above. Pictures of animals were oftenest interesting; in the twenty- sixth month a book with fine plates of birds and flowers was for I04 University of California. [Vol. i. some days a favorite, attention being given entirely to the birds; later in the same month, a jeweler's catalogue was most interesting, and the uncolored cuts of watches, rings, pins, etc., were pored over day after day with many questions; in the twenty-eighth month a German picture book with a variety of pictures, all figures, and all telling some story, was favored; in the thirty -fifth and thirty-sixth months. Floss's "Das Kleine Kind" with its small uncolored cuts of babies' cribs, chairs, the methods of carrying them, etc., in various countries, occupied and interested the child deeply. I have men- tioned above my observation that small, uncolored pictures pleased her as well as the finest ones : the story told seemed the thing she cared for. That is to say, pictures were still merely a language to her; there was no evidence of an aesthetic side to her interest. She liked to be told a little about each picture, but not too much, — the story must be mainly told by the picture. I cannot doubt that in this third year she understood well enough the relation of pictures to real objects; yet once in the latter part of the twenty fifth month, in a movement of sympathy for a lamb caught in briars, she tried to lift a branch that lay across him in the picture, — whether forgetting for the moment that she could not, or merely as a demonstration of feeling. Again, in the last week of the thirty- fifth month, looking at a picture of a chamois defending her little one from an eagle, she asked anxiously if the mamma would drive the eagle away, and presently, quite simply and uncon- sciously, placed her little hand edgewise on the picture, so as to make a fence between the eagle and the chamois. Early in the twenty-sixth month, looking at the watches in the jeweler's catalogue she said, "Aunty, that some kind of a watch — to turn round and round" (as she had seen stem-winders wound). When a picture of a breaking lamp was explained to her, she looked at it seriously, then said, "That lamp chimney did broke." With these simple interpretations compare one of about the middle of the twenty-seventh month : "When Prudy has given that little leaf to that bird," — pointing, — "then she will get down and play with that kitty-cat." At twenty-six months she recognized from pictures, after a little consideration, a small carved elephant, about two feet high. In the last week of the year, she recognized the first living elephant and shinn.] The Development of a Child. 105 monkeys she had seen, and I think recognized camels also, all from pictures. Evidently size counted for little in her recognition/ 5. Interest. Interest in seeing for its own sake, apart from some pretty dis- tinct mental occupation, was very rare in the third year. To sit and gaze quietly at anything was almost impossible to the child. Late in the twenty-eighth month she once sat quietly in my lap gazing out of the window, which my note comments on as "most unusual"; and again near the end of the thirtieth month. This second time I asked her, "What are you thinking about?" — "I looking at those white cherry blossoms," — a tree about 1 50 feet away. After a pause: "And I looking at those little baby roses," — a Banksia in heavy bloom. Once, early in the thirty-fifth month, I note her lik- ing for sitting with me at the window and looking out at the stars and dark trees. She was also always fond of being carried into the garden to see the moon, and had at such times a pleased but some- what hushed and awed manner. Besides what may be found in these incidents and those under Color, above, I saw little trace of aesthetic sensibility. The crude liking for ornamented dress seemed its most clear and consistent exhibition. Once in the thirty-fifth month I was told that the child displayed very unusual temper in the intensity of her desire to wear one of the favored dresses, and resisted having a plain one put on, with tears and outcry : "I will unbutton dis and take it off! " "I don't sink it is pitty ! " Some instances of expressions of admiration (not a frequent thing with her) would be more significant if it were possible to know how soon such words as "pretty," "beautiful," came to mean any- thing more to her than merely interesting or novel ; or how far they were used in sheer imitation. Thus near the end of the twenty -fifth month, she said, "How pretty that is!" of a brooch; in the twenty- seventh month, taken out on Christmas eve for a drive to an aunt's, she cried joyously, "O beautiful moon ! and star! " [O boo'fu' moo' ! ^ That she could estimate size somewhat by the eye was evident on this occa- tsion: for the day after she saw these animals, I asked her how big the elephant ivas, — as big as grandpa's house? — "Oh, no!" she cried, as if at an absurdity. — "Bigger than grandpa's horses ? " — " Oh, yes ! " io6 University of California. [Vol. i. a' 'tar!] as soon as she saw them. Late in the thirtieth month, "How pretty that tree is!" late in the thirty-first, "I like to see so many roses!" at just thirty-one months old, driving over a bridge, "See the beautifully creek ! " [de booful-ly keek] ; in the thirty- fourth month, "F ve got the