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THE 
 
 FOOTPRINTS OF TIME : 
 
 AND A COMPLETE 
 \ 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 OF THE AMERICAN 
 
 SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT 
 
 WITH A 
 
 CONCISE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION, 
 THE RELATION OF THE OLD WORLD TO THE FREE 
 INSTITUTIONS OF THE NEW; THE ESTABLISHMENT 
 ^ rj AND GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES 
 
 ^ ^ L^ AND OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 <^V^ OF AMERICA. 
 
 FACTS AND STATISTICS FROM OFFICIAL SOURCES. 
 
 REVISED EDITION. 
 
 . By CHARLES BAISTCI^O^PT. | . 
 
 BURLINGTON, IOWA. 
 
 1881. 
 
 ^ 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874 / 
 
 and 1875 ) 
 
 By R. T. root. 
 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 It is the object of this book to supply the means of forming 
 an accurate idea of the American government. The author 
 has adopted the proposition that the highest style of govern- 
 ment is one "of the people, by the people, and for the people," 
 and believes that a constant progress, commencing in the earli- 
 est times, has reached its full development in the Great Re- 
 public. He therefore traces The Footprints of Time through 
 all history; notes the gradual unfolding of institutions, the 
 rise and fall of empires, the causes that produced and destroyed 
 the ancient republics, and the origin of the forces that give so 
 much more strength and stability to modern civilization. All 
 this he considers essential to a correct appreciation of the 
 wonderful events of our age and country. 
 
 He then proceeds to a close and clear analysis of the whole 
 structure of the government. Each general division, with its 
 sub-divisions, is examined in detail, but successively; so that a 
 definite picture of it, with all its branches, operations, and rela- 
 tions to other parts, stands before the mind as a sharply defined 
 whole. The Executive, Legislative, and Judicial divisions — 
 the dependent parts of each kept in proper place — come in order, 
 one after the other, the structure, powers and workings of each 
 being fully explained. 
 
 The great demand for the book has rendered it necessary to 
 recast the plates, and experience suggesting various changes, 
 especially after the taking of the Tenth Census, an extensive re- 
 vision of the text was entered on. The larger part of the book 
 has been re-written, and while its fundamental features remain 
 the same the detail has been very much changed. The character 
 
 (5) 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 of the English people and the colonial policy of their govern- 
 ment are dwelt on; the chief features of the Constitution of the 
 United States, the causes which made it what it is, and the policy 
 which has been pursued by the government in applying it are 
 clearly developed. 
 
 The Analysis of all the Branches and Departments of the exist- 
 ing Government, and of the subordinate divisions of each branch 
 has been made anew from careful studies of them as conducted 
 at the present time. A more full account of many subjects now 
 especially interesting to the people of the United States has been 
 given, as the Postal, Financial and Public Land Systems, and 
 many others. The Third Part has been largely rearranged and 
 re-named to bring out the special significance of the States and 
 all forms of Local Government in the American System. 
 
 Important data and tables from the Tenth Census have been 
 inserted; the political and chronological Histories of the United 
 States have been revised and united to furnish a complete view 
 of the more important events and current interests of the cen- 
 tury of national existence. It is believed that nothing of 
 importance is now omitted from the account of the origin of 
 free popular government, of constitutional principles, of the 
 structure and working of American Institutions, or of the events 
 that have been of most importance during each Presidential 
 term. This wide range of view is made very clear and definite 
 while sufficiently complete to meet all the ordinary purposes of 
 the student and the citizen. 
 
INTEODUCTIOK. 
 
 No intelligent American citizen can review without exultation 
 the history of the United States during the century that com- 
 menced with the fourth of March, 1791. The First Congress under 
 the present Constitution came to an end on that day. The new 
 Institutions and Government had been fairly organized, the diffi- 
 culties and dangers of a nation young and poor had been 
 surmounted, the keynotes of public policy had been struck, and 
 the future looked very hopeful. Yet it can scarcely be supposed 
 that any one, on that day, dared to prophesy all the success that 
 was found to be realized one hundred years later. The men of 
 that generation had been far wiser than they knew, and very 
 little of their work was afterwards found to be ill-done. They 
 may justly be considered to have settled all the questions then 
 really possible of solution with a soundness and breadth of 
 judgment that belongs to the highest range of statesmanship. 
 
 In the course of the nineteenth century the more enlightened 
 countries of the civilized world have expressed the highest pos- 
 sible appreciation of the policy of the American people by 
 introducing into their political systems the fundamental princi- 
 ple of the Constitution of the United States, viz. : that the Will 
 of the People, legally expressed, is the Law of the Land. How- 
 ever variously or imperfectly this principle may as yet have 
 been developed in the National Constitutions adopted by differ- 
 ent countries during the century, they all tacitly concur in 
 acknowledging that the American theory is the true solution of 
 
8 IXTEODUCTION. 
 
 the problem of government. But it has not been the more cul- 
 tured classes who first reached this conviction. With individual 
 exceptions those classes have never been willing to allow that 
 the masses of the people were the proper judges of what was 
 best for them, and have resisted democratic modifications of 
 government as long as they dared. Even in England, where the 
 aristocratic class has been far more patriotic and considerate 
 than elsewhere, the case has been much the same. 
 
 But the strong central government, the public order, and the 
 great material prosperity of the American Republic have pow- 
 erfully supported the cause of popular liberty. Here was a 
 demonstration that men were capable of self-government. It 
 was an irresistible argument. The sight of this self-assertive 
 people caring for themselves, requiring lawmakers and execu- 
 tives to respect their will, and attaining their ends in the midst 
 of general peace and increasing prosperity, made every man in 
 every nation respect his own manhood more highly. 
 
 American history has been a lesson as well as an inspiration. 
 The terrible and unfortunate experiences of the first French 
 Republic showed that it was not enough to strike for freedom at 
 any cost, and by any means that might gain it at once. America 
 showed what could be achieved by patient fortitude, by justice 
 and mercy. That the lesson has not been inculcated in vain the 
 last thirty years of European history has shown. In all West- 
 ern Europe the common people have become possessed of the 
 Elective Franchise, have their Representatives in the iSTational 
 Parliament, and that Parliament makes the laws and controls 
 the executive. A "New Series of Ages," — an epoch of popular 
 freedom — has opened for mankind. The personal despotisms 
 and the severities of class rule of all former ages are now no 
 longer possible in the more civilized countries of the world. The 
 United States has been a most important factor in this result. 
 
 Not the only one however, for all history from, the dawn of 
 civilization, has tended toward this end. Egypt. Assyria. Baby- 
 lon and Persia made Greece and Rome possible. Modern Europe 
 was the Ancient Civilization cast in a better mould with a ming- 
 ling of new and better material. AYithout modern Europe to 
 educate the Anglo-Saxons free America could not have been. It 
 cannot now be doubted that Progress has been the constant com- 
 panion of Time down through all the ages: but Progress was an 
 immature youth until a Xew World was found and peopled by a 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 special race. Anglo-Americans boldly struck out a new career 
 and broke with the cherished traditions of the past. What they 
 believed to be desirable they undertook to establish and main- 
 tain with manly resolution and in the face of obstacles whose 
 gravity they even overestimated. 
 
 Many features of their own circumstances and of the condi- 
 tion of the world favored them. Enterprise, invention, increas- 
 ing intelligence and activity and many new social and industrial 
 developments in Europe responded to their ideas and plans. The 
 Old World was ready to co-operate with the New in adopting 
 different methods and entering on new undertakings. Science 
 was prepared to give invaluable aid to industry. Embarrassing 
 prejudices and false principles everywhere gave way before 
 more accurate knowledge and more reasonable methods. Old 
 World capital came forward eagerly to sustain American enter- 
 prise and America found herself possessed of a variety and 
 compass of native resources which she had not before suspected. 
 No government monopolies or favoritisms interfered with indi- 
 vidual enterprise or restrained the inhabitants of particular 
 regions from taking the measures their own welfare suggested. 
 All the intelligence, energy and activity of each community and 
 each person could be given to the pursuit of the rich rewards of 
 industry everywhere offered. 
 
 Thus the people, at large prospered as no people had ever done 
 before. The wealth of the country soon became colossal, but, 
 as it had been the reward of industry, it did not demoralize its 
 possessors, and the field of gain was so vast and varied that the 
 mass of common citizens shared its overflowing abundance. It 
 was a people wisely thoughtful of their institutions who were so 
 prosperous in their personal affairs and the result was, naturally, 
 a steadfast holding to principle, purity of administration, and 
 splendor of national greatness. 
 
 The prosperity of the United States has not been accidental; 
 it is not merely a phase of the remarkable development of a 
 remarkable age; its safe emergence from the perils of war was 
 not alone the fortunate result of battles and sieges. All these 
 were the necessary fruit of causes which could produce nothing 
 less — the character of the people and of the institutions they 
 had established and maintained. In England, a small and 
 comparatively sterile island, the same race has made for itself 
 the proudest and noblest position in the Qld World and collected 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 vast wealth from all continents, islands, and seas. Anglo- 
 American institutions and power were founded on the rugged 
 shores of the Atlantic before the agricultural andnsneral wealth 
 of the Great AVest had come to their aid. 
 
 The special object of the work that follows is to examine the 
 character, the form and the manner of managing the institutions 
 of the United States; to study their origin — the causes that pro- 
 duced them — to ascertain, accurately, their present condition 
 and their probable future. Careful attention is given to Consti- 
 tutional History and the gradual growth of each Department of 
 the Government, and a full analysis of the powers, offices, 
 and relations of the three great dii-isions of the General 
 Government and of all the sub-divisions of each. It is properly 
 a Historical Analysis; not a mass of dry details, but as compre- 
 hensive a sketch of growth and results as seemed required to 
 convey the most definite possible mental picture of the whole, 
 and of all the parts, in action. It is meant to be a satisfactory 
 Citizen's Hanual of American History and of the American 
 System of Government. 
 
 A study of Local Institutions was deemed essential to the 
 completeness of this view. For it is the citizen's thorough con- 
 trol of local questions and interests that gives him his great ad- 
 vantage and his authority as one of the personal sovereigns of 
 his country. There is a sovereignty of States as well as of the 
 United States — a sovereignty of the citizens which makes the 
 Eulers, from the highest to the least, in the General Government, 
 their servants and instruments, and never, in any proper sense, 
 their masters. It is the extraordinary vigor of local action, the 
 fullness of local independence, that gives so much vigor and 
 security to national sovereignty. The people have their rulers 
 well in hand; they are able to direct public policy instead of 
 having it imposed upon them. Their habit of ruling their more 
 domestic affairs trains them to become good critics of national 
 affairs. The powers and organization of the States are therefore 
 studied, and the people are observed electing Congressmen 
 and Presidents in Congressional Districts, accepting or rejecting 
 State constitutions, appointing the Legislature and State, County 
 or Town officers. What they generally agree to wish done the 
 officials make haste to do. 
 
 The preliminary and the closing historical detail, the con- 
 stitutional study, the explanation of changes and developments 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 in the minor policies and condition of all the Departments 
 and the great national interests with which they deal, 
 really constitute, together, a complete and very thorough display 
 of what every American should know about his country. 
 That country seems to be in the zenith of her splendid greatness 
 and amazing prosperity; yet, the more fully her resources 
 become known the more boundless they appear and the more 
 evident it is that her great career is only begun. So also the 
 more fully her institutions and the character of her people are 
 studied the more admirable do they both appear, and the more 
 certain to realize for the Nation an inconceivably magnificent 
 and irfluential future. 
 
COnSTTEHSTTS 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, OR HISTORICAL PROGRESS. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 HISTORICAL PROGRESS IN THE OLD WORLD 29 
 
 Section I. The Dawn of History — Uncertainty of Tradition — Aid 
 afforded by recent studies — Ethnology, Philology, etc. — Primitive 
 Home of Mankind — The three great races — The first Migrations — 
 Commencement of Civilization — China — The Euphrates — The Ham- 
 ites in Egypt. 
 
 Section II. Direction ofPre-historic Growth — Rudeness of early races 
 — Character of the Primitive Man — Testimony of language — Imper- 
 fection of Turanian Growth — Seen in China — Superiority of Indo- 
 European races. 
 
 Section III. Gradual Development — Condition of the first Men — 
 Establishment of the Family — Patriarchal Authority — The Growth of 
 Monarchy — Origin of the Priesthood — Development of both in Chal- 
 dea and Egypt — Influence of War and Commerce. 
 
 Section IV. Ancient Monarchies — Five Monarchies on the Euphrates 
 and Tigris — The Scythian, the two Hamitic, the Assyrian and the 
 Medo-Persian Monarchies — Testimony of the ruins — Mysterious and 
 Singular character of Egypt — Moses and the Jewish State — Tyre and 
 its Commerce. 
 
 Section V. The Grecian States — Origin, intelligence and vigor of the 
 Greek race — Their Mythology and Heroic History — Their opposition 
 to the dangerous centralizing tendencies of Monarchy — Greek Repub- 
 lics — Colonization — Sparta and Athens — Commencement of Authentic 
 History — Foundation of Rome — Chronological review during the time 
 of the Roman Kings. 
 
 (12) 
 
CONTENTS. 13 
 
 Section VI. The Roman Republic — Character of the Romans — 
 Greeks and Romans compared — Roman constancy. 
 
 Section VII. Greece and Rome — The influence of each on the future 
 of mankind— Chronological history from B. C. 500 to B. C. 133— The 
 great career of the Roman Republic. 
 
 Section VIII. Decay of the Republic — Unhappy effects of conquest 
 and wealth on Roman character — Death of the Gracchi — The Civil 
 Wars — Marius, Sylla, Crassus, Pompey, Julius Csesar — The Senate 
 Suspends the Constitution and ends the Republic — Death of Caesar. 
 
 Section IX. The Roman Empire — Impossibility of restoring the 
 Republic — Triumvirate and wars of Augustus, Antony and Lepidus — 
 Augustus Emperor of the World. 
 
 Section X. Influence of Christianity — The Jewish State — Influence on 
 it of Egypt, Asia and Greece — The New Morality of Christianity — 
 The persecution it provokes — Its growing influence on life and man- 
 ners. 
 
 Section XI. The services of Great Men to Mankind — Diflficulties of 
 progress among the Ancients — Assistance rendered by Great Men — 
 Office of early Poets — Of Legislators — Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, 
 Aristotle — Orators, Demosthenes and Cicero — Influence of Great con- 
 querors on progress — Alexander the Great — Hannibal the unfortunate 
 — Caesar, the successful — Brutus, the Patriot — Augustus the Emperor 
 — The elements of greatness in all men — Jesus Christ the Perfect Man, 
 
 Section XII. The Christian Era — Chronological history ofthe Emper- 
 ors — The triumph of Christianity — The fall of the Empire. 
 
 Section XIII. Rise of Modern Nations — Incursions of Barbarians — 
 Their settlement in Gaul — Spain, Africa, Italy and Britain — Mahomet 
 and the great success of his followers — Charlemagne and the Popes — 
 Failure to found a Western Empire. 
 
 Section XIV. The Feudal System — Results from the condition ofthe 
 Empire and the character of the invaders — Rise and character of Chiv- 
 alry — The Crusades. 
 
 Section XV. The Liberties of the People — Influence of the Crusades 
 — Revival of Commerce and Learning. 
 
 Section XVI. The English People — Progress among the Ancients — 
 Their imperfect Civilization — The completenes and certainty of Mod- 
 ern Progress — The Teutonic Races — The " liberties of Englishmen " 
 and the English Constitution — They excel as Settlers and Civilizers of 
 New Countries — How the English in the Colonies became Anglo- 
 Americans by Improvement. 
 
14 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA ; 134 
 
 The Northmen and Early Discoveries in America — Clianges in 
 Europe in the Fifteenth Century — Columbus and his Ideas — Queen 
 Isabella of Spain aids him to set sail for the New World-Why he thought 
 it India — Origin of the name America — Spanish adventure and settlement 
 — Causes of their failure to be true Colonizers — English and French Ex- 
 plorations and failures during this Century — Villegagnon, Verrazzani, 
 Jacques Cartier, Sir Humphry Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 AMERICAN COLONIES IX THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 139 
 
 The Spanish in the New World— The difference between the Span- 
 ish, French and English as Colonists — Champlain and his Colonv in 
 Canada — The faults of the French leaders and Colonial System — The 
 long troubles and dangers of the Canadians — Jamestown, Va. — Land- 
 ing of the Puritans — Vigorous growth of all the English Colonies — 
 They resist oppression — Parliamentary Government in England not a 
 help to them — The Jesuits in Canada — Their influence over the Indians 
 — English " Navigation Acts." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 AMERICAN COLONIES IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 146 
 
 War between the French and English Colonies — The French at length 
 take firm root — The great superiority of the Anglo-Americans in 
 Numbers, Industiy and Wealth — The French in Louisiana — The 
 Spanish in Florida — " Queen Anne's War" — A thirty years' Peace — The 
 War of 1744 and the capture of Louisburg by New England — The Cam- 
 paign from 1754 to 1760 — George Washington at Ft. Du Quesne — 
 Braddock's Defeat — Cruel treatment of the Acadians — Death of Wolfe 
 and Montcalm — Final Conquest of Canada. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES FROM 1T63 TO 1T76 154 
 
 Population and Character of the Colonies — Their training in the French 
 War — Unfavorable changes in Representation of the People in the 
 English Parliament — Parliament resolves to tax the Colonies — Folly 
 of that jSIeasure — Resistance in the Colonies — Parliament repeals the 
 tax but Claims the Right — New taxes laid — Indignation of Colonies 
 
CONTENTS. 15 
 
 — Soldiers sent to Boston — The " Boston Massacre" — Colonies organ- 
 ize against tax on Tea — " The Boston Tea Party" — Boston Port Bill — 
 First Congress — Battle of Lexington — Siege of Boston — Battle of 
 Bunker Hill — Boston evacuated. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE DECI-ARATION OF INDP:PENDENCE 161 
 
 Anglo Saxon love of Liberty — Americans more resolute still to possess 
 it — Radical Theory of the Declaration — Thoroiighizess characteristic 
 of this New Race — It is shown from 1765 to 176G — The Declaration. 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 168 
 
 Causes of the delay in adopting them — Full text of the Articles of 1777 
 forming the Constitution for 12 years. 
 
 CHAPTER Vin. 
 
 THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 178 
 
 The Colonies free from British troops for four months after they are 
 driven from Boston — The Battle of Long Island — Washington's 
 masterly retreat — An anxious time for the Infant Nation — Success at 
 Trenton and Princeton — The decisive Campaign of 1777 — Brandy- 
 wine, Germantown, Burgoynes' Surrender — The French Treaty — 
 French Money and Ships — The British evacuate Philadelphia — Wash- 
 ington's successful Campaign of 1778 in the Jerseys — The British in 
 the Carolinas — Defeat of Gates — Americans and French fail at 
 Savannah — Arnold's Treason — The skillful manouvering of Gen. 
 Greene — Guilford Court House — King's Mountain turns the tide — 
 Lafayette and Cornwallis in Virginia — Cornwallis surrenders at York- 
 town — Review of the War — Financial Difficulties — Resolution of the 
 People — Statistics of the War — Peace at Last. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE CONSTITUTION OF 1787 188 
 
 The helplessness of the Continental Congress under the Articles of Con- 
 federation — Vain efforts to sustain Public Credit — Distress of the Army 
 and the People — Virginia suggests a Constitutional Convention — As- 
 sembling and Deliberations of that Body in 1787 — The Result — Adop- 
 tion of the Constitution by State Conventions — Their Votes — Full 
 Text of the Constitution and all its Amendments. 
 
16 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE COXTIXEXTAI. CONGRESS AND THE VARIOUS 
 SEATS OF GOVERNMENT FROM 1771 TO 1789 213 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION 213 
 
 The Character of the Constitution — It provided for a Government Strong, 
 Popular and w^ell Balanced — Its Three Coordinate Branches — The 
 Division of Powers, and the Limits and Checks of Each — Has the ad- 
 vantages of a Monarchy and a Republic — Executive Reform in Europe 
 — The English Constitution — Hovi^ Histor}- has dealt with the Ameri- 
 can Constitution — The effect on Europe and the Spanish-American 
 Colonies. 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 222 
 
 History of the Growth of its Branches — The Number of Heads of De- 
 partments having seats in the Cabinet — Relations of the Executive to 
 other great Branches of the Government — Relations to the People — 
 The Nature of a " Parliamentar}' Government " — How the American 
 differs from the English System — Cabinet does not conduct Legislation 
 in Congress — President not bound to follow their " Advice " — How 
 Congress controls the organization and conduct of Executive Depart- 
 ments — The Civil Service System — Likely to be what the People 
 prefer — The good Record of general Administration. 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 THE PRESIDENT 232 
 
 The Great Powers really held by the President — He wields the Active 
 Force of the Government — President compared with a King under 
 "Parliamentary Government" — His relations with the Legislative 
 Branch — He is powerful for good, powerless for serious evil — His 
 general Duties — The force of Precedents in Administration — The 
 Presidential Mansion and the President's Household. 
 
CONTENTS 17 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE VICE-PRESIDENT 238 
 
 Qualifications and Election of Vice-President — He has but one Duty 
 while Heir Apparent — The Dignity of this Duty. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF STATE 240 
 
 His Title applicable only to the less important Class of his Duties — His 
 Duties as General Secretary. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES 244 
 
 The use and value of Seals — The History of the Great Seal — Descrip- 
 tion of it. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF STATE — FOREIGN AFFAIRS 246 
 
 The Management of Foreign Affairs by the President, the Secretary of 
 State and the Senate — Diplomatic Agents of the United States in 
 Foreign countries — Their Titles and precedence — The "Protocol" of 
 Vienna — The Foreign Policy of the United States — Embassadors 
 Extraordinary — Ministers Plenipotentiary — Ministers 
 Resident and their duties-Charge d'Affaires — Consuls and Consuls- 
 General — Their duties in relation to Business and to American citizens 
 abroad — The Passport System and its Management — Treaties, 
 their uses and character — The purposes of Extradition Treaties — 
 The Mexican Boundary Treaty of 1854 in full — Extradition 
 Treaty with Mexico of 18G2 in full. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE TREASURY 265 
 
 The importance of the Treasury to the General Government and the 
 Nation — It has proved equal to all demands — The Treasury after 
 1789 — During the Civil War — Its Efficiency has made the Country 
 prosperous and saved the Union. 
 2 
 
18 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 266 
 
 His Title and duties — Great Responsibility of this Secretary — His rela- 
 tion to the Public Credit and the Financial System of the United 
 States — The Organization of his Department — The two Comptroll- 
 ers and the Commissioner of the Revenue — The six Auditors 
 as Examiners of Accounts — The Treasurer and Register of the 
 Treasury — The Treasury and Sub-Treasuries — The Bureau of Statis- 
 tics — Why it is joined to this Department — Need of ability and honesty 
 in Treasury Officials. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE COAST SURVEY 278 
 
 Twofold object of this Survey — Necessity of Scientific ability in its 
 officers — The Superintendent, his Assistants, and the requirements of 
 Law. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE REVENUE OF THE UNITED STATES 280 
 
 The History of National Revenue a history of Civilization and Progress 
 — Character and history of U. S. Revenue Laws — Sectional and political 
 contests over the Tariff — The arguments for " Protection" and "Free 
 Trade" — History of the Tariff — The Customs Revenue Service — 
 The Commissioner of Customs — The Collector, the Naval Officer and 
 the Surveyor of Ports — Mode of collecting Customs Duties — Manifest, 
 Clearance, Passport, vSea Letter and Tonnage Duties — Revenue Cut- 
 ters — Light House Board — Inspection of Steam Vessels — Life Saving, 
 Service — Internal Revenue System — The Commissioner of Internal 
 Revenue — Collectors and Bonded Warehouses. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE UNITED STATES MINT 294 
 
 Congress alone may coin Money — The accepted theory of Money — Sub- 
 stitutes for the Precious Metals necessary — " Fiat" Money and Green- 
 backs — The experience and policy of the Government — Growth of the 
 U. S. Mints — Table of Coins, their weight and alloy — Coining for 
 individuals. 
 
CONTENTS. 19 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE FINANCES AND THE PUBLIC DEBT 299 
 
 National Finance understood only in very recent times — The Frugality 
 of the U. S. Government in the beginning — The English management 
 of the National Debt — Americans inherited English financial skill — 
 Thrifty American habit of paying Debts rapidly — The great financial 
 strain of the Civil War — The policy adopted — A mistake about " Legal 
 Tenders" — The triumphant success of the policy otherwise. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT 308 
 
 The Debt at diflferent periods before the War — At the close of the War 
 — Interest, the Sinking Fund and Loans — Character, titles and 
 amount of Temporary Loans from 1861 to 1867 — How these were 
 Funded in Bonds — Description and amount of all Bonds issued — The 
 Public Debt each year since 1791 — The Process of Refunding to 1881 
 — Large payments on the Debt — Statistics of Reduction in Principal 
 and Interest — The excellent result — Realized wealth of the United 
 States, Great Britain and France. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM 318 
 
 The "Bank of the United States" from 1790 to 1836— The inconveniencies 
 of a want of General Banking Laws — The National Banking System 
 — Process of Organization — The Comptroller of the Currency — Bank- 
 ing Statistics. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF WAR 314 
 
 The War Department and the Secretary's place in it — Organization of 
 the Bureaus and division of Work — The Articles of War — Chaplains 
 in the Army and Navy. 
 
 CHAPTER XVL 
 
 THE ARMY 333 
 
 Impossibility of dispensing with a Standing Army — The Military 
 AcADMY and its management — The Signal Service Bureau — 
 Its History, Uses and Methods — Soldiers Homes — National Cemeteries. 
 
20 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF THE NAVY 340 
 
 The Secretary and his Department — Bureaus and division of Work — 
 The Naval Observatory — Naval Surgeons. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE NAVY 347 
 
 Government Vessels and Squadrons — The Navy in the Civil War — The 
 Naval Academy — Articles of the Navy — Cadets, Apprentices and Ma- 
 rine Corps — Letters of Marque and Reprisal. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR 358 
 
 Public Economy in the early Administration allowed few members of the 
 Cabinet — Creation of the Interior Department in 1849 — The title and 
 duties of its Head — Ten Classes of Public Business under his care — 
 The Bureaus and their Organization — The Census Bureau and its new 
 Methods for 1880 — Patents and Trade Marks — The Bureau of Educa- 
 tion and its purposes. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 INDIAN POLICY AND INDIAN AFFAIRS 368 
 
 Relation of the Government to the Indians — Want of harmony between 
 Theory and Fact — Indian Treaties and Wars — Agencies and New 
 Methods — Policy of the Future. 
 
 C H A P T E R XXI. 
 
 PUBLIC LANDS , 374 
 
 The Annexation Policy of the United States — Area of Public Lands^ — 
 Svstem of Surveying — Position and Names of Standard Parallels 
 andBase Lines — Classes of Lands — List of U. S. Land Offices. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIL 
 
 HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS 387 
 
 Public Sale, Private Entry, Land Warrants, Agricultural College Scrip 
 — The Homestead privilege — Preemption Laws — Laws to Promote 
 Timber Culture — Privileges of Soldiers and Sailors under Land Laws. 
 
CONTENTS. 21 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Pensions 402 
 
 Object of Pensions — Regulations and Laws. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 THE POSTAL SYSTEM... ,,, 421 
 
 The modern Principle of Association shown in the character of this 
 System — Analysis of Statistics showing rate and direction of Pro- 
 gress. 
 
 CHAPTE R XXV. 
 
 THE POSTMASTER GENERAL 433 
 
 The great extent of his Department — His ample powers — Organization 
 of the Bureaus at Washington — Singular Success in Management. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 439 
 
 Relation of Agricultural Department to the Government and the People 
 — The Law establishing it — The Bureaus of the Department and their 
 Work. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE 444 
 
 The Attorney-General and the Objects of his Department — He super- 
 vises all the Legal Officers employed by the Government — Distribution 
 of Duties among them. 
 
 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 CONGRESS ^ , 448 
 
 The modern System of Legislation the result of long Growth — The im- 
 perfections of the English System — True principles first settled by the 
 U. S. Constitution — The powers of Congress — The House of Repre- 
 sentatives and Suffrage — Congressional Districts — The Ratio of Rep- 
 resentation — The Senate and its part in Legislation — Its superiority to 
 the English House of Lords and Senates of other countries. 
 
32 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS 459 
 
 Presiding officers of the two Houses — Time and manner of organizing 
 the House of Representatives — The Senate always organized — Sub- 
 ordinate officers and their Duties — Standing and Special Committees. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THE PROCESS OF LAW-MAKING 463 
 
 The President's Message — Reports from Executive Departments — 
 Standing Rules for Conducting Business — The history of Bills — Com- 
 parison of Legislation in England and America — Advantages of the 
 American System — " Unfinished Work " — Calendars — What is the 
 "Previous Question" — Statesmanship not on the decline. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 THE LAWS OF THE LAND 474 
 
 The Constitution the Organic Law — The Statutes of the United States 
 — The Law of Nations, its Origin and Force — Treaties — Precedents. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 481 
 
 History of Public Printing — Complete Legislative Control — The 
 work done at the Printing Office and its Distribution. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS COPYRIGHT 483 
 
 The History of this Library — Its Extent — The Law Library — The 
 Copyright Law administered by the Librarian — Directions for obtain- 
 ing Copyrights. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 487 
 
 Mr. Smithson and his Bequest — The use made of it by Congress — How 
 Mr. Smithson's Views are carried out — The Organization, Officers 
 and Buildmg of the Institution. 
 
CONTENTS. 33 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 CONGRESS AS A COURT 490 
 
 This feature copied from the Methods of the English Parliament — Pro- 
 cedure in Impeachments. 
 
 THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 THE CONSTITUTIONAL POWERS OF THE JUDICIARY 492 
 
 Its Peremptory Power as Umpire in disputes — Range of Action — Vari- 
 ous views in the Past — Organization of the various Courts. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 THE SUPREME COURT 496 
 
 The Justices forming it — Their Independence — Original and Appellate 
 Jurisdiction — Principal Business — Minor Officers. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 THE CIRCUIT COURT 500 
 
 The Circuits of this Court — The Associate Justices of the Supreme 
 Court and Local Justices — Jurisdiction and Terms. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 THE DISTRICT COURTS 503 
 
 Their Number and Rank in the System — Their Range of Powers — 
 Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction — Prize Courts. 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 THE COURT OF CLAIMS ' 506 
 
 Its Object and Officers — Its Jurisdiction — Procedure. 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 OFFICERS OF UNITED STATES COURTS — JURIES 508 
 
 District Attorneys — United States Marshals — Clerks — The Anglo-Sax- 
 on origin and History of Juries — The Duties and Powers of a Grand 
 Jury — Petit Juries, their Organization and Duties. 
 
24 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT 515 
 
 How Local Institutions saved English Liberties — The Shire, Parish, Hun- 
 dred and Town — These Institutions transferred in their completeness 
 to America — Losing vigor in England they improved in the Colonies. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 THE STATES 521 
 
 Forms of Government in the Colonies — Changes in becoming States — 
 The admitted States — Present State Governments — State Judiciarjr 
 Systems. 
 
 CHAPTERII. 
 
 STATE SOVEREIGNTY 530 
 
 Feebleness of Central Government until 1789 — Nature of the Sovereign- 
 ty given it by the Constitution — That Sovereignty still in the control of 
 the States by the Senate and of the People by the House of Represent- 
 atives — States Supreme in Local Questions — Value of this Supremacy. 
 
 CHAPTER II L 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN THE STATES 536 
 
 National and Federal features of U. S. Government — Structure and pow- 
 ers of State Governments — Origin of Counties in England and Forms 
 they took in America — Towns and Town-Meetings — The " Town," 
 the " County " and " Compromise" Systems of popular government — 
 Comparison of them — County and Town Judiciaries — Home control 
 more thorough in America than England. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT 544 
 
 Origin of term " Municipal " — Powers and officers of city governments 
 — Comparison with England, France, Belgium and Germany wholly 
 in favor of U. S. System. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ELECTIVE FRANCHISE 552 
 
 The Basis of Suffrage by the Constitution — German tribes and English 
 popular liberties — The French Plebiscitum — United States Naturaliza- 
 tion Laws. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 25 
 
 .558 
 
 Political importance of Sections in U. S. History — Old Sections blotted 
 out by Progress — The New Sections — How the Country is secured 
 against new conflicts. 
 
 CHAPTER VI I. 
 
 NATIVE AMERICANS AND IMMIGRANTS. 
 
 ,567 
 
 Statistics of the population as to nationality of United States Citizens — 
 Character and Money value of Immigrants. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 ,573 
 
 Discovery and Settlement of each — The "Old Thirteen" and the Revo- 
 lution — Organization and Admission of others — Facts in early history 
 — Surface, Area, Agricultural, Mineral, and other advantages of each 
 — Climate and staple products — Population in 1880 — Representatives 
 in Congress — Judicial Circuits and Districts — Collection Districts — 
 Ports of Entry and Delivery — Capitals — State Elections and Meeting 
 of Legislatures — Form of Enacting clause — Lists of United States 
 Senators to close of 46th Congress — Meaning of Mottoes and Names 
 of States. 
 
 States. Page. 
 
 Alabama 617 
 
 Arkansas 623 
 
 California 633 
 
 Colorado 646 
 
 Connecticut 582 
 
 Delaware 590 
 
 Florida 625 
 
 Georgia 598 
 
 Illinois 615 
 
 Indiana 611 
 
 Iowa 627 
 
 Kansas 639 
 
 Kentucky 602 
 
 States. Page. 
 
 Louisiana 608 
 
 Maine 618 
 
 Maryland 584 
 
 Massachusetts 578 
 
 Michigan 621 
 
 Minnesota 636 
 
 Mississippi 613 
 
 Missouri 620 
 
 Nebraska 644 
 
 New Hampshire.. .580 
 
 New Jersey 588 
 
 New York 576 
 
 North Carolina 592 
 
 States. Page. 
 
 Nevada 643 
 
 Ohio 606 
 
 Oregon 637 
 
 Pennsylvania 696 
 
 Rhode Island 586 
 
 South Carolina. . ..594 
 
 Tennessee 604 
 
 Texas 629 
 
 Vermont 601 
 
 Virginia 573 
 
 West Virginia 641 
 
 Wisconsin 631 
 
26 CONTENTS. 
 
 Territories. Page. Territories. Page. Territories. Page, 
 
 Alaska 6o3 Idaho 654 Utah 656 
 
 Arizona 653 Indian 661 Washington 658 
 
 Dakota 651 Montana 654 Wyoming 660 
 
 Dist. of Columbia . 647 New Mexico 655 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME— HISTORY OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 UNDER THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 663^ 
 
 The Peace — Troubles in the Army — Washington resigns — Financial 
 difficulties — Adoption of the Constitution. 
 
 Section I. — first administration, Washington 666' 
 
 Organization of the Government — Measures of first Four Congresses — 
 Chronicle of events. 
 
 Section II. — a dams' administration 671 
 
 Political conflicts begin — Trouble with France. 
 
 Section III. — ^jeffersox's administration 674 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana — Naval troubles with Great Britain and France^ 
 
 Section IV. — madison's administration. o . . .678- 
 
 War with England — Causes — Successes on the Sea — Disasters and bad 
 management on the Land — Final Successes — Peace of Ghent. 
 
 Section V. — monroe's administration 688 
 
 « Era of Good Feeling" — Missouri Compromise — Internal Improvements- 
 — Florida Purchase — " Monroe Doctrine." 
 
 Section VI. — john quincy adams' administration — 691 
 Sectional divisions on the Tariff— Formation of new parties. 
 
 Section VII. — jackson's administration 694 
 
 Nullification in South Carolina — Jackson's vigor — Seminole war. 
 
 Section VIII. — van buren's administration 698 
 
 Financial disasters — " Log Cabin and Hard Cider" Election — Close of 
 Seminole war. 
 
CONTENTS. 27 
 
 Section IX. — harrison and tyler 700 
 
 Death of Harrison — Tyler's vetoes — Webster- Ashburton Treaty. 
 
 Section X. — folk's administration. 702 
 
 Admission of Texas — Mexican War — Gen. Taylor's Battles — Victories 
 of Gen. Scott — Enters City of Mexico — Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
 
 Section XL — administrations of taylor and fillmore ..707 %/ 
 Beginnings of great events — California gold-Compromise of 1850 — Death 
 of Clay, Calhoun and Webster. 
 
 Section XH. — pierce's administration 710 
 
 Repeal of Missouri Compromise — War in Kansas begun. 
 
 Section XHI. — Buchanan's administration 712 
 
 Failure of Southern aims in Kansas — "Dred Scott" Decision — John 
 Brown's raid. 
 
 Section XIV. — the election of 1860 714 
 
 Struggles of Parties — Democrats divided — Election of Lincoln — Prepara- 
 tions for Secession. 
 
 Section XV. — the civil war 716 
 
 Real causes remote — The result practically unavoidable — The chivahic 
 South, the plucky North — The Confederate Government. 
 
 Section XVI. — the first phase of the war 721 
 
 Preliminary Maneuvering — Ft. Sumter fired on — First great Battle a 
 Southern success — Vigorous measures following on both sides. 
 
 Section XVII. — second phase of the war 726 
 
 " On to Richmond" — Advance of Federals in the West — McClellan re- 
 tires from the Peninsula — Advance of Confederates — Ft. Donelson and 
 : ,iloh. 
 
 Section XVIII.— campaign of 1863 732 
 
 Gen. Lee at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg — Gen. Grant at Vicksburg 
 and Chattanooga — Emancipation Proclamation. 
 
 Section XIX. — campaign of 18G4 737 
 
 Grant and Lee in Virginia — Sherman in Georgia — Hood and Schofield. 
 
 Section XX. — concluding campaign , 742 
 
 Capture of seaboard cities — Sherman in the Carolinas — Grant in Virginia 
 • — Retreat of Lee — Data of the War. 
 
38 CONTENTS. 
 
 Section XXI. — the twentieth election 745 
 
 Second Inauguration of Lincoln — His assassination — Administration of 
 
 Johnson — Reconstruction. 
 
 Section XXII. — grant's administration 751 
 
 Practical success of Reconstruction — Readmission of States — Successful 
 Finance — The Centennial. 
 
 Section XXIII. — administration of hayes 764 
 
 The Electoral Commission — Arrangement with the South — Resumption 
 and Refunding. — The situation in 1880. 
 
 Section XXIV. — garfield and Arthur 770 
 
 Executive session of Senate — Shooting and death of Garfield — Succession 
 of Arthur. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 parliamentary rules 773 
 
 CHAPTE R III. 
 
 GOVERNMENT STATISTICS 793 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CENSUS STATISTICS 800 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 STATISTICS of THE WORLD , 808 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 LEGAL FORMS, BY JUDGE J. C. POWER 814 
 
 Legal form of Will — Statement of Testator — Disposition of Property — 
 Appointment of Executors — Statement of Witnesses — Agreement to 
 continue Copartnership — Agreement to dissolve Copartnership — Power 
 of Attorney — Form of Submission to Arbitration — Form of Award to 
 Arbitrators — General Form of Agreement — Agreement for sale of per- 
 sonal property — Agreement for sale of Real Estate — Form of Lease — 
 Form of Warranty Deed — Form of acknowledgement of execution of 
 Deed — Mortgage Deed — Negotiable Note — Non-negotiable Note — 
 Note transferable by delivery — Due bill — Receipt. 
 
THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 SECTION I. 
 
 THE DAWN OF HISTORY. 
 
 1. The early traditions of every nation that has undertaken 
 to relate the story of its origin, have given us a confused account 
 of supernatural persons and events which the judgment of more 
 enlightened times has almost uniformly considered fabulous and 
 impossible. It has always been an interesting inquiry how much 
 of fact was veiled under this mythical dress, and a great variety 
 of ingenious and contradictory explanations have been produced 
 by the learned in all ages. In most cases, as in Greece, the na- 
 tional religion has been based on these legends which form its 
 authority and explanation, and they passed with the people of 
 all early times as facts which it was impious to question. So the 
 wise and good Socrates was supposed to have denied the exist- 
 ence of the national gods, and was condemned to death. This 
 sacred guard placed over early traditions increased at once the 
 interest and the difficulty involved in their examination. 
 
 (29) 
 
30 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 2. During the present century the improved methods, larger 
 range and more exact style of inquiry, and the assistance and 
 hints which one branch of study has given to others, have pro- 
 duced the most surprising and satisfactory results. These in- 
 quiries are not yet complete: they seem, on the contrary, to have 
 only commenced, and promise, ultimately, to satisfy all the use- 
 ful purposes and legitimate curiosity of mankind : still, their 
 conclusions, as far as they go, are unimpeachable. They prove 
 themselves. 
 
 The study of Ethnology, which gives an account of the races 
 of mankind: a critical comparison of all languages, ancient and 
 modern: the patient study and ingenious deciphering of archi- 
 tecture and inscriptions found in ancient ruins, and various rel- 
 ics of human activity imbedded in the soil of different countries, 
 have thrown down the barriers which the glowing imaginations 
 of the poets and the want of authentic documents in early times 
 had raised, and have given us a clue to many of the secrets of 
 history, and a safe guide through some of the dark passages of 
 man's primitive life. 
 
 To show how this is done would require a treatise on Ethnolo- 
 gy, another on Comparative Philology, a third on Antiquarian 
 Eesearch, and a fourth on the Geological Antiquities of Man. Each 
 of these brings a large and valuable contribution to early history. 
 We give only a brief summary of their conclusions. 
 
 3. The human race appears to have had its birth on the high 
 table lands of central Asia, south and east of the Caspian Sea. 
 The structure and growth of language, and the remains of early 
 art, indicate an extremely infantile mental condition and suc- 
 cessive emigrations from the primitive home of the race. Fam- 
 ilies and tribes which had remained together long enough to 
 build up a common language and strong general features of char- 
 acter and habit, at length separated and formed a number of 
 families of alhed races. 
 
 4. The first emigrations were made by the Turanian nations, 
 which scattered very widely. Turanian means ••outside," or 
 ''barbarian," and was given by the later and better known races 
 who found them, commonly in a very wild, undeveloped state, 
 wherever they themselves wandered in after times. There are 
 reasons for believing that the first Turanian migration was to 
 China; that they were never afterward much interfered with, 
 and that they early reached a high state of civilization for that 
 
SUCCESSIVE MIGRATIONS. 31 
 
 time. It has certainly many very crude and primitive features. 
 Having worked out all the progressive impulses dwelling in the 
 primitive stock of their family almost before other races were 
 developed, and being undisturbed, their institutions stiffened and 
 crystalized and they made few improvements for thousands of 
 years. Chinese history presents a curious problem not yet fully 
 investigated. 
 
 Another stream of Turanian migration is believed to have 
 settled the more north-easterly portions of Asia. Some time 
 after the tide set down through Farther India, and to the islands 
 of Malaysia. In still later periods Hindoostan was peopled by 
 Turanian races; the ancestors of the Mongols and Turks were 
 spread over the vast plains of northern and central Asia; and 
 somewhat later still an irruption into Europe furnished its prim- 
 eval people. The Finns and Lapps in the north, and the Basques 
 of Spain, are the living representatives of the ancient Turanian 
 stock, while the Magyars, or Hungarians, are a modern branch 
 of the same race, which made an irruption into Europe from 
 Asia in the ninth century of the Christian era. The first ap- 
 pearance of this race in written history was in the establishment 
 of a powerful empire at Babylon, which must have been cotem- 
 porary with the earliest Egyptian monarchy, and seems, from 
 the inscriptions on the most ancient ruins, to have been con- 
 quered by, and mingled with, an Egyptian or Hamite family. 
 It came to an end before the Assyrian Empire appeared, but 
 seems to have reached a very considerable degree of develop- 
 ment. 
 
 5. The other two great families of related languages, and 
 therefore of common stock or race, are the Semitic and the 
 Aryan. But previous to the appearance of either of these on this 
 buried stage of history is a family, apparently related, distantly, 
 to the Semites, but who might have separated from the common 
 stock of both before them, called, from one of the sons of Noah, 
 Hamites, who founded the very ancient and mysterious Egyp- 
 tian monarchy. A section of this race conquered the Turanians 
 of Babylon, and established the largest dominion then known to 
 men. The Chedor-Laomer of Abraham's day was one of its 
 mightiest sovereigns, and ruled over a thickly-settled region a 
 thousand miles in length by five hundred in breadth. Faint 
 traces of it are found in profane history, and the Bible narrative 
 is sustained and largely amplified by inscriptions on ancient 
 
32 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 ruins. A second Hamite empire in Babylon is believed to have 
 followed this, continuing four hundred years, carrying agricul- 
 ture and the peaceful arts to a high state of development. 
 
 6. Egypt was peopled by the Hamitic race which founded two 
 kingdoms, afterwards united. Here, social, political, and indus- 
 trial institutions developed very early in great strength. Their 
 language, the pictorial representation of their social, poUtical, 
 and religious affairs, and the grand and gloomy majesty of their 
 works of art, imply a long period of growth before they reached 
 the maturity in which we find them when written history com- 
 mences. Their institutions, even in the earliest historic times, 
 showed signs of the decrepitude and decay of age. The vast- 
 ness and the grim maturity of their monuments and language 
 seem to lend much support to their claim of an immense antiq- 
 uity. The future study of their remains of art and literature 
 will settle some important problems in the chronology of the 
 human race. The children of Ham were clearly the first to lead 
 off in the march of civilization. 
 
 The Semitic family, deriving its name from Shem, or Sem, one 
 of the sons of Noah, is not as large nor as widely spread as the 
 Turanian and Aryan, but has exerted an even greater influence 
 on human destiny. It never strayed much from Asia, except to 
 people small portions of Africa. They early appear in Western 
 Asia as the successors of the second Hamitic empire in Babylon 
 and Assyria. Settled in Phenicia, on the eastern shore of the 
 Mediterranean sea, they became the first maritime and commer- 
 cial people, and, with their colony established in Carthage, in 
 the north of Africa, exerted a powerful influence in promoting 
 the civilization of the ancient Avorld. The Semites early peopled 
 the Arabian peninsula, and established a state in Ethiopia, as 
 some believe before Egypt had attained its full development. 
 The Ethiopians established a, flourishing commerce on the Red 
 Sea, with the eastern coasts of Africa, and with India, and con- 
 tributed greatly to the resources of ancient Egypt. 
 
 They have always been a religious race, and gave to the world 
 the three great systems, Judaism. Mohammedanism, and Chris- 
 tianity, as well as some of the most debasing superstitions and 
 forms of idolatry ever known. The larger part of the popula- 
 tion of Asia is still Turanian, and the Semites now occupy about 
 the same area as in prehistoric times; but the Hamites have 
 
THE ARYANS, OR INDO-EUROPEANS. 33 
 
 been overpowered and have lost their clearly distinctive character 
 as a family, unless represented by the negro tribes. 
 
 7. The third great family, the Aryan, called also the Japhetic, 
 from Japhet, one of the sons of Noah, and from the regions they 
 peopled and made illustrious by their genius and activity the 
 Indo-European, was the last to leave the birthplace of mankind. 
 The other races were incapable of carrying the fortunes of hu- 
 manity beyond a certain point, of themselves alone, as the his- 
 tory of Turanian China, Hamitic Egypt and the Semitic Mo- 
 hammedans and Jews clearly proves. The history of the Aryans 
 shows them to possess inexhaustible mental power and physical 
 stamina, with a vigorous ambition, always dissatisfied with the 
 present, and constantly seeking something better in the future 
 and the distant, that have produced the happiest effect on the 
 destinies of the human race. 
 
 8. It would seem that while the Turanians, Hamites, and 
 Semites were taking the lead of the world and building up the 
 empires of prehistoric times, whose mighty ruins have been the 
 wonder of later ages, the Aryans were all united in following 
 peaceful pursuits which the common features of their languages 
 indicate were chiefly the care of flocks and herds. They were 
 much farther removed from barbarism than any of the other 
 races when they began their wanderings. Warlike, agricultural, 
 and nautical terms, and the names of wild animals are not often 
 found in the common vocabulary; while family relations, domes- 
 tic animals and their uses, the heavenly bodies in connection 
 with worship and the priestly relation of the father of the family,, 
 and terms indicating a considerable cultivation of sensibility and: 
 thoughtfulness, imply a purer social and religious condition,, 
 and more elevated mental traits, than in the primitive fore- 
 fathers of the other families. Their language was highly pic- 
 turesque, and its peculiar terms for natural phenomena are 
 believed by some to have originated the mythological histories of 
 the ancient Greeks and Romans and Teutonic nations. The 
 ancient language used epithets and names so glowing with per- 
 sonality that the imaginative descendants of the primitive stock, 
 when their early history was forgotten, believed them to con- 
 tain an account of the origin of things, and the early deeds of 
 gods and heroes; and the genius of the poets clothed the sup- 
 posed marvels in the immortal dress of fiction which we find in 
 Homer and Hesiod, in Virgil, the Indian Vedas, and the Sagas 
 
 3 
 
34 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, 
 
 and Scalds of northern Europe. This, at least, is the conclusion 
 reached by some of the most eminent scholars and philologists, 
 whose study of the formation and growth of languages has 
 thrown so much light on the ante historical periods. These 
 myths, the germs of which were embodied in their language, 
 embellished by the supposed inspired genius of the poets, formed 
 the literature and theology of the early historic nations, and 
 were received as undisputed truth. 
 
 9. The first migration of the Aryan family appears to have 
 occurred through the passes of the Caucasus, northwest to the 
 northern part of Asia Minor and to Southern Europe. The 
 Turanian nations, or "barbarians," were everywhere found in 
 advance of them, in a very degraded condition, and the native 
 spirit and ambition of the Aryan people rendered them the uni- 
 form conquerors. Afterward, another migration southward peo- 
 pled a part of India, and, in the earliest historic times, the part 
 of the family still remaining in the ancient home of the race 
 established the brilliant empire of the Modes and Persians, who 
 extended their sway over all the central and western parts of 
 Asia, broke down the ancient monarchy of Egypt, and, in the 
 height of their power and glory, swept like a tempest into Eu- 
 rope with the purpose of subjugating a few self-governing tribes 
 of their own race dwelling on the shores and among the moun- 
 tains of the small peninsula of Greece. The failure of the 
 mighty empire in this effort, through the indomitable resolution 
 of a handful of hardy republicans, forms one of the most glori- 
 ous pages of history. It was a grand era in the development of 
 civilization, and Grecian culture became the inheritance of the 
 world. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE DIRECnON OF PKE-HISTORIC GROWTH. 
 
 1. The three classes of indications on which, apart from rev- 
 elation, we rely for a knowledge of the advance of mankind pre- 
 vious to the period when authentic history comes to our aid — the 
 researches of geologists among the accidental traces of man's 
 early activities, the ruins of ancient cities, and the study of the 
 growth of language — seem to unite in testifying to an extremely 
 rude, feeble and childish condition of the earliest representatives 
 of the race, and to a progressive improvement in knowledge and 
 
THE CHILDHOOD OF THE HUMAN RACE. 35 
 
 capacity, precisely like what occurs in the case of every individ- 
 ual of our kind, A fourth more general observation also con- 
 firms this view. This is the obscurity that covers the early 
 ages.. Aside from the Bible narrative, a cloud rests on the early 
 history of every people. A long period passes before they begin to 
 reflect, to look around and back toward their origin, and still 
 another of groping thought and study before they are led to re- 
 cord their reflections and experiences. The necessities and 
 habit of social intercourse give rise to language and gradually 
 mature it; a long period would necessarily pass before the nat- 
 ural aversion to other than desultory labor would be overcome 
 by the increase of population and the slowly acquired habit of 
 obedience to an authority requiring continued painful toil 
 could render the massive monuments of some of the earlier 
 peoples possible, and before their attempts at architecture could 
 mature and originate the elaborate ruins which time has not 
 been able to destroy during so many centuries. 
 
 2. One of the most striking traits of pre-historic times is the 
 simplicity and awkwardness that characterize childhood. The 
 Chinese language has been remarked upon as showing the ex- 
 tremely infantile cast of mind among the people who formed and 
 retained it to our times. Each word is a sentence, standing by 
 itself originally; the tone and gesture give it much of its signifi- 
 cation. It would seem as if its authors had never grown to the 
 idea of an elaborated sentence. There is an average of eight 
 words, spelled and pronounced exactly alike, for every sound 
 used. There are, it is said, 212 characters pronounced che, 138 
 pronounced /oo, and 1165 which all read e, and each letter is a 
 word, a phrase and a sentence, and may be an adjective, a noun, 
 or a verb, or all three together. Thedifficulty of expressing shades 
 of meaning, or all that may be in the thought, where so much 
 must be acquired before full expression is possible, has kept the 
 Chinese mind, in many respects, in a state of childhood, though 
 they have preserved a stability of character and institutions no- 
 where else observed. The primitive mind and habits are main- 
 tained as if crystalized. The principle of decay, so universal 
 elsewhere, would seem, by some singular process, banished from 
 a vast nation, as it is in the human body in Egyptian mummies. 
 The same feature is observable in a smaller degree among the 
 Hindoos, and seems to have characterized the ancient Egyp- 
 tians. 
 
36 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 3. Such a habit of fixity among the early races, whose posi- 
 tion secured them from disturbance by the more restless tribes, 
 was favorable to the construction of the stupendous monuments 
 which have been the wonder of after ages. All those races have 
 been remarkably exclusive. It was not until nearly four hun- 
 dred years after the era of authentic history that Egypt was 
 freely open to all the Greeks. These observations apply only to 
 those portions of the human family which were stranded in some 
 quiet nook outside of the current of movement that carried 
 along the most of mankind. Change of place, intercourse, con- 
 flict and conquest were the chief early educators. The isolated 
 nations, after exhausting the power of their first impulses, 
 ceased to improve. Their minds, institutions and habits stiff- 
 ened and petrified. iN'or did the families that wandered from the 
 general centre of movement usually acquire any high degree of 
 development. They were characterized by unsettled habits, not 
 favorable to highly organized institutions. 
 
 4. It was around, and westward of, the common centre of the 
 race that a course of steady improvement went on. Here the 
 laws of inheritance and suggestion, the stimulus of constant 
 friction, and the infusion of newer and more enterprising blood 
 worked the freest and developed the elements of a true civiliza- 
 tion the soonest. If the legendary history of Greece is not to be 
 trusted in its details, it at least establishes the certainty of 
 active movement and incessant conflict out of which was, at 
 length, evolved a noble, if incomplete, civilization. The Greeks 
 were near enough to the scene of stirring action in Western 
 Asia to be benefited by its influence without having their insti- 
 tutions frequently disturbed and broken up before they had 
 reached any degree of maturity, as was the case with the Assy- 
 rians, Persians and Phenicians. They reaped the fruit, without 
 sharing the disasters, of the great surgings back and forward 
 which we find to have been the condition of the Asiatic peoples 
 at the time reliable history begins to observe them. It appears 
 to have been the same in that region (Western Asia) as far back 
 as monument, legend, or science can trace. The fruit of this 
 shock of races and mental activity matured on the spot the 
 greatest and best religious systems the world has ever known, 
 the three greatest of which have survived to our own day, viz: 
 the Judaic, the Christian and the Mohammedan. The germs of 
 the other two were contained in the system of Abraham and 
 
THE WORLD AT THE OPENING OF THE HISTORIC PERIOD. 37 
 
 Moses. Thus the three most important influences needed for the 
 progress of civilization in the true direction were supplied in 
 pre-historic times — the seething and surging of the nations in 
 the West of Asia, a high religious ideal, and the primary disci- 
 pline of the Greeks. 
 
 5. The lantern of science has guided us on the Track of 
 Time by his advancing Footprints down to the period when the 
 grand luminary, Written History, begins to shine from the hills 
 of Greece. Looking over what was then known of Asia we find 
 it a vast battlefield, on the western border of which were the 
 Jews, receiving lessons of instruction or chastisement from the 
 surrounding nations, and slowly evolving the Master Religion 
 of the world; the massive grandeur of Egypt is dimly visible in 
 the south; and on the eastern horizon rise the immense walls 
 and towers of the huge cities of Nineveh and Babylon. On the 
 north and west all is darkness, though we subsequently learn 
 that the elements of a high culture among the Etrurians of Italy 
 were waiting their destruction at the hands of valiant Rome, 
 yet to be. The Phenicians were beginning to scour the sea and 
 to build up a flourishing commerce, and the cities of Greece had 
 already learned, from the tyranny of their petty kings, the 
 advantages of free government. 
 
 The period of authentic history is held to have commenced 
 seven hundred and seventy-six years before the Christian era. 
 In that year the Greeks began to record the name of the con- 
 queror in the Olympian games — a national and religious festival, 
 which had been commenced long before— and it was called the 
 First Olympiad. It formed the first definite starting point of 
 the true and fairly reliable historians who, some four hundred 
 years later, began to write a carefully-studied account of what 
 was known of their own and of other countries. It was the time 
 when dates of passing events first began to be stated in the 
 records of the cities and kingdoms of Greece, and marks the 
 beginning of a real civilization and culture, and the course of 
 events began to be rescued from the magnifying and marvel- 
 loving imaginations of the people. 
 
 6. The seven hundred and fifty years that follow are in the 
 highest degree interesting and important; for they record the 
 achievements of th« early manhood of humanity, as represented 
 by the nations that were most advanced in civilization and con- 
 tributed to the general progress of the world. Men developed 
 
38 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 their inherent capacities far more during that period than in all 
 the previous centuries, however numerous they may have been. 
 It was followed by about five hundred years of gradual decline, 
 and that by a thousand years of confusion caused by the cor- 
 ruption of the old society and the imperfection of its elements, 
 together with the irruption of vast hordes of barbarians, who 
 brought in fresh and vigorous, but untamed blood, with rude and 
 fierce manners. They were gradually tamed by fusion with the 
 cultured races, and out of this union arose a civilization broader 
 and more just, toward the perfection of which we ourselves are 
 now rapidly advancing, and which, by its mutiform vigor and 
 unlimited resources, seems above the reach of decay. Its power 
 of infusing new life into worn-out peoples and renewing the 
 youth of nations as well as of civilizing barbarians appears irre- 
 sistible. 
 
 From this outlook we return to consider the steps by which 
 Time has led us to such a desirable eminence. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 THE GEADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 1. Man, at first, had, apparently, no institutions. He existed 
 in the simplest and most spontaneous way, finding shelter in 
 caves and clefts of the rocks and beneath the primeval forests, 
 groping his way by strong instincts which soon began to dawn 
 into intelligence of the lowest and most material kind. How 
 long he led a purely animal Ufe we have no means of knowing; 
 but we may suppose that the necessities of self-preservation and 
 his powerful social instincts very soon developed the germs of 
 the family and of language. 
 
 Childhood is comparatively long, and many generations must 
 have passed before language could have acquired the distinct- 
 ness and fixity that permitted it to come down through so long a 
 period, and by so many difi'erent channels, to us. Yet there is 
 plain evidence of an Eastern origin of all the various families of 
 the Old World, and of a considerable mental development pre- 
 vious to the wanderings that peopled the East, the West, and 
 the South. It has been remarked by Geologists that the intro- 
 duction of any class of animal life was never made by its very 
 
HOW PROGRESS BEGAN AT FIRST. 39 
 
 lowest orders, but usually by a class intermediate in organiza- 
 tion between the highest and the lowest; some of the very low- 
 est orders being represented in our own time. 
 
 2. A tolerably hardy race, which could endure the exposures 
 and overcome the difficulties that must be greater for the first 
 few generations than ever afterward, as we have every reason 
 to believe, was first introduced. It has been common to suppose 
 that man must have been supplied with a fund of knowledge, 
 and a basis of language, to have successfully met the difficulties 
 of his condition; but the uniform law that the faculties, the in- 
 nate capabilities of his race, are conferred on him, and that he 
 works them out by a process of development is observable in his 
 entire history, so far as we can trace it. All needful capacities 
 being lodged in him, with strong appetites and instincts to im- 
 pel him to the objects most vitally necessary to his own preser- 
 vation and the continuance of his species, and the material from 
 which to work out his predestined ends being placed within his 
 reach, it is made his indispensable duty and his glory to realize 
 those ends, soon or late, by his own endeavors. The evidences 
 of his early activity, unearthed here and there by geologists, 
 show him to have advanced by degrees from the lowest points, 
 and such corroborative proof as the earliest forms of language 
 afford are decidedly in the same direction. 
 
 3. Many of the terms employed for the first time and most 
 familiar objects with which the necessities of life brought him 
 in contact show the very limited range of his early knowledge 
 and resources, and they gradually change in a way to indicate, 
 most significantly, a slow and laborious, but constant, enlarge- 
 ment of ideas by experience. He advanced then, as now, by de- 
 grees. The races latest in development, as well as most vigorous 
 and intelligent, were the Aryan, or Indo-European. They have 
 left the most definite traces of their early condition and advance- 
 ment in the common elements of their various languages, which 
 show very clearly how much time and toil were required to work 
 out the features of their first Institution — 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 The proper family type established between its members rela- 
 tions of protection and dependence, of care and trust, of purity 
 and tenderness, of provident foresight, and the shelter and com- 
 
40 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 forts of Home. Apparently it was many centuries after the 
 other races had begun to migrate, that this last and most valua- 
 ble stock commenced to be "fruitful and multiply," to tame ani- 
 mals for their use, to enclose and render their habitations com- 
 fortable, and to organize and designate their family relations 
 down to son-in-law and daughter-in-law, as well as to name the 
 most common domestic animals and occupations. 
 
 4. The fact doubtless existed long before common experience 
 and common consent had settled on the terms that have remain- 
 ed the same in the language of the Hindoos, the Greeks, the 
 Homans, the Germanic families; but by many certain signs we 
 know that it was only gradually that the tenderness and beauty 
 and usefulness of this institution had laid the sure foundation of 
 a future vigorous and virtuous civilization. This race devoted 
 f hemselves mainly to the care of flocks and herds, though we 
 find among them the knowledge of wheat and some other grains; 
 they had very little experience of war until they separated and 
 began their wanderings, as we infer from the fact that their 
 common terms are nearly all peaceful — those designating a war- 
 like habit differing in all the languages of the various branches 
 of the stock. 
 
 The Farhily, with them, was usually founded on marriage — 
 the union of one man and one woman — which laid great re- 
 straints on vice and preserved the growing society from mani- 
 fold evils. The other races — Turanian, Hamitic and Semitic — 
 appear to have been much more careless in this respect, and to 
 have admitted a vicious element into the base of society which 
 loosened the bonds of relationship and discipline. They prac- 
 ticed polygamy, which magnified the position of the father, 
 'vvhile it deprived him of the closer and more intimate relations 
 to his household on which refinement depends, and degraded the 
 mother, who became the simple minister of pleasure to, and the 
 means of increasing the infiuence of, the Patriarchal head. This 
 point is very vividly shown in the earlier history of the Israel- 
 ites where the unhappy effects of polygamy are distinctly por- 
 trayed. From the same source we see how the first institution 
 among men gradually grew into the Tribe, and laid the founda- 
 tions of 
 
 ORGANIZED GOVERNMENT. 
 
 .5. Population rapidly increased, the original progenitor, or 
 
THE ORIGIN OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 41 
 
 the oldest of his male descendants, became the fountain of au- 
 thority and influence, and was, in many cases, the chief or king, 
 exercising an undefined control, sometimes absolute and despot- 
 ic, and again that of a merely nominal head, the variations tak- 
 ing every shade between the two. Occasionally, special gifts, 
 as energy, foresight and skill, favored by circumstances, raised 
 one in the tribe to eminence, and he became the acknowledged 
 ruler to the exclusion of the patriarch, or hereditary heir of the 
 patriarchal office, as in the case of Joseph in Egypt, and, in 
 later times, Moses, Joshua and the Judges. 
 
 6. Again, a pastoral life being abandoned, the people gath- 
 ered for various reasons in towns, and cities were built up, where 
 the original style of government became impossible, from the 
 mixed character of the population; the oldest, or family govern- 
 ment, being founded on relationship and traditional respect. 
 The need of leadership and the service rendered by some mem- 
 ber of the community founded a despotic authority. In many 
 cases a city was founded by an adventurer who had gathered 
 supporters around him by some special ability, or by some acci- 
 dental pre-eminence, as we see in Nimrod and Romulus; or, as 
 often occurred, the head of a family or tribe which forsook the 
 pastoral life and founded a city, from a patriarch or chieftain be- 
 came a king. 
 
 Government, in early times, was very imperfectly orga,nized. 
 It gradually advanced with some nations to a high point ; while 
 with others it continued in a very undeveloped state for long 
 periods — some races never having reached any high state at 
 all, or only temporarily under some talented individual. 
 
 The first settled governments are found in fertile river valleys 
 where the cultivation of the soil arrested roving and desultory 
 habits and often formed the nucleus of an empire. There is rea- 
 son to believe that the first emigration from the early home of 
 the race was toward the east, that a state was soon formed in 
 China which became considerably civilized and fairly well 
 organized the earliest of all. Their national traditions and some 
 of their recorded dates claim a vast antiquity. It is not yet 
 determined by scholars how much credit is to be allowed to these 
 claims, 
 
 7. As it appears at present, two other governments were 
 organized at nearly the same time, one in the lower valley of the 
 Euphrates and the other on the Nile. It is also possible that a 
 
42 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 fourth was built up in India nearly cotemporary with these. 
 Certain similarities between the ancient ruins of Egypt and 
 India, and the traditions in the latter country have given rise to 
 the theory; but no certainty has yet been reached. Several sys- 
 tems of chronology, independent of each other, are found in 
 Egypt, all agreeing as to its enormous antiquity but disagreeing 
 in some important points, and satisfactory tests have not yet 
 been met with, so that the early days of Egypt are very obscure. 
 The evidences of a clearly defined progress are presented in its 
 monuments, but the earliest bear so strong a resemblance to the 
 later that there is some reason for supposing that the first inhab- 
 itants had reached a considerable degree of maturity before set- 
 tling there. As yet, however, that point is only an inference — 
 the most probable escape from a difficulty. The empires estab- 
 lished on the Euphrates, and north of that, on the Tigris, mark 
 the steps of progress very distinctly and furnish fairly satisfac- 
 tory means of computing their general chronology. 
 
 8. In all these cases it appears from monuments, traditions, 
 and from whatever information the records of the Bible and 
 other histories give us, that when men began to gather in com- 
 munities, cultivate the ground and build cities, their governments 
 were controlled by kings. Despotic sovereignty was the natural 
 and necessary instrument of government. The vigorous will of 
 an admired chief concentrated the energies of the community, 
 and a state was formed. The beginnings were very rude and im- 
 provement was slow, never reaching beyond the simple applica- 
 tion of force as to the structure and modes of government. But 
 another element, founded on the religious nature of mankind, 
 which also had entered as an important influence into family 
 government from the earliest times, matured, in the early days 
 of monarchy, into 
 
 THE INSTITUTION OF A PRIESTHOOD. 
 
 9. It would appear, from such traces of a religious tendency 
 as are found in the primary languages, that the religious 
 instinct was awakened by an observation of the forces of nature, 
 which struck the mind with wonder, admiration, or terror. The 
 mysteries of growth, the power of winds and storms and waters, 
 the calm beauty, beneficence and brilliance of the sun, moon and 
 stars riding undisturbed in the heavens, impressed man with a 
 
THE EARLY FRUIT OF THE RELIGIOUS INSTINCT. 43 
 
 sense of something superior to himself. The moods of nature 
 suggested some unknown being with a varying disposition like 
 his own. His wants, his hopes and fears, and his sense of help- 
 lessness soon lead him to seek to propitiate these unknown pow- 
 ers. The first religion, among all the primitive nations, seems to 
 have been a worship of the powers of nature. The head of the 
 family was naturally the first priest of the family. This office 
 increased the respect in which he was held by his multiplying 
 descendants, and contributed to strengthen his authority. 
 
 10. But when, in the organization of cities and states, patri- 
 archal influence decayed and was replaced by the authority of 
 the chieftain or the king, a class of men was set apart to fill the 
 office of religious instructors, to discover the art and conduct the 
 acts of general worship. The great mystery and uncertainty 
 surrounding the objects of worship required exclusive study 
 and a supposed purity and elevation of mind impossible to the 
 multitude which soon raised the priesthood into an institution 
 much revered. It acquired great influence, and afforded an 
 opening to ambition only inferior to that of the chief or king. 
 The two commonly united for mutual support, and thus man- 
 kind gained two institutions destined to be of incalculable value. 
 In the earlier ages they must have been an almost unmixed 
 good. They disciplined, the one the labors, the other the minds, 
 of communities. They were the two most powerful instruments 
 for initiating progress. They moulded the mass, gave it form, 
 and directed its energies. 
 
 To a certain degree they eacn lormed a check on the excessive 
 tendencies of the other. But, the power of each fairly estab- 
 lished, they often united to set very hurtful limits to spontane- 
 ous action. The king used his power to the common injury, and 
 the priests their knowledge to the common debasement. The 
 first exhausted the sources of prosperity and growth among his 
 people to gratify his caprices and pleasures, and the priesthood 
 promoted degrading superstitions and a gross idolatry to 
 strengthen their influence. It was for the interest of both to 
 keep the people in pupilage and check all tendencies to inde- 
 pendent action or thought. Had it been possible for them to be 
 wise and high-minded, the race would have been saved many 
 centuries of debasement and misery. 
 
 11. These evils were, in some degree, checked by influences 
 which have ever since been the mainspring of progress — War 
 
44 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 and Commerce. In early times, relationships of blood or of im- 
 mediate interest were the chief bonds among men. All outside 
 the family, tribe, or nation were usually held as enemies; and 
 passion, interest, or ambition in the ruler led to constant conflict. 
 But the shock of peoples awakened their minds, made them ac- 
 quainted with each other, made their inventions and arts in some 
 degree common property, and mingled the thought and blood of 
 different races; and this greatly enlarged the ideas and capaci- 
 ties of both conquerors and conquered. The acquaintance made 
 in this way, with men and countries, led to an interchange of 
 products, during quiet times, and trade and commerce soon 
 sprung up. This, appealing to the best interests and instincts of 
 the most enterprising among the people, has always been a pow- 
 erful instrument of advancement. It led to distant voyages and 
 travels, to observation and intercourse with a view to pecuniary 
 advantage, to inventions and improvements in industry and art, 
 that kept the peoples so related in a state of constant progress. 
 
 12. A growing population required increasing attention to 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts, and increasing wealth led to 
 architectural display and the increase of instruments of luxury, 
 the production of which disciplined the skill of the artisan and 
 contributed to the general growth. All these were the elements 
 and foundation of civilization. An organization commenced, 
 and a state founded, the king soon found leisure to look about 
 and envy the wealth and territories of his neighbor. He 
 made war and commenced a career of conquest, or fell, under 
 defeat, into his neighbor's hand, when time took a step forward, 
 and a new consolidation, wider and higher than the former, was 
 laid on a broader base. Slowly but surely an advance was made. 
 
 13. We are now to observe this gradual development in the 
 successive history of five monarchies in Asia and the kingdom 
 of Egypt, down to the time when they all fell before the con- 
 quering power of Greece, under Alexander the Great, which in- 
 roduces new and far higher elements of progress among the civ- 
 ilized races and forms the full opening of a new Era. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 
 
 1. The Chaldean Monarchy was the first in order of time. It 
 seems very likely that the first settlement which, in the slow de- 
 
TWO MONARCHIES ON THE LOWER EUPHRATES. 45 
 
 velopment of the earliest races, finally produced an organized 
 kingdom on the lower part of the Euphrates, was made some- 
 where in the neighborhood of 3000 years before the Christian 
 Era. It is, however, a matter of dispute between the best authori- 
 ties whether it can be placed so far back. The monuments of 
 that age are difficult to decipher, but it seems pretty certain that 
 a Scythian or Turanian government preceded that which the 
 traditions of ancient history, the statements of the Bible, and 
 the indications of the ruins unite in placing at 2234 B. C. The 
 founder appears as Nimrod, or Bilu-Mpur, Many indications 
 render it fairly certain that the early formative stages of a king- 
 dom had already passed, and that Nimrod merely changed the 
 capital. The first people had learned to subdue their soil, had 
 begun to build and to bring language and art to some degree of 
 order, when it appears that a Hamitic race, more advanced than 
 they, and showing strong likeness to the early Egyptians, min- 
 gled with them. In the first inscriptions the language is Tura- 
 nian, but the character Hamitic, or Egyptian. So far as can be 
 judged, the displacement was peaceful and gradual. About the 
 time above named, a man of great genius, Nimrod, a Hamite, or 
 Cushite, as he is termed in the Mosaic record, a "mighty hunter," 
 as his name implies, founded a kingdom farther up the Euphrates, 
 and on the plain which lay between the rivers Euphrates and 
 Tigris. 
 
