rnWiTiTI»Tl r i tit m i w Hi ■ ■ ■ ■ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/earthaswholeOOtarr THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Tarr and McMurry's Geographies are made up in two Series, which for convenience have been designated The Three Book Series and The Five Book Series. The Three Book Series First Book - - Home Geography Second Book - - North America Third Book - - Europe and Other Continents The Five Book Series First Part - - Home Geography Second Part - The Earth as a Whole Third Part - - North America Fourth Part - - Europe, South America, etc. Fifth Part - - Asia and Africa, with Review of North America When ordering, be careful to specify the Book or part and the Series desired. TARR AND McMURRY GEOGRAPHIES SECOND PART THE EARTH AS A WHOLE BY RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. PROFESSOR OF DYNAMIC GEOLOGY AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY AND FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING AT TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY WITH MANY COLORED MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS CHIEFLY PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES New York City Edition Enlarged to Cover Grades IB, 5 A, and 5 B THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1908 All rights reserved CLASS A- XXc.No,) ' COPY B. 1> Copyeight, 1900, 1908, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. New York City Edition. Published February, 1908. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAET II. THE EAKTH AS A WHOLE. PAGE Section I. Form and Size of the Earth Ill Its Form, 111. Size op the Earth, 113. Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results . 115 The Axis and Poles, 115. The Equator, 116. Gravity, 116. Sunrise and Sunset, 117. Day and Night, 117. Section III. The Zones 120 Boundaries of the Zones, 120. Torrid Zone, 121. Tem- perate Zones, 121. Frigid Zones, 122. Hemispheres, 123. Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Effects . . 124 Heat in Mines, 124. Melted Rock, 125. The Earth's Crust, 125. Cause of Mountains, 125. Cause of Conti- nents and Ocean Basins, 126. Change in the Level of the Land, 126. Section V. The Continents and Oceans 128 Land and Water, 128. The Continents, 129. North Amer- ica, 129. South America, 129. Eurasia, 130. Africa, 133. Australia, 133. The Oceans, 134. The Arctic and Antarctic, 134. The Atlantic, 134. The Pacific, 134. The Indian, 134. The Ocean Bottom, 134. Moun- tains in the Oceans, 135. Coral Islands, 136. Section VI. Maps 137 Section VII. North America 139 Phtsical Geography, 139. Political Divisions, 140. Section VIII. The United States 141 Section IX. New England 142 Names, 142. Seaports, 142. Fishing, 143. Farming, 143. Quarrying, 144. Lumbering, 144. Manufacturing, 146. Commerce, 147. V vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Section X. Middle Atlantic States 149 The Coast Line, 149. The Seaports, 149. Reasons for the Great Size of New York City, 149. Cities Near by, 149. Water Route to the Interior, 150. Lumbering, 151. Farming, 151. Salt, 152. Manufacturing, 152. Com= merce, 153. Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great City, 153. Cities Near by, 153. Farming, 153. Iron, 154. Coal, 154. Oil and Gas, 155. Commerce, 156. Other Cities, 156. Baltimore, 156. Washington, 156. Virginia and West Virginia, 157. Section XL Southern States 159 Relief, 159. Coal and Iron, 160. Cotton, 160. Ranch- ing, 161. Sugar and Rice, 162. Fruits, 162. Lumber- ing, 162. Manufacturing, 163. New Orleans, 163. Other Seaports, 165. Oklahoma and Indian Territory, 165. Climate, 166. Section XII. Central States 167 Raw Products, 167. The Manufacturing and Trade Cen- tres, 170. Review and Comparisons, 175. Section XIII. Western States 176 Reasons why there are so Few People, 176. Wonderful Scenery, 178. Mining, 179. Ranching, 181. The Desert, 182. Irrigation, 182. Fruit Raising, 183. Industries along the pacific coast, 184. the clties of the pacific Coast, 185. Section XIV. Alaska 188 Section XV. Canada and Other Countries North of the United States . . . 190 Canada and Newfoundland, 190. Industries, 190. Cities, 192. The Far North, 192. Islands North of North America, 193. Section XVI. Countries South of the United States . . 195 Mexico and Central America, 195. The West Indies and Bermuda, 197. Section XVII. South America 199 Relief, 199. Climate, 200. History, 200. Brazil, 201. Venezuela and Guiana, 202. La Plata Countries, 203. Andean Countries, 204. TABLE OF CONTENTS vii PAGE Section XVIII. Europe 207 The British Isles, 207. Norse Countries, 211. Russia, 212. Germany, 214. Holland, 216. Belgium, 217. France, 217. Spain and Portugal, 219. Italy, 220. Switzerland, 222. Austria-Hungary, 223. Greece, 224. Turkey, 225. Section XIX. Asia 230 Physical Geography, 230. Southwestern Asia, 231. Sibe- ria, 234. The Chinese Empire and Korea, 235. Japan, 237. India and Indo-China, 238. Section XX. Africa 242 The Dark Continent, 242. Northern Africa, 243. Cen- tral Africa, 246. South Africa, 246. Section XXI. Australia, the East Indies, Philippines, and Other Islands of the Pacific ...... 249 Australia, 249. The East Indies, 252. The Philippine Islands, 253. Islands of the Pacific, 254. Books of Reference ......... 256 Supplement ........... 262 Climate, Plants, Animals 262 Latitude and Longitude ....... 277 The Human Race 284 Appendix — Tables of Area, Population, etc 290 LIST OF MAPS FIGURE FACING PAGE 119. The Hemispheres 137 120. Mercator Map of the World 137 121. Relief Map of North America .... On page 138 123. North America 140 124. United States 141 125. New England 142 132. Middle Atlantic States 149 140. Southern States 159 148. Central States 167 157. Western States 176 177. South America 199 183. Europe 207 203. Asia 230 214. Africa ... 242 221. Australia, East Indies, Philippine Islands, and Islands of the Pacific 249 ix Part II THE EAETH AS A WHOLE I. FORM AXD SIZE OF THE EARTH 1 Its Form. — Hundreds of years ago, before America was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They travelled so little that they had no idea of its form or of its size. A few men who had studied the matter believed that the earth was a round ball, and that if one travelled straight on in any direction, he would in time return to the place from which he started. You can understand this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an orange, until it comes back to the starting-point. Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land called India, for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they travelled thousands of miles eastward; but Columbus said that if the earth were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going westward across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous ; but the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes may be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. Ill 112 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, laud was reached on October 12th. Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians; but instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the coast of North America ; a continent and large ocean still lay between him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white men then lived. Fig. 92. Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, started to sail round the earth ; and though he was killed when he had reached the Philippine Islands, his ships went on and completed the journey. Since then many people have made the voyage in various directions, and the earth has been studied so carefully that every one now knows it is round. The great, round earth is also called the globe or sphere. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 113 The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we see so little of it at a time. If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole in it, so that none of the surface is seen excepting that which shows through the hole. This part does not appear round, but flat. If we could get far enough away from the earth to see a large part of it at once, as we are when looking at an orange, or at the moon, we would easily be able to observe its roundness (Fig. 93). Size of the Earth. — Our sphere is so large that even the highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, are no larger than a speck of dust when compared to an apple. Lofty mountains are rarely more than three or four miles high ; but the diameter of the earth, or the distance from one side to the other, through the centre of the earth, is nearly eight thousand miles. SOUTH POLE Fig. 93. The sphere. Fig. 94. Figure of the earth cut in two, to show the diameter, the line passing through the centre (c). i The circumference of the earth, or the dis- tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- five thousand miles. This is a little more than three times the diameter, and you will find that the circumference of any sphere is always a little more than three times its diameter. Prove this with an orange. 114 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE Review Questions. — (1) What did people formerly know about the shape of the earth? (2) What is its form? (3) Tell the story of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians ? (5) Why was the land he discovered called the New World? (6) Tell about Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth ? The cir- cumference? (9) The latter is how many times the former? Suggestions. — (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. (2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early explorers and read about them. (4) Trace Columbus's journey on a globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to see where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India by travelling eastward as well as westward. (5) Make a sphere in clay. Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs can you find that the earth is round? Find out how we know that it is like a ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about Columbus. (8) Trace on a globe the route followed by our soldiers who went to the Philippines; of Admiral Dewey when he returned by way of the Mediterranean. How many days are required for such a journey ? (9) Obtain a telescope or an opera glass and look through it at the moon. For References, see page 257. II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH, AND ITS RESULTS The Axis and Poles. — The earth seems to us to be motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each day, rising in the east and setting in the west. But in reality neither of these things happens. Instead of being without motion, the earth is turning round at a uni- form rate of speed. You have per- haps watched a wheel spin about on a rod or pin, and have noticed that the outside goes rapidly, while the part near the pin moves much more slowly. It is the same with the earth; and just as we speak of the wheel turning upon a pin, so we speak of the earth turning upon its axis. But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis of the earth is merely a line that we think of as reaching through the earth's centre and extending to the surface in both directions. The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, one end being the north pole, the other the south pole. Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a stick pushed through its centre would represent its axis, and the two " > N S 115 1 Fig. 95. A drawing of the earth cut through to show the axis and poles. 116 TEE EABTH AS A WHOLE North Pole ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, very much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be almost directly overhead. The Equator. — Midway between these poles, we think of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. This is called the equator, be- cause all parts of it are equally distant from each of the poles. On page 113 the distance around the earth was given ; what, then, is the length of the equator? As the earth spins on its axis, all points on the surface must go with it, as every part of the skin of an apple turns with it. Since the earth makes one complete turn each day, a man at the equator travels twenty- five thousand miles every twenty-four hours. What a whirling motion that is ! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move as rapidly as those at the equator? Fig. 96. drawing of that half of the sphere containing the New World, — to show the position of the poles and the equator. Gravity. — What, then, is to hinder our flying away from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on a string, it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And why is not all the water hurled from the ocean? DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 117 The reason is that the earth draws everything toward it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the floor; and when you spring into the air, you quickly return to the ground. All objects are drawn downward, because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. The force with which the earth draws all objects toward it is called gravity ; and it is because of gravity that the water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. Sunrise and Sunset. — The sun seems to rise in the east and set in the west. This could not be the case if the earth did not turn or rotate toward the east ; for all heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward which the earth turns. This eastward rotation of the earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and set as it does. Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, and, after moving across the heavens^ set in the west. We still use the words " sunrise " and " sunset " which they used, although we know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. Day and Night. — It is this rotation that causes day and night. A lamp can light only one-half of a ball at a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of the great earth ball at one time. This being the case, if our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day is constantly changing ; and while the sun is setting for people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 118 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day and night together must last just that length of time. Fig. 97. An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day and night. Review Questions. — (1) What motion has the earth ? (2) What Is the axis of the earth? (3) The north pole? The south pole? (4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? (7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around once ? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator ? (9) Why are we not thrown away from the earth? (10) Give sev- eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what direction is the earth rotating? (12) How does that explain sunrise and sunset? (13) What causes night? (14) What would be the result if the earth did not rotate ? (15) When it is noon here, what time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the day and night together last ? Why ? DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 119 Suggestions. — (1) Point out the axis of a wheel ; of a top ; of a rotating ball; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mould a sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly >>ow many miles a point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to show why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one side while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east some night, to see which way they appear to* move. (8) Why do not the clouds appear to move westward also ? (9) Is the sun always shin- ing during the day? Why, then, do we not always see it? (10) Who was Atlas? Who was Aurora? (11) Find out what the ancients supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is noon here, what time is it one-fourth of the distance around the earth to the east? To the west? For References, see page 258. III. THE ZONES Boundaries of the Zones. — The sun's rays feel warmer at noon than in the early evening because the sun is more nearly overhead at noon, and the rays then reach us nearly vertically. For the same reason the sun seems hotter in summer than in winter, and in some parts of the earth than in others. The hottest part of the earth is near the equator, for in that region the sun at midday is directly over the heads of the people. That is the case, for a part of the year, as far north as the line on the map (Fig. 98) marked tropic of Cancer, and as far south as the one marked tropic of Capricorn. Point to them on Figs. 119 and 120. These lines are more than three thousand miles apart, _a distance greater than that across the United States from Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area the heat is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear only the very lightest clothing, and the savages have almost none (Fig. 99). But further north and south the heat becomes less and 120 Fig. 98. A map of the zones. The colors suggest sharp differences be- tween the zones on the two sides of the boundaries ; but you should remember that the changes are very gradual. THE ZONEB 121 less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither very hot nor very cold, but temperate. Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There it is so cold, or frigid, that the ground never thaws out, the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- tion can grow. Torrid Zone. — Thus one part of the earth has a hot climate. There the noonday sun is always so directly over the heads of the inhabitants that they never have winter. This hot region ex- tends entirely around the earth, like a great belt, and the equator is in the middle of it. This is called the tropical belt, or the tropical or torrid zone, and sometimes the equatorial belt. Why the latter name? Temperate Zones. — On the north and south sides of this are the + wo temperate zones. People living- in the north temperate zone find the sun to the south of them at noon, even in summer ; and their shadows always Fig. 99. Philippine savages hunting ; their home is in the torrid zone, and they need almost no clothing. 122 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE fall toward the north. But in the south temperate zone the midday sun is always in the north. Which way must the shadows fall in that zone ? Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of the temperate zones do you live? Fig. 100. Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by tlwir sleds on the ice-covered sea. Frigid Zones. — North of the north temperate zone, and south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, while at the equator there is never any winter, near the poles there is never any real summer weather. The northern of these zones is called the north frigid THE ZONES 123 zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. They are also known as the polar zones, since they surround the poles. It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and vessels hundreds of miles away from them are in danger of being crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. Hemispheres. — The half of our sphere north of the equator is called the northern hemisphere (or half sphere), the southern half, the southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- taining the New World, being called the viestern hemisphere, and the eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. Review Questions. — (1) What is the cause for the great heat in the torrid zone? (2) What are its boundaries? (3) What other zones are there ? What are their boundaries ? (4) In which direction does the midday sun lie in each zone? (5) In which direction do the shadows then fall? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther one travels from the equator ? (7) Why has no one ever been able to reach either pole ? (8) Which part of the earth has no cold weather? (9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in Figure 98. (11) Represent them in a drawing of your own. (12) Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. Suggestions. — (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. (3) In which direction woulo! you look to see the sun at noon on such a journey ? (4) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of trees and other plants? (5) How would the direction of your shadow change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how could you tell the time of day from the sun? (7) Find out about some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In which zone should you prefer to live ? Why ? (9) Explain how some places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid zone. For References, see page 258« IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS EFFECTS Heat in Mines. — While much is known about the sur- face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. The reason for this is that people cannot go far down below the surface in order to see what is there. Fig. 101. Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face of a precipice into the water. In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four thousand times as far to reach the centre, it is plain that this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself, 124 HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 125 In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but no one has ever gone beyond this rock. It is interesting to note that the farther miners have dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. Melted Rock. — This has led to the belief that, if it were possible to go still deeper, the earth would be found to grow hotter and hot- ter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough to melt rocks. Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called the crater, that a mountain peak has been built. Such peaks are called volcanoes (Fig. 102), and some of them are many thousand feet high. The Earth's Crust — From a study of the earth it seems certain that, although the out- side is now cold, it was once hot, and that the mass within is still hot. It may be compared to a biscuit that is still hot inside, al- though its crust has become cool. In fact, this cold out- side part of the earth is generally called the earth's crust. Cause of Mountains. — It was stated on page 19 that some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain Fig. 102. Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out lava, ashes, and steam during an eruption some years ago. 126 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. We are now ready to explain how this has happened. You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith put a tire upon a wheel. He heats the tire so hot that it expands, and it is then easily placed over the wheel. But when the iron cools it shrinks, so that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. The hot interior of the earth is under- going a similar change, since every year it is slowly growing cooler, and, there- fore, shrinking or contracting. This al- lows the cool crust to settle ; but, being too large, it wrinkles, or puckers, causing the rocks to bend and break, and form- ing great mountain ranges and valleys. One sees something of the same kind in an apple that has become dry and wrinkled (Fig, An apple wrinkled iQ$y j t nas dried because some of the water roug rying. beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as vapor ; thus the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, like the crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. — The mountains and valleys are not the largest wrinkles on the earth's surface. As the crust has settled, some portions have been lowered several miles further than others, and in these great depressions the waters have collected, forming the oceans, which in places are four or five miles deep. Those great portions of the earth's crust which rise above the ocean are called continents; and the highest mountain peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest part of the ocean. Change in the Level of the Land. — The contracting of the earth has caused many changes, and is still causing them. Some parts of HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 127 the land have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be among the mountains, was once below the ocean. This can be proved, in some places, by finding certain shells, called fossils, in the rocks. Ages ago these shells were parts of animals living in the ocean ; but on the death of their owners they became buried in the mud and lay there for centuries until the layers of mud be- came slowly hardened into rock. This was later lifted above the water, and then frost, rain, and rivers wore the upper layers away, bringing the fossils to light. We have already seen (p. 2) how rock is changing to soil and being washed from the land into the ocean. We now learn that this settles upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, is lifted into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going on all the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the sea, and others where they now live have risen above it. Fig. 104. A rock containing many fossil shells. Review Questions, — (1) What is known about the tempera- ture of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? (3) What other proof of this conclusion is there? (4) What is a volcano? (5) What is the crust of the earth ? (6) What happens as the interior cools? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. (8) How have the ocean basins and continents been formed ? (9) What do fossils in the rocks prove? Suggestions. — (1) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earthquakes. Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing of a vol- cano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all rocks contain fossils; but examine those in your section to find if they do. (5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered by the sands. (6) If a mine were a mile deep, what would be the tempera- ture at the bottom, if the average temperature at the surface is. 45°. For References, see page 258. Fig. 105. — Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemi- spheres. Hemisphere means half sphere ; that is, half the earth. V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS Land and Water. — The greater part of the land is found in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the water in the southern (Figs. 106 and 112). tXf J> u NORTH rfr^^l POLE W/ Fig. 106. — The northern hemisphere, showing the land about the north pole, Eurasia in the eastern hemisphere, and America in the western. 128 It is possi- ble to divide the earth into halves, in one of which — the land hemi- sphere — near- ly all the land is situated, while in the other — the water hemi- sphere — there is very little land. This is shown in Fig. 105. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 129 forth Pore The Continents In Fig. 106, or, better, on a globe, notice that two great masses of land extend from the north polar zone. One of these lies in the western hemisphere, and is the land on which we live ; the other is in the eastern hemisphere. North America. — The western land, which is better shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers down nearly to a point just north of the equator, having the form of a triangle. "What is the name of this part ? Show where Xew York. "Washington, and Chicago should be on this map. (See the map, Fig. 120.) Point also to your home. Find some rivers, mountains, pe- ninsulas, gulfs, and other forms of land and water. south Po/e Fig. 107. The half of the sphere containing the Xew World. South America. — South of Xorth America, and connected with it by a long neck of land, the Isthmus of Panama, lies the continent of South America. The two continents together are called the two Americas, forming the Xew World which Columbus discovered (p. 111). Xotice how much alike they are in shape ; draw triangles to show this. 130 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, p. 120.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all the time ; to the part where there is never any snow. Where must the Eskimo girl, Agoonack, one of the Seven Little Sisters, have lived? Read about the Eskimos on page 192. Tell how the climate would change if you were to travel from the northern end of North America to the southern end of South America. What changes would you expect to find in the plants? In the cloth- ing of people ? Write a story about such a journey. On the opposite page are pictures of some of the wild animals of South America (Fig. 109). What wild animals live in North Amer- ica? Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them? Eurasia. — East of us, across the Atlantic Ocean, is the Old World (Figs. 108 and 113). More land is found NORTH SOUTH Fig. 108. — A hemisphere showing a part of Eurasia and Africa. _-, " MONKEY FiCx. 109. Some of the auimals of South America. 