prettiest stone ! " In the thirty-fifth month she said of the doll she preferred, "I think this one is the prettiest;" again, "I like her best;" again, "I like her very much, because I love her so." The doll was not the prettiest, nor even the freshest, but an old cast-off one that had come into the child's hands; and was probably preferred simply because the most lately acquired. In the thirty-sixth month she was pleased with a book with conspic- uous cover decoration, and cried, "Here's a book wiv some pitty f'oways [flowers] on it!" HEARING. I. Sensibility to Sound. The first distinct evidence of hearing that I myself observed was on the 6th day : the baby cried out suddenly in her sleep when her father tore a paper sharply some four or five feet from her. I was told however that earlier, on the 3d or 4th day, she had started violently, while nursing, when a paper was torn some eight feet away and that several times on these days she started and cried out even in sleep, when a paper was rustled sharph^ as her father sat by the bed.' In the first week she did not seem to notice when on his return in the afternoon her father sat close by, reading aloud or talking; but in the second and third weeks she always became restless at this time. The more modulated voices of women who were in the room the rest of the time, appeared not to affect her at all. The sensitiveness to sound seemed variable; for on the 23d day, when I purposely rustled paper near the baby, it produced no clear reaction. On this same day, also, I struck an ordinary table call-bell several times, suddenly and sharply, at a distance of 2 feet from her head, and several times at i foot, without calling out any certain sign of hearing. Once at 6 inches and once at 3 inches the stroke of the bell was followed by a sudden and distinct wink; but when nursing she did not wink, even when the bell was struck suddenly three inches from her ear. A large dinner bell at 3 feet and 2 feet produced a slight quiver of the lids ; when it was struck at I foot she stopped nursing and threw one hand out. In these experiments, I took especial pains to allow a sufficient inter- val between the strokes of the bell, as I noticed that the decline 1 Mrs. Eleanor Sharp gives me the note that the first sign of hearing observed in her boy was that on the 3d or 4th day he was disturbed by the rattling of a newspaper his father was reading. (107) io8 University of California. [Vol. i. of sensibility was very marked if the sounds followed at all closely. The 27th day, she showed no sign of hearing single notes on the piano, from the highest to the lowest. Yet she started at a hand-clap behind her head, and as her hair was unusually thick, it seems scarcely likely that she felt any puff of air. The next day she noticed chords; but of her attention to these I will speak under a separate head below. The 37th day, the servant brought in her bath, and set it down abruptly, so that the tin handles rattled. The baby, lying half asleep on my lap, started violently, with a cry so loud that it brought in her grandfather from two rooms away to see what was wrong ; she put up her lip with the first crying grimace she had ever made, and showed the effect of the fright in a disturbed face for five min- utes. Yet throughout the first two months there were also many times when she failed to pay any attention to sounds quite as striking as the few she did notice. The great variation in sensi- bility struck me especially in the second month. From early in the third month (69th day), I note repeatedly that she was diverted more or less when being dressed or fretful for any other reason, by hearing things rattled. The 83d day, she showed no attention to a watch at her ear. In the fifth month, 134th day, she was startled while nursing by a piece of coal dropped on the hearth, and sat up and cried a little, with a pitiful expression. Other instances of attention to sound in the second and third months occur below, under other heads. In the seventh month, 202d day, I note as an unusual incident her starting when I called her suddenly; but in the eighth month she invariably winked if a door slammed, hands were clapped, or articles rapped together near her. Early in the ninth month, 249th day, she stopped play and turned to look, hearing a pencil dropped behind her on a matted floor, several feet away; a few minutes later she turned to look when a horse stamped, some forty feet outside, the door and window being closed. Again, she stopped m the midst of taking her food when an engine whistled, a mile away. About two weeks later, 265th day, she turned to look when a woodpecker struck a tree, some shinn.] The Development of a Child. 109 fifty feet away. In the tenth month she was quick to look and listen at the note of a bird, the whistle of an engine miles away, etc., — once, on the 285th day, she turned at the chirp of a cricket. Her recognition and discrimination of sounds, which was good before the end of the year, showed clear hearing. 