 2. The existence of the first empire is dim.ly made out, and 
 that is all. Nimrod had clearly a foundation to build on, and he 
 made a great impression on his own times. After his death he 
 was deified under the name of Bel, and became the favorite 
 among the fifteen or sixteen principal deities of the early Chal- 
 deans. These gods and goddesses seem to represent the heavenly 
 bodies; while the earlier Turanian worship was a veneration of 
 the powers of nature. Nimrod's dynasty appears to have covered 
 a period of about two hundred and fifty years, including the 
 reigns of eleven kings. They made great advancement in 
 draining the marshy valley and regulating the supply of mois- 
 ture to the growing crops. They became expert in the manu- 
 facture of cloths and in building with bricks which they covered 
 with inscriptions. The priesthood acquired a strong development 
 at this time, as appears in the ruins and inscriptions of their 
 temples. The kings do not appear to have been very warlike, or 
 to have extended their dominion far. 
 
46 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 3. A second Chaldean kingdom was founded about 1976 B. 0. 
 It is called Elam in the Bible, and furnishes the first known ex- 
 ample of what was afterward so often seen in that region — an 
 extensive kingdom formed by a series of rapid conquests, that 
 fell to pieces again as soon as a vigorous hand failed to uphold it. 
 The kingdom continued till about B. C. 1500. Kudur-Lagamer, 
 the Chedor-Laomer of the Mosaic account, overran a terri- 
 tory one thousand miles in length by five hundred in width. In 
 one of his incursions into Palestine his forces were defeated by 
 Abraham, which ended a control over that region lasting twelve 
 years. There is no indication that the following sovereigns 
 exerted authority beyond Chaldea and Babylonia. 
 
 There, however, they grew rich and civilized, extending their 
 commerce to India and Egypt, becoming famous and envied for 
 their splendor and luxury. A smgle small dwelling house of 
 that period has been preserved in the ruins of Chedor-Laomer's 
 capital '"Ur of the Chaldees," south of Babylon. It was built on 
 a platform of dried bricks, the walls of great tiiickness, with 
 two arched doors, and, apparently, lighted from the roof. The 
 rooms were long and narrow. Iron was at that time unknown. 
 All implements Avere of stone or bronze. Religion seemed to 
 increase in its grossness, apparently under the policy of the 
 priesthood, who laid the foundation of astronomical science and 
 began to acquire the reputation for hidden knowledge for 
 which they became famous in after centuries. Nothing of any 
 importance is related of the kings of this monarchy except the 
 one conqueror. Despotism kept most of the feeble tendencies to 
 political improvement curbed — waiting for better times. That 
 arrived with the advent of the Assy j^ian Empire, about B.C. 1500. 
 
 4. It appears that a long time before a family, or tribe, of 
 Shemites had settled in Chaldea. where they acquired its civ- 
 ilization and arts, and some time about B. C. 1600 they emi- 
 grated north, settling on the river Tigris. They were a strong- 
 race, phj^sically and mentally, quite too fierce and resolute to be 
 held in leading-strings by the Chaldean priesthood. The coun- 
 try they occupied was higher and more varied, abundantly 
 supplied with stone, which was wanting in Babylonia and 
 Chaldea. 
 
 Here, in process of time, the m.ost vigorous and progressive 
 race that had yet been seen among the families of man, built up 
 a succession of cities within a small circuit, each of which was. 
 
NINEVEH AND ITS ENERGETIC KINGS. 47 
 
 at different times, the capital, and which were all finally united 
 and made the famous Nineveh of the Greek historians, and the 
 immense " city of three days' journey," visited by the Jewish 
 prophet, Jonah. Within a few years these ruins have been ex- 
 amined by competent men of science with great care, and have 
 been found to confirm the Bible narrative, in all essential points, 
 and most of the glowing descriptions of profane historians. 
 Their higher style of art and greater vigor and pride of achieve- 
 ment led them to build monuments and engrave records that 
 promise to make us very intimately acquainted with their social, 
 political and moral life. 
 
 5. They seem to have acquired the habit in Chaldea of raising 
 a vast elevated mound for their more important buildings. The 
 largest mound is found to be nearly one hundred feet high, to 
 cover an area of one hundred acres, and on the summit of this 
 were placed their temples and the palaces of their kings. This 
 immense foundation, it is said, would require the labor of twenty 
 thousand men for six years. After this were to be constructed 
 their vast buildings, covered with sculptures and adorned with 
 statues. Another mound, higher but embracing a smaller area 
 — about forty acres — served the same purpose. 
 
 They were extremely religious in their way, but the vigor of 
 the kings appears to have overshadowed the priesthood much 
 more than in Chaldea. It seems to have been about three hun- 
 dred years after the establishment of this enterprising stock in 
 Assyria that they became famous for foreign conquest. Babylon 
 had been gradually rising in importance, often in subjection, 
 more or less nominal, to the growing northern power, but re- 
 taining its own kings and habits. 
 
 G The reign of Shalmaneser I., about 1290 B. C, was distin- 
 guished by his building a new city and improving his kingdom; 
 and his successor, in 1270, signalized his reign by establishing, 
 for a time, a complete sovereignty over Babylon, and the histo- 
 rical Assyrian empire is commonly dated from that event. For 
 a century and a half there are few important records. Tiglath- 
 Pileser I., in B. C. 1130, commenced a series of efforts to extend 
 his dominions by conquest, which his success led him to describe 
 with unusual detail. It embraces five campaigns and a descrip- 
 tion of the conquest of all the neighboring peoples. He estab- 
 lished a compact and powerful empire, which was surrounded by 
 wild tribes whose conquest was of little honor or value, and 
 
48 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 whom it was difficult to hold long in subjection. In a return 
 from a campaign against Babylon, which he had conquered, he 
 suffered a great reverse, losing the images of his gods which he 
 kept in his camp for protection and assistance in his enterprises: 
 and thev were carried to Babylon, remaining there, it is said. 
 400 years. A long period of apparent quiet was followed, after 
 more than two himdred years, by another warHke king who 
 pushed his conquests to the Mediterranean sea. His public works 
 were larger and more magnificent than those of any of his pre- 
 decessors. He has recorded ten successful campaigns. 
 
 7. His son, Shalmaneser II.. increased the nimiber. extent, 
 and thoroughness of the conquests of his father. Still, most of 
 the countries conquered retained their laws and government, 
 simply paying an annual tribute, and the conquest set lightly on 
 them. Babylon seems to have retained comparative independ- 
 ence. In the following reign, Babylon was captured and remain- 
 ed sometime tributary to Assyria and the Xiniis. or Iva-lush IV., 
 whose wife was the celebrated Semiramis, still further extended 
 Assyrian power. The wonderful tales related by Grecian histo- 
 rians of Semiramis are not confirmed by the monuments. She 
 appears to have been an energetic Babylonian princess, the prin- 
 cipal queen of Ninus, who ruled conjointly with him. The nov- 
 elty of a female ruler in that rude age. and the splendor of the 
 empire at the time, seem to have originated the fabulous tales 
 related of her. 
 
 8. At this time the development of the people of all the west- 
 ern parts of Asia was so great, and the wars as weU. as peaceful 
 intercourse of different nations had so stimulated them all. that 
 improvement kept a tolerably even step. Multitudes of populous 
 cities and kingdoms existed in all directions. The magnificence 
 of Solomon belongs to this period, the Jewish monarchy having- 
 reached the height of its glory and power, too high to be long 
 endured by the proud and enterprising Assyrians. Commerce 
 filled the east with activity and manufactures flourished, in some 
 directions reaching a high degree of excellence. A true progress 
 marked the general course of human effort. The psalms of David 
 show to what a lofty point the religious ideas of that age were 
 capable of being carried. Industrial pursuits and agriculture 
 reached, in the next hundred and fifty years, the highest devel- 
 opment they ever obtained in some regions. 
 
 9. In the midst of this busy industry Xineveh rose, peerless in 
 
THE GREATNESS AND FALL OF ASSYRIA. 49 
 
 grandeur, enriching herself with the tribute and spoils of all 
 countries, beautified by the master race, which was wise enough . 
 not to dry up the sources of their prosperity by the destruction 
 of cities and kingdoms. The common policy, up to nearly the 
 close of her splendid career, was to leave the real resources of all 
 conquered nations untouched. After defeating her opposer in a 
 battle, she received the submission of the king, imposed a heavy 
 tax, or forced contribution, and an engagement to pay a definite 
 annual tribute, and went on her way to subdue another nation 
 to a like formal control. With misfortune, or a change of rulers 
 in the dominant kingdom, the subject-kings would withhold tri- 
 bute, raise an army, and the whole work of conquest had to be 
 repeated. 
 
 Thus the empire consisted of a stable nucleus, Assyria, and 
 a vast floating mass of half independent kingdoms, states and 
 cities which were now submissive and now in revolt. We may 
 easily conceive how this comparatively mild mode of warfare 
 would contribute to the general advance of the whole population. 
 This mingling and clash of armies, surging to and fro of vast 
 bodies of men, and the knowledge and culture received from the 
 great and wealthy capital made the school of that period for the 
 education of humanity. 
 
 10. The Assyrian annals show a continued growth in splendor 
 and power and extent of dominion until the very eve of its falL 
 In the course of that time Egypt was invaded and partially sub- 
 dued for the first time; and, in the impatience of frequent revolt, 
 the practice commenced of removing whole nations from their 
 original homes, supplying their places by others. Thus the Ten 
 Tribes were transported from their homes in Samaria, and other 
 nations brought to occupy their places. 
 
 The last king of Assyria inherited an authority that extended 
 farther and over larger numbers than had ever before been 
 known. The vigorous governing race was perhaps corrupted 
 and weakened by a thousand years of power and success; but 
 various extraordinary circumstances united to bring on a sudden 
 catastrophe. A considerable part of the central kingdom was 
 devastated by an irresistible host of Scythians, immediately after 
 which the Medians, who were as fierce and warlike as the 
 Assyrians in their best days, attacked Assyria. A large army, 
 sent by the king to meet the invaders, went over to the enemy 
 by the treachery of its general, Nabopolassar, and the combined 
 4 
 
50 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 armies laid, siege to Xineveh. which fell, the king burning him- 
 self and his family in his palace. Xineveh was destroyed, and 
 ISTabopolassar received as his reward the kingdom of Babylonia 
 and the Assyrian conquests in the south and west. 
 
 11. He founded the Babylonian Empire, which has made a 
 greater impression on posterity than Xineveh, He was a man 
 of great energy and resources. The treasures and captives of 
 that mighty city, that fell to his share, were employed in re- 
 building and improving Babylon. During his reign of twenty- 
 one years, and the forty-three years of his still more illustrious 
 son and successor, Nebuchadnezzar, that city was made the won- 
 der of the world. Each side of it was fifteen miles in length, 
 the river Euphrates passing through its centre. He repaired 
 the wall, which was eighty-seven feet thick and more than three 
 hundred feet high. This wall was immense, and the vast en- 
 closed space was filled with palaces, temples, hanging gardens, 
 and all the impressive evidences of boundless power and re- 
 sources in which the gross ambition of that period delighted. A 
 second wall was built within the first, the river was, for a time, 
 lurned out of its bed. its bottom and sides paved with masonry, 
 and huge walls erected on either bank: canals and aqueducts, 
 for agricultural purposes, of the most stupendous character, 
 were constructed all over the broad valley. The wealth and en- 
 ergies of the richest and most populous part of Asia, as then 
 known, were employed to build up the great capital and improve 
 Ihe central province. 
 
 1'2. The Jews were kept there, as captives, for seventy years, 
 •all the treasures of their city and temple and the accumulated 
 ^wealth of their nation, were poured into the Babylonian treas- 
 ury, and their people employed, with other countless multitudes, 
 in the construction of its walls and buildings and the cultiva- 
 tion of its fields. Tyre, the most renowned commercial city of 
 ancient times, was taken, after a siege of thirteen years, and 
 much of Egypt was reduced. It was the culmination of the cen- 
 tralizing system of the Assyrians and Chaldeans which had last- 
 ed for two thousand years. 
 
 13. A dominion so resting on physical force, and gorged with 
 "booty wrested from others, with no moral power or national 
 :spirit underlying it. could not last long. A more vigorous and 
 warlike power rose by the union of the Persians and Medes un- 
 der .the Persian warrior, Cyrus, who, after a series of conquests 
 
THE FALL OF BABYLON AND RISE OF PERSIA. 51 
 
 farther north and west, in Asia Minor, turned his arms against 
 Babylon. The walls were impregnable, but the river proved a 
 source of weakness. It had been once diverted from its course 
 to pave its bed within the city; the hint was accepted, and, on a 
 night of feasting and carelessness, it was again turned aside to 
 give free entrance to the besiegers, and the Babylonian Empire 
 fell in the very height of its pomp and glory. We find a regu- 
 lar progress in organization, in most institutions, from the first 
 Chaldean to the last Babylonian Empire. In popular religion 
 alone was there an increasing grossness, which reached its limit 
 about this time by the fall of the Chaldean priesthood; purer 
 practices and ideas were circulated by the Jews in their captivi- 
 ty, and the Magian religion was reformed by Zoroaster. 
 
 14. The Medo-Persian Empire lasted for 200 years. Those 
 nationalities were both of the Aryan or Indo-European race. 
 They had long been maturing on the highlands bordering the 
 north and east of Chaldea and Assyria, with which their connec- 
 tion was close enough to communicate the general value of the 
 growing organization, but too slight to drag them down to its 
 level. They brought now, to the common stock of progress, the 
 freshness of youth and the healthy habits and pure blood of the 
 mountaineer. They had a higher capacity for organization, by 
 which the experience and progress of older nations for more 
 than two thousand years was prepared to profit. They had al- 
 ready subdued Asia Minor and their vast Empire soon extended 
 from India to the sea that washed the shores of Greece. A 
 complicated civil and military organization consolidated this ex- 
 tensive region more perfectly than before by armies and gover- 
 nors located in each nation and principal city; a system of easy 
 communication was introduced; and the preparation for the 
 higher Greek models of thought, and the severe regularity of 
 Roman institutions went on apace. 
 
 15. Babylon fell gradually into decay, being only occasionally 
 the capital of the Persian Empire ; the love of the sovereigns of 
 that race for their native highlands leading them to build splen- 
 did capitals in the borders of their own country. A reform of 
 great significance occured about this time in the Persian national 
 religion, which gradually displaced the debasing superstitions 
 and gross idolatry of all the nations of the Empire. 
 
 The government was still despotic, somewhat relieved by the 
 more humane and independent habits and traditions of a hardier 
 
52 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 race, A number of changes of dynasty by violence occurred, 
 but they were merely revolutions of the palace. The vast wealth 
 and power inherited from the subject empires gradually corrupted 
 the conquerors. Their armies became vast crowds of compara- 
 tively undisciplined troops, who were accustomed to bear every- 
 thing before them by their irresistible weight. Their conquests 
 on the northern and eastern coasts of Asia Minor brought them 
 in conflict with the Greeks, who had many colonies long settled 
 in that region, and the Persians soon undertook to subdue that 
 intelligent and independent people. Their signal failure had the 
 effect to greatly stimulate the development of the Greek national 
 spirit, to awaken its intellectual enthusiasm, and the mighty 
 armies of the Persians were destined to be annihilated by the 
 small but resolute forces of the little republics. 
 
 16. Thirteen sovereigns ruled during the continuance of the 
 Persian empire. Except the conquest of Egypt, they did not 
 very greatly extend the boundaries formed by Cyrus ; but the 
 national features of the subject peoples were gradually effaced 
 and the whole brought to the common level of civilization. When 
 Alexander, the great Grecian soldier, appeared with his army of 
 35,000 men he scattered the hosts of the Persian king, Darius, as 
 the wind drives the leaves of the forest ; and the vast empire, so 
 long accustomed to bow to the fate of battles, became the unre- 
 sisting heritage of the conqueror. 
 
 These five great monarchies were continuous — in part on the 
 same soil — the centre having always been the fertile valleys of 
 the Euphrates and the Tigris; the successor stepping into the 
 place and carrying out the general plans of his immediate pre- 
 decessor, but on a broader scale and in an increasingly en- 
 lightened manner. Through all these long centuries a mys- 
 terious and, apparently, still more ancient race had occupied 
 Egypt, only occasionally interfering with, or being disturbed by, 
 the surging sea of strife that raged and foamed so near them, 
 which at length forced them from their seclusion and bore them 
 on in the general tide of improvement. 
 
 17. The Egyptian monarchy presents many very curious and 
 difficult problems. Possessing the most perfect organization in 
 the earliest times of which we have any knowledge, the traces 
 of its beginnings quite fail us, although, more than any other 
 nation, it loved to build great and impressive monuments and 
 record on them, in the most minute manner, the singular habits 
 
EGYPT, ITS RIVER AND PEOPLE. 53 
 
 and monotonous daily life of its people. The first of those monu- 
 ments, which, by many signs, must date very nearly as far back 
 in the remote past as the earliest dawn of organization among 
 any other people of 'whom we can gather any certain traces, 
 indicate a long settled state, a high degree of organization, con- 
 siderable culture and great resources. 
 
 18. The first king, who is called Menes by several independent 
 and very ancient authorities, made his reign memorable by a 
 system of vast and useful public works. It is conjectured that 
 the previous rulers were the sacerdotal class, and that, up to that 
 time, they had no kings. The habits of the people were quiet 
 and peaceful, and they seem to have been first gathered around 
 temples. In all stages of their history, down to the time when 
 foreign intrusion by force disorganized their peculiar institu- 
 tions, the priesthood was the most infiuential element in their 
 constitution, and their sway seems to have been, in some respects, 
 singularly mild and beneficent. Except for the extreme in- 
 flexibility and minuteness of their regulations, which repressed 
 all spontaneous growth, and the gross and absurd worship of 
 animals which they introduced, they might be considered an un- 
 mixed blessing to those early times. It is certain that they were 
 successful in controlling men and molding them to their own 
 views without producing discontent or revolt. 
 
 19. Everything in Egypt was remarkable — its river, its 
 country, and the institutions and habits of the people. The 
 Egyptians dwelt in the valley of the Nile for a space of 500 
 miles above its mouth; but this valley was so narrow that the 
 habitable part of it contained only about 6,000 square miles in 
 all. It was shut in by the Red sea on the east and by trackless 
 deserts on the west, and a fall of rain was so rare as to be con- 
 sidered a prodigy. In June each year their mysterious river, 
 whose sources are yet almost unknown, began to rise till it 
 covered the whole valley like a vast sea. The rise and fall 
 occupied the summer months and to the middle of October. The 
 waters left a rich coating of mud and slime, which rendered the 
 valley fertile beyond measure. The productive season occupied 
 the remainder of the year, and their agricultural resources were 
 only limited by their skill in spreading and husbanding the fer- 
 tilizing waters. Vast canals and reservoirs covered the whole 
 valley. Lake Moeris, a reservoir partly natural and partly arti- 
 ficial, was said by the first Greek historian, Herodotus, to have 
 
54 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 been 400 miles in circuit. When the waters had reached their 
 highest point, the cisterns, canals and lakes were filled and the 
 waters kept in reserve for late periods of the year and a success- 
 ion of crops. 
 
 20. The mysterious character of the river seems to have 
 deeply impressed the nation with awe and reverence for unseen 
 powers, and to have contributed to the influence of the priestly 
 estate. Their peculiar source of wealth, and the amount of leis- 
 ure periodically afforded, perhaps led to the construction of the 
 temples and palaces whose gloomy strength is as mysterious as 
 their river, or the origin of the people. Far back in the twilight 
 of time, Thebes, the "city of a hundred gates," was a colossal 
 capital. Its vast temples and palaces were built on a scale of 
 grandeur that seems almost superhuman; yet, before history 
 begins its narrative in Greece, Thebes had had its youth, its long 
 period of splendor and glory, its hoary age, and was already a 
 thing of the past and nearly in ruins; not by violence or con- 
 quest, but by the natural transfer of the center of activities to 
 another region. Considering the small extent of Egypt, its 
 always overflowing population, and the tenacious habits of the 
 Egyptians, nothing could more impressively show its great age. 
 
 21. Egyptian sculpture on the temples was descriptive of re- 
 ligious ceremonies, but on the palaces of domestic life and gen- 
 eral habits, and furnishes us with details of the whole social 
 structure and all their industrial pursuits, as well as the events 
 in the campaigns of their few warlike monarchs. Add to these 
 the minute delineation of their temple service and religious teach- 
 ings, and its ruins describe the entire round of its ancient life. 
 
 The people were divided into classes, or castes, the son being 
 obliged to follow the occupation of the father; and all branches 
 of business and industry, public and private, were arranged in 
 a most methodical manner. The priest, the soldier, the husband- 
 man, the artisan of whatever branch, was so because his ances- 
 tors had been such for numberless generations. A king could 
 be selected either from the priestly or the soldier caste; but he 
 must previously have been initiated into all the mysteries of the 
 priesthood, and therefore Moses, the acknowledged heir of the 
 throne, "was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians." Oth- 
 erwise, not belonging to the priestly caste, he must have remain- 
 ed in ignorance. With this exception the priest alone had the 
 key of knowledge, and all the employments requiring intellectual 
 
THE ABILITY OF THE EGYPTIAN PRIESTHOOD. 55 
 
 studies, or scientific culture, as we should now say, were filled 
 f roni that class. They kept all records, measurements, and ap- 
 portionments of land; prescribed the times, seasons, and conduct 
 of all public transactions; were the constitutional advisers of the 
 king; they were physicians, astronomers, philosphers, and guides 
 of the people in every respect. They alone did the thinking, and 
 they guarded their prerogative with the most jealous care. 
 
 22. The people are debased in proportion to their ignorance 
 and the gross vulgarity of their ideals. The ignorant masses of 
 Egypt were amused with the greatest possible multiplication of 
 gods, and their simple minds fully occupied in absurd fictions 
 and religious ceremonies. But the priests were as wise and mod- 
 erate as they were crafty and persistent. Their discipline was 
 extremely judicious and well administered, and was laid on the 
 king as well and sternly, as to his general life, as on the lowest 
 peasant. The priesthood were as absolute, as impartial, and as 
 unvarying from age to age as it is possible to conceive. Their 
 services to humanity were very great. They laid the foundation 
 among men of unvarying law, of diligence in the employment 
 of time, of exactness in the division of labor, and inculcated, in 
 an effective way, the idea of divine justice and of immortality. 
 
 23. Their secret "wisdom" was the highest and the most 
 fruitful that was, perhaps, possible in their times; their fame; 
 was wide-spread, and their influence on the legislation of other 
 lands has laid all ages under great obligations. The political 
 economy of the Jews was the product of one of their most intel- 
 ligent disciples, and the fact that he was so probably added 
 greatly to his influence and success with his own people; and all 
 the great legislators, philosophers, and historians of Greece 
 went to them to complete their education. In after times, when 
 the nation lost its liberty and became the province of a distant 
 kingdom, they sunk the priest in the scholar, and Egypt had the 
 largest libraries and the most eminent philosophers in the world. 
 After Greece was carried, as it were, bodily, to Rome, far down 
 into the Christian Era, Alexandria was the university of the 
 world. 
 
 The history of Egypt is thus entirely peculiar, being mainly 
 that of its one influential class. They impressed a peaceful, 
 generally virtuous and laborious, character on its people, and, 
 besides the vast monuments covered with hieroglyphics which 
 the pat'-'ut industry they inspired reared up, and the names of 
 
56 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 their interminable list of kings, there was, perhaps, little to 
 record. 
 
 24. The entire number of their dynasties of kings, as they 
 have handed them down to us, is thirty -two, the last being the 
 Ptolemies, founded by a Greek general of that name after the 
 death of Alexander the Great, which lasted more than three hun- 
 dred years, closing B. C. 44. The first twelve dynasties are called 
 the Old Empire, whose period it is impossible to determine 
 accurately. The five following dynasties are ascribed to the 
 reign of foreigners, called '"shepherd kings," who are supposed 
 to have established their authority between the times of Joseph 
 and Moses, and are called the Middle Empire ; while thirteen 
 dynasties, including the royal families that reigned down to the 
 time of the conquest of Egypt by the Persians, comprise the New 
 Empire. They were generally exclusive, shut up within them- 
 selves, too much absorbed in exact observance of the endless 
 routine prescribed by their priests to be inclined to the ambition 
 of foreign conquest ; but several of their kings gathered large 
 armies and invaded Palestine and Syria, or made a trial of 
 strength with the Assyrians or Babylonians. They never made 
 permanent conquests in that direction. Some of the later kings 
 became friendly to the Greeks and employed them in their 
 armies to the great disgust of their subjects, the soldier caste re- 
 tiring, almost in a body, to Ethiopia, and refusing to return. The 
 kingdom soon after fell into the hands of foreigners, and the 
 accumulated discipline, knowledge and wealth of that wise 
 people beca.me the inheritance of humanity. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar was the first who made a conquest of Egypt, 
 but the country soon regained its independence. It was not till 
 after the death of Cyrus, and when the details of the new Medo- 
 Persian kingdom had been settled, that Cambyses, the son of 
 Cyrus, subdued the whole of Egypt and made it a Persian 
 province, in which condition it remained most of the time to the 
 Grecian invasion. 
 
 25. About twenty-five hundred years before the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great, the cities of Sidon and Tyre were founded in 
 Phenicia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean sea. Their 
 territory extended only twenty miles back from the sea. They 
 were of the Semite race and their enterprising spirit led them to 
 build ships and become at first pirates and then merchants. They 
 were thrifty and grev/ rich, improved their vessels and became 
 
THE PHENICIANS ORGANIZE COMMERCE. 57 
 
 famous for their commerce. They at length planted colonies 
 for trading purposes on the northern coasts of Africa, in Sicily 
 and in Spain. 
 
 One of those colonies, Carthage, became more wealthy and 
 powerful than the parent state. The merchandise tliey ga thered 
 from distant countries they distributed through Asia by a land 
 trade, and their caravans reached Nineveh, Babylon and Persia, 
 and, for long periods, were almost the only link that joined 
 Egypt to the rest of the busy and growing world. They learned 
 many useful things among the Egyptians, among others the in- 
 vention of letters, or at least hints on which they irnproved. 
 Many flourishing cities were built up by this internal commerce 
 in places surrounded by desert regions, as Baalbek and Palmyra 
 in Syria, and Petra in Arabia, a city excavated in the rocks, 
 which, lying between Syria and Phenicia in the north and the 
 rich districts of Arabia in the south, and between Babylon and 
 Persia in the east and Egypt on the west, became a great mer- 
 cantile depot. The Phenicians were the busiest and most enter- 
 prising people of ancient times. Their vessels reached the 
 shores of England, where they had valuable mines of tin, as of 
 silver in Spain; they visited the northwest coasts of Africa and 
 the Madeira islands, and brought the rich products of India and 
 gold from eastern Africa to the markets of the world. The 
 amount of their contributions to civilization and progress by 
 making known the discoveries and arts of distant nations to 
 each other, by causing roads and inns to be built, and facilitat- 
 ing communication, was immense, as also by awakening the love 
 of gain and turning the activities of a part of mankind from 
 warlike to more peaceful and useful pursuits. The arts and in- 
 ventions that have done the most, in the long run, for the im- 
 provement of men, as shipbuilding and writing, were communi- 
 cated from one nation to another. Their commercial routes 
 were the highways over which the intelligent and inquiring 
 Greeks traveled in search of the knowledge which they used for 
 the education of their people. Tyre was destroyed by Alexan- 
 der B. C. 332; but he replaced it the same year by building Alex- 
 andria, at the mouth of the Nile. 
 
 26. We have thus seen nations and institutions gradually un- 
 folding, passing through a period of youth, of vigorous organic 
 action, and finally decaying, to give place to another of higher 
 order which inherited all its general gain and proceeded to carry 
 
58 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 still further the banner, of civilization. As this process continues 
 the field widens, with the increasing number and variety of the 
 elements engaged in acting upon one another the product 
 becomes more valuable, the organization more complete and the 
 institutions more useful. 
 
 The institutions purely political, however, the modes of 
 government and the style of administering them, are imperfect, 
 at best. They are too arbitrary, too restrictive; the masses are 
 too large and too closely crowded to permit free play to the com- 
 ponent parts. The mingling of the whole was, at first, evidently 
 necessary to prevent the crystalizing of the separate nationalities 
 and the arrest of progress; but when that process was stopped 
 and* a plastic condition and progressive tendency assured, the 
 absolute despotism of the king and the priest stood in the way 
 of advance. They had educated society and developed its re- 
 sources until a power of vast combination had been gained; then 
 a change must be introduced, or the entire resources of the 
 civilized world would be employed to repress its further advance- 
 ment, the fountains of wealth would be exhausted and the- 
 springs of activity dried up. This barrier against a destructive 
 centralization had long been preparing among the Grecian 
 states. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 THE GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 1. The Greeks were of the Aryan race, and showed great 
 capacity to receive the lessons taught by the experience and 
 genius of all the past, and to advance to a higher civilization and 
 freer institutions. They were preceded in the occupation of 
 Greece by the Pelasgi, of the same stock, but too rude and un- 
 cultured to leave many traces of their presence except the ruins 
 of immense cyclopean buildings, without inscriptions, indicating 
 only a dawning culture, but much physical force. The mythic 
 history of Greece is in part a veiled and distorted account of the 
 struggles of Hellens, or true Greeks, against those uncouth 
 aborigines; the actual facts being mingled by the lively creative 
 fancy of their poets with the religious traditions brought from 
 their original home. The highly picturesque language of the 
 primitive Aryan people accorded with the imaginative and 
 
GREEK HEROIC MYTHOLOGY. 59 
 
 observant character of that family and their inclination to extem- 
 porize some plausible explanation of the natural phenomena 
 which awakened their attention, and, apparently, suggested the 
 general course of invention and embellishment adopted by the 
 poets, who were the historians, the theologians, and the only 
 literary class of their period. Thus the early speculations and 
 crude religious ideas assumed, in poetic hands, an exceedingly 
 fanciful and marvelous garb; and their heroes, who succeeded 
 in overcoming the difficulties of a new settlement, and in laying 
 the foundation of their communities in a rude country filled with 
 men and beasts almost equally wild and savage, were endowed 
 by their grateful and admiring descendants with superhuman 
 qualities, and wonder and reverence ascribed to them a descent 
 from the gods. 
 
 2. A significant feature of Grecian heroic mythology is 
 the number and mutual contests of these mythical heroes which 
 indicate a leading characteristic of the nation — a disposition 
 toward independence and decentralization. Every small com- 
 munity had its divine hero and insisted on maintaining its gov- 
 ernment in its own hands. In the early times the immediate 
 descendants of these local benefactors commonly obtained the 
 sovereignty, more or less qualified, over their city and commun- 
 ity. They all greatly respected the tie that bound them together 
 in kinship as one race ; but they never would permit it to deprive 
 them of local independence. If they had a king he should be 
 of their own tribe and choice; if they were ruled with harshness 
 it should only be because they chose to submit to their own 
 tyrant. They seldom permitted another community to manage 
 their internal affairs. Various leagues were early formed 
 among contiguous cities or states closely related by origin; but 
 they dealt only in matters of common interest, and if one city 
 or king was acknowledged as the head, it was only in a general 
 sense for the sake of realizing some common plan. 
 
 3. This instinctive and resolute refusal to accept a central- 
 ized government was a new and important feature in the history 
 of men in a civilized, or highly organized state. It was the 
 direct opposite of that which characterized Asiatic and African 
 civilization, and held the Greek race open to a spontaneous 
 growth and a mental development which made them the bene- 
 factors of the human family. With less individuality and 
 mental force, or a less favorable time and situation, it would 
 
60 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 iLave kept them forever barbarous; but time had matured them 
 and the nations about them, and their restless spirit of inquiry 
 and constant movement among themselves stood in the place of 
 the foreign action and shock of races that proved so beneficial 
 and necessary to the Asiatics. The Egyptian, Chinese and Hin- 
 doo peoples reached a certain point of well-regulated order, 
 apparently by an original impulse, and stopped; the Chaldean, 
 Assyrian and Persian races kept in the stream of progress by a 
 sort of mechanical or forcible stir and intermingling of races 
 and civilizations; and the principle accomphshed, in each case, 
 all it was capable of. Time and progress then transferred the 
 care of the best interests of mankind to intelligence as embodied 
 in the Greek race. Without being conscious of such a high 
 destiny, they fulfilled it with fidelity, remained true to them- 
 selves and faithful to the impulses of their own minds until 
 TiuTnam'ty required training of a different kind, and another 
 race, receiving their mental culture, added to it administrative 
 ability and carried the old world as high as it could possibly go 
 on its ancient base. 
 
 ■4. It seems probable that about B. C. 2000, or in the time of 
 Abraham, the progenitors of the Greeks reached that country 
 from the highlands east of the Caspian Sea. Greece extends 
 about 220 miles from north to south, and 160 from east to west, 
 has a very irregular outline, and contains about 34,000 square 
 miles, much of it being mountainous and barren. The separation 
 of the different states by these mountain ranges much favored 
 the disposition of the people to local independence and formed a 
 bold and hardy race. Access from three sides to the sea led to 
 commerce and colonization, while it brought them into frequent 
 contact with the most civilized people of the east without en- 
 dangering their independence, and the lofty mountains on the 
 north were an effectual barrier to the irruption of the wild and 
 wandering tribes of northern Asia and Europe. Early in the 
 history of the Greeks colonies came from Egypt and Phenicia 
 and introduced the arts of those countries, then the most civilized 
 in the world. This was about the time that the Jewish nation 
 Avas founded by Moses, and we can easily understand that the 
 native intelligence of the Greeks and their teachable spirit led 
 them to profit greatly by this early light. 
 
 5. The most celebrated traditions of this people relate to an ex- 
 pedition by the collective young chivalry of Greece, called the 
 
THE TROJAN WAR AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 61 
 
 "Argonautic," which indicates their enterprising spirit and early 
 acquaintance with the sea, and also seems to have introduced 
 the habit of planting colonies. Two wars against Thebes, in the 
 central part of Greece, induced by the ambition and combinations 
 of the kings of the various States, seem to have made much im- 
 pression on the whole nation, while a combination of nearly all 
 of its petty sovereigns, gathering an immense army, stated at 
 100,000 men, to punish an injury done to one of their number by 
 the King of Troy, on the opposite coast of Asia, occupied ten 
 years and filled the whole country with confusion. This was 
 soon followed by an event called the Return of the Heracleidae, 
 or descendants of Hercules — a mythic hero of great celebrity — 
 to their ancient dominion in the southern peninsula, called the 
 Pelopenesus. It appears to have been attended by the migration 
 of one tribe into the domains of another, which they forcibly dis- 
 posessed, and produced the emigration of the conquered people 
 into Asia, where they formed extensive colonies, independent, 
 but preserving a love for their race and forming an important 
 element in Greek progress. 
 
 6. The commotions and miseries of this period and of subse- 
 quent times which had their rise mainly in this, most of which 
 were due to the restless ambition and personal quarrels of their 
 kings, came at length to disgust the spirited and progressive 
 people with that form of government, and before the time that 
 authentic history begins they had very generally set aside the 
 kings and established democracies; and where this was not the 
 case, as in Sparta, the power of the kings became so limited that 
 they were little more than leading magistrates in their respec- 
 tive cities. This was not often done by violent revolution, but 
 generally in a quiet way, showing the steady and intelligent res- 
 olution of the people. 
 
 This rare nation knew how to adapt its governments to its 
 needs. Not that everything went on without struggle or diffi- 
 culty, nor that they did not share in the rude and sanguinary 
 passions of their times. Their governments were often unset- 
 tled; there were frequent conflicts among aspirants for place and 
 power in the state; they had a balance of power among the lead- 
 ing states to maintain; and the want of a strong central author- 
 ity led to innumerable collisions and sometimes to desolating 
 wars. But amidst all the confusion and imperfection of an 
 early civilization they still maintained such an independence of 
 
62 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 any superior in each state that they could settle their internal 
 affairs to suit themselves. They were yet uneducated men, in 
 the enthusiastic young manhood of the world, but with spirit 
 enough to be free. 
 
 7. That freedom had many defects. The true character of 
 freedom was imperfectly apprehended in that age of the world. 
 It was of ten violent : and much Grecian blood was shed by Greeks. 
 It was frequently turbulent: and sometimes the strife of parties 
 and factions did great injury to the welfare of the state. It was 
 usually a restricted liberty in which all the inhabitants did not 
 share, for the slave, the freedman, and the foreigner, were ad- 
 mitted to no influence in the government, or in framing the 
 laws; and there was always much oppression and injustice some- 
 where. It was not a well understood and well balanced liberty, 
 as we now regard it, yet it left room for a large amount of free 
 and spontaneous action. It made little account of the individ- 
 ual; that point was to be learned and made duly prominent after 
 the lapse of more than two thousand years. The Greek identi- 
 fied himself with his state. He would not have it large in order 
 that each free citizen might have a personal influence in it. His 
 public life was an education to him; and the very defects of his 
 institutions fitted them more perfectly to meet the wants of that 
 age than anything more complete could have done. 
 
 8. They developed rapidly under a system so free from re- 
 straint, coupled with a nature so ardent, and a thirst for knowl- 
 edge so absorbing. Still, it was at least two hundred years after 
 they had re-arranged their primitive modes of government be- 
 fore they reached a degree of order and system that influenced 
 them to record events as they passed and observe the world out- 
 side of their state, and even then their most learned men wrote 
 little. Men were absorbed in their private matters, or in the af- 
 fairs of the state. They thought little of the future; they were 
 devoting themselves diligently to the only means of education 
 that existed in those days, intercourse and action. Their priest- 
 hood was quite different from what we found it in Chaldea and 
 Egypt. They did not form a class, nor attempt to exercise an 
 influence on government. They were appointed from the body 
 of the citizens to offer sacrifices and conduct religious ceremo- 
 nies. The high spirited and active minded Greeks were not fit 
 subjects for the dominion of a priestly caste. Although Cecrops, 
 an Egyptian, settled and civilized Athens, and introduced some 
 
RELIGIOUS HABITS OF THE GREEKS. 63 
 
 of the social arrangements of his country, he did not plant the 
 all-controlling priesthood. The Athenians, of all other Greeks, 
 were the thoughtful, progressive intelligence of the nation. The 
 poets compiled the genealogies and histories of the gods, the 
 heroes, and the past records of the people. There was no other 
 literature, there were no other sources of information but those 
 from which the poets drew — tradition and inherited customs. 
 Of these the poets explained the origin and reason, and no one 
 thought of questioning their tales. They were supposed to be 
 inspired; and their marvelous legends rested, to a certain extent, 
 on monuments, habits, and oral tradition. Their lively narra- 
 tives charmed and satisfied the public mind and gratified their 
 pride. It was^only in later years that the philosophers explained 
 them away. 
 
 In the early days they had no standard by which to criticise 
 them. All they required was that they should offer a pleasing 
 explanation. The wisest of the Greeks came, ultimately, to be- 
 lieve in one God who ruled with wisdom and justice, and they 
 laid the foundation of all useful knowledge by teaching men to 
 think and reason; but true science was not possible in their age 
 of the world. They, however, prepared the way for it. 
 
 9. Their religion was cheerful and bright, they had altars 
 and temples in great iiiimbers, and countless ceremonies in 
 honor of particular deities. One class of these was festivals, or 
 games, established, according to tradition, by their divine heroes. 
 The Olympian Games were the most celebrated, and took place 
 every fiftieth month at Olympia. In the year 77G B. C. they 
 began to record the name of the victor in these games, and as 
 that was done ever afterward this became a fixed date and the 
 interval between each was called an Olympiad. It was the be- 
 ginning of reliable history, although it was one hundred and 
 fifty years later that men of real wisdom, extensive observa^ 
 tion and careful study began to flourish. But the eagerness with 
 which the people sought information, and the honor in which 
 they held men of thought and wisdom, encouraged study, reflec- 
 tion and travel for the sake of knowledge, so that this class, in 
 time, became extremely numerous. 
 
 Their researches and systems of what they held to be truth 
 were often imperfect and, in many parts, false; but they were 
 upright and earnest in the studies that were then possible, and 
 did as much good, one might say^ by their failures as by their 
 
Ijl THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 successes. Inquiries, in after times, noted luhere and hoiv they 
 failed; so that all their pioneer work was useful — their mistakes 
 for a warning, their success for instruction. 
 
 10, The course of Grecian development took two contrary 
 directions under the two leading states, Sparta and Athens. 
 The last represents the generally received idea of Greece — as 
 a land where the people were lively and beautiful, intelligent 
 and richly endowed with taste in the arts, or an exquisitely 
 quick and thorough judgment of fitness, developed to the very 
 highest point. Sparta, on the other hand, through its whole 
 career, was a military state. Somewhere about one hundred 
 years before the first Olympiad (B. C. 776), a lawgiver, named 
 Lycurgus, had reformed the institutions of the Spartan state 
 with the avowed and only object to render it capable of produc- 
 ing the most vigorous and hardy warriors. He made an equal 
 distribution of lands, which were cultivated by the ancient in- 
 habitants, reduced to slavery. They were called Helots, and 
 were treated with great cruelty, Lycurgus abolished every 
 species of luxury, subjected the young, both boys and girls, to 
 the most rigorous training, and discouraged all the amenities of 
 family and social life that he supposed might interfere with the 
 rude hardiness of the soldier. The whole intelligence, activity 
 and vigor of the Greek mind was, in this state, confined to mili- 
 tary life. These institutions continued to exist in Sparta for 
 more than five hundred years. Among any other race they 
 would have secured to them the supreme dominion of the nation; 
 but among this liberty-loving people they merely sufficed to 
 render them the general leaders in war, and one only among 
 the most powerful and respectable Greek states. Besides, this 
 experiment shows that there is little real advantage in system- 
 atically trampling down the native instincts of humanity in 
 order to promote superiority in a particular direction. 
 
 11. The entirely spontaneous character of the Athenians made 
 them, in general, the equal of the Spartans in military fame, and 
 gloriously eminent in many other directions. But the various 
 members of the Greek nation seem to have been made, by their 
 intelligence, by the earnestness and completeness of all their 
 lines of development, the pioneers of humanity in their experi- 
 ments. They exhausted all the capacities of a complete military 
 education in an entire state, and presented the most perfect 
 achievements of a genius that had no models to commence on, 
 
THE SEVENTH CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST. 65 
 
 in poetry, in painting, in sculpture, in philosophy and in such 
 elements of science as were possible to humanity in their day. 
 . It is worthy of remark that most of the Greek colonies, the 
 Phenicians and their colonies, and a great part of the numerous 
 nations in Italy became republican about the same time — as did 
 the Romans later — and that those states which preserved heredi- 
 tary monarchy, or tyrants — as those kings were called who were 
 elected by the populace — had counterbalanced the individual 
 despotism of the kingly office by various institutions that con- 
 trolled and limited it. 
 
 12. At the period when history began to be carefully written 
 and dates accurately given civilization was under full career and 
 rapidly moving westward. The Greeks had been struggling 
 with the difficulties of the early times for more than a thousand 
 years and had already begun to mature the institutions and to 
 show the traits of character that afterwards made them so 
 eminent and so useful in advancing the progress of mankind. 
 The Tyrians, or commercial people of Phenicia, had formed the 
 net-work of communication with all the parts of the earth then 
 sufficiently civilized to produce anything which could be useful 
 to the rest of the world, and Italy was alive with the energies of 
 the primitive races, mainly Aryan — some of them transplanted 
 from the East, and possessing many of the highest elements of 
 the ancient culture — who fought the Romans with a vigor and 
 persistence that contributed much to the discipline and strong 
 development of that remarkable people, to whose instruction the 
 Greek colonies in eastern Italy a,dded not a little. 
 
 From this point the advance of the center of development to- 
 ward the western continent, and of mental preparation for more 
 perfect ideals of government, were continuous. A more com- 
 plete view of this progress will be gained by considering the 
 general events of each century apart, or in chronological order. 
 
 13. B. C. 776. This is the first definite and positive date in re- 
 liable history and commences the first Olympiad. The Olympic 
 religious and national festival was celebrated by foot and chariot 
 races, boxing, wrestling, etc., and was commenced by religious 
 sacrifices and ceremonies, mainly in honor of the god Apollo. 
 This peaceable assembly of all the representatives of the Grecian 
 race was one of the chief means of maintaining the national 
 union, and greatly promoted the maintenance and importance of 
 a kind of national congress, called the Amphictyonic League. 
 
 5 
 
66 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 The first object of this League was the protection of their common 
 worship; but it came to have, afterward, considerable importance 
 as a poHtical body ; its decrees having the character and force of 
 the Laws of Nations in modern times. It was composed of two 
 delegates from each of the twelve leading states of Greece, and 
 held two meetings yearly; one at Delphi, where was a celebrated 
 temple and oracle of Apollo, and one at Thermopylae. The twelve 
 chief cities of the ^olian colonies of Greece in Asia Minor, and 
 also the same number of Ionian colonies on the same coast more 
 to the south, had each Amphictj^onic, or International Leagues ; 
 but the Greeks from all the various regions they settled, as well 
 as from the mother country, took a pride in participating in the 
 Olympic games. 
 
 14. B. C. 753. This is one of the most important dates in the 
 history of mankind. In this year, Rome, "The Eternal City," 
 w^as founded by a band of adventurers and outlaws, under the 
 lead of the twin brothers, Romulus and Remus. A spirit of ad- 
 venture was the most characteristic feature of that era in Greece 
 and about the Mediterranean sea, together with a passion for 
 colonizing, or founding new states. Education, or growth, seems 
 to pursue parallel lines in the same era, so that the same general 
 tendencies move the masses of widely separated nations. Greece 
 began, at this period, to send out a large number of colonists, in 
 rapid succession, to Italy and the islands of the Mediterranean. 
 The tendency had commenced more than three centuries before, 
 but the colonies had not gone far from the native state, and only 
 one had been esta,blished in Italy, at Cumse. Carthage, a com- 
 mercial colony of the Tyrians, had been founded 127 years 
 before, and was now beginning to rival the parent city. 
 
 Rome gathered its population from all the neighboring states. 
 The mingling of races has always been favorable to the progress 
 of mankind. A single race, isolating itself and receiving no 
 new blood or impulses from without, becomes stationary and 
 fixed in all its habits and advancement ceases beyond a certain 
 point. The men who founded Rome were, apparently, a crowd 
 of adventurers who had resolved to found a state. After build- 
 ing the walls of their city and providing themselves with habi- 
 tations, they were destitute of wives — a serious want which 
 would soon leave their new city without inhabitants. They 
 remedied it in true Roman style — by violence. They made a 
 festival without the walls to celebrate the the founding of their 
 
THE FOUNDING OF ROME. 67 
 
 state and invited their nearest neighbors, the Sabines, to take 
 part in it. The Sabines came with tiieir wives and daughters. 
 At a concerted moment the young Romans each seized a young 
 Sabine woman, and carried her off into the city; the gates were 
 closed and each proceeded to make his captive his wife. 
 
 The Sabines were powerless to prevent the deed, but they soon 
 made war on their violent sons-in-law, and the young city 
 would have been destroyed but for the interference of the stolen 
 women who had become satisfied with the bold deed which gave 
 them valiant husbands. The Sabines were induced to unite with 
 the young state so far as to build a new city adjoining and take 
 part in its rising fortunes. Romulus was elected king by his 
 followers, but popular institutions were established to limit his 
 power, under the strong instinct of vigorous organization that 
 from the first characterized the new nation. The people main- 
 tained their right to make laws in conjunction with the king, 
 and preserved a limited monarchy for 250 years. At this time 
 the prophet Isaiah flourished in Judea and the kingdom of 
 Samaria was approaching extinction. 
 
 15. B. C. 747. The Chaldeans established, or revived, their 
 dominion in Babylon, under their king, Nabonassur, and seem 
 to have been independent of Assyria for a time but afterward 
 to have been brought into a qualified subjection to that enter- 
 prising monarchy. It commences authentic history in the East, 
 so far as well ascertained dates are concerned. In that year the 
 Chaldean astronomers or priests first introduced the Egyptian 
 solar year, which furnished an accurate mode of measuring 
 time. This was about the commencement of the Sixth Olympiad. 
 Egypt was approaching its most perfect condition under its 
 ancient system. 
 
 B. C. 743. The Messenian war of 23 years commenced, Sparta 
 conquered Messene. 
 
 16. B. C. 735. A colony from Corinth founded the celebrated 
 city of Syracuse, in Sicily, and a fashion of colonizing seems to 
 have obtained in Greece, which continued for a hundred years. 
 The native enterprise of the Greeks, the great increase of in- 
 habitants in their small territory, and the commotions and con- 
 tests of parties in their states which preceded the establishment 
 of more complete popular governments, were probably the ruling 
 causes of these foreign emigrations, and all contributed to the 
 increase of knowledge, improvement in navigation, and the 
 
63 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 prevalence of a coininercial spirit. Miletus, the leading Greek 
 city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, became almost as powerful and 
 prosperous by her commerce as Tyre in her best days. There 
 were Grecian colonies on the coast of Africa west of Egypt, on 
 the eastern coast of Italy, several in Sicily, one in France. 
 They were, generally, very enterprising and prosperous, and 
 diffused Greek intelligence and culture over a large part of the 
 world as known at that time. They usually established a re- 
 publican government. Syracuse remained republican for 251 
 years. 
 
 17. B. C. 728. The Assyrian Empire was now having its 
 palmiest days and spreading its dominion over all the central 
 parts of western Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Persian 
 Gulf. At this time Shalman-assur, or Shalmaneser, the king of 
 Assyria, led away the Ten Tribes of Israel into a hopeless cap- 
 tivity and planted a different race in Samaria. Soon after this 
 time the Ethiopians from the upper Nile established their domin- 
 ion in Egypt, without apparently changing the general 
 condition of things there. Three Ethiopian kings successively 
 reigned in Egypt, and made conquests in Asia to some extent. 
 
 18. B. C. 600. About the beginning of this century the foun- 
 dation of Greek philosophy was laid by Thales of Miletus, a 
 Greek city in Asia, He represents the growth and acuteness of 
 the Greek mind and the approach of its period of greatest 
 activity. He travelled into Egypt in search of wisdom, and was 
 the most able astronomer of his times. He calculated an 
 eclipse of the sun, which, coming on just when two armies, the 
 Median and Lydian, were about to engage in battle, so terrified 
 them that they immediately separated and made peace. He was 
 celebrated as a mathematician and taught many truths concern- 
 ing the existence of God which were far in advance of his time, 
 and undertook to account for the origin of all things in a very 
 bold and independent manner. He was one of the famous 
 ''Seven Wise Men" of Greece. Solon was held to be the first 
 among the seven. He was an Athenian law-giver and writer, 
 and established a very wise and enlightened system of govern- 
 ment in Athens. He was a pure-hearted and clear-sighted man, 
 enjoying the universal respect of the Greeks. Chilo, another of 
 the seven, was a Spartan magistrate, held in the highest esteem 
 for his wisdom. Pittacus, of Mitylene was a law-giver, held in 
 high honor. Bias of Priene, in Ionia, was a very noble-hearted 
 
GREAT CHANGES AMONG LEADING NATIONS. 69 
 
 and public-spirited citizen, of universal reputation for wisdom. 
 Cleobulus, of the island of Rhodes, was remarkable for his skill 
 in answering difficult questions, and Periander of Corinth, the 
 ruler, or tyrant, of that place, was the last of the seven. They 
 were all living at the same time. They were only the most emi- 
 nent among a people who could fully appreciate mental ability. 
 The spirit of inquiry continued to spread rapidly for two hun- 
 dred years, when the greatest masters, who immortalized them- 
 selves and their race by their genius, appeared. 
 
 19. In the early part of this century the kingdom of Lydia, 
 in the central part of Asia Minor, rose to great wealth and 
 power. The Lydian kingdom was ancient — many of its customs 
 being similar to those of the Egyptians — and the Etrurians of 
 Italy, a much more polished and cultivated people than the 
 Romans who conquered them, are thought, by some eminent 
 historians, to have been a Lydian colony planted in Italy in un- 
 known times. The Lydian kings made war on the Asiatic 
 Greek colonies and reduced many of them to subjection. Croesus, 
 the last king of Lydia, was proverbial for his vast wealth. He 
 was conquered by Cyrus, the Persian, in the middle of the 
 next century. 
 
 679 B. C. Numa, the second king of Rome, is said to have 
 died. The Romans abstained from war during nearly the whole 
 of his reign, which was occupied in settling the internal affairs 
 of the new state, especially those relating to religion. He was 
 followed by Tullus Hostilius, a very warlike prince, who did 
 much to extend the Roman state. 
 
 20. About 650 B. C. a great change was introduced into Egypt 
 by Psammeticus, its king, who, having several rival claimants 
 to the throne, employed the services of Greek soldiers to over- 
 come them. For the first time the country was freely opened to 
 foreigners, and the power of the priesthood broken. Thus the 
 Greeks were instrumental in changing the current of Egyptian 
 history. 
 
 The Median kings began to make head in the east, and ven- 
 tured — after various successful efforts to extend their dominion 
 in other directions — to make direct war on Nineveh. At the 
 close of the century, by the aid of the rebellious Nabopolassar, 
 they succeeded in taking and destroying that city, and the whole 
 of that immense empire was divided between Media and Nabo- 
 polassar, who made Babylon his capital. 
 
70 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 21. B. C. 600 to 500. Events in this century begin to crowd 
 thick upon each other. The Greeks rapidly advanced: the 
 Romans succeeded, amid constant wars, in securely estabhshing 
 their state in Italy, marching from conquest to conquest, not 
 without heavy reverses at times, from which they soon recovered. 
 598 — Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem for the first time. 
 594 — Solon was made archon at Athens, with almost unlimited 
 power to change the existing institutions, and he intro- 
 duced many very useful reforms. 
 588 — Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and the 
 Jews carried into captivity to Babylon, where they 
 remained seventy years. Soon after, Nebuchadnezzar 
 conquered Tyre, after a siege of many years, but he found 
 himself in possession of the walls only, for the inhabitants 
 had built another city on an island near by, but inac- 
 cessible to the conqueror, and left him a barren con- 
 quest. 
 560 — The most memorable event that followed was the union of 
 Media and Persia under the military prowess of Cyrus. 
 He first employed the forces of the Medo-Persian kingdom 
 in Asia Minor, conquering Lydia and the rest of that 
 region, 
 549 — and dethroning Croesus. Babylon and Egypt had both 
 entered into an alliance with Croesus against Cyrus, but 
 before they could send Croesus effectual aid Cyrus had 
 triumphed. He then turned his arms against Babylon. 
 538 — This he took by stratagem after a long siege. Egypt 
 was afterward obliged to become tributary to the universal 
 conqueror. 
 534 — Cyrus, who had before been the Persian general of the 
 united armies under the Median king, Cyaxares, who was 
 his maternal uncle, succeeded to the kingdom, and soon 
 after sent the Jews home to their native land. 
 During this period the Greeks swarmed on the eastern 
 part of the Mediterranean sea and carried on nearly all 
 its commerce, the Tyrians being mainly confined to the 
 trade with India, Arabia and the various parts of the 
 Persian Empire. 
 529 — Occurred the death of Cyrus, full of years and glory. 
 History has described him as the most amiable of all the 
 great conquerors. He was succeeded by his son, Camby- 
 
VARIOUS FORTUNES OF CELEBRATED NATIONS. 71 
 
 ses, who, to punish the revolt of the Egyptians, invaded 
 
 525 — that country and made it a Persian province. 
 
 522 — Cambyses died and was succeeded by a Persian nobleman, 
 Darius Hystaspes, the line of Cyrus being extinct. He 
 finally broke the power of the ancient priesthood in his 
 dominions, which now declined both in Egypt and Baby- 
 lon where they had so long reigned supreme over the 
 minds of men. 
 
 515 — The second temple was dedicated at Jerusalem. 
 
 510 — In this year occurred a very important event in Roman 
 history — the establishment of the republic. Kings had 
 reigned there two hundred and forty-three years. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 1. The Romans, more than any other people of ancient times, 
 understood how to establish a well ordered state. Respect for 
 order and law among them was very great. The idea of a gov- 
 ernment with a definite constitution, which the rulers should 
 always respect, and which should be an adequate bulwark to the 
 people against oppression, had never occurred to any of the 
 Asiatic nations. The nearest approach to it among the Greeks 
 was in Sparta; but, as their aim was directed, not so much to 
 the general welfare of the state as to training a race of soldiers, 
 their experiment was a failure. The Greeks had a great impa- 
 tience of subjection; they had no great ambition to rule, but 
 were impulsive, and each state wanted freedom to pursue its 
 own particular fancy. Their exhaustless energy and acute 
 minds were devoted to the pursuit of ideal objects. Even the 
 sober and resolute Spartan put aside every other consideration 
 in order to realize his idea of a well formed, thoroughly trained, 
 and invincible warrior. Weakly and deformed children were 
 destroyed in their infancy, by order of the state. The young 
 women, even, were subjected to the most rigorous physical 
 training, that they might become mothers of hardy children. 
 Physical training was one of the passions of all Greece, origi- 
 nating in their delight in beauty and symmetry of person. 
 Sports that contributed +o this were as pleasing to the Greeks as 
 play to our modern school-boys. 
 
72 THE FOOTPEIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 2. Athens, vrhich most perfectly represented the Grecian 
 mind, esteemed a fine poet, an able writer, a skillful painter or 
 sculptor, as much as an enthusiastic scholar of our day can do. 
 They had a passion for beauty, and their love of hberty was in 
 great part produced by their ardent longing for mental freedom 
 and the gratification of their mental tastes. The worship of 
 their gods was largely the result of their admiration for super- 
 human majesty, sublimity, and beauty, as they conceived them, 
 and their theology was inspired by their curiosity and active 
 imagination. Their tenacity in maintaining their liberties 
 found its inspiration in the same quahties. They were a nation 
 of mental enthusiasts. They had no love of conquest for the 
 sake of power. They were invaded by the Persians, and a 
 handful of Greeks conquered its immense hosts with ease, by 
 their intelhgence and ardor. It was only when they saw the 
 splendor and wealth of the East, and felt that they could repeat 
 the glorious deeds of their mythic heroes, that they became 
 enthusiastic over the romantic idea of conquering a magnificent 
 empire. It was the mental charm of the undertaking that gave 
 to Alexander his miraculous success. 
 
 But the Greeks were not practical. They wanted worldly wis- 
 dom. The Lacedemonians of Sparta had no adequate object 
 when they sacrificed almost aU that humanity holds dear, to 
 rear model soldiers. Their ambition was confined mainly to pre- 
 serving the headship of their state among the petty repubhcs of 
 Greece; and the resources of all the states were wasted in the 
 effort to preserve a balance of power among the various mem- 
 bers of the nation, or in struggles of the more powerful to ob- 
 tain a leading influence. They had little pohtical wisdom, when 
 the independence of their territories was secured and the gov- 
 ernments that restrained them too much from their favorite en- 
 thusiasms were abolished. Athens and aU Greece admired im- 
 mensely the wise measures of Solon when he reformed the gov- 
 ernment and gave it excellent laws. But they had not the pru- 
 dence to maintain them. In ten years all was again confusion. 
 Most of their great men who possessed a special genius for gov- 
 ernment were abandoned when they showed the most ability to 
 benefit their country by their wise statesmanship. Pericles 
 alone, who was the most perfect embodiment of Grecian charac- 
 ter, preserved his influence to the last: but it was by falling in 
 perfectly with the tone of Grecian feeling, and he laid the foun- 
 
THE GENIUS OF GREECE AND ROME COMPARED. 73 
 
 dation of innovations that corrupted and finally overthrew their 
 liberty. He was as little practical and prudent as his country- 
 men. Beautiful in person, cultivated in mind, possessed of ex- 
 quisite taste in literature and art, to which he devoted himself 
 with boundless enthusiasm, Greece could always appreciate 
 him. His age was the glory and joy of Greece; but when more 
 homely political virtues were required, to preserve his creations 
 and protect this literary and artistic state, the people could not 
 practice them. Their best statesmen were ostracised, banished, 
 or slain, when their practical genius was most needed. 
 
 3. Rome was the opposite of this. She had a genius for pro- 
 ducing and preserving a constitution, adding to it by slow degrees, 
 maintaining checks and balances that kept the machinery in 
 working order and rendered it capable of producing the most 
 valuable results that were possible in those times. To rule was 
 her passion. She was not wanting in intelligence, but it was the 
 homely prudence of common life, the skill to adapt means to 
 ends. Of all the nations she was the first to carry organization 
 into every part of her government and conduct everything by 
 inexorable system and order. If Rome was resolved to rule 
 others, she was no less resolved to rule herself. The mission of 
 Greece was in the domain of thought, to develop the intellectual 
 capabilities of mankind. That of Rome also required intel- 
 ligence, but of a lower and more material kind. She was to 
 teach mankind to folk>w an orderly development, to introduce 
 system, to prevent ruinous clashing of interests, to teach respect 
 for law. Greece taught the world to think to purpose; Rome to 
 govern with effect. Each served an important purpose. With- 
 out either the world was not prepared for Christianity, which 
 added moral order, nor for true science, which was the mature 
 fruit of these three and prepared the perfect civilization which 
 was to be developed to its conclusion in a New World. 
 
 4. Rome commenced, not with the king, but with the Senate — 
 a body of experienced men, who made the laws and appointed a 
 king to administer them. The king, except in time of war, was 
 only the executive, the chief magistrate. The later kings were 
 restive under this restraint and sought to place themselves above 
 law, and the Romans at once dismissed them, appointing various 
 officers to fill their place. The fundamental principles of gov- 
 ernment were not changed at all, or very little, except by the 
 subsequent course of development. The Romans knew how to 
 
74 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 adapt their invincible spirit of order to all changing circum- 
 stances, and when external changes arose corresponding changes 
 were developed, in a regular manner, within. 
 
 Thus the Roman spirit was constant under the regal govern- 
 ment, throughout the republic, and to the close of the empire, 
 and had then become so thoroughly established in laws and in- 
 stitutions as to govern the development of the new states that 
 rose among its ruins and produced modern civilization. 
 
 At first the Roman government consisted only of the Senate 
 and the king. The Senate was chosen from the body of original 
 citizens, and represented them. In the course of time the 
 descendants of the first people became the aristocracy, called 
 patricians, who enjoyed great privileges. A class was gradually 
 formed called the plehs, or common people, who, for some time, 
 had no share in the government. The patricians alone could 
 hold office, and marriage between them and plebeians was illegal. 
 But, says an able writer, " the Roman commons were the greatest 
 the world ever saw, except the commons of England and 
 America. " In the course of time, by wise and prudent management 
 and taking advantage of the favoring circumstance that they 
 supplied the body of soldiers to the state, without revolution, 
 breaking the laws, or violating the ancient constitution, they 
 obtained changes or additions to it, one after another, until they 
 had acquired a due influence in the conduct of affairs and be- 
 came fully a match for the patricians. It was a new lesson to 
 mankind, and one that has had great influence on the good order 
 of society in all later times. 
 
 5. The religious system of that great people was conducted 
 with as much worldly prudence as all their other affairs. Their 
 religious ceremonies were, in great part, derived from the 
 Etruscans. They were conducted with much pomp by state 
 officers, appointed for the purpose, embodying all the supersti- 
 tions of the time, and embracing comparatively little of the lofty 
 sentiment that was so prominent in Greece. Their religion was 
 an affair of state, and intimately connected with the political 
 working of the government. The gravest public business was 
 made to depend on the flight of birds, on omens and accidents, 
 and on the appearance of the entrails of the animals offered in 
 the sacrifices. An artful use of these circumstances enabled the 
 officers in power to compass many political ends. Their original 
 gods were nearly the same as those of Greece, adapted to their 
 
THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT ROME. 75 
 
 purposes and national character; but they readily adopted the 
 divinities of all the nations they conquered. Their religion was 
 in a high degree cool and calculating. 
 
 The preceding observations apply especially to the periods of 
 Greece and Rome when their peculiarities were most fully devel- 
 oped in the days of their greatest glory. Though always more 
 or less characteristic, in later times they melted more or less into 
 one another, or were toned down and transformed by decay and 
 a rising spirit of innovation. Especially were they displaced by 
 Christianity. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 1. We are now prepared to return to the year 
 
 500 B. C. — and follow events in chronological order, with a fair 
 appreciation of their import. Just before the close of the 
 last century Darius Hystaspes, the king of Persia, sent an 
 army into Europe, to the north of Greece to chastise the 
 Scythians and it conquered Thrace. The Greek colonies 
 in Asia Minor, which had been recently added to the Per- 
 sian empire, became restive under foreign control, and 
 when the Persian army returned home, 
 
 500 — organized a rebellion and took and burned the city of Sar- 
 dis, the ancient capital of Lydia. They were assisted by 
 the European Greeks; but the vast resources of Persia 
 soon enabled Darius to take vengeance on them, and Mil- 
 etus was besieged and destroyed. Darius summoned the 
 Grecian states to offer their submission, but Athens and 
 Sparta sent back a defiance; Darius thereupon gathered 
 a large armament and prepared to invade 
 
 495 — Greece, which he commenced by the conquest of Macedon. 
 But a tempest destroyed his ships and 20,000 men and the 
 expedition returned to Persia. In the same year the Ro- 
 man plebeians obtained their first success against the patri- 
 cians, by which the debts of the poor plebeians to the 
 wealthy patricians were cancelled and Tribunes of the 
 People appointed. 
 
 490 — This year the glory of Greece broke forth. Darius having 
 
76 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 sent another and larger army into Greece, it advanced on 
 Athens and encamped at Marathon, within twenty-two 
 miles of the city. The Persian host was said to number 
 from 100,000 to 200,000 men. The Athenians had but 10,- 
 000 citizens able to fight but armed 20,000 slaves, and 
 the city of Platse sent them 1,000 troops. Miltiades, the 
 very able Athenian general, marched out and, taking a 
 good position, offered battle. It was the 20th of Septem- 
 ber. The little army of the Greeks obtained a complete 
 victory and the Persians returned home in confusion. The 
 great services of Miltiades were rewarded with imprison- 
 ment, on a frivolous charge, and he died there of his 
 wounds. 
 
 485 — Darius Hystaspes, the Persian king, died while preparing 
 a still larger armament for the invasion of Greece. 
 
 484 — An insurrection in Egypt completely subdued by the 
 Persians. 
 
 480 — Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded Greece with a million 
 soldiers. The battle of the pass of Thermopylae was 
 fought by a thousand Spartans under Leonidas, their king, 
 and all but one slain. The Persian fleet was beaten the 
 same day by Themistocles, the Athenian admiral. Xerxes 
 soon advanced on Athens, which was abandoned by its 
 inhabitants and burned by the Persians. Soon after, The- 
 mistocles fought the Persian navy again at Salamis and 
 totally destroyed it. Xerxes, leaving a large army in 
 Greece, returned to Asia. 
 
 479 — The battle of Platgea ended the Persian invasion. The 
 allied Greek army numbered 70,000, under Pausanias, 
 the Spartan king; the Persians 300,000. The Persians are 
 said to have had 200,000 slain, and their army was totally 
 routed. Another victory was gained on the coast of Asia 
 Minor the same day and the last remnants of the Persian 
 fleet destroyed. 
 
 478 — Athens was rebuilt and surrounded with walls from the 
 treasures of the conquered Persians. This was the age of 
 great men in Greece. Phidias, her greatest sculptor, 
 flourished at this time. The Persians, at the time of their 
 first invasion, brought a piece of marble to commemorate 
 the victory of which they were confident. The Greeks 
 caused Phidias to produce out of it a statue of Xemesis, 
 
THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE. 77 
 
 the goddess of vengeance, and set it up on the field of 
 Marathon. 
 478 — Themistocles died in banishment about this time, and 
 Aristides of old age. Both were leading statesmen and 
 generals of Athens during the Persian war. 
 470 — Socrates, the most eminent philosopher of all ancient 
 
 times, was born. 
 470 — The death of Xerxes by assassination occurred this year. 
 466 — Cimon, son of Miltiades, was now the great man of Ath- 
 ens. He was soon superseded by Pericles. From 480 B.C. 
 to 430 was the golden period of Athens. She was pre-emi- 
 nent politically, conducting the war of the Grecian allies 
 against Persian supremacy on the western shores of Asia 
 and in the Mediterranean sea. Republican liberty was 
 everywhere predominant. The greatest writers, painters 
 and sculptors lived in this period or immediately after it. 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, philosophers; ^schylus, Soph- 
 ocles, Euripides, tragic poets; Zeuxis and Apelles, painters; 
 and Phidias in sculpture, were a few among the many 
 great names which are found in or immediately following 
 this period. 
 457 — Cincinnatus was made dictator at Rome. During this 
 period the Romans laid the foundation of their dominion 
 over all Italy by waging successful war with the Etrus- 
 cans and Samnites, the most vigorous and powerful of 
 their opponents. 
 450 — The Decemvirate was appointed at Rome. They were ten 
 magistrates empowered to produce a more perfect code. 
 It was called the '' Laws of the Twelve Tables." The 
 plebeians about this time succeeded in wresting important 
 privileges from the patricians, which more equally balanced 
 the different powers of the state. 
 2. Athens was the centre of civilization, and Greek culture 
 and ideas were penetrating all the nations in her vicinity. Rome 
 was rapidly developing and Carthage was at the summit of her 
 glory. Sbe had control of much of the Spanish or Iberian pen- 
 insula. Persia, after absorbing all the old monarchies of the 
 east, was declining. The ''march of empire" was distinctly 
 defining its "westward course." 
 
 It was about the middle of this century that Herodotus, the 
 " Father of History," was rising to fame, and a few years later 
 
78 THE FOOTPEINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Xenoplion, the Greek general and historian, was born. Thu- 
 
 cyclides, another historian, dates from this period. The great 
 
 career of history now fairly commenced. 
 
 443 — Herodotus emigrated from Halicarnassus, in Asia, to 
 Greece. 
 
 431 — The Peloponnesian war, a bitter contest between Athens 
 and Sparta, commenced. It lasted twenty -three years, and 
 was again revived, ending in the conquest of Athens by 
 Sparta. This war was followed, after some time, by the 
 rise of the power of Thebes, under their famous general, 
 Epaminondas, who broke the power of Sparta. Thebes 
 sunk into insignificance after his death, and Philip of 
 Macedon commenced the subjugation of all Greece. He 
 was followed by Alexander the Great, who, in return for 
 the loss of republican liberty, rendered Greece illustrious 
 by conquering the Persian empire and imbuing all the 
 Eastern World with its philosophy and arts. For all these 
 great events one hundred years were required. 
 
 429 — The death of the illustrious Pericles occurred in this year. 
 " — Plato, the disciple of Socrates, in some points superior to 
 him in mental discipline, was born. 
 
 420 — About this time Alcibiades, the nephew of Pericles, became 
 prominent in Athenian affairs. He had brilliant powers, 
 but little principle. 
 
 406 — The battle of ^gospotamos, gained by Lysander the Spar- 
 tan, broke the power of Athens. 
 
 404 — Athens was taken by Lysander, its walls demolished, and 
 the government of the " Thirty Tyrants " established by 
 the Spartans. Alcibiades, banished from Athens, was 
 assassinated by the Persians, at the instigation of the 
 Spartans. 
 
 401 — Occurred the battle of Cunaxa, in Babylonia, between 
 Gj^rus, the brother of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and that 
 king. Cyrus, who had been governor, or satrap, in Asia 
 Minor, gathered a large army including more than 10,000 
 Greeks. Cyrus was killed and his own army defeated, but 
 the Greeks repelled all assaults. Their generals having 
 been decoyed into the power of the Persians, on the plea of 
 making terms with them, were treacherously slain. The 
 army appointed other commanders, chief among whom 
 was Xenophon, afterward the celebrated historian, and 
 
THE LOSS OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE. 79 
 
 they made good their return to Greece. It was finely 
 described by Xenophon and known as the " Retreat of the 
 Ten Thousand." 
 