132 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE there than in the New World, and the largest mass of it is called Eurasia. The northern part of Eurasia is in the North Frigid zone, on the opposite side of the north pole from North America (Fig. 106), and extends a great distance east and west. Find for yourself how far south it reaches, and through what zones it passes. Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the New World, the most civilized people lived in Europe, the western part of that great continent. The homes of Jeannette and Louise, two of the Seven Little Sisters, were in that country. If you have read the story, can you not tell something about each of them? The eastern part of the con- tinent is called Asia. Read in the " Seven Little Sis- ters " about Ge- mila, the child of the desert, and of Pen-se,the Chinese girl, whose homes were in Asia. Europe is usually consid- ered one conti- nent and Asia The home of Jeannette among the Swiss mountains. i Find other pictures of these mountains on pages 18 a n O t a e r, al- and 23. though, as you can see from the maps, especially Fig. 106. they are not Fig. 110. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 133 so clearly separated as the other continents are. For this reason Europe and Asia are often called one continent, Eurasia, the name being made up of " Eur," from Europe, and "Asia." Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably its warmest part ? Africa. — South of Europe is the continent of Africa Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, and this is the place the negroes came from. Fig. 111. The tiger, one of the wild animals of Africa and Asia. In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare with South America in temperature ? In shape ? In what direction would you start in order to go directly to Africa ? Australia. — South of Asia are many large islands called the East India Islands (Fig. 120). Find the zone in which they lie. Southeast of these is a large island known as the continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what zones is it ? 134 the earth as a whole The Oceans The Arctic and Antarctic. — There seems to be a great deal of land; but, as we have learned (p. 63), three- fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water. The water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the Arctic Ocean. Find it on a globe. There are many islands in this ocean, and the water between them is covered with ice. The climate is so cold that there are very few people, and no crops of any kind can be raised.' Here the Eskimos live, hunting the polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain meat for food, fur for clothing, and oil for fuel and light (see p. 192). Much less is known about the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 112), which surrounds the south pole, and in which there is also a great deal of floating ice. The Atlantic. — Extending from the Arctic to the Ant- arctic is the Atlantic Ocean, having the Old World on the east and the New World on the west. This is the water that we cross in going to Europe, and many of the things we eat and wear are brought across it. Can you name some of them ? Find what continents the Atlantic bathes. The Pacific. — The water west of North America is called the Pacific Ocean, which is the largest of all oceans, occupying more than one-third of the earth's surface. What continents does it bathe ? Walk toward it. The Indian. — There is still another great body of water called the Indian Ocean (Fig. 108). It lies south of India in Asia, and between Africa on one side and Aus- tralia and the East Indies on the other. The Ocean Bottom. — The depth of the ocean water varies considerably | on the average it is a little over two a S 2 8 2 ^ b/o a .2 ^ fc O . ■s^ S "1 -s g £ 25 * \\S 119 IQ lll\ >)07 107 103 N9. ( ,r» 9,9 1 95 91 87 83 B 76 ^Uj |jj I , -•'- t ! ^>/ v SCALE OF MILES \lf|\ *-. 25 100 201) 3Q0. 100 N* fl Oh S3 91 37 83 .^79^ <-5 Fig. 129. Fig 130 Lumber ships loading boards from the great piles that can be seen on the wharf. Here are also many logs ready to go to the saw-mill to be made into boards. 146 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Manufacturing. — But we have not yet come to the most important occupation of the New England people. The short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because vessels cannot go far up-stream ; but in another way it is a great advantage. Can you see how ? On page 50 you learned that streams with swift cur- rents and waterfalls furnish the best water-power. Where such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- Fig. 131. Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the New England states are among the most important manu- facturing states in the Union. The principal rivers that furnish water-power are the Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already mentioned (p. 145). Find each of these, and trace its course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep- resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large cities. There is so much manufacturing in New England, by the use of water-power and steam, that shiploads of cotton NEW ENGLANZ 147 are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as Man- chester (Fig. 131), Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall Riyer. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made into woollen goods at Lawrence and Providence, which also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousands of hides of cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, and leather of all kinds at Lynn and other cities. Iron and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of other articles at Worcester, Bridgeport, Springfield, New Haven, and Hartford. In Boston itself there is also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. Find each of these cities; tell in what state it is and upon what river, if the name is given on the map. All of the other cities marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made in one of these places. Commerce. — Some of the manufactured articles are shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the large cities to grow about the best harbors. Not only do the persons living in the interior produce great quantities of goods to be shipped- away, but they require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this is one of the chief reasons why Boston, Portland, and Providence have become large cities. To the first two goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped abroad. 148 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Review Questions. — (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. (4) Tell what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stone are found, and for what are they used? Where are they found? (6) Describe the lumbering. Which state produces the most lumber ? (7) Explain how the lumber trade has determined the location of Bangor. On what river is it situated ? (8) Why cannot vessels go far up the New England rivers ? (9) How are the rivers useful for manufacturing ? Name several that furnish water-power. (10) What goods are manu- factured there? In what cities? (11) What articles must be shipped to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such commerce affects the size of the coast cities. Suggestions. — (1) What stories of New England do you know? (2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. (7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. (12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital cities, and principal towns. For References, see page 259. 81° Longitude M est 77° iroia MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES Greensrich^ 73° Scale of~Miles 25 50 75 igo Fig. 132, X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES Map Questions. — (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic states bor- der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New England? (You will find the scale on each map.) (5) Name the chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- thest east? Which farthest west? (7) What natural boundaries do you find between them? (What are the names of the mountain ranges? (9) Which state has no mountains? The Coast-line. — Observe that, as in New England, the coast-line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each; also draw the coast-line to show these bays. The Seaports. — The largest cities in New England were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though smaller. The same is true here. New York, on the last- named bay, is the largest city in the United States and next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is Phila- delphia on the Delaware, just as far up the river as large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the head of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named Balti- more, in the state of Maryland. Reasons for the Great Size of New York City Cities near by. — Near New York harbor we find not only New York, but Jersey City, Newark, and Brooklyn, 149 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE which has lately become a part of Greater New York. Other cities like Paterson are not far away. That is, not only one, but several great cities have grown up here very near together. Let us see why more people should have crowded together here than in any other part of the New World. One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- dreds of vessels may enter at one time, goods can be shipped over the At- lantic Ocean to vari- ous parts of the world. Water-route to the Interior. — A second reason is that goods may also be shipped westward by water. Looking at the map, you see that New York Bay is at the mouth of the Hudson River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as Albany. A few miles from Albany the Mohawk River enters the Hudson from the west, having its source far over toward Syracuse. Long ago people saw that if they could construct a water-way from the Hudson River to Buffalo, they could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one another, they could go all the way to the western end of Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) Fig. 133. The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, where a railway bridge crosses it. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 151 to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes would the route lead? The scheme was finally carried out by building the Erie Canal from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, then down that valley to Albany. (See map, Fig. 132.) As the Western country became settled, more and more goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- ways began to be built many of them also led there. In this way New York has become a great city, and the chief shipping-point for a large part of the United States. Let us see what some of the goods are that are sent to New York. Lumbering. — On the map (Fig. 132) you will find the Ad- irondack Moun- tains north of the Mohawk, and the Cats- FlG ' m - 1 m \T + ' In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, Kill Mountains ^ ce ntral New York. The walls and sides of these SOUth of it. tunnels are glistening white salt. Among these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that lumbering is an important industry there. Farming. — These mountains do not cover all of the state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon it. Farming is therefore much more important than in New England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable hay and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. 152 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Salt. — An extensive bed of salt is found deep down in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is taken from it in many places, and it was the important salt industry that determined the location, and much of the early growth, of Syracuse. Manufacturing. — Again, in this state, as in New Eng- land there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- turing has therefore become extensive. Fig. 135. Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract in the world (160 feet high). In Rochester, at the falls of the Genesee River (Fig. 75, p. 85), are many flour mills. The cities on the Mohawk are also engaged in manufacturing. What are their names? In Buffalo, the second city in size in New York State, much use is made of power from the Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Troy, near Albany, makes shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along the water-route already mentioned. Why? What others do you find along this route ? In New York City itself there is a vast amount of manufacturing, steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where there is water-power, factories now often use steam; but when the manufacturing- began, people could not use steam because they did not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where there was water-power. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 153 Commerce. — So much manufacturing, together with the farming and other industries of the state, helps to explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others in exchange. It should be remembered, too, that cities hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. From this it is plain why the largest city in America is situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up about New York harbor. Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great City Cities near by. — Philadelphia, like New York, has other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- ware is Camden in New Jersey; and to the northeast, also in New Jersey, is Trenton, where a clay is found that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- west is Wilmington in Delaware, where many ships and railway cars are built. Farming. — The soil and climate in this neighborhood are well adapted to growing such fruits as peaches, pears, apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried on among the mountains. 