2. Direction. The earliest ability to direct her look, except when it was drawn along by something on which her eyes were fixed, was when guided by the continuous sound of the piano close by, as already mentioned under Sight. From the fifth to the seventh week when listening she had stared into the face of the person who was playing, as if she associated that with the sound; but on the 45th day she turned once and looked at the keys, and on the 57th began to watch them as the source of the sound. The 92d day, just before she was three months old, I first saw her look for the source of any other sound. Someone sneezed — not especially loud — when she was nursing; she stopped suddenly, seemed startled, and made sounds of discomfort, and her mother lifted her into a sitting position to divert her, on which she turned her head and looked with every appearance of intention in the direction of the sound. I was told, however, that a few days before she had lifted her head at the sound of the fire snapping, and looked as if to see where it came from. From this time she would occasionally turn her head to seek the source of sounds, — once in the twentieth week, at the humming of a teakettle, — and by the second six months it was common. It seemed to me from the first that she guided her look quite accurately toward the sound. The incident of her locating me when I called to her over the top of a tall screen (165th and i68th days) has been given under the head of Sight (p. 23); also that of her difficulty in finding the sour'ce of our voices when we called to her from a second-story window, — and this difficulty appeared even in the thirteenth month (386th day) when her position was a little unfavorable, off at one side of the window. I found on the early occasion, when she was about six months old, that a sufficiently Iio . University of California. [Vol. i. sharp and striking sound, as the rusthng of paper, would draw her eyes up to the window when our voices failed. At this age she was under ordinary circumstances quite accu- rate in turning toward a voice, but when two persons were close together and one called her, she would occasionally look at the wrong one. In the tenth month, I thought she located sounds remarkably well: e. g., the 293d day, a horse stamping inside a stable eight or ten rods away; a man moving about inside a neighboring building. Earlier, the 282d day, I had seen her turn at sound of an approach- ing wagon to watch for its appearance around the curve of the drive, about a hundred feet away ; but this was probably inference and memory, rather than correct location of the sound; and on the 286th day when she heard someone moving about in the room above, she looked at the stair door, instead of upward. In the fourteenth and fifteenth months, trying to find me in a dark room, she would run directly toward the sound of my voice. In the nineteenth month (592d day) hearing a church bell ring out unusually clear, a mile away, she ran toward the sound, crying, "Bell! ring!" and began to seek the bell in seeming surprise. It seemed to me noticeable that when she had no knowledg-e whatever of the whereabouts of the bell, she should move without hesitation in the right direction. Again, in the twenty-eighth month, the school bell, also a mile away, began to ring; the child stopped playing and cried, " I heard de 'cool bell!" She was familiar with the sound of this bell, but the schoolhouse was not visible, and, though she had often passed it, it was by a roundabout road, which started out in an entirely different direction. "Where was it? — Point," I said. She pointed accurately. Yet once in the twentieth month, hearing an electric bell that was fixed in the ceiling of a corridor where she was walking, she ran about looking for it in vain. It would seem, comparing this incident with her difficulty in finding us when we called from upper windows, that a sound con- siderably above her was harder to locate than one on the same level. Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. ill 3. Recognition and Discrimination of Sounds. The first sign of this that I detected was in the fifth month, 137th day. I was somewhat hoarse with a cold, and when I spoke the baby looked and listened in a way that I thought showed a sense of something unusual about my voice. At this time I often read softly to her mother as she nursed the baby and sang low to her meanwhile. On the 149th day, as I did this, the baby suddenly raised her head and gave me an inquiring look, evidently for the first time distinguishing our voices as two separate sounds. At just five months, when about to reach for an object that interested her, she stopped half a dozen times in succession just as she had leaned forward and put out her hand, to look over her shoulder with a grave and puzzled expression at the sound of her father's voice in conversation the other side of the room. From the sixth month on, the deep voice of the family doctor, unlike that of any member of the family, affected her, and on the 229th day I felt her thrill in my arms every time the deep note vibrated as he spoke loudly; she looked and listened whenever he spoke. In the eighth month, 231st day, she stopped play and listened intently, hearing her uncle sing, two rooms away, with the doors closed between; her manner made me think she was trying to rec- ognize the voice. In the ninth month, 257th day, she crawled twice, I was told, to the door, hearing on the other side the voice of her grandfather, who was then her especial favorite. By the end of the eleventh month there seemed no longer any doubt that she did definitely