 400 — Socrates taught doctrines too pure and high-toned for his 
 countrymen to understand and was condemned to drink 
 poison, as a dangerous man and despiser of the gods, in 
 the 70th year of his age. The Athenians soon repented it, 
 
 396 — The capital of Veii, taken by the Romans, ended the con- 
 test with the Etruscans. 
 
 ,389 — Rome was conquered and, except the capitol, destroyed by 
 the Gauls under Brennus. The barbarians soon retired and 
 the city was rebuilt. 
 
 384 — Aristotle, the most scientific of the Grecian philosophers, 
 was born at Stagira, in Macedon. He laid the foundation 
 of scientific study, and was the tutor of Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 371 — Epaminondas defeated the Spartans at Leuctra, and 
 
 362 — again at Mantinea, where he was killed. 
 
 360 — Philip became king of Macedon, and soon began to under- 
 mine the liberties of Greece in a very artful way. 
 
 357 — The "Sacred War" against the Phocians, who had plun- 
 dered the temple of Apollo, at Delphi, commenced. 
 
 356 — Birth of Alexander the Great. Rutilius became the first 
 plebeian dictator at Rome. 
 
 349 — Death of Plato, the brightest light of Grecian philosophy. 
 He systematized and enlarged the doctrines of Socrates. 
 
 338 — Occurred the battle of Cheeronea between Philip and the 
 allied Athenians and Thebans. The Greeks were totally 
 defeated and their liberty lost. Demosthenes, the most 
 celebrated orator of the Greeks, spent his whole life and 
 his magnificent eloquence in the effort to rouse the Greeks 
 against Philip and his son Alexander; but Philip was too 
 crafty and the Greeks too little accustomed to act in con- 
 cert. For nearly a hundred years the states of Greece 
 had been exhausted by wars among themselves, and they 
 were too weary of fighting to make the necessary effort 
 against so powerful and skillful an adversary. 
 
 336 — Philip was assassinated on the eve of an expedition against 
 Persia, as chief of the Grecian states. This popular idea 
 consoled them for the loss of liberty. Alexander succeed- 
 ed his father. 
 
80 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 335 ^Thebes rebelled against Alexander and he took and de- 
 stroyed that ancient city. 
 334 — Alexander carried out the project of his father and invad- 
 ed the Persian empire. The battle of the Gyanicus, his 
 first great victory, took place this year. 
 333 — Darius, the Persian king, was again thoroughly defeated in 
 the battle of Issus. Damascus, in Syria was taken and 
 Tyre besieged by Alexander. 
 332 — Tyre was taken and finally destroyed, and Alexandria at 
 
 the mouth of the Nile, founded. 
 331 — A final battle at Arbela, in Assyria, overthrew the Persian 
 Empire. Darius escaped, but was murdered by Bessus, 
 one of his officers. Four years were spent by the Greeks. 
 in subduing the wild tribes on the eastern border of the 
 Empire and settling the government of these vast con- 
 quests. 
 327 — Alexander invaded India and was constantly triumphant 
 till his soldiers refused to go farther from home. They 
 had grown tired of conquering, and Alexander reluctantly 
 returned to Babylon to consolidate his government. 
 323 — Alexander died of a fever, the result of excessive drinking. 
 
 He left no heir, and his generals divided his empire. 
 322 — The Samnites obtained a temporary success by surprising 
 a Roman army in a narrow defile of the mountains, called 
 the Caudine Forks, and subjected it to a humiliating 
 capitulation. The Romans never bowed before misfortune 
 or defeat. They prosecuted the war with invincible reso- 
 lution until the Samnite power was wholly broken, a con- 
 test, in all, of about 50 years, which was soon followed by 
 the complete subjugation of the whole peninsula. 
 3. In this year died the two greatest Grecians of the time, 
 Demosthenes, the orator, by suicide; and Aristotle, by old age. 
 On the death of Alexander Demosthenes aroused the Athenians 
 to make a stand for their liberties. Few of the Grecian states 
 joined them and they were totally defeated by A^tipater, the 
 governor previously appointed by Alexander. Demosthenes 
 avoided punishment by taking poison. The Achaian League, 
 about forty years after, maintained the liberties of Greece f or 
 fifty years or more, which then fell before the invincible Romans. 
 For many years all the eastern world was in confusion from 
 the struggles of competitors for the Empire of Alexander.. 
 
THE GREEK SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 81 
 
 Ptolemy established himself soon and firmly in Egypt, and 
 
 Seleucus. after various 
 
 312 — reverses obtained full possession of the eastern parts of 
 the empire — Babylonia, Assyria and Persia. This year 
 dates the beginning of the Era of the Seleucidse. Asia 
 Minor and Greece were a scene of the greatest confusion 
 for seventy years, so far as rulers were concerned. But 
 nearly all these were Greeks, and Greek culture and 
 philosophy exerted a wide spread influence. In the end it 
 became fully evident that the want of genius in the Greek 
 mind to organize, and steadiness in Greek character to 
 sustain, settled institutions was absolute. They had, at 
 different times, men of the greatest ability, but when they 
 passed away their plans and institutions perished with 
 them. The acute and accomplished Greeks were ever 
 children in the science of government, and the advent of 
 Rome alone, whose special skill was in government, saved 
 the world from irretrievable anarchy or fatal despotism. 
 
 300 — The Roman plebeians completed their struggle foi- con- 
 stitutional liberty by acquiring a share in the priestly 
 office, which was essential to the full value of their other 
 victories over the patricians, and the Roman constitution 
 was complete. It was maintained very fairly for more 
 than one hundred and fifty years, when the spoils of their 
 conquests corrupted the virtue of the citizens and produced 
 the internal disorder that, about a century later still, 
 brought about the establishment of the Roman Empire. 
 Yet the forms of government, municipal and other regula- 
 tions, and the administration of justice, though often in- 
 terfered with in particular cases, were so well settled on 
 sound principles, and secured so uniformly the welfare of 
 society, that they were preserved longest from general 
 ruin, and revived first in more modern times. Greek 
 . thought and culture and Roman law remained inde- 
 structible. 
 
 290 — The Samnites, Sabines and Gauls being all defeated, 
 Rome was virtually mistress of Italy although the Gre- 
 cian cities on the eastern coast remained to be subdued. 
 They had little strength in themselves against a power so 
 warlike, and invited Pyrrhus. the king of 
 
 281 — Epirus, to their assistance. He twice defeated the Roman 
 
82 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 consuls, but they inflicted on him so much loss that thej 
 vainly offered him battle immediately after, and rejected 
 all his overtures to treat for peace. He was at length van- 
 quished and obliged to .abandon Italy to the Republic. 
 4. The Romans soon subdued all opposition and began to 
 look about for other lands to conquer. 
 
 264 — The Carthaginians, on- the opposite coast of Africa, had 
 become a colossal power, and sought to establish their con- 
 trol over Sicily — not an easy task, since it had many colo- 
 nies of Greeks whose national spirit and bravery did not 
 desert them. In this year a call for assistance from a 
 plundering band who had captured a Greek city, a part of 
 whom had also invited Carthaginian aid, brought Rome 
 and Carthage in conflict. The Carthaginians were en- 
 raged at this interference with an island which they had 
 long intended to make their own, and raised an imimense 
 army to drive out the intruders. The Romans defeated 
 the army and took Agrigentum, one of the best strong- 
 holds of the Carthaginians on the island. 
 
 260 — The Carthaginians were masters of the sea, and the Ro- 
 mans had little knowledge of naval affairs. Taking a 
 Carthaginian vessel which had been driven ashore for a 
 model, they, in a short time, created a fleet and worsted 
 their enemies on their own special element. 
 
 256 The Romans again defeated the Carthaginians in a sea 
 fight near the island of Lipara. 
 
 255 — Tlie Romans determined to carry the war into Africa and, 
 fitting out a large fleet, inflicted a still heavier loss on the 
 Carthaginian armaments, landed in Africa and defeated 
 an immense army. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but 
 the terms proposed by Regulus, the Roman general, were 
 so severe that they resolved to continue the war. A 
 Grecian general, Xanthippus, took command of their army 
 and totally defeated the Romans, taking Ej^uIus prisoner, 
 
 248 — and destroying or capturing all his army but 2000. The 
 Romans lost three fleets by storms, but conquered once in 
 a sea fight, and defeated an army in Sicily. The Cartha- 
 ginians again sought peace, but the Romans would not 
 abate their first terms, and continued the war until the 
 
 240 — Carthaginians, completely humbled, accepted the severe 
 alternative of submission or destruction. The temple of 
 
THE ROMANS AND THE CARTHAGINIANS. 83 
 
 Janus, the god of war, never shut but in time of absolute 
 peace, was now closed for the second time since the build- 
 ing of the city. 
 
 This people, whose special interest and occupation was 
 war, soon grew tired of peace and carried on various con- 
 flicts with the Gauls settled at the foot of the Alps in the 
 
 227 — north of Italy. They invaded Illyria, on the east coast of 
 the Adriatic sea, whose people were very troublesome 
 pirates. This war was again renewed with a more com- 
 plete defeat of the Illyrians. They had before this subdued 
 Sardinia and Corsica. 
 
 219 — The Carthaginians pursued their conquests in Spain, and 
 the celebrated Hannibal took Saguntum, which brought on 
 
 218 — the second Punic war, as the war with Carthage was 
 termed. 
 
 117 — Hannibal, with great celerity, crossed the Pyrenees and 
 the Alps — having first completed the conquest of Spain 
 — and defeated the Romans in the battle of Ticinus, and 
 again at Trebia. 
 
 217 — The Achaian confederacy, now in the hight of its glory in 
 maintaining the liberties of Greece, united all the Greeks 
 in a confederacy under the influence of Philip, king of 
 Macedon, with the hope of arresting the power and 
 ambition of Rome. 
 
 216 — Hannibal inflicted a terrible defeat on the Romans near 
 the Thrasymenean Lake. The Romans were greatly 
 alarmed and made Fabius Maximus dictator, whose habit 
 of refusing a pitched battle, wearing out his adversary by 
 skirmishes and cutting off his supplies, is called " The 
 Fabian Policy." This plan is, by maneuvering and delay, 
 to wear out and destroy an invader in detail without peril 
 of defeat in battle. The Romans kept armies in Spain to 
 prevent the Carthaginians from sending reinforcements to 
 Hannibal. 
 
 215 — At the close of this year Fabius resigned his dictatorship 
 and the consuls appointed to succeed him abandoned his 
 policy. They offered battle to Hannibal at Cannae and the 
 army was annihilated. 40,000 Romans were slain on the 
 field. These defeats had destroyed the flower of their 
 fighting population, but Roman courage and resolution 
 always rose with defeat. They did not despair, but raised 
 
84 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 a fresh army and put Fabiiis again at its head, against 
 whom the talents of Hannibal were vain. They fomented 
 disturbances in Greece to keep Philip, King of Macedon, 
 at home, and besieged Syracuse in Sicily, which had joined 
 the Carthaginians, for three years, and then took it by 
 212 — stratagem. Archimedes, a celebrated mathematician of 
 Syracuse, M^ho had protracted the siege by his ingenious and 
 powerful engines was killed in the sack of the city. Soon 
 210 — after the whole island was subdued and remained a 
 
 Roman province. 
 206 — Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, general of the Car- 
 thaginian forces in Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and the 
 Alps to reinforce Hannibal, but was defeated by the Romans 
 and slain before Hannibal knew of his march. 
 202 — Scipio, who had conquered in Spain, led an army into 
 Africa, Hannibal being considered too formidable to at- 
 tack, though his forces were very small. Scipio put -±0,000 
 Numidians, allies of Carthage, to the sword, besieged the 
 neighboring cities and defeated a large Carthaginian 
 army. Hannibal was now called home to defend the 
 metropolis. He fought a battle with raw troops, at Zama, 
 201 — and was defeated — 20,000 Carthaginians being slain. The 
 Carthaginians begged for peace, Hannibal declaring that 
 the war could not be protracted. The Roman terms left 
 them little but their city. Such was the fruit of inflexible 
 resolution. 
 5. The Romans are an example of a people, who, from first to 
 last, had one clearly defined end to which everything else was 
 subservient. They formed their state for conquest, and that idea 
 controlled the Kingdom, the Republic and the Empire. They 
 were much wiser than the Spartans, for. devoting themselves to 
 war, they meant to secure and enjoj^ all the fruits of conquest, 
 and they did all that was possible to promote the prosperity of 
 their people that they might produce Avarriors in abundance; but 
 they relied mainly on actual war for discipline. They were con- 
 stantly exercised in the art in the field and the orderly and 
 sensible instinct of the race m^ade discipline a matter of course. 
 The}^ were sometimes defeated when they encountered unfamiliar 
 difficulties, or by the mistakes of their leaders, but never aban- 
 doned a jDurpose once adopted and never sued for peace. 
 
 Morally, the object they set before them was entirely unjus- 
 
THE ROMANS CONQUER GREECE. 85 
 
 tifiable, according to the standard of national rights accepted in 
 our day. But such a conception never entered the minds of men 
 in the ancient times. It is the fruit of modern civilization alone. 
 The Romans, and many a nation after them, must work out the 
 destructive consequences of the doctrine that "Might makes 
 Right " before the universal sense of mankind would recoil from 
 it. It was the accepted doctrine of the ancients and has not yet 
 disappeared from the world. 
 
 197 — Sicily, Spain and Carthage were conquered, and Roman 
 valor looked around for opportunities of winning fresh 
 laurels. Philip of Macedon, an ambitious prince, threat- 
 ened the Athenians, who implored help from Rome. An 
 army immediately proceeded to Greece, penetrated into 
 Macedonia, and completely defeated Philip at Cynoce- 
 phalse. 
 6. The Romans were now the mightiest people in the civ- 
 ilized world. Their obstinate contests with the vigorous nations 
 of the West had often periled the existence of their state, and a 
 people of ordinary stamina and persistance would not, at the 
 best, have risen above the rank of the Etruscans and Samnites, 
 nor have made Rome greater than Syracuse or Carthage. They, 
 however, matured and grew into an invincible power, whose 
 solid and stately grandeur struck the intelligent but unpractical 
 Greeks with admiration and all the old peoples of the East 
 . with awe. 
 
 The Romans were not without admiration for the ancient valor 
 and the graceful culture of the Greeks. When, two hundred 
 and fifty years before, the Romans revised their laws, under the 
 Decemvirate, they sent to Athens to obtain models from that re- 
 public. Athens was now treated by them with much considera- 
 tion and finally became the University City of the Empire. 
 ' When Roman influence became paramount after the battle of 
 Cynocephalse they did not at once proceed with brutal force 
 against the land of Beauty and Art, but took it under their pro- 
 tection and proclaimed the full liberty of the Grecian States. It 
 filled the Greeks with transport, and for some time Rome played 
 the noble and dignified part of a disinterested protector; but 
 when the Achaians, under their excellent and talerted leader, 
 Philopoemen, sought to realize the fact of liberty the Romans 
 abandoned that pretence and made Greece a Roman province. 
 Thus the whole of Europe that was sufficiently civilized to main- 
 
S6 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 tain a settled government was ruled by the Roman Republic. 
 The period of rude and restless valor among the Greeks was 
 past. The stage of cultivation they had reached inclined them 
 to the quiet and elegant refinements of the scholar, and they 
 readily received the Roman rule which suppressed the turbu- 
 lance of ambitious adventurers and suffered no oppression but 
 their own. The Romans represented the strength of the male 
 element in human nature, the Greeks the grace of the female. 
 They now coalesced, were married, so to speak, and the product 
 of their union was, in the course of ages, modern civilization, 
 which, when mature, was to share the eminent qualities of both, 
 7. The broken fragments of Alexander's immense empire in 
 Western Asia and Egypt were all that now stood between Rome 
 and the mastery of the world. The Roman people were too well 
 convinced that it was their grand destiny to achieve universal 
 dominion to hasten prematurely the conquest of the primitive 
 home of civilization. They watchfully waited until the course 
 of events should throw the dominions of the Seleucidse and the 
 Ptolemy s into their hands, without offending the majesty of the 
 republic by an undignified violence and haste. 
 190 — Antiochus the Great, who now reigned over the empire of 
 the Seleucidse, with true Grecian imprudence, became am- 
 bitious of conquests in Europe. He invaded Greece, was 
 defeated at Thermopylae by the Romans and driven back 
 into Asia. The younger Scipio, brother of the conqueror 
 of Hannibal, followed and totally defeated him at Mag- 
 189 — nesia, in Asia Minor. He purchased peace by the loss of 
 all the fruits of his ambition, but was left in possession of 
 the Syrian kingdom. The failure to destroy so powerful 
 an enemy appears to have brought on the two Scipios the 
 rebuke of the republic, the conqueror of Carthage having 
 aided his brother in the war. They were condemned to a 
 heavy fine, which Scipio Africanus refused to pay and 
 183 — went into exile, where he died. His death occurred in the 
 same year that Hannibal, pursued by the vengeance of the 
 Romans for having aided Antiochus, committed suicide by 
 taking poison to avoid falling into their hands ; and in 
 this year also Philopoemen, the last patriotic hero of 
 Greece, was slain by his enemies. Perses, king of Macedon, 
 revolted and, after some successes, was finally overthrown 
 under the walls of Pydna and dethroned. 
 
FINAL DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 87 
 
 1G8 — The Carthaginians could not altogether forget their anci- 
 ent greatness, and having displeased the Romans by some 
 
 148 — independence of action, it was resolved to destroy their 
 cit}^ With the courage of despair they set the Romans at 
 defiance, and defended themselves with a resolute bravery 
 that engaged the lively sympathies of all after times for 
 their painful fate. For two years they maintained the com- 
 bat against their pitiless foes, who could pardon everything 
 
 14G — but rivalry in their sweeping ambition, and then perished 
 in the ruins of their once glorious metropolis. A revolt of 
 the Achaians was punished, in the same year, by the 
 destruction of the splendid city of Corinth, in Greece. 
 
 140 — The embers of independence in Spain broke forth in war, 
 which was checked by the assassination of Viriathes, a 
 patriotic chieftain of great ability, and quenched in blood 
 
 133 — by the self-destruction of the citizens of Numantium. 
 About the same time the republic acquired ithe kingdom of 
 Pej-gamus, covering the richest parts of Asia Minor, by 
 the will of Attains, its king, who, on his death, bequeathed 
 it to Rome. This led. in a few years, to contests with the 
 neighboring Asiatic sovereigns, and resulted, in about half 
 a century, in the conquest and reduction into the state of 
 
 Roman provinces of all Western Asia. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 1. But while Rome was thus steadily advancing to universal 
 dominion, great and unfortunate changes were taking place in 
 its internal constitution. The spoils of Carthage and the East, 
 rich in accumulations of the industry, commerce and art of two 
 thousand years, flowed into Rome and was gathered into the 
 hands of those in power; the equilibrium between the plebeians 
 and the patricians was lost; the selling of captives taken in war 
 filled Italy with slaves; and the inequality of conditions pro- 
 duced the most disastrous consequences. 
 
 133 — The oldest son of a noble house, the Gracchi, undertook to 
 stem the torrent that was sweeping away the ancient bar- 
 riers of the constitution, and to raise the people from the 
 misery into which the increase of patrician wealth and 
 
3 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 power and the innuinerable multitudes of slaves had 
 plunged them. In the year in which Numantia fell and 
 Spain was thoroughly subdued. Tiberius Gracchus was 
 slain in a tumult, produced by the patricians, who determ- 
 ined that his project should not succeed. He had attempt- 
 ed to revive the old agrarian law, by which the landed 
 possessions of the republic were shared among the people 
 as well as the patricians, which would have rescued the 
 plebeians from poverty and oppression: but the patricians 
 were too powerful and too violent. He was removed by 
 assassination. 
 
 2. 121 — Twelve years later his brother, Caius Gracchus, at- 
 tempted the same thing and was likewise slain. This 
 
 Y point was vital to the internal liberties of Rome. The 
 failure of the Gracchi announced the overthrow of the 
 constitution; and, after seventy years of civil anarchy and 
 the murderous conflict of rival factions, the empire was 
 found the only refuge against the ruin of the state. Vig- 
 orous Rome, who could govern all the world but herself, 
 must have a master, and became the prey of the strongest. 
 It is a melancholy history, a sad conclusion for a people 
 whose strength and grandeur of character had made them 
 masters of the world, but a perfectly legitimate result of 
 the immoral principle that lay at the foundation of the 
 state. That principle legalized the doctrine of force, or 
 robbery on the grandest scale. They carried it out with 
 great consistency and skill, with all the ability of a race 
 eminently sagacious and steady in the pursuit of an end. 
 The conservative force that dwelt in their organization, 
 so instinctively and exceptionally wise, and the power of 
 religious faith, strong in a hardy and simple people, how- 
 ever weakened by pagan ignorance and superstition, long 
 maintained the integrity of their institutions; but Greek 
 culture, too imperfect not to culminate in skepticism, came 
 in to confuse their moral sense at the same time that 
 boundless wealth flowed into their hands to corrupt their 
 manners, that slavery assumed gigantic proportions to 
 demoralize labor, and the conquest of the world re- 
 lieved them from the severe discipline that might not, 
 otherwise, have left them the leisure to become deeply 
 vicious. 
 
THE GREATNESS AND THE WEAKNESS OF ROME. 89 
 
 The sternness of even Roman character was unequal 
 to the heavy strain and virtue gave way. The native vigor 
 of the race made them as excessive in unrestrained passion 
 as wise in council and invincible in war. The cruelty and 
 rapacity that were common in the civil wars of the Repub- 
 lic, and under many of the early emperors, educated giants 
 in crime, and only the Roman spirit in the army, and the 
 vigorous organization everywhere maintained through the 
 institutions established in the subject world by Roman 
 law, could have held its vast dominions together. Rome 
 had vitality and sense to govern others, even in the midst 
 of civil war. 
 100 — From the death, of the Gracchi to the consulship 
 
 107 — of Marius, Rome was in a tumult of corrupt intrigue, 
 which rendered easy the usurpation and inhuman cruelty 
 of Jugurtha, king of Numidia. Marius, a plebeian of the 
 lowest rank, became consul. He was unequalled at once 
 as a general and a tyrant. He conquered Jugurtha, who 
 
 106 — was brought to Rome and starved in prison. In the same 
 year Cicero, the great Roman orator, was born, 
 A vast horde of Cimbri and Teutons from northern 
 
 105 — Europe invaded Gaul and defeated several Roman consuls. 
 
 100 — Marius led an army against these barbarians and defeated 
 them, more than 100,000 being slain or made prisoners. 
 He was equally successful in a second engagement. During 
 the war 200,000 barbarians were slain and 90,000 taken 
 prisoners. A revolt of the slaves was put down about the 
 same time with circumstances of extreme cruelty. More 
 than a million of these unfortunates were slain or thrown 
 to wild beasts for the amusement of the Roman populace. 
 
 4. 100 — In this year Julius Caesar, one of the greatest men of 
 any time, and virtual founder of the Roman Empire, was 
 born. His supreme ability put an end to civil dissention 
 and saved society from total ruin 
 90 — The Italian allies revolted against Rome. They claimed 
 the privileges of Roman citizenship, which the Senate re- 
 fused. A war of three years followed and half a million 
 of men perished, when, having conquered them, the Senate 
 prudently granted their first request. 
 88 — Mithridates, king of Pontus, talented and ambitious, sought 
 to drive the Romans out of Asia and Greece, and warred 
 
90 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 with them for twenty-five years, Sylla procured the ban- 
 ishment of his rival, Marius, and conducted the war 
 against Mithridates. 
 
 86 — Marius regained power in the absence of Sylla and slaugh- 
 tered his enemies, the patricians, without mercy, but soon 
 after died. 
 
 83 — Sylla, after obliging Mithridates to sue for peace, hastened 
 to Rome, conquered his enemies, and slew more than 6,000 
 Roman citizens in revenge. 
 
 81 — Sylla caused himself to be made perpetual dictator, 
 
 77 — but after three years resigned and soon after died from the 
 effects of his vices. Civil war was continued for a time in 
 Spain and Italy, but finally put down by Pompey, the 
 greatest general of the patrician party. 
 
 The war of the gladiators — men trained to fight in the 
 theatres for the amusement of the populace — broke out 
 under an able leader, Spartacus, who, collecting an army 
 of 120,000 gladiators, endangered Rome itself; but he was ,• 
 
 70 — conquered by Crassus. Spartacus was defeated and killed. ^ 
 It was the inhuman oppression of the patricians that pro-J 
 f. duced all these dreadful conflicts. 
 
 65 — Pompey and Crassus, by paying court to the people, were 
 made consuls. Pompey proceeded to Asia and made war 
 on Mithridates, who was again formidable, whom he de- 
 
 63 — feated and slew in battle. He subdued nearly all western 
 Asia, visiting Jerusalem, and treating the Jews with kind- 
 ness. He also cleared the Mediterranean of pirates, who 
 had alwaj^s infested it. 
 
 62 — A dangerous conspiracy of Cataline, a patrician of the 
 most corrupt morals, at the head of the depraved young 
 nobility of the time, would have been successful but for 
 the ability and eloquence of Cicero, who was consul. 
 Cataline and his fellow conspirators were taken and slain. 
 
 59 — Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first "Trium- 
 virate," and divided the rule of the world between them. 
 Caesar was the head of the popular party. He 
 
 57 — took Gaul as his government. Here he spent eight years 
 in his "Gallic wars," showing unparalleled talents as a 
 general, training his army to become invincible in battle, 
 and completely subduing the fierce Gauls. He 
 
 55 — entered Britain and laid the foundation of civilization 
 
C^SAR ESTABLISHES THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 91 
 
 there, thus carrying the march of empire to its farthest 
 bounds in Europe. 
 5. 49 — He was ordered to return and lay down his authority by 
 the Roman Senate, headed by Pompey, who was now his 
 enemy. They were the rival champions of the two parties 
 in the state, the people and the patricians, whose quarrels 
 had so long filled Rome with tumult and slaughter. The 
 tribunes in Caesar's interest interposed a veto, which the 
 Roman Constitution authorized them to do. The Senate 
 voted to suspend the Constitution, which really terminated 
 the Roman Republic, Jan. 7, B. C. 49. Csesar at once 
 crossed the river Rubicon, the boundary of his govern- 
 ment, and marched his army on Rome. Pompey and the 
 aristocratic party fled in haste, leaving the public treasure 
 behind. In sixty days Caesar had possession of all Italy. 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain were next conquered from the 
 officers of Pompey, when he retuned to Rome and was 
 created dictator by his party. He treated all his enemies 
 with clemency. Pompey had gone into Greece, 
 
 48 — where he gathered a large army. Caesar followed with 
 his veteran legions and defeated him in the battle of 
 Pharsalia in Thessaly. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he 
 was treacherously slain, to the great indignation of Caesar, 
 who would shed no blood but in necessary battle. Thus 
 he became sole master of the world. 
 
 In a conflict with the Egyptians in Alexandria Caesar set 
 on fire their fleet, he being attended by but few troops, and 
 the conflagration extended to the Alexandrian Library, 
 filled with inestimable treasures of ancient literature, 
 which were destroyed, to the great loss of future genera- 
 tions. Caesar soon subdued Egypt, defeated Pharnaces, 
 
 47 — son of Mithridates, and returned to Rome. 
 
 46 — He soon passed into Africa, where he defeated his enemies. 
 The celebrated Cato, an inflexible enemy of Caesar, com- 
 mitted suicide rather than submit to him. In Spain he 
 soon after defeated the sons of Pompey, the last of his 
 
 45 — foes in arms. He rebuilt Carthage and Corinth. He pro- 
 jected many great public works and useful reforms. The 
 
 44 — whole power of Roman sovereignty was formally confer- 
 red on him by the people, when he was suddenly assassin- 
 ated by a band of senators and certain conspirators, who 
 
92 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 imagined it possible to restore the ancient Republic. His 
 nephew, Augustus, succeeded him soon after. 
 
 43 — The eminent Cicero, never a friend to Caesar, was assas- 
 sinated by the connivance of Augustus. 
 
 42 — The republican and aristocratic conspirators were defeated 
 by Augustus and Antony at Philippi, in Greece. Brutus 
 and Cassius, the republican leaders and assassins of Cae- 
 sar, were slain. The second " Triumvirate," composed of 
 Augustus, Antony and Lepidus, having acquired possession 
 of all the powers of the state, ruthlessly murdered thous- 
 ands of their political enemies. They soon grew jealous 
 of each other and fought and intrigued for eleven years, 
 Augustus, with great prudence, firmly settling himself in 
 Rome, and Antony becoming the slave of the beautiful 
 and infamous Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. 
 
 31 — At length, at the battle of Actium, Antony was defeated, 
 and soon after both Antony and Cleopatra committed 
 suicide. Egypt became formally a Roman province, and 
 Augustus absolute emperor of the world. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 1. B. C. 28 — In this year Augustus, having fully consolidated 
 Ms power, was formally recognized emperor. During all the 
 contests of factions, and when Rome was itself in the throes of 
 revolution, the subjection of all the provinces to the imperial 
 city, and whoever was in power there, was rigorously maintain- 
 ed. The inhabitants were protected from invasion, and if they 
 were often oppressed by Roman governors, it was far less than 
 under their native rulers, and, in general, they were not desirous 
 of a change. Roman law and order, and the power of appeal 
 from great injustice to the Roman senate or emperor, maintained 
 a state of generally tranquil prosperity, only disturbed by the 
 contests of rivals for the control of the imperial city and its 
 power. 
 
 A long period of almost absolute quiet followed the establish- 
 ment of the empire, which gave Rome and Italy great satisfac- 
 tion, after nearly a hundred years of civil war. It is called the 
 
THE EMPIRE A RELIEF FROM CIVIL WAR. 93 
 
 "Augustan Age," when industry and commerce, literature and 
 the arts, reached their highest development. 
 
 The Roman Empire and the Christian era commenced nearly 
 together. During the thirty years that followed the battle of 
 Actium, which secured to Augustus the sole control of the 
 civilized world by the defeat of his last rival, Antony, he was 
 occupied in organizing the vast machinery of his government, 
 and centralizing all the parts of the administration in his own 
 person. For nearly three hundred years Western Asia and 
 Greece had been a scene of violent commotion. Rival adven- 
 turers were constantly seeking to reconstruct the empire of 
 Alexander. Some of these had the genius and the good fortune 
 to succeed, in part at least, and swayed a powerful scepter over 
 a large region during their own lives, and, in some instances, 
 their dominions were held together for several generations. 
 But there was no sufficient base for a strong and permanent 
 government. There was no stable element on which to rest it. 
 The Greeks were brave, intelligent and enterprising, and no 
 Asiatic people could withstand a Greek army under Greek 
 leaders; but the Greeks were too restless, too easily carried away 
 by enthusiasm for a new leader or a new idea to be capable of 
 upholding an empire. 
 
 2. Thus, Asia and Greece had been a vast battle field, and the 
 battles served no immediate general interest and founded no 
 permanent state. The Greeks grew tired of supporting the 
 claims of each new aspirant, who returned their favor by depriv- 
 ing them of liberty, and the whole eastern world readily sub- 
 mitted to the Romans, under whom there was, at least, a prospect 
 of civil order. Augustus, then, had little trouble in settling the 
 affairs of the whole empire, and, about thirty years after the 
 battle of Actium, finding the entire world quietly content and 
 the administration everywhere in fair working order, directed 
 the gates of the temple of Janus to be closed, and a census to be 
 made of all his subjects. At this time, as nearly as can be ascer- 
 tained, Jesus Christ was born and the Christian era commenced. 
 
 The Roman Empire under Augustus was the culmination of 
 the ancient and pagan civilization. It had great vitality, and 
 strength enough to rule the world four hundred years longer; 
 but it had also fatal weaknesses. We have seen that the exist- 
 ence of the empire originated in the inability of the old society 
 to free itself from the vices which long and great prosperity had 
 
94 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 developed. It had no purif ring element strong enough to drive 
 out the disease which its moral weakness had allowed to fasten 
 on it. It was,, in fact, based on wrong and could not but perish. 
 Its fall was only a question of time. Its ferocious valor and 
 contempt of the rights of nations broke down the very virtue 
 that was essential to the stability of society The Romans were 
 robbers on a grand scale, and it was very natural that, when 
 there were no more foreign nations to slay and plunder, the citi- 
 zens should fall to cutting each others throats and robbing their 
 friends. As this would lead to the immediate ruin of society 
 and the state, the empire, which gave them an absolute master, 
 was a necessity. 
 
 3. But a full comprehension of the moral laws on which so- 
 ciety, institutions and states are founded, was the last to be 
 gained. Most modern nations have not yet attained it, notwith- 
 standing that Christianity has so long stated the principles with 
 clearness and force. VVa/ o-./ V > •• ' ' ■> 
 
 The common mind of humanity could raaster them only by 
 growth through thousands of years and innumerable experi- 
 ences. The object of all earthly experience is to develope the 
 value of the individual man; and the object of society, of insti- 
 tutions and of government, is to protect the rights and to favor 
 the development of each man of the race. When this end is 
 fully secured history will have solved its problem. As the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era was the turning point of history 
 in some most important respects, it is proper to glance back and 
 forward over the state of this problem, and the relation of 
 Christianity to it, before proceeding with the general course of 
 events. 
 
 At first men were like children, with everything to learn; and, 
 like children, they learned one thing at a time; and they also 
 made an addition to their common stock of knowledge at every 
 remove of the centre of growth. In Asia and Egypt the gener- 
 al lesson was industry and obedience, while the Jews, on the 
 western shore, more or less assisted by the Assyrians, the 
 Egyptians and the Greeks, labored at the development of a pure 
 religion which culminated in Christianity. The removal of the 
 centre to Greece added mental and artistic culture, and the 
 further westward journey to Rome gave them a new class of 
 most important ideas concerning public organization, law and 
 order. 
 
THE FAILURE OP THE ANCIENT CULTURE. 95 
 
 4, If each of these lessons had been perfect in themselves the 
 addition made by Christianity, which defined the relations be- 
 tween men, the law of human rights and the doctrines essential 
 to the stability and purity of society, would have enabled man- 
 kind to build up satisfactory institutions and a complete civiliza- 
 tion from the Roman period. But the elementary lessons were 
 very incomplete. The Asiatics became very superstitious; the 
 Greeks could teach men the art of thinking, or exercising their 
 minds, but they could not find the true starting point; they did 
 not discover what subjects it was useful, and what it was use- 
 less, to reason upon; and wasted a good part of the thought of 
 their times on profitless questions. Their failure to obtain a 
 clear and valuable result from philosophy made men skeptical 
 and contributed much to the decline of civilization in the time 
 of the Roman empire. The Romans built their whole structureN 
 of law and order on force and a wholesale violation of the rights 
 of mankind, and the minds of men became greatly confused. 
 The doctrine of the Epicurean philosophers — "'Let us eat and^ 
 drink for to-morrow we die " — a despair of working out the 
 problem of life to a satisfactory answer, became the most popular 
 in the empire. The splendor and glory of Oriental, Grecian and 
 Roman civilization seemed to end in degrading servility and 
 superstition, in the endless and absurd speculations of so-called 
 philosophers, and in the vast brutal tyranny of the emperors. 
 The east failed of a pure religion that was generally accepted. 
 Greek philosophy did not have science to guide her thought, and 
 Rome could not be just as well as strong. 
 
 5. It was only in modern times that these lessons were made 
 complete. The discoveries in Geography, in Astronomy, in 
 Natural Philosophy, in Chemistry, in Geology, made men ac- 
 quainted with the structure of the universe, the properties and 
 the laws of matter, and corrected the extravagances of the 
 ancient speculative philosophy. For want of science, Greek 
 thought wandered about in an unreal world and lost a good part 
 of its labor. A long experience under the control of this cor- 
 rected thought was required to construct a science of govern- 
 ment that should supply what was wanting to Roman juris- 
 prudence, and Christianity itself could not be rightly understood 
 while so many false theories and wrong practices prevailed. 
 
 But the ancient times were as essential to the building up 
 of the modern as the modern to the completion of the ancient. 
 
96 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, 
 
 It was the renewed study of the Greek classics, of Roman law, 
 and of the originial teachings of Christianity, under more favora- 
 ble circumstances, and after many new experiences for a thous- 
 and years, that gave birth to all our later improvements in re- 
 ligion, in government and in science. The Asiatic Jews gave us 
 in Christianity, a pure and simple worship, and a system of 
 public morality so perfect that no society has yet been able to 
 embody it completely in practice, although it is now recognized, 
 very generally, as the highest conceivable standard, to be con- 
 stantly aimed at and conformed to as far as possible; the Greek 
 Philosopher. Aristotle, gave us the first notions of science, and 
 Roman law formed the base of modern legal practice. 
 
 6. The difficulties of progress are very great. It is not easier 
 for nations to unlearn what they have learned amiss in their 
 youth, than for individuals. No nation that has matured insti- 
 tutions has ever yet thoroughly reformed them. The best and 
 most clear sighted minds discover their defects and show what 
 is to be remedied: but the force of habit and the veneration men 
 feel for what is old. offer so much resistance to complete reforms 
 that it has been necessary to establish and build up institutions 
 on new principles on fresh ground. So all the light and power 
 of science, of a more enlightened religion, of a more complete 
 system of law, the greater intelligence of the masses of men 
 and the activity of commerce and trade did not suffice to do for 
 modern Europe what has been done with ease in America. But 
 Europe furnished the ideas which America worked out: and the 
 sight of those principles embodied in institutions that greatly 
 improved the condition of mankind has reacted on Europe, and 
 bids fair, in time, to produce a novelty in human experience — n. 
 complete regeneration of old nations and governments. When 
 Greece rose to power it only superficially transformed the na- 
 tions of Asia; Rome absorbed them both, and Christianity gave 
 its simple and noble lessons to them all. But the slight influence 
 of Greece, Rome and Christianity on the old nations of Western 
 Asia is shown in the rise and permanence of Mohammedanism, 
 so inferior, in all respects, to Christianity. After a career of 
 more than twelve hundred j^ears, it still rules many more millions 
 thaii were contained in all the Roman Empire in its most pros- 
 perous days. 
 
 7. But the power of a progressive civilization constantly in- 
 creases, and will, by and by, be equal to the thorough reform of 
 
THE ORIGIN AND INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY. 97 
 
 even crystalized China. Without America, Europe would be 
 litill struggUng with the incipient stages of reform. With it, she 
 has gone far toward correcting the imperfections which existed 
 one hundred years ago, and will presently complete the process. 
 With these general observations, we proceed to examii 3 the in- 
 fluence of Christianity on the old civilization. 
 
 SECTION X . 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITr. 
 
 1. It was developed on the western borders of Asia, and was 
 the completion or perfect development of the system of religion 
 existing among the Jews from a very early period. Soon after 
 Abraham, the father and grand patriarch of the Jews, had given 
 his descendents the outlines of the system, they were led, by 
 circumstances, to Egypt, and remained there for many genera- 
 tions. When they left Egypt, it was under the leadership of one 
 of the greatest of the world's great men, who had been heir- 
 apparent of the Egyptian throne, and was consequently versed 
 in all the mysterious wisdom of the priesthood of that country. 
 That he became wiser than they is evident from the history of 
 his contest with them before the king when endeavoring to gain 
 his consent to the migration of his people from the country. 
 Instructed in all the celebrated " wisdom of the Egyptians," 
 together with the reflections and additions of forty solitary 
 years as a shepherd in Arabia, he produced a remarkable system 
 of mingled theology and legislation which has come down as a 
 sacred record to our day. 
 
 2. The Jews were, nine hundred years afterwards, trans- 
 ported to Babylon, remained there for more than two genera- 
 tions, and received such light as the Babylonian priests and 
 Persian magi were able to give them. The conquest of Asia by 
 the Greeks and the vicinity of Judea to commercial Tyre, furn- 
 ished them all the aid these nations could give in the line of 
 rehgious suggestion. A Jew produced, in the early days of the 
 Roman Empire, the simple, yet sublime system of Christianity. 
 It had the comprehensiveness and directness requisite to give it 
 authority as a universal religion. In few. but plain and con- 
 vincing words it laid down the principles of human rights and 
 
98 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 of divine law. It defined the nature and stated the sanctions of 
 virtue in the clearest terms; tore away every covering from vice 
 and denounced without fear the favorite ambitions and follies of 
 men. It seems almost incredible that such a system should have 
 had its origin even among a people like the Jews, and at the 
 time when the Roman Empire represented the highest civiliza- 
 tion of the world. 
 
 3. The Jews, as a nation, however, rejected and bitterly per- 
 secuted it, and the Romans, who were, on principle, extremeh^ 
 tolerant of all foreign religions, soon became equally hostile. 
 It was humble, unostentatious, very simple in all its forms, care- 
 fully refrained from all interference with established govern- 
 ment, and presented many new and consoling truths, with great 
 force. It would have seemed that it had only to speak to gain a 
 hearing and take a leading place at once in the work of the fu- 
 ture. The few unprejudiced among the great, and thousands of 
 the poor and oppressed whom the cruel power of the Romans 
 had deprived of nationality, property and personal liberty, and 
 many whose minds recoiled from the vices, crimes and skepti- 
 cism of the age, heard and embraced it with joy. But it re- 
 buked with most severity the ambitions, the injustice and the 
 love of luxury that were most prevalent in that age and that 
 were most distinctly Roman. It was peculiarly severe against 
 all other systems of religion, and that formed the strongest bar- 
 rier against its immediate spread over the pagan world at large. 
 It was, therefore, persecuted with the greatest rigor for three 
 hundred years. 
 
 4. But persecution called public attention to it and won its 
 sympathy, and it continually spread beneath the surface of so- 
 ciety. The brutal features of Roman character were gradually 
 softened; very gradually, indeed, for Roman manners and 
 morals were an Augean stable which it was a more than hercu- 
 lean task to cleanse; but. after a time, the gigantic crimes of a 
 Marius, a Sylla, a Nero, or Domitian. became impossible, and 
 the horrors of the theatres, where gladiators killed each other 
 and men were thrown to wild beasts for the amusement of the 
 populace, became rare. Atrocious crimes awakened a disgust 
 that showed a different view and a new standard of judgment 
 in the community. Christianity created a purer moral atmos- 
 phere even in Rome, and while it was persecuted with the ut- 
 most barbarity. 
 
WHY CHRISTIANITY SPREAD SLOWLY. 99 
 
 5. It is then no matter of surprise that Christianity did not 
 at once meet with general acceptance, and did not fully recon- 
 struct Roman society and manners. The marvel is that it could 
 be produced at all by an age to whose whole spirit it was so ab- 
 solutely contrary. It was the doctrine of peace proclaimed 
 among nations who knew no occupation so glorious as war; 
 whose institutions all rested on conquest; whose dominant race 
 — admired as much as feared — was the very genius and embodi- 
 ment of martial force arrayed against the independence of all 
 nationalities by an organization the most complete. It pro- < 
 claimed the rights of man and the equality of all classes and 
 persons before the Divine Law, to a people who were accus- 
 tomed to reduce their captives to slavery and who had plunged 
 in a common ruin Carthage and Corinth, the Republics of 
 Greece, and the absolute rulers of monarchical Asia. It scorned, 
 equally, gorgeous ceremonies of worship, the subtleties of an 
 imperfect philosophy, and pride of place and power. 
 
 It is not possible to imagine a greater contrast to all the modes 
 of habit and thought prevalent in those times. The most sensual 
 of all races it exhorted to spirituality, to the most cruel and in- 
 solent it preached meekness and forbearance. It placed the 
 slave to whom the recognized laws of war left no rights, beside 
 the master who gloried in setting his foot on the neck of his 
 captive, and recognized as equals the great and the small, the 
 ignorant and the wise, the bond and the free. 
 
 We cannot be surprised that it did not obtain immediate cur- 
 rency, that it was everywhere scorned and cast out, that it 
 aroused unheard of persecutions, and that it could only obtain a 
 general triumph when the old Roman inflexibility and fierceness 
 had died out of its degenerate children, and the spirit of the 
 ancient world was burned out in the hot fires of its own passions. 
 Character does not change in a day, and the native impulses of 
 a race can be modified only by slow degrees. Such is the su- 
 preme law which has ruled all history. 
 
 6. From all these causes Christianity was slow in penetrating 
 society and molding institutions; but it spread so extensively 
 that a clear sighted emperor at length found it politic to profess 
 Christianity in order to gain the support of so large and vigorous 
 an element against his rivals in power. Constantine was vic- 
 torious and proceeded to make Christianity the state religion. 
 It had maintained its growth by its real superiority and ever 
 
100 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 after remained the most powerful and productive among the 
 influences that aided the progress of mankind. It was actively 
 aggressive and had made many of the barbarians who overthrew 
 Rome converts to the faith before the invasion, and thus broke 
 the force and diminished the disastrous effects of that event. In 
 after times, no sooner did a barbarian tribe appear and establish 
 itself in any part of the old empire than Christianity commenced 
 the work of teaching and proselyting, which aided much in 
 restoring order and repairing ruin. Christianity through these 
 trying times showed a youthful vigor by which she eased the 
 fall of the old civilization, and was abundant in valuable service 
 to the civilization yet to be. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN TO MANKIND. 
 
 1. It is difficult for us, in the nineteenth century, to compre- 
 hend the embarrassments which a want of diffused information 
 presented to the progress of the ancient days. With no books, 
 or, at best, but very few, with little or no record of the past, or 
 the distant present, but what confused, distorted and uncertain 
 tradition and rumor could give, with almost no instruments of 
 thought and education, it would seem natural that they should 
 fall into a hopeless barbarism. That they raised themselves so 
 far out of a condition so low and so helpless, that they created 
 so many instruments for us. is a proof of the wonderful capacity 
 for advancement that lies in humanity, and a prophecy of stu- 
 pendous things yet in store for mankind. 
 
 2. One of the most important elements of their progress lay 
 in their great men. It is indispensable that a man. to become 
 great, or famous, exercising a wide influence, should represent 
 in a large, well defined and successful way, the general tendency 
 and aspiration of his times. He must unite a clear perception of 
 these tendencies in his mind, with the power to give them ade- 
 quate expression in his words or deeds. He must be so far ahead 
 of his times as to be able to clearly work out what is lying unex- 
 pressed in the general mind, but not so far ahead that it cannot 
 come into sympathy and co-operation with him; else he will not 
 be recognized as great. Great men are a summary of their 
 
THE USEFULNESS OF GREAT MEN. 101 
 
 times, or of the people they dwell among; they gather its ten- 
 dencies to a point and express the undefined desire of that 
 period. Their value for later times is that they represent the 
 spirit of their race at that time in a form to make a striking im- 
 pression, and those who have the good fortune to represent the 
 qualities of the best races, or of nations at the most important 
 stage of their history, become the general exemplars of man- 
 kind: teaching in a forcible and striking way the lessons which 
 have been brought out in the experience of a whole people for 
 ages. 
 
 3. The poets are the first of these great men of whom his- 
 tory gives us any account, except, perhaps, the heroes whose 
 deeds they sung, which are more or less uncertain, because they 
 clothed the common tradition of their times in an imaginative 
 and fictitious dress. The poets Homer and Hesiod had great in- 
 fluence on earlier Greece. They summed up its theology and the 
 history of its admired heroes, and gave expression to the early 
 thought and literary turn of that people. 
 
 Their legislators came next. They gave expression to the 
 genius of their people in institutions and laws. Lycurgus 
 arranged the Spartan state into a military school. His laws 
 remained in force more than five hundred years. Solon was the 
 legislator of Athens and his laws were much admired for their 
 wisdom and justice. The Greeks could think more wisely than 
 they could act. Lycurgus organized the warlike spirit in Greece 
 as well as Sparta. The small Grecian states, determined to keep 
 Sparta and each one of the other states from destroying their in- 
 dividual liberties, were trained by the necessity of combating 
 the vigorous military organization of Sparta to great ability in 
 war. 
 
 Under Pericles, a republican statesman of Athens, nearly a 
 century later than Solon, the full glory of the Grecian genius 
 shone forth. He encouraged his countrymen to give the support 
 to art and literature that produced the famous master pieces 
 which have made Greece illustrious and influential to this day. 
 
 4. Socrates appeared soon after. He was the apostle of 
 thought. His influence in leading men to use direct and effect- 
 ive modes of examination and reasoning was incalculable, and 
 has perhaps had more effect on the world than the victorious 
 career of Alexander or of the Romans. He was followed by 
 Plato, a disciple of his, who pushed out to further results the 
 
102 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 same principles. He is called the prince of philosophers, and. 
 has exerted a world-wide influence. He had not the simplicity 
 and plain directness of Socrates, though his mind was more pol- 
 ished, and he was more learned. Some scholars, however, con- 
 sider his masterpieces to indicate as powerful a mind as the 
 world has produced. He spent twelve years in travel, and used 
 all the means of education and study then to be found. His 
 works are still the delight of the most accomplished scholars. 
 
 5. Aristotle began his career in the last years of Plato. He 
 was the tutor of Alexander the Great. He followed a different 
 line of study, wrote on logic, or the art of reasoning, on the nat- 
 ural sciences, and introduced method in the exercise of the mind 
 and in study. Herodotus, Xenophon, Thucydides, and many 
 other great writers, artists and sculptors, lived about the same 
 period ; and thus Grecians did for the mind what the Romans did 
 for law and government — laid down the fundamental principles 
 which formed the basis of real progress. 
 
 The free government of Athens encouraged oratory and the 
 art of persuasion. Demosthenes was the most celebrated orator 
 among the Greeks, and if his state had only been more powerful 
 he would have conquered Philip of Macedon. He was indeed one 
 of the greatest orators of all times. Cicero, among the Romans, 
 was a writer and orator of almost equal merit. They both lived 
 just at the downfall of the liberties of their states, and they spoke 
 with more effect to the times after them than to their contempo- 
 raries. If they did not succeed in preserving the liberties of Greece 
 and Rome, they made a great impression, the name of Liberty 
 was consecrated by their noble words, and those who destroyed 
 it made infamous by their burning invectives. When a more 
 favorable time came for restoring it, they lived again in influ- 
 ence, and triumphed by the memory and record of their great 
 patriotism and powerful eloquence. 
 
 6. Great conquerors and warriors, in all times, have also been 
 representative men, giving expression and gratification to the 
 warlike spirit of their people, and producing great changes that 
 have been favorable to the real advancement of mankind. The 
 energies they stirred up, and the mingling of nations they pro- 
 duced generally promoted civilization. Alexander the Great 
 displayed the wonderful genius and fertility in resources that 
 w^as peculiarly Greek. His nation was almost consoled for the 
 loss of their liberties by the conquests to which he led them. He 
 
ALEXANDER, HANNIBAL AND CiESAR. 103 
 
 opened to their study unknown regions, and gave their mental 
 genius a broader play and a fuller occupation. They, to such an 
 extent as change was possible with old civilizations, Hellenized 
 the East and prepared the way for the reception of Christianity. 
 Alexander, in three great battles, conquered the great Persian 
 Empire with a small army. He never suffered defeat, and died 
 at thirty-three years of age. Had he lived, he might have done 
 what Hannibal could not do — have crushed the rising power of 
 the Roman republic. It would have been a misfortune, for the 
 Romans did incalculable service to humanity. Greek learning 
 exerted its influence on the East for two hundred and fifty years 
 before its final conquest by the Romans. Alexander did great 
 service to mankind by his military success. 
 
 Hannibal is an instance of a great man not as fully representa- 
 tive of his own people, perhaps, and whose misfortune it was to 
 have to struggle against a people whose united genius was 
 greater, more inventive, and more patient than his own. The 
 Roman Pompey represented the aristocratic element of his peo- 
 ple, and though a great general, hardly deserved to succeed. 
 Julius Caesar possessed the merciful character and intelligence 
 of the Greek and the prodigious energy and resolution of the 
 Roman. His conquest of Gaul and Britain introduced civiliza- 
 tion into the lands that were, five hundred years later, to begin 
 a new career for mankind. His thorough subjection of the Gauls 
 preserved the ancient civilization from the inroads of the vigorous 
 Germans until all was ready for the new order of things. More 
 than any other great man, he may be said to have been rep- 
 resentative of the best spirit of his time. Perceiving that the 
 Roman republic was dead, and could not possibly be restored 
 from the strength of the vices ruling in the state, he repressed 
 its anarchy and set aside its forms, wisely and prudently, with 
 as little bloodshed or cruelty as possible. He thoroughly rep- 
 resented the practical sense and immense vigor of the true 
 Roman. He has been severely reproached for destroying the 
 republic, but the republic virtually fell with the Gracchi, seventy- 
 five years before, and he established the only government that 
 could possibly preserve the Roman state from disorganization. 
 
 7. The office of all these, and multitudes of other great men 
 less representative of the greater qualities of their fellows, or 
 representative of less striking features of their times, has been 
 to sum up the character of their people, and present their special 
 
104 THE FOOTPKIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 features, condensed, for the observation of mankind, and by 
 their position as leaders, to give their times an opportunity for 
 powerful development, as well as to show what mankind are 
 capable of. In this last view they stimulate individuals to aspira- 
 tion and effort. Millions of men, probably, have had the quali- 
 ties of Alexander and Caesar, millions more those of Demos- 
 thenes and Cicero, of Socrates. Plato and Aristotle, and so of all 
 the different classes of great men, but have wanted the op- 
 portunities and peculiar stimulants to develop them. Whoever 
 can fully appreciate them, can, with a favorable balance of 
 faculties to give equally sound judgment, together with equally 
 favorable circumstances, imitate them. Modern times have 
 exhibited multitudes of men who, their character and talents 
 taken as a whole, have shown themselves far greater than any 
 of the ancients. Culture and the mingling of races will, perhaps, 
 finally make all men greater than the greatest of the ancients. 
 8. Brutus, one of the murderers of Caesar, wished to restore 
 the glories of the ancient Roman republic, and thought Csesar 
 stood in the way. He removed him by violence, and found the 
 difficulties greater than ever. A hundred years of conquest had 
 sapped the virtues of the Roman people, and Brutus killed him- 
 self in despair, crying: "O Virtue! thou art but a name!" To 
 Csesar succeeded Augustus, by a necessity of things. Without 
 Caesar's clemency, he deluged Rome with the blood of its citi- 
 zens. Afterward, however, his rule was less sanguinary, and 
 for thirty years he governed with mildness, though with despo- 
 tism. The limited amount of virtue in pagan civilizations wore 
 out; and notwithstanding the intelligence of Greece and the 
 good sense of Rome, the ancient world was obliged to close its 
 career as it began, by absolute monarchy. It remained for the 
 modern world to find, among its more abundant resources, the 
 means of forever preserving itself from decline. Education and 
 purity, science and religion, freedom and fraternity among all 
 races and nations; a knowledge and wisdom not conceived by 
 the ancients, a replacing of war and violence, which are essen- 
 tially demoralizing, by peaceful means, which shall benefit all 
 and injure none; perfectly free intercourse under the guidance 
 of absolute justice and benevolence; such is the way by which 
 the modern world will work out the problem impossible for the 
 old world to solve. America has gone far toward the goal. In 
 time, all nations will be persuaded to join her in attaining it. 
 
THE ONE PEKFECT MAN. 105 
 
 !i. Before we proceed with the chronology of the Christian 
 Era we must briefly notice the one perfect man, Jesus Christ. 
 To pronounce on the miraculous and divine claims made for his 
 character and deeds would carry us outside of our theme. We 
 can only deal with him as with other historical men, in his his- 
 torical character and relations. These are extremely remarka- 
 ble. 
 
 That individual sprang, like Socrates, from the poorer classes, 
 and, like him without the advantages of education, produced a 
 system which proved a marvel of perfection, adapted to all 
 times, but most perfectly to the most perfect state of mankind, 
 and consequently growing up with the progress of nations to an 
 ever-increasing influence. Its moral precepts, even in our day, 
 are as far ahead of our civilization as that is behind a perfect 
 condition. This man made an extraordinary impression. In 
 three hun ired years, by merely publishing his ideas in a quiet 
 way, which was the only mode the hostility of the Roman rulers 
 would permit, his followers overthrew the prevailing religious 
 systems which had been established as many thousand years, 
 and spread his influence world-wide. 
 
 His birth became the commencement of the Era of Humanity. 
 Like Socrates, he went about among the people with a few chosen 
 friends, setting forth his ideas, chiefly in conversation. He did 
 not write; the simple record of his life and a few of his discourses, 
 being related by his disciples. Again, like Socrates, his life was 
 ended by violence. All the records of that life show that he was 
 as perfect as we can conceive. In no respect does he seem to 
 have wanted any feature of a noble manhood, in any degree, nor 
 to have shared the prejudices or defects of his age. He lived as 
 we may conceive man to live when his mental and moral habits 
 are accurately adjusted and harmonized with his relations and 
 his duties, which he has learned perfectly to appreciate. His 
 public career lasted but three years and a half, and shines in 
 history a beam of light. He inspired his appreciative followers 
 with rapturous admiration, a passionate attachment to his per- 
 son, and pleasure in obedience to his teachings, stronger than 
 death; and in those whose plans and prejudices he crossed, and 
 whose ambitions he rebuked, a deadly hatred which could only 
 be satisfied with his blood. 
 
 10. Immediately after his death his followers commenced to 
 publish and enforce his teachings with great success, and on the 
 
106 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 outbreak of persecution, without making opposition, they scat- 
 tered in all directions proclaiming them -svith undiminished zeal. 
 Very soon their converts numbered tens of thousands, in all parts 
 of the Roman Empire. Persecution increased their fervor and 
 their numbers, without leading them to revolt or resistance, 
 until, in the course of time, an emperor found it politic to profess 
 Christianity. This high patronage, and the active part the 
 emperors took in the affairs of the church from that time, had 
 the effect to corrupt its simplicity of manners, as the adhesion 
 of Greek philosophers, who imported into its doctrines their crude 
 theories, adulterated its teachings, and much that was quite 
 foreign to its essential character long continued associated with 
 its promulgation and institutions. It is destined to return, in 
 time, to its original form and purity, and to employ its primitive 
 power to crown the work of civilization. 
 
 11. Such is the historical report of the man who introduced 
 into the process of human progress an element of unexampled 
 power. An impartial estimate of the influence of Jesus Christ 
 on history must allow that he is the most important character 
 that has ever appeared among men. The unhappy association 
 of his ideas with the vagaries of an imperfect philosophy and 
 the unwholesome ambitions of powder, greatly curtailed their use- 
 fulness: but the simple majesty of his character and his dis- 
 courses could not always be obscured, and the luster of both has 
 never shown more clearly nor exerted more influence than they 
 do in this age. 
 
 Christianity will be seen to be intimately connected with every 
 stage of advancement from the time the Roman Empire began 
 to w^ear out: it was the nucleus which survived its fall, around 
 which the surging waves of invasion raged in vain, and which 
 immediately began the work of reconstruction. 
 
 SECTIOX XII. 
 
 ^ THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 4 — By some chronological confusion the new era has been 
 made to begin four years after the appearance of the 
 founder of Christianity. Augustus had now settled the 
 whole empire including Judea and a certain maturity of 
 
THE OPENING OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 107 
 
 experience and progress had prepared the world for the 
 new system of morality and religion. The time was ripe 
 A. D. and Jesus Christ appeared. 
 
 10 — A Roman army under Varus was defeated and cut to 
 pieces in Germany. It was the severest defeat the Rom- 
 ans had suffered since the overthrow and death of Crassus, 
 by the Parthians, sixty-three years before. 
 
 14. — The Emperor Augustus died and was succeeded by his 
 step-son, Tiberius. 
 
 29 — Jesus Christ was crucified by Pontius Pilate, Roman gov- 
 ernor of Judea, at the solicitation, and on the accusation, 
 of the leading Jews. 
 
 37 — Tiberius died and was succeeded by Caligula. The com- 
 mencement of the reign of Tiberius was wise and moder- 
 ate, but he soon became violent and cruel. Caligula was 
 a still greater monster of wickedness. 
 
 40 — Growing weary of his cruelty he was assassinated by one 
 of his officers, and his uncle, Claudius, was raised to the 
 throne. He was of feeble intellect and became the tool of 
 infamous favorites. He was poisoned by order of his wife, 
 Agrippina. 
 
 54 — Nero, the son of Agrippina by a former husband, was 
 made eniperor at seventeen years of age. He exceeded 
 all description in folly, extravagance and crime. His vio- 
 lence and barbarity fell generally on the patricians and 
 members of his court, but he was esteemed by the com- 
 mon people, as were most of the emperors, who spent vast 
 sums on theatres and spectacles for their amusement. The 
 two bases of the empire were the populace and the army. 
 The emperor was terrible and tyrannical chiefly to the 
 patricians, while the army made him formidable to the 
 provinces and the barbarians. A conflagration which 
 
 64 — some attributed to the orders of Nero lasted nine days and 
 destroyed the greater part of Rome. Nero cast the blame 
 on the Christians, who had become numerous, and raised 
 a horrible persecution against them. 
 
 6G — The Jews rebelled and defied the Roman Empire. 
 
 G8 — Nero was dethroned by the Roman senate and army, and 
 committed suicide to avoid punishment for his crimes. 
 
 69 — Three emperors, Galba, Otho a.nd Vitellius, were placed 
 on the throne in succession, but rebellions were raised 
 
108 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 against them and all were put to death. Vespasian, then 
 besieging" Jerusalem, was proclaimed emperor by his army 
 at the desire of the rulers of the eastern provinces, and. in 
 the same year, overcame all opposition and commenced 
 the first reign since Augustus that was free from disgrace- 
 ful i3rofligacy and public crime. 
 
 70 — Titus, the son of Vespasian, captured and destroyed Jeru- 
 salem. Vespasian, during a reign of ten years, restored 
 order and prosperity to Rome and the empire, but not with- 
 out great labor and danger. 
 
 79 — Titus succeeded as emperor, and was remarkable for his 
 clemency and care for his subjects. During his reign 
 occurred the most fearful eruption of the volcano Vesuvius 
 on record. Herculaneum and Pompeii, two wealthy and 
 flourishing cities, were destroyed, being buried by the 
 ashes. Pliny, an eminent writer, was suffocated while 
 observing the eruption. 
 
 81 — Titus died, to the great grief and loss of mankind, and 
 was succeeded by his brother, Domitian, who was one of 
 the most infamous rulers that ever desolated the earth. 
 He raised a violent persecution against the Christians for 
 refusing to adore his statues and worship him as a god. 
 Among the victims was his own cousin, Clemens, who had 
 
 96 — embraced Christianity. He was assassinated by his wife 
 and officers in self-defense, and the senate proclaimed 
 Nerva, a native of Crete, emperor. He was remarkable for 
 his lenity and all the gentle virtues. He was followed, 
 after a reign of two years, by Trajan, whom he had 
 
 98 — adopted as his colleague and successor, who is said to have 
 been the greatest and most deserving person of his time. 
 He was, by birth, a Spaniard, was wise and successful as a 
 warrior and statesman, and extremely noble as a man. 
 He bridged the Danube and the Euphrates rivers and con^ 
 quered both the Germans and Parthians on the north and 
 east of the empire. A stain on his memory was the perse- 
 cution of the Christians. 
 117 — He was succeeded by Adrian, in whose reign all the Ro^ 
 man laws, or annual edicts of the praetors, were compiled 
 into one body, and law assumed the dignity of a science. 
 He promoted literature, but continued the persecution of 
 the Christians. A rebellion of the 
 
A SUCCESSION OF GOOD AND BAD EMPERORS. 109 
 
 139 — Jews was punished with merciless severity. He was fol- 
 lowed by Antoninus Pius, who suspended all persecution 
 of Christians, promoted the best interests of all parts of 
 the empire, and introduced, during a prosperous reign of 
 twenty-two years, the most important reforms into every 
 part of the government. 
 
 161 — Marcus Aurelius, called the Philosopher, succeeded. He 
 carried on a successful war with the Germans, and made 
 the welfare of his subjects his special care, but was se- 
 duced, by the pagan philosophers, into a persecution of the 
 Christians. Having discovered his error he stopped it. 
 toward the close of his reign. 
 
 180 — Commodus, his son, inherited the purple. He also inherit- 
 ed a vicious and cruel disposition and received a demoral- 
 izing education from his mother. He was a monster of 
 vice and cruelty. He was assassinated in his bed by his 
 
 192 _ own family and guards to save their lives. Pertinax 
 
 reigned three months, but, attempting to restrain the li- 
 cense of the soldiery, he was murdered by them. The 
 soldiers in Rome then proclaimed that the empire >vas for 
 sale, and a rich merchant, Didius. bought it from them 
 and reigned in Rome two months, when he was also slain 
 
 193 _ by the army. Septimus Severus, an able general, seized 
 
 the purple which he secured against many rivals, and re- 
 tained for eighteen years. His vigor alone prevented gen- 
 eral anarchy, but he was systematically cruel. 
 211 — Caracalla, his son, succeeded. He was a bloody and 
 atrocious tyrant, supported on the throne only by his 
 soldiers, whose aid he secured by large pay. He was 
 
 217 _ murdered by the commander of his guards, Macrinus, who 
 
 succeeded in acquiring his place, but was soon murdered 
 
 218 — by the soldiers. They raised Heliogabalus, a young 
 
 Syrian priest of fourteen years of age, through the assur- 
 ance of his female relatives that he was the son of Cara- 
 calla, to the purple. He is described as the most cruel and 
 infamous of all the Roman emperors. After four years of 
 
 222 — hon-ible crime, he was slain in a mutiny of his guard and 
 his body thrown into the Tiber. Alexander Severus, suc- 
 ceeded. He was apparently a secret admirer of Christian- 
 
 235 _ ity and a model prince. He was murdered by Maximin. a 
 Thracian peasant, who had, by his valor, risen to high 
 
110 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 cominand. in the army, who seized the reins of power. He 
 was successful in war, but his severity provoked mutiny 
 
 238 — in various parts of the empire, and he was slain by his own 
 soldiers. Gordian succeeded, a heroic youth of a noble 
 family. He was successful in war, but was murdered by 
 
 24:4: — his own prime minister. Philip, an Arabian, who became 
 emperor. He favored the Christians, and reigned five 
 years. In his reign, the thousandth year of the foundation 
 of Rome was celebrated by public games. He was slain 
 
 249 — in a revolt by Decius, the general of his army, who 
 
 occupied the throne. He raised a most violent storm of 
 persecution against the Christians, who were despoiled 
 of their goods and driven to caves and deserts. From 
 this time is dated the sect of anchorites, or hermits, who 
 
 250 — imagined they could acquire superior holiness by abandon- 
 
 ing society and devoting themselves to meditation and 
 prayer. The idea appears to have been derived from 
 the Persian Magians, who, in this century, restored the 
 ancient dynasty and religion of the Persians, or Parsees, 
 in Persia. During the political and social disorganization 
 that soon commenced the anchorites became numerous, 
 and the system was extensively prevalent for a thousand 
 years. 
 
 251 — Decius was slain in a battle with the Goths, who had in- 
 
 vaded the empire, and Gallus became emperor. 
 
 253 — He was put to death by Emilianus, who attempted to seize 
 the reins of government, but the army elected Valerian, 
 governor of Gaul. The empire was invaded by the Goths 
 on the north and the Persians under their king. Sapor, on 
 the east. From this time, it had to fight for its life. Va- 
 
 259 — lerian was defeated by Sapor and remained nine years in 
 captivity, Gallienus, his son, becoming emperor. He was 
 extremely incompetent and a multitude of rival claimants 
 for the supreme authority arose in all directions. They 
 were called the "Thirty Tyrants." One of them, Odena- 
 tus, king of Palmyra, in the Syrian desert, defeated Sa- 
 por, and Gallienus proclaimed him his colleague. On the 
 death of Odenatus, his wife, Zenobia, assumed the title of 
 "Queen of the East," conquered Egypt and ruled a wide 
 region with success and splendor. 
 
 262 — Both Goths and Persians invaded Asia Minor. Gallienus 
 
CHRISTIANITY TRIUMPHS OVER PAGANISM. Ill 
 
 268 — was murdered and Claudius succeeded. He defeated the 
 270 — Goths but died in a pestilence. Aurelian succeeded. He 
 was an able general. He subdued the Germans and 
 272 — Goths, and conquered Zenobia, one of the most remarka- 
 275 — able women of history. Aurelian was assassinated by 
 some victims of his severity, and Tacitus, a Roman sena- 
 tor, succeeded, but died in seven months, and was followed 
 by Probus. He was a vigorous general, and drove back 
 the barbarians on all sides, but attempting to employ his 
 soldiers in labor on public works, the}^ revolted and mur- 
 282 — dered him. Cams, the captain of the imperial guard, was 
 282 — raised to the throne. Dying the next year, his sons, Cari- 
 nus and Numerianus, inherited his authority, but Numeri- 
 anus was assassinated in a few months by his father-in- 
 284 — law, and Diocletian, said to have been formerly a slave, 
 was proclaimed emperor by the army. This was called 
 "The Era of the Martyrs," from the long and bloody per- 
 secutions against the Christians. This was the tenth gen- 
 eral attack on them, and proved to be the last. The bar- 
 barians pressing in great force on all sides, Diocletian ap- 
 pointed several colleagues, and their united ability drove 
 the invaders back. 
 
 305 — Diocletian resigned his power to Galerius, who appointed 
 
 three associates, making a division of the empire. One of 
 these, Constantius, died in Britain, and was succeded by 
 
 306 — his son, Constantine. For a time there were six emperors, 
 
 but one was killed, Galerius died, and Constantine con- 
 quered the others. 
 
 312 — Constantine changed the whole character of the empire by 
 embracing Christianity and relying largely on that ele- 
 ment for the support of his power, while he disbanded the 
 Pretorian, or royal Guard, which had for two hundred 
 years assumed to make and unmake emperors, and whose 
 example, imitated by the other armies, kept the world 
 periodically disturbed by the disputes and battles of rival 
 claimants to the imperial purple. By the edict of Milan, 
 
 813 — Constantine abolished all laws unfriendly to Christianity; 
 he restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, 
 and removed his capital from Rome to Constantinople. 
 
 324 — The pagan element was now so worn and decrepit that no 
 general disorders resulted. Whatever was left rallied 
 
112 • THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 under Licinus, who was conquered by Constantine. It 
 appears to have been the strength of the Christian element 
 and its essential hostility to the Roman principle of violent 
 subjugation that produced so many and fierce persecu- 
 tions. Had it not been for the pressure of barbarians on 
 the empire the prevalence of that system would have 
 preserved society and the state for a thousand years more, 
 as it actually did in the Eastern empire; but every thing- 
 that man has the management of must be affected by his 
 limitations, his mistakes and his follies. Christianity 
 needed a better ally, a fresher and purer society, built up 
 by the young blood and better instincts of another and 
 newer people. 
 
 Constantine paid great respect to the clergy of the church 
 and took a leading part in its general counsels. 
 
 330 — Constantine died leaving his vast dominions to his three 
 sons, who, in the course of ten years, were reduced to one, 
 Constantius. After a troubled reign of twenty years more 
 
 361 — he died, and was succeeded by his cousin Julian, called 
 the "Apostate," from his renouncing Christianity and 
 laboring to restore the pagan religion. In this he signally 
 failed. He undertook to rebuild the Jewish temple at 
 Jerusalem, without success. 
 
 363 — He was mortally wounded in an invasion of Persia, and 
 
 was succeeded by Jovian, who restored imperial favor to 
 
 364 — the Christian religion. He died after one years reign and 
 
 Valentinian was elected emperor by the council of minis- 
 ters and generals. He divided the empire with his brother, 
 Valens, and afterward .Rome and Constantinople usually 
 had each an emperor. Valentinian died and was succeeded 
 
 365 — by his son, Gratian. 
 
 378 — The Huns appeared in Europe, having wandered from the 
 
 borders of China, and defeated Valens with dreadful 
 slaughter. Valens himself was among the slain. This 
 was the commencement of the great migrations that finally 
 overwhelmed the Roman Empire of the west. Gratian, 
 
 379 — left sole emperor, appointed Theodosius, called The Great, 
 
 his colleague, who subdued the Goths, repelled the Huns, 
 
 and restored order. 
 383 — Gratian was murdered by the usurper Maximus. 
 388 — Theodosius conquered and put Maximus to death and re- 
 
THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 113 
 
 stored Valentinian II., brother of Gratian, to the throne 
 of the western empire. In a few years the whole empire 
 
 394 — was reunited by the death of Valentinian. Theodosius 
 soon died, universally lamented, Jeaving the two empires 
 to his sons, Honorius and Arcadius. 
 