154 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 136. The forest-covered slopes of the Appalachian Mountains in Pennsylvania, at Mauch Chunk. *: Iron. — Several substances found beneath the soil in Pennsylvania are its most important products. In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found there. When dug out of the ground this often resembles reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron; but by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. Pitts- burg and Allegheny are noted for such manufacturing; also Reading and Harrisburg, the capital, as well as Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. Coal. — It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 155 .Fig. 137. In a Pennsylvania coal mine, where the walls are black instead of white as in the salt mine (Fig. 134) . coal being mined in the western part near Pittsburg and Allegheny, and hard or anthracite coal in the east- ern part near Scranton and Wilkes Barre. Much coal is needed for shoves and furnaces in houses, and also for producing steam for factories. There is, therefore, a great demand for it, and every year it is shipped by thou- sands of car-loads to New York, Phil- adelphia, and else- where, often to be loaded upon ships to be sent to Boston and many other cities. Oil and Gas. — Gas, much like that used in lighting Fig. 138. 156 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE houses, and petroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also found beneath the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania and New York. There is so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel in manufacturing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. Commerce. — The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, principally fruit, grain, lumber, iron, coal, gas, and oil, together with the manufacture of iron goods, have helped to make Philadelphia a great city. As in the case of New York, many of these substances are sent to Philadelphia to be manufactured; and, like New York, Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of the country. Many other materials are sent there to be shipped away by water; and many ship-loads of goods, for people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at Philadelphia. Other Cities Baltimore. — Baltimore has grown in much the same way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and much manufacturing. Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are shipped from Norfolk, Annapolis, and Baltimore. Washington. — Another large city in this section is Washington, on the Potomac River in the District of Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact that it is the National Capital, where there are many great government buildings (Fig. 85, p. 99), and thousands of men and women employed in the service of the govern- jnent. Can you describe some of the work which they are required to do ? MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 157 Virginia and West Virginia. — Richmond, on the James River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The western part of the state is mountainous, as is the eastern part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive manufacturing, especially at Wheeling, on the Ohio River. Fig. 139. A picture of Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, vnth the National Capitol building standing at the farther end. Farming is the chief work in Virginia. The climate is so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are needed for such work, and they represent one of the main industries of Richmond, which is a great tobacco market. as Gloucester is a great fish marketo 158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Review Questions. — (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk tow- ard each as you name it. (2) What reasons can you give for the great size of New York City? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers. (4) What cities do you find on the Erie Canal? (5) What can you say about the farming in New York State? (6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in New York? (8) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture so important in Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city, (11) Where are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, and Wilkes Barre? (12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and Wheeling? (16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? Suggestions. — (1) Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are any of them not situated either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? (3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston ? (See Fig. 124, oppo- site p. 141.) (4) Find .what some of the chief difficulties are in build- ing canals. (5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. (7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city? (8) Why have Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location? (9) Give two reasons why Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com- pare them. (11) Read the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains described are the Catskills. (12) Draw an outline map of- these states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, — its build- ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map (Fig. 124, opposite p. 141) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. All the states have abbreviations like this, which we use in writing letters. Find out the abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. Also for the other states as you study about them. For References, see page 259o cWo%r oS r iD W Fig. 140. SOUTHERN STATES EASTERN SECTION Scale of Miles i 60 100 2U0 ; Capitals of Slates © Other Cities • I ._ &il° Longitude West 85° f Gretuwk-h Sl° Fig. 140. XI. SOUTHERN STATES Map Questions. — (1) Where are the mountains in this group of states? (2) Where are the plains? (See map, Fig. 140.) (3) Notice the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico? (6) What large peninsula do you find on this map? (7) Which is the largest state ? (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size ? With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New Orleans to Boston ? (See map, Fig. 124, opposite p. 141.) (10) Notice how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer. (See map, Fig. 123, opposite p. 140.) What does that tell you about their climate ? . Relief. — The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- bama, passing across several of the Southern states. Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky Mountains in western Texas. But this part of the country is mainly a great region of plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, level land known as the coastal plains. Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, where there are broad flood-plains protected from the river floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land projects so far into the gulf. (See pp. 46 and 47.) We observe, then, that in this group of states are some mountains ; between these and the coast are high plains or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us see what these three sections produce. 160 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron are found among the Ap- palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would expectfromthis to find manufac- turing centres near the moun- tains ; and Bir- mingham, At- lanta, Chat- tanooga, and Knoxville are engaged in manufacture. Find each, and tell what state it is in. Fig. 141. Negro children playing on a bag of cotton bolls, just picked. The white spots in the field are cotton bolls. Cotton. — On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere excepting in western Texas and Oklahoma. For these reasons farming is the chief occupa- tion. The south- ern farms are commonly called plantations, and the principal crop on the higher plains, away from the coast, is cot- ton. The cotton plant grows to a height of two to four feet. It has a white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod grows. This f W • A&' M'f- 1 I:' f\A ¥ j i '■'-• I&3& ffifSI v ^yR . • Fig. 142. A small cotton-field and a negro home. The cot- ton bolls look like white flowers. SOUTHERN STATES 161 pod enlarges until it ripens and bursts into a white ball, called the cotton boll, which looks somewhat like a milkweed pod after it has burst open. The cotton bolls are picked in the autumn by men, women, and children, and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin ; this removes the cotton seed, and also separates or combs out the threads of cotton. The cotton is then packed in bales, like hay, and shipped away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and other goods. Name more of them. Name some of the cities in New England where this manufacturing is carried on. (See p. 147.) Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. Fig. 143. Great bunches of cattle feeding on the ranches of the arid plains of the west. Ranching. — The drier plains of western Texas are covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries of this state. The section of land over which a man's cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle ranch, and the business is known as ranching. Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see on the map. Many cattle are sent eastward from Dallas by rail to be used as food. 162 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Sugar and Rice. — On the low, swampy plains near the coast and along the lower Missis- sippi River, rice and sugar-cane are raised. Rice Fig. 144. seeds grow on a Negro women cutting sugar-cane in Louisiana. p-rasslike plant in wet soil. Sugar-cane looks much like corn ; but the juice of the stalk is so sweet that it can be made into sugar and molasses. Fruits. — Besides the crops mentioned, the low plain of Florida produces fruits. It is so far south that its climate is warm enough for oranges, lem- ons, and pineapples ; prob- ably your grocery store has such fruits from Florida and California. Lumbering. — Some of these plains, both the high and the low ones, are still wooded. It is from them that the hard or Georgia pine, so often used in floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the mountains, so that there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which Northern Fig. 145. A pineapple field in Florida. SOUTHERN STATES 163 state already studied has a large amount of timber ? In what section would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of forests ? Manufacturing. — Knowing what is produced in the Southern states, we naturally expect much manufactur- ing. There are coal, iron ore, corn, wheat, sugar-cane, cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, from each of which useful articles can be made. Tell what they are. There is also water-power in many places. For a long time most of the manufacturing in the United States was done in New England. Great quan- tities of cotton and other raw products were sent there from the South to be manufactured. Then some of the finished articles were brought back for use in the South. This condition has now greatly changed. The Southern states still ship much cotton to New England and Europe, but much is retained for manufacture at home. No other part of the country has shown so rapid progress in manu- facturing as the Southern states. They are one of the greatest cotton-manufacturing regions in the world. Near the coal fields important iron and steel manufac- turing industries have arisen ; near the forest regions are many lumber mills. The abundance of coal, iron, and lum- ber has made possible the manufacture of farm implements and other articles of iron and wood. Each year the impor- tance of manufacturing in the South is rapidly increasing. The variety of manufactures is far too great to list. Besides arti- cles of iron, wood, and cotton, tobacco is made into many forms; wool into cloth and other woollen goods; hides into leather; cotton seed into cotton-seed oil ; sugar-cane into sugar and molasses ; the sap of the pine tree into turpentine, tar, and rosin. New Orleans. — The principal cities in the South are those that have grown up at the best shipping points, 164 that is, on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or on some of the great railways. The greatest city in this entire section is New Orleans, in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred miles from its mouth. It is almost as large as Pittsburg. Fig. 116. Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, one of the most common draft animals of the South. Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to pass up the river from the Gulf; and river boats can reach it from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. Find some of these cities, such as Pittsburg and St. Louis (Fig. 124). Measure the distance from New Orleans to Pittsburg. These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this centre, and there distributed in all directions. Further up the river are Vicksburg and Memphis, which are important river ports. SOUTHERN STATES 165 Other Seaports. — Not many large cities are found on the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the harbors are often blocked by sand-bars. Also, since there are so few people and cities inland, there is no reason for having many great cities on the coast. The largest seaport west of New Orleans is Galveston. What goods are probably shipped from this harbor? Remember the low coastal plains and the high dry plains to the west. Along the coast east of New Orleans are Mobile, a great cotton port, Tampa, and Pensacola, a lumber port. Why lumber? On the Atlantic coast are Jacksonville, the chief shipping port lor Florida oranges, Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington. Find each of these and tell what state it is in. Fig. 147. Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. Oklahoma and Indian Territory. — A few years ago the section north of Texas, now called Indian Territory and Oklahoma, was known under the one naine of Indian Territory, a place set aside by our gov- ernment as a home foi some of the tribes of Indians. But later, these Indians were collected in the part now called Indian Territory ; then Oklahoma was opened up to white people for settlement. Now many thousands of white men are riving in the territory of Oklahoma. 166 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE Climate. — The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- ern part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. Do you know why the song-birds of the North go there in winter? Review Questions. — (1) In which Southern and Northern states are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore mined? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. (5) What is done with the cotton after it is picked? (6) What is the occupation of the people in western Texas ? Why ? Why so few towns there? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal plains and flood-plains? Describe each. (8) What fruits are raised in Florida? Why raised there? (9) What about the lumber indus- try? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? (11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Why are there so few large cities? (14) Which is the largest of all? Why? (15) What goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. (19) Tell something about Indian Territory and Oklahoma. Suggestions. — (1) Draw the coast-line of these states. Add the rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. (2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. (3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. (5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar-cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, especially if you can induce some one who has a hothouse to allow you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of the Southern states dependent upon each other in the work that they do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locate the chief cities in all these states. (11) Draw the entire Eastern coast-line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. For References, see page 259. Fig. 148. CENTRAL STATES EASTERN SECTION Scale of Miles "^ 5 25 tfO 75 160 20 Capitals of States © Other Cities o o Sault Ste.lMane^^- A fl <31ie£°yg an THa mi nee Eau Claire ^ G ,i eet A BaT / WISC Q/N Sic* W jk I App e / Oshku (Lata lVt»w< La Crosse S T7HON -£» ^ Mam to woe AManistee West £ y> . iBay City. ~ onji^/ WatejrtoAn }f JlwailkCC Y*Mu ske £ 0I j fq m o "Bay City Saginaw V loj L Port Huron^ Madison§\ I / "\ H r-nndlRaDidS^K-J-ansing La^.n/^ W> Racine i ij Granai*tap> p-~ St.CLaif/P ' VllIC \1_ ---I ^ /Battle Creek I |) e trOiW.- .Iftockforcf W ^ Kalamazoo* Jackson* Ann A.rbor/1^ f EvanstoAJv H / _^/~-i- . 7"4 U A. * / \ ! v\ Islautlc Galesburg I IJ/UI N l.QuincyXpringfleld '). ® s Jacksonville llgin* \arll-ipAcn y^T Adrian* /^i. cfi "* X ILlalid ^ T5ua£^ J_X S ' <><* Fort Wayne Aj>^___!Z!ndlay . JfiSance*!^,,, l\ |l^P^^T>^ * Mansfield* T East Vot fl V Muncu St.£ , _, Alton *Ea»t S/.LO lit ! Loganspurt e<,ria ! >^MariOL *Bloomtngtonl _^rLafayelte O I S ' DVnville'll Auderscra *DecMur |) £ Ki?nmom ij.- j/ # In4H»fiap; 'jA 1 fTerrepiute fadison ■"jeffersonville/ New AlbanyV-' • Mansfield* T East 7n I , \l ~S Q (H X StejibenviUe|j \ ■■L .'u T» iaSlesvilln *I>uyton \| 'Marietta \Chillicothe A Pa Aiersbiirg ./Hamilton *\ t\ \ ^ a W Covlngip^s^orts^T^ (\ * VIRGINIA-' VOt -t Ohio ^Charleston C$ !)Frankfof ^/EvansVnie| r \^/Lo«iS^SJ e LeiJngtoii-i Hend/&sonyT 0w ' enstoro ^^ammoSrfCg!£e J I A pp=S|*t\ BowUng ^.2cC3-^?iisiS2^ ^ X d'J - Ljogit'ude Weit E .Kn^v.u ; x" y. c |aV,R- Fig. lis. XII. CENTRAL STATES Map Questions. — (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which ones border on the Great Lakes? How can goods be shipped from them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which is highest above the level of the ocean? Which is lowest? (4) Into what do they empty ? (See Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (See Fig. 124:, opposite p. 141.) (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri River? (8) Into the Mississippi ? (9) Into the Ohio ? (10) Which one into the Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of any reason why it should be a great city — the greatest in this sec- tion? (12) In which of these states did Abraham Lincoln live? Raw Products. — This group of states has four cities larger than New Orleans, two that are almost as large, and several others that are not very much smaller. These facts tell us that there are many more people here than in the Southern states, and that the indus- tries must be far more extensive. Let us see what they are. The entire sec- tion, as you see, is mainly a great plain, whose soil is favor- able to farming. In the western part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the two Dakotas this plain is dry* like the western part of Texas, Fig. 149. A " bunch ,J of cattle on a farm in western Kansas^ 168 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The reason for this is that the winds from the Pacific Ocean lose their moisture as they pass eastward over the mountains, while those from the Gulf of Mexico and At- lantic rarely reach so far as this region. On that account the men of this section, as in western Texas, are princi- pally engaged in raising cattle (Fig. 156), sheep, and horses. The eastern part of the states from North Dakota to Texas has more rain ; and since the soil and climate are favorable, it is a great wheat region, the best in the entire country. Fig. 150. Harvesting wheat on one of the great wheat fields of the Red River Valley of North Dakota. In Kentucky, as in Virginia, tobacco is one of the most important products ; but in the Central states perhaps the most valuable farm crop is corn. A great deal of that grain is raised in every one of these states, although Iowa and Illinois produce the largest amounts. In many localities so much is raised that the cornfields extend as far as the eye can reach. In all of these states there is much stock, each farmer usually keeping a few horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. Each state, likewise, produces wheat and other kinds of grain, as well as wool, hay, fruit, vegetables, and other crops. Ohio is especially noted for its sheep and wheat. CENTRAL STATES 169 Underneath the soil in several of the states, especially in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, coal is mined. Look on Fig. 151. Iron mining in the famous Mesabi district of Minnesota, where they shovel out car-loads of the ore with great steam shovels, as gravel is often shovelled. the map (p. 155) to see in what states coal occurs. In Ohio and Indiana, petroleum and natural gas are found. On the north- western shore of Lake Superior, in Minnesota, and also on the southern side, in Wisconsin and Michigan, iron ore is mined, as in Pennsylvania and Alabama. In fact, that re- gion produces more iron ore than any other in the world. A great quantity of copper is also mined in Michigan. Fig. 152. Make a list of the wheat-producing states. 170 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michi- gan also have large forests, so that many kinds of lumber are secured from them. Now we know the principal raw products of the soil and mines of this region. We find cattle and sheep in the dry western section, wheat in the northwest and in Ohio, copper and iron ore along the shores of Lake Superior, lumber in the north, tobacco in the south, corn in the centre, and a vast amount of coal in several of the states. Many of the people of these states are engaged in ob- taining these raw products. The Manufacturing and Trade Centres. — From this it is easy to see the reason for so many people and great cities in this region. The statement was made at the beginning of this section that four cities here were larger than New Orleans, and several others about as large. Where should they be located ? Heretofore we have found the great cities where goods can be shipped by water; accordingly we would expect to find them either on the shores of the Great Lakes or along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Let us study about some of these cities, starting first with Chicago. It is next to New York in size, and is Fig. 153. Market Street in the great city of Chicago. CENTRAL STATES 171 situated on the southwestern end of Lake Michigan in Illinois. It has water connections with New York City, as you know, and also with the cities along the St. Law- rence River ; for there is a canal leading from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario in order to avoid the Niagara Falls. Aside from that, since Lake Michigan extends so far south, the railways from the Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Iowa, and Illinois must swing around this southern end in going east and south- east. This makes that point a great railway centre. Fig. 154. Cattle in the Chicago stock-yards. Milwaukee, farther north on the lake shore, is much smaller than Chicago, but it is one of the two cities nearly as large as New Orleans. What, now, are likely to be the industries of these two cities and the others along the Great Lakes. Quantities of the raw products named are sent to Chicago. It is the greatest meat-market in the world ; and cattle and sheep from the Western plains, and hogs from all over the Central states, are shipped to the Chicago stock-yards (Fig. 154), 172 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE where thousands of men are employed in preparing them for food. The business of packing, canning, and shipping the meat requires a great number of workmen, and the tanning of the hides to make leather, which is done in Milwaukee, also keeps many men busy. Some of the wheat of the Dakotas and Minnesota is sent to Chicago and Milwaukee to be shipped or to be ground into flour for bread. The latter city has long been noted for its flour-mills. But there are also great flour- mills nearer the wheat fields. In southeastern Minnesota Fig. 155. St. Anthony Falls, in the Mississippi, around which Minneapolis has grown. These falls furnish power for a number of great flour-mills. are falls in the Mississippi River (Fig. 155) which furnish excellent water-power, so that flour-mills have been built there and the city of Minneapolis has grown up about them. Only a few miles away, at the head of navigation on the Missis- sippi, is St. Paul, which owes its growth partly to the fact that it is a centre for the sale of machinery, clothing, and other articles needed by the farmers who raise the wheat. Name some of the articles they need to buy. While much flour is made in the West, a great deal of the wheat is sent to Duluth, on the western end of Lake Superior, and there shipped over the Great Lakes, whence it goes to New York and even to Europe. Why should Duluth be selected? CENTRAL STATES 173 Chicago lias no water-power for manufacturing, but it is the nearest lake port to the Illinois coal-fields, and draws upon them for fuel to produce steam for factories. Thus it is made a great centre for the manufacture of iron goods and furniture, receiving both iron ore and lumber in lake vessels. But the other lake ports share in this work, espe- cially the great cities of Cleveland, Detroit, and To- ledo, which are within easy reach of the raw products. Another important product that reaches Chicago is corn. There it is ground into corn-meal or made into hominy, starch, and other substances. So much corn and wheat are carried there that Chicago is a great grain as well as meat market. Locate the principal cities along the Great Lakes. Named in order of size they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, and Duluth. In what state is each of these? Also find Saginaw and Grand Rapids, two important lumber-manufacturing cities. We said that the other great cities should be looked for upon the water ways formed by the Mississippi River and its largest tributaries. The greatest of these tributaries is the Missouri River, and a very large city, St. Louis, is situated near where it enters the Mississippi. St. Louis is connected with the country far to the northwest by the Missouri River; with Minneapolis by the Mississippi ; with Pittsburg by the Ohio ; and on the south with Memphis, New Orleans, and the ocean. Natu- rally, as people settled here, railways were built, until, like Chicago, it has become one of the great railway centres in the country. Like Chicago, also, it draws to itself all the products that have been named. Although a great many cattle and sheep reach St. Louis and Chi- cago, making them important meat-markets, many of these animals are slaughtered near the plains on which they are raised, and that 174 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE fact explains the importance of Omaha and Kansas City. Both these noted meat-markets are on the Missouri River. Horses and wool are also shipped from these cities. Much wheat and corn are brought to St. Louis, mak- ing it an impor- tant grain -market. A great deal of to- bacco also goes to St. Louis ; but since Kentucky is the chief tobacco rais- ing state in the Mississippi Valley, its leading city, Louisville, is the great tobacco market of that section, as Richmond is for Virginia. It is also an important manufacturing centre. PRINCIPAL Cattle liaising Distr OF THE UNITED STATES Fig. 156. The manufacture of clothing is an important industry in Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and much machinery is made there from iron ore sent from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Why from these states rather than from Lake Superior ? One of the largest cities in these Central states, Indian- apolis, the capital and largest city in Indiana, is located away from the great waterways. But it is in a rich farm- ing country, and as railways enter it from all directions, it has become the chief trade centre of that state. Colum- bus, the capital of Ohio, is another great trade centre. Locate the principal cities on the large rivers and tell for what they are important. Ranked in order of size they are, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Minneapolis, Kansas City, and St. Paul. In which state is each of these ? CENTRAL STATES 175 Review and Comparisons. — We have seen that the farm products and manufactures of the Central states are quite different from those of the Southern states. Make a list of these for each of the groups and compare them. Compare them in the same way with those of New England. With those of the Middle Atlantic states. Explain, as well as you can, the causes for these differences. Make a list of the six largest cities in each of these four groups of states. When in doubt as to whether one city is larger than another, look up the population in the tables on page 265. Add together the populations of each group of cities and compare the results. Review Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of the Central states. (2) What four states are dry in the western part? Why? (3) Compare the products of these with those, of western Texas. (4) Where is our greatest wheat region? (5) Where in this group of states are copper and iron ore mined? (6) Where is lumber found? (7) Tobacco? (8) Corn? (9) Coal? (10) For what products is Ohio noted? (11) Give some reasons why Chicago has become so great a city. (12) Also St. Louis. (13) Name and locate the chief cities along the Great Lakes, giving the main industries of each. (14) Do the same with the cities along the great rivers. (15) What was said about Indianapolis and Columbus? Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Mississippi River with its two main tributaries. Add to the drawing the Great Lakes and the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Make a cross where each of the large cities is located, and write its name. (2) Find your own home on this map and notice its direction and distance from some of the large cities. (3) Add some wheat and corn to the school collection. (4) Grow some of each in the school. (5) Tell from what animals wool, beef, pork, mutton, lard, and leather come. (6) Find out about the buffalo and Indians that used to live on the plains. (7) Read about the early French explorers. About the pioneers who first settled these plains. (8) According to the scale of the map (Fig. 124) how does Kansas com- pare in size with Connecticut? (9) With the whole of New England ? (10) Estimate the entire length of the Mississippi River according to the scale on Fig. 124. (11) Draw a map of the Central states similar, to that of New England, and put in the capitals. For References, see page 259. XIII. WESTERN STATES Map Questions. — (1) In what directions do the mountains ex- tend? (2) iSTarue the principal ranges. (3) Which are the chief rivers? (4) Make a drawing of them. (5) In what sections do there seem to be few rivers ? (6) What does that suggest about rain- fall ? (7) Some rivers empty into lakes that have no outlet. What does that suggest? (See p. 55.) (8) How far is it across the United States from the northern to the southern boundary? (9) Measure the length of California. Compare its size with Pennsylvania; with Texas; with Massachusetts. (10) Compare the coast-line with that of New England. What does that suggest about harbors and cities? (11) Where are Denver and San Francisco ? Reasons why there are so Few People. — This group of states is much larger than either of the other four, form- ing about one-third of the entire United States. But they are thinly settled, having only about one-fourth as many people as the Southern states alone. Two divisions, Arizona and New Mexico, are still territories, like Okla- homa, because they have so few inhabitants. One reason they have so few people is that most of the early settlers came from Europe, and naturally located in the Eastern and Southern states. It was only after these parts were fairly well occupied that many people moved farther westward. Another important reason is the. mountainous condition of the country. Much of this section is a vast, dry pla- teau, usually more than a mile above the level of the sea. Extending across the plateau from north to south are 176 State Capitals'- ® 115° Longitude \Test 110° from Fig. 157. WESTERN STATES 177 several great mountain ranges. The mountains along the Pacific coast are called the Coast Ranges, those in eastern California the Sierra Nevada, and those farther north, in Oregon and Washington, the Cascade Ranges. Far east of these long chains are others called the Rocky Mountains. All of these mountains together are known as the Western Cordilleras. The Cordilleras are far higher and steeper than the Appa- lachians in the East, and they are very rocky, so that farm- Fig. 158. A geyser in eruption in the Yellowstone National Park. ing is impossible on much of the land. Indeed, in many parts they are so rough that it is difficult to travel among them ; this is indicated by the name Rocky Mountains. Still another reason why there are so few people is that, even where the soil is fertile, the climate is usually too dry for farming, because the winds that reach it do not 3arry much vapor. 178 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Fig. 159. A view in the great Colorado Canyon, where the Colorado River flows in a deep gorge cut in the plateau to a depth of over a mile. Wonderful Scenery. — Some of the places in this section are among the most interesting in the world. For exam- ple, in northwestern Wyoming are hundreds of springs where the water is so hot that it boils. At some points boiling water and steam occasionally shoot upward with a roar, from holes in the ground, and rise frequently to a height of one or two hundred feet. These are called geysers (Fig. 158), and there are scores of them in this region. Here, too, is the Yellowstone River, whose waters tum- ble 308 feet in a single fall, which is nearly twice as high as the Niagara Falls in New York. In the deep gorge that the river has cut below the falls, the rocky banks are WESTERN STATES 179 in places fully one-fourth of a mile high and beautifully colored. Our nation has set aside this wonderful region as a park, naming it the Yellowstone National Park ; and each year hundreds of people travel there to see it. There are many other interesting places to visit in this western country ; but none are more wonderful than the Colorado Canyon (Fig. 159), an immense river valley cut in the rocks of the plateau, in places to a depth of over a mile. Trace its course on the map. Mining. — Although so rocky and so arid, there are some very important industries in the Western states ; and in order to find out what they are, let us first study the mountains. You remember that iron ore and coal are found in the Appalachians; do you remember in what states ? Some coal and iron ore are also mined in the Cordilleras ; but even more valuable minerals than these are found in the mountain rocks. In 1848 gold was discovered in California. Bits of this heavy metal lay in some of the stream beds, and could be obtained by carefully wash- ing the lighter dirt away (Fig. 160). News of the discovery quickly spread throughout the world, and men hastened to the gold fields by thousands. Ever since then Cali- fornia has been one of the leading states in the production of gold. There were no railways then in the West, so that some men from the East crossed the plains and mountains in wagons, in which they were in iger of being attacked by savage Indians ? others made Fig. 160. Miners washing, or ' pan- ning," gravel to see if there is any gold in it. 180 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Lake Superior^ Irun District; XBlack mils the long journey in vessels. What route must they have taken? The best harbor on the Pacific coast was San Francisco Bay, where a small Spanish town had existed for years. Soon people crowded in so rapidly that the town of San Francisco became a great city and the chief trade centre in the West. The metal was also found under the soil in the midst of solid rock. Rock with gold in it is called gold ore, and must be crushed into fine bits before the gold can be collected. This requires much machinery, and is one of the im- portant parts of mining (Fig. 22, p. 24). A great deal of this kind of ore is now mined in California. Gold is also found in Colo- rado, and many men have been attracted to that state, as formerly to California. Indeed more gold now comes from Colorado than from California. Denver, the largest city in Colorado, and Pueblo, owe their growth partly to the gold mines near them. Find these cities on the map. Silver is another precious metal mined in the West, and Colorado produces more of it than any other state. With- out doubt some of the gold and silver that you have seen came from the mountain rocks of California or Colorado, For what purposes are these metals used ? % >Vtk TGold Region ~~T%-1 NX I f '".,6uFFALO. MUSK OX Fig. 227. Some of the animals of the North. The great auk had such small wings that it could not fly. It was killed in great numbers by sailors, and has been completely exterminated. 266 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE While some animals live upon the land in the Arctic regions, many more have their homes in the sea, because there, excepting at the very surface, the temperature never descends below the freezing point. Therefore, there is plenty of animal life of all sizes, from the very tiniest forms to the whale, the largest animal in the world. During the long, cold winter the surface of the sea freezes over ; and then many of the sea animals mi- grate southward. Even the huge walrus (Fig. 228) moves clumsily toward a more favorable climate. The birds go far- thest, especially the geese, ducks, and gulls, which fly to Labrador, New England, North Carolina, and even farther south, to spend the winter where their food is not covered by ice. Fig. 228. Walrus on the Arctic floe ice. Sea birds exist by hundreds of thousands (Fig. 227), building their nests upon rocky cliffs in immense numbers. Indeed, they are so numerous that, when suddenly frightened, as by the firing of a gun, they rise in a dense cloud that obscures the sun. Then, by their cries they produce a din that is almost deafening. In the water live many seals and walruses (Fig. 228), the former being so valuable for their oil and skins that Vof<; PLANTS AND ANIMALS 267 men go on long voyages to obtain them. The oil comes from a layer of fat, or " blubber," just beneath the skin, that serves to keep out the cold. The seal is the most common of the Arctic sea animals, and is the principal food of the Eskimo and the huge polar bear. The bear, protected from observation by his white color, stealthily creeps upon, his prey, asleep upon the ice ; or, he patiently watches until his victim swims within reach, and then seizes him in his powerful claws. Life on Mountain Tops. — In many respects the life on moun- tain tops resembles that of the Arctic regions. On the crests of lofty mountains it is cold, and large animals are rare, while the plants resemble those of the cold North (Fig. 234). There are no trees, though creeping willows and birches abound. Indeed, some of the plants are actually the same as, those of the North. For instance, on the top' of Mt. Katahdin, Maine, some of the plants are of the same species as those thriving in Labrador, Baffin Land, and Greenland. Arctic plants also occur on the mountain tops in North Carolina. Plants and Animals in Western North America. — A large area in western United States and Mexico has a very slight rainfall, although its temperature is agree- able. This arid area includes most of the territory having less than twenty inches of rain. In some places, how- ever, as near the Pacific coast and upon the mountain tops and high plateaus, there is rain enough for forests to thrive ; but in most parts of the Far West the climate is so dry that there are no trees whatsoever. Indeed, some portions of the West are desolate in the extreme and almost devoid of life, both plant and animal ; in other words, they are true deserts. One common plant is the bunch grass, so called because it grows in little tufts or bunches. The sage bush, a plant with a pale green leaf, named because of its sagelike odor, 268 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE is found throughout most of this arid region. Other common plants are the mesquite, the century plant with its sharp-pointed leaves, and the cactus with its numerous thorns (Fig. 229). In favor- able spots, especially in the warm southwest, the mes- quite grows to large size ; and the cactus, which in the north is always low and rep- resented by only a few kinds, in the southwest, as in Ari- zona, grows in great variety and, in some cases, even to the heiarht of trees. Fig. 229. Giant cactus in the desert of south- western Arizona. On account of the extreme dryness of the climate, these plants have a severe struggle for existence, and adopt pe- culiar means for protecting themselves. For example, the cactus, unlike other plants, has no leaves. It thus ex- poses little surface to the air for evaporation. In its great, fleshy stem it stores water to use through the long, dry seasons, while spines protect it from ani- Fig. 230. One of the peculiar plants of the arid lands, growing to the size of a tree in the warm, dry climate of southern Arizona. PLANTS AND ANIMALS 269 rnals in search of food. The mesquite also protects itself by- spines, and in addition has such large roots that the part of the plant under ground is greater than that above. Many of these plants, as the mesquite, are so bitter that they are not eaten by animals. Animals eat few of the arid land plants except the grasses, which were once the food of the buffalo or bison (Figs. 231 and 236), and are now the support of numerous cattle and sheep. The bison, whose home was on the Fig. 231. Photograph of a young bison. prairies and the arid plains east of the Rocky Mountains, is now gone ; and few large animals are left in its place. The cowardly prairie wolf, or coyote, and the graceful antelope and the rabbits, are the most abundant (Fig. 232). Among the rabbits is the long-legged jack rabbit, which leaps across the plains with astonishing speed, with its huge ears thrown back so far that they do not retard its progress. The traveller through the arid lands meets with few more interesting creatures than the prairie dogs, which live in small communities, called prairie-dog towns (Fig. 232). Their homes PRAIRIE DOG krnE.KH.Cn.Ej GRIZZLY BEAR Fig. 232. Some of the animals of the plateaus and mountaius of the Far West. PLANTS AND ANIMALS 271 are in the ground and their food consists of grass. They do not venture far from their burrows for fear of the coyotes which may be lurking near; and upon the least alarm they utter a shrill note and tumble headlong into their burrows. There are birds and some lower animals, as the poisonous tarantula, centipede and scorpion, besides snakes, especially the poisonous rattlesnake (Fig. 232). The fierce puma or mountain lion still lives among the mountains, and also the ugly cinnamon and grizzly bears (Fig. 282), though the latter are now rare and difficult to find. Deer and elk inhabit the forest-covered mountains of southern Canada and northwestern United States ; and among the higher peaks a few mountain goats and sheep still live on the more inaccessible rocky crags (Fig. 282). The sheep have huge horns much prized by hunters. Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone. — Contrast the life in the frozen North and the arid West with that in Central America and southern Mexico. In these re- gions, which are situated in the torrid zone, the tempera- ture is always warm ; and the rainfall, especially on the eastern coast, is so heavy that all the conditions are favor- able for dense vegetation. Indeed, the tangle of growth in the forests is so great that it is practically impossible to pass through it without hewing one's way. Besides trees and underbrush, there are quantities of ferns, vines, and flowers, many of which hang from the trees with their roots in the air instead of in the ground. These odd plants are able to live this way on account of the dam]) air. Among the trees are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, ebony, and rubber tree ; and among the flowers are the beauti- ful orchids. On account of the continual warmth and mois- ture, many plants, like the banana for instance, bear fruit throughout the year. 272 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE In the midst of such luxuriant vegetation, animal life is wonderfully varied and abundant. There are the tapir, monkey, and jaguar (Fig. 233) ; brilliantly colored birds, such as parrots, paroquets, and humming birds ; and mil- lions of insects. Scorpions and centipedes abound, and ants exist in countless numbers, some in the ground, others in decayed vegetation. Serpents, some of them poisonous, are common in the forests; and in the rivers are fish and alligators, the latter being found as far north as Florida and Louisiana. The plants and animals of the torrid zone are well adapted to their surroundings, like those of the Arctic and the desert. The jaguar and ocelot are speckled, or spotted, like a surface upon which the sunlight plays when it has struck through deep shade ; the brown alligator is in color much like the mud banks on which he lies ; and all the brilliantly colored animals are in harmony with the intense lights and the bright hues of tropical plants. This resemblance to their surroundings aids them in hiding, whether from their own enemies, or from the creatures which they are seeking for food. Plants and Animals in the Temperate Part of North America. — Between the frigid and torrid zones, and both east and west of the arid region, is an area of moderate rainfall and temperature where the vegetation and animals differ from those of the other sections. Beginning in the warm South and passing northward, we find that both animals and plants grow less numerous and less varied until, near the Arctic zone, they become scarce and few in kind. The pines and oaks of the United States give place to the spruce, balsam fir, and maple in Canada; then these gradually become stunted and disappear (Fig. 234), and beyond this the barrens are reached. Fig. 233. A few of the animals of the tropical forests. 274 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The animals that once inhabited the broad temperate zone have been mostly destro} T ed, although some still live in the forest and mountain region. They are carefully protected by state laws, which prohibit shooting except at certain seasons, and then only in small numbers. When America was first visited by Europeans, these woods abounded in deer, moose, caribou, wolves, and foxes (Fig. 235). Beavers built dams across the streams, the mink and otter fished in the waters, and bears roamed at will. Fig. 234. Appearance of the trees at the tree line," both on the slopes of mountains and near the Arctic zone. Among the birds, the eagle was common (Fig. 285), and wild pigeons and turkeys were so abundant that they were one of the principal foods of the early settlers. Some believe that at one time most of eastern United States was wooded, including the fertile prairies of the Mississippi Valley, from which the trees were burned by tires set by the Indians. Grass then sprang up in place of the trees, and the prairies became the grazing place for immense herds of bison (Fig. 236). The bison, however, like the other animals men- tioned, have been mostly destroyed ; thousands upon thou- sands were slaughtered for their hides and tonsmes alone, and MOOSE HEDGEHOG Fig. 235. Some of the animals of northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. 276 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE their bones left to whiten upon the plains. There are now no wild bison in the United States, except a few which are pro- tected by the government in the Yellowstone National Park. In this Park, where hunting is prohibited, are numbers of deer Fig. 236. One of the immense herds of bison that formerly roamed over the treeless plains. and elk (Fig. 232). There are also black, cinnamon, and grizzly bears, which are so tame that they come down to the hotels at night to feed upon the garbage. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE Need of a Means for Locating Places. — You have doubt- less noticed that it has frequently been necessary to refer to lines upon the earth, such as the Tropic of Cancer, the Equator, the Arctic Circle, etc., in order to locate certain places and the boundaries of the zones. But these lines are far apart, and there are many places between them to which reference must often be made. For instance, sup- pose we wished to state on what part of the earth London is situated ;, how could it be done ? Of course, by taking a long time, it would be possible to describe just where this city is ; but cannot some more convenient way be devised ? The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in a large city. There are thousands of houses in the city, as there are thousands of towns and cities in the world. No one person knows who lives in most of them, and if a stranger were looking for a friend, he might have much trouble in finding him. The Streets of a City. — In this case the problem may be solved in a simple manner. A street running east and west may be selected to divide the city into two parts (Fig. 237). Any place north of this street is spoken of as being on the north side, and south of it as being on the south side. The streets to the north and south are numbered from 277 278 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE this, as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d ; and South 1st, South 2d, South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says that N0RTH he lives on North 4th Street, J [sorthzj |sd ■— ' L s 4.'— JL one knows immediately that he -^ yjd U LJ LJ U L lives on the north side, and ^yjJJJ LJUUL t } iat t* g house is on the 4th -ir^f"-! f ST -| < i— i^r-jr street from this central one. west Washington ave. ^.east But a city also extends a -,polidpsT-|g— i^p-ir long distance east and west, -is— i^i^h— il^irnl and we need to know on what irTnrTnnnr P ° street this house ~l r^ri f™i r~i 1*1 r~i r is to be found. To answer SOUTH that question, another street Map of apart'of a city, to iiius- running north and south, and trate the need of naming crossing the east and west streets. -i i , j , -i • • i ones, may be selected to divide the city into east and west parts. The streets on the two sides are numbered from this one, as East 1st, East 2d, West 1st, West 2d, etc. (Fig. 237). Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and East 3d streets, one knows not only that his home is north of a certain line, but east of another line. If the blocks, or the space between any two streets, are always the same, it will also be easy to tell the distance from each of the central streets to the house. This plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, be- cause the people there know one another, and are able to direct strangers easily. Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme here given ; but many have a system of naming or numbering streets somewhat similar to this. If you live in a large city, perhaps you can tell just how your streets are named or numbered. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 279 f,or th Po/ e gO° N . Distance North and South of the Equator {Latitude). — Places upon a globe are located in much this manner. For example, the equator, which extends around the earth midway between the poles, corresponds to the divid- ing street running east and west. The distance between the equator and the poles, on either side, is divided into ninety parts (Fig. 238), corresponding, we might say, to the blocks in a city. These, however, are each about sixty-nine miles wide and are called degrees, marked with the sign °. In making maps people think of a line, or a cir- cle, extending around the earth sixty - nine miles north of the equator, and called a circle of latitude. Any point upon it is one degree (1°) north of the equator, or 1° North Lati- tude (abbreviated to N. Lat.). Similar lines are imagined 2°, 3°, and so on up to 90°, or to the north pole. Since all points on any one of these circles are the same distance from the equator, and from the other circles of latitude, the lines are parallel ; and on that account they are called parallels of latitude. See a globe. The same plan is followed on the south side, places in that hemisphere being in South Latitude (S. Lat.). If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th, or the 50th, or some other parallel, north of the equator, he ' 20°S. Lat. 23h J S. Lat. SoU th ?<***$?. lat Fig. L'38. The globe, showing the two hemispheres and some of the circles of latitude. 280 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE knows how far it is north of the equator. San Francisco is close to the 38th parallel, Chicago close to the 42d, and St. Paul on the 45th (Figs. 148 and 157). Knowing this, it is easy to see that Chicago is 4°, or about two hundred and seventy-six miles, farther north than San Francisco, while St. Paul is 3°, or over two hundred miles, farther north than Chicago. Of course there are no marks upon the earth to show where these lines run, but they are of great use on maps, because they help us to locate places. Small maps and globes cannot well show the entire ninety parallels on each side of the equator, so that usually only every fifth or tenth one is drawn. Exam- ine some maps (such as Figs. 123 and 125), to see which ones are given. Near what parallel do you live ? In learning of the seasons it will be found that on June 21 the vertical rays of the sun reach farthest north. The part of the earth which they reach is 23^° north of the equator, and is marked on the maps by the Tropic of Cancer (Fig. 238). The Tropic of Capricorn is the same distance south of the equator (Fig. 238). Knowing now the length of a degree, you can find the width of the tropical zone, both in degrees and in miles. What is it ? New Orleans is just south of the 30th parallel N. Lat. How far is it from the tropical zone ? On. the day that the vertical rays of the sun reach far- thest north, the entire Arctic Circle is lighted by the sun at midnight. This circle is the same distance from the pole as the Tropic of Cancer from the equator, that is 23|°. The Antarctic Circle is the same distance from the south pole. From this it is evident that we can easily find the lati- LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 281 tude of a given place by the help of these parallels, for latitude is the distance north or south of the equator. East and West Distances on the Earth (Longitude J ) . — But how about distance east and west ? It is twenty-five thousand miles around the earth at the equator, and some means must be found for telling on the map how far places are from each other in these directions. Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before ; but this time they extend north and south from pole to pole (Fig. 239), aud are called meridians, or lines „<$. of longitude. In the case of the city it makes little difference what north and south street is chosen from which to number the others. It is only necessary that a certain one be agreed upon. It is the same with these meridians. No one is especially important, as the equator is, and consequently different nations have selected dif- ferent lines to start from. In France the meridian ex- tending through Paris is chosen, in England that through Greenwich near London, and in America the one passing through Washington is sometimes used. But it is im- 1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and west than in a north and south direction. Therefore they called the east and west, or long direction, longitude ; the north and south direction, latitude. Fig. 239. The earth, cut in halves along the Green- wich meridian, showing some of the meridians. The meridian 20° is usually considered the dividiug line between the eastern and western hemispheres. 282 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE portant that all people agree on some one, so that all maps may be made alike. On that account many countries start their numbering with the meridian which passes through Greenwich. The maps in this book follow that plan. In Greenwich is a building, called an observatory, in which there is a telescope for the study of the sun, moon, and stars. As these heavenly bodies are of great help in finding the lati- tude and longitude of places, Greenwich seemed to the English a fitting place from which to begin numbering their meridians. Commencing with this meridian as 0° longitude, people measure off degrees both east and west of it, and think of lines as ex- tending north and south toward the poles, as they do of circles of latitude running parallel to the equator. Thus there is a meridian 1° west, another 2°, a third 3°, etc. Going eastward, they number 1°, 2°, 3°, in the same way. Any place on the 3d meridian west of Green- wich is said to be in 3° West Longitude (W. Long.); if on the 60th meridian, 60° W. Long. Any place on the 20th meridian east of Green- wich is in 20° East Longitude (E. Long.). New York is 74° W. Long., while San Francisco is about 123° W. Long. Jerusalem is about 35° E. Long. Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, it Fig. 240. A view, looking down on the north pole, to show how the meridians come to a point at the north pole. Notice that if the 0° meridian were continued it would unite with the meridian 180°. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 283 can, by the aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in a great city. For instance, Denver is about 40° N. Lat. and 105° W. Long. It is therefore far to the north and west of New Orleans, which is about 30° N. Lat. and 90° W. Long. Find the latitude and longitude of some of the large cities on the map (Fig. 124). Notice also that only every fifth meridian is marked. Compare this with the map of New England (Fig. 125). Since this map represents a smaller section of country, more meridians can be drawn upon it. The circles of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each other, as you can prove by measuring the distance be- tween them on a globe. But the meridians cannot be parallel on a globe, since they start from the poles and spread farther and farther apart until the equator is reached. Examine some of the maps in this book to see that the meridi- ans are not parallel, while the lines of lati- tude are. You can see how this is by taking the peeling from an orange (Fig. 241). The edges of each of the quarters spread far apart in the middle, or equator, but come together at the ends, or poles, of the orange. A degree of longitude is a little over sixty-nine miles at the equator ; but it decreases more and more as the poles are approached, until at the poles it is nothing, because all the meridians meet there at one point. Examine Figure 240, or, better still, a globe, to see that this must be true. Fig. 241. An orange with a part of the peeling removed to show how the lines converge toward the poles, as the meridians converge on the glohe. THE HUMAN RACE Divisions of Mankind Man, like plants and animals, varies in different parts of the world. He is influenced by his surroundings, as they are, and in the course of time has developed differ- ently in the various lands of the earth. Concerning the origin of the human race, and its divisions, people hold different views ; but mankind in general may be di- vided into four great groups. Ethiopians. — Alto- gether there are about one and one-half bill- ion human beings up- on the earth, or twenty times the number in the United States. Of these the lowest are the negroes (Fig. 242) or Ethiopians, who number about one hundred and seventy-five million. This is often called the black race. There are many subdivisions of this group, but they are all characterized by a deep brown or black skin, short, black, woolly hair, broad flat noses, and prominent cheek bones. 284 Fig. 242. An African negro girl. THE HUMAN BACE 285 The home of the Ethiopians is Africa south of the Sahara desert (Fig. 214), though many have been trans- ported to other lands as slaves, and have there mingled more or less with the other races. In their original home the negroes are savages, or barbarians of low type. The native Australians (Fig. 243), the Papuans of New Guinea, the Negritos of the Philippines, and the blacks on some other islands in that part of the world resemble the negroes most closely, though differing from them in some important respects. They are shorter, for example, their hair is less woolly, their noses straighter, and their lips less thick. American Indians. — A second great division of the human race is that of the red men or Ameri- can Indians, often called the red race. It is the smallest of the four groups, numbering about twenty-two million. These people, who in some respects resemble the Mongolian race, were in possession of both North and South America when Columbus discovered America. They were, how- ever, divided into many tribes. AVhile the Indians have been largely displaced by white men, many, especially in the tropic and Antarctic zones, are still living in the savage state. Fig. 243. A native of New South Wales, Australia. 286 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE l They are distinguished by a copper-colored skin, promi- nent cheek bones, black eyes, and long, coarse black hair. When discovered many were sav- ages, while others had risen to the stage of barbar- ism. In fact, the Aztecs of North America and the Incas of South America had even developed some of the arts of civ- ilization. Mongolians. — The third divi- sion, the Mongo- lian or yellow race, numbering about five hundred and forty million, are typically Asiatic people, the greater number being found in Asia and the islands of the Pacific (Fig. 245). Some, as the Finns, Lapps, and Turks, have settled in Europe, while the Eskimos have spread eastward along the shores of Arctic America. The Mongolians, typically represented by the Chinese and Japanese (Fig. 245), have a yellowish and in some cases even a white skin, prominent cheek bones, small oblique eyes, a small nose, and long, coarse black hair. In places, as on the more remote islands, the Mongolians are uncivilized ; but the great majority may be classed as Fig. 244. South American Indians. THE HUMAN BACE 287 civilized people, although their standard of civilization differs from that of the white race. Caucasians. — By far the largest and most civilized of the four divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian Fig. 245. Japanese ladies. race, which numbers about seven hundred and seventy- million. Their original home is not known. Some be- lieve it to have been in the plateau of central Asia, others in the northern part of Africa. With the dawn of his- tory the white peoples of Europe were mostly barbarians ; 288 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE but civilization had begun to develop in southern and west- ern Asia and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. At present the white race occupies most of Europe, North and South America, Australia, and large portions of Asia and Africa. It is the most widely dis- tributed of any of the four divisions. Besides Europeans (Fig. 246) it includes the Egyp- tians, Arabs, and Abys- sinians of Africa ; also the Arabs, Persians, Armenians, Afghans, and Hindus of Asia (Fig. 247). While for various reasons the Caucasians differ greatly in charac- teristics, two main branches are recognized : (1) the fair type (Fig. 246), with florid com- plexion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, blue or gray eyes, and height above the average ; (2) the dark type (Fig. 247), with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often wavy or curly, and black eyes. In temperament both are active, enterprising, and imaginative, though the fair type is more solid, the dark type more emotional. Distribution of Races. — For centuries these four great divisions of the human race have been changing within themselves until there are now many subdivisions of ;: ■ •■j.v). :.. ■■■;. i & H f *m - ffi- ^ - !l:if%i ^ ^-.- ■'-'■/ ™ktj WBWWgJP_g.y rr ^™'<^ % :. Tv", ffljBMK mi SB§§&&' SES gJEgjyft, 173. Sa-ha'-ra, 242. St. An'-tho-ny (ni) Palls, 172. St. Joftn, 192. St. Law'-renge, 53, 139, 192. St. Louis (lo'-is), 42, 173. St. Paul, 88, 172. St. Pe'-ters-burg (berg), 213. Salt Lake City, 182. Sa-mar', Fig. 221. Sa-mo'-a, 254. San Fran-cis'-co, 66, 180, 185, 186. San'-taF6 (fa), Fig. 157- San-ti-a'-go (te), 205. Sar-din'-i-a, Fig. 183. Sa-van'-na7i, 165. Scot'-land, 208. Scran'-ton, 155. Se-at'-Zle, 185, 186. Seine*(san), 218. Seoul (sol), Fig. 203. Ser'-vi-a, 225. Shang-hai' (hi), 236. Shas'-ta, Fig. 124. Si-am', 240. Sl-be'-ri-a, 234. Si-er'-ra (se) Mad'-re (ra),Fig. 123. Si-er'-ra (se) Ne-va'-da, 20, 177. Sin'-ga-pore, 240. Sit'-ka, 188, 189. South A-mer'-i-ca, 129, 199. South Car-o-li'-na, 159. South Da-ko'-ta, Fig. 148. Spam, 100, 219. Spo-kane', 185. Spring'-freld, 147. Stock'-holm, 212. Sucre (soo'-kra), Fig. 177. Su-dan (So-dan'), 246. Su-ez' (so), 245. Sulu (so-lo'), 254. Su-ma'-tra (so), Fig. 221. Gu-pe'-ri-or, Lake (so), 150, 169. Swe'-den,"211. Swit'-z'er-land, 132, 222. Syd'-ney, 252. Syr'-a-cuse, 150, 152. Ta-co'-ma, 185, 186. Ta-gal'-ogs, 254. INDEX 307 Tal-Za-has'-see, Fig. 140. Tam'-pa, 165. Tan-gan-yi'-ka (ye), Fig. 214. Tas-nia'-ni-a (taz), 252. Te-heran', Fig. 203. Ten-raes-see', Fig. 140= Tex'-as, 159, 161. Thames (temz) , 208. The Hague (hag), 217. Tib'-et, Fig. 203. Tientsin (te-en'-tsen'), 236. Ti-er'-ra del Fue'-go (fua), Fig. 177. Tim-buk'-tu (to) , 248. Ti-ti-ca'-ca (te-te),Fig. 177. To'-ki-o (ke), 238. To-le'-do, 173. To-pe'-ka, Fig. 148. To-ron'-to, 192. Tren'-ton, 153. Trieste (tre-est'), Fig. 183. Trin-i-dad', 203. Trip'-o-li, Fig. 214. Troy, 152. Tu'-nis, Fig. 214. Tur-kes-tan' (Ter), Fig. 203. Turkey (ter'-ki), 100, 225. tj-ni'-ted States, 97, 140, 141. U'-ral Mountains, 212, 234. U-ru-guay (6-ro-gwI'), 203. U'-taft, 181. Val~pa-rai'-so, 205. Van-cou'-ver (ko), 192. Ven-e-zue'-la (zwe), 202. Ven'-iqe, 221. Ve'-ra Cruz (kroz), 197. Ver-mont', 144. Ve-su'-vi-us (so), 125, 221. Vicks'-burg (berg), 164. Vic-to'-ri-a, Australia, 249. Vic-to'-ri-a, Canada, 192. Vic-to'-ri-a Ny-an f -za, Fig. 214. Vi-en'-wa, 223. Yir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157 Vis'-tu-la, Fig. 183. Vol'-ga, 213. "Wales (walz), 208. War'-sato, Fig. 183. Wash'-ing-ton (city), 97, 98, 99, 156, 157. Wash'-ing-ton (state), 185. West Indies (in'-diz), 197. West Vir-gin'-i-a (ver), 157. Wheel'-ing, 157." White Mountains, 17. Wilkes Barre (wilks'-bar-a), 155. Wil'-ming-ton, Del., 153. Wil'-ming-tpn, N. C, 165. Win'ni-peg, 192. Wis-con'-sin, 169. Worcester (wiis'-ter), 147. Wy-o'-ming (wi), Fig. 157. Yang'-tse-ki-ang (ke), Fig. 203. Yel'-Zow-stone, 177. Yenisei (yen-e-sa'-e) , Fig. 203. Yo-ko-ha'-ma, 238. Yo-sern'-i-te, 20. Yu'-kon, 139, 189. Yu-ca-tan', Fig. 123. Zu-rich (zo'-rik),223. FIRST BOOK OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By RALPH S. TARR, Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography at Cornell University. i2mo. Illustrated. Half leather. $i.io, net. " The style is simple, direct, and the illustrations helpful; the book, indeed, being so attractive that one hopes it will inspire even in the pupil who gives it briefest time a longing to know more of the marvels of our world." — Providence Journal. " Although intended for school use, there are few readers who will not be profoundly interested in the volume, which is profusely illus- trated. Technical terms are avoided as far as possible, and where they are used they are clearly explained." — Boston Traitscript. " This book is packed with information needed by every grammar- school pupil; but what signifies vastly more, the pupil gets this infor- mation in a way that gives thorough discipline — in observation, careful reading, discriminating thinking. This book is the best possible proof of the statement that all new science work depends for its value upon being rightly taught. This book is an admirable presentation of prac- tical pedagogy." — Journal oj Education. " The style of Professor Tarr's book is literary, scholarly, and sane; a pleasing relief from the disjointed paragraphs of some of his con- temporaries. . . . This book will prove a formidable rival to the best physical geographies now in the field. " — Educational Review. " No written description of the book can do justice to it. It will well repay personal examination." — New York Education. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OF TH* UNITED STATES, WITH BRIEFER MENTION OF FOREIGN MINERAL PRODUCTS By RALPH S. TARR, B.S., P.G.S.A., Assistant Professor of Geology at Cornell University. Second Edition. Revised. $3.50. COMMENTS. "I am more than pleased with your new 'Economic Geology of the United States.' An introduction to this subject, fully abreast of its recent progress, and especially adapted to American students and readers, has been a desideratum. The book is admirably suited for class use, and I shall adopt it as the text-book for instruc- tion in Economic Geology in Colorado College. It is essentially accurate, while written in a pleasant and popular style, and is one of the few books on practical geology that the general public is sure to pronounce readable. The large share of attention given to non-metallic resources is an especially valuable feature." — Francis W. Cragin, Professor of Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology at Colorado College. " I have examined Professor R. S. Tarr's * Economic Geology * with much pleasure. It fills a felt want. It will be found not only vexy helpful to students and teachers by furnishing the fundamental facts of the science, but it places within easy reach of the business man, the capitalist, and the statesman, fresh, reliable, and com- plete statistics of our national resources. The numerous tables bringing out in an analytic way the comparative resources and productiveness of our country and of different states, are a specially convenient and admirable feature. The work is ?u interesting demonstration of the great public importance of the. science of geology." — James E. Todd, State Geologist, South Dakota. " It. is one of those books that is valuable for what it omits, and for the concise method of presenting its data. The American engineer has now the ability to acquire the latest knowledge of the theories, locations, and statistics of the leading American ore bodies at a glance. Were my course one of text-books, I should certainly use it, and I have already called the attention of my students to its value as a book of reference." — Edward H. Williams, Professor of Mining, Engineering, and Geology at Lehigh University. "I have taken time for a careful examination of the work; and it gives me pleasure to say that it is very satisfactory. Regarded simply as a general treatise on Economic Geology, it is a distinct advance on anything that we had before; while in its relations to the Economic deposits of this country it is almost a new creation and certainly supplies a want long and keenly felt by both teachers and general students. Its appearance was most timely in my case, and my class in Economic Geology are already using it as a text-book." — William O. Crosby, Assistant Prof essor of Structural and Economic Geology at the Massachusetts Institute qf Technology. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. sicai vjeogr RALPH STOCKMAN TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A., Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography at Cornell University I Author of " Economic Geology of the United States" etc. Fifth Edition, Revised, umu Cloth. $ 1.40 net ,g There is an advanced and modernized phase of physical geography, how- ever, which the majority of the committee prefer to designate physiography, not because the name is important, but because it emphasizes a special and important phase of the subject and of its treatment. The scientific investi- gations of the last decade have made very important additions to the physio- graphic knowledge and methods of study. These are indeed so radical as to be properly regarded, perhaps, as revolutionary." "The majority of the Conference wish to impress upon the attention of the teachers the fact that there has been developed within the past decade a new and most important phase of the subject, and to urge that they hasten to acquaint themselves with it and bring it into the work of the school-room and of the field." — Report of Geography Conference to the Committee