recognize the voices of the family, even in other rooms, for she would stop and listen, then beg to go to them. The consciousness of difference in verbal sounds appeared almost as soon as consciousness of difference in voices. During the fifth month her mother and grandmother said to her a great deal, ''Pa-pa" hoping to hasten her understanding of the word. On the 149th day, they told me, she imitated the motion of the lips, and apparently amused by the feeling, laughed, and thereafter laughed whenever she heard the sounds. This was repeated for 112 University of Calif ojmia. [Vol. i. my observation, and although at first the word spoken by me did not produce the same effect, I tried again when she was undressed and very happy, and altered the vowel (saying poo-poo, pup-pu, etc.) and the consonant {ba-ba, bd-ba, etc.), and found that she invariably laughed, chuckling aloud with gayety at the broad vow- els, — this some twenty times. She was more amused when looking at the lips, but smiled in any case. The same sounds pronounced in ordinary speech, without the marked emphasis, did not amuse. No other consonants with the same vowels interested her ; though on the theory that the amusement lay in the visible action of the lips and the association with a novel feeling there I tried m especially. After the first day it made no difference which of us said papa to her, different though our voices and inflections were, — she always laughed; 151st day, when just five months old, she once stopped in the middle of a cry to laugh at it. After some ten days the invariable gayety at the sound faded, and by the i62d day it no longer amused, but a rapid pop-pop-pop-pop, at which she had before only stared in wonder, now made her smile, and often thereafter. No effort to associate these sounds with her father had the slightest success. Late in the sixth month, 173d day, she turned so often when her name was called that I tried to find if it was only the calling tone she recognized, and called her in the same tone by several others. I found she would turn only for "Ruth," or nicknames containing a similar vowel sound, such as "Toots." These were, it is true, nicknames by which she was often called, but for others quite as frequent, e. g., " Baby," she would not turn. In five or six careful trials, made behind her, I found that she would turn and look intelligently into my face whenever called with the long vowel (il or 00); and though trials in the next two days were imperfectly suc- cessful, they were entirely so on the 178th day, and thereafter. Just at the beginning of the eighth month she began to know the names of the family, and thereafter understanding of words steadily developed. In the ninth month, 249th day, she stopped play and listened with a look of surprise for a minute or more, hearing the piano in the farther corner of the next room; then seeming to recognize the Shinn.] TJie Development of a Child. 1 1 3 sound, began to utter cries of appeal, desiring to get at it and pound. Throughout the thirty-seventh week she showed the same excite- ment when one took up a toy cat and mewed behind it that she did at sight of the real cats, and quite possibly recognized the sound. She certainly did at a year old (367th day), and laughed aloud with recognition, when someone, amusing her with very clever animal noises, imitated a cat. In the second year she recognized too many sounds to enumer- ate. E. g., in the sixteenth month she knew a bee's humming, and would say, "Bee!" on hearing it. In the same month she used the word "squeak" of a squeaking made in the pipes by the water run- ning out of the tub; and asked on the 507th day what the birds — who were chirping, not warbling — said, she answered, after listening, " Squeak." She knew at this time the most distant sound of cars rumbling, or the whistle, and would cry, "Choo-choo!" When she was twenty months old, she showed appreciation of the difference between a near and distant whistle, observing, " Choo- choo! Way off! Hear choo-choo more ! " (/. e., I wish to hear it more.) Thediscrimination was the more difficult as she was indoors, and the sound came through walls. In the next month or two, "Ruth hear choo-choo, way off," was not an infrequent remark. By the twenty-second month she recognized all ordinary bird notes as by "birdies" in general, and the owl's and quail's she knew specifically. While camping in the woods she heard a bluejay's note, was told what it was, and — I was told — always recognized it after- ward, crying " Booday !" " Ruth did hear big bluejay birdy," and " Ruth hear fishman horn," were among sentences noted by her mother just after the close of the twenty-third month. In the thirty-first month I thought she showed some sense of the phonic values of the letters; her grandmother had told her the spellings s-o, n-o, etc., and without much teaching she would go through four or five of these, naming the word when the spelling was given her, without mistake. This exercise was not followed up, however, and she was well on in the first half of the fourth year before it became unmistakable that spelling a word suggested its sound to her. Many other notes that bear on this topic, in the second and third years especially, are reserved for the subject of Speech. 114 University of Calif oiniia. [Vol. i. A i