 402 — Alaric. the Goth, invaded Italy and, though defeated, en- 
 dangered the safety of Rome. 
 
 408 — Theodosius II. succeeded to the empire of the east. 
 
 410 — Alaric again invaded Italy and sacked Rome. Alaric soon 
 after died and his forces were persuaded, by negotiations, 
 to leave Italy, but they permanently established them- 
 selves in Spain and Southern Gaul (France). Thus the 
 empire began to fall to pieces. 
 
 425 — Honorius died and Valentinian III. became emperor. 
 
 429 — The Vandals soon conquered the Roman provinces in 
 Africa, under their king, Genseric. They extended their 
 
 440 — conquests to Sicily. 
 
 447 — Attila, called the ''Scourge of God," appeared at the head 
 
 of the Huns, and Theodosius made a humiliating treaty 
 with him to save his dominions from desolation. In the 
 
 448 — next year the Saxons and Angles were invited into Britain 
 
 by the civilized Romans, to protect them from the Picts 
 and Scots, and laid the foundation of the modern Anglo- 
 Saxon race, and the Franks invaded Gaul, laying the foun- 
 dations of the modern kingdom of France. England 
 received its name from the Angles — France from the 
 Franks. 
 
 451 — Attila, the Hun, invaded Gaul, and was defeated at Cha- 
 
 452 — Ions, by the united Romans and Visigoths. Attila then 
 
 invaded Italy and laid it waste, but died before he had com- 
 454 — pleted the ruin of the empire. Valentinian III. was mur- 
 dered, and the Vandals from Sicily invaded Italy and 
 sacked Rome. 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 
 THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS. 
 
 476 — After a succession of puppet emperors in Rome, Odoacer 
 abolished the name and took the title of king of Italy. 
 He was a German in command of the auxiliaries in 
 
114 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Roman pay. Thus ended, in disaster and disgrace, the 
 once mighty Western Roman Empire. Its ruin was 
 gradual and the barbarians who overthrew it had already 
 embraced Christianity, so that the institutions of the- 
 church did not share its fall. 
 
 486 — Clovis, king of the Franks, defeated the Romans and 
 Gauls at the battle of Soissons. The Ostrogoths invaded 
 
 492 — Italy under Theodoric the Great, deposed Odoacer, and 
 founded a new kingdom. 
 
 496 — Clovis defeated the invading Germans and embraced 
 
 500 — Christianity. Clovis next defeated the Burgundians. 
 
 507 — He subdued the Visigoths and all France was united under 
 one rule. He was of the Merovingian line, or dynasty, of 
 kings, which lasted over two hundred years, during which 
 the remains of Roman civilization and the influence of the 
 church were gradually modifying and penetrating the 
 character of a new and energetic race. 
 
 527 — Justinian became the ruler of the Eastern or Grecian 
 Empire. 
 
 534 — His generals waged war with the Vandals in Africa and 
 the Ostrogoths in Italy, and after eighteen years of con- 
 flict, succeeded in reconquering part of Italy, which the 
 Greek emperors continued to hold nominally for about 
 three hundred years; the seat of their representative being 
 at Ravenna. He was called an Exarch. Rome itself was 
 left, substantially, to the control of the Christian bishop. 
 
 568 — When the Lombards founded a kingdom in the north of Italy 
 they were prevented, by the exarch and the bishop, from 
 spreading over the southern part; and when the exarch 
 threatened to become too powerful to suit the views of the 
 bishop he supported the Lombards. Thus the temporal or 
 political power of the popes arose, and they were the politic 
 authors of the " Balance of Power" theory, or system, that 
 has played so large a part in European history. The result 
 has been exceedingly favorable to progress in all direc- 
 tions, since it has secured the independence of states, and 
 a more various and perfect civilization by the development 
 of the special genius of each people. Many circumstances 
 conspired to support this idea, in later times, and render it 
 very prominent and influential. 
 
 This gradual advance of the bishop of Rome in political 
 
CHARLEMAGNE AND THE POPE. 115 
 
 influence associated him with the mighty memories of the 
 "Eternal City," and suggested the idea of a spiritual em- 
 pire over all Christendom, which was gradually realized 
 and continued for near 800 years. It was long powerful 
 for good by giving a common centre to Europe, broken 
 into fragments as it was by the rise of feudalism. That 
 was disorganizing; this was centralizing, and kept the 
 channels of communication open and the missionary spirit 
 and the elements of a restored learning in activity. Its 
 influence in commencing and carrying forward the cru- 
 sades, which substantially broke the strengh of feudalism, 
 was of immense importance. 
 
 622 — Mahomet arose in the Arabian peninsula, and his new re- 
 ligion spread with astonishing rapidity. In one hundred 
 
 732 — years from the death of Mahomet the Saracens had estab- 
 lished a vast dominion, covering two-thirds of the Roman 
 empire, viz: all of the old Persian empire, Egypt, and all 
 of northern Africa and Spain, and threatened to inundate 
 Europe. They poured a vast army over the Pyrenees into 
 France. This was defeated in a great battle at Tours, by 
 • Charles Martel, who founded a new dynasty, replacing the 
 Merovingian, called the Carlovingian, and made France 
 the most powerful, as it became the leading, nation in Eu- 
 rope, for promoting civilization during many centuries. 
 
 By this means the center of political influence, "The 
 Star of Empire," took another step westward. His son, 
 Pepin le Bref, or the Short, caused himself to be crowned 
 
 752 — king of France by the Roman Pontiff, Stephen II, which 
 added to his own prestige, as it also did to that of the 
 pope. It was a sort of league between the rising tempo- 
 ral and spiritual powers in Europe, and set an example 
 long followed. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, the 
 son of Pepin, ascended the throne in 771, and by his intel- 
 
 771 — ligence, energy, and wise statesmanship, by his encour- 
 agement of learning, his organizing talents and his 
 success in conquering and civilizing the seething mass of 
 nationalities in Germany, he may be said to have really 
 founded modern civilization during his long reign of forty- 
 three years. He conquered the Lombard kingdom in Italy, 
 and was crowned by the pope, Adrian I, " Emperor of the 
 Romans," kneeling at the altar in Rome; but he virtually 
 
116 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 confirmed the temporal authority of the popes, and asso- 
 ciated their influence in all his conquests. He thoroughly- 
 broke the spirit of the pagan Saxons, in northwestern 
 Germany, by a war of thirty-three years, carried his con- 
 quests east over the German part of the present Austrian 
 empire, civilizing and bringing the barbarians into the 
 pale of Christendom by the aid of Christian missionaries, 
 and conquered some portions of Spain from the Saracens. 
 It seemed as if the history of the western Roman Empire, 
 which had fallen three hundred years before, was to be 
 repeated. That was the hope and dream of both Charle- 
 magne and the Roman Pontiff, who joined hands to real- 
 ize it. This new western emperor had great abilities and 
 the church was very strong. The center of Europe had so 
 long been within the reach of civilizing influences, and 
 had attained such a point of development in its various 
 nationalities, that they readily accepted permanent institu- 
 tions, when presented by a power so strong as that of the 
 mighty Frank ruler. 
 814 — But when he died, it was found that there was no other 
 hand strong enough to wield his sceptre. All the mem- 
 ories of the old empire, all the influence of the Christian 
 church, the remains of the Roman organization, and the 
 ripening vigor of new races, which had begun to lay aside 
 their barbarous impulses, were united to aid the vast 
 designs of this great statesman. But the tendencies of the 
 new society, in general, were in a different direction. The 
 Germanic civilization was totally different from the Roman, 
 and had there been a succession of rulers as large minded 
 and strong willed as Charlemagne, they could not have re- 
 peated the history of the ancient world. The tendency of 
 the races that overthrew the empire was invincibly against 
 centralization, and instead of a new Roman Empire in 
 western Europe, appeared the Feudal System. 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 
 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 1. This system was the direct opposite of centralization. Un- 
 der it all Christendom broke up into fragments; the king exert- 
 
THE ORIGIN OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 117 
 
 ed but a loose general control that continued to decrease for sev- 
 eral centuries; and most of the real authority was exerted by 
 the feudal lords from their fortified castles, which, for three hun- 
 dred years, had been springing up over all the territory con- 
 quered from the Romans. It had its true origin in the marked 
 personal assertio7i, the strong individuality of the Teutonic 
 Race, which was, and is, one of its most prominent traits. 
 While in their native barbarous state their armies were formed 
 for their expeditions of foreign conquest, that proved so fatal to 
 the Romans, on the voluntary principle. The prowess and fame 
 of a leader, or chief, drew to him a multitude of warriors, long- 
 ing for activity and booty. So long as he could lead them to 
 success, to gain their individual ends, they obeyed him. When 
 he failed to reward their ambition they held themselves free to 
 leave him. 
 
 2. It was not immense disciplined armies, but innumerable 
 bands, organized in this way, that, through a long course of 
 years, gradually overran Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy. For 
 four hundred years the civilized world had been accustomed to 
 the control and protection of a distant ruler whose powerful 
 armies rendered resistance vain, and all thought of general or- 
 ganization for self -protection against the terrible barbarians 
 was wanting v/hen they were attacked. Each city or region de- 
 fended itself as well as possible, or submitted at once. The con- 
 querors took what they wanted and passed on to other lands, or 
 spread themselves out over the province. They usually settled 
 in the country parts, fortifying the country seats of the richer 
 inhabitants, or building themselves castles near the larger 
 towns, to hold them in awe. The leader considered himself the 
 owner of the conquered territory, and divided it among his fol- 
 lowers, who settled themselves, each in his new domain as its 
 owner and ruler. The conquered inhabitants were his subjects 
 from whom he took tribute. The conquerors were few in num- 
 ber in proportion to the conquered: but there was little resist- 
 ance throughout the old Roman provinces. Organization and 
 spirit were wanting to them, and resistance would provoke com- 
 plete ruin, since the conqueror could easily call to his aid any 
 number of his fellows in return for a share of the spoils. Thus 
 they gave what was demanded and made themselves content 
 with what was left. 
 
 The cities paid tribute, the cultivators gave a portion of their 
 
118 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 harvests to the new rulers. The territory not given to his 
 followers was considered the property of the original leader. In 
 return for the gift each of the recipients of territory was held 
 bound to aid him in his wars, and each larger chief stood in 
 similar relations to the king of his tribe or nation. Out of this 
 grew, at length, what was called the Feudal System, feudal 
 being derived, by some, from the old German words "fee," 
 salary, and "od,"* landed possessions — a payment, or salary, in 
 land for services rendered, with a certain obligation to the giver. 
 
 3. The kings of the Franks — the German nation that 
 conquered Gaul — up to the time of Charlemagne, labored to 
 consolidate their power and rule like the Roman emperors. But 
 the genius of their race and the peculiarities of the situation 
 were both opposed to that purpose. Charles Martel, Pepin, his 
 son, and Charlemagne, his grandson, were all rulers of great 
 vigor, and the last^ apparently, succeeded for a time. But the 
 military strength lay only in the scattered feudal chieftains, 
 each of whom sought to build up his own power on his own 
 estates. It was not possible to maintain a strong central govern- 
 ment for any length of time, or under an ordinary man. For 
 two hundred years these petty lords grew in strength at the ex- 
 pense of the king. They were still held to him by the necessity 
 of supporting him in war, by a system of checks, which, in time, 
 were increased, and still more enlarged when the people began 
 to make themselves felt in the twelfth century; but from the 
 fifth to the fifteenth century feudalism was the prevailing system. 
 in all the civilized European nations. 
 
 4. It was a very rude and violent period, but some of the 
 most happy traits of modern life grew out of it. The isolation of the 
 feudal lord in his fortified chateau or castle, where his wife and 
 children were his only equals, combined with the constant in- 
 fluence of the church, gradually elevated the condition of the 
 woman; the rudeness and violence of the time were modified by 
 the rise of chivalry, which was. in great part, founded on this 
 new respect for the gentler sex, and sympathy for her helpless 
 condition when exposed, without a powerful protector, to unre- 
 strained insolence and passion; and the feudal system held all 
 the elements of society in suspense until the mighty forces of 
 modern times, a reformed learning, the printing press, and a 
 new commerce and industry, were ready to take their part in 
 introducing a deep and thorough reconstruction. 
 
THE SPIRIT AJlD ROMANCE OF CHIVALRY. 119 
 
 5. Feudalism held men apart and individually subject to the 
 refining influence of Christian precepts from the fifth to the 
 ninth century, when the romantic practice of chivalry became 
 popular as a relief from the tedium of isolation and a channel 
 for the flow of the softer sentiments of respect for woman, of 
 compassion for weakness, and, at the same time, a vent for the 
 martial spirit which the constant conflicts of the time cultivated. 
 The spirit of chivalry indicates that Christianity was powerfully 
 moulding the character of the new nations. Working on quali- 
 ties as stern and rude as those of the old Roman of the Republic, 
 its partial control, the beginnings of its power, were manifested 
 in this romantic way. The isolation of feudal life and a sense 
 of wrong in employing all their energies in unceasing contests 
 of ambition produced the chivalric outbreak and the crusades. 
 The knights of chivalry were feudal lords and gentlemen, trained 
 in all the warlike arts of the period and in all the courtesies 
 which the new influence of female society produced. When 
 starting forth as knight-errants they were exhorted by the stern 
 feudal warior to valor and by the Christian priest to gentleness 
 toward the weak, and they made it the business of life to wander 
 about on horseback incased in armor, displaying their warlike 
 accomplishments and combatting petty tyranny. There was 
 little power in the king to right the wrongs of his subjects, and 
 brutal violence in the feudal lords had no other effectual punish- 
 ment. Chivalry flourished for more than five hundred years; 
 but its most useful days were from 1000 to 1200. It was the first, 
 and seems to later times a somewhat amusing, indication of a 
 more humane social state than the world had previously known. 
 
 G. The crusades commenced about 1100, the object being to 
 rescue the sepulcher of the founder of Christianity from un- 
 believers. It first engaged the sympathy of the people at large, 
 then of the feudal nobility and finally interested the ambition of 
 kings. For two hundred years a large part of the best blood of 
 Europe was poured out in Palestine in a vain effort to expel the 
 Saracens from it. The transportation of armainents and sup- 
 plies to that country from various parts of Europe gradually led 
 to commerce and skill in navigation; so much of ancient civiliza- 
 tion and knowledge as still existed in the Eastern, or Greek 
 Empire at Constantinople, was introduced into modern Europe, 
 wdiich at the same time was relieved of its more turbulent and 
 adventurous elements; and a heavy blow was given to the 
 
120 THE FOOTPRINTS Cii^ TIME. 
 
 snlaller feudal proprietors by the expense incurred in a distant 
 expedition where they died without issue, reduced their families 
 to poverty, or whence they returned penniless to mortgaged 
 estates. It rapidly hastened the movement, begun by other 
 influences, to reduce the number of feudal proprietors, and render 
 government more vigorous over increasingly large territories. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 THE LIBERTIES OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 1. Between 1000 and 1200 the independent and enterprising- 
 spirit, the individualism, that we have seen at the base of Euro- 
 pean character, and which first produced the Feudal System. 
 began to move among the masses in various ways and to lay the 
 foundation for that influence of the People that was afterward 
 to become the most powerful element in political life. 
 
 It first presented itself in the development of industrial arts 
 and commerce in cities which obtained, as corporations, the 
 rights, or a part of the rights, of the feudal proprietor, which 
 they proceeded to exercise under the form of Free Cities in Ger- 
 many, privileged Communes in France and commercial Republics 
 in Italy. 
 
 2. A second development was highly favorable some centuries 
 later to popular freedom. Its first remote beginnings are to be 
 found in the imperial title conferred by the pope on Charlemagne. 
 In the course of time (a. d, 936) that title was inherited by 
 the German rulers who, for a long time, struggled for the con- 
 trol of Italy and a feudal superiority over the popes. This was 
 carried on for two centuries with much acrimony, during which 
 the terms Guelph. the general name of those who supported the 
 side of the pope, and Ghibellines. of those who rallied to the 
 emperor, came to be the watchwords of Germany and Italy. 
 The popes triumphed in this contest, which prevented the estab- 
 lishment of a vast and powerful political despotism, and gave 
 the church a temporal kingdom in Italy and a leading moral 
 and intellectual influence on Christendom, which prepared it for 
 better times. 
 
 The Crusades, inspired by the Church, loosened the bonds of 
 Feudalism, taught nations and rulers to act together to gain a 
 common object, enlarged the experiences of men. and cultivated 
 
THE FIRST STAGE OF POPULAR LIBERTY. 121 
 
 and organized the spirit of personal adventure which afterwards 
 expended itself on commerce. 
 
 It was at about the crisis of this period (1215. A. D.) that the 
 Magna Charta — the foundation of English constitutional liberty 
 — was produced; that the Hanseatic League of Free Cities began 
 to flourish in Germany; that the commercial republics of Venice. 
 Genoa and Florence rose in Italy, and the communal corpora- 
 tions in France •sprang up. They were all more or less stimulated 
 by influences growing out of the Crusades, and brought forward 
 the people and their distinct and separate interests and activities 
 into political importance. This was the beginning of an entirely 
 new order of things, which required a new continent for its full 
 development. 
 
 4. A circumstance, above all favorable to the liberties of 
 the people, was the Invention of Printing, producing rapid 
 diffusion of information, the coincident revival of learning and 
 the foundation of modern science. All these, working with 
 various other agencies, gradually swept away feudalism, and 
 corrected a crowd of minor evils that embarrassed society, en- 
 terprise, and progress in the science of government. 
 
 The intermediate stage in this progress appeared like a return 
 to ancient habits. The dissolution of feudalism left the govern- 
 ments of Europe centralized in the hands of kings ruling ex- 
 tensive territories. The lords inheriting feudal rights had become 
 intolerable despots. For a certain period the authority of the 
 king was the bulwark behind which the people sheltered them- 
 selves from the oppressions of their feudal superiors, and they 
 united with him to reduce the feudal nobility to the compara- 
 tively harmless condition of the modern aristocracy, whose 
 greatest distinction is social pre-eminence. It left them, indeed, 
 a high but not overwhelming position in the body politic, which 
 the growing education and wealth of the middle and lower 
 classes constantly tended to reduce. This change was com- 
 mencing when America was discovered. The feudal chiefs 
 labored to extend and strengthen their power at the expense of 
 each other, of the king and the people. The increasing activity 
 and importance of commerce, trade and industry required the 
 support of a broad legislation that could not be obtained while 
 nations were broken up into petty lordships and principalities 
 almost independent of each other, and whose rulers were often 
 hostile to or at war with each other, while the support of so 
 
122 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 many rulers became a heavy burden on the resources of the 
 people. The king represented the whole nation and was the 
 rallying point of reform. To strengthen him was to promote 
 the larger interests of the country. 
 
 For these reasons, and from the resistance offered by the feudal 
 institutions, which had existed a thousand years, authority be- 
 came centralized in the monarch to an extravagant degree, and 
 this at a time when freer institutions were most *required by the 
 larger and wiser views of the people, 
 
 6. The progress of the people, as distinct from that of their 
 governments, may be described as starting in the great service 
 done for Europe by the church — the organization of the Cru- 
 sades. The feudal system separated men too much for healthy 
 progress, and this singular display of religious zeal united the 
 various nationalities in a common effort and stirred up powers 
 that had long slumbered. It was in this period that the advent- 
 urous and comprehensive activities of modern life commenced. 
 Wealth had been largely confined to the feudal nobility. It 
 now began to flow out through the general community. The 
 nobles expended vast sums in fitting out princely retinues to lead 
 to the Holy Land, for which their estates were security. They 
 died, or returned penniless, and their lands passed into the hands 
 of the commercial classes, whose successful diligence had made 
 them wealthy. It was the first heavy blow to feudal institu- 
 tions, and laid the foundation of the power of the people. 
 
 Corporations and cities which had obtained the rights of feudal 
 proprietors employed them for the purposes of self-government, 
 and so used the ordinary instrument of despotism to shield and 
 sustain a virtual democracy. With this freedom of action pop- 
 ular liberty, controlled in a general way by feudal obligations to 
 the prince, king, or emperor, grew fast and strong protected 
 both by church and state. The Hanseatic League, in the north 
 of Germany, was, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, per- 
 haps as wealthy and powerful as any king or emperor in Christ- 
 endom; and in the sixteenth, the small commercial province of 
 the JSTetherlands could defy the whole power of Spain, with the 
 wealth of the Indies at her back. 
 
 7. The revival of learning, and the invention of the art of 
 printing, gave an immense impulse to this uprising of the peo- 
 ple, commenced near three hundred years before; about the 
 same time the Portuguese discovered the way to India by the 
 
POLITICAL PROGRESS IN THE OLD WORLD. 123 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, Columbus threw open the "Gates of the 
 West," and the wealth of both Indies flowed in a full stream 
 through the channels of commerce and trade into the hands of 
 the busy and industrious people. All events seemed to conspire 
 to build up a base for the development of power in the com- 
 monalty. 
 
 The growing intelligence and strength among the masses, 
 with the habit of ruling themselves under feudal forms, made a 
 conflict with despotism inevitable in the near future. Feudal 
 institutions were still a serious and vexatious embarrassment to 
 freedom of movement and a very heavy tax on industry, and 
 the only legal way to remove it was by strengthening the central 
 or kingly power, which continued to increase for more than a 
 hundred years; but the people grew rich and enterprising under 
 the shadow of the throne and. in the fulness of time, when it 
 had removed other embarrassments, would be strong enough to 
 reduce its power or set it aside. 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 
 THE ENGLISH PEOPLE. 
 
 1. Historical progress in the Old World has been observed at 
 its commencement in Central Asia where the Family was organ- 
 ized. The head of the family soon became the leader of a tribe, 
 this chieftain grew to be a petty King, then a " King of Kings," 
 or ruler over an extensive empire rudely consolidating a multi- 
 tude of states and nations by conquest. The priesthood of 
 Egypt, in their long and quiet studies on the banks of the Nile, 
 laid the foundation for something better, which the Greeks de- 
 veloped and adorned to a marvelous degree. The victories of 
 Alexander the Great then spread Greek culture over all the 
 Eastern World. Soon after this the wide-reaching conquests of 
 the Romans were sustained by so much organizing ability, 
 steadfastness and intelligence as to preserve all the best fruits 
 of previous progress and to spread the arts, the learning and the 
 religion of the East over a much larger area. 
 
 When excess of prosperity and luxury had dissipated their 
 military vigor the Romans still ruled Western Europe by social, 
 and religious organization and civil law. Through these the 
 general results of the ancient civilization were transmitted to 
 
124 THE FOOTPiaXTS OF TI3IE. 
 
 the modern world, and nothing was really lost in the fall of the 
 E-oman Empire that was worth preserving. The same hidden 
 law that determined the ontlines of continents and seas and the 
 courses of mountain elevations and rivers led the best races to 
 emigrate westward from their primitive home, and also provided 
 that each removal of the center of intelligence and power should 
 be marked by the appearance of a new people, capable not only 
 of receiving all that was best in the previous civilization but of 
 adding immensely to its value by various qualities and attain- 
 ments of a different and often liigher order. The power and 
 magnificence of Babylon. Assyria and Persia appeared barba- 
 rous beside the intellectual arts, the manly simplicity, and the 
 noble philosophy of the Greeks; and the Greeks were equally 
 excelled, for the common purposes of life, by the practical sagac- 
 ity and the well controlled energy of the Romans. 
 
 The Empire, in turn, was succeeded, in modern times, by a 
 crowd of nations in Western Europe who were more industrious 
 than the Asiatics, more intelligent than the Greeks, and more 
 just in government than the Romans. The ancient civilization, 
 even in the hands of the practical and vigorous Roman people, 
 failed in so many points to discover the most important princi- 
 X)les and to appreciate the most obvious facts that it could not be 
 permanent. Its errors, in the course of time, destroyed it. On 
 the contrary, the modern nations successively laid aside their 
 errors and were so steadily successful in the search after the 
 knowledge essential to the welfare of society, that their pro- 
 g-ress. however slow, must finally regenerate them. 
 
 ■2. But when this modern progress had proceeded far enough to 
 show clearly what the true method of study and experiment was, 
 it ceased to be' slow and interrupted and went forward with rapid 
 strides. This point was reached about the time that Columbus 
 discovered the Xew World. In its results, therefore, this was 
 the most important era in the whole history of mankind. Men 
 were placed on the high-road to every valuable truth and to a 
 real conquest of the forces of nature. They could never again 
 g-o so far astray that the sun of civilization could set on them 
 and leave them in darkness and confusion. They had begun to 
 learn how to study themselves and the world about thein. and to 
 use their studies to great practical effect. A firm foundation 
 ^^as laid for the most important sciences. It was the beginning 
 of the era of great discoveries and useful inventions. The mis- 
 
SLOW GROWTH OF MODERN REFORMS. 125 
 
 takes of ancient learning- were corrected, old inventions were 
 turned to new and important purposes, Astronomy, Geology, 
 Chemistry, and a multitude of kindred studies, started into life 
 on the safe basis of positive proof. The printing press was in- 
 vented to render knowledge accessible and cheap ; the Mariner s 
 Compass was utilized to guide the seaman over the pathless 
 ocean ; the discovery of gunpowder made the traveller fearless 
 of savage foes. True principles of social order, of government 
 and of religion were set forth by studious men, and, though long- 
 resisted, they were destined to stand the test of time and change 
 the whole course of thought and of historical development. 
 
 o. This was only a beginning, for the nations had learned so 
 many wrong lessons and adopted so many of the imperfect sys- 
 tems of the past that almost the whole structure of society and 
 the general conduct of life required to be remodeled. In coun- 
 tries which had received a large part of their institutions and 
 habits from the past the task of the reformer must be one of 
 great difficulty and danger. All the customs of society, all the 
 principles and forms of government, all systems of belief, must 
 be more or less reconstructed. Those who perceived the new 
 truth and were determined to practice it must suffer much and 
 long, or go forth to found a new society on new ground. Colum- 
 bus now appeared and offered a new world for the development 
 of these new principles. The King of Spain soon became also 
 Emperor of Germany and the most powerful monarch of Europe. 
 He considered the New World as his by right of discovery. 
 France and England were not at that time prepared to contest 
 his supremacy, being occupied with religious and political 
 troubles that took all their attention. For a century after the 
 death of Columbus, Spain had the New World to itself : but it 
 did not prove itself adapted to the work it had undertaken. It 
 was unsparing in destroying the primitive civilizations it found 
 in tropical America ; but it could neither build up a new society 
 nor transplant the best features of the old. 
 
 4. When the French undertook to colonize America they proved 
 almost equally incapable of forming vigorous, self-sustaining- 
 communities. They were kind and considerate to the Indians; 
 but the colonists were allowed no power of self-control, and most 
 openings for gain were made monopolies to enrich some person- 
 aare or class at home. The Portuguese and the Dutch, the only 
 other nations on the continent of Europe who made serious efforts 
 
126 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 to found colonies, pursued the same course and experienced the 
 same failure. All their colonies were exotics. They did not be- 
 come really naturalized in their new home and displayed all the 
 weaknesses and vices of the European, with few of his virtues 
 and little of his vigor after the conquest of the natives was 
 accomplished. The "Star of Empire,"' the '• Sun of Progress" 
 did not cross the ocean with them. The real pioneers of progress, 
 the true civilizers of the New World, were to be the Anglo- 
 Saxons of the British islands. 
 
 o. They belonged to a race — the Teutonic — which had made 
 itself prominent at different periods of European history. Differ- 
 ent branches of this race had harassed the Roman Empire from 
 the days of Csesar to the days of Constantine, and when the 
 legions could no longer protect Gaul, Spain, northern Africa and 
 Italy, bands of German warriors had overrun these provinces and 
 continued to rule them as conquerors. Various tribes of the 
 German race reconstructed civilization in all the countries of 
 Western Europe. They did not expel or destroy the populations 
 vv^hich had been civilized by centuries of Roman rule, but con- 
 trolled them as subjects. They themselves gradually accepted 
 Christianity and more or less of Roman culture, custom and law; 
 but it took them a thousand years to assimilate these elements of 
 ancient wisdom with their own institutions and habits. When 
 this was fairly accomplished the modern period opened. Regu- 
 lated liberty of personal action, free thought and truly free in- 
 stitutions did not appear among the conceptions of the ancient 
 world. They were the greatest and most valuable contributions 
 made by the Teutonic races to the civilization they had conquered 
 and reconstructed. The Anglo-Saxons in England enjoyed a 
 situation and had a history different in some important respects 
 from that of other branches of their race. The British islands 
 were separated from the main land by a channel of considerable 
 width. The original inhabitants were Celts, like the ancient 
 Gauls, and had been considerably civilized by the Romans who 
 had ruled them nearly four hundred years. When the Roman 
 legions and civil officers were withdrawn and they were left to 
 themselves, they were attacked by the Picts and Scots of the 
 north, dissentions arose among them and one faction invited th6 
 aid of the Saxon chieftains, Hengist and Horsa. The Saxons saw 
 and liked the country, found a pretext for remaining, overcame 
 all opposition to that design, brought over their families, their 
 
THE OLD ANGLES, SAXONS AND JUTES. 137 
 
 flocks and herds and made permanent settlements. The Britons 
 resisted them with desperation, but were gradually overcome. 
 They refused to submit, however, and those not slaughtered 
 retired before the invaders toward mountains of the west and 
 north. 
 
 6. The Saxons, Angles and Jutes, who thus dispossessed the 
 Celtic Britons, had been settled in the extreme north of Germany, 
 in Denmark and along the neighboring coast of the Baltic Sea, 
 far removed from the civilizing influence of the Romans. They 
 were of pure German blood and institutions, pagans in religion 
 and rude in manners, but with a singularly free and well-defined 
 civil organization. A real equality existed among them and all 
 questions relating to the general welfare were settled by the free- 
 men in a general assembly, or Witan-Agemot. In war, a leader 
 whose energy and prowess gave him influence gathered such fol- 
 lowers as were disposed to obey him, his authority depending 
 chiefly on respect for his capacity and the necessity of concert 
 in action. These chiefs led small bands of warriors with their 
 families and possessions to different points on the eastern and 
 southern coast of Britain, drove away such of the natives as 
 they did not slay, and formed permanent settlements, each of 
 which was, at first, independent of all the others. 
 
 These Anglo-Saxons, as twelve hundred years later in Amer- 
 ica, did not attempt to overrun the whole country at once, and to 
 reduce the Britons to subjection or slavery. They were content 
 with such space as they required for their cattle and their rude 
 agriculture. They had the true colonizing spirit in the fifth 
 century as distinctly as when they settled in America in 
 the seventeenth. They were much less in search of booty than 
 of comfortable homes where they could find prosperity as the 
 fruit of their own labors. 
 
 The Britons resisted them with obstinate fury for centuries. 
 The intruders had to pay in blood for every rood of ground they 
 occupied and to maintain possession by superiority in arms. This 
 state of constant war had the effect to convert the temporary 
 military leader of the Anglo-Saxons into the hereditary king, 
 and his officers into territorial nobles, whose business it was to 
 hold the able-bodied freemen of their jurisdictions in continual 
 readiness for defense or attack. Neighboring communities soon 
 found it desirable to combine their forces and a series of strug- 
 gles for overlordship commenced among the local kings or chief- 
 
12S THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 tains. When one obtained recognition as overlord lie did not 
 usually depose or expel his rivals, but permitted them to continue 
 to rule their small kingdoms in subordination to himself. Thus, 
 to wars against the original Britons, which were kept up for six 
 or seven hundred years, were added wars among themselves for 
 supremacy over all the English, as the descendants of the orig- 
 inal German colonies came to be called. 
 
 7. The people of each of the original tribes, or sub-kingdoms, 
 continued to maintain many of the local forms of self -ruling com- 
 munities. The kingdom of the East Saxons became the province, 
 earldom, or county of Essex, and so of others. No consolidation 
 that destroyed the more important local institutions ever took 
 place. If changed in name, or made parts of a larger whole, 
 their general service to the people was still substantially main- 
 tained. The people preserved in this way the essential forms, 
 privileges, and general rights of their Saxon ancestors. Their 
 traditions and customs were those of a free people. They passed 
 through many troubled times and many changes occurred in the 
 course of seven or eight hundred years that affected the kings, 
 the nobles, and the relations of the inferior classes; but all 
 changes left a considerable degree of personal liberty and the 
 most important rights of freemen still existing in form, if 
 frequently, in unsettled times, disregarded in fact. The king- 
 was the representative of the dignity and power of the nation 
 but was never held to be independent of, or superior to, the 
 national will as expressed by the Wittenagemot. or parliament. 
 Only its " advice and consent " could give his decrees the force 
 of law and bind the people to obedience. This was the recognized 
 principle, though it was often overlooked by the king in practice; 
 but when he roused the indignation of the people by acts of 
 notorious oppression and misrule they remembered it and often 
 called him to account. 
 
 The Northmen, or Danes, the old pagan neighbors and kindred 
 of the Anglo-Saxons on the shores of the Baltic and North Seas. 
 harrassed and plundered the coasts of the islands, at intervals, 
 for three hundred years. They also made many settlements in 
 the North of England, which were absorbed finally into the 
 body of the nation. The Normans were originally from the 
 same part of North Germany, or from still more northern regions, 
 and also of German descent, but had been settled for two hun- 
 dred years in the Northeast of France, where they had adopted 
 
GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. 129 
 
 the language and many of the refinements of the French of that 
 time. In lOOG, Duke William, of Normandy, set up a claim to 
 the English throne, which he enforced by a successful invasion, 
 and he persuaded the English Wittenagemot to recognize him 
 as king. The English were, for the time, conquered by the 
 foreigners, who introduced the Feudal System, disposessed of 
 their estates and almost destroyed the old Saxon nobility, 
 and seemed likely to uproot English freedom. The Normans 
 were fierce and stern and long looked down with contempt on 
 the people they had conquered; but that people were, at heart, of 
 still more tenacious and determined character. In a few gene- 
 rations they had conquered their conquerors by forcing them to 
 become Englishmen. The French language was abandoned, old 
 Saxon customs were reaffirmed, and '" Magna Charta "—the 
 great charter of later English liberties — was signed by King 
 John, the descendant of William. This charter was drawn up 
 and the king forced to sign it by the general body of nobles of 
 the kingdom in 1215, one hundred and thirty-nine years after 
 the Norman conquest. 
 
 8. In the course of this century the Pa rliament was reorganized 
 substantially as it has since remained, and from that time 
 '• Freedom slowly broadened down 
 From precedent to precedent." 
 
 the prevailing character of changes in forms and administration 
 wei'e toward the earliest Saxon models. It was not, however, till 
 1G88 that Parliament became the acknowledged paramount influ- 
 ence in the government. It then formally dethroned the ruling 
 king, James II., placed another (William III.) on the throne, and, 
 at his death, determined the line of succession which has been 
 adhered to down to the present. About the same time it quietly 
 obtained control over the king's administration by making the 
 principal officers of his government responsible to it for their 
 policy and acts, and requiring the king to change them for 
 others who would carry out its wishes when their measures dis- 
 pleased it. Thus the sovereign ceased to have personal com- 
 mand over the course of public affairs. Changes in the direc- 
 tion of a more constant and thorough control by the great body 
 of the people over the executive or ministry of the sovereign, and 
 over the aristocracy, as represented by the nobles in the House 
 of Lords, by widening the basis of representation in the House of 
 
 Commons, have been going on for nearly two hundred years, 
 9 
 
V 
 
 130 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, 
 
 until England has become a virtual republic under the forms of 
 a monarchy. The history of fourteen hundred years has left 
 many traces of its passage in forms, names, and usages; but the 
 England of the most modern times has really embodied most 
 completely the principles and spirit of the primitive institutions 
 the Angles, Saxons and Jutes brought from Germany to the 
 British isles in the fifth century. 
 
 9. While the Anglo-Saxons lived on the borders of Europe, and 
 shared its ideas and progress, they were separated from it by a 
 sea, a channel, and a strait of considerable width. This, as in 
 the case of the early Greeks, protected them from invasion and 
 permitted them to develop their own character and institutions 
 without serious interference. The Celtic inhabitants of Britain 
 were separated from them, for the most part, retiring to Wales, 
 Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, On the continent, 
 the early German conquerors were mingled with the original 
 Romanized populations; and, being few in number compared 
 with those natives, they, in time, acquired many of their 
 peculiarities and lost some desirable features of the German 
 character and institutions. Frequent conquest by other races, 
 constant intercourse with other nations about them, and less 
 desirable forms of government which they could not so easily 
 model after their ancient institutions and according to their own 
 instincts, produced more unfavorable changes in the Teutons of 
 Germany itself than those of England, 
 
 The English learned from all the European nations without 
 being forcibly moulded by any of them; and they proved, in the 
 seventeenth century, when they set themselves to the work of 
 colonizing the JSTew World, completely fitted for the task by es- 
 tablishing a new and perfect state. After a hundred and fifty 
 years of colonial history the English settled in America showed 
 that they had become more pliable, that they could adapt them- 
 selves to new conditions with ease, and readily harmonize old Sax- 
 on principles and individual freedom with the teachings of all his- 
 tory and the wisdom of the most enlightened men of the most 
 progressive centuries. In the wide spaces and under the expan- 
 sive influences of a new country and comparative independence, 
 they were gradually freed from the exclusiveness of feeling and 
 local prejudices their English ancestors had contracted in their 
 small island home. The English colonists in America were not 
 themselves aware how much they had diverged, from the strict 
 
ANGLO-AMERICANS ARE A NEW RACE. 131 
 
 English type until the crisis of the Revolution led them to think 
 and act wholly from their own instincts and perceptions. In 
 later times, when a part of these recent English subjects, now 
 independent, crossed the mountains that divided the organized 
 states on the Atlantic coast from the great interior of the North 
 American continent, and Europe was almost wholly pyt far 
 away from their thoughts, they brought the distinctive traits 
 and tendencies which the English had acquired in America into 
 still bolder relief and showed that a new race had commenced 
 its career. 
 
 10. The average Englishman in England clung with great ten- 
 acity to time honored principles, forms and habits. The average 
 American cared little for the past, but for the lessons he could 
 learn from it, and originated for himself any new formula of 
 thought or action that seemed to him most natural and most 
 suitable to the occasion. The statesmen of the Revolution based 
 their right to resist English rule on the most radical doctrine of 
 political equality, and Anglo-Americans afterward maintained 
 it as the ideal toward which their institutions should constantly 
 tend. In their hands it was a safe and ennobling theory and 
 was, in time, fairly wrought into the general structure of their 
 institutions. In European hands, during the French Revolu- 
 tion, it produced disastrous results, boought republican theories 
 into contempt and rendered this modern idea of the "rights of 
 man " horrifying to Old World statesmen. The Anglo-Ameri- 
 can displayed great facility of adaptation to varying and unfa- 
 iniliar situations, fertility of resource in difficulties and an in- 
 genuity and rapidity of action that made him master of every 
 situation. 
 
 The new race and nation, therefore, speedily took the lead of 
 progress in the civilized world. Theories which, in the Old 
 World, remained impracticable ideas were, in the New, demon- 
 strated to be invaluable truths. The brilliant success of the 
 American republic when European republics had proved disas- 
 trous failures, the speedy incorporation of multitudes of foreign 
 immigrants into the body of its citizens without injury to its in- 
 stitutions, its sure and rapid growth in wealth and power while 
 maintaining justice and equality among its people, were a new, 
 and before inconceivable, revelation to the world of the value 
 and capacity of the common man when given suitable oppor- 
 tunities and restrained only by his own good sense and that of 
 
132 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 his fellows. This display reacted on Europe, and especially on 
 England, with great force. That which had been believed im- 
 possible was proved a most successful reality, on a vast scale, 
 and before the critical eyes of European rulers, statesmen and 
 people. Eagerness for reform began to pervade the Old World. 
 The English people and Government, with the great good sense 
 so prominent in their long history, led in the work of recon- 
 structing all the departments of national and individual life on 
 more just and enlightened principles. All the countries of 
 Western Europe gradually followed their lead, so' that, in less 
 than a century after the founding of a formal republic in Am- 
 erica, representative assemblies exerting a general, if not always 
 absolute, control over their respective governments were every- 
 where to be found and rulers bowed submissively to the decis- 
 ions of public opinion. 
 
 11. The old Saxons and Angles of the German forests had found 
 out the secret of a strong organization of the community which 
 should, at the same time, allow to the individual all desirable 
 freedom. They combined order and vigor in the whole .with free 
 actions in the parts. The English people transmitted this in- 
 valuable model of civil and social organization to modern times 
 through all the changes and disorders of twelve hundred event- 
 ful years. The vigorous ambition of kings and nobles sometimes 
 buried the model almost out of sight, but the memories of the 
 people were tenacious and tlieir instinct of resistance strong. 
 With the approach of calmer days and a more enlightened age 
 they labored steadily to undo the work of usuriDation and disorder 
 and to rearrange their institutions on the primitive plan. It 
 was not an easy task nor accomplished at once. The king and 
 his nobles were elevated far above the common people by long 
 ages of power on one side and submission on the other; yet the 
 people never gave up the struggle though conducting it with 
 moderation. 
 
 It was in one of the dark days of royal oppression that a mul- 
 titude of English freemen determined to renounce the struggle 
 in Old England and seek the liberty they were determined to 
 have in a Xew England across the Atlantic. There they estab- 
 lished the most representative institutions of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 and when, long after, the ignorant arrogance of the home gov- 
 ernment threatened to subvert them, the colonies were strong' 
 and resolute enough to insist on and maintain independence. 
 
THE ENGLISH PEOPLE TO BE HONORED. 133 
 
 This was fortunate for America, England, and the civilized 
 world. Anglo-Americans maintained the principles for which 
 the Anglo-Saxons had struggled for forty generations ; they em- 
 bodied them, much more perfectly than was immediately possi- 
 ble in England, in natural, equitable, and vigorous institutions 
 that gave the freest scope to all the energies and aspirations of 
 the citizen. They had a great, brilliant and constantly increas- 
 ing success, which stimulated the aspirations and endeavor of 
 the people in England and Europe, and hastened the era of free 
 government there by generations. But to the English people be- 
 long the honor and praise of giving birth to American liberty, of 
 emulating it when its success became assured, of still keeping 
 their own island in the front of modern progress, and of making 
 it the mother of self -ruling colonies of their race in many widely- 
 separated regions of the earth. 
 
 Anglo-Americans dedicated the New World to freedom by 
 taking the Spanish- Americans under their protection when they 
 threw off European control, and England, acquiring control of the 
 populous India, introduced modern civilization among the an- 
 cient races of Southern Asia. English enterprise soon pene- 
 trated to the deepest recesses of that early home of civilization, 
 and its new liberality established prosperous self-governing col- 
 onies in Australia and South Africa, and gave practical inde- 
 pendence to British North America. Thus the establishment of 
 the English race and old German institutions in America led to 
 a speedy and thorough reform of all European governments, and 
 the English people and their descendants carried the inspiring 
 influence of modern ideas and energies around the world. 
 
I 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 1, During the first thousand years of the Christian Era the Ger- 
 man tribes in central and northern Europe were frequently 
 moved by a spirit of adventure which proved, as has been seen, 
 to be of much historic importance. Under the attacks of war- 
 rior bands of these adventurers and some allied races the Roman 
 Empire in the West was broken up: the Franks reorganized 
 Gaul and made it modern France; the Anglo-Saxons took pos- 
 session of England and built up new institutions; Italy and 
 Spain were, in part, overrun by others. They had a rude vigor, 
 a firmness of character, and a capability of improvement that 
 formed a solid base for modern institutions. During the ninth 
 and tenth centuries Scandinavia — the modern Denmark, Nor- 
 way and Sweden — was moved by the same spirit. The North- 
 men (from which the names Norway, Norman and Normandy 
 were derived) coasted along the shores of Western and Southern 
 Europe, formed many permanent settlements and ruled them 
 with intelligent vigor 
 
 2. A part of the Northmen found their way northwestward and 
 settled Iceland and southern Greenland. Some of the naval 
 captains or "Sea-Kings" are said to have reached America 
 about the year 1000, and to have attempted settlements as far 
 south as New England. They are believed to have named this 
 region Vinland. But at that early day few cared to venture so 
 far across a stormy sea, the Indians are supposed to have become 
 hostile, the colony withdrew or perished and the memory of the 
 discovery, known to few. was lost. 
 
 The last part of the fifteenth century was a turning point in 
 history. The Feudal System was dissolving; thinking men be- 
 gan to think more clearly and activity took a more practical 
 turn. Rulers began to comprehend statesmanship in a higher 
 sense and scholars laid the foundations of a new learning. The 
 
 (134) 
 
THE INTELLIUEN'CE AND MISTAKES OF COLUMBUS. 135 
 
 Mariners Compass came into use by seamen, the employment of 
 gunpowder made a few adventurers formidable, and the use of 
 the printing press diffused information rapidly and widely. 
 
 While England and France were disturbed by a new spirit of 
 reform, and Spain was driving out the Saracen-Moors, settled 
 there for eight hundred years, Portugal was busy trying to find 
 a water-route to India. 
 
 Up to this time the rich merchandise of Eastern Asia had been 
 brought to the Mediterranean overland and the trade in Euro- 
 pean waters monopolized by Venice and Genoa. All Europe 
 was excited by the tales of adventurous travellers who described 
 the magnillcence and wealth of the empires of the far East, and 
 western Europe eagerly sought to reach them and share in the 
 trade of the Italian republics. 
 
 o. Christopher Columbus was a seaman of Genoa, who enter- 
 ed the Portugese navy about 1480. He sailed frequently to the 
 Canary Islands and Iceland, and became familiar with all that 
 was then known of Astronomy and Navigation. He conceived the 
 idea that the earth was round and jiot flat, as had been generally 
 taught, and that Eastern Asia was to be most readily reached by 
 sailing westward. He had no suspicion that an unknown conti- 
 nent lay between two vast oceans all which must be passed to 
 reach the empire of the Grand Mogul and India. He long la- 
 bored in vain to impress his views on Portugal, Genoa and Spain, 
 and to obtain help to test his theories. He was considered a 
 wild visionary, but he finally gained the ear and confidence of 
 Queen Isabella, then ruling Spain jointly with her husband, 
 King Ferdinand. She furnished him with three small vessels 
 and he sailed on his adventurous voyage, August 3, 1492. Not 
 the least of his dangers lay in the fears of his sailors who were 
 with difficulty restrained from forcing him to return before his 
 object was gained. 
 
 4. He crossed the Atlantic where it was widest, and on the 70th 
 day of the voyage landed on a small island belonging to the Baha- 
 ma group, between North and South America. His belief that he 
 had reached India led him to call the natives Indians, and the 
 islands were afterward termed the " West Indies." After spend- 
 ing a little time cruising about among the islands he hastened to 
 return and give the wonderful tidings to Spavin. He had been 
 absent seven months and eleven days. All Europe was thrilled 
 with surprise and curiosity. Spain had just closed a patriotic 
 
136 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 crusade which delivered it from Moorish rule and gave into its 
 hands the treasures of a rich and polished race. Its victorious 
 warriors, identifying the cause of God with the spread of the 
 Roman Catholic faith by their victories, and considering- the 
 wealth of vanquished unbelievers rightfully their own, were eager 
 to win new laurels so long as rich rewards were to be gained. 
 
 Columbus returned to continue his discoveries and to rule the 
 colonies immediately planted in the West India islands. After 
 a few years, during which he reached the coast of South America, 
 he was traduced by envious rivals, treated with ingratitude by 
 the Spanish government, and died in 1506 unconscious of the 
 magnitude of his discovery. An Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, 
 visited South America, and on his return, published a description 
 of it that was widely circulated. A Venetian seaman in the 
 English navy, John Cabot, was really the first to reach the main 
 land. In 1497 he touched at Newfoundland and explored the 
 coast of Labrador, In the following year his son, Sebastian 
 Cabot, explored the coast south as far, it is said, as Maryland. 
 
 5. The West India islands first occupied the attention of the 
 Spaniards. Mines of precious metals and valuable tropical pro- 
 ducts invited immigration; the natives were reduced to slavery 
 and much wealth was secured. It was 18 years after the first 
 voyage of Columbus before a settlement was made on the conti- 
 nent, by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, in Central America. In 1513, 
 three years later, he, the first of Europeans, saw the Pacific 
 Ocean and definitely proved that it was not Eastern Asia, but a 
 new world that had been discovered. This was another great 
 surprise to Europe and a shock to old theories. It came now to 
 be called America; but the memory of the first theory remained 
 in the name, Indians applied to all the native races of North and 
 South America. Balboa's colony founded the city of Panama on 
 the narrow isthmus connecting the two parts of the continent. 
 
 Six years later Magellan commenced his voyage around the 
 world. He sailed around South America and north in the Pacific 
 to Panama on the Isthmus then westward till he reached Asia 
 and back to Europe in the track of Portuguese vessels. By a 
 continuous westward course he reached his starting point — thus 
 proving the theory of Columbus. This voyage occupied three 
 years — from 1519 to 1522. During this time Cortez led a few 
 hundred men to Mexico where he found a well-oganized, rich 
 and civilized people. These he succeeded, by skill, good fortune 
 
THE CHARACTER OF THE SPANISH CONQUERORS. 137 
 
 and the immense superiority of gmipowder and surprise, in con- 
 quering- in 1521. The Spaniards were fearless soldiers and 
 extremely zealous for the Christian faith as they understood it ; 
 but they were not wise or magnanimous as men. Finding them- 
 selves possessed of the power to crush all native opposition, 
 they were ruthless and left few fragments of the interesting 
 civilization and native institutions they discovered. 
 
 About ten years later, Pizarro, another bold Spanish adven- 
 turer, having gained some intimations of the existence of the 
 Inca empire of Peru, on the slopes and summit of the Andes in 
 South America, organized a small force and boldly attacked a 
 populous state having a large native ' army, strong fortresses 
 and walled cities, with immense stores of gold and silver. A 
 partial success drew to him such help as was necessary, though 
 in itself a mere handful. Audacious and unscrupulous valor 
 very soon laid waste another native American civilization in 
 some respects superior to that which replaced it. The Indians 
 were reduced to servitude and misery ; Chili, Central America 
 and every other region containing treasures valuable enough to 
 repay their conquest, were overrun, and Spain was soon flooded 
 with ill-gotten wealth. It was wasted by the people in luxurious 
 display, and by the king — who was also emperor of Germany 
 and ruler of the Netherlands, Austria, Hungary and Southern 
 Italy — in wars of ambition. 
 
 6. Spanish discovery in America was unfortunate, both for 
 America and Spain, by reason of the corrupting influence of the 
 great gain secured; but it furnished new capital to Europe and led 
 to the final emigration of a people more suitable for building a 
 more progressive state than the condition of Europe then per- 
 mitted. Tropical America chiefly attracted the Spaniards. They 
 passed by its more valuable temperate regions with indifference 
 and allowed them, more than a century after the establishment 
 of their flrst colonies, to fall into French and English hands. 
 
 During the sixteenth century France and England were much 
 disturbed by civil strife and especially by the struggles of Span- 
 ish rulers to control all Europe and prevent the spread of Pro- 
 testant forms of religion. Yet they were more benefited than 
 Spain itself by the gold and silver of the New World. Their 
 people grew rich and England advanced rapidly toward the crisis 
 that was to free it from arbitrary government. In 1524, Verraz- 
 zani, a seaman of Florence in the French service, explored the 
 
138 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 eastern coast of ISTorth America, from Carolina to Newfound- 
 land, calling it all New France, as Mexico had been called New 
 Spain. In 1535, Jacques Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence 
 Gulf, the river of that name in the next year, and spent the fol- 
 lowing winter at Quebec. Fishermen from France, descendants 
 of the bold Normans, had frequented the fisheries on the Banks 
 of Newfoundland from the beginning of the century and reaped 
 much profit. 
 
 7. Inl555,Villegagnon, a French nobleman, attempted to found 
 a colony in the bay of Rio Janeiro, Brazil, but dissenstions broke 
 it up. In 1563 and 1565 French Huguenots made similar efforts 
 in Carolina and Florida which failed from discouragment and 
 very bloody Spanish hostility. De Soto, one of the bold and 
 ruthless comrades of Pizzaro in Peru, spent three years, from 
 1539 to 1542, in a vain effort to find gold and a people worthy to 
 be conquered and enslaved in the Mississippi valley. In the 
 latter year he died on the banks of the Mississippi. The English 
 made several attempts at founding colonies under patents 
 granted by Queen Elizabeth. Sir Humphrey Gilbert twice failed 
 in 1579 and 1583, and Sir Walter Raliegh in 1585 and 1587, in the 
 region named, from the "Virgin Queen," Virginia. In 1598, a 
 French nobleman, the Marquis De la Roche, attempted to found 
 a colony, largely composed of convicts, in Nova Scotia, which 
 was a failure also. A singular fatality, together with a real 
 want of suitable preparation, marked all English and French 
 efforts to gain a permanent foot-hold in the new world during 
 this century. Their discoveries were confined to the sea coast 
 and the St. Lawrence river as far up as Montreal. The interior 
 was so little known that, at the beginning of the next century, 
 it was supposed that some of the rivers flowed into the 
 •■ South Sea." as the Pacific ocean was called. No definite notions 
 of the real geography of North America were gained till far into 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 South America was better known. The Portuguese had settled 
 Brazil, the Spanish had mission colonies south of them, on the La 
 Plata river, and Spanish vessels sailed to Peru and the west 
 coasts by way of Cape Horn or the Straits of Magellan. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 AMERICAN COLONIES IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 1. Spain had hoped to monopolize the New World, but her emi- 
 grants to it did little more than destroy or appropriate what they 
 found already there. Their ambition was to acquire sudden 
 wealth and return to Spain ; they were neither true settlers nor 
 good organizers. They confined themselves chiefly to regions 
 developed by native civilizations, where gold and silver could be 
 found, or where valuable tropical products could be cultivated 
 by servile labor — that of native Americans or negroes. After 
 the first violent conquests, the Spaniards had usually little diffi- 
 culty in controlling the native races. They had a talent for en- 
 forcing obedience, and the Roman Catholic priesthood formed a 
 kind of moral police, while they softened more or less the harsh- 
 ness of their sway. Jesuit missionaries often established a pa- 
 triarchial rule, both mild and civilizing, over the gentle southern 
 races, when once the spirit of revolt of the ruling native classes 
 had been thoroughly broken. But there was no improvement 
 on European models ; the colonies were governed by viceroys of 
 the King of Spain ; no liberty of self-rule was conferred upon the 
 colonists, whose vigor and virtue were not encouraged, while 
 their vices were stimulated. 
 
 •^. The French differed much from the Spanish in their treat- 
 ment of the Indians. They met them as friends and courted them 
 as allies. Pliant French courtesy was highly appreciated by the 
 tribes of the North, and, except when they took part in native 
 enmities and wars, they were received with pleasure and served 
 with fidelity. 
 
 The English did not enslave or destroy like the Spanish, and 
 were not complaisant, like the French. They were generally 
 just, according to their notions of justice ; but did not specially 
 court the alliance of the Red Man. Their friendship for him was 
 cool and distant. They preferred not to associate much with 
 
 (139) 
 
140 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 him, and often repulsed his too famihar approach with scorn. 
 The English and the Indians did not understand one another, 
 and their aims were too different for real friendship. The Indian 
 would not accept civilization, and the Englishman took perman- 
 ent possession of the Indian hunting-grounds, cut down his 
 forests, cultivated the fields and built towns with a restless and 
 successful vigor very alarming to the tribes, to whom it meant 
 banishment from their favorite homes. 
 
 3, The French and English both prepared to plant colonies in 
 North America in the early years of the seventeenth century. 
 By this time the fisheries about Newfoundland and the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence had become extensive. Hundreds of vessels, most- 
 ly manned by the hardy seamen of the French coast, spent a 
 few months every summer on the fishing grounds. A profitable 
 traffic in furs had grown up with tribes around the Gulf and 
 River St. Lawrence, but no settlement had been made. In 1604 
 Sieur de Monts, a French gentleman belonging to the court of 
 Henry IV., King of France, was licensed to trade and plant a 
 colony in Acadia, the present Nova Scotia. This he established 
 at Port Royal, on the Bay of Fundy, in 1605. Two years after 
 his privileges were revoked and he withdrew his people. This 
 colony was re-established in 1610, to be broken up by the English 
 from Virginia in 1613; but many of the settlers thereafter re- 
 mained scattered among the Indians, although, for a long time, 
 without colonial organization. Champlain had visited the site 
 of Quebec in 1603 and counselled De Monts to establish himself 
 there, which he obtained authority to do in 1609. 
 
 This settlement proved to be permanent. Champlain was a 
 French nobleman of high character, with influence at court. He 
 became the head of the French colony in Canada, spending the 
 remainder of his life in promoting its welfare, now in France 
 and now in Canada, as its needs required. He carefully culti- 
 vated the friendship of the Indian tribes in his neighborhood. 
 They were Algonquins and at war with the Iroquois, or Five 
 Nations of New York, and he at once aided them in repulsing 
 the attacks of this formidable confederacy — thereby laying the 
 foundation for great disasters to the colony for nearly a century. 
 Champlain visited the upper Ottawa Indians and the Hurons, 
 near the lake of that name, and laid large plans for the future. 
 These plans, however, were defeated by the faults of the French 
 colonial system, by the attacks of the fierce Iroquois, by the 
 
THE FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS. 141 
 
 hostility of the English colonies during periods of war between 
 England and France, and the claim of each nation to the same 
 territory. 
 
 4. In 1 606 James I. . King of England, issued patents to two 
 companies — called the London and Plymouth — for establishing 
 colonies in North America. In the next year (1607) the Plymouth 
 Company attempted a settlement near the Kennebec river, in 
 Maine, but failed. The same year the London Company made 
 the first permanent English settlement in the New World at 
 Jamestown, in Virginia. The colonists did not prove suitable 
 and the effort would have failed but for the vigor of Capt. John 
 Smith, who was among them, and the friendly interposition of 
 Pocahontas, the daughter of an Indian chief. In 1610 Lord Del- 
 aware arrived as governor under a new charter, with provisions 
 and new colonists, in time to prevent the abandonment of the 
 place by the original settlers. 
 
 The steadiness and good sense usually characteristic of En- 
 glishmen henceforth marked the history of the Virginia settle- 
 ment. A mild climate, a fertile soil, and the extensive cultiva- 
 tion of tobacco favored the prosperity of the settlers and attracted 
 immigrants in considerable numbers. Local government by 
 representatives of the people was instituted in 1619, when the 
 first elective legislative body in America, composed of Burgesses 
 from eleven towns, was organized. The Englishman brought 
 his liberties with him and managed to enjoy them in greater 
 fulness in the colony than at home. 
 
 Capt. Hudson, commander of a Dutch vessel, had explored 
 Hudson river as far as Albany in 1609, In 1613 a Dutch fort was 
 built at New York to protect a colony of that nation. In 1615 
 another was founded at Albany. The Dutch continued to en- 
 large their settlements for nearly fifty years when they fell, 
 without blood-shed, into English hands. Having been granted, 
 during a war between England and Holland, by charter to the 
 Duke of York, afterward James 11. , King of England, he sent a 
 force which quietly disposessed the Dutch of the government in 
 1664. 
 
 5. An important event in the history of colonial America occur- 
 red in 1620. In 1608 a company of English citizens emigrated to 
 Holland to avoid persecution for their peculiar religious opinions 
 and to obtain freedom to follow their convictions. They thought, 
 after some years, that it would be more desirable to establish 
 
142 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 themselves in the New World and, having arranged with the 
 Plymouth company to secure the benefits of their charter and 
 organize self-government under English auspices,, they emigrated 
 again, in 1620, to New England. From this double removal they 
 have been called ■• The Pilgrim Fathers.'" Landing at Plymouth 
 Rock in the beginning of winter in that severe climate, they 
 suffered great hardships, but the colony outlived its first difficul- 
 ties and became permanent. 
 
 The trials of their co-religionists in England and the arbitrary 
 course of Charles I. led, in a few years, to the formation of another 
 colony near them called, "' Massachusetts Bay," whose first settle- 
 ment was at Salem in 1629. By 1640 about twenty-one thousand 
 people, similar in religious and political views, had emigrated to 
 i!^ew England. They were the most English of the English in 
 character, and many of their habits and the institutions they 
 established were, in spirit and general form, after the most 
 genuine Anglo-Saxon models. They were not without the faults 
 of their time nor free from the errors of humanity; but they were 
 of resolute and lofty mind and steadily adhered to their princi- 
 ples. They were thrifty and industrious and grew comfortably 
 prosperous on their rocky soil. They rapidly multiplied in num- 
 bers though no very large immigration, after the first twenty 
 years, came to their aid. They were somewhat sternly religious 
 and both the social conditions and natural resources of most of 
 the other colonies offered greater attractions to the average 
 emigrant from various parts of Europe. 
 
 6. All Englishmen had similar fundamental ideas and aspira- 
 tions for civil liberty and eagerly clung to all that their various 
 charters granted them: but the example of the iSTew England 
 colonies placed before them an illustration of a free political 
 society of great force and value. The plan was so simple, 
 natural and sharply defined that none could mistake or fail to 
 appreciate it. All the thirteen English colonies, established at 
 various times down to 1730, were found, forty years later, to be 
 thoroughly imbued with the same spirit, however various their 
 origin and history as colonies. 
 
 Virginia and most of the other colonies lost their charters in 
 time and became "crown" colonies, but all held stubbornly to 
 representative government and the same fundamental idea of 
 political •'rights.'"' Dutch. Swedes. Germans. Huguenot French, 
 Scotch and Irish were melted thoroughly together by this- 
 
THE JESUITS IN THE FRENCH COLONIES. 143 
 
 dominant idea and were absorbed in the new race — the Anglo- 
 American — that was to play a distinguished part in future his- 
 tory, 
 
 7. It was otherwise with the French colonies on the St. Lawrence 
 and the Mississippi. The French Huguenot was, of all his nation, 
 the best adapted to a colonist's life, but he was persistently ex- 
 cluded from Canada in the belief that religious differences and 
 contests would be more harmful there than at home. The Home 
 Government was far too paternal to its colony. Champlain was 
 a sincere and earnest Catholic, and early associated the Jesuit 
 priesthood with himself in the care for its interests. This plan 
 was followed through the century and Canada was long a dis- 
 tinctly missionary colony. Nor would it be easy to find ex- 
 amples of more self sacrificing devotion to their work, in all 
 history, than was displayed by the French Jesuits in Canada 
 from 1624 to 1660. They, refined, educated and often of noble 
 blood, shrunk from no hardship or peril, went alone into the 
 wilderness hundreds of miles from civilized companions, shared 
 the rude experiences of the Indian, and held their lives at his 
 caprice. Some of them were mutilated, tortured and massacred 
 without complaint. They often preceded the boldest pioneers in 
 their explorations, and were foremost in confronting every peril 
 and hardship experienced by other colonists. 
 
 Their influence over the Indians became great and they were 
 long one of the chief bulwarks of the feeble company of colon- 
 ists. They had but slight support in the French population, 
 since, more than fifty years after the founding of Quebec there 
 were scarcely twenty-five hundred inhabitants of European 
 descent in all Canada. In a few years after its establishment 
 the English colony in Virginia numbered 4,000, and, in twenty- 
 five years New England had nearly 50,000 people and these self- 
 supporting and accumulating wealth. The climate of Canada 
 was a discouragement, at first, and the settlers long depended 
 largely for food supplies on shipments from France; but this 
 was afterward overcome by an industrious people. The chief 
 difficulty lay in the policy of the Home Government. Little self 
 control or independent action was permitted to the settler. 
 Every gainful employment was a monopoly, and all laws for 
 the government of the colony were made in France or by the 
 officers of the government sent out to rule it. 
 
 8. The people were habituated to dependence on their superiors. 
 
144 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 to accept what was given them and to be content with it, and 
 to trust entirely to the wisdom and good will of tlie king and 
 their priests. A more loyal or cheerful submission to mistaken, 
 arbitrary, yet kindly intended rule has seldom been seen. The 
 ambitious and active young men spent the warmer months 
 hunting and trapping, the most of them in the employment of 
 fur traders. This trade being a monopoly they could not pursue 
 it on their own account, but roaming the woods, even in the 
 interest of others, was an opening for active spirits, and the far 
 interior of the continent, even to the base of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, became familiar ground to the '"coureur des bois," or 
 trappers. 
 
 The determined enmity of the Iroquois to the French long- 
 made the very existence of the colony doubtful. After a time 
 those politic savages saw the value to them of two contending* 
 European nationalities w^ho'm they might balance against each 
 other and so preserve their own lands from aggression, and they 
 alternately made war and peace as served this purpose. The 
 English and Dutch who were near them sold them fire arms 
 and bought their furs, but these artful diplomatists kept alive 
 their fears of the French, covertly interfering with French and 
 English wars as policy dictated, but generally maintaining- 
 friendliness toward the latter In proportion, however, as 
 English settlements approached their borders and threatened to 
 overflow them with the dreaded civilization they grew friendly 
 toward the French and finally left their way freely open to the 
 Upper Lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi Valley. 
 
 9. But the French ••habitans," as the common colonists of Cana- 
 da were called, were hardy and brave, however careless of political 
 liberty. Their power of accomodating themselves to the habits 
 of the Indian and securing his good will made of him a fast 
 friend while his love of war made him a valuable ally. When 
 La Salle undertook to carry out the vast plans of Champlain and 
 took formal possession of the Mississippi Valley and the French 
 Government established military posts on the Upper Ohio and a 
 colony at the mouth of the great river, the AVestern Indians re- 
 ceived them with satisfaction and gave them a hearty support. 
 
 Thus a colony, insignificant in numbers, poor and unaspiring 
 for themselves, seemed likely, during the first years of the fol- 
 lowing centifi^y, to divide all of North America with Spain ex- 
 cept the narrow strip of the Atlantic coast actually occupied by 
 
RAPID PROGRESS OF ALL THE COLONIES. 145 
 
 the English. In 1642 a religious association settled Montreal. 
 In 1649 and 1650 the Iroquois destroyed the towns of the Hurons 
 where promising Jesuit mission had been established. That 
 Indian nation, on which the French counted much as an ally 
 and aid, was quite broken up. In 1663 Louis XIV. made Canada 
 a royal colony. It was a most important epoch in its history. 
 Home policy in regard to it was considerably changed, about ten 
 thousand new colonists arrived in the course of a few years, 
 military settlements on the Feudal principle were made, and 
 much care and money expended by the king to assure its pros- 
 perity. It soon took firm root and, one hundred years after, it 
 had some 60,000 inhabitants. Wisely managed it would have 
 been self-sustaining from the start. As conducted it probably 
 cost the mother country much more than it ever returned to it in 
 any form. 
 
 0. The English colonies had been self-sustaining from the first 
 and had grown and prospered greatly. Their trade became 
 ]>rofitable, but navigation laws restricted their gains and bene- 
 fitted England by requiring each colony to trade only and 
 directly with the Mother country. These laws were promulgated 
 in 1G51. Within fifteen years New Amsterdam had become New 
 York, and New Jersey and Carolina were settled. About 1680, 
 William Penn secured proprietary rights to Pennsylvania and 
 organized a settlement and government on extremely just and 
 liberal principles. The Indians were satisfied and peaceable, the 
 colonists contented and prosperous. 
 
 The establishment of Parliamentary Government in England 
 in 1688 did not make the improvement in the condition of the 
 American colonies that might have been expected. The Parlia- 
 ment was even more exacting than arbitrary kings had been. 
 Many of them had their very liberal charters annulled by Parlia- 
 ment, willing to sacrifice the interests of the colonies to the 
 prosperity of traders and merchants at home. These colonies had 
 disregarded the restrictive -'Navigation Acts," which cut off 
 from them an important source of gain. Their refusal to tamely 
 set aside their own interests to promote those of English trades- 
 men was punished by depriving them of chartered liberties. All 
 the colonies, however, clung obstinately to local self-government, 
 and maintained a constant struggle against the growing arbi- 
 trariness and restrictions of the Home authorities. 
 10 
 
CHAPTEE IT. 
 
 THE AMEEICAN COLONIES IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTTJRT. 
 
 1. The Colonies which became the United States of America in 
 the last quarter of this century were all established and flourish- 
 ing at its beginning, except Georgia, which was founded in 1733. 
 
 In 1690 the French had scarcely 12,000 inhabitants in Canada 
 and Acadia (Nova Scotia), while, about 1700, the English Colon- 
 ies had altogether 265,000. and had barely commenced their great 
 career. 
 
 From 1690 to 1713 there was almost constant war between 
 France and England, and during this time their Colonies sought 
 to do each other the most harm possible. The French and their 
 Indian allies frequently traversed the wide forests that lay be- 
 tween the settlements of Canada and those of New England and 
 New York, and barbarous massacres at Schenectady, Deerfield, 
 Casco. and various other places, thrilled the English settlements 
 with alarm and indignation. An English expedition for attack- 
 ing the French by way of Lake Champlain failed through the 
 adroit interference of the Iroquois, though they were, nominally, 
 on the side of the English. They did not wish the French to be 
 seriously injured. Acadia was torn from the French, and, with 
 ISTewfoundland and the Hudson's Bay region, remained in the 
 hands of the English. A peace of some thirty years followed, 
 during which causes of war accumulated, and the fires of an- 
 cient enmity smouldered ready to break out at the proper time. 
 
 2. Canada had thenceforth a true and vigorous growth, al- 
 though slow compared with the enterprising English Colonies. The 
 climate produced hardy men. If the government allowed them 
 small room for independent enterprise, it endeavored to be other- 
 wise just and kind to the common people, and their priests were 
 faithful and earnest in caring for their modest interests. There 
 was too much room and their habits were too simple to allow of 
 serious want or distress They knew nothing of the suffering 
 and oppression of the neasantry of Europe, and were probablv 
 
 (U6) 
 
FRENCH AND ENGLISH COLONISTS COMPARED. 147 
 
 as contentedly happy as any community of any time or place in 
 the world. But it is not well for the individual, the community, 
 or nation, to be deprived of the chance of progress, or wanting 
 in restless ambition. The most aspiring and discontented, if in- 
 dustrious, are those who develop resources, constantly improve 
 their condition and the general welfare, and become men in the 
 best sense. 
 
 The Anglo-American Colonies assumed the cares, burdens and 
 vexations of self-government; watched over their own interests 
 with jealous eagerness; improved all opportunities of bettering 
 their condition with enterprising fortitude, and prepared for 
 themselves, for their descendants, and for mankind, a still bet- 
 ter future. They did not permit any of their faculties to rust or 
 deteriorate, but improved them even in quarreling with their 
 Governors, resisting the Parliament and the King, and claiming 
 and defending all the rights belonging to Englishmen on Eng- 
 lish soil. 
 
 3. Thus the coast from Maine to the Carolinas was a scene of 
 busy industry and progress at the opening of the century. 
 Towns were springing up, commerce was growing on the sea, 
 and the rivers and the forests were retreating in the valleys, 
 and on the hills. The interior regions had not yet been very 
 largely occupied, except in parts of New England; but the In- 
 dians had been, for the most part, conquered in wars that almost 
 exterminated them, or the broken fragments of the tribes driven 
 toward or across, the mountains of the west. The Tuscaroras, 
 of North Carolina, were visited with a decisive and bloody chas- 
 tisement, for their attacks on the settlements in 1712; the Yam- 
 assees of South Carolina, were thoroughly conquered in 1715; 
 the natives of Maine, stimulated to war by the French, were 
 punished in 1717. Henceforth Indian wars were to be those 
 connected with beginning settlements in the great fertile West, 
 the rich central valley of the continent, and those flowing from 
 the influence of the French, in the final struggle for possession 
 of the best parts of North America. There was freedom to 
 spread back from' the Atlantic to the Alleghanies, in most di- 
 rections. 
 
 But the English Colonies made haste slowly. Champlain had 
 boldly struck for the center of the continent before he was firmly 
 seated on the St. Lawrence, and had ignorantly stumbled into an 
 enemity with the most indomitable and haughty Indian race in 
 
148 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 America. When Indian dread of the English made them toler- 
 ant of the French, that headlong people immediately established 
 themselves on the great Lakes, on the Ohio, on the Mississippi 
 in Illinois and Missouri, and at its mouth, near the Gulf of Mexi- 
 co. AVith 20,000 colonists as a base they hoped to hold a line of 
 5000 miles in the rear of an energetic and self-dependent string* 
 of colonies with near 300.000 inhabitants, and a country abound- 
 ing in resources. These colonies were not to be tempted to pre- 
 mature opposition. They quietly worked out their own plans, 
 subdued and peopled their own territory, and developed their 
 strength until they should be ready to strike a swift and sure 
 blow. They were too practical and held too firmly to what was 
 surely within their reach to peril it by following a rival into the 
 wilderness till all was ready. If they did not clearly reason it 
 out in this way. their instinctive good sense led them to act it 
 out just as surely. They did what lay at their hand without 
 overhaste or overconcern for the future. 
 
 4. The French were too few in number, and spread their effec- 
 tive strength over too wide a field, to cause much alarm to the early 
 Anglo-Americans. A French vessel appeared at the mouth of 
 the Mississippi to carry out the conception of La Salle, twelve 
 years after his murder in Texas following the miscarriage' of all 
 his life-long aims. D'lberville. the commander of the expedition, 
 estabhshed a colony on the Gulf near the river, which he ex- 
 plored for some distance up. On his return to the Gulf, he met 
 an Enghsh vessel sent by King AYilliam III. , of England, to oc- 
 cupy this outlet to a great and valuable interior. Finding it had 
 been anticipated, and the two nations being then at peace, the 
 English expedition withdrew. DTberville founded Mobile in 
 IvOl. In 1717 a considerable emigration from France colonized 
 the lower Mississippi valley, with its capital at Ifew Orleans. 
 After a time St. Louis became the French capital in the central 
 valley, and. at the time of the revolutionary war, had ],000 in- 
 habitants ; but after nearly three-quarters of a century of French 
 occupation •'■'Upper Louisiana,"' as the central valley was called, 
 had but 5.000 people of French descent, and there was. compared 
 with most of the Enghsh colonies, but a handful in the lower 
 valley. The Anglo-Americans by that time numbered millions, 
 had become a renowned Republic on the Atlantic, already had 
 two organized States on the upper Ohio, and Avere about to or- 
 ganize a third. 
 
THE GOOD STATESMANSHIP OF A FREE PEOPLE. 149 
 
 5. A contrast so marked, with the advantage to the French of a 
 start in time, of vigorous leaders and of government and priestly 
 influence to protect and nurse the colony, brings into bold re- 
 lief the differences in the genius of the two nationalities and the 
 depressing effect of a colonial rule arbitrarily guided from the 
 Mother Country. Freedom develops intelligence and energy, 
 while arbitrary rule, even by intelligent persons, diminishes 
 both. Wise statesmen, uncontrolled, often produce results 
 marked by ignorance and folly ; while, in this example of prac- 
 tical freedom, the unskilled masses of the people displayed the 
 highest statesmanship. England has learned to trust this in- 
 stinctive statesmanship in her colonies, and is scattering the 
 seed of vigorous, independent States on all the continents. That 
 it is the system, even more than national character, is seen in 
 the steady progress and intelligent moderation of the French in 
 Canada in the nineteenth century, and in the signs of improve- 
 ment and internal vigor in the Spanish- American Republics. 
 The Irish, French and Germans in the United States, Canada, 
 the Australian colonies, and South Africa, have shown that they 
 can become powerful elements of strength in thoroughly free 
 countries. 
 
 Spain had settled Florida on the Atlantic in 1565. The colony 
 had maintained its existence chiefly by virtue of its fort and 
 military protection during the one hundred and thirty-five years. 
 The Spanish Government became alarmed at the rapid spread of 
 English settlements and established a new colony and fort at 
 Pensacola, where supplies had awaited De Soto one hundred and 
 sixty years before at the time of his fearful battle at Maubila. 
 The Spanish and the French meant to exclude the English from 
 the Gulf of Mexico by these posts at Pensacola, Mobile and the 
 mouth of the Mississippi; but they only laid foundations on 
 which the Anglo-American was to build. When he was ready 
 he absorbed them without difficulty, at least, without serious 
 blood-shed. 
 
 6. The history of the Thirteen English Colonies from the Peace 
 of Utrecht in 1713, which closes what was known in America as 
 "Queen Anne's War," to the reopening of hostilities between 
 the French and English colonies, in 1744, was one of comprehen- 
 sive growth. They had no liberty to establish manufactures and 
 their liberty of trade with each other and with the foreign 
 world was restricted by the arbitrary '* Navigation Laws," to 
 
150 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 their injur}": but their chief interest, at that time, lay in ex- 
 tending the settlements, opening new farms and building upon 
 foundations already laid. Absolute freedom, such as England 
 now allows her colonies, would have developed them faster and 
 much more easily: but the markets of the world were xerj lim- 
 ited then and true principles of political economy w^ere not 
 understood anywhere. They bore their industrial and com- 
 mercial disabilities with cheerful composure. They were 
 attached to England as the ""Mother Country," greatly admired 
 its institutions and sought, with all the Englishman's regard for 
 precedent, to maintain the traditions and policy of the Anglo- 
 Saxons. But they were too busy making comfortable homes to 
 give very much attention to other things. They contended 
 with royal Governors over salaries and technical points of gov- 
 ernment occasionally, in the interval of other labors and cares, 
 and remonstrated when they considered that their privileges and 
 rights were disregarded: but England did not then realize their 
 strength and value and interfered with them comparatively 
 little. 
 
 7, Then followed twenty years of excitement and effort con- 
 nected with the conquest of the French colonies, and the Indian 
 war in the "SVest — "" Pontiac's AVar". it was called. The popula- 
 tion of the colonies, and their resources had, by 1764, greatly in- 
 creased. They were beginning to be prepared for enterprises 
 outside of the narrow line of seashore settlements. They had 
 already followed up the streams and reached the mountain 
 barrier that separated them from the magnificent lands of the 
 West. Few Englishmen had explored it. but the reports of La 
 Salle and his companions and successors had been published 
 and some idea of the great valley had been gained. Eager 
 curiosity began to lead all classes to contemplate future possi- 
 bilities connected with it. In 1684 French publications had 
 reported the discoveries on the Great Lakes, and Marquette, 
 Joliet and Hennepin, as well as La Salle, had made the region 
 of the great river famous. Something was also known of De 
 Soto's expedition, more than two hundred years before. 
 
 In this year the authorities of Virginia gave a sign of the dim 
 forecast of thoughtful colonists, even in that early time, by in- 
 ducing the Iroquois, at Albany, to give them a Deed of Sale of 
 the Ohio valley, to which these warriors professed to hold the 
 claim of conquerors. In 1744, another treaty with them, made 
 
NOVA SCOTIA AND THE EXILED ACADIANS. 151 
 
 at Lancaster, Penn., secured a second cession of the same 
 region. In 1749 the Enghsh government ceded to a company a 
 large tract of land there, though it was then claimed by the 
 French and they had established various military posts in it. 
 All this was designedly preliminary to plans of conquest soon to 
 be undertaken by the English Government, urged by colonial 
 i-epresentations. 
 
 8. When, nearly forty years before, Nova Scotia, Newfound- 
 land and the Hudson Bay regions had been secured to the 
 English, by treaty after conquest, the French fisheries had been 
 left unprotected. That Government still held the island of Cape 
 Breton, separated from Nova Scotia by a narrow strait, and had 
 built on it, with great care and expense, the Fortress of Louis- 
 burg. The 2,500 French habitans of Nova Scotia had been left 
 undisturbed. Few Englishmen had found occasion to go there, 
 and by the middle of the century the French peasants had 
 become about 10,000. in number. New England was deeply 
 interested in the neighboring fisheries, it contained the most 
 populous and enterprising of the English colonies, and had suf- 
 fered most from French attack from forty to sixty years before. 
 It organized an expedition to capture Louisburg in 1745. The 
 situation and strong fortilBcations caused it to be called the 
 ' ' Gibraltar of America. " It was taken without much delay or 
 loss. This colonial success stimulated the military pride and 
 spirit of the colonists, and they were much annoyed when, at 
 the treaty of peace between England and France, in 1748, 
 Louisburg was restored to the French. 
 
 0. The peace was, however properly a truce. The Colonies 
 would not be satisfied to be confined to the seaboard by a string 
 of small French posts and measures were meditated to quench 
 French ambition and rule in Canada and on the Ohio at a 
 time when the French Government had become fully awake to 
 the value of the great designs of Champlain and La Salle. 
 Lawrence Washington and other gentlemen of Virginia organ- 
 ized the " Ohio Company," and the English Government took 
 vigorous measures to colonize Nova Scotia. Halifax was found- 
 ed by 3,000 settlers in 1749, and it was decided in 1755 to expel 
 the French peasantry from their homes in that peninsula. They 
 were deeply attached to the French Government, language and 
 institutions, and were thought to be too great a danger to En- 
 glish rule, in the midst of war with their friends, to be permitted 
 
152 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TUIE. 
 
 to remain after decKning to give their hearty allegiance to En- 
 gland. A large part of them were forcibly removed from Aca- 
 dia. This was a barbarous measure sternly carried out. These 
 unfortunate people, to the number of about 7,000, were driven 
 from their modest but comfortable homes, which were mostly 
 destroyed behind them, forced into vessels in waiting with all 
 their hardly won possessions abandoned. They were carried 
 away to be distributed among the various English colonies. In 
 the embarkation f amihes were often separated, they were landed 
 in povert}^ among people of strange language, manners and re- 
 hgion. who held them in detestation as Frenchmen and as Ro- 
 man Catholics. It was an undeserved and pitiful fate to be so 
 punished for their simple patriotism. It was considered danger- 
 ous to allow them to swell by their numbers the strength of the 
 enemy soon to be attacked again, or to allow them to carry away 
 the means to return to their countrymen. The treatment of the 
 French in Canada after its conquest contrasts most favorably 
 with this cruel measure, 
 
 10. The four years following 1749 were passed by the English 
 colonies in quiet preparation for war. In 1753 George Washing- 
 ton, then a young m^an, was sent by the Governor of Virginia to 
 the commander of the French posts to protest against French oc- 
 cupation of the Ohio valley, and. in 1754. before war had been de- 
 clared in Europe, he commanded a colonial force instructed to 
 build a fort, at the head of the Ohio. The French had anticipat- 
 ed tliis measure by building Fort Du Quesne at the same point 
 and on the site of Pittsburg. After defeating a small party 
 Washington's intrenchments were surrounded by a force nearly 
 four times his own and he was obliged to capitulate. The next 
 year (1755) was marked by the total defeat of Gen. Braddock, 
 at the head of a British army, near the same place by the com- 
 bined French and Indians, and by the repulse of a French attack 
 at Lake George in ISTew York, 
 
 Two other enterprises were planned for this year, one against 
 a French fort at Niagara, the other against Louisburg. Both of 
 these expeditions were organized, but the proper time for attack 
 ■was allowed to pass in delay and nothing was done. Two years 
 more passed without any considerable progress being made by 
 the English forces. They were badly commanded, while French 
 Canadians proved excellent soldiers and had a good general, 
 Montcalm, who succeeded in reducing Fort William Henry on 
 
THE ENGLISH CONQUEST OF CANADA. 153 
 
 Lake George. His Indian allies massacred the garrison after 
 the surrender which horrified and greatly embittered the English 
 Colonies. This occurred in 1757, and at the close of this year the 
 French had lost no territory after three years of conflict, with 
 the disadvantage of being unable to obtain help from France, of 
 great disorder and corruption in their commissary service, of 
 poor harvests and inferior numbers in their armies. 
 
 11. All the French in America scarcely numbered 80,000, while 
 the inhabitants of the English colonies have been estimated as 
 high as 1,500,000. The colonists would have struck direct and effec- 
 tive blows if left to themselves; but the war was directed from 
 England and time was required for people so unfamiliar with a 
 distant country to comprehend the situation. A new ministry, 
 with William Pitt at its head, came into power in England late 
 in 1757, the difficulties had been long studied, and able com- 
 manders were soon sent out to make the attack on the most im- 
 portant points. Louisburg was captured by midsummer, 1758; 
 Fort Du Quesne was secured and became the English Fort Pitt 
 (now Pittsburg), and Fort Frontenac at the foot of Lake Ontario 
 was destroyed by an English force. Montcalm, however, inflicted 
 a serious defeat on the English Gen. Abercrombie at the head 
 of Lake Champlain. 
 
 In 1757 the English Gen. Wolfe ascended the St. Lawrence to 
 attack Quebec. After a long and difficult seige the army defend- 
 ing it was defeated, Montcalm and Wolfe were both mortally 
 wounded, and the fortress surrendered. Smaller successes for the 
 English occurred at Fort Niagara and near Lake Champlain. 
 No effective opposition could now be made by Canada, although 
 the war could not be finished till the next year, when Montreal 
 was taken and all the territory of the French east of the Mis- 
 sissippi River was surrendered. 
 
 In this war the hardy colonists found themselves fully equal 
 to the best trained English troops and became conscious of their 
 strength. The western Indians became alarmed at the defeat of 
 their friends, the French, and an able chief, named Pontiac, 
 organized the tribes about the Great Lakes to drive the English 
 from the west by a simultaneous attack on all the posts in 1763. 
 There was great alarm and much bloodshed in some places, but 
 the Indians failed at the important points and peace was estab- 
 lished in 1764. 
 
C H A P T E E V. 
 
 THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES FEOM 1763 TO 1776. 
 
 1. The English colonies had now a population one-fourth as 
 great as that of England itself. They had so far developed the 
 seaboard and the Atlantic slope of the Alleghanies as to feel the 
 need of a wider field for occupation: thev had by this time 
 acquired a general idea of the nature and resources of the 
 country west of them by personal observation while aiding in 
 the expulsion of the French: and they began to feel confidence 
 in their own resources and energies. They had lost much of 
 their traditional admiration and respect for British generals and 
 soldiers while observing the many blunders and failures of the 
 seven years' war which they themselves were confident they 
 would have avoided. Anglo-Saxons, during the long course of 
 English history, had become accustomed to slow and deliberate 
 action and changes not fully in harmony with the decisive and 
 energetic character of the race. Anglo- Ainericans had laid much 
 of this inopj)ortune deliberateness aside and learned to act with a 
 promptness that was to carry this new race and their future re- 
 public to the front of modern progress in a short time. 
 
 The Peace of Paris, in 1763. confirmed the results of the war, 
 and the close of "• Pontiac's War,"' in 1764, had shown that there 
 was no very serious danger to be apprehended from the north- 
 ern and western Indians. The special qualities and ambitions of 
 the race began, almost unconsciously, to show themselves. 
 Their qualities and circumstances alike destined them to great- 
 ness. In the course of the war all the various colonies together 
 had found occasion to advance about 816,000,000 for various 
 military expenses. This was afterward returned by the English 
 treasury, but had served to suggest to them their own resources. 
 They had lost about 30,000 men on battle-fields and in hospitals 
 during the seven years — many of them from the mistakes and 
 ill-management of English generals against which colonial 
 officers had protested when thev could be heard. Still, thev 
 
 (154) 
 
NEED OF REFORM IN ENGLAND FROM 17G5 TO 1783. 155 
 
 were heartily loyal to England as long as their special and 
 valued rights were not violated. 
 
 2. During this seven years England had been at war over a large 
 part of the world. In Europe, besides contending with France 
 and Spain, it supported Frederick the Great, of Prussia, with 
 men and money in his contest with Austria, France and Russia. 
 In 1757 was fought the battle of Plassy, in India, which laid the 
 foundations of English rule over two hundred millions of the 
 human race, and English sailors had fought in all quarters of 
 the globe. After many disasters England had won territories 
 and success almost everywhere and carried its points, generally, 
 in Europe; but the cost had been very great. Its public debt 
 amounted to more than $700,000,000. The body of the English 
 people were, at this time, but partially represented in Parlia- 
 ment. Great changes had taken place since the earlier times 
 when the local representatives to be elected had been assigned. 
 New towns and cities having no representation had sprung up, 
 and old towns had dwindled in population or died out alto- 
 gether. Great changes had also occurred in the classes having 
 the franchise, or right to vote. Sometimes a few persons elected 
 a member of the House of Commons, while a large town had no 
 representative or vote at all. The influence and wealth of the 
 nobility and aristocratic class usually prevailed in an election 
 with so few voters, and only the general patriotism of this class 
 saved the country from unbearable tyranny. As it was, many- 
 things were done that were unwise and unjust. In 1760 George 
 III. became King, and labored hard all his long reign to exert a 
 personal control in the acts of government, which the nature of 
 the English Constitution of that time did not justify. He la- 
 bored to control Parliament by procuring the election of members 
 on whom he could rely, and by bribing its members with offices 
 or money. Parliament was not, therefore, a fair representation 
 of the English people and average English character and opin- 
 ion at this time, nor for long after. If it had been, serious trouble 
 with the American Colonies would have been avoided. This 
 state of things was ended by partial reforms soon after the inde- 
 pendence of the United States was acknowledged, and by far 
 more thorough ones in the nineteenth century; but the evils of 
 too great royal influence, and of power in the hands of repre- 
 sentatives who stood for little but the King and the aristocratic 
 class, were at their height from 17G5 to 1783. 
 
156 THE FOOTPEIXTS OF TIjIE 
 
 3. In 1764 the King and his ministers determined that, since the 
 French war had been declared, and a great debt incurred, to 
 drive out the enemies of the Americans, they ought to bear a 
 part of the taxation which the war debt made necessary. This 
 principle was not contested by the colonies, but the Parliament" 
 of England chose to lay these taxes itself. This the colonies re- 
 sisted with the utmost determination. They were not represent- 
 ed in the English Parliament, and the principle that there should 
 be no taxation but by the consent and enactment of the repre- 
 sentatives of the parties to be taxed, had always been considered 
 the corner stone of English liberty. The maintenance of that 
 principle had made Parliament the acknowledged ruling force 
 of the Government. To give up their purse strings to the 
 EJing would have lost them all power of control over him. It 
 was fundamental to the liberties of Englishmen. 
 
 i. The Legislatures of the colonies expressed their willingness to 
 lay taxes themselves for the purpose, but this did not satisfy the 
 King and his Parliament. They disregarded remonstrances and 
 entreaties and, in 1764. proceeded to enact the "'Sugar Act". I^ 
 was for the avowed purpose of raising a revenue in America for 
 the English Treasury, and laid duties on coffee, pimento. 
 French and East India goods, and forbid exportation of iron and 
 Imnber to any country but England. It created great discontent 
 in all the colonies. Small revenue duties had long been laid, but 
 they had been almost nominal, and the Navigation Laws had 
 not been strictly enforced. Smuggling and illicit trading with 
 the Spanish AVest Indies, which was very profitable, were now 
 to be vigilantly guarded against. It was a severe and painful 
 restraint to men who had been treated with so much healthy 
 neglect as to have remained nearly unconscious that narrow 
 boundaries had been set to their activities in these respects. 
 Xow. when they felt the strongest desire and need of a still 
 larger freedom, the letter of old and oppressive laws was strictly 
 enforced. 
 
 0. It was not. however, so much the revenue to be raised as the 
 principle to be enforced that the king and his councillors had in 
 view: and it was this precedent which the colonies feared. It 
 ^was a singular forgetfulness of English history and English 
 character that could lead an English administration, in times so 
 modern, to insist on a principle that had always been abhorrent 
 to the nation. In 1765 Parliament proceeded to pass a "Stamp 
 
THE COLONIES AND PARLIA.MENT, K Go TO 1773. 157 
 
 Act" for raising an internal revenue in the American colonies. 
 This produced a storm of indignation and direct resistance. Vir- 
 ginia passed "Resolutions" affirming that ""it was an unlawful 
 Act and subversive of both British and American liberties." 
 Pennsylvania did likewise, and Massachusetts said, "If we are 
 taxed and not represented we are slaves." All the colonies took 
 the same view, Massachusetts invited the other colonies to ap- 
 point deputies to a Colonial Congress. Representatives of nine 
 Colonies met in New York, in October, and prepared a "Decla- 
 ration of Rights and Grievances," and determined on resistance. 
 The magistrates of Boston siezed the stamps on their arrival, 
 and prevented their issue. 
 
 0. Parliament repealed the Act in 1766, but formally asserted 
 "its power and right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever," 
 The Government had not dared to venture, at that time, to 
 enforce a law so contrary to all English traditions, but flatly 
 denied the doctrine of the "Declaration" of the colonial con- 
 gress. The Colonies had triumphed, however, for the moment, 
 and were filled with joy. Virginia voted the King a statue. 
 Their exultation came to an end in 1767, when taxes were again 
 levied on tea, paints, paper and glass. The colonists replied by 
 general resolutions not to use these articles. The royal Govern- 
 ors and revenue officers had an uneasy time in those days. 
 Massachusetts led in active opposition and urged the others to 
 cooperate, which they generally did as opportunity offered. 
 Four regiments of British troops were ordered to Boston. The 
 Legislature refused to transact business surrounded by an armed 
 force. Adjourned to Cambridge by the Governor, it refused, 
 following English precedents, to support the troops or vote sup- 
 plies for Government until "grievances" were redressed. 
 
 7. The British Parliament censured all this resistance as treas- 
 onable and authorized the sending of colonists, when arrested for 
 it, to England for trial. In 1770 the troops were insulted and 
 fired on the citizens, three being killed, and five wounded. It 
 was cited through the Colonies as the " Boston Massacre" and 
 strengthened the general indignation. Parliament, in April, 
 1770, repealed the tax of 1767 on all articles but tea. This was 
 neither courageous nor just, the principle being still maintained. 
 During the years 1771 and 1772 the British Government did not 
 push the struggle to a final issue and there was comparative quiet, 
 but no yielding. An address by a committee in Boston led, in 1 773. 
 
158 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 to measures preparatory to a political union of the Colonies, and 
 the British ministry determined to enforce the importation of tea 
 at Boston. Three ships arrived, late in 1773, laden with cargoes 
 of that article. After a long effort to get them sent away, with- 
 out success, a disguised party visited the vessels and emptied the 
 cargoes into the sea. 
 
 Parliament replied, in March, 177-t, by the "Boston Port Bill." 
 closing it to commerce. This was the issue which it had taken 
 the English Government ten years to reach. On September 4th, 
 the issue was met on the part of the colonists by the opening of 
 a '-Continental Congress"' at Philadelphia. All the Colonies but 
 Georgia were represented, there being fifty-three delegates. It 
 organized the Colonies for combined resistance to force and only 
 a spark was now required to kindle the flames of actual war. 
 
 8. At this time William Pitt, now Lord Chatham, proposed a 
 plan of reconciliation. It was to repeal the obnoxious taxation, 
 open the closed ports, withdraw the soldiers, restore the cancelled 
 charters, and ask the Colonies to provide by their own Legisla- 
 tures for a part of the public debt. This would have accorded 
 the colonists the legal rights, and have assigned to them the duties, 
 of Englishmen as they were understood in England. It was re- 
 jected, without even a consideration, by the King, his ministers, 
 and the majority of Parliament. The King himself was chiefly 
 the influence that had rejected all effective reconciliation. He 
 termed the repeal of the Stamp Act, in 1766, a *' 'fatal compli- 
 ance." and insisted that the principle should not be yielded. He 
 considered the Americans as "rebels" who must be punished into 
 obedience. 
 
 The habit of studying such questions had not then been ac- 
 quired by the mass of the English people. They were not yet 
 trained to interfere by a peremptory public opinion, unless their 
 own accustomed rights were directly assailed ; and the classes 
 who voted, and could influence the House of Commons by the 
 elections, had long been diminishing, as we have seen. Official 
 England was badly inspired when it so followed the lead of the 
 King, for Americans were defending the old Anglo-Saxon rights 
 — the principles of the Civil AYar and the Revolution of 1688. It 
 was determined to vindicate the principle that "Parliament could 
 bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever" — that they had no 
 rights but such as their English rulers chose to grant them. 
 
 9. The commander-in-chief of the British soldiers in America, 
 
THE BATTLES OF LEXINGTON AND BUNKER HILL. 159 
 
 Gen. Gage, had been made Governor of Massachusetts. He was 
 to subdue the Colonies by force, if necessary. On the 19th of 
 April, 1775, he sent eight hundred soldiers from Boston to Con- 
 cord — about twenty miles — to destroy some military stores be- 
 longing to the colonists. This was the spark that had been 
 looked for several months. Colonial militia, hastily assembled 
 to defend the stores, were fired on by the British soldiers and 
 dispersed ; but these troops were assailed on their return on all 
 sides by the country people, and, but for a reinforcement with 
 cannon, would have been completely destroyed. Three hundred 
 soldiers were killed and wounded; of the provincials eighty-five. 
 This was the "Battle of Lexington," so-called. It was only an 
 irregular attack of unorganized citizens on a British army, 
 but it opened a momentous and successful struggle for the rights 
 of Englishmen, and for the liberty of all men, as well as of 
 Americans. 
 
 10. Boston was immediately beleaguered by twenty thousand 
 men. The British army in that city soon numbered as many, 
 but the watchfulness and resolution of the besiegers condemned 
 them to helpless inactivity. Fifteen hundred Americans ap- 
 proached the city at Charlestown, at night, and hastily cast up 
 earthworks. The British commander attacked them with three 
 thousand men, who were twice repulsed with the loss of one- 
 third of their number. The ammunition of the Americans then 
 gave out and they safely retreated. They had lost but four 
 hundred and fifty men. This was the " Battle of Bunker Hill," 
 and was fought June 17, 1775. The boldness and stern decision 
 of the outraged Colonies taught the British forces the need of 
 discretion. They had been penned up in a peninsula surrounded 
 by the sea and by marshes, and had been shown that it was 
 dangerous to venture out. March 17. 1776, eleven months after 
 the Battle of Lexington, the American army, which had been 
 organizing and acquiring skill all this time, obliged them to 
 evacuate the city, take to their vessels and sail away. It was 
 evident that when Englishmen became Americans they did not 
 lose their character or vigor. 
 
 11. The English government had believed that a small army 
 would intimidate the colonies and bring them to submission, 
 which showed their entire misconception of their American 
 subjects. The Continental Congress had reassembled May 10th, 
 less than a month after the Battle of Lexington, and made pro- 
 
160 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 vision for a determined resistance. George Washington was 
 appointed commander-in-chief, troops and money were raised. 
 and an attack on Canada was planned and executed during the 
 fall and winter. Montreal was taken and an attempt made on 
 Quebec. The French in Canada had been considerately treated 
 by the English government, after the conquest, and were not to 
 be tempted to embrace the cause of their old enemies of New 
 England. Quebec was not taken and Canada was finally 
 abandoned by the Americans. The royal Governors were ex- 
 pelled or rendered powerless in all the colonies. A navy was 
 ordered to be created by Congress and letters of Marque and 
 Reprisal were issued to privateers. The British Government 
 declared American vessels lawful prize, and authorized the 
 impressment of American seamen into the British navy to fight 
 against their countrymen. 
 
 12. Until the spring of 1776 the colonists had waited for con- 
 ciliatory propositions from the Mother Country. The withdrawal 
 of the British army from Boston was great encouragement. 
 They now believed that independence was in their reach; that 
 only that could firmly unite them, free them from oppression, 
 and secure their rights and prosperity. In April. Washington 
 moved his army to New York and a British fleet was driven off 
 from South Carolina by the guns of Fort Moultrie. Congress 
 now prepared to organize an independent government on a per- 
 manent base. It showed to the civilized world the justice of its 
 cause in the Declaration of Independence, which was adopted 
 July 4, 1776, and this was considered the birthday of the new 
 nation. Twelve years of remonstrance and forbearance had 
 justified this action, but it could only be maintained by a suc- 
 cessful war. 
 
CHAPTER YI. 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 1. English history shows that the strongest and most persistent 
 quality of the Anglo-Saxon race is attachment to personal 
 liberty. In the hundred and fifty years of colonial life in the 
 Anglo-American settlements this tenacious quality was silently 
 strengthened and became still more self assertive than it had 
 ever been in England. An individual, or a nation, may be un- 
 conscious of special qualities which have long been maturing 
 until some crisis spurs them into earnest action. In the civil 
 war, between 1640 and 1650, the overthrow of the king gave 
 Englishmen an opportunity to establish a more liberal govern- 
 ment, yet they gave fairly royal powers to Cromwell as " Pro- 
 tector," and after his death recalled the exiled royal family. 
 Many desired more popular institutions, but the higher classes 
 would not consent. They had too much respect for their his- 
 torical monarchy, an ancient aristocracy, and a strong govern- 
 ment. 
 
 2. The contest of twelve years, (1764 to 1776), in the Colonies, 
 had served to show that they all thought and felt alike, that the 
 determination of all to have real civil liberty was so unanimous 
 that each could trust the other for support. When they came 
 to prepare the Declaration of Independence it was evident that 
 the Anglo-Saxon had passed through important changes on 
 American soil. They promptly discarded the theories on which 
 monarchical and aristocratic governments were justified. Their 
 ideas, when they came to formulate them, were direct and 
 thorough, natural and simple. They saw no such foundation 
 for the relation of king and subject as had led England, after 
 Cromwell's death, to restore Charles II. to the throne of his 
 father. To them it appeared that the king should be placed on 
 the same level and be judged by the same principles as the mean- 
 
 11 (161) • 
 
162 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 est of his subjects, and that a lord had no higher rights than the 
 poorest peasant. Politically, they asserted, men were equal. 
 All had equal claims to ''life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- 
 ness," so far as the State was concerned. These rights, among 
 others, were inalienable, and any government that disregarded 
 them violated fundamental law and became tyrannical. 
 
 3. This was an extremely radical theory, never, up to that 
 time, made the principle of its action by any government of any 
 time. To apply it completely would require an almost perfect state 
 of society. To deny it would open the way to all the abuses of 
 despotism, and governments acting contrary to it would certain- 
 Iv hinder the progress of society toward the ideal state. It was 
 characteristic of the Anglo-American to lay aside artificial sys- 
 tems, when the opportunity came, and to clearly recognize 
 fundamental principles. On this occasion the principle fur- 
 nished a fitting ground for the indictment of the King and the 
 Mother Country, who were unwilling to grant to Englishmen in 
 America the rights acknowledged to belong to them in England. 
 It was a suitable principle to recognize in laying the foundation 
 of a new nation and would naturally claim the earnest assent of 
 Puritans, Quakers, Catholics, Huguenots and Germans, who had 
 found refuge in America from oppression in Europe. The idea 
 that this new country and nation should be devoted to the main- 
 tenance of Equal Rights was enough to stir the enthusiasm of 
 Americans and gain the best sympathies of mankind. 
 
 4. It did so. and helped to realize the fact of Independence as 
 well as to exclude the principle of political inequality,— as to the 
 Caucasian race — from the whole fabric of the Government. 
 Southern interests and the habits of the world would not then 
 permit its application to the colored race. That was to be a 
 question for a later date; the principle was admitted and would 
 do its perfect work in time. The "Declaration" illustrated the 
 general characteristic of a new race that was to be highly and 
 honorably distinguished by great and striking progress. This 
 trait was thoroughness. It was shown in the ten years of agi- 
 tation that preceded the crisis of Eevolution; in the decisive ac- 
 tion which attended the first overt act of war by the British 
 troops at Concord, sustained for eleven months, until their ex- 
 pulsion from Boston; in the various phases of the war of eight 
 years; in the foundation of the present Constitution in 1787; in 
 the general policy of the government organized under it; and in 
 
THE AMERICAN CHARACTERISTIC IS THOROUGHKESS. 163 
 
 tlie industrial progress which rendered the country renowned 
 for prosperity and success in every line of activit}^ The people 
 made the most of themselves and of their resources, and justi- 
 fied the authors of the Declaration and the great principle of 
 Equal Rights they, first of practical statesmen, enunciated. 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary 
 for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have con- 
 nected them with another, and to assume among the powers of 
 the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of 
 nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the 
 opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes 
 which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are cre- 
 ated equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain 
 inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the 
 pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments 
 are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the 
 consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of govern- 
 ment become destructive of these ends, it is the right of the peo- 
 ple to alter or to abolish it and to institute a new government, 
 laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its 
 powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect 
 their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
 governments long established should not be changed for light 
 and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath 
 shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils 
 are sufferable, than to right them by abolishing the forms to 
 which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
 and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a 
 design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, 
 It IS their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
 new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient 
 sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which 
 constrains them to alter their former systems of government 
 The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of 
 repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the 
 
164 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To 
 prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world: 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and 
 necessary for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate 
 and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till 
 his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has 
 utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
 large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish 
 the right of representation in the legislature; a right inestimable 
 to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
 uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
 records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
 with his measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for oppos- 
 ing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the 
 people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolution, to cause 
 others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable 
 of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their 
 exercise; the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all 
 the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; 
 for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization of 
 foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration 
 hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of 
 lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing 
 his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the 
 tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their 
 salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
 swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their sub- 
 stance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
 without the consent of our legislature. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
 superior to, the civil power. 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. IGo 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
 foreign to our constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, 
 giving his consent to their acts of pretended legislation: 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for 
 any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of 
 these states: 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by 
 jury: 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 
 offenses: 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbor- 
 ing province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and 
 enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example 
 and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into 
 these colonies: 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
 laws, and altering fundamentally the powers of our govern- 
 ment: 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves 
 invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his 
 protection and waging war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our 
 towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 
 
 He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mer- 
 cenaries to complete the work of death, desolation and tyranny, 
 already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy 
 scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally un- 
 worthy the head of a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
 high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the 
 executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves 
 by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has en- 
 deavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merci- 
 less Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undis- 
 tinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for 
 
166 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 redress, in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have 
 been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose 
 character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, 
 is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
 We have warned them from time to time, of attempts made by 
 their Legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over 
 us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emi- 
 gration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native 
 justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the 
 ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which 
 would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
 They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consan- 
 guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
 denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of 
 mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the UNITED STATES 
 OF AMERICA, in GENERAL CONGRESS assembled, appeal- 
 ing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the rectitude of our 
 intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good 
 people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare: That 
 these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND 
 INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are absolved from all alle- 
 giance to the British crown, and that all political connection 
 between them and the State of Great Britain, is, and ought to 
 be, totally dissolved; and that, as FREE AND INDEPENDENT 
 STATES, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, 
 contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts 
 and things which INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do. 
 And, for the support of this declaration, and in firm reliance on 
 the protection of DIVINE PROVIDENCE, we mutually pledge 
 to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 
 
 The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed 
 and signed by the following members : 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK, 
 
 Massachusetts Bay. 
 New Hampshire. „ 
 
 Samuel Adams, 
 JosiAH Bartlett. ' John Adams, 
 
 Wtlltam "Whipple. Robert Treat Paine, 
 
 Matthew Thornton. Elbridge Gerry. 
 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCfe. 
 
 167 
 
 BJiode Island. 
 
 Stephen Hopkins, 
 William Ellery, 
 
 Cunnecticut. 
 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Samuel Huntington, 
 William Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 Neiv York. 
 W^illiam Floyd. 
 Philip Livingston, 
 Francis Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 Netv Jersey. 
 
 Richard Stockton, 
 John Witherspoon, 
 Francis Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abraham Clark. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Robert Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 George Clymer, 
 James Smith. 
 George Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 George Ross. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 C^sar Rodney, 
 George Reed, 
 Thomas M'Kean. 
 
 Maryland. 
 Samuel Chase, 
 William Paca, 
 Thomas Stone, 
 Charles Carroll, of CarroUton. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Benjamin Harrison, 
 Thomas Nelson, Jun., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee, v 
 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 William Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thomas Hey wood, Jun., 
 Thomas Lynch, Jun., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 George Walton. 
 
CHAPTEE YII. 
 
 THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 
 
 1. A tacit understanding had existed in the Continental Con- 
 gress previous to the issue of the Declaration of Independence 
 that its authority should extend to those questions, and only 
 those, which related to the general conduct of the war and the 
 common interests which no single Legislature found within its 
 province. Money was raised on its credit but only local authori- 
 ties could lay and collect taxes to pay the Public Debt. The need 
 of a more definite constitutional authority was now felt and, July 
 13, 1776, a committee reported on the powers of Congress and 
 the terms of Confederation. There was difference of opinion, 
 and a British army of invasion appeared just then on Long 
 Island in great force. In August Washington was worsted in 
 battle and obliged to retreat and permit New York to be occu- 
 pied by the enemy. A series of disasters followed, the British 
 spread over New Jersey, and Congress moved from Philadelphia 
 to Baltimore. 
 
 2. It was more than a year before the surrender of Burgoyne 
 relieved the anxiety of Congress and gave full assurance of 
 ultimate success; and during this time the Articles of Confeder- 
 ation were left in abeyance. They were then resumed, agreed 
 to in Congress, November 15, 1777, and sent to the States for ap- 
 proval. Eight States had ratified them by July 9, 1778, three 
 more before the year closed, one early in 1779, and the last 
 March 1, 1781. This document added little to the powers pre- 
 viously exercised by Congress. The States had assumed sover- 
 eign powers, each in its own behalf. It was a league of close 
 friendship, a central deliberative body, rather than a true union. 
 Congress, being without a revenue to control, could do little but 
 decide what was necessary and recommend common action to 
 the States. While the war lasted the common danger clothed 
 its decisions with some authority; but when the danger was 
 
 (168) 
 
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 169 
 
 past by the conclusion of peace, the Articles were found to 
 be very ineffective for promoting the general welfare. The 
 counsels of Congress were wise and moderate but it had no 
 Treasury and there was no vigorous executive. In 1787 a Con- 
 stitution was prepared which went into operation in 1789. The 
 "Articles" were, therefore, the legal bond of union for twelve 
 years. 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BETWEEN 
 
 THE STATES. 
 
 To all to ivhom these Presents shall come, We, the undersigned 
 Delegates of the States affixed to our 7iames, send greeting — 
 Whereas, the Delegates of the United States of America, in 
 Congress assembled, did, on the 15th day of November, in the 
 year of our Lord 1777, and in the second year of the independ- 
 ence of America, agree to certain Articles of Confederation and 
 Perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Con- 
 necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
 Georgia, in the words following, viz. : 
 
 Articles of Confederation and Pei^petual Union between the 
 States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island 
 and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaivare, Maryland, Virginia, North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 
 
 Article 1. The style of this Confederacy shall be ''The 
 United States of America." 
 
 Art. 2. Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and in- 
 dependence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is 
 not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United 
 States in Congress assembled. 
 
 Art. 3. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm 
 league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, 
 the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general wel- 
 fare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force 
 offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on ac- 
 count of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense 
 whatever. 
 
170 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Art, 4. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friend- 
 ship and intercourse among the people of the different States in 
 this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States — paup- 
 ers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted — shall be 
 entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the 
 several States; and the people of each State shall have free in- 
 gress and egress to and from any other state, and shall enjoy 
 therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the 
 same duties, impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants 
 thereof respectively, provided that such restriction shall not ex- 
 t-end so far as to prevent the removal of property, imported into 
 any State, to any other state of which the owner is an inhabi- 
 tant; provided, also, that no imposition, duties, or restriction 
 shall be laid by any State on the property of the United States, 
 or either of them. 
 
 If any person guilty of or charged with treason, felony, or 
 other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, 
 and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand 
 of the Governor, or executive power of the State from which 
 he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having juris- 
 diction of his offense. 
 
 Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States, to 
 the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and 
 magistrates of every other State, 
 
 Art, 5, For the more convenient management of the general 
 interest of the United States, Delegates shall be annually ap- 
 pointed, in such manner as the legislature of each State shaU 
 direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in N'ovember, in 
 every year, with a power reserved to each State, to recall its 
 Delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to 
 send others in their stead, for the remainder of the year. 
 
 ISTo State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, 
 nor more than seven members ; and no person shall be capable 
 of being a Delegate for more than three years in any term of six 
 years : nor shall any person, being a Delegate, be capable of 
 holding any oflBce under the United States, for which he, or 
 another for his benefit, receives any salary fees or emolument of 
 any kind. 
 
 Each State shall maintain its own Delegates in any meeting 
 of the States, and while they act as members of the Committee 
 of the States. 
 
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, 171 
 
 In determining questions in the United States in Congress as- 
 sembled, each State shall have one vote. 
 
 Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be im- 
 peached or questioned in any court or place, out of Congress, 
 and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons 
 from arrests and imprisonments, during the time of their going 
 to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, 
 felony, or breach of the peace. 
 
 Art. 6. No State, without the consent of the United States in 
 Congress assembled, shall send an embassy to, or receive an 
 embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, 
 or treaty with any King, Prince, or State ; nor shall any person 
 holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or 
 any of them, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title 
 of any kind whatever from any King, Prince, or Foreign State , 
 nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of 
 them, grant any title of nobility. 
 
 No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confedera- 
 tion, or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of 
 the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately 
 the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how 
 long it shall continue. 
 
 No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere 
 with any stipulation in treaties, entered into by the United 
 States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince, or State, 
 in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to 
 the Courts of France and Spain. 
 
 No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any 
 State, except such number only as shall be deemed necessary by 
 the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of 
 such State, or its trade ; nor shall any body of forces be kept up 
 by any State in time of peace, except such number only as in the 
 judgment of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be 
 deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense 
 of such State ; but every State shall always keep up a well regu- 
 lated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accou- 
 tred, and shall provide and have constantly ready for use, in 
 public stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper 
 quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. 
 
 No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the 
 United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actu- 
 
172 ' THE FOOTPEIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 ally invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice 
 of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade 
 such a State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a 
 delay, till the United States in Congress assembled can be con- 
 sulted ; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or 
 vessels of war, nor lettters of marque or reprisal, except it be 
 after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress as- 
 sembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State, and the 
 subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and 
 under such regulations as shall be established by the United 
 States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by 
 pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that 
 occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or the 
 United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. 
 
 Art. 7. When land forces are raised by any State for the 
 common defense, all ofi&cers of, or under the rank of colonel, 
 shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, 
 by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such 
 State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State 
 which first made the appointment. 
 
 Art. 8. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall 
 be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and 
 allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be 
 defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by 
 the several States in proportion to the value of all land within 
 each State granted to or surveyed for any person, as such land 
 and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated 
 according to such mode as the United States in Congress assem- 
 bled shall, from time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for 
 paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority 
 and direction of the Legislatures of the several States, within the 
 time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 Art. 9. The United States in Congress assembled shall have 
 the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace 
 and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article ; of 
 sending and receiving embassadors, entering into treaties and 
 alliances : provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made 
 whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be 
 restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners 
 as their own people are subjected to. or from prohibiting the ex- 
 portation or importation of any species of goods or commodities 
 
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 173 
 
 whatsoever ; of establishing rules for deciding in all cases what 
 captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner 
 prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United 
 States shall be divided or appropriated; of granting letters of 
 marque and reprisal in times of peace; appointing courts for the 
 trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, 
 and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally 
 appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member 
 of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said 
 courts. 
 
 The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last 
 resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, 
 or that hereafter may arise, between two or more States concern- 
 ing boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever, which 
 authority shall always be exercised in the manner following: 
 Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent 
 of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition 
 to Congress, stating the matter in question, and praying for a 
 hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress, to 
 the legislative or executive authority of the other State in con- 
 troversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties 
 by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint, 
 by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court 
 for hearing and determining the matter in question; but if they 
 cannot agree. Congress shall name three persons out of each of 
 the United States, and from the list of such persons each party 
 shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until 
 the number shall be reduced to thirteen, and from that number 
 not less than seven nor more than nine names, as Congress shall 
 direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot, 
 and the persons whose names shall be so drawn, or any five of 
 them, shall be commissioners or judges to hear and finally de- 
 termine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges 
 who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination; and 
 if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, "with- 
 out showing reasons which Congress shall judge sufficient, or, 
 being present, shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed 
 to nominate three persons out of each State, and the Secretary 
 of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refu- 
 sing; and the judgment and sentence of the court to be appoint- 
 ed, in the manner above prescribed, shall be final and conclu- 
 
274 THE FOOTPEINTS OF TIME. 
 
 sive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the 
 authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or 
 cause, the court shall, nevertheless, proceed to pronounce sent- 
 ence or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decis- 
 ive, the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in 
 either case transmitted to Congress and lodged among the acts 
 of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided 
 that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take 
 an oath, to be administered by one of the judges of the Supreme 
 or Superior Court of the State where the cause shall be tried; 
 "well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question: 
 according to the best of his judgment, without favor, affection, 
 or hope of reward:" provided also that no State shall be deprived 
 of territory for the benefit of the United States. 
 
 All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed 
 under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions. 
 as they may respect such lands and the States which passed 
 such grants, are adjusted, the said grants, or either of them, 
 being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to 
 such settlement of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either 
 party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined, 
 as near as may be, in the same manner as is before prescribed 
 for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between 
 different States. 
 
 The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the 
 sole exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value 
 of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respec- 
 tive States : fixing the standard of weights and measures 
 throughout the United States; regulating the trade and manag- 
 ing all affairs with the Indians not members of any of the States 
 
 provided that the legislative right of any State within its own 
 
 limits be not infringed or violated; establishing or regulating 
 post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United 
 States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through 
 the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said 
 office; appointing all officers of the land forces in the service of 
 the United States, except regimental officers; appointing all the 
 officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers what- 
 ever in the service of the United States; making rules for the 
 government and regulation of the said land and na»^al forces, 
 and directing their operations. 
 
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 175 
 
 The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority 
 to appoint a committee to sit in the recess of Congress, to be de- 
 nominated "A Committee of the States," and to consist of one 
 delegate from each State, and to appoint such other committees 
 and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general 
 affairs of the United States under their direction; to appoint 
 one of their number to preside — provided that no person be al- 
 lowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in 
 any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of 
 money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to 
 appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public exr 
 penses; to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the 
 United States, transmitting every half year to the respective 
 States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted; 
 to build and equip a navy; to agree upon the number of land 
 forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, 
 in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State, 
 which requisition shall be binding; and thereupon the legisla- 
 tures of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise 
 the men, and clothe, arm and equip them in a soldierlike 
 manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers 
 and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the 
 place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United 
 States in Congress assembled; but if the United States in Con- 
 gress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances, judge 
 proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a 
 smaller number than its quota, and that any other State should 
 raise a greater number than the quota thereof, such extra num- 
 ber shall be raised, officered, clothed, armed and equipped in 
 the same manner as the quota of such State, unless the legisla- 
 ture of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be 
 safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise, 
 officer, clothe, arm and equip as many of such extra number as 
 they judge can be safely spared; and the officers and men so 
 clothed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, 
 and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress 
 assembled. 
 
 The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage 
 in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of 
 peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, 
 nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and ex- 
 
176 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 penses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United 
 States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the 
 credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree 
 upon the number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, or 
 the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent 
 to the same ; nor shall a question on any other point, except for 
 adjourning from day to day, be determined, unless by the votes 
 of a majority of the United States in Congress assembled. 
 
 The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn 
 to any time within the year, and to any place within the United 
 States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration 
 than the space of six months ; and shall publish the journal of 
 their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to 
 treaties, alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment 
 require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each 
 State on any question shall be entered on the journal when it is 
 desired by any delegate ; and the delegates of a State, or any of 
 them, at his or their request, shall be furnished with a transcript 
 of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to 
 lay before the legislature of the several States. 
 
 Art. 10. The committee of the States, or any nine of them, 
 shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such 
 of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress as- 
 sembled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, 
 think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be 
 delegated to the said committee for the exercises of which, by 
 the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the 
 Congress of the United States assembled is requisite. 
 
 Art. 11. Canada, acceding to this confederation and joining 
 in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and 
 entitled to all the advantages of, this union; but no other colony 
 shall be admitted into the same unless such admission be agreed 
 to by nine States. 
 
 Art. 12. All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and 
 debts contracted by or under the authority of congress, before 
 the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present 
 confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge 
 against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof, 
 the said United States and the public faith are solemnly pledged. 
 
 Art. 13. Every State shall abide by the determinations of the 
 
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, 177 
 
 United States in Congress assembled on all questions which, by 
 this confederation, are submitted to them. And the articles of 
 this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, 
 and the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any 
 time hereafter be made in any of them, unless such alteration 
 be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be after- 
 wards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. 
 
 And whereas, It hath pleased the Great Governor of the World 
 to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent 
 in Congress to approve of and to authorize us to ratify the said 
 Articles of Confederation and perpetual union: Know ye that 
 we, the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and 
 authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in 
 the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully 
 and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said 
 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, and all and 
 singular the matters and things therein contained. And we do 
 further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective 
 constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the 
 United States in Congress assembled on all questions which, by 
 the said confederation, are submitted to them; and that the 
 articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we 
 respectively represent, and that the union shall be perpetual. 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. 
 Done at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, the ninth 
 day of July, in the year of our Lord 1778, and in the third year 
 of the Independence of America. 
 
 12 
 
CHAPTEE XIII 
 
 THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 1. The British troops had been obliged to leave Boston about the 
 middle of March, 1776. The temper of all the colonies was ex- 
 pressed so decidedly in the tone of Massachusetts, where they 
 had been so unlucky, that they did not venture to try to effect a 
 landing at any other American port till they had reorganized 
 and obtained reinforcements. A failure so decided was so un- 
 looked for that it was late in June before they approached New 
 York. The Boston army took refuge in Halifax, Nova Scotia. 
 The day after they sailed out of Boston harbor Sir Archibald 
 Campbell, with a British reinforcement of 1700 men, unsuspect- 
 ingly dropped anchor before Boston and were made prisoners. 
 An effort by the British fleet to land a force in South Carolina, 
 in June, ended in disaster, and thus, during the four months 
 following the great triumph at Boston, all the colonies were free 
 from the presence of British troops. 
 
 2. This time was devoted by the Colonies to hopeful rejoicings 
 and to preparation. Great Britain did not find it easy to obtain 
 soldiers among her own people to fight with their own country- 
 men, and it was known in America that the Government was 
 hiring mercenaries from small German princes to conquer them. 
 This added to their bitterness and determination of feeling, 
 and a struggle for entire independence was decided on. 
 
 Lord Howe, the Commander-ia-chief of the British forces, did 
 not arrive before midsummer and no active movement was 
 made until after that time. In their dismay at an unexpectedly 
 formidable resistance the British generals became extremely 
 cautious. The Americans had no general Treasury and no per- 
 manent soldiers, and success rendering the country overconfi- 
 dent the army had thinned out, so that when Washington was 
 attacked by 15,000 men on Long Island, where he lay to protect 
 New York, he had less than half that number to oppose to 
 
 178 
 
 I 
 
AMERICAN DISASTERS AND RECOVERY. 179 
 
 them. He was able to conceal that fact from the enemy, but 
 not to defeat them. He succeeded in withdrawing his army, 
 after a battle in which he had held his intrenched camp, and to 
 hover about the British lines until some favorable opportunity 
 should offer to strike a successful blow. 
 
 3. When it was too late the British government had decided 
 to yield everything to avoid the loss of the colonies, or a long and 
 expensive war, and Lord Howe was commissioned to offer, in- 
 formally, the most liberal terms of settlement short of indepen- 
 dence. He could not treat on that basis, Congress would not 
 recede from it, and the effort was fruitless. None of the leaders 
 were found corruptible and the war must go on. But it was a 
 very disheartening time for the Americans. Washington's army 
 was small, poorly equipped and disciplined, and there was no 
 strong executive or treasury to look to after the first flush of en- 
 thusiasm and success was past. The brightest future could be 
 realized only after a long and painful war. British soldiers 
 thought no treatment too harsh and ruthless towards rebel sub- 
 jects of the king whose uniform they wore. Gradually American 
 posts around New York were captured by the British, and, late 
 in November, Washington found it prudent to retreat across the 
 Delaware into Pennsylvania and Congress to retire from Phila- 
 delphia. New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were not so 
 stern in character or principles, or so free from loyalist adherents 
 of Great Britain — tories they were called — as New England; and 
 New England had borne the full brunt of the contest at the be- 
 ginning. When, therefore, the New England States were free 
 to recruit their strength by the transfer of the struggle further 
 south they became, for the time, less active. The Carolinas had 
 been threatened with an invasion, beat off with difficulty, that 
 might return at any moment, for the enemy had full command 
 of the sea. It was an anxious time for the nation just born. 
 
 But the prudence, vigilance, and energy of Washington, 
 together with the confidence he inspired in the people, kept alive 
 the courage and hope of Congress and the citizens. Just before 
 the year closed, and when it seemed that all designs of further 
 action on either side were abandoned for the winter, Washington 
 suddenly recrossed the Delaware and surprised a British post at 
 Trenton in New Jersey. ' He captured over 900 Hessians and six 
 cannon, with a loss of but four killed. Lord Cornwallis hastened 
 to attack him with a strong force, but he silently withdrew in the 
 
ISO THE FOOTPEIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 night and captured an exposed post at Princeton, in CornTvallis's 
 rear. The British retreated toward Xew Yorlii to secure them- 
 selves against so enterprising a foe. The country -svas en- 
 couraged, Congress returned to Philadelphia, and. as spring ap- 
 proached, fresh exertions ^rere put forth to prepare for the cam- 
 paign of 17"?. 
 
 4. England was a powerful enemy and there was reason to 
 tremble for the result. Large reinforcements to its army arrived. 
 An expedition under Gen. Burgoyne was organized in Canada to 
 march south and meet a force from Xew York, which was to ad- 
 vance up the Hudson. Lord Howe embarked 16,000 men at Xew 
 York, sailed around through Chesapeake Bay. and marched 
 north to occupy Philadelphia. AVashington endeavored, unsuc- 
 cessfully, to prevent his approach to that city. His army was 
 greatly reduced to strengthen the northern army sent to oppose 
 Burgoyne. He was obhged to retreat from two battlefields, one 
 fought on the Brandy wine near Wi lm ington. Del., Aug. 11th, 
 and the other at Germantown. near Philadelphia, Oct. Ith. 
 Yet he withdrew from each in good order, remained within a 
 short distance of the enemy and ahnost imprisoned a superior 
 force in the city. Burgoyne advanced successfully to the upper 
 Hudson, by the end of July : but Xew England rallied in view 
 of the danger of being cut off from the other States, and his dif- 
 ficulties grew day by day. Aug. l'3th. a detached force of his 
 army was defeated at Bennington. Vt.. with a loss of 200 killed, 
 600 prisoners. -4 cannon, 1,000 stand of arms and 1,000 swords. 
 On Aug. 22nd. St. Leger was defeated at Fort Stanwix, X Y. 
 (L'tica) on the IT ohawk River, with the loss of his artillery, tents 
 and stores. Burgoyne. himself, on the 19th. had held the battle- 
 field, at Stillwater, against Gen. Gates, but lost 500 men and only 
 deferred final defeat, which came Oct. 17th. as the immediate 
 result of the loss of the battle of Saratoga. Oct. 7th. The Brit- 
 ish forces from Xew York did not ascend the river in time to co- 
 operate with him. Burgoyne surrendered his whole army. It 
 amounted to 5,647 men. He had lost about 4.000 besides, since 
 leaving Ft. Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain. Thirty-five brass 
 field-pieces and 5,000 stand of arms fell into American hands. 
 The British forces, then ascending the Hudson below, fell down 
 to ZSTew York. ^ 
 
 5. Burgoyne's surrender was an inunense joy to the Americans 
 after a year of gloom and disappointment. They now felt that 
 
THE EFFECT OP THE SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE. 181 
 
 they could confidently anticipate the triumphant end, whatever 
 trials might yet await them. France was of the same opinion 
 and was glad of an opportunity to revenge on England its loss 
 of Canada. It formed a treaty of alliance with the new nation 
 and gave it the assistance of a fleet with men and money in 
 the following year. During the summer of 1777, the Marquis de 
 Lafayette and many other foreign officers came from Europe to 
 give their aid to the cause of liberty and did good service. Con- 
 gress cheerfully resumed the consideration of the "Articles of 
 Confederation," which were adopted in November, 1777, and the 
 people felt that their cause was substantially gained. 
 
 But the full results of the great success on the upper Hudson 
 could be realized only at a later time. A country almost without 
 manufactures or commerce, with no large accumulations of 
 wealth, and without an effective central government having 
 control over the collective finances, could not easily pay an army 
 or provide abundant war material. Most of the patriot soldiers 
 were too poor to lose the earnings of labor and support them- 
 selves, though many did so mucli of the time. Congress could 
 make paper money, but could not give it permanent value, 
 and the winter of 1777-8, one of great severity, passed in suffer- 
 ing. Private ambitions took more or less advantage of public 
 difficulties. Intrigues by discontented generals were carried on 
 against Washington in favor of Gen. Gates, who had received 
 the surrender of Burgoyne's army ; but the steadfast, unselfish 
 character and good judgment of Washington were too much 
 respected to allow him to be set aside. 
 
 6. But the first month of the new year gave promise of relief. 
 January 30, 1778, a treaty was concluded with France, and in 
 April a French fleet with money and supplies sailed from Toulon 
 to the aid of the Americans. Washington's army had passed 
 the severe winter in suffering at Valley Forge, not far from 
 Philadelphia, which Lord Howe occupied with his army; but 
 with the summer came more cheering times. Lord Howe was 
 afraid that Delaware Bay would be blockaded by the French 
 fleet. The fate of a British army in Boston warned him net to 
 trust himself too long in Philadelphia and the forced surrender 
 of Burgoyne showed him the danger of being cut off from his 
 base of supplies. He therefore prudently sent his fleet and war 
 material to New York about the middle of June while his army 
 marched across to Staten Island. On the 17th of this month the 
 
183 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TUIE. 
 
 British Parliament, which had so foolishly provoked this war, 
 appointed a number of commissioners authorized to treat with 
 Congress for peace on the basis of granting all that had been 
 asked except independence. Congress refused to entertain 
 terms until independence was recognized and the hostile army 
 withdrawn. England had lost twenty thousand men, five hun- 
 dred and fifty vessels taken by American cruisers, worth twelve 
 million dollars, and had spent one hundred million dollars on 
 military armaments. Yet she had gained no hold on the country 
 except where her armies occupied it in force. 
 
 7. French support was not as effective this year as had been 
 expected. Their attack on the English at Newport, Rhode 
 Island, failed of success. June 28, 1778, Washington won the 
 battle of Morristown, in New Jersey, the British retreating from 
 the battle-field in the night. The Iroquois Indians had taken 
 the side of the British in the war. July 4th and oth they perpe- 
 trated the cruel " Massacre of Wyoming " in northern Pennsyl- 
 vania. About 400 American troops and nearly all the settlers 
 were killed. At the close of the year the British, having met 
 w^th small success in the iSTorthern and Central States, made a 
 fresh attempt at the South. December 29th Savanah, Georgia, 
 was captured. Their chief efforts were directed, during the 
 following year, to the southern States and to various points along 
 the coast where they burned many towns. This greatly ex- 
 asperated the Americans, since the principal harm was done to 
 non-combatants without any corresponding advantage to the 
 British cause. No great battles were fought this year (1779). 
 Gen. Sullivan chastised the Iroquois for their barbarous massa- 
 cres at Wyoming and Cherry Valley, N. Y., defeating them in 
 a fight near Elmira, N. Y. , and destroying their towns and crops. 
 Verplank's and Stony Point, American posts on the Hudson 
 river, were captured by the British in May. In Juh^ Gen. 
 Wayne surprised and recaptured Stony Point, making 550 priso- 
 ners and much alarming Gen. Clinton, the British commander 
 at New York, who hastily called in marauding parties. 
 
 8. Capt. Paul Jones illustrated American audacity, Sept. 24, 
 1779, by attacking seven English vessels on the coast of Scotland 
 and capturing two of them. Oct. 9th the French united with an 
 American force in an attack on the British garrison of Savan- 
 nah. They were repulsed with the loss of 1,000 men, including- 
 Count Pulaski, a distinguished Polish patriot serving in the 
 
 I 
 
THE BRITISH OVERRUN THE CAROLINAS, 183 
 
 American army. In June of this year Spain declared war on 
 Great Britain and became an ally of the United States. The 
 English army overran Georgia and much of South Carolina, and 
 many small conflicts occurred. The British were encouraged 
 by their successes at the South, it being the first time they had 
 been able to occupy any considerable territory. As French ves- 
 sels were not in force sufficient to protect the northern coast, and 
 the British could quickly transfer troops by sea, Washington 
 did not venture to move his army away from the Central States, 
 and had not been able, from the disorder in American finances, 
 to raise any formidable force to confront them in South Carolina. 
 
 9. Early in 1780 the British laid siege to Charleston, S. C, 
 which surrendered in May, and all South Carolina was soon over- 
 run and treated as a royal province, no American force being strong 
 enough to keep the field there. In July Count Rochambeau 
 with 6,000 French troops arrived at Newport, R. I., where they 
 were blockaded, for a time, by a British fleet. An American 
 army of nearly 6,000, under the command of Gen. Gates, was 
 sent to North Carolina to make head against the British forces 
 there. In the battle of Camden, Gates had 5,600 and Cornwallis 
 little over 2,000 men. Gates' army was mostly militia, without 
 experience or discipline, and they were nearly all siezed with 
 panic at the beginning of the fight. The Americans lost 1,800 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The British loss was only 325. 
 This was Aug. 16, 1780. Two days later the British cavalry 
 officer, Tarleton, totally defeated Sumter, a daring partisan 
 American officer of South Carolina. Thus the British were 
 sweeping all before them in the Soulh. In October, after a long 
 succession of disasters, the Americans gained a brilliant victory 
 at King's Mountain, in western North Carolina. Almost the 
 whole British force, a select body of Cornwallis' army, were 
 killed or taken prisoners, the latter amounting to 800. Col. 
 Ferguson, the commander, was killed. This was done by the 
 backwoodsmen of that region and Tennessee, then a part of 
 North Carolina. 
 
 10. In September of this year occurred one of the most painful 
 incidents of the war. Gen. Benedict Arnold, who had been dis- 
 tinguished for bravery and 'skill, was in command of the 
 American fortress at West Point, on the Hudson. He made 
 overtures to surrender it to the British, and Major Andre, of the 
 British army, was sent to him in disguise to arrange the terms 
 
184 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 of surrender. Andre was captured while attempting to return 
 to the British lines, and papers revealing the plot were secured 
 in time to prevent its execution. Arnold escaped to a British 
 vessel in the river, but Andre was hung as a spy. October 2nd. 
 Arnold increased his infamy by commanding a British force in 
 laying waste unprotected parts of the coast. 
 
 Early in 1781 Pennsylvania and other troops, suffering for 
 want of pay, broke out into insurrection which threatened serious 
 consequences, but was quieted by the moderation and influence 
 of Washington. The battle of King's Mountain proved the turn- 
 ing point in the fortunes of the British in the South. A series of 
 disasters, and of partial successes that were only a little better, 
 leaving their opponents still vigorous and able to recover while 
 the British were gradually being crippled by their losses, fol- 
 lowed in rapid succession until the last effective British army in 
 America surrendered. Col. Ferguson, who fell at King's Moun- 
 tain, was a valuable officer, and Cornwallis could ill afford to 
 lose him or his men. January 17, 1781, Col. Tarleton, another 
 vigorous officer, was thoroughly beaten at the battle of the 
 " Cowpens," losing 600 men with his artillery and baggage, 
 while Col. Morgan, the American commander, lost but 80 men. 
 
 11. The battle of Guildford Court House followed in the middle 
 of February. Gen. Greene's army was mostly raw militia, part 
 of which broke and fled before the onset of British veterans. 
 Greene had long skillfully avoided a battle. He now withdrew 
 without losing his army, with a loss of only 400, while Lord 
 Cornwallis lost 500 men whom he could not replace. With this 
 waning strength new energy inspired the Americans opposed to 
 him. In April and May various forts were captured and other 
 losses of men occurred, numbering more than a thousand. Lord 
 Cornwallis pressed northward in order to open communications 
 with New York and obtain reinforcements. Lafayette maneu- 
 vered very successfully to delay and baffie him in Virginia, from 
 April till July, while Washington watched and restrained the 
 British forces in ISTew York until the French fleet should be 
 ready to cooperate in attacking him. 
 
 12. On the 1st of August Cornwallis took post at Yorktown, Va. , 
 a peninsula near the mouth of the James River, where he pro- 
 posed to await assistance from New York. He had about 8,000 
 men. While the allied French and American Generals were 
 completing their measures for concentrating the troops before 
 
 i 
 
THE SURRENDER OF LORD CORNWALLIS. 185 
 
 Yorktown, and bringing the French fleet to guard the entrance 
 to Chesapeake Bay. Gen. Arnold, the Traitor, captured forts 
 Trumbull and Griswold in Connecticut with circumstances of 
 peculiar atrocity and burned New London. This was Sept. 5th. 
 Sept. 8th the battle of Eutaw Springs, in North Carolina, gave 
 the fruits of victory to the American Gen. Greene, and, on the 
 10th. French vessels brought heavy artillery for the siege of 
 Yorktown. Admiral DeGrasse also arrived with a French fleet 
 to guard against any British vessels that might be sent to the 
 relief of Cornwallis. The allied army, 16,000 strong, commenced 
 the siege, Oct. 6th. Washington, when all was ready, had suc- 
 ceeded in mystifying the British Commander at New York as to 
 his intentions, and had rapidly transferred his army to Virginia. 
 A French force from Rhode Island, had also marched around 
 the coast to Yorktown to co-operate with him. Cornwallis held 
 out until the 19th, and surrendered his whole army, numbering 
 then 7,000, as prisoners of war. The remaining British forces in 
 America were not stong enough for active operations and the 
 war was brought practically to an end, in October 1781. Great 
 Britain could no longer hope to subdue the colonies she had 
 driven to revolution and rejection of dependence on her by out- 
 raging the principles of her own constitution. 
 
 13. The British Generals had failed first in populous and deter- 
 mined New England, then in New York with its water high- 
 ways to the interior, commanded by them both at the North and 
 South, then at Philadelphia, and, after a two years struggle in 
 the more thinly settled South, where there was a larger propor- 
 tion of loyalists, and now, finally, in Virginia. All this had 
 happened while the new nation was greatly distressed for the 
 want of a suitable organization to collect a national revenue, 
 and maintain strong and well disciplined armies. It had suc- 
 cessfully beaten off professional and veteran soldiers, often in 
 superior force, with a handful of troops and militia, often hastily 
 gathered for an emergency, who frequently had never before 
 been under fire and who were poorly equipped. The Americans 
 had now acquired experience, as well as financial aid and moral 
 and military support from Europe. All the immense treasure 
 spent by the English Government, thus far, had been wasted, 
 for if they decided on a new effort everything was to be done 
 over, with more difficulties to meet than ever. The English peo- 
 ple seldom fail to support their Government, even in an un- 
 
186 ' THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 wise enterprise, until it can draw out of it without dishonor; but 
 to recommence the war without a reasonable hope of success in 
 order to sustain an unconstitutional principle, after such an im- 
 mense waste of men and treasure, was not to be thought of. 
 
 14. Only the persistence of the king had prevented the close of 
 the effort after the surrender of Burgoyne. When the surrender of 
 Cornwallis was known in England, the question of offering 
 peace on the basis of American independence began to be dis- 
 cussed in Parliament. It met with opposition for about three 
 months, but in February. 1782. resulted in an address to the king 
 being voted in which he was asked to open negotiations for peace, 
 Avith resolutions that it was no longer for the interest of England 
 to maintain the American war. This led soon after to the resig- 
 nation of the ministry that had been so unwise and so unfortu- 
 nate and another was organized to conduct negotiations for 
 peace. Congress refused to consider terms without the consent 
 and co-operation of France. Dr. Franklin was as much the repre- 
 sentative, to Europe, of American statesmanship as Gen. Wash- 
 ington was of its military ability. He was admired and revered 
 as a man of high character, of great learning, and of diplomatic 
 skill. He had represented Congress in France from 1776, and 
 was one of the American Commissioners to arrange the terms of 
 peace with England. Adahis, Jay -and Laurens w^ere his col- 
 leagues. They insisted on the cession of all that had been 
 British territory south of the Great Lakes and east of the Missis- 
 sippi. A preliminary treaty was signed iSTovember 30, 1782. The 
 final treaty was signed September 3, 1783. 
 
 15. Cessation of hostilities was not officially proclaimed to the 
 United States army until the 19th of April, 1783 — just eight years 
 after the battle of Lexington which opened it. The patriot 
 army was finally discharged early in Xovember and, in the same 
 month, Xew York was evacuated by the British garrison. In a 
 few days (December 4th) Gen. Washington took leave of his 
 officers, resigned his commission into the hands of Congress, and 
 retired to private life. His account of all the public money he 
 had ever received amounted to less than 875,000, all of which he had 
 paid out for the public service, retaining nothing as pay for his 
 own time and labors. The whole number of soldiers serving in 
 the regular army during the war was 231,791. The militia called 
 into service was estimated at 67,907. The ]oss of men by the 
 casualties of war was estimated at 70.000. The estimated ex- 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 187 
 
 pense of the war, in specie, was $135,093,703. The whole amount 
 of paper money issued during the war, called "Continental 
 Money," was a little less than $360,000,000, which shrank to the 
 above specie value in the end. 
 
CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 THE COXSTITUTIOX OF 1787, 
 
 1. The first great events of the Eevolutionary War were a 
 surprise to the British army and perhaps to the Americans 
 themselves. Without organization or a directing head, the 
 country people fell upon a strong body of veteran troops, and 
 they escaped the danger of annihilation on their retreat from 
 Concord to Boston only by heavy reinforcements with cannon. 
 Every stone wall and thicket and tree seemed to blaze with the 
 fire of the indignant colonists. Those resolute " Minute- Men " 
 continued encamped about Boston for eleven months, and the 
 one sally of the British troops at Bunker Hill cost them a 
 thousand men. The same spirit brought defeat and utter^ failure 
 on Burgoyne and his magnificent army, in 1777, and on Cornwallis 
 and his veterans, in 1781. The years of struggle and various 
 disaster that lay between these events ought, with a people so 
 brave and determined, to have been spared. Lord Howe should 
 have been defeated on Long Island, and New York saved from 
 capture, by an ample army under Washington; and a sufficient 
 American fleet should have been created to protect the coasts 
 and to furnish to the patriot army the facility of transportation 
 to points threatened equal to that of the British in making their 
 attacks. The contest should have been as brief as the opening 
 was decisive. 
 
 2. Unhappily, the General Government which was organized 
 to direct was left without control over the finances of the Con- 
 federation. It could order expenditures but could not provide 
 funds to meet them. The real control of resources was left to 
 the State authorities. Congress had no power to levy taxes, to 
 arrange a customs tariff, or to regulate commerce. It could on- 
 ly recommend common financial measures to thirteen separate 
 and sovereign bodies, and these would have been more than 
 human if they had habitually acted with prompt concert in an- 
 
 (188) 
 
THE HELPLESSNESS OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGKESS. IS'J 
 
 swer to a mere recommend, from whatever source. Local diffi- 
 culties, failure to see the importance of the crisis, and fear of a 
 central authority clothed with the power of the purse as well as 
 that of the sword, left Congress comparatively powerless when 
 every consideration of public interest required it to have all the 
 resources of the States and Nation at command. The stress of 
 war was now here now there; no one could foresee where dan- 
 ger might next threaten, and local authorities were apt to feel 
 that they were safest with their own local resources within their 
 reach. 
 
 3. The only expedients Congress regarded as within its power 
 was the emission of paper money ; but as it could not control 
 the resources needful to sustain the credit of its promises, this 
 soon became almost valueless. It ordered military supplies, an 
 army and navy, but could pay only in promises, and the orders 
 were ineffectual. The soldiers must largely support themselves, 
 or levy excessive contributions on the inhabitants of regions 
 already suffering the complicated miseries of invasion and ac- 
 tive war. Vigorous concert was therefore out of the question. 
 What was the duty of all was properly performed by few, and 
 the armies were always on the point of dissolution from the 
 shortness of the term of enlistments or the poverty and suffer- 
 ings of the troops. Only the real patriotism of the people and 
 their settled purpose to carry their point, enabled Washington to 
 keep even the shadow of an army in the field. The enemy were 
 encouraged to persevere by their knowledge of these troubles, 
 notwithstanding complete discomfiture in all their larger plans. 
 They could not conceive of a fortitude that would endure so 
 much for an indefinite period. They were forced to believe their 
 designs impossible however, when, after seven years and a half, 
 their only effective army in the field surrendered at Yorktown. 
 The French alliance created as many difficulties as it relieved, 
 because it turned away the thoughts of the people from the only 
 real remedy for their troubles and led them to rely on something 
 outside of themselves. 
 
 All they needed to avoid the waste of marauding enemies, the 
 interruption to profitable industry of a lingering war, and to 
 bring their abundant products to the markets of the world by a 
 flourishing commerce, was a suitable organization. That sup- 
 plied, no patriotism, energy or resources would have been em- 
 ployed without corresponding results. This became evident 
 
190 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 when the war closed and mdependence was assured. They were 
 not relieved ; they had only a change of difficulties. There was 
 no public credit. Those who had patriotically spent or lost 
 their all for the public service were reduced to helpless poverty. 
 Congress had lost the respect of foreign governments, and was 
 unable to make commercial treaties in favor of trade. The com- 
 merce which had given them prosperity and plenty before the 
 war, restricted as it had been by English navigation laws, could 
 not be resumed, because, for want of treaties, commercial nations 
 — and especially England — virtually shut out American exports 
 on really profitable terms. Congress had contracted large debts 
 and could not pay even the interest on them. 
 
 4. Some years were spent in vain efforts to find a way out of 
 this maze of difficulties. They affected the interests of every citi- 
 zen as well as the honor of the Republic, and even threatened the 
 integrity of its territory, through the intrigues of the Spanish and 
 English in the Mississippi Valley and the discontent of the 
 western settlers. The pecuniary distresses of the people were so 
 great that insurrection threatened the stability of even State 
 governments, and the existing organizations proved powerless to 
 remove their causes. In this complication of troubles there 
 seemed only one way of relief — the establishment of a strong 
 central government. There were those who whispered about a 
 monarchy as the only help, and some had even thought, during 
 the war, that Washington should be offered a crown. There 
 were those, after the peace, who could see no alternative. But 
 to that project neither the patriotic General nor the people would 
 give ear. 
 
 5. After years of pondering, without result, the Virginia Assem- 
 bly suggested that a Convention of Commissioners from all the 
 States to consider the condition of trade should be called, and 
 appointed delegates for that purpose from its own body. This 
 proposition met with general favor, and the convention assem- 
 bled in Annapolis, Md., in 1786. It could discover no means of 
 relief but that of revising the Articles of Confederation, and 
 recommended Congress to call a Convention for that purpose. 
 As the public distress did not abate this plan was accepted, and 
 the most distinguished statesmen from twelve of the States as- 
 sembled in Philadelphia as a Constitutional Convention in May, 
 1787. Gen. Washington was a delegate and selected as its pres- 
 ident. Franklin, Hamilton, Madison and other eminent men, 
 
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787. 191 
 
 whose fame had ah-eady become worldwide by their prominence 
 and influence during the Revolutionary period, were members. 
 It was truly the representative wisdom and patriotism of the 
 new nation. 
 
 0. The members of this Convention were not tramelled by pre- 
 cise instructions. The pressing need of a General Government 
 that should be able to preserve the liberties gained by the war 
 of independence, that could insure the execution of treaties and 
 make the country respected abroad, that might have efficient 
 control of inter-state relations, represent the combined strength 
 of the nation, and be able to foster all its interests, was every- 
 where felt; but how this was to be organized was not clear to 
 any one. The establishment of a monarchy or an aristocracy was 
 out of the question; a loose confederacy they had tried and must 
 be rid of at any cost. There was no model to be found in mod- 
 ern or ancient history that they could, even remotely, copy. 
 Switzerland was a loose federation with an aristocratic element; 
 the Netherlands had been ruled by a commercial aristocracy un- 
 til the princely house of Orange had obtained royal powers; the 
 Free Cities and Italian Republics of the Middle Ages had been 
 governed by aristocracies and, Trade Guilds; and none of the an- 
 cient republics had any clear idea of constitutional freedom. 
 England furnished fundamental ideas of civil liberty, but em- 
 bodied the ancient Anglo-Saxon principle of equality among the 
 citizens very imperfectly, and was really ruled by its highest 
 and most prosperous classes — too often in their own interest 
 rather than that of the whole people. No such half -realized lib- 
 erties would satisfy Americans. They must invent a govern- 
 ment of the people that could act with vigor and precision, and 
 give effect to the aspirations and develop the resources of an en- 
 terprising nation. 
 
 7. State governments and local institutions seemed fairly satis- 
 factory: but they had varying interests and views and needed a 
 common moderator and an executive, both trusty and strong, 
 from which all could be sure of justice. The Convention was 
 the first that had ever been clothed by any people with full 
 powers to originate a complete systein of government — to define 
 and settle its powers and the relations of all its parts so as to se- 
 cure the two indispensible points, public strength and individual 
 liberty and equality. There was no disposition to theorize, to 
 overturn all that was established, in order to try to reach an ideal 
 
192 THE FUOIPKIIsTS OF TIME. 
 
 state as in France a little later. Americans had inherited from 
 England a dislike for any change that was not clearly necessary. 
 They were the most practical of men, desiring to maintain noth- 
 ing because it was old, to establish nothing because it was new, 
 only anxious for what would open the freest field for all their 
 activities. K'either the Continental Congress which invited the 
 States to appoint deputies to this Convention, nor the States that 
 appointed the members of it, defijied precisely the compass or 
 limit of its powers. It was simply "to revise the Articles of 
 Confederation. -'-' 
 
 In the outset a member from Virginia proposed that a govern- 
 ment of three branches — Legislative. Executive, and Judicial, 
 should be constituted. This guided the deliberations by furnish- 
 ing a definite outline. The wishes and interests of the people of 
 all the States were constantly kept in view, and the delegates 
 of each State guarded the interests of their constituents. Their 
 work must pass the criticism of Congress and of the people 
 before it could be put on its trial, and nothing seriously objection- 
 able to any considerable part of the people could hope to receive 
 final approval. 
 
 8. The fii'st point was to agree on the organization and relations 
 of the chief features of the plan, and the next to arrange the 
 details in such a way as to secure the approval of each of the 
 sections of the country specially interested. Both these points 
 were difficult to arrange from the variance of opinion, of situa- 
 tion, and of interest that could not fail to exist; and these con- 
 flicts could only be settled in numerous cases by mutual conces- 
 sions, or compromises. But much moderation, toleranc-e of dis- 
 sent, experience of public affairs, and of trouble and 
 calamity endured in conunon, enabled the members of the Con- 
 vention to discover an escape from every dilemma that threat- 
 ened to bar their progress. On the 17th of September, after a 
 session of four months, they, with a few exceptions, set their 
 names to the instrument, not with proud confidence, but with 
 fear and trembling, none being perfectly satisfied with the only 
 resLdt all felt constrained to accept because no agreement suit- 
 ing all individual views was possible. 
 
 9. Rhode Island, being satisfied with the Ai"ticles of Confedera- 
 tion, had not sent delegates to the Convention, so that only 
 twelve States were represented in it. The proposed Consti- 
 tution was transmitted to Congress and by it laid before the 
 
ACCEPTANCE OF THE CONSTITUTION BY THE PEOPLE. 193 
 
 States to be voted on by their conventions called for the 
 purpose. 
 
 This Convention rejected a Confederacy of States and organ- 
 ized a Government of the Nation, as a whole, by giving to the 
 people the direct choice of the members of the most numerous 
 and important branch of Congress. At the same time that the 
 new Government was made supreme within a prescribed range 
 of action, and possessed absolute authority for deciding general 
 questions and acting for the good of the whole country, the in- 
 dependence of the States was not disturbed otherwise than by 
 the transfer of this sovereignty in general matters to the central 
 body and its officers; while the more dignified moderating 
 division of the General Congress was to be composed of members 
 selected by the State authorities, as such, each state, large or 
 small, having an equal number. 
 
 The adoption of this scheme was to be the work of the people, 
 and they were desired to appaint delegates to a convention in 
 each State to adopt or reject it. The Government planned by 
 this Constitution was designed to be capable of prompt and 
 vigorous action, and it was feared that this might be conferring 
 on it a degree of power dangerous to liberty. A few of the mem- 
 bers of the Constitutional Convention declined to sign it in this 
 fear, and it was subjected to a searching examination and much 
 adverse criticism. It was, in the end, approved by the conven- 
 tions of all the states, though in many by small majorities, and 
 by some only after long delay. By the middle of 1788 ten States 
 had approved it, and by its provisions it might go into operation. 
 The Convention that framed the Constitution closed its labors 
 September 17, 1787, by putting the signature of most of its mem- 
 bers to it. The Continental Congress to which it was sent did 
 not attempt to criticize it, but transmitted it to the States to be 
 acted on by their conventions, if they chose to call them. This 
 was done, and it was adopted by the conventions of the several 
 States as follows: 
 
 Delaware, unanimously December 7th, 1787 
 
 Pennsylvania, by vote of 46 to 23 " 12th, 1787 
 
 New Jersey, unanimously " 18th, 1787 
 
 Georgia, unanimously January 2d, 1788 
 
 Connecticvit, 128 to 40. . . , " 9th, 1788 
 
 Massachusetts, 187 to 168 February 6th, 1788 
 
 Maryland, 63 to 12 April 28th, 1788 
 
 South Carolina. 149 to 73 May 3d, 1788 
 
 13 
 
101 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 New Hampshire, 57 to 47 Jiine 21st, 1788 
 
 Vii-ginia, 89 to 79 " 26th. 1788 
 
 New York, 30 to 25 July 26th. 1788 
 
 North Carolina, 193 to 75 November 21st, 1789 
 
 Hhode Island, by a majority of 2 May 29th, 1790 
 
 The electors of President and Vice President and congress- 
 men were voted for during the winter of 1788-9 by order of the 
 Continental Congress. It had been arranged that the new 
 Government should be inaugurated March 4, 1789. A delay in 
 the assembling of the requisite number of members of the new 
 Congress caused the inauguration of Washington, the first Presi- 
 dent, to be deferred until April 30, 1789. 
 
 The constitutions of most of the States, following English 
 precedent, contained a Bill of Rights, or series of provisions 
 carefully guarding the people against the abuse of power. There 
 was much complaint that these specific guards had been omitted 
 from the Constitution, and the First Congress proceeded to 
 supply them in the form of Amendments which it sent to the 
 States for ratification. The first Ten Amendments were added 
 in 1789, the Eleventh in 1794, the Twelfth in 1803. The Thirteenth, 
 Fourteenth and Fifteenth were added during, and immediately 
 after, the Civil War. 
 
 The advantages sought were secured by the Government under 
 this Constitution, but the evils feared did not follow. The happy 
 result was no doubt due in part to the liberal spirit in which it 
 ^vas administered; but the wise foresight that surrounded power 
 with the necessarj^ guards was due to the framers of the instru- 
 jnent, for the manner of its organization was the chief element 
 in its success. The results under the Articles of Confederation 
 showed how grievous the condition of a well meaning people 
 might become with a badly arranged and imperfe<3t system of 
 government. The Constitution of 1787 was really a pattern of 
 forethought and constructive skill and far exceeded the best 
 hopes of its authors. 
 
 ^i 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 AND ITS AMENDMENTS. 
 
 We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more 
 perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, 
 provide for the common defense, promote the general wel- 
 fare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our 
 posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
 United States of America. 
 
 Article I. 
 
 Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
 vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of 
 a Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
 members chosen every second year by the people of the several 
 States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications 
 requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State 
 Legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a Representative who shall not have at- 
 tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
 citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
 the several States which may be included within this Union, ac- 
 cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined 
 by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
 bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
 taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
 shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
 Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term 
 of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
 number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
 thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative: 
 
 (195) 
 
196 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 and until such enumeration shall be made the State of New- 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts 
 eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecti- 
 cut five. New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight,^ 
 Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, 
 and Georgia three. 
 
 When vacanies happen in the representation from any State, 
 the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to 
 fill such vacancies. 
 
 The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
 other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
 two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof 
 for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
 the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
 three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall 
 be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second 
 class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class 
 at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be 
 chosen every second year, and if vacancies happen by resigna- 
 tion or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any 
 State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
 until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill 
 such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to 
 the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
 of that State for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of 
 the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi- 
 dent pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when 
 he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 
 
 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirm- 
 ation. When the President of the United States is tried, the 
 Chief Justice shall preside. And no person shall be convicted 
 without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further 
 than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and en- 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 197 
 
 joy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; 
 but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject 
 to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. 
 
 Sec. 4. The times, places; and manner of holding elections 
 for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each 
 State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any 
 time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the 
 places of choosing Senators. 
 
 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
 such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless 
 they shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 Sec. 5. Each House shall be the judge of the election, returns, 
 and qualifications of its own members and a majority of each 
 shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number 
 may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel 
 the attendance of absent members in such manner and under 
 f5uch penalties as each House may provide. 
 
 Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, pun- 
 ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- 
 rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
 time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in 
 their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the 
 members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of 
 one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
 the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor 
 to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be 
 sitting. 
 
 Sec. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com- 
 pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid 
 out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all 
 cases, except treason, felony, and breach of peace, be privileged 
 from arrest during their attendance at the session of their re- 
 spective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; 
 and for any speech or debate in either House they shall not be 
 questioned in any other place. 
 
 No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
 he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the 
 authority of the United States, which shall have been cre- 
 ated, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased 
 during such time; and no person holding any office under the 
 
198 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 ITnited States, shall be a member of either House during his con- 
 tinuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
 House of Representatives: but the Senate may propose or con- 
 cur with amendments as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa- 
 tives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented 
 to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall 
 sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that 
 House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the 
 objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. 
 If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of the House shall 
 agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
 tions, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be recon- 
 sidered, and if approved by two-thirds of the House, it shall 
 become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall 
 be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons 
 voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of 
 each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by 
 the President within ten days (Sundays excepted), after it shall 
 have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like man- 
 ner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjourn- 
 ment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
 the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
 (except on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the 
 President of the United States, and before the same shall take 
 effect shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, 
 shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of 
 Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre- 
 scribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power — 
 
 To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay 
 the debts and provide for the common defense and general wel- 
 fare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises 
 shall be uniform throughout the United States; 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
 several States, and with the Indian tribes: 
 
 To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws, 
 on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES. 199 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
 coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
 and current coin of the United States; 
 
 To establish post offices and post roads; 
 
 To promote the progress of sciences and useful arts, by secur- 
 ing for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive 
 right to their respective writings and discoveries; 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
 high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
 rules concerning captures on land and water; 
 
 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
 that use shall be for a longer term than two years: 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy; 
 
 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
 and naval forces; 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
 the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the 
 service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively 
 the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
 militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
 
 To exercise legislation in all cases whatsoever of such district 
 (not exceeding ten miles square) as may. by cession of particular 
 States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the 
 government of the United States, and to exercise like authority 
 over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of 
 the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
 magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other needful buildings; and 
 
 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
 carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other 
 powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the 
 United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
 of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not 
 be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on 
 sucli importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
200 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
 pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public 
 safety may require it. 
 
 Xo bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 Xo capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
 portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
 taken. 
 
 jSTo tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
 State. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
 or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor 
 shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, 
 clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 Xo money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in conse- 
 quence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement 
 and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
 shall be published from time to time, 
 
 Xo title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and 
 no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, 
 without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, 
 emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any 
 King, Prince, or foreign State. 
 
 Sec. 10. Xo State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
 federation: grant letters of marque or reprisal ; coin money ; 
 emit bills of credit: make anything but gold and silver coin a 
 tender in pajTnent of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post 
 facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant 
 any title of nobility. 
 
 Xo State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
 imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be ab- 
 solutely necessary for executing its inspection laws, and the net 
 produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports 
 or exports shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United 
 States : and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and 
 control of the Congress. 
 
 Xo State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
 duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of 
 peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another 
 State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
 actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit 
 of delav. 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 201 
 
 Article II. 
 
 Section 1. The Executive power shall be vested in a Presi- 
 dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
 during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice- 
 President chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 
 
 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
 thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole 
 number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may 
 be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, 
 or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United 
 States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 [ * The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
 by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an 
 inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
 make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of 
 votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
 mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, 
 directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the 
 Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall 
 be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
 number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one 
 who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, 
 then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by 
 ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a ma- 
 jority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall 
 in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the Presi- 
 dent, the vote shall be taken by States, the representation from 
 each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall con- 
 sist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and 
 a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In 
 every case, after the choice of the President, the person having 
 the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice- 
 President. But if there should remain two or more who have 
 equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the 
 Vice-President. ] 
 
 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the ejectors, 
 
 * This clause within brackets has been superceded and annulled by the 13th 
 amendment. 
 
202 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day 
 shall be the same throughout the United States, 
 
 Xo person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the 
 United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
 shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any 
 person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the 
 age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident 
 within the United States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
 death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and 
 duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- 
 President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of 
 removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President 
 and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as 
 President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the dis- 
 ability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
 compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
 during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he 
 shall not receive within that period any other emolument from 
 the United States, or any of them. 
 
 Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take 
 the following oath or affirmation: 
 
 "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
 the office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
 best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States." 
 
 Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the 
 army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
 several States, when called into the actual service of the United 
 States; he may require the opinion, in Avriting. of the principal 
 officer in each of the Executive departments, upon any subject 
 relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall 
 have power to grant reprieves and pardon for offenses against 
 the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and -with the advice and consent of 
 the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Sena- 
 tors present concur: and he shall nominate, and by and with the 
 advice of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
 ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
 officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein 
 
 Jl 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 203 
 
 otherwise provided for, and which shall be established .by law; 
 but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such in- 
 ferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the 
 courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
 may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
 missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress in- 
 formation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
 sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expe- 
 dient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, 
 or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, 
 with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them 
 to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassa- 
 dors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws 
 be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
 the United States. 
 
 Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of 
 the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment 
 for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and 
 misdemeanors. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be 
 vested in one Supreme Court, and such inferior coiirts as the 
 Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The 
 Judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their 
 offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive 
 for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished 
 during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
 and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
 United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
 their authority; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other pub- 
 lic ministers and consuls: — to all cases of admiralty and mar- 
 itime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States 
 shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; 
 — between a State and citizens of another State;; — between citi- 
 zens of different States; — between citizens of the same State 
 claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a 
 
204 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or 
 subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
 consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme 
 Court shall hare original jurisdiction. 
 
 In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court 
 shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with 
 such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress 
 shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
 be by jury: and such trial shall be held in the State where the 
 said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed 
 w^ithin any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the 
 Congress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
 in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, 
 giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of 
 treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
 overt act, or on confession in open court. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
 treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
 blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person at- 
 tainted. 
 
 Akticle IV. 
 
 Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State 
 to the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every 
 other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe 
 the manner in which such acts, records and proceedingi shaU be 
 proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
 privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
 crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
 shall, on demand of the Executive authority of the State from 
 which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having 
 jurisdiction of the crime. 
 
 Xo person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
 thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law 
 or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor. 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 205 
 
 ' but shall be delivered up on the claim of the partyto whom such 
 service or labor may be due. 
 
 Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this 
 Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
 jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the 
 junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the 
 consent of the Legislature of the States concerned, as well as of 
 Congress. 
 
 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
 needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
 property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this 
 Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of 
 the United States, or of any particular State. 
 
 Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in 
 this Union a Republican form of government, and shall protect 
 each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legisla- 
 ture, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be con- 
 vened), against domestic violence. 
 
 Article V. 
 
 The Congress, whenever two-thirds of the Houses shall deem 
 it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, 
 on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several 
 States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 
 in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part 
 of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislature of three- 
 fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths 
 thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro- 
 posed by the Congress. Provided that no amendment which 
 may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
 eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in 
 the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without 
 its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 Article VI. 
 
 All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before 
 the adoption of this Constitution, shall be valid against the 
 United States under this Constitution, as under the Confedera- 
 tion. 
 
306 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
 shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
 which shall be made, under the authority of the Unites States, 
 shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every 
 State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or 
 laws of the State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
 members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and . 
 judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several » 
 States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con- 
 stitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a quali- 
 fication to any office or public trust under the United States. 
 
 Article VII. 
 
 The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be suf- 
 ficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the 
 States so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States 
 
 present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of 
 
 our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and 
 
 of the Independence of the United States of America, the 
 
 twelfth. In Witness Whereof, We have hereunto subscribed 
 
 our names. 
 
 GEO. WASHINGTON. 
 President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
 
 New Hampshire. Delaware. 
 
 JoKN- Lakgdon. Geo. Read, 
 
 Nicholas Gilman. John Dickinson, 
 
 Massachusetts. J^^o. Broom. 
 
 ^ Gunning Bedfoed. Jun'b, 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham. Richard Bassett. 
 RuEus King. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 .^ „ . ^ James M'Henry. 
 
 Wm. S^ l Johnson, d^-j^ Carroll. 
 
 Roger Sherman. j)^. q^ St. thos. Jenifer. 
 
 Xeir YorJc. Virginia, 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. ^ jqhn Blair, 
 
 New Jersey. James iL4.DisoN; Jr. 
 
 lYiL. LmNGSTON, North Carolina. 
 
 Wm. Paterson. Wm. Blount, 
 
 David Brearley, Hu. Williamson. 
 
 JoNA. Dayton, Rich'd Dobbs Spaight. 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 207 
 
 Pennsylvania. Smith Carolina. 
 
 B. Franklin, J. Rutledge, 
 
 RoBT. Morris, Charles Pinckney, 
 
 Thos. Fitzsimons, Chas. Cotesworth Pinckney, 
 
 James Wilson, Pierce Butler. 
 Thomas Mifflin, 
 
 Geo. Clymer, Georgia. 
 
 Jared Ingersoll, William Few, 
 
 Gouv. Morris. Abr. Baldwin. 
 
 WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 
 
 Articles in Addition to, and Amendatory of, the Consti- 
 tution OF THE United States of America. 
 
 Piopcsed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the 
 fifth article of the original Constitution. 
 
 Article I. 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
 religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging 
 the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the peo- 
 ple peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a 
 redress of grievances. 
 
 Article II. 
 
 A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a 
 free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall 
 not be infringed. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house 
 without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
 manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 Article IV. 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
 papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
 shall not be violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon prob- 
 able cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
 describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to 
 be seized. 
 
 Article V. 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
 infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a 
 Grand Jury except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, 
 or in the militia when in actual service in time of war or public 
 
C'08 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 danger: nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to 
 be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled 
 in any criminal case to be a witnes against himself, nor be 
 deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; 
 nor shall private property be taken for pubHc use, without just 
 compensation. 
 
 Article VI. 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
 to a speedy and pubhc trial, by an impartial jury of the State 
 and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
 district shall have been previously ascertained by law. and to be 
 informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be con- 
 fronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory pro- 
 cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assist- 
 ance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 Aeticle YII. 
 
 In suits at common law. where the value in controversy shaU 
 
 exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be pre- 
 served, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined 
 in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of 
 
 the common law. 
 
 Article Till. 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- 
 posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 Article IX. 
 
 The enumeration, in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall 
 not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the 
 people. 
 
 Article X. 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- 
 tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the 
 States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 Article XL 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- 
 strued to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or pros- 
 ecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another 
 State, or by citizens or subjecis of any foreign State. 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 209 
 
 Article XII. 
 The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
 ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, 
 shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; 
 they shall name in their ballots the person to be voted for as 
 President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- 
 President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted 
 for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, 
 and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign 
 and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government 
 of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. 
 The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and 
 House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes 
 shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number 
 of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be 
 a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if 
 no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 
 highest number not exceeding three on the list of those voted 
 for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose im- 
 mediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presi- 
 dent, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from 
 each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall con- 
 sist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and 
 a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And 
 if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
 whenever the right of choice shall d/^' ' .^ 
 
 the fourth day of March next following, unen ine Vice-President 
 shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other Con- 
 stitutional disability of the President. The person having the 
 greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice- 
 President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
 electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from 
 the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the 
 Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the 
 whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person 
 Constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be elig- 
 ible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 
 
 Article XIII. 
 Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except 
 
210 THE FOOTPEIXTS OF TIME, 
 
 as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall hare been 
 duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any 
 place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 Article XIY, 
 
 Sectiox 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
 States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
 United States, and of the State wherein they reside. Xo State 
 shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges 
 or immunities of citizens of the United States: nor shall any 
 State deprive any person of Hfe, hberty, or property, without 
 due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- 
 tion the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Sec. 2. Eepresentatives shall be appointed among the several 
 States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
 number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed ; 
 but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of 
 electors for President and Vice President of the United States. 
 Eepresentatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers 
 of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied 
 to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one 
 years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way 
 abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crimes, the 
 basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
 which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
 number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State, 
 
 Sec. 3. Xo person shall be a Senator or Eepresentative in 
 Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any 
 office, civil or military, under the United States or under any 
 State, who. having previously taken an oath as a Member of 
 Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member 
 of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of 
 any State, to support the Constitution of the L'nited States, shall 
 have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or 
 given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may. 
 by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. 
 
 Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the L'nited States 
 authorized by law. including debts incurred for payment of pen- 
 sions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or 
 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 211 
 
 rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States 
 nor any State shall resume or pay any debt or obligation incurred 
 in the aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, 
 or any loss or emancipation of any slave, but such debts, obliga- 
 tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Sec, 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
 priate legislation, the provisions of this act. 
 
 Article XV. 
 
 Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote, 
 shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any 
 State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servi- 
 tude. 
 
 Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, AND THE VARIOUS SEATS OF 
 GOVERNMENT FROM 1774 TO 1789. 
 
 Peyton Kandolph, Virginia 5tli Sept., 1774 
 
 Henry Middleton, South Carolina 22d Oct., 1774 
 
 Peyton Randolph, Virginia 10th May, 17-75 
 
 John Hancock, Massachusetts 24th May, 1775 
 
 Henry Laurens, South Carolina 1st Nov., 1777 
 
 John Jay, Few York 10th Dec, 1778 
 
 Samuel Huntingdon, Connecticut 28th Sept., 1779 
 
 Thomas McKean, Delaware 10th July, 1781 
 
 John Hanson, Maryland 5th Nov., 1781 
 
 Elias Boudinot, New Jersey 4th " 1783 
 
 Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania 3d " 1783 
 
 Richard Henry Lee, Virginia 30th '' 1784 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham, Massachusetts 6th Jan. , 1786 
 
 Arthur St. Clair. Pennsylvania 2d Feb., 1787 
 
 Cyrus Griffin, Virginia 22d Jan., 1788 
 
 The seat of government was established as follows: At Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., commencing September 5th, 1774, and May 10th. 
 1775; at Baltimore, Md., December 20th, 1776; at Philadelphia, 
 Pa., March 4th, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa., September 27th, 1777; 
 at York, Pa., September 30th, 1777; at Philadelphia, Pa., July 
 2d, 1778; at Princeton, N. J., June 30th, 1783; at Annapolis, Md., 
 November 26th, 1783; at Trenton, N. J., November 1st, 1784; and 
 at New York City, N. Y., January 11th, 1785. 
 
 On the 4th of March. 1789, the present Constitution, which had 
 been adopted by a Convention and ratified by the requisite num- 
 ber of States, went into operation. 
 
 (212) 
 
PART SECOND. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 The adoption of the Constitution of 1787, by Conventions, 
 elected by the voters in each State for the purpose, gave to the 
 instrument ail the authority that it was possible to confer on it. 
 It was "ordained and established" by "The People of the 
 United States of America to form a more perfect Union, estab- 
 lish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common 
 defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
 of liberty " to themselves and their posterity. The experiences 
 and reflections of the revolutionary statesmen for twelve years 
 had singularly fitted them to present to their countrymen and 
 the world the first complete model of a truly republican 
 Constitution. 
 
 The Government it provided for was strong to protect liberty 
 and encourage energy; it was subject to the immediate infiuence 
 of the people as individuals as well as of the organized States; it 
 was able to command the resources of the whole country at 
 need; and the whole executive power was lodged in the hands 
 of a single person selected by the people to be its active force, 
 but unable to act without express authority of the Constitution 
 or of the Laws. \By the side of the Legislative and Executive, 
 was erected the Judicial Power to interpret the Constitution for 
 each of the two first, to consider infractions of it and award 
 penalties. The Congress authorizes or orders, the Judiciary ex- 
 amines the order, in case its consiitutionality is called in ques- 
 tion, and if, in its opinion. Congress has exceeded its powers 
 annuls the law. The President is charged with the action 
 required. These three grand Departments, of the Government 
 
 (313) 
 
314 THE GOVEKXMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 exist and act each in a separate field, independent of each other, 
 yet concurring to secure a common result. The power conferred 
 on each is great. Unrestrained it would be dangerous; but the 
 checks of each on the others are numerous and so well applied 
 as to fairly insure that the commission of each will be executed 
 according to the wishes of the people and without seriously 
 endangering their interests. _] 
 
 The persons who might vote for the various members of this. 
 General Government were not directly designated by the Consti- 
 tution, that point being left to the organizations called States. 
 All who take part in electing the members of the popular branch 
 of the State Legislature are thereby qualified to act as electors of 
 Representatives in Congress. No power of conferring titles of 
 nobility was allowed to Congress or to the States, so that the 
 substantial equality of the voters was insured. A property qual- 
 ification of suffrage was long retained by some of the States, and 
 one race was generally excluded from its exercise for more than 
 seventy years ; but the tendency was toward giving the suffrage 
 to all the inhabitants of the United States. All persons born in 
 the country and subject to its jurisdiction, except Indians under 
 tribal government, were declared citizens of the United States.. 
 Thus the general body of the citizens, including foreigners natu- 
 ralized under the laws, voted directly for the members of the 
 House of Representatives, as they also all came finally to do for 
 Electors who were to appoint the President, which last arrange- 
 ment soon amounted, substantially, to voting directly for that 
 oflicer. The Senators were appointed by the State Legislatures,, 
 but these had been elected by the jDeople, so that they could con- 
 trol its composition indirectly if they desired. The Supreme 
 Judiciary was constituted by the joint choice of the President 
 and the Senate of the United States, in order to remove it as far 
 as possible from the influence of the passions and prejudices of 
 political life. No dissatisfaction has been caused by that decis- 
 ion of the framers of the Constitution, since it has been the uni- 
 form practice to appoint persons of dignified character and high 
 attainments to the Supreme Bench. 
 
 It could not be fully foreseen how such a Government would 
 work before it went into operation: but the best hopes of the 
 most sanguine supporters of it may be said to have been realized. 
 The short term of the members of the more numerous branch of 
 Congress took them fresh from the people to the work of legislation 
 
THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 215 
 
 every two years; the longer terms, smaller num.ber, and more 
 select body constituting the Senate made it a moderating force 
 in legislation, while its association with the President in the dis- 
 charge of some of his functions gave its position still more 
 prominence and respectability. To these two bodies was 
 intrusted the high responsibility of determining what new laws 
 were needed, how existing laws should be modified, what re- 
 quired to be wholly repealed, and of providing generally for the 
 welfare of the country. 
 
 It seems somewhat surprising that powers so ample should 
 have been confided with little hesitation to the President. The 
 other Departments consisted of many members, and their 
 authority could be exerted only in ordaining what was to be 
 done. He was left alone in the high offices of commanding the 
 army and navy, of selecting men to fill a wide range of offices by 
 his single decision, and of superintending the active official world 
 created by the Constitution and the laws. The ''purse " and the 
 " sword " were put in his keeping and he conducted the foreign 
 relations of the country. He was a co-ordinate and indepen- 
 dent Branch of the Government, his essential powers not being 
 at all dependent on the Legislative or Judicial Branches unless 
 he overstepped constitutional bounds; and, in case of conflict 
 and a determined struggle, the organized energies of the ccuntrj^ 
 were under his control. His veto (meaning "I forbid") could 
 often arrest the purposes of law-makers, and the Judges of the 
 Supreme Court must be nominated by him. Much would de- 
 pend on his choice of agents, on the tone and spirit in which he 
 executed the laws, and on his attitude toward foreign powers. 
 The agents of the Government, at home and abroad, spoke and 
 acted in his name, and this was not an essential formality, as in 
 England, but the expression of a vital principle of government. 
 
 The century that followed this setting up of a single Executive, 
 clothed with powers so numerous and comprehensive, was 
 marked in Europe by an opposite tendency. The effect of fail- 
 ure to coerce the colonies in the American war, was exhibited 
 in England by a decisive check to direct royal influence over ad- 
 ministration, which ultimately reduced it to a mere form. Only 
 members of Parliament could occupy the chief offices controlling 
 the course of legislation, the administration of the laws, and 
 the resources of the country; and when these officers ceased to 
 be willing to act according to the views of a majority of the 
 
216 THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 lawmakers they must retire. The Executive and the Legislative 
 Branches of the Government were thus virtually united in Eng- 
 land, since a hostile vote of Parliament could drive the acting 
 Executive from power and require him to be replaced by another. 
 
 The tendency toward popular liberty in all European nations 
 and in the colonies of England has maintained this form during 
 the whole course of the nineteenth century. The nominal 
 Executive is usually permanent — the representative of a histori- 
 cal monarchy — the real acting Executive being selected from 
 among the majority of the two Legislative Chambers and chang- 
 ing as often as, and nearly simultaneously with, that majori- 
 ty. In France, after repeated failures, the Head of the Govern- 
 ment was made elective, the Parliamentary form of government 
 was maintained, the actual depositaries of power being a "re- 
 sponsible" ministry, as in England, selected among the mem- 
 bers of the Legislative Chambers. Such has been the course of 
 constitutional history in Holland, Spain, Italy, Denmark, Swe- 
 den, Germany, Austria, the recently freed nationalities of Tur- 
 key and the English colonies in both the Old and New Worlds. 
 Brazil has followed the European parliamentary system, while 
 the Spanish American Republics have imitated the United 
 States in a general way, with not very brilliant success. 
 
 It is probable that the people of the United States would, in 
 1787 to 1789, have hesitated to clothe their Executive with powers 
 so numerous, weighty and independent if they had not foreseen 
 that Washington, the "Father of his Country," the trusty and 
 high minded republican, would be the first to exercise them. 
 As it was, many of the State Conventions accepted the scheme 
 with misgivings and by small majorities. But they had long 
 and very painful experience of the evils of a loose Government 
 and a divided Executive under the Articles of Confederation. 
 They felt the need of a Government that could act with energy 
 and decision. Only waste of resources and loss of vigor had 
 attended that cautious mode of administering the Central Gov- 
 ernment, and the people were anxious for something much more 
 effective. Washington became the first President; but when his 
 second term drew toward its close and it was known that he de- 
 clined serving another, the Federal and Republican parties be- 
 came heated over the manner in which the administration should 
 be conducted. After another term under Adams, that party 
 which desired to establish the freest and most liberal traditions 
 
THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 317 
 
 of administration obtained control. Thomas Jefferson, being 
 selected as its representative, was elected President. That party 
 remained long in power. It soon became apparent that no 
 danger was to be apprehend to the liberties of the people from 
 the Executive. The persons selected to occupy an office of such 
 dignity, though clothed with powers so extensive, gave no sign 
 of inclination to misuse them, to consider themselves as above 
 restraint, or as other than the servants of the people. 
 
 Thus the real advantages of a monarchy and those of a true 
 Republic were fairly well combined. The Continental Congress 
 had been under the impression that the possession of great 
 powers by individuals was dangerous, or at least undesirable, 
 and the various Departments of the public service under its direc- 
 tion were usually conducted by Boards composed of several per- 
 sons: but they found that division of responsibility, conflict of 
 views, and consequent want of unanimity, produced dilatory 
 action and defeated, or but partially secured, the end desired. 
 These committees were so inefficient that Washington in con- 
 ducting the war had constantly to perform duties that belonged 
 to them. During the war his deference to Congress helped to 
 render it respectable in the eyes of the people and his faithful 
 labors concealed the defects of the system; Ibut when that closed 
 and he retired to drivate life the Continental Congress retained 
 bnt a shadow of power or honor. It was not the place from 
 which influence could best be exerted by leading men and^they 
 retired from it to assist in the more effective offices of the State 
 Governments. These experiences taught the Revolutionary 
 Fathers the value of a good system and the proper distribution 
 of powers. Therefore,, in reconstructing, they took care that 
 each Branch of the Government should be able, of itself, to act 
 with due vigor and precision. 
 
 This was gained not only, nor perhaps chiefly, by conferring 
 large independent powers on each Branch, although that was 
 done, but by classifying these powers with great distinctness. 
 In nothing was the wisdom of the framers of the Constitution 
 more conspicuous or successful than in this. Both Washington 
 and Hamilton— who was Washington's secretary and wholly in 
 his confidence during the most momentous years of the war — 
 were members of the Convention. Both were men of calm and 
 great good sense, Washington conversant with great responsi- 
 bilities, and Hamilton of active mind and wide-reaching genius. 
 
218 THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION, 
 
 None could more suitably give weighty counsel. Their colleagues 
 in the Convention had received, more or less, the same training, 
 or watched the course of public affairs so closely as to appreciate 
 the necessities of the case. They, therefore, did what no other 
 statesmen had ever done before them , they separated the Legis- 
 lative, Judicial and Executive powers absolutely, giving each 
 entire independence of, and yet concurrence with, the others in 
 action. This avoided confusion of ideas, freed the actors, as far 
 as possible, from mixed motives and influences, and accorded 
 with the limitations of the average mind by assigning a single 
 class of considerations, and a limited range of authority in con- 
 sequence, to each class of high ofiBcials. 
 
 Many injudicious things had been done, much complaint and 
 embarrassment had been occasioned by the variety of duties 
 demanded from the members of the Continental Congress. They 
 were often called upon to act on subjects of which they had very 
 inadequate knowledge. They could often form little idea of the 
 consequences that would flow from their action, so that their 
 decisions had often to be modified or reversed after great harm 
 had been done or great opportunities lost, and frequently their 
 innocent mistakes had seriously damaged their reputations. All 
 this was avoided by giving the law-making power to a body 
 whose exclusive business it was to consider the needs of the 
 country in that respect. The criticism of those laws, and their 
 interpretation in reference to particular cases calling for their 
 application, was given to another body selected by the authorities 
 most likely to be wise and dispassionate. The active energy of 
 the Constitution and the Laws was placed in the hands of a 
 single ofiBcer whom the general voice of the country was to 
 select for so great a responsibility. Each was a check on the 
 others by the limitation of their powers, while each was in- 
 dependent of the others in its proper sphere, and received office 
 on distinct tenures and specified terms. The people, at the close 
 of their terms, recovered the power to intervene by choosing 
 their successors, or influencing the choice by opinion and some 
 form of action. 
 
 Distinct grooves were thus made for each class of energies, all 
 were joined in a united government by their relations and the 
 timing of their action. But. though a people require a suitable 
 organization to render their combined action useful and effect- 
 ive ;o secure desired ends, their success under any given system 
 
THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. Sl^" 
 
 will depend even more on the character and habits of the 
 administrators than on the merits of the plan they adopt. 
 Though the power of the King, among the Anglo-Saxons, re- 
 mained undefined until a late period in their history and his 
 ambition, combined with internal and external commotions 
 through many centuries, accummulated power in his hands; 
 though all the acts of the Government, both general and local, 
 were done in his name; though he was regarded as the fountain 
 of power and honor, and the liberties of the people were tech- 
 nically held to be concessions made by him rather than inherent 
 rights; yet Anglo-Saxons managed to preserve the outlines and 
 many particulars of their original rights as freemen through all. 
 This they did even in the worst of times and under the most 
 unscrupulous of Kings, and finally, by repeated, if not con- 
 tinuous, pressure, without rejecting the King, subjected his 
 authority to the control of Parliament and representation in 
 Parliament was made, at length, nearly co-extensive with the 
 nation. This they did by obstinate persistence in claiming 
 traditional or acknowledged privileges and rights, and building 
 up a definite Constitution under the form of "precedents" in the 
 long course of years. Acts once occurring with the common 
 consent of people. Parliament and Sovereign, and never formally 
 abrogated, were held, under the name of Precedents, to have 
 constitutional force. 
 
 Thus the English nation developed, in such details as tolerably 
 satisfied each generation, the early habits and institutions of 
 their almost barbarous yet sensible and freedom-loving ances- 
 tors. No other instance of such a connected growth from early 
 instinctive habits into an elaborate, well-guarded and free 
 Constitution is known to history. With much roughness and 
 many faults, with many an inability to see what seemed the 
 most obvious facts to outside observers, with their minds often 
 limited and distorted by inconsistent prejudices and habits, the 
 people still had, at bottom, the firmly-grained and high-toned 
 character which has made them leading agents in the world- 
 wide propagation of the best elements of civilization of the nine- 
 teenth century. The character of the people led them to prefer 
 a vigorous government. They preserved its vigor while gradu- 
 ally transferring the prerogatives of the Sovereign to the Repre- 
 sentatives of the people. 
 
 The Anglo-Americans inherited this character and all the best 
 
220 THE GOTERXMEXT UNDER THE COXSTITUTIOX. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon traditions of liberty The analogy of English his- 
 tory does not allow us to suppose that the great and concentrated 
 powers invested in the GoTernnient of the United States under 
 the Constitution could ever have been seriously abused for any 
 great length of time. The people had too clear a conception of 
 liberty, and were too vigorous by inherited character and by 
 habit, to permit the long exercise of these powers in a tyranni- 
 cal or harmful way. The Constitution embodied the instincts of 
 equity and order dwelling in the character of the American 
 people. If these had not found expression in 1789, they would 
 have done so soon, in any case. Efhciency in the Government 
 was needed to consolidate and build up the young nation. The 
 new States and people instinctively recognized it in this strong 
 contrast to the Confederation, and. notwithstanding the fears of 
 many of the advocates of the Constitution and the efforts of its 
 opposers, its acceptance was a "foregone conclusion.** It was 
 suitable to the character and aspirations of the people. They 
 had the essential qualities of a new race, preferring to abandon 
 the past and build up on their virgin territory a new class of in- 
 stitutions, or at least to completely remodel those established in 
 the Mother Country, and to adopt the methods most suitable to 
 their circumstances, whether old or new. 
 
 The vigor and originality natural to an opening career seems 
 to have been strong in the statesmen who devised, and the 
 voters who adopted the devices of this Constitution. The Gov- 
 ernment was got into operation without serious friction and 
 relieved the country at once from the financial bog in which it 
 had been floundering since the Declaration of Independence had 
 been issued. Prosperity revived at home and the nation secured 
 respect abroad. The public credit became good through the con- 
 trol of resources possessed by the new Congress, commerce was 
 revived by the strong protection afforded it, and the period of 
 vast activity, prompted by thirty years of stirring public events 
 and a preliminary acquaintance with the natural resources of 
 various parts of the country, opened. Much was to be done to 
 secure a full reward to these activities, but contradictory coun- 
 cils and the dilatory action of public authorities were no longer 
 to be reckoned among the impediments. As fair a measure of 
 promptness and vigor as could be expected from a new nation, of 
 which the parts varied so much in habits and interests, was dis- 
 played. Growth was constant and rapid: the chief embarrass- 
 
THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION. 321 
 
 ments arose from inexperience of the best and most suitable 
 methods in the various departments of business activity, and the 
 vastness of the ground to be recovered from its natural wildness 
 and made tributary to human welfare. 
 
 The people soon learned that no excess of powers had been 
 conferred on any Branch of the Government, and the criticism 
 of foreign observers soon came to be that American institutions 
 were too much at the mercy of popular caprice. Lawmakers, 
 Judges, and Executives studied public opinion and if that 
 opinion, noticed in detail, often appeared crude and unreasonable, 
 in the larger view of the whole country and through a century 
 of history, it may be said to have proved eminently practical, 
 just and wise. "American public opinion " proved to be "the 
 great force in modern history." It must be considered to have 
 greatly hastened extensive reforms in English institutions, to 
 have sustained France in repeated efforts to enfranchise the 
 masses of its people and give them a republic with universal 
 suffrage, and it united with English and French influence to 
 bring Constitutions and "Responsible" Ministries into fashion 
 over all Southern and Western Europe. The view of American 
 success moved the Spanish Americans to cast off the rule of the 
 Mother Country and adopt republican forms. Their history 
 illustrates the excellence of Anglo-American character by many 
 points of contrast. The body of the people in the Spanish- Ameri- 
 can Republics did not understand how to make themselves 
 respected, and ambitious generals and popular leaders often dis- 
 regarded Laws and Constitution by establishing personal 
 government until driven from power by stronger rivals. Yet 
 the people there gradually learned their duties, their rights, and 
 their strength, under the example and moral support of the 
 Great Republic, and unjustifiable revolutions decreased in fre- 
 quency. A vast prosperity and a great Civil War demonstrated 
 that Anglo-American institutions could stand immense and 
 various strains without essential injury. Without being in any 
 sense perfect, since it was invented and conducted by imperfect 
 men. (often very imperfect indeed), the Government under the 
 Constitution must be considered a great success, fairly embody- 
 ing the spirit and temper of the people, and giving noble expres- 
 sion, on the whole, to what is most just and elevated in human 
 nature. The march of general progress which it has stimulated 
 and led has gained for it the respect and gratitude of mankind. 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 "^ATien the GoTernment under the Constitution was organized 
 in 17S9, comparativelr few officials were required to transact its 
 "business. Industries of most kinds were restricted for want of 
 public credit. There was very little money to carry on the oper- 
 ations of commerce and trade, and all activities were on a small 
 scale. It was the first duty of Congress to arrange for the pay- 
 ment of the pubhc debt, raise and support an army for the Indian 
 war in the T\'est, and provide for the general expenses of the 
 Government. A Treasurer and Collectors of Customs and Excise, 
 or Internal Revenue, duties were needed first of all. The Gen- 
 eral Land Office was also organized. A Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury, and officers to enforce revenue laws, were soon put in their 
 places by the combined action of the President and Senate, and 
 the funds necessary to meet the appropriations of Congress be- 
 gan to fiow in at once. 
 
 A Secretary of War took care to raise troops, provide for their 
 support and discipline, and furnish war material. Indian affairs 
 -were placed under his direction. He soon had hundreds of busy 
 employees. It was by him that the foundation of the United 
 States' Xavy was laid; but it was not until 1798 that the resources 
 of the Government and the dangers of a foreign war led to such 
 enlarged plans for a naval force as to require a Secretary of the 
 Navy and his little army of officials. 
 
 A Secretary of State was placed in charge of State Papers, of 
 diplomatic affairs, of the Census Bureau and various matters of 
 internal administration. Some years elapsed before he came to 
 need many employes to conduct the business assigned him, for 
 vea'rs passed before the Bureaus were aU organized. Jefferson, 
 when Secretary of State, during the first term of Washington's 
 administration, had but four clerks in his office, although there 
 were several United States Ministers to foreign Governments 
 
THE MEMBERS OF EARLY CABINETS. 233 
 
 and some consuls and minor diplomatic officials. It was liis bus- 
 iness to correspond with these, hold intercourse with the repre- 
 sentatives of other Governments sent to the United States, and 
 arrange the details of their official reception by the President. 
 The intercourse of the President with State governments and 
 officers, and many matters of like kind soon accumulated a vast 
 array of business for the Secretary of State, as the country pros- 
 pered at home and enlarged its intercourse abroad ; but it was 
 not till 1849, at the close of President Polk's administration, that 
 a Secretary of the Interior was appointed and relieved him of a 
 considerable part of the care and labor connected with interior 
 administration. 
 
 The Postmaster General had full charge of that branch of the 
 Public Service, but the intercourse of the people was so limited 
 in earlier times that he remained a comparativel}^ inconspicuous 
 officer of the administration until 183G, when he was given the 
 rank of a Cabinet Officer as one of the official advisers of the 
 President. A legal adviser, called the Attorney General, was 
 appointed, whose business it was to give counsel to the Presi- 
 dent and his Cabinet on such matters of law as should be re- 
 ferred to him. He usually sat in the Cabinet after 1815, and 
 became Head of the Department of Justice in 1842, 
 
 Thus, in the beginning, there were but three heads of depart- 
 ments who were regarded as the special advisers of the Presi- 
 dent and formed his Cabinet, or Privy Council; but they were 
 increased from time to time, as started, until they came to num- 
 ber seven. The subordinates over whom they watched and who 
 enforced the laws, under their orders, as secretaries or aids of 
 the President, increased from a few hundred to many thousands, 
 and finally, to nearly one hundred thousand, all receiving pay 
 and support from the Government Treasury. In recent years the 
 annual expense of all these branches of the Executive Depart- 
 ment has been in the near neighborhood of one hundred million 
 dollars, not including pensions to disabled soldiers and sailors, 
 payments to the Indian tribes, and appropriations for the im- 
 provement of rivers and harbors, which, altogether, sometimes 
 exceed seventy millions. The support of the two Houses of 
 Congress, consisting of about three hundred and seventy mem- 
 bers, and the various persons in their employ, numbering nearly 
 two hundred for the Senate and nearly five hundred for the 
 House of Representatives, besides many hundred connected with 
 
224 . THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTIIEXT. 
 
 public printing, of the entire judicial system of the United States, 
 and raiscellaneous expenses not falling under these heads, is an 
 additional yearly expense of ten to twenty millions to be paid 
 out of the treasury under appropriations made by special enact- 
 ment of Congress. 
 
 The Government under the Constitution is one. not so much of 
 authority or force, as of law. All the officers acting under 
 the direction of the Executive in each of the Departments and 
 superintended by members of the Cabinet, are appointed by 
 virtue of some law of Congress enjoining or permitting their 
 appointment, and prescribing the general features of the organi- 
 zation of which they form part. This prevalence of Congress- 
 ional law in the structure and management of Executive Depart- 
 ments is in conformity with the provision of the Constitution 
 which authorizes Congress to ""niake all laws necessary and 
 proper ■■ for carrying •■ the powers vested in the government or 
 any department officer thereof" into effect. The President 
 appoints to no office without the express authority of the laws or 
 the Constitution and '' concurs " with Congress and the Judiciary 
 in keeping everything in order. 
 
 There is little danger of conflict of a serious kind in the Gov- 
 ernment because each Branch, though acting in regard to the 
 same thing, has a different kind and class of powers to employ 
 which it exerts at a different time and in a different way from 
 the others. The President may. indeed, differ with Congress as 
 to the principle, the prudence, or the details of a bill. In that 
 case he may state his objections and decline to approve it. and 
 if Congress cannot " pass it over the veto " by a majority of two- 
 thirds of the members of each House, it fails to become a law. 
 If it can, on reconsideration, pass it by such a majority, then 
 the President is constitutionally overruled and obhged to see it 
 executed by the proper officers. Xo money can be collected, no 
 army or navy created or supported, no important officer per- 
 manently appointed, and no person paid for service without 
 previous action by Congress in some way providing for it. It 
 has therefore firm control over both the Purse and the Sword— 
 the two formidable engines of Government: but the creation and 
 management of both, when ordered by Congress, are in the 
 hands of the Executive alone: Congress may watch that manage- 
 ment and control it by laws, though it can never take it out of 
 his hands but by impeachment, conviction of high crimes, and 
 
THE EXECUTIVE IS RESPONSIBLE TO THE PEOPLE. 225 
 
 removal by constitutional methods. Such is the relation be- 
 tween the Executive and Legislative Departments. 
 
 The energies and resources of the country are confided to the 
 Executive Department, but if they should be used otherwise than 
 according to the will of the National Legislature, as expressed 
 by constitutional law, the right of the Executive to his authority 
 and control ceases, he and officers obeying him may be im- 
 peached, and they can only hold their places by revolutionary 
 force. As the rights of the people are established by, and their 
 interests involved in the maintenance of, the Constitution and the 
 laws, they would, in such a case, rise in the defense of them. 
 They are the true Sovereign. A clear sense of this has always 
 sufficed to keep each Branch of the Government in its proper 
 place, and made every officer, whatever might be the power in 
 his hands, fear and tremble before the law and public opinion. 
 Many officers in the Executive Department have large dis- 
 cretionary powers and become responsible for immense sums of 
 money, are distant from immediate supervision and capable of 
 doing great harm, while their immediate responsibility is to the 
 chiefs of their Bureaus and Departments. But these chiefs are 
 responsible to the President, and all are responsible first to the 
 law and then to the people. The President and his Cabinet are 
 exceedingly solicitous to secure a high reputation for success 
 and efficiency of administration which every dishonest or in- 
 competent officer more or less perils, because under their con- 
 trol. They are, therefore, naturally watchful to prevent ir- 
 regularities, indiscretions and violations of the law. The law- 
 makers furnish them all needful assistance by legal provisions 
 against unfaithfulness, and by this combined effort the public 
 service of the United States has attained a high degree of purity 
 and efficiency. 
 
 That the President might be really the Head — the virtual, as 
 well as nominal. Executive — he was not bound by the opinions 
 of his advisers, the members of the Cabinet, and has unre- 
 stricted power to remove its members. Cabinet officers exert 
 his powers and must obey all orders received from him not in- 
 consistent with law. In this respect the Executive under the 
 Constitution of the United States is extremely difl^erent from 
 that prevailing in countries having "Parliamentary Govern- 
 ment," or a "Responsible Ministry," as in England, Canada, and 
 most European countries in the most recent times. The Parlia- 
 
 15 
 
226 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 mentary System would require that the members of the Cabinet 
 the Heads of great Departments— should possess the real decid- 
 ing power now belonging to the President alone, that they should 
 have seats in one of the Houses of Congress, and should remain 
 in office only so long as their policy and measures were approved 
 by the majority of Congress, or, at least, by the House of Rep- 
 resentatives, They would, in that case, still act in the Presi- 
 dent's name, and he would formally sign such documents as they 
 might lay before him; but he would be bound to act in all pubhc 
 measures by their ''advice." He would be the nominal, they 
 the real, Executive. They would take a leading part also in leg- 
 islation by planning, introducing and urging through Congress 
 such laws as they judged necessary, the President being required 
 to sign them without the liberty of refusing when passed by both 
 Houses. Whenever Congress refused to pass the bills they con- 
 sidered important they would be expected to resign their com- 
 missions into the hands of the President and counsel him whom 
 to select from their opponents to '= advise" him in future. 
 
 Thus the President would be a comparative cipher and the 
 Cabinet would possess the real executive power and the lead in 
 the exercise of legislative power. Formerly the English kings 
 endeavored to monopolize most of the three powers of Govern- 
 ment. Parliament finally succeeded in ''putting him in a straight 
 jacket" by requiring that the Heads of Departments who formed 
 the committee of his Privy Council, called the "Ministry," should 
 be taken from their body, that he should always take, and 
 follow, their advice, and that they should resign when the 
 House of Commons required it. Thus Parliament became para- 
 mount, the real governing force of the country being part of it 
 and bound to obey it. As the House of Commons is elected by 
 the people every seven years and the king, on the advice of a 
 ministry, can dissolve it and order a new election at such other 
 times as they see fit. that body must be supposed to represent the 
 public wishes. This plan was favorable to popular liberty with- 
 out unseating the Sovereign or weakening the executive. Most 
 European nations, when they came to limit royal powers by 
 Constitutions, imitated this style of " Parliamentary Govern- 
 ment," and so remained monarchies while actually being 
 governed by their Representative Assemblies. France alone be- 
 came a republic, with a President chosen by the two Legislative 
 Chambers, but a Parliamentary "Responsible" Ministry — the 
 
THE NATURE OF A PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT. 227 
 
 President receiving the honors, and they taking the power and 
 doing the work, of the real Executive. He may have influence 
 but it has no peremptory weight. 
 
 This system has various advantages. It makes a very vigorous 
 executive because the ministy has possession of all the ancient 
 prerogatives of the Sovereign and can act with all vigor so long- 
 as it is supported by a majority of the Representatives. As they 
 confide power to it and it is expected to contain their most able 
 and influential men it can usually get such laws passed as it 
 thinks desirable. There is no great friction between the Execu- 
 tive and the legislative body because when the majority of legis- 
 lators change their views the Executive is changed without 
 much delay or commotion. The Government is thus supposed to 
 be always what the people may desire at any given time — vary- 
 ing as their opinions vary. 
 
 Anglo-Americans, however, are not fond of legal fictions such 
 as this system requires; they do not like to mingle the Legislative 
 and Executive powers in the same hands to such an extent, and 
 prefer to change the course of public policy with more deliber- 
 ation. The balance of opinion on important measures of public 
 policy sometimes changes sides with unreasonable suddenness 
 through influences of temporary duration, and would give an ap- 
 pearance of caprice and uncertainty to Governments if always 
 producing an immediate change in their measures. American 
 changes of this kind are provided for at definite times, and are 
 preceded by extensive discussion and by careful examination of 
 principles and facts. The American system, therefore, tends to 
 make the people thoughtful and moderate, less liable to sudden 
 impulses, and educates them more thoroughly in the statesman- 
 ship required from them. 
 
 The Cabinet seldom fails to contain a weighty and capable 
 body of statesmen, and they have all the influence on the laws 
 of Congress and the decisions of the President, to which their 
 character, knowledge and genius give them a just claim. Under 
 "Parliamentary Government." splendid ability, joined with 
 tact, may virtually make a single man, at times, the absolute 
 ruler of a nation. Under the American system, with a boundary 
 between the different powers of the Government so distinct and 
 permanent, no man can exercise more influence than is natural 
 and legitimate. 
 
 The Civil Service of the country, although controlled by law 
 
2^8 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 and by the President is practically in the hands of the Cabinet. 
 They alone being the immediate managers and familiar with all 
 the details and working of every branch, their influence and 
 discretion guide the President in the selection of the higher 
 subordinates whom it is his duty to nominate for office, and 
 their representations to Congress usually form the basis of the 
 regulating laws passed by that body. Public opinion, though 
 inmiediately the judgment and decision of only a majority of 
 the people, exercised through an organized political party in 
 control of the government, is yet deeply influenced by the opin- 
 ions and criticism of the minority, or party in opposition. It is 
 practically a summary of the general temper and thought of 
 the country. So also the Civil Service is a summary of the views, 
 the experience and the influence, not only of the various De- 
 partments and officers of the Government and the policy of the 
 party in power, but also of the general judgment of the country. 
 It produces the final results of government, brings the general 
 policy of the President and Congress in contact with the people 
 everywhere, directly touches their interests, and so strongly at- 
 tracts their attention. 
 
 The character of the Civil Service is, therefore, primarily in- 
 fluenced by the public in the choice of Congressmen and the 
 President in the elections. If the general opinion is decided 
 as to the organization and management of the Service, those wiU 
 be elected who are pledged to enforce its wishes. Congress wiU 
 enact laws to carry out those wishes, and the President 
 and Senate will concur in the selection of managing officers who 
 will enforce them and see that the desired ends are attained. 
 In this way the People control the rulers, the Government 
 as a whole becomes a just reflex or embodiment of their mature 
 opinion and determination on every subject, and the rulers be- 
 come virtually the servants of the public. 
 
 Congress legislates as far as it judges it to be "necessary and 
 proper" to secure the object in view, the President and his Cab- 
 inet aiding in the beginning and in the end to secure the most 
 appropriate and effective laws. The Executive then concurs by 
 an active enforcement of them. The general result is the Civil 
 Service system as in operation at any given time. It is, therefore, 
 a true summary of the general judgment. No officer or body m 
 the Government can be truly called responsible for what it actu- 
 allv is or for the manner in whirh it is actually conducted. Harsk 
 
THE CIVIL SEEVICE SYSTEM. 229 
 
 criticisms of these bodies or officers for not introducing "Civil 
 Service reform" can therefore never be wholly just, because it is 
 a government of, for and by the people. The critics, therefore, 
 must be a small body, perhaps more wise and correct than the 
 general public, but not yet sustained by public opinion, and 
 action by the President, or even by Congress, to satisfy them 
 would be a violent disregard of the general political system and 
 views of the country, as harmful in principle as it must be unsuc- 
 cessful in practice. Any system that is firmly rooted in the 
 habits of the Government must have become so by the consent 
 and aid of the people who are, practically, to the Government of 
 the United States what the Parliament of England is to the 
 King and Ministry. They have a fundamental right to demand 
 that their "advice and consent" should be asked and given before 
 any measure of importance is finally matured. To attempt to 
 secure even the most important ends by neglect, or in defiance 
 of, this principle would be more hurtful than the continuance of 
 an undesirable system. 
 
 But no system can be without important merit that has been 
 long established, and which the people have had frequent oppor- 
 tunities to modify. This would certainly have been done if it 
 were not tolerably adapted to its purpose. Its imperfections 
 being fully shown and their injurious effects generally acknowl- 
 edged, they will easily be set aside. If they are not it will be 
 from some unsuitability of the reform proposed, or the failure 
 will show a misapprehension of the facts on the part of the 
 reformers. 
 
 The most important provisions of law as to the Executive 
 determine the number of separate Departments, and which of 
 them shall be represented in the Cabinet by their chief, the gen- 
 eral structure and range of duties of the Departments, and the 
 salaries attached to each separate office. No extra pay may be 
 allowed unless so specified by some law. Besides the regular 
 sum to pay the salaries of all the officers and employees of a 
 Department, however, a "contingent fund" is at the disposal of 
 the Head of a Department, for the employment of such extra 
 clerks or employes as may be indispensable for the accomplish- 
 ment of the work required by law to be done under his direction, 
 or for other incidental expenses. The whole clerical force is, by 
 law, divided into four classes, a specified salary is assigned to all 
 clerks in each class, and the various assistants and laborers 
 
230 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMEXT. 
 
 required have also classified salaries. If others are employed 
 and paid from the contingent fund, they are to receive pay 
 according to the classification into which they fall, and full re- 
 port must be made of the disposition of the Contingent Fund so 
 employed. Women may be employed on the same conditions 
 and pay as men, in the discretion of Heads of Departments. 
 
 A careful system of gradation in executive offices is thus pro- 
 vided for, and certain officers in each departhient are constituted 
 a Board of Examiners of candidates to admission into any 
 grade. The President and Senate alone can appoint to the more 
 important offices, the power of appointment to the rest being- 
 vested by law in the Heads of Departments or Bureaus. . It is an 
 unwritten law established by precedent that, with the exception 
 of some offices in which long experience is of much importance, 
 public offices shall be filled by selections from each section and 
 State — a salutary principle which prevents the patronage of the 
 General Government from becoming the inheritance of any sec- 
 tion of the country or any definite class of the people. The rise 
 of such a local class would be regarded as highly undesirable 
 and, indeed, totally inadmissable, since they would be supposed 
 inclined to favor their own region at the expense of others, and 
 might tend to originate an official aristocracy not in keeping 
 with republican institutions. It is, perhaps, owing to these 
 considerations, in part, that a definite system, of Civil Service 
 Competitive Examinations, similar to that of England, has failed 
 to be established. 
 
 Some classes of commissions to office expire with the close of 
 each presidential term. In keeping, partly, with this practice is 
 that of looking to the members of the House of Representative& 
 to recommend — virtually to nominate — to federal offices in the 
 Congressional District from which they were elected, although 
 their final appointment depends on the President or some officer 
 of the Executive Department. It is the habit of each State and 
 region to claim these appointments, in general, and to feel 
 slighted if a substantial rotation is not observed by the President 
 in selecting each class of higher officers. This expectation he 
 usually respects, although often not feeling bound in choice if 
 other important considerations interpose. 
 
 Thus, in point of fact, the people and members of Congress are 
 consulted and influence the selection of a large part of the great 
 army of officials required by the Executive Department. Nom- 
 
CONGRESS SUPERVISES EXECUTIVE WORK. 231 
 
 inations made by the President are strongly influenced by the 
 opinioiis of members of the Cabinet and of Congress and by the 
 wishes of the people, though often overruled by reasons of State 
 Policy or party expediency. With the opening of each new 
 Congress — which continues for two years — full lists of all em- 
 ployees, clerks and officers and the statistics peculiar to each 
 Department and Bureau are furnished to the Secretary of the 
 Interior, who publishes a Biennial Register, sometimes called 
 "The Blue Book," giving the name, office, grade and salary of 
 every person doing any paid service under the Government of 
 the United States. 
 
 Congress supervises the arrangement, the work, and the policy 
 of the Departments, and often interposes by very minute and 
 stringent laws; but the Heads of Departments are authorized to 
 arrange and manage them according to their judgment in all 
 cases not inconsistent with these laws. The President is author- 
 ized to make Rules for the Civil Service ; but political influences 
 and the precedents of the past are usually so strong as to make 
 the exceptions to a rule adopted so numerous as to destroy its 
 efficacy. Under the close observation of the public, the minute 
 and unsparing criticism of the Press and of the party in opposi- 
 tion, the careful inquisition of Congress, the anxiety of the 
 President and Cabinet to secure to the administration a high 
 reputation with the people, and the dependence of overseeing 
 subordinates on the faithful discharge of duty for continuance 
 in their positions, the Civil Service of the Department, as a 
 whole, has reached a high state of efficiency. The purity and 
 careful administration of the Public Service may fairly be said 
 to have steadily increased through all its history of more than 
 ninety years. 
 
OHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE PRESroENT. 
 
 This high officer is the most conspicuous and important figure 
 in the Government. The laws of Congress and the decisions of 
 the Supreme Court are first directed to him, and the measures 
 that give them effect are taken by him. He, therefore, sits in 
 the centre of the vast system, Congressional and judicial work 
 receiving a last finishing stamp under his hand, and fiowing forth 
 on the stream of executive authority, of which he is the single 
 constitutional source, to produce its far-reaching effects. He is 
 the representative and embodiment of a nation above all remark- 
 able for intelligent, untiring, and successful energy. 
 
 He exerts far more real power than any modern, constitutional 
 king. Modern royalty enjoys a position of dignity and honor 
 largely fictitious. To assure the liberties and give effect to the 
 will of the people, the historical sovereign has been shorn of his 
 time-honored attributes until little more than traditional respect, 
 social eminence, and simulated authority are left to him. Sur- 
 rounded with the splendid pageantry and solemn ceremonial of 
 a Court he must leave all weighty decision and vigorous action 
 to others, and endure the fatigues of office, sign the most import- 
 ant documents, and issue peremptory orders without the satisfac- 
 tion of being able to use his own discretion, or of refusing if he 
 disapprove. The President, with little outward show or tiresome 
 ceremony, really exerts, with manly and effective directness, 
 the powers attributed to him. 
 
 "If he approve he shall sign " the enactments of Congress, and 
 bills become laws by his finishing act. "If he do not approve 
 he shall return them with his objections." He can be required 
 to enforce no law he disapproves without opportunity to protest, 
 to point out its unfitness and to secure a reconsideration that 
 often sets the proposed law aside. He can then obey the man- 
 date with the true dignity becoming the head of a nation legally 
 
 (232) 
 
THE EXTENSIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT. 233 
 
 expressing its will through the Legislative power. The Heads of 
 Departments aiding him in executive work are his special coun- 
 cillors whom he consults on all important questions. United, 
 they are familiar with the state of the country and all the details 
 of administration and must be able to give intelligent counsel; 
 but the responsibility of final decision is his alone. They are 
 not imposed upon him since their offices can be filled only on 
 his nomination. They, and all officers under them, exert his 
 powers under his commission, and they are removable at his luill. 
 
 It is his to decide if the envoys of foreign powers shall be 
 recognized, he directs the diplomatic service and has full power 
 to determine the principles and details of treaties until they are 
 laid before the Senate for its concurrence. He nominates the 
 Judges of the Supreme Court and to all other high offices of 
 dignity and trust, at home and abroad. The pardoning power 
 vested in him gives him a qualified veto on judicial action, analo- 
 gous to that on Legislative action. His proclamations have, in 
 a degree, the character and force of laws, sometimes, by virtue 
 of various powers vested in him, of great and summary efi'ect. 
 He is Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, and, as such, 
 is the powerful guardian of the peace and honor of the nation. 
 A modern king, subjected to peremptory control under the soft 
 name of " advice," seems an unreal show, a memory of de- 
 parted greatness, compared with this " man of the people." 
 The concentration of so many far reaching powers and great 
 responsibilites on this one man invests him with a real influence 
 and dignity not equalled elsewhere under any Constitutional 
 Government — not even the most vigorous monarchy. 
 
 It is a singular and impressive illustration of the character of 
 the Anglo-American people, and perhaps quite as much so of a 
 skillful adjustment of the different branches of the Government, 
 that an office so independent and powerful should be at once so 
 useful and so harmless in the American system. History proves 
 that the love of power for personal gratification — pleasure in 
 rejecting dictation when possible and in exalting the prerog- 
 atives of office and station to the utmost — is one of the strongest 
 and most unhappy inclinations of mankind. It was the honor 
 and glory of Washington and his successors to shame the aspir- 
 ations of false and selfish ambition by the spectacle of loyal obe- 
 dience to duty and faithful observance of law in a station of the 
 greatest eminence. Extraordinary and summary personal pow- 
 
234 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ers were vested in them for critical occasions ; but they have- 
 never manifested the tendency to the "•'encroachments of power" 
 that have so often made a mighty ruler the evil genius of a na- 
 tion. ISTo renown of conquest, no independence or extent of 
 arbitrary power, no supreme control of vast resources, could be 
 so impressive or influential as their scrupulous respect for the 
 rights of other Branches of the Government and their deference 
 to the wishes of the people. 
 
 The citizens of the United States have never had occasion to 
 regret the investment of the President with powers so extensive 
 and decisive. The extreme need of an executive capable of act- 
 ing with promptness and vigor was deeply felt under the Arti- 
 cles of Confederation, from IT 76 to 1789. The Continental Con- 
 gress was obliged to submit the enforcement of its most 
 important enactments to the States; State authorities were slow, 
 remiss, or wholly neglectful of its mandates — often most so in 
 matters of deepest concern to the country. All interests were 
 hopelessly embarassed, public honor was compromised, and an 
 energetic people rendered almost powerless. We cannot wonder, 
 that the eager and impatient citizens conferred free and full ex- 
 ecutive powers on the President with concise and significant 
 emphasis in the single sentence, "The Executive Power shall be 
 vested in a President of the United States of America:" nor that 
 the detail of duties following should be stated with a summary 
 brevity that took nothing from, but rather strengthened, the nat- 
 ural force of those words. It was a bold and thorough, yet well 
 considered, plan. The enterprising spirit and determination to 
 succeed of the Anglo-Saxon race had become still more marked 
 in Anglo-Americans, from the free space for enterprise surround- 
 ing the individual; but it had remained to be seen, up to this 
 time, whether energy in the mass could be harmonized and 
 guided. Otherwise the fractions would neutralize each other, 
 and confusion and helplessness result. 
 
 Such a disaster was put out of the question by this vestment 
 of supreme executive powers in a single officer, whereby the 
 concentration and vigor of a monarchy were secured. At the 
 same time the adjustment of his powers with those of the law- 
 making body, while leaving him all the freedom and reality of 
 his functions, supplied all desirable security against their vicious 
 use. He assisted, but could not control, their action. He could 
 call them together at any time of special need and adjourn them 
 
THE RELATIONS OF THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS. 235 
 
 in case they could not agree; but the governinent was to be one 
 of law, and he required their aid to facilitate all his executive 
 work. The checks and balances furnished by the peculiarities 
 of these relations gave all the securities for good government 
 that could be desired. The provision for his impeachment and 
 removal for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde- 
 meanors " furnished a final and effective guard against usurpa- 
 tion of powers or misconduct in office. The most effectual re- 
 straints, however, were soon found to lie in the intelligent de- 
 termination and energy of the people and the deference to their 
 wishes, as the ultimate and real sovereign, that was, in due 
 time, diffused through all Branches of the Government. Public 
 opinion had, at stated times, full freedom of decision and action 
 and all persons receiving its commission at the elections kept in 
 view, because they could not evade, the account they must 
 render before that final tribunal. 
 
 Congress was authorized to make laws "necessary and 
 proper" for carrying into execution its own powers and all those 
 " vested in any department or officer" of the Government, and 
 no money could be paid out of the Treasury without its express 
 authority. It, therefore, assumed the duty of directing the 
 organization of Executive Departments, the number of officers to 
 be employed and the salaries they were to receive, distributing 
 their powers and prescribing such modes of operation to each 
 as, in its judgment, were required. Usually the plans and sug- 
 gestions resulting in this class of laws were originated by the 
 President or by Heads of Departments, who annually reported 
 to Congress all the facts relating to the state of the country and 
 the details of administration that it required to know in order to 
 intelligent legislation. By the requirement that he should 
 approve and sign, or state his objections to all laws, the Presi- 
 dent took an active part in the work of Congress, in its final 
 stage, as, by his suggestions, he often did in its beginning, 
 Avhile otherwise unable to dictate its measures. If a sufficient 
 majority was convinced of the importance of a bill, it could be 
 made a law in spite of his disapproval. The Senate might de- 
 cline to approve his nominations to office or the treaties made 
 by him whenever it considered them objectionable; in which 
 case he must withdraw and change them until an agreement 
 was reached. Thus all the Branches of the Government co- 
 operated with him, and he gave the most desirable aid to, and 
 
236 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 co-operation with them, and all were too busily employed ia 
 promoting the welfare and prosperity of the country to find 
 much time or inclination for unhealthy ambitions. 
 
 Angio- Americans, as well as Angio-Sasons,. are much influenc- 
 ed by precedent. It forms an unwritten law that interprets the 
 Constitution and determines governmental action in the multi- 
 tude of cases not foreseen by that instrument nor by the laws. 
 The general spirit and methods adopted by Washington and the 
 first Congress hare prevailed through all after times. They 
 were so just, so considerate of the honor and welfare of th« 
 country, that, though other theories, in some respects sharplj 
 different, were held by succeeding Presidents and Congresses, 
 the spirit and methods remained, in large part, the same. These 
 theories and opposing principles of administration are especiaUj 
 discussed, and usually fought over with great heat, when the 
 election of a new president is in question: but whatever party 
 may gain the approval of the majority and seat their candidate 
 in that office, finds the precedents of former times difficult to set 
 aside and administers the Government in tolerable harmony 
 with its past. 
 
 According to these precedents the President seldom fails to act 
 by the advice of the eminent men who form his Cabinet. Each 
 member of it, therefore, finds full opportunity for the exercise of 
 such special abilities and genius as he may possess for the ad- 
 ministration of his Department, and for such influence on publi« 
 affairs in general as his qualities of mind and character may en- 
 title him to. Their united resources of knowledge and ability 
 are at the command of the President and contribute, in a high 
 degree, to the success of his whole administration. 
 
 Early precedents dispensed with all state and ceremonial not 
 necessary for the orderly conduct and greatest success of exec- 
 utive business, and the same principle has been maintained to 
 the present. The First Cong-ress voted TTashington a salary of 
 $25,000 per year and a furnished house, and this remained the 
 rule for more than eighty years. In ISTo the salary was in- 
 creased to 850,000. When the city of Washington was laid out 
 as the Capital of the Kation an Executive Mansion was built to 
 serve as the official residence of the Presidents. Its furniture 
 and maintenance have also been at public cost, the sum amount- 
 ing, in eighty years, to about 81,700,000 for the building and its 
 contents. It contains rooms for official and social receptions. 
 
THE PRESIDENTIAL MANSION. 237 
 
 offices for cabinet meetings and for the secretaries and clerks of 
 the President, and private apartments for his family. His of- 
 ficial household consists of a private secretary, an assistant sec- 
 retary, two executive clerks, a messenger and a steward. Other 
 aid is sometimes added when the pressure of public business re- 
 quires it, and ushers assist in the reception of official or social 
 visitors. All these are paid by special appropriation of Congress. 
 The salaries of the official household and the miscellaneous 
 expenses of his office, which are a public charge, average about 
 $20,000 yearly. The steward of the household has charge of 
 the plate, furniture and other public property for which he is 
 accountable to Congress. 
 
 The President must be a native born citizen, resident fourteen 
 years in the country, and not less than thirty -five years of age. 
 They have all been, hitherto, much older than this. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 THE VICE-PBESrDENT. 
 
 A Vice-President is a President held in reserve in case of the 
 death or disability of that officer before the end of his term, 
 Bt the first constitutional arrangement two persons were to be 
 voted for. the one having the majority of votes was to be Presi- 
 dent, and the other, or the one having the next highest number 
 of votes, was to be Vice-President. This made that candidate 
 for the first office, who was actually the second choice of the 
 people, Vice-President. This plan did not foresee a strict organiza- 
 tion of parties, and the probability of the two candidates of the 
 dominant party in the country having the same number of votes. 
 Such an occurrence would throw the choice between them into 
 the House of Representatives, and their selection might not 
 accord with the popular wish. The Twelfth Amendment there- 
 fore distinguished between the votes cast for President and those 
 for Vice-President. As the President is not really expected to 
 die, the chief interest of the electors is in the selection of the 
 person for that place, that of Vice-President being chiefly 
 honorary in the feeling of the people at the time. 
 
 To provide this President-in- waiting or Heir-Appparent with 
 dignified employment not unsuited to his possible future he was 
 appointed, by the Constitution. President of the Senate. This 
 was the more fitting that the Senate consisted of but two mem- 
 bers from each State, and had most important duties as Consti- 
 tutional Adviser of the President in the discharge of some very 
 responsible duties, while also taking both an advisory and an 
 active part in legislation. The Senate of the United States is a 
 much more important body in the Government than the aristo- 
 cratic House of Lords in England, or than a Senate could pos- 
 sibly be under the Parliamentary form of Government where 
 the Representative, or elected, House is the virtual ruler. By 
 making the Vice-President, instead of a Senator, its presiding 
 
 (■338) 
 
THE VICE-PRESIDENT. 239 
 
 officer each State was left with an equal number of active 
 members. He has the casting vote, in case of a tie, or equal 
 number on each side of a question, and thus often decides most 
 important legislative or executive measures. It is also his 
 official duty to count the votes cast for President and Vice- 
 President by the Presidential Electors. 
 
 He, also, must be a native citizen, fourteen years resident in 
 the country, and not less than thirty -five years of age. Both 
 President and Vice-President may be reelected every four years 
 as often as the people please, although none have ever been 
 more than once reelected. His salary is $8,000 a year, though 
 it has varied between $5,000 and $10,000 at different times. 
 Should the President die or become incapable of discharging his 
 duties the Vice-President would at once be installed in his 
 place. This has three times occurred in ninety years. In such 
 cases the Senate elects a presiding officer from its own body. 
 
CHAPTER lY. 
 
 THE SECEETAKY OF STATE. 
 
 All the Heads of Executive Departments are really Secretaries 
 of State for the particular classes of public business placed 
 under their supervision, but only one of them is officially known 
 by that title. This, of itself, however, intimates only one of the 
 two classes of duties assigned to this Cabinet officer. He is the 
 custodian of the Great Seal of the United States ; he keeps the 
 orio-inal copy of laws when completed, and has the care of pub- 
 lishing and distributing them ; he superintends the compilation 
 and publication of revised editions of the laws in force ; when 
 amendments to the Constitution are made he certifies to and pro- 
 claims the fact, and should the offices of both President and Vice 
 President become vacant a certain time before that set for an 
 election he has lawful authority to order special elections to fill 
 the vacancy. All these duties are intimated by the distinctive 
 title given him and constitute him a kind of Law Secretary of the 
 General Government, and custodian of the most important orig- 
 inal documents on which the executive Government is based. 
 
 His other and still more important duties relate to diplomatic 
 matters, and are such as to render him properly the Secretary, or 
 Minister, of Foreign Affairs, as such an officer is usually called in 
 other countries. It was the Department of Foreign Affairs- 
 bearing that name previously to the adoption of the Constitution 
 — that was reconstituted, renamed by the first Congress in 1789, 
 and placed under the Secretary of State, as the Department of 
 State. 
 
 The Secretary of State has a seal which is affixed to important 
 documents originating in his Department under his special 
 authority. This the first Secretary of state was directed by law 
 to prepare under the approval of the President. It resembles 
 the Seal of the United States, often called "The Great Seal," btil 
 
 (240) 
 
THE SECRETARY OF STATE. 241 
 
 has the words "Department of State" around the border. The 
 Great Seal of the United States is in his custody, and he alone is 
 authorized to use it. He is required to affix it to the commis- 
 sions of officers appointed by the President with the advice of 
 the Senate or by the President alone. These commissions he is 
 required to make out and record, and when they have been 
 signed by the President he affixes the Seal as an evidence of the 
 genuineness of the signature and of the high authority of the 
 document. Copies of documents in his office are authenticated 
 and made equal in value, in courts of law, to the originals by af- 
 fixing the appropriate seal. The secretary is forbidden to affix 
 the Great Seal to documents other than the commissions above 
 specified without express written warrant from the President. 
 
 The Secretary of state is the lawful secretary of the President 
 as to commissions which bear the Great Seal. It is affixed to 
 them to identify the signature of the President. 
 
 All the laws signed, or not vetoed, by the President are received 
 from him by the Secretary, and those passed over his veto from 
 Congress. These it is his duty to publish in a certain num- 
 ber of newspapers, and he sees that a large edition of the collected 
 laws of each session are published by the public printer and dis- 
 tributed to all important officers of the Government, at home and 
 abroad, and through all the States and Territories in numbers 
 proportioned to the Representatives of each in Congress. Hav- 
 ing the original text of the laws on file in the Bureau of Arch- 
 ives in his Department, it is made his duty to certify to the 
 correctness of the Revised Statutes of the United States when a 
 new edition is ordered by Congress. When Amendments are 
 made to the Constitution the official evidences of their adoption 
 are sent to him and he is required to make proclamation of the 
 fact when the requisite number of States have voted for them,, 
 from the date of which proclamation they become authoritative 
 parts of that instrument. Should the offices of both President 
 and Vice-President become vacant more than two months before 
 the time for the regular Presidential Election the Secretary of 
 State is directed by law to order an extra election, by proclama- 
 tion, to fill them for the remainder of the term. 
 
 He is required to report to Congress various information in re- 
 gard to the foreign agents of the goverjiment. to American 
 sailors in foreign ports, to immigration of foreigners into the 
 
 United States, and to publish such commercial information for 
 16 
 
54-^ THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 the benefit of the people as he may judge useful. His connection 
 with the internal affairs of the Government is thus seen to be of 
 importance. The President may also direct him to perform such 
 other duties, not inconsistent with law. as he sees fit. With the 
 assembling of each new Congress it was formerly his duty to 
 issue the Biennial Register — a list of all the officers and em- 
 ployees in the service of the Government — but that is now de- 
 volved on the Secretary' of the Interior. The charge of the 
 Patent Office and Census Bureau was transferred from the De- 
 partment of State to that of the Interior in 1S49. 
 
 The Secretary of State has three assistant Secretaries of State 
 besides a private secretary. The various subordinate officers 
 and clerks of his department number nearly fifty, and are dis- 
 tributed .under the general superintendence of the Chief Clerk. 
 in four principal Bureaus, and to various other branches of work 
 requiring but one, or at most two, persons to accomplish. The 
 DIPLOMATIC BUREAU lias a chief with three heads of division, 
 each conducting the diplomatic correspondence with designated 
 countries. The consular bureau is also organized in three 
 divisions conducting the correspondence with consular officers. 
 each division being confined to the countries assigned to the 
 corresponding division in the Diplomatic Bureau. The bureau 
 OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES opeus the mails and registers and in- 
 dexes accurate abstracts of all correspondence to and from the 
 Department, and has charge of the archives containing the State 
 papers. The bureau of accouxts has charge of the finances of 
 the Department. 
 
 A fine library belonging to the Department is in charge of two 
 Librarians. Reports on Commercial Relations form a small 
 separate Bureau of Statistics requiring the labor of two clerks. 
 A Law Bureau is constituted by the detail of a member of the 
 Department of Justice to consider all questions of law submitted 
 by the Secretary and his assistants. A Translator of docu- 
 ments is employed: Pardons and Commissions requiring the 
 President's signature and the use of the Great Seal are made out 
 by another clerk called the Pardons Clerk: Passports are issued 
 and recorded by the Passport Clerk. A Telegraph Operator and 
 a Mail Agent are attached to the Department, and about thirty 
 other persons are employed to take care of the buildings and 
 property belonging to the Department. Xotwithstanding this 
 distribution of work the clerks of one Bureau may be required to 
 
THE SECRETAKY OF STATE. 243 
 
 aid in any other, if circumstances require it, and temporary help 
 is sometimes employed. 
 
 As the prosperity, inhabitants and business of the country 
 increase the commerce, trade and travel of the citizens of the 
 United States become more extensive, taking hundreds of thou- 
 sands of Americans to all parts of the world. Wherever they 
 go or wish to go, in considerable numbers, for important pur- 
 poses, the Executive Government follows, or precedes them, by 
 diplomatic agents to arrange for their friendly reception and 
 treatment, and business or consular agents are stationed to see 
 that they obey the laws to which, wherever they may be and 
 whatever they may do, they must submit or receive the assigned 
 penalty. Thus, by a careful watch over commerce the revenue 
 is protected at home, and by the diplomatic, consular and pass- 
 port systems American citizens are distinguished, their interests 
 safe-guarded, and the people, officials and laws of other na- 
 tions are disposed reasonably in their favor. This is a most 
 important and valuable system of government outside the 
 boundaries of the United States. As other nations pursue similar 
 objects on similar systems, a network of international relations 
 is ever binding the world of mankind more and more closely 
 together, harmonizing usages, ideas and laws, developing 
 resources before useless, and increasing a thousand fold the 
 wealth, the comfort, the progress and the unity of the human 
 race. 
 
CHAPTEE T. 
 
 THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The use of seals to establish the genuineness and authority of 
 documents and official orders conies down from a remote an- 
 tiquity. Absolute rulers sometimes had their seals engraved on 
 a ring that no one but themselves, or those to whom they tempor- 
 arily entrusted it, might be able to exert their authority. The 
 use of seals peculiar to all officers who are authorized to issue 
 public documents of importance, or legal papers conveying 
 property values, has become almost universal in modern times. 
 They testify to the genuineness of signatures and to the issue of 
 the document by duly appointed authorities. The Great Seal was 
 formerly used by dropping melted wax on the paper and making 
 an impression, or fac-simile, of the engraving on it; but as pub- 
 lic business requiring its use increased Congress, by law, 
 authorized the impression to be made directly on the paper for 
 the sake of expedition. 
 
 The Great Seal of the United States now in use was adopted 
 by the Continental Congress in 1782 and readopted by the First 
 Congress under the Constitution. Its history is interesting and 
 its emblems very significant. 
 
 Soon after the formal establishment of the Republic by the 
 Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin. John Adams 
 and Thomas Jefferson were appointed a committee to prepare a 
 seal. They employed an artist and furnished various devices; 
 Jefferson combining them all at the request of the others. The 
 paper still exists in the office of the Secretary of State at Wash- 
 ington. They reported Aug. 10th. 1776, but for some unknown 
 reason, probably neglect, it was not acted on. 
 
 (244) 
 
THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 245 
 
 In 1770 another committee was appointed to make a device. 
 They reported May 10th, 1780. It was not acceptable, and was 
 recommitted, being again reported a year afterward, but not 
 adopted. In 1782 a third committee was appointed, but could 
 not satisfy Congress in their report. It was then referred to the 
 Secretary of Congress, Charles Thomson, who procured various 
 devices that were unsatisfactory. 
 
 After vainly striving to perfect a seal which should meet the 
 approval of Congress,- Thomson finally received from John 
 Adams, then in London, an exceedingly simple and appropriate 
 device, suggested by Sir John Prestwitch, a baronet of the West 
 of England, who was a warm friend of America, and an accom- 
 plished antiquarian. It consisted of an escutcheon bearing 
 thirteen periDendicular stripes, white and red, with the chief 
 blue, and spangled with thirteen stars; and, to give it greater 
 consequence, he proposed to place it on the breast of an American 
 eagle, displayed, without supporters, . as emblematic of self- 
 reliance. It met with general approbation, in and out of Con- 
 gress, and was adopted in June, 1782; so it is manifest, although 
 the fact is not extensively known, that we are indebted for our 
 national arms to a titled aristocrat of the country with which we 
 were then at war. Eschewing all heraldic technicalities, it may 
 be thus described in plain English: Thirteen perpendicular pieces, 
 white and red; a blue field; the escutcheon on the breast of the 
 American eagle displayed, holding in his right talon an olive- 
 branch, and in his left a bundle of thirteen arrows, and in his 
 beak a scroll, inscribed with the motto E Plurihus Unum. For 
 the crest, over the head of the eagle, which appears above the 
 escutcheon, a golden glory breaking through a cloud, and sur-, 
 rounding thirteen stars, forming a constellation of white stars 
 on a blue field. 
 
 Reverse. — A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith, an eye in a 
 triangle, surrounded with a glory. Over the eye, the words An- 
 rniif Cceptis — " God has favored the undertaking." On the base 
 of the pyramid, are the numeral Roman letters MDCCLXXVI; 
 and underneath the motto, Novus Ordo Secvloriim — "A New 
 Series of Ages," — denoting that a new order of things had com- 
 menced in the Western hemisphere. Thus, after many fruitless 
 efforts, for 'nearly six years, a very simple seal was adopted, and 
 yet remains the arms of the United States. 
 
CHAPTEE VI. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF STATE— FOREIGX AFFAIRS. 
 
 The Constitution confers on the President somewhat more 
 eminent powers in connection with foreign relations than in 
 domestic affairs. He is the one officer directly representing the 
 whole country, and diplomatic negotiations often require to be 
 carried on with a secrecy, quietness and dispatch incompatible 
 with their discussion by a large body 
 
 The President, therefore, has general charge of foreign rela- 
 tions by the nomination'of Ministers to other governments: by 
 his control of correspondence with them: by his possession of the 
 treaty-making power under advice and consent of the Senate; 
 by his power of rejecting proposed treaties without presenting 
 them to the Senate : by opening, or refusing to open, diplomatic 
 relations with any power, or closing those already opened; and 
 by having control of the intercourse with the Ministers of other 
 Governments sent to the United States. The powers he possesses 
 in these cases are exercised through the Secretary of State, who 
 is instructed by law to discharge such duties as the President 
 may direct. The Senate is the constitutional adviser of 
 the President in foreign affairs, but the Secretary of State, as 
 the Head of a Department, has a constitutional justification for 
 the expectation that his official opinion will be of weight in all 
 matters of importance. 
 
 The precedents estabhshed as to the exercise of executive 
 discretion were in favor of a very mild and republican use of 
 these powers by the President. A few cases of a broad inter- 
 pretation of this discretion occurred during the terms of the "first 
 few holders of the office and by none, perhaps, more than by 
 Jefferson, the most earnest of the early statesmen of the 
 Republic for "the rights of the people.'' In one case he rejected 
 a treaty with England, made by Commissioners of his own ap- 
 pointment as the most favorable to be obtained at that time,. 
 
 (246) 
 
FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 247 
 
 and without consulting the Senate or his Cabinet except his 
 Secretary of State. A war followed (that of 1812) which might, 
 possibly, better have been avoided by apjjroving it or giving the 
 Senate an opportunity to advise upon it. He also made a vast 
 purchase of territory which he did not think the Constitution 
 authorized him to do. The last was indispeftsable for the great- 
 est welfare and prosperity of the country and the first was 
 undoubtedly from a patriotic zeal for the honor of the nation. 
 But the habit soon became well-established of doing nothing 
 important without consultation previously with ail who could 
 justly be regarded as able to give expression to the best intelli- 
 gence and real wishes of the country. 
 
 The Secretary of State performs his duties in respect to the 
 filing, proclamation, publication, and circulation of the laws, 
 and others relating to Home Affairs, chiefly as a formality; but 
 Foreign Affairs receive his closest attention and earnest study. 
 He is more familiar, from his position, with all the details of the 
 foreign relations and interests of the Government than any 
 other person. He is appointed to his office for his supposed 
 special ability and fitness in that respect as well as his sympathy 
 with the policy of the party representing the opinion of the 
 majority of the peopfe, and will usually influence the President 
 and Senate to adopt the measures he originates. 
 
 The Government has diplomatic representatives and foreign 
 agents numbering, in all grades, between three and four hun- 
 dred, located at important points throughout the world. All 
 these are under the direction of the Pi-esident through the Secre- 
 tary of State. The higher appointments are largely influenced 
 by personal fitness, political eminence, and the wishes of special 
 friends and supporters of the policy of the President, all which 
 weigh with him and the Senate; but these considerations are 
 often modified by the intimate knowledge of the Secretary of 
 State of the particular demands of each situation. 
 
 Diplomatic agents sent by the President to foreign countries 
 have precedence and rank in Europe according to an interna- 
 tional agreement made at the Congress of European powers at 
 Vienna, March 9, 1815. The rules of this " Protocol," as the art- 
 icle of the International Treaty was called, have been substan- 
 tially adopted by the State Department. According to these 
 rules diplomatic agents are divided into three classes : That of 
 Ambassadors, Legates or Nuncios ; that of Envoys. Ministers, 
 
248 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMEXT. 
 
 or other persons accredited to Sovereigns : and that of Charges 
 d' Affaires accredited to ministers for foreign affairs. Practically,, 
 however, there are four classes. — ATkiBASSADORS, Envoys Extra- 
 ORDixARY and Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers Resident, 
 and Charges d' Affaires — since the Powers agreed that Ministers 
 Resident should h^ve precedence after Envoys and before 
 Charges d' Affaires. 
 
 Diplomatic agents on an extraordinary mission do not, for that 
 reason, enjoy any superiority of rank, although, as is often the 
 case, they have the fullest, or "Plenipotentiary," powers. Only 
 Ambassadors, Legates, or Nuncios are considered to have the 
 representative character, the others being considered only agents 
 through whom business is transacted. Ordinarily the United 
 States Government does not employ diplomatists of the first 
 class, and onh' in the countries with which the people have the 
 m.ost business and that are of considerable size are Envoys Ex- 
 traordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary employed as agents 
 to transact international business. Ministers Resident are sent 
 to others, and several Charges d" Affaires are accredited to the 
 smaller countries with which there is considerable national busi- 
 ness. Consuls are frequently employed as temporary diplomatic 
 agents and Commissioners are sometimes appointed for special 
 purposes. 
 
 Sometimes diplomatic agents employed for extraordinary pur- 
 poses receive the most extensive powers, but, by international 
 diplomatic etiquette, they have not, on that account, any 
 superiority of rank. They are classed with some one of the four 
 grades according to the powers assigned them by their govern- 
 ment. No degree of confidence or authority reposed in them by 
 their Governments can do more than make them representative 
 of those Governments, and therefore no rank higher than that of 
 ambassador can be conferred. In 1880 there were thirteen Gov- 
 ernments to which the President of the United States was 
 authorized to appoint Envoy's Extraordinary and Ministers 
 Plenipotentiary; twelve to which he appointed Ministers Resi- 
 dent, and four or five to which he commissioned Charges 
 d' Affaires. 
 
 From the earliest times rulers of nations have been accustomed 
 to empower persons to represent them and speak and act in their 
 name in other countries. By the general consent of the civilized 
 world they have been held as invested with the same dignity 
 
FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 249 
 
 and claims to respect as the rulers and governments they repre- 
 sent. Not to treat them with ceremonious attention has been 
 regarded by the law of nations as a grave offence, and to neglect 
 or maltreat them as a sufficient reason for prohibiting all inter- 
 course between nations and often for declaring war, and the 
 temper and disposition of one ruler or Government toward 
 another might be ascertained by observing the degree of respect 
 or cordiality manifested to these representations. As modern 
 civilization began to ripen these customs became still more 
 definite and marked, diplomatic etiquette was perfected and 
 polished to a high degree and became celebrated for its polite- 
 ness of manner, its dignity of language* and its cautious re- 
 ticence. The most unfriendly feelings and acts would often be 
 enveloped and concealed under a veil of exaggerated courtesy. 
 
 The Government of the United States adopted the policy of 
 scrupulous respect for other nations and their representatives, 
 but of maintaining more frankness and candor in diplomatic 
 intercourse than was the general habit. It may be said that 
 polite evasion and concealed double dealing have become much 
 less characteristic of diplomatic intercourse between nations by 
 its influence and example. But the inviolability and represen- 
 tative character of the higher diplomatic officers has not been 
 diminished in recent times. They are universally exempt from 
 prosecution, arrest, or imprisonment. Their servants may not 
 be arrested nor their property seized for debt. The laws of Con- 
 gress protect all foreign Ministers sent to reside in this country 
 by their Governments in these respects as the laws of other coun- 
 tries do our own among them. Any slight or insult to them is 
 resented as done to the Government accrediting them. Their 
 language and acts are looked upon as those of their own Gov- 
 ernment, and they are expected to obey implicitly the secret 
 instructions and advice officially received from the authorities 
 appointed to communicate the views and wishes of that Govern- 
 ment to them. 
 
 The President is the Government, in a diplomatic view, and 
 the Secretary of State conducts nearly all diplomatic business in 
 his name. He is the President's Secretary and adviser for For- 
 eign Affairs, with great latitude of discretion in particulars. He 
 needs, therefore, to be as conversant with the condition, interests, 
 and peculiarities of other nations and the character and policy 
 of their public men as with the wishes of the American people 
 
250 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 and the policy of the President a.nd his supporters in the Govern- 
 ment. Intimate knowledge of the politics of the Home and For- 
 eign world and broad and enlightened views, taking in the past, 
 present and future, must be joined with tact and skill in explain- 
 ing and enforcing the purposes and wishes of this country to 
 other nations, through the diplomatic officers of the United States 
 sent to them. On the ability and tact with which he pursues 
 these ends will depend, more or less, the respect and good feeling 
 of foreign nations for the Republic, the private interests of the 
 millions engaged in commerce and interchanges of the products 
 of America with them, the comfort of American travelers among* 
 them, and often the favorable result of treaty negotiations. 
 
 The duties required of resident Ministers representing the 
 United States abroad are numerous. Nations may be regarded 
 as individuals, and together they form a community having 
 social intercourse, trading with each other, and having some- 
 times common, sometimes opposite, interests. Each citizen of a 
 nation is regarded by it as part of itself, to be protected, aided 
 when in difficulty^ and watched over with unceasing care. 
 Nations, therefore, have need of frequent interviews in behalf 
 of their general trade, the conditions on which interchanges 
 shall be made, as to their mutual rights in numberless respects, 
 and as to the conduct of their citizens when in contact with each 
 other. Innumerable questions arise on which they must come 
 to an understanding. Sometimes it is the interpretation of a 
 treaty, sometimes the adjustment of a boundary, of postal ar- 
 rangements or some other form of reciprocity. It is not possible 
 to settle these things further than by general regulations in a 
 treaty, and so each Government sets down permanently by the 
 side of the others in the person of these diplomatic representa- 
 tives, to be at hand to deal with all the details as they come up 
 for settlement. Congress settles as many of their duties as can 
 be definitely foreseen, by law. Some are determined by 
 treaties, and the remainder by the President through the Secre- 
 tary of State. 
 
 The official residence of the Ambassador, when officially received 
 by the Government to which he is accredited, is regarded as United 
 States territory within which its Constitution and laws are in 
 force. He is a magistrate, to such extent as treaty permits, for 
 trying and judging cases of dispute or crime in which a citizen 
 of the United States may be involved. If the citizen is accused 
 
FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 251 
 
 of having violated the laws of the country and appeals to him 
 for protection or aid, it is his business to see that he is fairly 
 treated. He gives and examines passports under the regulation 
 of law. In a few countries, as Turkey, Egypt, China, and some 
 others, he has judicial powers, allowed by treaty, for trying 
 criminals — even to the extent of passing sentence of death and 
 seeing that it is executed. Should there be no minister in such 
 a case the Secretary of State exercises these powers; but this is 
 only in countries where the laws are imperfect, or extremely 
 different from ours, and justice from native judges not easily or 
 certainly attainable. 
 
 Consuls are another class of officers representing the authority 
 of the United States in respect to specified things, chiefly mat- 
 ters of commerce and international trade. These officers are 
 established in all the leading ports of foreign countries to which 
 the vessels of citizens of the United States resort for commercial 
 purposes. Their place of official business is indicated by the 
 American flag. The premises are governed by the laws of the 
 United States, as virtually American territory, and disrespect 
 or violence toward the officials and injury to the business done 
 there is considered as shown to the Government of the Republic, 
 for which apology and redress is expected from the Government 
 to which the port belongs. 
 
 Consuls-General, have charge or oversight of all the con- 
 sulates in a country, or large division of a country. There is a 
 Consul-General in England, one in Canada, another in India, 
 one in France, and so of all extensive and populous countries 
 having many seaports visited by American merchant vessels, in 
 which ordinary consuls are stationed. Commercial Agents 
 have similar duties, in a small way, at ports of inferior import- 
 ance but where it would be inconvenient to have no one author- 
 ized to attend to international business. 
 
 The commander of every vessel belonging to a citizen of the 
 United States, on arriving at a port where there is a Consul, is 
 obliged by law to report to him at his office and present the of- 
 ficial papers of his ship, to show that they are in order, and such 
 as American law requires. These are endorsed and returned to 
 him. on his departure, with such additional papers as the charac- 
 ter of the transactions of his vessel in that port make needful 
 under the laws of the United States, or of Treaties. This part of 
 a Consul's duty makes him a supervisor of American commerce 
 
THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTJIENT. 
 
 in foreign parts. They are the eye of the Governnient watch- 
 ing the conduct of its citizens all over the world,, and its execu- 
 tive power, taking care that no illegal business is done and that 
 ' the good faith of Treaties entered into with nations is kept. 
 
 The Consul is also a magistrate to hear the complaints of sea- 
 men, if they consider themselves oppressed by their oflBcers, to 
 settle disputes and. in some cases, to discharge the crews un- 
 justly treated. It is his duty to care for sick, disabled or desti- 
 tute seamen who are citizens of the United States and to send 
 them home if needful. 
 
 He is authorized to celebrate marriage among Americans citi- 
 zens, to settle their estates and take charge of their property in 
 case of their death abroad, to transmit the balance of such 
 property, after debts have been discharged, to the treasury of the 
 United States in trust for the proper legal heirs, and to send 
 notice of such death to the Secretary of State who publishes the 
 fact for the benefit of those interested. He issues passports when 
 authorized to do so by the President or the Secretary of State, 
 examines the passports held by travelers, and maintains the 
 rights of American citizens within his consulate when necessary. 
 
 Under treaties with some countries. Consuls are invested with 
 judicial powers for trying and punishing crimes committed by 
 American citizens. In the absence of a minister they are some- 
 times invested with diplomatic authority. They are authorized 
 by law to collect specified fees for oflacial acts, which they 
 transmit to the treasury of the United States, unless empowered 
 I)y law to retain them, in whole or in part, as compensation. 
 The more important of this class of officers are assigned definite 
 salaries, are allowed to retain nothing more for official business, 
 nor to engage in trade where they reside. Others are paid a 
 small salary and allowed a proportion of the fees of office, 
 and some consuls of the lowest class, and consular or commercial 
 agents, are permitted to trade. Some of these last are not even 
 citizens of the United States, but such trusty foreign merchants 
 in the ports less frequented by American shipping as the Secre- 
 tary may appoint. 
 
 It is the duty of all these consular officers to transmit to the 
 Secretary of State commercial information, such as the current 
 prices of the productions of the countries and regions in which 
 they are stationed, and a statement of such of their laws and 
 iisao-es as may be useful to the Government in collecting revenue 
 
FOREIGN AP^FAIRS. 253 
 
 duties on imports, and to the people engaged in trade. The Sec- 
 retary of State is thus kept informed of all he needs to know in 
 order to the discharge of his own duties, to intelligently advise 
 the President and Senate on foreign affairs, and to recommend 
 to Congress additional commercial laws or changes in former 
 ones. There are over three hundred commercial agents of all 
 grades, from Consuls-General down, scattered over the world. 
 A few of them — especially Consuls-General — do not reside in any 
 seaport, but in the chief trading cities of the countries or dis- 
 tricts where their duties lie. They sometimes have deputies and 
 assistants, authorized by law, to aid or represent them. All 
 Consuls are appointed by the President and Senate, commercial 
 agents as directed by law — usually by the Secretary of State — 
 and the number and location are changed by the President as. 
 the interests of trade requires. 
 
 Passports serve to identify persons as citizens of the United 
 States when in foreign parts, and secure to the holders all the 
 immunities granted by treaty with the countries where they may 
 travel or reside, and, in case of need, obtain for them the inter- 
 ference and aid of diplomatic and consular authorities of the 
 United States where they may be. The passport is proof of cit- 
 izenship and of the right to protection. 
 
 The Secretary of State has charge of the passport system. 
 They are issued from his own office to any one who may require 
 them on proof of citizenship. They include a description of the 
 person, by which he or she may be identified, and have the sig- 
 nature and seal of the office attached. The Secretary designates 
 such persons as are authorized to issue, examine, and certify 
 passports in foreign lands. These are never other than diplo- 
 matic and consular officers when possible to avoid it. Passports 
 are often of great value to citizens of the United States abroad 
 to save them from interference with their business and to secure 
 to them respect and good treatment. The possession of a pass- 
 port authorizes the interference of the government and its for- 
 eign representatives in their behalf. 
 
 Passports are required by foreigners to go among the Indians. 
 These are issued by the Secretary of War, and specify the route 
 of travel and the time to be spent among them. This is de- 
 signed to prevent any influence unfriendly to the United States 
 being brought to bear on the tribes. In time of war passports, or 
 safe conducts, are required by foreigners for traveling in some 
 
254: THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 parts of the United States, and sometimes for leaving it. A 
 special form of passport is given to vessels engaged in foreign 
 trade. This is issued only when all their other papers are in 
 order and they are ready to sail. This passport is prepared by 
 the Secretary of State, but filled out and given to the command- 
 ers of vessels at the proper time by the Collector of the Port 
 from which they sail. Without it they would not be justified in 
 raising the American fiag. or able to claim the protection of the 
 United States 
 
 One of the most important duties of the President is the 
 negotiations of Treaties with foreign Governments. The Sec- 
 retary of State usually has the immediate supervision of these. 
 Sometimes he conducts them himself with the resident Minister 
 of the other country, or Ambassadors and Plenipotentiaries 
 sent to the United States for the purpose. Sometimes the Min- 
 isters Resident of the United States arrange them with the 
 Government to which they have been sent. Quite frequently, 
 however, several persons of the highest character and abilities 
 are made joint "Ambassadors Extraordinary and Ministers 
 Plenipotentiary,"' which title indicates special and full powers to 
 conclude a treaty of great importance. It has been more often 
 when peace was to be concluded, or war avoided, that these high 
 sounding titles and discretionarj^ powers have been conferred. 
 a,nd careful instructions are given from which they may not 
 deviate without consulting their Government. 
 
 Treaties of Peace and Amity defining the relations of two 
 nations are first in importance, but they usually make general 
 provision for international commerce and trade or exchange of 
 products on prescribed terms, as well as for friendly intercourse. 
 The next in importance are Commercial Treaties which go into 
 all needful detail on commercial regulations, consular powers in 
 the respective countries, the rates at which goods from one 
 country may be imported into the other, and numerous other 
 points which one or the other party may wish to secure in its 
 favor. 
 
 Treaties for the purchase of territory from France, Spain, 
 Mexico, Russia and the Indian tribes have been made — by the 
 latter opening the country acknowledged to belong to Indian 
 nations to settlement and the formation of new States, by the 
 former increasing more than three times the size of the United 
 States as settled by the treaty of peace with Great Britain in 
 
FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 255 
 
 1783. Treaties for the settlement of disputed boundaries have 
 several times occurred; postal treaties regulating intercourse by- 
 mail have been very numerous, but these have usually been con- 
 ducted by the Postmaster-General with the approval of the 
 President. Treaties respecting the Fisheries, and Extradition 
 Treaties for the giving up of criminals for trial and punishment 
 have been many times made. Various other subjects have 
 occasioned treaties involving the welfare of nations, and, alto- 
 gether have produced a vast body of international agreements. 
 As the world is drawn closer together by increased facilities for 
 profitable intercourse the subjects for special agreement multiply, 
 laws tend to harmonize, and nations hasten toward the period 
 when war shall be laid aside and the world shall be united in a 
 vast and close federation of Governments. 
 
 The Government of the United States was based on the rights 
 which belong to the individual man. Its true justification and end 
 can be only to maintain and protect these rights. Crime properly 
 consists in violating rights on which the peace and prosperity of 
 men depend. Criminals naturally fly from punishment to other 
 countries where the laws they have broken cannot reach them. 
 It is for the interest of nations to have as few infamous criminals 
 at large among them as possible. On these principles extradi- 
 tion TREATIES are founded. They have increased somewhat as 
 population and facilities for rapid travel have multiplied and 
 counteract, in great part, the enlarged opportunities of criminals 
 for escaping due punishment. 
 
 The United States began its list of Extradition Treaties by 
 making one with England in 1842. It has become usual since 
 then for friendly Governments to make provision by such 
 treaties for reclaiming fugitive criminals. The classes of 
 criminals and the mode of securing their extradition are care- 
 fully arranged. In this chapter will be found samples of vari- 
 ous classes of treaties above spoken of. 
 
 It will be seen that the President is somewhat more, in 
 reference to foreign nations, than a mere Executive. He repre- 
 sents, is an official embodiment of, the Government and people 
 of the United States. Nor is this so much a figurative or fic- 
 titious representation of the Nation as under Parliamentary 
 Governments like that of England. The conduct of the foreign 
 affairs of the country cannot be so definitely and strictly con- 
 trolled by law as home affairs. With the latter the Lawmakers 
 
256 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 in Congress are thoroughly familiar ; the former can be inti- 
 mately known, in their full extent, only from the correspondence 
 and reports of Diplomatic and Consular Agents of the Govern- 
 ment throughout the world. Their official position gives them 
 access to the best sources of information, and the nature of the 
 case usually prevents the free dissemination of this knowledge — 
 even among members of Congress. 
 
 The President and the Secretary of State (as Foreign Minister) 
 are often required to act promptly and secretly on the most im- 
 portant matters. They have to consider whether the Senate and 
 House of Representatives will approve the measures they adopt 
 and support their policy, but, in any case, they have great free- 
 dom of immediate action. From Washington down, but espe- 
 cially since 1815, the Presidents have learned to defer to Congress 
 and public opinion so carefully that no extra guards against 
 abuse of this power have been found necessary. They have so 
 generally sought the counsel of the nation and deferred to Con- 
 gress that they have been fully trusted and have seldom taken 
 steps afterwards disapproved. 
 
 MEXICAN BOUNDARY TREATY. 
 
 Treaty of limits, Isthmus transit, etc., between the United 
 States of America and the Republic of Mexico, concluded at 
 Mexico, December 20, 1853; Ratification advised by Senate, with 
 Amendments, April 25, 1854; Ratified by President, June 29, 
 1854; Ratifications exchanged at Washington, June 30, 1854 ; 
 Proclaimed, June 30, 1854. 
 
 In the name of Almighty God. The Republic of Mexico and the 
 United States of America, desiring to remove every cause of dis- 
 agreement which might interfere in any manner with the better 
 friendship and intercourse between the countries, and especially 
 in respect to the true limits which should be established, when, 
 notwithstanding what was covenanted in the treaty of Guadalupe 
 Hidalgo, in the year 1848, opposite interpretations have been 
 urged, which might give occasion to questions of serious import: 
 To avoid these, and to strengthen and more firmly maintain the 
 peace which happily prevails between the two republics, the 
 President of the United States has, for this purpose appointed 
 James Gadsden, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- 
 tiary of the same near the Mexican Government, and the Presi- 
 
THE MEXICAN BOUNDARY. 257 
 
 dent of Mexico has appointed as Plenipotentiary '•' ad hoc'' his 
 excellency, Don Manuel Diez de Bonilla, cavalier grand cross of 
 the national and distinguished order of Guadalupe, and Secre- 
 tary of State and of the office of Foreign Relations, and Don 
 Jose Salazar Ylarregui and General Mariano Monterde, as scien- 
 tific commissioners, invested with full power for this negotiation; 
 who, having communicated their respective full powers, and 
 finding them in due and proper form, have agreed upon the 
 articles following: 
 
 Article I. 
 
 The Mexican Republic agrees to designate the following as her 
 true limits with the United States for the future: Retaining the 
 same dividing line between the two Californias as already de- 
 fined and established, according to the 5th article of the treaty 
 of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the limits between the two republics 
 shall be as follows: Beginning in the Gulf of Mexico, three 
 leagues from land, opposite the mouth of the Rio Grande, as pro- 
 vided in the fifth article of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; 
 thence, as defined in the said article up the middle of that river 
 to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' north latitude crosses 
 the same; thence due west one hundred miles, thence south to 
 the parallel of 30° 20' of north latitude; thence along the said par- 
 allel of 31° 20' to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Green- 
 wich; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado river 
 twenty English miles below the junction of the Gila and Colo- 
 rado rivers; thence up the middle of the said river Colorado until 
 it intersects the present line between the United States and 
 Mexico. 
 
 For the performance of this portion of the treaty, each of the 
 two Governments shall nominate one commissioner, to the end 
 that, by common consent, the two thus nominated, having met 
 in the city El Paso del Norte, three months after the exchange of 
 the ratifications of this treaty, may proceed to survey and mark 
 out upon the land the dividing line stipulated by this article, 
 where it shall not have already been surveyed and established 
 by the mixed commission, according to the treaty of Guadalupe, 
 keeping a journal and making proper plans of their operations. 
 For this purpose, if they should judge it necessary, the contract- 
 ing parties shall be at liberty each to unite to its respective com- 
 missioner scientific or other assistants, such as astronomers and 
 
 17 
 
258 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 surveyors, whose concurrence shall not be considered necessary 
 for the settlement and ratification of a true line of division 
 tween the two republics ; that line shall be alone established 
 upon which the commissioners may fix, their consent in this 
 particular being considered decisive and an integral part of this 
 treaty, without necessity of ulterior ratification or approval, and 
 without room for interpretation of any kind by either of the 
 parties contracting. The dividing line thus established shall, in 
 all time, be faithfully respected by the two Governments, with- 
 out any variation therein, unless of the express and free consent 
 of the two, given in conformity to the principles of the law of 
 nations, and in accordance with the Constitution of each coun- 
 try, respectively. 
 
 In consequence, the stipulation in the fifth article of the treaty 
 of Guadalupe upon the boundary line therein described is no 
 longer of any force, wherein it may conflict with that here estab- 
 lished, the said line being considered annulled and abolished 
 wherever it may not coincide with the present, and in the same 
 manner remaining in full force where in accordance with the 
 same. 
 
 Article II. 
 
 The Government of Mexico hereby releases the United States 
 from all liability on account of the obligations contained in the 
 eleventh article of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; and the said 
 article and the thirty-third article of the treaty of amity, com- 
 merce, and navigation between the United States of America 
 and the United Mexican States, concluded at Mexico on the 5th 
 day of April, 1831, are hereby abrogated. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 In consideration of the foregoing stipulations, the Government 
 of the United States agrees to pay to the Government of Mexico, 
 in the city of New York, the sum of ten millions of dollars, of 
 which seven millions shall be paid immediately upon the ex- 
 change of the ratifications of this treaty, and the remaining 
 three millions as soon as the boundary line shall be surveyed, 
 marked, and established. 
 
 Article IV. 
 
 The provisions of the 6th and 7th articles of the treaty of 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo having been rendered nugatory for the 
 
HIGHWAYS, PROPERTY RIGHTS AND LANDS. 259 
 
 most part by the cession of territory granted in the first article of 
 this treaty, the said articles are here abrogated and annulled, 
 and the provisions as herein expressed substituted therefor. The 
 vessels and citizens of the United States shall in all time have 
 free and uninterrupted passage through the Gulf of California, 
 to and from their possessions situated north of the boundary line 
 of the two countries. It being understood that this passage is to 
 be navigated by the Gulf of California and the River Colorado, 
 and not by land, without the express consent of the Mexican 
 Government ; and precisely the same provisions, stipulations and 
 restrictions, in all respects, are hereby agreed on and adopted, 
 and shall be scrupulously observed and enforced, by the two 
 contracting Governments, in reference to the Rio Colorado, so 
 far and for such distance as the middle of that river is made 
 their common boundary line by the first article of this treaty. 
 The several provisions, stipulations, and restrictions contained 
 in the 7th article of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo shall re- 
 main in force only so far as regards the Rio Bravo del Norte, 
 below the initial of the said boundary provided in the first ar- 
 ticle of this treaty; that is to say, below the intersection of the 
 31° 47' 30" parallel of latitude, with the boundary line established 
 by the late treaty dividing said river from its mouth upwards, 
 according to the 5th article of the treaty of Guadalupe. 
 
 Article V. 
 
 All the provisions of the eighth and ninth and seventeenth ar- 
 ticles of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, shall apply to the ter- 
 ritory ceded by the Mexican Republic in the first article of the 
 present treaty, and all the rights of persons and property, both 
 civil and ecclesiastical, within the same, as fully and as effectu- 
 ally as if the said articles were herein again recited and set 
 forth. 
 
 Article VI. 
 
 No grants of land within territory ceded by the first article of 
 this treaty bearing date subsequent to the day — twenty -fifth of 
 September— when the Minister and subscriber of this treaty on 
 the part of the United States proposed to the Government of 
 Mexico to terminate the question of boundary, will be considered 
 valid or be recognized by the United States, nor will any grants 
 made previously be respected or be considered as obligatory 
 
260 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 which have not been located and duly recorded in the archives 
 of Mexico. 
 
 Article VII. 
 
 Should there, at any future period (which God forbid), occur 
 any disagreement between the two nations which might lead to 
 rupture of their relations and reciprocal peace, they bind them- 
 selves in like manner to procure by every possible method the 
 adjustment of every difference; and should they still in this 
 manner not succeed, never will they proceed to declaration of 
 war without having previously paid attention to what has been 
 set forth in Article 21 of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo for simi- 
 lar cases; which article, as well as the 22nd, is hereby reaffirmed. 
 
 Article VIII. 
 
 The Mexican Government having on the 5th of February, 
 1853, authorized the early construction of a plank and rail road 
 across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, to secure the stable 
 benefits of said transit way to persons and merchandise of the 
 citizens of Mexico and the United States, it is stipulated that 
 neither Government will interpose any obstacle to the transit of 
 persons and merchandise of both nations; and at no time shall 
 higher charges be made on the transit of persons, and property 
 of citizens of the United States than may be made on the person 
 and property of other foreign nations, nor shall any interest in 
 said transit way, nor in the proceeds thereof, be transferred to 
 any foreign Government. 
 
 The United States by its agents, shall have the right to trans- 
 port across' the isthmus, in closed bags, the mails of the United 
 States, not intended for distribution along the line of communi- 
 cation; also the effects of the United States Government and its 
 citizens, which may be intended for transit, and not for distri- 
 bution on the isthmus, free of custom-house or other charges by 
 the Mexican Government. Neither passports, nor letters of se- 
 curity will be required of persons crossing the isthmus and not 
 remaining in the country. 
 
 When the construction of the railroad shall be completed, the 
 Mexican Government agrees to open a port of entry in addition 
 to the port of Vera Cruz, at or near the terminus of said road on i 
 the Gulf of Mexico. The two governments shall enter into 
 arrangements for the prompt transit of troops and munitions of 
 
THE ISTHMUS RAILROAD. 201 
 
 the United States, which that Government may have occasion 
 to send from one part of its territory to another, lying on opposite 
 sides of the continent. 
 
 The Mexican Government having agreed to protect with its 
 whole power the prosecution, preservation, and security of the 
 work, the United States may extend its protection, as it shall 
 judge wise, to it, when it may feel sanctioned and warranted by 
 the public or international law. 
 
 Article IX. 
 
 This treaty shall be ratified, and the respective ratifications 
 shall be exchanged at the city of Washington within the exact 
 period of six months from the date of its signature, or sooner if 
 possible. 
 
 In testimony whereof, we, the Plenipotentiaries of the con- 
 tracting parties, have hereunto affixed our hands and seals at 
 Mexico, the thirtieth (30th) day of December, in the year of our 
 Lord, one thousand eight hundred and fifty-three, in the thirty- 
 third year of the Independence of the Mexican Republic, and 
 the seventy-eighth of that of the United States, 
 
 James Gadsden, [l, s.] 
 
 Manuel DiEz De Bonilla, [l. s.J 
 Jose Salazar Ylarregui, [l, s.] 
 J, Mariano Monterde, [l. s.J 
 
 EXTRADITION TREATY WITH MEXICO. 
 
 Extradition treaty with Mexico, concluded at Mexico, Decem- 
 ber 11, 1861, Ratification advised by Senate, with amendments, 
 April 9, 1862. Ratified by President, April 11, 1862. Ratifica- 
 tions exchanged at the city of Mexico, May 20, 1862. Proclaimed 
 June 20, 1862. 
 
 Treaty between the United States of America and the United 
 Mexican States, for the extradition of criminals. 
 
 The United States of America and the United Mexican States, 
 having judged it expedient, with a view to the better adminis- 
 tration of justice, and to prevent crime within the respective 
 territories and jurisdictions, that persons charged with the crimes 
 hereinafter enumerated, and being fugitives from justice, should, 
 under certain circumstances, be reciprocally delivered up, hav- 
 
262 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMEXT. 
 
 ing resolved to conclude a treaty for this purpose, and have 
 named as then' respective Plenipotentiaries, that is to say: The 
 President of the United States of America has appointed Thomas 
 Corwin, a citizen of the United States, and their Envoy Extraor- 
 dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary near the Mexican Govern- 
 ment; and the President of the United Mexican States has ap- 
 pointed Sebastian Lerdo de Tejeda, a citizen of the said States 
 and a Deputy of a Congress of the Union; 
 
 Who, after having communicated to each other their repective 
 full powers, found in good and due form, have agreed upon and 
 concluded the following articles : 
 
 Article I. 
 
 It is agreed that the contracting parties shall, on requisition 
 made in their name, through the medium of their respective 
 diplomatic agents, deliver up to justice persons who, being ac- 
 cused of the crimes enumerated in article third of the present 
 treaty, committed within the jurisdiction of the requiring party, 
 shall seek an asylum, or shall be found within the territories of 
 the other : 
 
 Provided, That this shall be done only when the fact of the 
 commission of the crime shall be so established as that the laws 
 of the country in which the fugitive or the person so accused 
 shall be found, would justify his or her apprehension and com- 
 mitment for trial if the crime had been there committed. 
 
 Article II. 
 
 In the case of crimes committed in the frontier States or Ter- 
 ritories of the two contracting parties, requisition may be made 
 through their respective diplomatic agents, or throug[h] the 
 chief civil or judicial authority of the districts or counties bord- 
 ering on the frontier as may for this purpose be duly authorized 
 by the said chief civil authority of the said frontier States or 
 Territories, or when, from any cause, the civil authority of such 
 State or Territory shall be suspended, through the chief military 
 officer in command of such State or Territory. 
 
 Article III. 
 
 Persons shall be so delivered up who shall be charged, accord- 
 ing to the provisions of this treaty, with any of the following 
 
AN EXTRADITION TREATY. 263 
 
 crimes, whether as principals, accessories, or accomplices, to- wit: 
 Murder (including assassination, parricide, infanticide, and 
 poisoning); assault with intent to commit murder; mutilation; 
 piracy; arson; rape; kidnapping, defining the same to be the 
 taking and carrying away of a free person by force or deception; 
 forgery, including the forging, or making, or knowingly pass- 
 ing or putting into circulation counterfeit coin or bank notes, or 
 other paper current as money, with intent to defraud any per- 
 son, or persons; the introduction or making of instruments for 
 fabrication of counterfeit coin or bank notes, or other paper cur- 
 rent money; embezzlement of public moneys; robbery, defining 
 the same to be the felonious and forcible taking from the person 
 of another of goods or money to any value, by violence or put- 
 ting him in fear; burglary, defining the same to be breaking and 
 entering into the house of another with intent to commit felony; 
 and the crime of larceny of cattle, when the same is commited 
 within the frontier States or Territories of the contracting 
 parties. 
 
 Article V. 
 
 On the part of each country the surrender of fugitives from 
 justice, shall be made only by the authority of the Executive 
 thereof, except in the criimes committed within the limits of the 
 frontier States or Territories, in which latter case the surrender 
 may be made by the chief civil authority thereof, or such chief 
 civil or judicial authority thereof, or such chief civil or judicial 
 authority of the districts or counties bordering on the frontier as 
 may for this purpose be duly authorized by the said chief civil 
 authority of the said frontier states or Territories, or if, from 
 any cause, the civil authority of such State or Territory shall be 
 suspended, then such surrender may be made by the chief mili- 
 tary officer in command of such State or Territory. 
 
 Article V. 
 
 All expenses whatever of detention and delivery, effected in 
 virtue of the preceding provisions, shall be borne and defrayed 
 by the Government or authority of the frontier State or Territory 
 in whose name the registration shall have been made. 
 
 Article VI. 
 The provisions of the present treaty shall not be applied in 
 any manner to any crime or offense of a purely political char- 
 
264 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 acter; nor shall it embrace the return of fugitive slaves; nor the 
 delivery of criminals, who, when the offense was committed, 
 shall have been held in the place where the offense was com- 
 mitted in the condition of slaves, the same being expressly for- 
 bidden by the Constitution of Mexico; nor shall the provisions of 
 the present treaty be applied in any manner to the crimes 
 enumerated in the third article committed, anterior to the date 
 of the exchange of the ratifications hereof. Neither of the con- 
 tracting parties shall be bound to deliver up its own citizens 
 under the stipulations of this contract. 
 
 Article VII. 
 
 This treaty shall continue in force until it shall be abrogated 
 by the contracting parties, or one of them; but it shall not be 
 abrogated except by united consent, unless the party desiring to 
 abrogate it shall give twelve months previou-s notice. 
 
 Article VIII. 
 
 The present treaty shall be ratified in conformity with the 
 Constitutions of the two countries, and the ratifications shall be 
 exchanged at the City of Mexico within six months from the 
 date hereof, or earlier if possible. 
 
 In witness whereof we, the Plenipotentiories of the United 
 States of America, and of the United Mexican States have signed 
 and sealed these presents. 
 
 Done in the City of Mexico on the eleventh day of December, 
 in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty- 
 one, the eighty-sixth of the independence of the United States 
 of America, and the forty-first of the United Mexican States. 
 
 Thos. Corwin, [L.S.] 
 Seb'n Lerdo de Tejeda. [L.S.] 
 
CH APTEE YII. 
 
 THE TREASURY. 
 
 The Treasury of the United States Governmenv i.-^ ita. point of 
 strength. If the actual resources of the Thirteen States on the 
 day they were constituted such by the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence could then have been as fully under the control of Congress 
 as they came to be thirteen years later, Washington would have 
 closed the war in two campaigns, and six years of wasteful strife 
 would have been saved. The American people were fully de- 
 termined not to submit to arbitrary foreign rule, and therefore 
 England had no real chance of success; but the impotence of 
 Congress for want of control over even a small part of those 
 resources of the people that were destroyed in the following 
 years deceived and encouraged the British. Stubborn resolution 
 and patient endurance triumphed over even the want of money; 
 but a Public Treasury would have given immediate effect to that 
 determined will. 
 
 For six years after the definitive Treaty of Peace the United 
 States remained still without a Treasury worthy of the name, 
 and both the States and the United States were almost powerless 
 to make any profitable use of their independence, or of the great 
 resources they really possessed. It was only when the Constitu- 
 tion had fully released the General Government from dependence 
 on the States for the funds it required, and fully authorized Con- 
 gress to create such a Treasury as was needful to carry out its 
 plans for the common welfare, that the real vigor of the new 
 Nation found the needed opportunity to display itself. 
 
 This power to establish and fill a Treasury, ' ' to lay and collect 
 taxes, duties, imposts and excises" and "to borrow money on 
 the credit of the United States," was conferred that it might 
 have a sufficient Treasury "to pay the debts and provide for 
 the common defense and general welfare of the United States." 
 Congress alone was left to decide how much was needed and how 
 
 (265) 
 
2u6 ^ THE EXECUTIVE DEPART3IEXT. 
 
 largely to draw on the resources of the people. These few words 
 clothe the General Governinent with unlimited energy, and the 
 absence of limitation would be very dangerous indeed if thisbodv 
 had not been made strictly responsible to the people. The House 
 of Representatives alone can originate Bills for raising Revenue, 
 and its members must lay down their office, or go back to the 
 people for reelection, every two years. If they cannot justify 
 their use of these great powers to their constituents others ap- 
 pointed in their places will undo or correct their work. But the 
 House must have the full consent of the Senate and, in most 
 cases, of the President, to put their Revenue Bills in force as 
 laws. 
 
 Under this ample power to do what the general welfare de- 
 manded the First Congress established a Treasury Department 
 during its first session in 1789, and laid such ■' ' duties '" on the 
 imports of commerce and such internal '•taxes and excises" as 
 it judged best for the country. It was able to provide for the 
 Public Debt, to restore the honor and credit of the country at 
 once, and to do whatever the public interest required. From 
 time to time thereafter it increased the public income as it 
 thought best. A Xavy was soon required to protect American 
 commerce during the great confhct between England and Bona- 
 parte; a French war seemed unavoidable in 1798, and prepara- 
 tions for raising a strong army were made; when this danger 
 was past the opportunity occurred to purchase from the 
 French ruler all the territory settled and claimed by that nation 
 west of the Mississippi and about its mouth: then trouble with 
 England terminated in a three years war by sea and land at 
 great cost. The close of this war was soon followed by the pur- 
 chase from Spain of the Peninsula of Florida and West Florida, 
 lying along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico between Florida 
 proper and the Mississippi River. 
 
 4. All these great events required expenditures that would 
 have been quite impossible without such a Treasury as the Gov- 
 ernment now possessed. By these resources the new Xation 
 made itself respectable in the eyes of the foreign world, its 
 prowess on the sea made England anxious about her own mari- 
 time supremacy, and France and Spain gladly withdrew from 
 the near neighborhood of a power so enterprising and aggres- 
 sive. It did not prove difficult for the Treasury to bear all these 
 extra burdens even without much Internal Revenue. The Cus 
 
 I 
 
VAST POAVERS OF THE UNITED STATES TREASURY. 267 
 
 toms Duties were believed to be useful for encouraging manu- 
 factures as well as supplying necessary funds to the Treasury. 
 These were so large that, twenty years after the close of the War 
 of 1813-15 — which carried the Public Debt up to $127,000,000 — 
 it was all paid off within a few thousands, leaving a balance of 
 nearly $30,000,000 in the Treasury. 
 
 At this time the population had become nearly sixfold greater 
 than when the Treasury was founded in 1789; the territory 
 owned by the United States was more than threefold greater; 
 the number of States in the Union had doubled, and the regular 
 expenses of the Government were at least fourfold greater than 
 in 1800 So strong and capable did the Government and the peo- 
 ple feel that they assumed, about 1820, a kind of protectorate 
 over the Spanish- American Republics, and warned off European 
 powers from possible designs of further conquests in the New 
 World. The ''Monroe Doctrine" claimed America for Ameri- 
 cans. The Treasury, between 1845 and 1853, had to support the 
 Mexican War and to pay for large acquisitions of territory from 
 that Republic. 
 
 When the civil war opened, the strain of it, and the chief re- 
 sponsibility for the preservation of the Union, fell upon the 
 Treasury. The great armies and fleets, the vast supplies of war- 
 material, the commissary and hospital stores and the transporta- 
 tion service must depend for their existence and effectiveness on 
 the Treasury. An idea was then given of the depth and breadth 
 of meaning contained in the few words of the Constitution com- 
 mitting the entire control of National Finance to Congress, and 
 of the vast latent power of the United States Treasury. How- 
 ever vast the sums required by the Secretaries of War and the 
 Navy it managed always to supply them. Under skillful man- 
 agement it seemed capable of almost any miracle of achieve- 
 ment in the immediate suppl}^of funds, and when the "sinews 
 of war" were no longer required for the support of military 
 operations, they were turned to the extinction of the enormous 
 debt. In seventeen years, besides greatly increased civil ex- 
 penses, several hundreds of millions paid in pensions, and more 
 than a billion and a half in interest, nearly one thousand million 
 dollars of the principal was paid, and the remainder funded at 
 very moderate rates of interest. 
 
 It may therefore be fairly affirmed that the Treasury of the 
 United States is the heart of the country. From it flow the tides 
 
268 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 of energy that give efficiency to the Government; and general 
 business between the States, among the people, and with the 
 foreign world depends on public credit, internal peace, and favor- 
 able treaties of commerce. Only a Government with an ample 
 Treasury can make itself respected, can protect its citizens 
 everywhere and remove all obstacles to their profitable activity. 
 
 The issue of Treasury Demand Notes, or "Greenback Legal 
 Tenders,"' and the establishment of the National Banking Sys- 
 tem placed the Treasury in new and supremely important rela- 
 tions with business. It became virtually the great central Bank 
 of Deposit and Issue for the country. It held the coin reserves that 
 gave the value of gold to the United States currency — and the 
 National Bonds that secured the currency of National Banks. 
 It was, therefore, the Regulator and Guardian of the money of 
 the people. Whether this system will always commend itself to 
 ihe financial world is to be seen in the future. The great pros- 
 perity of the Nation under it seems likely to assure its perma- 
 nence in some form. The ingenious skill of financiers is sure to 
 correct whatever imperfections may be developed, while retain- 
 ing its excellencies, and the Treasury will probably continue to 
 sustain a close relation to the moneyed interests of the country 
 at large. 
 
 It has saved the Union from dissolution, it has so adjusted 
 the Public Debt as to make it an element of strength rather than 
 weakness. It has enabled the Government to honor all its obli- 
 gations when due, to pay the debt as rapidly as was deemed 
 best, to pension its disabled soldiers and sailors and to promote 
 the general development of the newer parts of the country in all 
 ways that appeared desirable to the majority of law-makers "in 
 Congress assembled." It has done all this besides supporting 
 the regular Army, Navy, and Civil Service, without difficulty or 
 strain, and still remained capabte of an unknown, but certainly 
 vast, measure of further effort, without exhausting its con-, 
 stitutional vigor. 
 
CHAPTER Till. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY. 
 
 The executive officer who is placed in charge of the finances 
 ®f the Government is called the Secretary of the Treasury. The 
 corresponding official of the English Government is called First 
 Lord of the Treasury: in France and most other European 
 countries he is termed the Minister of Finance. His office and 
 title were established by Congress and his whole Department is 
 governed by provisions of law, but his powers are a part of those 
 constitutionally belonging to the President, on whom his ap- 
 pointment and continuance in office depend. The President 
 must have the "advice and consent" of the Senate in the 
 appointment, but he can remove him at his pleasure. There 
 was, therefore, a certain propriety in the choice of the modest 
 title of Secretary for the Head of the Treasury Department. 
 
 The duties of the head of this most important branch of the 
 public service are, in general, prescribed by the law, and Con- 
 gress determines the great lines of policy to be pursued, the 
 amount of money to be collected, poured into and withdrawn 
 from the Treasury. The President has taken his constitutional 
 part in the enactment of those laws, and the manner in which 
 he considered they should be executed has inffiienced him in the 
 selection of the Secretary who is to superintend their applica- 
 tion. He can enforce his views on the Secretary by his power 
 of removal and appointing another; but, in effect, these points 
 of subordination as to this official are less important than they 
 seem. Decisions and action of great importance are expected 
 from him in a thousand matters which the law could not foresee 
 and which the President, in the great variety of subjects calling 
 for his attention, cannot feel prepared to direct. The General 
 Executive can only see that the financial management is in 
 harmony with the law and the general policy of the administra- 
 
 (2G9) 
 
270 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 tion, and leave to the financial Secretary a very wide and 
 weighty discretion. 
 
 3. In fact, the Secretaries of the Treasury have impressed 
 themselves and their views very deeply on American history. 
 Their special studies and plans, laid before Congress in the form 
 of official reports and recommendations, have repeatedly led it 
 to embody in laws the systems of National Finance they sug- 
 gested. Such was the case in the First Congress of 1789 to 1791, 
 when the report of Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary 
 of the Treasury, led to the adoption of the financial policy gen- 
 erally followed up to the openingof the Civil War. Vast changes 
 were then required, and the plans suggested by Secretary Chase, 
 then at the head of the Treasury Department, were substantially 
 adopted. These are still in force, with such modifications and 
 additions as experience and changing circumstances, in the opin- 
 ion of the Secretaries and law-makers, rendered desirable and 
 necessary. 
 
 No other officers of Departments, perhaps not even the Presi- 
 dents themselves, have exerted a greater infiuence on the des- 
 tinies of the nation and the welfare of the people. In this res- 
 pect the Constitutional system by which the Executive Admin- 
 istration is constituted has worked most successfully. The 
 President and the House of Representatives were both elected 
 by the people, and represented their views, the Senate, more 
 indirectly, doing the same. The connection of the President 
 with the making of laws, and his control over the Treasury 
 Department by the appointment of its Head, enabled him to 
 keep the financial policy in harmony with the prevailing views 
 of the country. 
 
 4. Those views first required that the Public Credit be main- 
 tained; and the early sentiment of the country insisted on the 
 speedy payment of the Public Debt, economy in every part of 
 the administration, and as little interference as possible with the 
 general business of the people after those conditions had been 
 met. The country grew rapidly and threatened, from 1840 to 
 1860, to become unwieldy. Each State made its own banking- 
 laws and controlled local finance, which introduced more or less 
 confusion and loss in the transactions of business. The influence 
 of steam and electricity began to concentrate and consolidate 
 the nation and the world of business after 1850, and the great 
 •disturbance occasioned by the Civil War led to a corresponding 
 
THE SECRETARIES AND NATIONAL FINANCE. 271 
 
 change in general finance. Here, as in some other things, the 
 ' Xiocal became subordinate to the General, as much to the 
 advantage of local as of general interests. 
 
 The country had tended gradually toward a vast unity not 
 easily conceived before the day of Railways and the Telegraph; 
 the diversity of banking laws and financial systems become a 
 great embarrassment. These difficulties disappeared with the 
 elaboration of a grand system of National Finance commenced 
 early in 18G-2, and afterwards followed for twenty years without 
 serious change. The relations established between Congress, 
 the President, the Treasury Department, and the people, ren- 
 dered these financial changes easy and quite in keeping with 
 the changes of general situation produced by the development 
 of the Railway System, the gradual disappearance of sectional 
 trouble after the Civil War and the vast expansion of general 
 business. A fair degree of harmony v»^as established in all these 
 respects that contributed very much to the obliteration of the 
 effects of Civil War and to a true national union of Sections 
 and States. 
 
 Perhaps the most important agents in this new national pro- 
 gress and prosperity were the Secretaries of the Treasury. All 
 current facts of the national financial condition were before them 
 as Heads of the Treasury, and the law made it their duty to con- 
 sider its problems and suggest their solution in formal reports to 
 Congress. They had to deal with the moneyed interests of the 
 Oovernment and their relation to the welfare of the whole coun- 
 try. Most other parties to the questions involved were either 
 unfamiliar with many of the facts or interested in them locally. 
 They were the most suitable persons to propose a scheme for 
 congressional action that should in the best way harmonize the 
 interests of all classes and sections of the country. Their views 
 and their management usually commended themselves to Con- 
 gress and the country, and passed into laws and systems of policy 
 that were crowned with shining success. Their position, there- 
 fore, made them virtually Ministers of Finance and the success of 
 their plans and management secured to them all the honor due 
 to distinguished Statesmen. 
 
 After his preparation of financial plans and suggestions to 
 Congress came his duties as Supervisor of the Revenues and 
 Accounts of the Government — the execution of the laws in force 
 as to the collection, safe keeping and disbursement of national 
 
272 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 funds. In all these respects his responsibility is great and his 
 duties numerous. He is required to instruct collecting officers, 
 to originate systems of rules and regulations for reporting, for 
 turning moneys into the Treasury, for keeping them safely, for 
 rendering accounts of all kinds and for examining and paying 
 them as directed by law. 
 
 The application of the provisions of law to collections devolves 
 on him the most important decisions in numerous cases which 
 the law had not foreseen, or as to which its application is obscure. 
 He must see that the collections are properly made and if ob- 
 structions are met with, or violations of law by the people or by 
 revenue officers are brought to his notice, he directs such meas- 
 ures to overcome the difficulty, or enforce lawful penalties as 
 are adapted to the case, taking care to violate no provision of 
 law and supplementing these provisions by the exercise of such 
 discretionary power as may have been expressly confided to 
 him or as the President may authorize. 
 
 His care, after the revenue has been collected and paid in to 
 the Treasury, is to ascertain what sums are authorized by law to 
 be paid out, to allow no payment in any other case whatever, 
 to take all needful precaution that none is lost, to require an ac- 
 curate statement of all accounts and claims against the United 
 States for service or expense of any kind in any Branch of the 
 Government to be laid before him at stated times. These are 
 then compared with the law authorizing their payment and with 
 any balances remaining after previous payments, if any have 
 been made, and such authority, or warrant, for their final settle- 
 ment given under his signature as the case demands. No money 
 may be drawn from the Treasury, under any pretence whatever, 
 without his warrant, nor is such a warrant of any value or au- 
 thority unless authorized by law. He is forbidden to pay any 
 appropriation out of any unused balance of another. Such bal- 
 ance, if not drawn for the purpose provided for, must be report- 
 ed to Congress and can be used only by its special authority 
 under a newly enacted law. 
 
 Finally, he is required to make a long list of specified annual 
 Reports detailing all the i^" xCiculars of every branch of his De- 
 partment, various othei xieports at other stated times, answer 
 any specific inquiries made by Congress at any time, and dis- 
 charge such other duties as the law, or the President in harmony 
 with the law and the Constitution, may require of him. Thus his 
 
THE DUTIES OF THE SECRETARY OF THE T TREASURY. 273 
 
 regular duties touch every question of moneyed interest in the 
 country and bring him into relation with every other Depart- 
 ment and Branch of the Government involving payment of 
 money to or from the United States. He must decide on great 
 and difficult questions of Political Economy, on theories and the 
 practice of financial policy in things great and small. He must 
 conduct the management of the Public Debt, and the vast 
 receipts and payments on account of it, in such manner as to 
 maintain the public credit and not disturb the business of the 
 country. The National Banking System is so arranged that he 
 is its official head, and all the hundreds of millions of currency 
 issued by the Government or the National Banks are prepared 
 under his supervision, and the securities therefor deposited with 
 his Department. No other single officer in the Government has 
 such a multiplicity of cares or such extensive opportunities for 
 influencing the present and future of the country. 
 
 He cannot do all this work without suitable aid, and on the 
 organization and working of his Department under the various 
 Bureaus depends the measure of his success. He is aided in his 
 own office in the examination of all the various papers requiring^ 
 his signature by two Assistant Secretaries and such clerks as that 
 work requires. In examining and settling accounts which, fi- 
 nally, is done by his warrant on the Treasury, there are Six aud- 
 itors to each of whom certain classes of accounts are first sent 
 for examination. These accounts, when arranged, compared 
 with the law and the vouchers, or proofs of correctness, and bal- 
 anced in due form, are submitted to Comptrollers for final ex- 
 amination and verification. The accounts from the various 
 sources are divided, some being revised by the First Comptroller 
 of the Treasury, the rest by the Second Comptroller. Their cor- 
 rectness being ascertained, or errors adjusted, the result is offi- 
 cially certified to the Secretary, who then settles them by final 
 warrant, if previous warrants have not covered them. The Com- 
 missioner of Customs and the Postmaster General have also 
 powers of final revision over accounts examined and balanced 
 by the First and Sixth Auditors, respectively, relating to the 
 business under their direction, similar to that of the two Comp- 
 trollers of the Treasury. 
 
 To the First Auditor are assigned the accounts of the Treasury 
 Department, of the Patent Office, of salaries in the United States 
 
 Judicial System, of the Department of Agriculture, of the officer 
 
 18 
 
274 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 in charge of the public buildings in the District of Columbia, and 
 all accounts relating to the receipt of Customs. The Second and 
 Third Auditors give their attention to the accounts of the War 
 Department. The Second Auditor, in addition to his division of 
 army accounts which includes pay, clothing, officers' subsistence, 
 contingent expenses and some minor accounts relating to the 
 army, examines all accounts connected with Indian Affairs, and 
 mines belonging to the Government. The Third Auditor 
 settles Army pensions, Quartermaster and Transportation ac- 
 counts, and all others connected with the Army not assigned to 
 the Second Auditor. 
 
 The Fourth Auditor examines all accounts connected with the 
 l^avy Department and Navy Pensions. The Fifth Auditor has 
 charge of the accounts of the Department of State, of those con- 
 nected with the Internal Revenue, with the Census Bureau, and 
 a portion of those of the Patent Office. The Sixth Auditor is, 
 in a sense, detailed to the Post Office Department, he and the 
 Head of that Department making final settlement of its ac- 
 counts, in general, although the First Comptroller may be 
 appealed to in some cases. He reports all receipts and expendi- 
 tures quarterly to the Secretary of the Treasury and countersigns 
 all warrants of the Postmaster General, as the First Comptroller 
 does all those signed by the Secretary, this countersigning being 
 equivalent to a statement that the warrants are authorized by 
 law. The accounts of Congress, the President and those parts 
 of the public service immediately under the care and revisal of 
 Congress, as the Congressional Library, Public Printing, etc., 
 are not subject to examination by the accounting officers of the 
 Treasury Department, but warrants for the payment of them 
 must be made b}^ the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that all accounts must have been author- 
 ized by law before they can be recognized by the Treasury De- 
 partment, and that they must pass through a series of examina- 
 tions, to insure their absolute correctness and legality, before 
 they can be laid before the Secretary for final settlement. But, 
 having passed through these well guarded lines of approach to 
 the Treasury, the citadel itself is found guarded by the Teeas- 
 TJRER, with his supporters, by whom the demand for funds must 
 undergo a fresh scrutiny, under provisions of law, to make sure 
 that no fraud or loose formalities are practiced. 
 
 The Register of the Treasury receives the accounts and 
 
THE TREASURY AND ITS GUARDS. 275 
 
 vouchers that have been finally passed upon, and preserves 
 them. He keeps an account of all the receipts, expenditures 
 and debts due to or from the United States. The warrants for 
 money he inspects and records before they pass to the Treasurer, 
 who alone has the keys that securely hold the public funds in 
 the treasure vaults. The Treasurer must have the warrant for 
 receiving public moneys signed by the Secretary before he can 
 give a receipt for it; and a warrant from the same source, coun- 
 tersigned by a Comptroller and recorded by the Register, before 
 he can pay any out. He renders his accounts to the First Comp- 
 troller of the Treasury. The Secretary and First Comptroller 
 may inspect the funds in his hands at all times. The Treasurer 
 gives bonds in one hundred and fifty thousand dollars for faith- 
 fulness in keeping the Treasury from loss, which is lodged with 
 the First Comptroller. An Assistant Treasurer aids or replaces 
 him, as necessary. The Register has also an Assistant Register. 
 
 The principal Treasury of the United States is located in the 
 Treasury Buildings in Washington; but there are ten other 
 Treasuries in ten principal cities of the country, each with an 
 Assistant Treasurer at their head. These are related to each 
 other and to the principal Treasurer at the Seat of Government, 
 only through the Secretary of the Treasury. The Assistant 
 Treasurers keep such funds as the Secretary finds convenient 
 to lodge with them in his management of the public business at 
 those points. These are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Balti- 
 more, Charleston, New Orleans, St. Louis, Cincinnatti, Chicago, 
 and San Francisco. These are often called Sub-Treasuries. They 
 receive and pay out public moneys accumulated by collecting 
 officers of the Revenue in the region where they are located, 
 according to the provisions of law and the directions of the Sec- 
 retary. He may order them, at his discretion, to transmit any 
 part of the funds in their hands to the Treasury at Washington, 
 of which they are branches for the convenience of business and 
 safe keeping of treasure. Sometimes also public moneys may 
 be deposited with National Banks. 
 
 The Bureau of the Mint, the Bureau of Engraving and Print- 
 ing and the Comptroller of the Currency, are other divisions of 
 the business connected with the Treasury of the United States 
 and with the Banking System authorized by law. The Mints 
 produce the coin of the country and the Engravers and Printers 
 the Currency notes of the United States and of the National 
 
276 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Banks. The Director of the Mint has charge of all the coining- 
 of the several Mints in the United States. These are also Sub- 
 Treasuries. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing was organ- 
 ized by the Secretary of the Treasury to provide for the printing 
 of postage and revenue stamps and the currency of the United 
 States. The Comptroller of the Currency devotes his attention 
 to the enforcement of the laws in regard to National Banks 
 and to the accounts between them and the Treasury which 
 spring from the system of securing their circulation by the 
 deposit of United States Bonds in it. The law requires regular 
 reports by them to the Treasury, examinations by the Comp- 
 troller of the Currency of their condition, and the settlement 
 by him of the business of banks that fail or close their business. 
 He is, therefore, an Examiner of Accounts, like the other Comp- 
 trollers, but with a special field and powers, in all which he is 
 supervised by the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 As the Treasury Department, in collecting the revenue, is 
 brought into intimate relations with the active business of the 
 country, it can most readily collect the statistics of foreign com- 
 merce and domestic trade, manufactures and finance. The law 
 makes it obligatory on the Department to do this, and a Bureau 
 OF Statistics has been organized under the supervision of the 
 Secretary. The Internal Revenue is drawn from so few sources, 
 and subjects so little of the general manufacturing of the 
 country to official inspection, that the statistics of manufacturing 
 industry cannot be made complete; but the enforcement of the 
 Customs Laws requires a thorough knowledge of everything 
 that relates to commerce, shipping and transportation by sea, 
 and statistics on these matters ma}'- be easily made comprehen- 
 sive and complete. To these points, therefore, the chief attention 
 of the Bureau of Statistics is directed. 
 
 The Secretary appoints a principal clerk to be Chief of this 
 Bureau. He receives constant reports from the Customs officers 
 at every port and is able to arrange and regularly publish a wide 
 range of information, of great interest and value to the country 
 as well as to the Government. More or less of this is communi- 
 cated to the public monthly, formal and extended reports are 
 published quarterly, and these are combined into a yearly state- 
 ment of detail rendered to Congress and made accessible to all 
 the people who have occasion for it. From its connection with 
 commercial business and shipping, the Registration of Vessels 
 
THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SECRETARY. 277 
 
 and many other interests of the commercial marine of the 
 United States are generally looked after by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 A few of the officers immediately handling the funds of the 
 Treasury are required by the law to give bonds to a certain 
 amount. Every one handling public money is also required to 
 give bonds, but the amount is in most other cases fixed by the 
 Secretary, the First Comptroller, or some other designated 
 officer. From this general view of the range and distribution of 
 the work of this great Department, it is seen that the Head of it 
 needs to be a man of great business ability and a genius in 
 practical affairs, and that he requires to have highly capable 
 and reliable subordinates in great number. The success of the 
 Government and of multitudes — often of the whole country — 
 depends on the wisdom, energy and uprightness that radiate 
 from the Secretary, and are diffused through the whole vast 
 organization he superintends. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE COAST SURVEY. 
 
 The commercial relations of this survey, and a degree of super- 
 vision of the Bureau performing it by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury, serve to connect it with the Treasury Department. Its 
 work has reference to both land and water and requires various 
 scientific accomplishments of the highest grade. Astronomy, 
 geometry, surveying and the study of the laws controlling tidal 
 movements of the sea are almost equally involved in this survey. 
 Some of these scientific studies are pursued in the Military and 
 others in the Naval Academy and the oflicers of the Survey are 
 therefore drawn from both the Army and the ISTavy. 
 
 The enactments of Congress placed the organization and care 
 of this work in the hands of the President as early as 1807, but 
 it was many years before the great development of commerce 
 and the increase of the coast line of the country called that de- 
 gree of attention to it which it deserved. In 1843 the tendency 
 of the scientific world to greater thoroughness and exactness led 
 to more vigorous and careful surveys by this Bureau and they 
 have been continued since with ever increasing completeness. 
 Its two leading objects are the exact location of prominent 
 points on the coast and the laying down on charts of dangerous 
 places in the shallow sea near it. 
 
 The first object requires triangulation surveys about all the 
 coasts both of the oceans and the interior lakes, which employs 
 more especially the army division of the Survey; and the second 
 demands a detailed examination of the sea bottom within sixty 
 miles of the coast, and frequently studies of localities and phe- 
 nomena at a further distance from the shore, which employs 
 many vessels and seamen. These operations are conducted by 
 officers from these two services who are eminent for their know- 
 ledge of the sciences involved in the various branches of the 
 work. To do this work requires costly scientific instruments. 
 
 (278) 
 
THE WORK AND OFFICERS OF THE COAST SURVEY. 379 
 
 and much skill in the use of tl\em, and various important ends 
 are gained besides the advantages to commerce which are the 
 chief end immediately sought. The land part of the work is 
 often carried into the interior States for the determination of 
 the exact latitude and longitude of points on which the surveys 
 by State Governments are based, and the study of the sea bot- 
 tom contributes many important facts to students of sevei-al 
 different sciences, by which the whole world is benefitted. 
 
 At the head of this Bureau is the Superintendent of the Coast 
 Survey. He has an assistant Superintendent and a Consulting- 
 Geometer to aid him in conducting office work, a large number 
 of men learned in various branches of the Scientific work, and ti 
 numerous corps of draughtsmen and clerks who work up the 
 facts supplied by the survey from land and sea in producing 
 and correcting Maps, Charts, Tide Tables, and various other 
 classes of information for publication for the use of the Govern- 
 ment Service and for the public. The Superintendent makes an 
 annual Report to the Secretary of the Treasury and that officer 
 reports in turn to Congress. 
 
 The work of this Survey enlarges with the development of 
 Science and has included in later years many departments of re- 
 search not contemplated in the original plan. Some departments 
 of Science requiring too much expense for individual students or 
 Scientific bodies are greatly assisted by the Government through 
 this Survey. Certain parts of its work require periodical correc- 
 tion and re-examination. So, from this enlargement of the scope 
 of Scientific study and the necessity of annual or occasional re- 
 visions, the Coast Survey is likely to remain as a permanent 
 division of the Government Service. 
 
C H A P T E R X. 
 
 THE EEVESTTE OF THE UXITED STATES. 
 
 A history of the revenue of any people at any given time 
 would indicate with tolerable exactness the degree of their civil- 
 ization, their enlightenment, and the breadth of view of their 
 Rulers and Statesmen. Among Anglo-Saxons it has usually 
 been the field in which the battle for freedom from arbitrary 
 government has been fought. As modern times approached 
 they more and more steadily declined to permit any revenue to 
 be raised without the consent of those who were to pay it. The 
 American Revolution, which resulted in the establishment of the 
 United States as an independent nation, was caused by such a 
 contest, and the policy that should govern the amount and form 
 of raising it has always occupied a large share of the attention 
 of American Statesmen. Bills for raising money can only be 
 originated in Congress by the House of Representatives, the im- 
 mediate delegates of the people whose property is to be taxed. 
 
 The Constitution took care to prevent all arbitrariness — and 
 inequality as far as possible — by requiring that taxation for 
 revenue should be uniform throughout the United States. 
 Inter-State commerce and trade was relieved by it from all 
 burdens, and no tax was permitted on exportation. The revenue 
 must, therefore, be raised from imports and such taxes on 
 general business and property as the majority could agree on. 
 ]For the most part, up to the Civil AVar, the revenue was raised 
 by duties on imports; but. it not then appearing wise to burden 
 international trade too heavily, funds to a vast amount were 
 raised by internal taxes. Customs Duties are a tax levied on 
 goods brought from foreign countries for sale in the United States. 
 A scale, or Tariff, of duties is required by law to be paid when 
 they are introduced and before they are offered for sale. What- 
 ever duty is paid is naturally added to the price required for 
 them from the purchaser above the original cost in the foreign 
 
 (280) 
 
THE OBJECT OF A TARIFF. 281 
 
 country, the charges for transportation and care, and the profit 
 which forms the inducement to trade in them. The original 
 foreign owner may bear a part of this duty when competition in 
 trade is such as to depress the price he would otherwise receive; 
 but the final purchaser, or consumer, must pay a higher price, 
 not only for what is imported, but also for the same kind of 
 goods produced in this country, the price for which will rise 
 until it reaches the level at which foreign goods may be sold. 
 
 Therefore, when the goods can be produced in this country, 
 their manufacture or production is said to be " protected " by 
 the Tariff. Sometimes that Tariff is laid merely for revenue 
 purposes and then it only incidentally "protects" domestic 
 goods of the like kind; but often the duties are laid, or increased, 
 with the special purpose of protecting, and so encouraging, 
 domestic production. As it increased the amount the United 
 States citizen must pay for what was produced in this country 
 the gain of the American manufacturer, or producer, must flow, 
 partly, at least, from the purses of his own countrymen. That 
 this was wise, just, and for the general welfare, as a principle, 
 has often been disputed; yet, as it has been a policy long and 
 largely followed by the law-makers in Congress it must be sup- 
 posed that the arguments in its favor have been generally 
 admitted. 
 
 These arguments rest on various considerations. All people — 
 and the English races above most others — dislike to pay direct 
 taxes, partly because they become directly conscious of the cost 
 of Government and feel inclined to rebel against the payments 
 they must make, and partly because it is impossible to distribute 
 the burden of direct taxation so that all classes shall feel satis- 
 fied that they have no more than their just share. Direct tax- 
 ation exacts an inquiry into the private affairs of the citizen 
 which is displeasing and give opportunity for much evasion and 
 concealment, and Mdiat the skillful and dishonest escape from 
 must be paid by the honest and unskillful who naturally feel that 
 they are wronged. The best market of a people for what they 
 produce is always at home, because the sale can be made with 
 little cost for transportation and the injuries and loss often in- 
 volved in a long transfer are avoided. Production at home 
 causes all the expenditures involved to be made in the country 
 and enlarges the home market for many varieties of supplies 
 and thus increases the ability of the people to purchase. Many 
 
283 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMEXT. 
 
 people are profitably employed by protected industries, much, 
 capital and profit are retained at home to contribute to the pros- 
 perity of the commonwealth in various ways. 
 
 If these protected industries furnish articles of export, money 
 is thereby drawn from abroad to increase the circulation and keep 
 tvealth at home. With a new country, chiefiy agricultural at 
 first, our exports were bulky and the cost of transport much 
 greater in proportion to the money they could bring than thecom- 
 5)act and costly products of foreign manufacture, and a part of 
 these must go abroad as raw material to be manufactured, re- 
 turned and bought back with two transfers and the costs and 
 profits of manufacture and sale added. As labor must be cheaper 
 in crowded, old communities, with a peasantry accustomed to 
 extreme and painful economies in living, our laborers must be 
 placed by free trade, in a degree, in competition with them. 
 These and various other reasons have generally reconciled 
 Americans to the payment of a premium to their own manu- 
 facturers in the shape of the "protection policy " of a high tariff 
 on the imported articles that are also manufactured at home. 
 
 Though what they buy costs them more, the money with, 
 which they buy is more easily obtained and they believe they 
 grow rich faster. The farmer has more home mouths to feed, 
 gets better prices for his produce, finds his labor and his land 
 more valuable, and feels willing to pay a moderate premium for 
 these advantages. On the other hand what is gained by the 
 American is lost by the foreigner; sometimes, by this forcing 
 process, it is contended, there is a great loss for a small gain 
 from the unsuitability of the people or the circumstances to the 
 manufacture so dearly •• protected," or from the extreme meas- 
 ure of profit given to a few from the purses of the many. Some- 
 times those belonging to one class, or to one section of the coun- 
 try, spend much to render the manufactiirers of another section 
 or class prosperous, while they themselves realize few corres- 
 ponding advantages. 
 
 A vigorous contest has often sprung up over one or the other 
 of these, or some kindred points, and some believe that an ap- 
 proach to free trade among nations is the only equitable and 
 and natural principle. Xo one would wish to change the Con- 
 stitutional provision for absolute free trade between the States 
 and sections of this country, because its utility has been demon- 
 strated: and it is believed that a trial of the principle would work 
 
THE QUESTION OF FREE TRADE. 283 
 
 similar beneficent results between nations. England has 
 maintained modified free trade for a generation and evidently 
 prospered by it. Yet England, it is declared, is a small country, 
 above all manufacturing and commercial, and opens her ports 
 to other nations for the sake of getting what she cannot produce 
 herself at a cheap rate, much of what she receives being raw 
 material for her manufactures, and so her experience does not 
 disprove the protective principle. 
 
 A violent contest, approaching civil war, arose, about 1830, 
 between the South and the North; the South finding protection 
 under a high tariff disadvantageous, having no fitness for man- 
 ufacturing; while the tendency of the North toward those indus- 
 tries was marked. The difficulty was partly settled then by com- 
 promise; but later events modified the situation and introduced 
 manufactures there, while the spread of the Railway System 
 had the practical effect to draw the country closer together, to 
 diminish local disadvantages, and diffuse many manufactures, 
 with great impartiality, all over the country. The great Public 
 Debt afterwards rendered the highest possible tariff desirable, so 
 that the utmost of protection could be readily applied by mere 
 adjustment of tariff rates. The United States, therefore, has 
 been eminent among modern nations for its maintenance of a 
 high scale of Customs Duties, and usually for a steady recogni- 
 tion of the protective principle in its adjustment. A prosperity 
 remarkable, even with all her resources allowed for, contributed 
 to prevent any change, lest the change should result unfavorably. 
 
 In all past history nations have from time to time discovered 
 that cherished principles and policies which had long been be- 
 lieved the secret of their prosperity, or their shield from public 
 disaster and ruin, were completely, or partly, mistaken and false. 
 Systems, maintained with earnest thoroughness in one age, are 
 laid aside and their contraries upheld, with equal positiveness of 
 conviction and watchful vigor, in another. The world has not 
 ceased learning and great changes are quite as likely to be made 
 in the systems of the present time. Yet each generation has 
 adopted the best systems it could devise to suit its actual neces- 
 sities, and much in the methods that have been discarded, as un- 
 fitting and ruinous if employed now, were fairly adapted to gain 
 the ends sought while they were in use. Change in circum- 
 stances and relations has often been at the bottom of changes in 
 national policy. 
 
384 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The agricultural interests of the United States have always 
 been the most prominent; but these resources were so abundant 
 and so easily and naturally developed from its boundlessly fertile 
 soil that production tended to ruinous excess. The markets for 
 it have always been glutted in some direction, and prices so low 
 as to give no adequate compensation to the producer. This dif- 
 ficulty has been kept within bounds by the encouragement of 
 manufactures provided by such an arrangement of the Tariff as 
 to make it protective. The close union of countries promoted 
 by Railroads, Steamships and Telegraphs is constantly dimin- 
 ishing this difficulty, and the Era of Free Trade may, possibly, 
 be very near. The views and customs of nations do not as yet, 
 however, admit of absolute free trade, even when their policy is 
 so called; but tariffs are frequently arranged for revenue only — 
 discarding the principle of protection as one to be promoted 
 for its own sake. Tlie time will perhaps come when all possible 
 burdens will be taken from commerce between nations and 
 revenue be raised entirely by other methods than Customs 
 Duties. As yet, these duties are regarded as indispensable, much 
 the larger part of the revenue of the Government being derived 
 from them, and the Protection Policy is held in honor by emin- 
 ent Statesmen. It is likely to be re-examined with greater care 
 and thoroughness in the two last decades of the nineteenth 
 century, both in theory and practice, and can hold its place as a 
 national policy only by a complete demonstration of its useful- 
 ness. Events in national, industrial and commercial develop- 
 ment, soon to occur, seem likely to modify it gradually, and 
 may finally sweep it almost entirely away. 
 
 At present, and as far as can be clearly seen in any future not 
 deeply changing the views and relations of nations, the revenue 
 w-ill be largely drawn from the tax on international commerce. 
 This tax is more widely distributed and falls more largely on 
 the available funds of the people — on general incomes — than any 
 other method yet devised. If the protective principle be dropped 
 and duties for revenue only preserved, the payment of taxes by 
 the purchase of foreign commodities may, by confining duties 
 to articles of luxury, be chiefly voluntary and fall most heavily 
 on those best able to pay. A large list of articles imported has 
 never contributed to the revenue. They are on the Free List. 
 During most of the years since 1821 the value of the imports on 
 which no customs duties have been collected has been from four 
 
OFFICERS OF THE REVENUE SERVICE. 385 
 
 to eight times smaller than of those " dutiable," or taxed for the 
 benefit of the revenue; but during the eight years from 1834 to 
 1841, inclusive, the "free goods" imported exceeeded the "duti- 
 able goods" in every year but two, and then not falling far 
 behind. Since 1848 they have averaged about one-sixth part of 
 the dutiable goods, though varying greatly for particular years. 
 When the Public Debt is fairly extinguished, it may De expected 
 that this list will increase very much, both in the number and 
 value of articles. 
 
 The Revenue Service is constituted by law under the imme- 
 diate inspection of the Commissioner of Customs, and the Com- 
 missioner of the Internal Revenue; but these are not connected 
 otherwise than by both being under the care of the Secretary of 
 the Treasury. The Commissioner of Customs is properly an ac- 
 counting officer performing duties similar to those of the first 
 Comptroller, and also to the Auditors, since he certifies accounts 
 to the Register. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue is more 
 properly a superintendent of the general details of the assess- 
 ment and collection of the "excise", or taxes on domestic pro- 
 ducts from which a revenue is raised. 
 
 Officers of the Customs are located only at ports or places of 
 international trade where duties on foreign goods are to be col- 
 lected. The States and Territories on the sea coast, or adjoining 
 the territories of another nation, are divided into Collection Dis- 
 tricts by special decision of law. The chief officers in these 
 Districts are appointed by the President and Senate, The Pre- 
 sident has various discretionary powers, such as varying circum- 
 stances prevent the law from foreseeing. The officers handling 
 public moneys are required to give such bonds as are required 
 by law; but these may be increased by the President if he see 
 good reason therefor. 
 
 The principal officer in each District is the Collector. He 
 receives and issues all the documents relating to vessels and 
 commerce required by law and records them, estimates, receives 
 and accounts for the duties, and employs the subordinates re- 
 quired in these processes. The Naval Officer is a kind of 
 Comptroller associated with the Collector. He receives copies 
 of all important documents; estimates with the Collector the 
 ( Aities to be collected and makes separate record of them, no 
 duties being receivable without his aid; he countersigns import- 
 ant papers issued by the Collector; examines all his accounts and 
 
286 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMENT. 
 
 certifies them. The Surveyor is another officer who is subordi- 
 nate to the Collector, but acts as general inspector and superin- 
 tendent of the active work required in verifying goods presented 
 for entrv and removing them to Government ware-houses. He 
 makes sure of all the facts the Collector is required to know, re- 
 ports them and directs the work of the employees engaged in 
 'inspecting, guaging, weighing, or measuring ships and goods. 
 
 AVhere little importing is done the Xaval Officer and Surveyor 
 are omitted— one or both. If the Collector is disabled the ISTaval 
 Officer takes his place, for the time; if both those officers fail 
 the Surveyor acts as Collector; but the Collector may appoint a 
 Deputy to act for him with the approval of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury. Four General Appraisers of imported merchandise 
 are appointed by the President and Senate, and local appraisers 
 are appointed as needed by the Collector of each District. The 
 inspectors, appraisers, guagers, weighers, measurers, clerks and 
 sub-officers and employees of all kinds connected with the Cus- 
 tom House at New York number between twelve and fifteen 
 hundred, all under the direction of the three chief officers. 
 
 The Manifest required to be presented to the Collector of the 
 Port immediately on the entry of a merchant vessel, is required 
 to be in the following form: 
 
 Eeport and manifest of the cargo laden at the port of 
 
 on board the Master, bound for port. 
 
 Marks. 
 
 Numbers. 
 
 Package or 
 articles in 
 bulk. 
 
 Contents or 
 quantities. 
 
 Values at the 
 Port of ex- 
 portation. 
 
 This manifest conveys to the Collector the information which 
 he sets his army of subordinates in motion, under the Surveyor, 
 to verify. When this examination is completed, he proceeds 
 with the ISTaval Officer to compute the Duties payable by law on 
 the goods. The unloading for purposes of this examination is 
 done by the employees of the Collector. If the duties are then 
 paid by the owners or consignees, they may pass into their hands, 
 the Government having no further claim on them. If this is 
 
THE COLLECTION OF CUSTOMS DUTIES. 287 
 
 not done at once, they are placed in warehouses belonging to 
 the Government and remain in the hands of the Collector until 
 the Duties are paid, with all accrued costs. 
 
 When a vessel has been loaded with goods for export the ship- 
 pers, or owners, must present the manifest to the Collector, giv- 
 ing all the above details, to the correctness of which they make 
 oath and he thereupon makes out a document called a clearance 
 in the following form: 
 
 District of ss, 
 
 Port of : 
 
 These are to certify all whom it doth concern, that , 
 
 master or commander of the , burden tons, or there- 
 
 abouts, mounted with guns, navigated with men 
 
 , built and bound for , having on board , hath 
 
 here entered and cleared his said vessel according to law. 
 Given under our hands and seals at the custom house of 
 this day of , one thousand , and in the year of 
 
 the Independence of the United States of America. 
 
 When this is done the vessel's Passport, made out according 
 to forms furnished by the Secretary of State, is given by the 
 Collector. If an American vessel, it must have been registered 
 by the Collector, or its previous Certificate of Register verified 
 and recorded. A Sea Letter, or certificate proving it to belong- 
 to an American citizen, is usually given when the registry has 
 been made according to law. All American vessels are so reg- 
 istered and must report to the Collector of each port they visit 
 whether engaged in foreign or domestic trade; so that the Col- 
 lector becomes fully acquainted with all the vessels entering his 
 Port and the particulars of all the commerce of the country are 
 laid before the Secretary of the Treasury, 
 
 Tonnage Duties are certain designated sums required by law 
 to be paid to the Collectors of Ports on every ton of capacity as 
 determined by lawful rules of measurement — a certain amount 
 of cubic space within the vessel being estimated as a ton of ca- 
 pacity, whether it be occupied by merchandise or not. This 
 duty is levied, not so much as a resource for increasing the rev- 
 enue, as for meeting the expenses connected with the protection 
 of shipping on the coasts and in the harbors of the United 
 States, The Government clears the harbors and their approaches 
 of obstacles and dangers to navigation, builds Break-waters and 
 Light-houses, examines the bottom of the sea near the coast and 
 
288 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 causes it to be described on maps and charts and establishes 
 Buoys and Beacons to designate dangerous places. All this is 
 done at vast expense for construction and care, and Tonnage 
 Duties are in the nature of a percentage, or rate of insurance 
 on the outlay. 
 
 These duties are arranged so as to uibcriniinatt; i^i favor of 
 American shipioing, and against that of nations whose commer- 
 cial laws are unfavorable to American vessels or commerce. In 
 1790 the first Congress laid the Tonnage Duties at fifty cents on 
 foreign shipping, and ten cents on American: but these rates 
 have been variously modified from time to time since, by laws of 
 Congress and by the provisions of Treaties with particular nations. 
 In 1880 the general Tonnage Duty on foreign vessels was fifty 
 cents per ton; but if they had been built within the United States 
 only thirty cents. Vessels from foreign ports which do not per- 
 mit the entrance and trade of American vessels were charged 
 two dollars per ton. When, however, the President should be 
 convinced that such disabilities on American commerce at such 
 ports had been removed, his proclamation to that effect would 
 reduce that sum to the regular rate of fifty cents: and the pro- 
 visions of treaties modifying the ordinary rate, were not affected 
 by this law. 
 
 Vessels belonging to citizens of the United States engaged in 
 the coasting trade or fisheries, are not required to pay any 
 tonnage duties if properly licensed and registered. If they have 
 no Sea Letter, or Certificate of Register, from a Collector, they 
 are treated as foreign vessels. All vessels in the foreign trade, 
 besides the above, must pay a tax of thirty cents per ton. with 
 such exceptions as are made by treaties. This would make the 
 usual rates on foreign vessels eighty cents per ton, and thirty 
 cents on American vessels entering from foreign ports; or, if 
 any of the officers of an American vessel are not citizens of the 
 United States, the duty is made fifty cents. In addition, all 
 foreign vessels must pay fifty cents per ton "Light Money;"" but 
 this is not exacted from American vessels. Thus a large dis- 
 crimination in favor of American vessels is made by law. ISTo 
 vessel wholly or partly owned by persons not citizens of the 
 United States, none having one or more foreign officers, nor 
 any, though wholly owned and ofiicered by citizens, if built out- 
 side the United States (unless a prize taken in war), can be 
 registered as an American ship or sail under the protection of 
 
"FREE ships"' and FOREIGN COMMERCE. 289 
 
 the United States Flag. This is designed to protect and en- 
 courage American shipbuilding. 
 
 Many have thought it better to have " Free Ships," that is, to 
 allow any vessel whose chief ownership was in the United States, 
 to register as American, obtain an American Passport and sail 
 under the Flag — which would give it American protection. This 
 "protection " has appeared to them to operate against the inter- 
 ests of American commerce, since, notwithstanding the great 
 increase of the American foreign trade, (the exports and imports 
 carried to and fro had nearly doubled in twenty years) the 
 amount so carried by vessels under the American Flag steadily 
 decreased and had become a small per cent, of that carried un- 
 der foreign flags — chiefly that of England. The principal or 
 apparent cause of this decrease was that the goods of our com- 
 merce had come to be carried more and more largely in steam 
 vessels built of iron, and these could be built cheaper in England 
 than in the United States. Protection did not stimulate Ameri- 
 can iron ship-building and the result was to gradually drive the 
 United States Flag from the sea and give the chief profits of 
 ocean transportation to the other nations. 
 
 It was a question not thoroughly understood and which the 
 Lawmakers were unwilling to interfere with until they could be 
 satisfied as to the effect of laws regarding it. American capital 
 did not incline to seek investment in iron ship building, but 
 rather to build railroads, devote itself to the coasting trade, and 
 to internal transportation. If the law relaxed this protection 
 foreign competition would be felt in ship building. It involved 
 the principle of ''protection " to American industries, and the 
 final settlement of that principle may, perhaps, depend on the 
 study of the subject of " Free Ships " by the Government and 
 people of the United States. 
 
 Revenue Cutters are employed by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury as a part of the Inspection Service of the Customs on 
 the coasts and in the harbors of the United States. They are 
 stationed where the Secretary may direct and report frequently 
 to the Collectors of the Ports. Their general organization and 
 duties are determined by law, although a wide discretion may 
 be exercised by the President and the Secretary as the interests 
 of the revenue may require. In 1880 there were about forty of 
 these vessels, chiefly armed steamers and of light sailing quali- 
 ties. They are employed to prevent smuggling and to cooperate 
 
290 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 with the Surveyors and Collectors of ports in performing their 
 duties with thoroughness and dispatch. The officers usually 
 consist of a Captain, three Lieutenants, an Engineer and As- 
 sistant-Engineer, and such petty officers and men are employed 
 as are required. They are immediately subject to the orders of 
 the Collectors and authorized to examine the character of the 
 papers and secure the imported goods of all the vessels in the 
 harbors or within twelve miles of the coast, of the United 
 States. They have a special Flag and Pennant, showing them 
 to be authorized agents of the Revenue Service, and may law- 
 fully fire into any vessel declining to submit to their examina- 
 tion. They are employed on the Great Lakes as well as on the 
 ocean coasts of the country, and are expected to aid vessels in 
 distress when no other help is at hand. 
 
 The Light House Board is organized by law to provide for 
 the safety of commerce and all vessels visiting the waters of the 
 United States. The Secretary of the Treasury is President of 
 this Board. It meets regularly four times a year, but the Secre- 
 tary may call it together at such other times as he deems neces- 
 sary. Its members are appointed by the President of the United 
 States and must consist of two officers of high rank in the Navy, 
 two officers of Engineers in the Army, two civilians of high 
 attainments in Science, with an officer of the Navy and another 
 from the Army Engineer corps as Secretaries. This Board is 
 attached to the office of the Secretary of the Treasury. It is, in 
 effect, a Bureau of his Department, takes charge, under his di- 
 rection, of the administration and all the interests of Light 
 Houses. Buoys. Beacons and Sea-marks for securing the safety 
 of shipping and its certainty and convenience of movement, by 
 night or day. about the coasts and waters of the United States. 
 The whole coast of the United States is divided into not more 
 than twelve Districts, over each of which an officer of the Navy 
 or Army is placed as Inspector. The Board determines whether 
 new lights and other warning signals shall be erected, superin- 
 tends the plans for them and the reports to Congress necessary 
 to secure the requisite appropriation for construction or main- 
 tenance. With a coast line of many thousand miles and hund- 
 reds of harbors, bays, and rivers, these precautionary measures 
 are very extensive, involving the employment of hundreds of 
 men and a great outlay of money. 
 
 The Inspection of Steam Vessels is organized into a regular 
 
SUBORDINATE BUREAUS. 291 
 
 system by law, and placed under the general direction of the 
 Secretary of the Treasury. A Supervising Inspector-General is 
 appointed by the President and Senate, who superintends the 
 enforcement of the Steamboat Inspection laws. Ten Supervis- 
 ing-Inspectors, also appointed by the President and Senate, act 
 as a Board of Inspectors under him, meeting once a year. The 
 country is then divided between them, and each attends to his 
 special District for the following year. A local Inspector of 
 Hulls and another of Boilers are appointed, as determined by 
 law, in about forty Collection Districts, by the Supervising In- 
 spector, the Collector and the Judge of the District Court, acting 
 as a Board for that purpose. Their appointment must receive 
 the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, who may appoint 
 assistants and clerks to them when needful. The special duties 
 of all these officers, and their salaries, are determined by law. 
 This forms the virtual addition of another Bureau to the Depart- 
 ment of the Treasury. 
 
 Still another subordinate Bureau organized under the direction 
 of the Secretary of the Treasury is the Life-Saving Service. 
 Numerous stations on the coasts most exposed to storms are 
 established by the Secretary, who is aided by a General-Superin- 
 tendent, and such local superintendents as are required. This is 
 a humane and legal organization of the ancient, odious 
 and sometimes infamous voluntary wrecking service, and points 
 very significantly to the tendency of Governments to change old 
 abuses into kindly uses in recent times. In this case what was 
 often virtual robbery or piracy becomes a valuable means of 
 preserving property to its owners and saving life. A Keeper, and 
 such Surfmen as are needed are established at points where they 
 are most likely to be useful, with all the appliances needful when 
 vessels are wrecked on the coast. In 1880 there were 170 Keepers 
 and 1400 Surfmen employed at all the Life Saving Stations. 
 
 The Marine Hospital Service and the National Board of 
 Health also fall, to a degree, under the direction of the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury. He appoints the Supervising Surgeon- 
 General, and the revenue officers under his control attend to the 
 working of Quarantine laws and become, to a considerable ex- 
 tent, the agents of the Board of Health. The range of over- 
 sight and extent of appointing power of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury are thus seen to be very much more extensive than 
 those of most other Heads of Departments. 
 
292 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Bono and Warehouse System belongs chiefly to the 
 Custom's part of the Revenue, but sometimes is also required in 
 the Internal Revenue division where it takes a somewhat differ- 
 ent development. The Bonded Warehouse, in general, is a se- 
 cure place for storing goods still, for various reasons, in the 
 hands of the Government. In the Custom's division the Collec- 
 tor usually provides this at the public expense. When Internal 
 Revenue officers find one needed, they require individual manu- 
 facturers of the article taxed to furnish it. In the first case all 
 varieties of goods may be stored in the Warehouse, while in the 
 second only the one taxed article belonging to the individual 
 manufacturer may be stored there. These are called Bonded 
 Warehouses, because either the proprietor or keeper of the 
 warehouse, or the parties whose goods are stored therein, enter 
 into such Bonds as the Secretary of the Treasury may require to 
 hold the Government free from all loss or expense while in, or 
 on account of, such storage. The expense of maintaining them 
 is, in every case, to fall on the owners of the goods and if losses 
 occur during the delay of paying duties, the duties are not to be 
 diminished on that account. 
 
 At the head of the Internal Revenue Service is placed a 
 Commissioner of Internal Revenue. A Deputy Commissioner 
 assists or replaces him. at need. The whole country is divided 
 by the President into Collection Districts, in each of which he, 
 with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoints a Collector 
 of Internal Revenue. The Collector gives such bonds as the 
 Secretary of the Treasury may require. He may appoint 
 Deputies to aid or replace him, from whom he may require 
 bonds, whom he himself pays for their services and for whom he 
 is responsible. Besides his salary a Collector is allowed a per- 
 centage on the money he receives. Inspectors of tobacco and 
 gangers of liquors are appointed, as may be needed, by the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury. Every Bonded Warehouse of the In- 
 ternal Revenue must be in charge of one or more Storekeepers, 
 appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Commis- 
 sioner may appoint Agents of the Internal Revenue to perform 
 special duties in aid of the Internal Revenue. 
 
 During the Civil War, and for some years after, the taxes under 
 this branch of the revenue were nimierous and heavy and an 
 army of officials was required for assessing it and enforcing the 
 collection. These taxes have since been largely reduced in 
 
INTERNAL REVENUE REGULATIONS. 293 
 
 amount, restricted to a small number of articles manu- 
 factured, and a few kinds of business. It is derived, in greater 
 part, from taxes on the manufacture of liquors and tobacco. The 
 Collector and his aids are required to ascertain what parties in 
 the District conduct a business that is taxed and to enforce the 
 law relating to it, or, by the aid of the Courts, exact the penalties 
 of neglect or refusal. The Secretary of the Treasury directs 
 where the deposit of public moneys derived from the Internal 
 Revenue must be made. In 1876 the Collection Districts were 
 reduced bylaw to 131. 
 
 There is usually one, or more, Collectors of Internal Revenue 
 in the larger Ports where exports are made. In some of these a 
 special officer is appointed to take charge of exportations of ar- 
 ticles subject to tax under the Internal Revenue and Drawback 
 laws. Where none is specially appointed, one of the Collectors 
 is so designated by the Secretary. Drawback is the repayment, 
 or return by the Government, of duties on imports which are 
 afterwards exported and not consumed in the United States. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE UNITED STATES MINT. 
 
 The Articles of Confederation gave to Congress the power to 
 regulate the value of coin, but did not take from the States the 
 right to establish mints if they saw tit. The Constitution ex- 
 pressly conferred the power to coin money on the United States 
 Government and prohibited it to the States. ISTo mint was 
 established, however, until 1793, under the authority of the 
 second Congress. In 1873 a Bureau of the Mint was established 
 in the Treasury Department. The officer placed at the head of 
 it, called the Director of the Mint, became a subordinate of the 
 Secretary of the Treasury. The Director is appointed by the 
 President and Senate for five years. The President may remove 
 him if he sees reason to do so; but must communicate those rea- 
 sons to the Senate. The Director superintends all the Mints and 
 Assay Offices in the United States. 
 
 By the common consent of the civilized world gold and silver 
 have been selected as the materials to be chiefly used as money. 
 The great increase of trade interchanges in modern times made 
 it inconvenient and hazardous to actually use these heavy ma- 
 terip^s in all transactions. Banks, or Treasuries were established, 
 wh -re these metals were deposited and Bills of Credit issued by 
 or e, would be paid by another, often in a foreign country. This 
 system gradually developed into the Currency, or paper money, 
 of our day. Thus the precious metals represent values, and 
 Bank Notes, Bills, Checks, and Drafts issued by responsible par- 
 ties represent gold and silver. The theory originally was, and 
 perhaps may be said still to be, formally, that for every dollar or 
 other sum in paper there should be. at a designated place, the 
 equivalent value in gold or silver. Financiers in general have 
 usually considered this the only system of currency that is al- 
 ways reliable and safe. 
 
 (294) 
 
DIVERSE THEORIES REGARDING " FIAT " MONEY. 395 
 
 Some other considerations and facts, however, have led to 
 views and practices differing greatly from this theory of money. 
 The "specie" currency of the world has not been able to main- 
 tain its ancient relations to the value and movement of property 
 exchanges. The property created annually by human industries, 
 using the forces of nature, amounts to many thousands of mil- 
 lions of dollars in value. A fair proportion of this is more or less 
 enduring and adds to the permanent capital of the world. Gold 
 and silver increase much more slowly in proportion, and the sup- 
 port of Credit has been brought to the aid of paper money to 
 supply the deficiency. Governments, corporations and individ- 
 uals employ their credit as a kind of reserve fund in most of their 
 operations. The whole sum of paper money in circulation ex- 
 ceeds many times the whole amount of gold and silver which it 
 is supposed to represent. It is seldom that a great and wealthy 
 nation possesses a reserve fund in specie equal in value to more 
 than one-third of its issue of paper money. Observing this, 
 many have believed that the time had come to make a radical 
 change in the theory and practice of finance by abandoning the 
 use of metallic money. They have believed that '"fiat" money 
 — paper declared money by law — was better, and the only true 
 system. 
 
 This view partly prevented the retirement of Government De- 
 mand Notes, or "Greenbacks," after the Civil War, It was 
 thought that many inconveniences would be avoided by making 
 certain kinds of printed paper, authorized by law and issued by 
 the Government, the direct representatives of value, without in- 
 terposing the precious metals as a foundation or ballast. This, 
 however, was not accepted by the mass of the people, or by the 
 Government. If it could have been successfully worked at 
 home, being contrary to the system of the rest of the world, with 
 which the American people do an immense business, constantly 
 increasing in amount, it would greatly embarrass commerce and 
 foreign trade. It was also believed that the system could not be 
 kept steady; that there would be frequent changes in value of 
 "fiat" money, to the great disturbance of business; therefore, 
 after long and earnest discussion, the Government took mea- 
 sures to accumulate specie in the Treasury enough to constitute 
 what is termed "Resumption," or a return to specie payment for 
 all its Demand Notes, when it should be desired. 
 
 This was really true only in an accommodated, or partial, 
 
296 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 sense; but when the Government showed that it could pay more 
 than were likely to be presented at any one time and might be 
 able to collect all it needed for that purpose if it chose, very few 
 wanted the specie and the Demand ISTotes were generally pre- 
 ferred. Still it was necessary to hold a large fund of gold and 
 silver on hand in the Treasury to keep up the assurance that it 
 could be had instead of the paper Demand Notes if the call 
 should arise, and Banks kept a reserve for the same purpose to 
 "ballast" their own issues of Bills. It seems evident that it will 
 long be impossible to change this system. If there is really 
 some other that is better, as some believe, the world of business 
 does not yet perceive it, and is not willing to abandon a well 
 known system to make trial of a new and more or less uncertain 
 one. Besides, the interchanges of values between nations are 
 becoming greater and their property interests more closely re- 
 lated every year, and when a change of system is made it must 
 be under the sanction of the Law of Nations, or by the common 
 agreement of several leading Governments. 
 
 The growth of business, under these circumstances, makes the 
 Mint of more importance every year. Rulers and Governments 
 have been used to coin the specie that circulated as money 
 among their people from a very early period of history. The 
 Thirteen Colonies chiefly used the coin of England. The United 
 States did not establish a Mint until 1793. and but little more 
 than §450,000 was coined from that time to the close of 1795. 
 From that year until 1807 the coinage hardly averaged five 
 hundred thousand dollars a year. It did not after that, average 
 over a million annually until 1826. For the next fourteen years 
 the annual average fell below four millions. Then it averaged 
 over eight million yearly to the close of 1850. In the next twenty- 
 five years it rose above fifty millions in only three years, and 
 amounted, much of the time, to between twenty and thirty mill- 
 ions. In the five years from 1876 to 1880, inclusive, the average 
 was over seventy-two millions, and in the latter year was the 
 largest of all. being 884.370,000. These figures hint at the real 
 and permanent growth of the country during almost ninety 
 
 years. 
 
 Before 1852 most of the work of assaying, refining and coining 
 was done in Philadelphia, though there were several other Mints 
 that were established by law after 1835 and did something. There 
 are now five Mints— at Philadelphia, San Francisco, Denver, Car- 
 
COINS STRUCK AT THE MINTS. 
 
 297 
 
 son and New Orleans. Much the larger part of all the coining 
 has been done at Philadelphia although San Francisco begins, 
 in recent years, to do much. There are four Assay Offices — at 
 New York, Boise, Helena and Denver, New York doing much the 
 largest part. 
 
 The following is a table of coins and their weight and alloy as 
 now made at the mint. 
 
 Gold— 
 Double Eiigles.. . 
 
 Eagles 
 
 Hall Eagles 
 
 Three Dollars 
 
 Quarter Eagles. . 
 Dollars 
 
 Silver— 
 
 Trade Dollars 
 
 Hall Dollars .... 
 Quarter Dollars. 
 
 Twenty Cents 
 
 Dimes 
 
 Nickel— 
 
 Five Cent 
 
 Three Cent 
 
 Bronze— 
 One Cent 
 
 Weight of 
 SinglePieces 
 
 Fineness. 
 
 Grains. 
 
 516 
 
 258 
 129 
 
 77.4 
 64.5 
 
 25.8 
 
 420 
 
 192 
 96.45 
 77.16 
 38.58 
 
 87.16 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 900 
 900 
 900 
 900 
 900 
 900 
 
 900 
 909 
 900 
 900 
 900 
 
 Proportionate Alloy. 
 
 900 parts gold, 100 parts copper 
 
 900 " 100 
 
 900 " 100 
 
 900 " 100 " 
 
 900 " 100 " 
 
 900 " 100 " 
 
 900 parts silver,100 parts copper 
 
 900 " 100 
 
 900 " 100 " 
 
 900 " 100 
 
 900 " 100 
 
 25 parts nick'l, 75 parts copper 
 25 " 75 
 
 95 p'ts copper, 5 tin and zinc 
 
 Deviation in 
 
 W'gt allowed 
 
 by Law. 
 
 G rains. 
 
 >6 
 Vi 
 !4 
 J4 
 
 1/2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 No double eagles were coined until 1850; no eagles from 1805 to 
 1837 inclusive of both years; no half eagles in 1816 nor 1819; no 
 three-dollar gold pieces until 1854; no quarter eagles until 1796, 
 nor in 1800, 1801, from 1809 to 1820, in 1822, 1823, nor in ]828; no 
 gold dollars till 1848; no silver dollars after 1805 until 1836, and 
 none in 1838, 1858, nor between the years 1873 and 1878, except 
 Trade Dollars, which were coined from 1874 to 1878 inclusive. 
 No half dollars were coined from the close of 1796 to 1801 nor in 
 1815; no quarters till 1796, none from 1797 to 1803, none after 
 1807 till 1815, none in 1817, 1824, 1826, 1829 and 1830; twenty-cent 
 pieces only in the four years from 1875 to 1878 inclusive; no dimes 
 before 1796, none in 1799, 1806, 1808, 1812 and 1813, nor from 1815 
 to 1820 inclusive, in 1824 nor 1826; no half dimes in 1788 nor 1799, 
 1804, after 1805 to 1829 nor after 1873 to 1881; three cents (silver) 
 only from 1851 to end of 1874, except 1857. Cent pieces (copper) 
 have been coined every year except 1814 and 1823; no five cents 
 (nickel) before 1866; no three cents (nickel) until 1865 nor in 
 1877; no two cents till 1S64 nor after 1872. Half cents were not 
 struck in 1798, in 1802, after 1811 till 1825; none in 1827 1830, 1833, 
 after 1836 to 1849, none in 1852 nor after 1857. The total coinage 
 of the United States Mints to July 1, 1880 was $1,438,719,925.95. 
 
298 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Persons taking bullion (metal bars) to the mint for coining- 
 may determine what kind of coins it shall be made into if they 
 wait for them to be made from the same bullion they bring; but if 
 they take coin in exchange at once they must receive such as the 
 law directs shall be made from Government metal. Foreign 
 coin imported is usually taken to the mint raelted and recoined. 
 Each mint has a local Superintendent, an Assayer and melter 
 and as m.any assistants and operatives as the work requires. 
 
CHAPTEE XII. 
 
 THE FINANCES AND PUBLIC DEBT. 
 
 Systems of national Finance have been well understood and 
 thoroughly organized only in the most modern times. The 
 regulation of money, the mode of raising a revenue and the use 
 of suitable guards against its improper use have always been 
 subjects of great interest to rulers and statesmen; but errors and 
 false principles were not so easily seen, nor so deeply injurious, 
 while nations were comparatively small and had but little inter- 
 course with one another. As commerce grew and population 
 and wealth increased, the expenses of government became 
 enormous. Greater activity brought more frequent collisions of 
 interest and ambition, wars became more costly, the old ruling 
 classes became more luxurious and exacted still larger incomes 
 from the laboring and trading classes. These demands grew 
 faster than the general wealth, errors and abuses wasted larger 
 sums and produced much more misery and disorder — often 
 driving the people, whose markets and incomes were disturbed 
 by growing competition in many directions, to desperation. 
 
 These troubles have been comparatively unknown in America. 
 The great and various undeveloped resources of the United 
 States offered many alternatives to activity; some of its most 
 abundant products found little or no competition in the markets 
 of the world; its soil and climate were so various, its extent so 
 great, and its natural highways of intercommunication so well 
 arranged that it became almost a world in itself. It was not the 
 least of the advantages of the Anglo-Americans that they had 
 all the lessons of European experience before them to point out 
 the errors to be avoided, and its long disciplined intelligence to 
 suggest the best methods. They had come to America partly to 
 secure industrial, partly to enjoy political and religious freedom, 
 and these two aims remodeled both their social habits and men- 
 tal life. Aversion to an aristocratic class and to business monop- 
 
 (299) 
 
300 ■ THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 oh' by individuals was invigorated by the contests of colonial 
 Legislatures and magistrates vrith British officials, who insisted 
 on the favoritism toward their class, and the oppressive methods, 
 to which they were accustomed in Europe. The unconscious ar- 
 rogance and assumption of superiority of inferior men deeply 
 offended the self-reliant colonists, who had learned their own ca- 
 pacity and worth by successful enterprise and believed they 
 had a just claim to respect. They revolted from conventional 
 usages founded on accident, and that disregarded the real facts, 
 and had a growing disinclination to acknowledge any claims to 
 distinction and respect but those founded on ability and charac- 
 ter. 
 
 All these influences and various others led them, when they 
 were able to control and remodel their institutions, to forbid the 
 establishment of a native nobility among them, and to insist on 
 frugality in public expenditure and small salaries to officials. 
 These were very fortunate precedents to lay at the foundation 
 of national institutions and habits. With these simple and econ- 
 omical principles the national finances Avere very easily man- 
 aged, very few burdens were laid on the enterprises and incomes 
 of the individual citizens and the great abundance of resources 
 to be developed by their activities very soon made the nation 
 wealthy. At the end of a century this nation had, probably, a 
 larger amount of realized wealth than any other in the civilized 
 world, although some forms of it were estimated at a lower rate 
 because of the extreme readiness Avith which they could flood 
 the markets of the world. Their fertile lands were held at an 
 almost nominal price, and would not repay high culture, they 
 were so frtiitful and abundant. Many other kinds of prop- 
 erty, rated high in Europe because limited in amount and near 
 the best markets, were rated low in America because so very 
 productive of values without adequate markets. Indeed, the 
 gTeatest financial difficulties of the Xew Xation arose from the 
 tendency to over-supply in all its sources of wealth. The foun- 
 tains flowed in such extreme abundance as to flood available 
 markets and almost annihilate profitable prices. 
 
 Money and credit are the instruments of business. If these 
 Instruments are imperfect and unreliable, business must lan- 
 guish. Property loses value in proportion to the difiiculty of 
 making it available at the time and place where it can be most 
 useful, and enterprise is embarrassed if not rendered impossible. 
 
THE RELATION OF FINANCE TO THE GOVERNMENT. 301 
 
 It is, therefore, the business of Government to surround money 
 with the sanctions and guards of law. That which the world in 
 all times has, by general consent, invested with the attribute of 
 money has proved too rare and too burdensome to answer all 
 the needs of modern times, and has come to be used as the base 
 or security for something that represents it, in all larger trans- 
 actions. Paper representatives of gold and silver fell under 
 Government control,' depending, as they must, on the credit 
 accorded to the good faith and ability of those issuing it. Large 
 Government transactions, undertaken, often, in consequence of 
 unforeseen emergencies, have frequently involved a dangerous 
 use of this control over money and the credit of the country. Much 
 wisdom and self-control were required to be learned before 
 statesmen and legislators could become competent financiers. 
 
 The credit of a country or of an institution cannot be sustained 
 without a solid basis of wealth, but they may be very wealthy 
 without possessing any high degree of credit. It must be proven 
 that they are disposed to do all they have agreed, that a promise 
 given is fairly equivalent to a fulfillment, that no change of cir- 
 cumstances will produce any change of disposition, and that 
 a prearranged course of action will be undeviatingly pursued, in 
 order that the greatest measure of resources can become the 
 real basis of credit. The Credit System has continued to enter 
 more and more largely into the business of modern times, as its 
 compass became greater, and governments have come to be 
 more and more responsible for the maintenence of the credit of 
 the representatives of money employed by the people. At the close 
 of the Revolutionary War it was found that if the Public Credit 
 was not sustained the country must fall into a worse state than 
 before, and the Constitution was specially formed to confer the 
 control of the general finances on the Central Government. 
 
 The statesmen who organized this Government and established 
 the principles and methods of National Finance since followed 
 were wise, farseeing, and thoroughly American in spirit. They 
 had a large debt to provide for, the people were in want of many 
 things that could not be furnished in the country, for they had 
 few manufactures and money that was current in other countries 
 flowed away in a steady stream, to pay for imports. The Eng- 
 lish Government and people had, a hundred years before, learned 
 how to manage a public debt so" that it might be of some advan- 
 tage, and not purely a disastrous burden. They did not attempt 
 
302 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 to par it at once, but '■'funded" it; that is, they issued bonds, or 
 other evidences of it, Tvhich were to draw interest, assigned rev- 
 enues to pay the interest regurlarly. and the public faith was 
 pledged by the Government never to repudiate these debts. The 
 evidences of this debt could be used as investments and an in- 
 come be derived from them. They might be transferred and 
 money paid for them was entirely secure, giving a stated income 
 and being salable at need. It became a kind of national Bank. 
 where money could find the utmost security. The various con- 
 ditions attached to these national bonds, as the amount of inter- 
 est and the time set for fijial payment, if any was arranged for, 
 gave the name to the different classes of funds. 
 
 The various wars of England, after this time, were fought 
 chieflv in the interest of its foreign and colonial commerce and 
 trade, to the promotion of which it gave ever increasing care. , 
 The cost of these wars it met by loans which were, from time to 
 time, funded. At the commencement of the American Eevolu- 
 tionthat debt was about 8640,000,000. That war cost six hund- 
 red millions more, and the wars with France and the United 
 States, between 1793 and ISlo. added three thousand millions to 
 these. About fifty millions had been paid between 1T83 and 
 1793. ivot far from 8300,000.000 were paid between 1817 and 1879. 
 In 1879 the whole debt of England amounted to a little over 
 63.990.000.000, which a recent law had provided should gradually 
 he reduced by the annual payment of 8140.000,000. Since 1815 
 the average annual interest has been not far from 8150,000,000. 
 besides all the other great expenses of a monarchical government, 
 averaging quite as much more, and in recent years exceeding it 
 "by more than one hundred million dollars. Yet the financial 
 management of English statesmen was so prudent, and the very 
 debt itself was so made use of as a kind of capital for business, 
 that the country prospered and gTew exceedingly rich, as if it 
 were not carrying an immense burden imder which it might 
 have been expected to stagger and fall. 
 
 Anglo-Americans inherited much of the wisdom by which 
 English Statesmen managed to create resources even out of dif- 
 ficulties and dangers. They funded the debt entailed by the 
 War of Independence, then about 875.000.000. but set apart cer- 
 tain revenues for paying it off in a moderate time. The prepar- 
 ations for war with France in 1707 and later, the purchase of 
 Louisiana in 1803. and the war with England closing in 1815. 
 
A SUPREME TEST OF FINANCIAL ABILITY. 303 
 
 added to it from time to time. It was reduced to $45,000,000 in 
 1812, but rose after the war to $137,000,000. In 1835 it was prac- 
 tically extinguished, and a large balance in the Treasury divided 
 between the State Governments. Great difficulties, springing 
 from a financial crisis, soon after led to borrowing money, and 
 temporary debts, the war with Mexico, the purchase of large 
 areas of her territory, and expenditures for internal improve- 
 ments, kept a debt varying from thirty to seventy millions until 
 1861. The Civil War, carried it up in four years to more than 
 two thousand seven hundred millions — nearly two-thirds that 
 of England, accumulated by her numerous wars during two 
 centuries. 
 
 The policy of paying debts rapidly had not set the enginery 
 of public credit in operation in the United States that had 
 so long existed in England, a vast Army and Navy must be 
 suddenly created and effectively sustained, while both the re- 
 sources and credit of the Government were damaged by internal 
 disturbances and a threatening and uncertain future. The Gen- 
 eral Government had given its support to a Bank of the United 
 States during most of the period from 1790 to 1830, when opposi- 
 tion to that policy interfered, and the closing of that institution, 
 which continued a few years longer under a State charter, in dis- 
 honor gave the whole control of Banking to the various State 
 Governments. The frequent want of effective securities and of 
 the steadying force of a central authority led to many undesira- 
 ble financial results, and great loss to business between distant 
 parts of the country through Bank failures, and the Banking 
 System the Government needed in its hour of peril and stress of 
 effort in 1861-2 had yet to be created. The country and its cash 
 capital had to learn to trust the Government with the lead in 
 Finance, and American statesmen were required to show them- 
 selves worthy of the trust. 
 
 The result was extremely honorable to the financial ability of 
 American statesmen. Like English financiers, they converted 
 weakness into an element of strength, and that with a sudden- 
 ness and completeness without a parallel, even in English 
 financial history. The issue of the Bonds of the Government to 
 procure money to carry on the war was made use of to give 
 security to the circulation of Banks, and both furnish the Gov- 
 ernment with funds and protect the people against loss from 
 Bank failures. Bonds were sold as funds were needed, and pro- 
 
304 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 vision made for the payment of interest. The issues of Govern- 
 ment securities were from time to time consolidated, and in a 
 few years refunded at more favorable rates of interest. 
 
 In one point, this financial system was not wholly successful 
 for many years. The espouses of the Government were so 
 enormous, and required to be so instantly met, that the sale of 
 its Bonds did not keep pace with its necessities. It shrunk from 
 imposing an amount of taxation sufficient to furnish the balance 
 and issued money of its own creation, or Demand Notes, nomi- 
 nally payable at call, but really not redeemable at any specified 
 time and bearing no interest. Their circulation as money was 
 obtained by making them " Legal Tender;" that is, their accept- 
 ance when offered in payment of a debt was obligatory. If 
 refused, the debt could not be collected in other kinds of money. 
 
 It was about sixteen years before provision was made for the 
 redemption of these United States notes — popularly called 
 '"Greenbacks," from the predominance of that color on the back 
 of the note. They were in ruany ways, a convenient resource. 
 They bridged over a gap between the expenses and resources of 
 the Government during the stress of war, and furnished a 
 medium through which to carry on •'funding operations" — or the 
 exchange of temporary for permanent loans — and they aided in 
 the establishment of the National Banking System. But the 
 resort to such a substitute for recognized money was contrary to 
 the principles of Finance, as commonly understood, and was 
 justified by those who made it lawful money by enactment only 
 on the ground of national necessity and as a war measure. It 
 was not regarded as honorable for a nation to make promises 
 w^hich it could not meet. It was called "irredeemable paper 
 money," was discreditable to the country and injurious to busi- 
 ness. As they did not require interest to be paid on them these 
 notes seemed a cheap kind of money which could be obtained by 
 merely printing it. It was practically sure of being issued in 
 such quantities as to injure its credit and to rise and fall more 
 than other representatives of real money with the military rever- 
 ses and successes of the Government and with the political 
 probabilities of the future. It was considered to indicate a dis- 
 position in the Government and the law to repudiate a just debt, 
 since it was uncertain whether, or when, funds recognized as 
 money by the rest of the world would be provided to redeem it. 
 
 These views and influences soon discredited it, to some extent. 
 
 I 
 
THE "GREENBACK" CURRENCY AND RESUMPTION. 305 
 
 an^i continued to do so until such provision for changing it into 
 acknowledged money was made. It was of uncertain value, and 
 caused many to lose and others to gain unjustly, and therefore 
 disturbed business. A part of it was withdrawn when the Na- 
 tio3ial Banking System was established, and its amount limited 
 by law to a designated sum, so that bounds were set to the in- 
 jui ious results. Some thought that it should all have been with- 
 drr.wn at that time; but the harm had been done and it seemed 
 that a sudden change would double the wrong by making all the 
 holders of it losers at once. Besides, its convenience was great, 
 and a part of the people conceived a high regard for it and 
 wir hed to make it a permanent currency, at least until the larger 
 part of the debt should be paid. 
 
 The inclination of the country to leave it a part of the debt, be- 
 cause it required no interest, and the fear of disturbing business 
 by "contracting," or reducing the kinds of money with which 
 bu£:\ness was done, prevailed with the financiers, and it contin- 
 ued after the war to form part of the money-system of the coun- 
 try. The precedents of earlier times of providing at once for the 
 full payment of the debt in the shortest reasonable time contin- 
 ued to prevail, and in a few years several hundred million dollars 
 were paid. The credit of the Government, in all respects but 
 that which regarded this Government Money, was maintained 
 at a high point during the war and after it. Business had been 
 prosperous in parts of the country not affected by actual military 
 operations. It was expected that when the extraordinary pay- 
 ments caused by war expenses should cease that a powerful re- 
 vulsion, or financial crisis, would occur. Such had previously 
 been the experience in this country and in Great Britain at the 
 close of a war. That, however, did not occur for eight years. 
 
 It was not considered wise for the Government to undertake 
 to resimie specie payment — that is to provide means to pay its 
 Demand Notes in gold whenever it should be asked. Financiers 
 believed it would disturb business and be a great and unneces- 
 sary expense to purchase the gold requisite to put in the Treas- 
 ury for this purpose. Years of prosperity and great industrial 
 development passed away. The idea that Government Money 
 had saved the country from the usual effect of the business dis- 
 turbance and profuse expenditures of a time of war, and that 
 this was the cheapest and best money, gained ground and seemed 
 likely to become a principle of American Finance. When, in 
 20 
 
306 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 1873, the expected financial reverse came this subject became 
 a pohtical question and was eagerly discussed, but a law was at 
 length passed to resume payment of all Government Xotes in 
 gold at a specified time. Business remained depressed till this 
 time arrived. These notes then became equally as valuable as 
 gold, and, being more convenient, they Avere not presented for 
 payment but continued to circulate. 
 
 The financial management of American statesmen may be 
 considered wise and highly successful, save in the one particular 
 of not making provision, at the earliest possible moment, for the 
 fulfillment of its promises to pay its '"Demand Notes*' in gold 
 when desired. That might have been done by suitable effort 
 not long after their issue. The credit of the Government seemed 
 equal to anything it might attempt immmediately after the 
 crisis that caused the issue of this irredeemable paper money 
 was past. Had that been done much evil would probably have 
 been avoided, and no, even temporary, reproach would have 
 rested on American Finance, while all the advantages actually 
 realized from the '"Greenback Currency" would probably have 
 still been realized. 
 
 No infallible accuracy can, therefore, be claimed for American 
 financiers. It is much easier to be wise after an event that 
 necessitated instant action than at the moment of decision. Then 
 the consequences that must follow different measures can be 
 only partially foreseen: yet, a deviation from the path of the 
 strictest national honor longer, at least, than the law of self- 
 preservation absolutely required, may be considered as a posi- 
 tive wrong. It was a stain on national credit as impolitic as it 
 was unnecessary. Yet the men, the communities, and nations 
 most eminent for general wisdom and uprightness have never 
 failed to fall into more or less weakness and error in detail. No 
 statesman, for instance, did more than Jefferson to give cur- 
 rency and ruhng force to doctrines of popular freedom and re- 
 publican economy and simplicity through the years from 1776 
 to 1810, during which the principles and methods that have since 
 secured the hearty approval of mankind were established. Yet 
 he opposed some of the wisest measures of the earliest adminis- 
 trations with almost seditious violence and persistence. When 
 acting as President himself, he revised his views and on various 
 occasions adopted the policy he had so bitterly opposed. Wise 
 and enlightened in general, he enjoyed the merited and endur- 
 
ERROR AND FAILURE TEMPORARY, SUCCESS PERMANENT. 307 
 
 ing respect of his countrymen and the world, though he was 
 capable of serious mistakes. 
 
 It had been the principle of the Government to leave general 
 finance to the control of the States and the people as far as pos- 
 sible. The necessity of contracting a vast debt obliged it to re- 
 organize and consolidate the money system of the country sud- 
 denly and completely. The proper period for providing for the 
 redemption of Demand Notes passed without action and became 
 a doubtful question of popular finance and politics which it was 
 not deemed safe to disturb. It appears a serious error; but it was 
 finally corrected and the honor and credit of the Government 
 fully recovered. In other respects the management of the 
 finances proved an unexampled success, as honorable to the 
 Statesmen as it was beneficial to the welfare of the people and 
 the prosperity of the country. The Funding System and the 
 National Banking System were originated during the war and 
 carried out afterward with the most gratifying results, as will be 
 apparent by an examination of the management of the Public 
 Debt. The form it took when first contracted, the process by 
 which the temporary securities were funded for long periods, 
 and the process of refunding, are explained in the following 
 chapter as fully as is necessary to show the condition of the 
 financial questions involved and the remarkable financial suc- 
 cess which sheds lustre on the country. 
 
OHAPTEE XIII. 
 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT. 
 
 From the first institution of the Government when, from separ- 
 ate colonies, the political divisions of Anglo- America became a 
 Confederated Union of States, there has been no time in which 
 there was not, at least a nominal, debt. At one period the money 
 in the Treasury far exceeded the debt, but the few thousands (about 
 $37,000) unpaid were not called for by those to whom is was due. 
 More than $28,000,000 then lying useless in the Treasury was 
 divided among the States, because it was not deemed best to 
 reduce the tariff of duties, and it was believed that the future 
 revenue would more than meet all demands on it. This proved 
 a mistake. A sudden storm of financial disaster, seeming to 
 burst from a serene sky, prostrated business the following year 
 (1837), reduced the revenue below the wants of the Government 
 by nearly three millions, and obliged it to resort to loans. A 
 low tariff, a war, two periods of financial depression, and the 
 purchase of territory from Mexico, kept the debt varying 
 between three and a half and sixty-eight millions for the next 
 twenty-three years. In the last of these years (1860) the debt 
 was a little over $64,840,000. 
 
 This statement was made June 30, 1860. and, before the same 
 day of the next year came around, the great civil contest had 
 been raging nearly three months, and the Debt had increased to 
 $90,580,000. Congress was about to meet and soon authorized an 
 Army of 500,000 men and a proportionate Navy. The Debt, to 
 this time, had exceeded a hundred millions only during three 
 years, 1816, 1817 and 1818, in the first rising to $127,300,000 and 
 sinking in the last to $103,400,000. The vast operations carried 
 on from April 1861 to the conclusion of the war in 1865. caused 
 the principal alone of the debt to stand, August 1, 1865, at two 
 thousand seven hundred and fifty-six millions. By Nov. 1. 
 1880, this was reduced to one thousand eight hundred ninetv 
 
 ^308) 
 
 I 
 
STATISTICS OF THE PUBLIC DEBT, 309 
 
 millions ($1,890,025,740) a difference of $866,405,830. Before 
 18G2 the interest on the Public Debt had never risen much above 
 five million dollars in one year and it had averaged little more 
 than three millions annually since 1791, an aggregate of about 
 $210,000,000 in seventy years. From 1862 to 1866, inclusive, the 
 interest paid was about $292,000,000, or five hundred and two 
 millions from the foundation of the Government to 1866, during 
 its seventy-five years under the Constitution. During the fol- 
 lowing fourteen years, or until July 1, 1880, the Treasury paid 
 $1,604,000,000 in interest besides the (nearly) nine hundred mil- 
 lions of principal. Thus nearly twice as much had been paid in 
 interest during the fourteen years as on the principal. But these 
 payments, and the Refunding at lower rates, ,had reduced the 
 annual interest from $143,000,000^ the highest point, which was 
 reached in 1867, to $95,000,000 in 1880, and further funding and 
 annual payments were expected soon to reduce it below seventy 
 millions annually. 
 
 Thus was the great financial work entailed by the war laid 
 out by American financiers and accomplished, amid great diffi- 
 culties, by the people and the Treasury, In 1862 Congress had 
 proposed a sinking fund for the general payment of the Public 
 Debt, but the pressure of the war and the necessity of funding 
 the temporary debt had caused its provisions to be unexecuted 
 until 1869, although the surplus revenue each year after the close 
 of the war had been employed to buy in the debt, and about 
 $160,000,000 of the principal had been paid, besides the annual 
 interest, which had averaged nearly $140,000,000 after 1865. 
 Although the highest point reached by the principal was $2,756,- 
 000,000, August 1. 1865, the accumulation of interest and exhaus- 
 tion of Treasury funds in payment of current obligations not 
 standing as part of that principal had given a temporary balance 
 against the Treasury July 1, 1866, of $2,773,000,000. 
 
 The Sinking Fund, so called, was to be one per cent of the 
 principal of the debt for any year with the interest on all the 
 sums previously redeemed by that fund, the Bonds or Liabilities 
 being destroyed after redemption. This, therefore, would make 
 the payments of interest and principal together uniformly about 
 $130,684,000 and one per cent of the debt for any year thereafter 
 until the debt was paid. Between 1870 and 1880 this sinking 
 fund as actually applied, varied between a little over $28,000,000 
 and nearly $40,000,000 for the latter year. From that time, du- 
 
310 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ring the following ten years, it was expected to vary between 
 $41,500,000 for 1881, and $61,700,000 for the year 1891, or a total 
 payment of $520,904,707 of the principal of the debt in that 
 ten years. Although the one per cent of the debt contin- 
 ually diminished, the sum calculated on all the amounts 
 annually paid increased rapidly, and if the conditions of this 
 fund were fully observed would soon extinguish the debt 
 completely. 
 
 The financial panic of 1873, the long depression of business 
 that followed it, and the preparations for resumption of specie 
 payments by redeeming the Demand Notes of the Government 
 in coin whenever desired, made it impossible to meet all the re- 
 quirements of the law as to this fund from 1871 to 1880. The 
 balance due on the fund June 30, 1880 was $51,341,000. It 
 was expected, however, that this would be paid up by the excess 
 of revenue in the following year, when nea.rly one thousand 
 million dollars of the debt would have been paid. That full sum 
 of payment was expected to be reached in about seventeen years 
 from the close of the war, or twenty one years from the time the 
 debt began to accumulate. The next twenty years might easily 
 extinguish it entirely, if the people were so inclined, and that 
 being the traditional policy of the country it was looked forward 
 to almost as a certainty. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War and the period of financial 
 helplessness on the part of the General Government that fol- 
 lowed it, that Government preserved the finances from falling into 
 utter ruin by loans obtained from Europe — at first from France, 
 combined with it after 1778 in war on England, a small loan in 
 Spain, soon, also, at war with England, but, after 1782, wholly 
 made in Holland. The entire amount of these foreign loans 
 wa3 $19,526,517. The loans were temporary, generally for a 
 period of ten years at least, the later ones contracted principally 
 to pay the interest on, or pay off. the earlier loans. About $11,- 
 710,000 was due when the First Congress passed from measures 
 of organization to the consideration of the finances. About 
 $10,000,000 were temporarily loaned, at various times in the fol- 
 lowing four years, to pay interest and convert the principal into 
 forms convenient to pay in small installments from the excess of 
 the small annual revenue. Under Secretary Hamilton's advice 
 Congress chartered and took stock in a Bank of the United 
 States. A loan was made, payable in fifteen years, for the 
 
 J 
 
CHARACTER AND TITLES OF GOVERNMENT BONDS. oil 
 
 settlement of the foreign debt, and certificates were issued to 
 represent the domestic debt paying various interest — usually 
 six per cent. The establishment of the Bank furnished a re- 
 source for temporary loans to enable the Treasury to meet its 
 obligations when there should be a momentary deficit of re- 
 sources in the Treasury. It became usual, soon after, to issue 
 Treasury Notes bearing interest, payable after a few years or at 
 the pleasure of the Government. 
 
 For seventy years this system prevailed, the debt being always 
 considered as only temporary and to be paid as rapidly as con- 
 venience and the interests of the business of the country would 
 permit. Government Bonds are more formal documents than 
 Treasury Notes, stipulating exact conditions, not designed for 
 circulation as money but sold to parties choosing to invest in 
 them, or exchanged for other obligations. The credit and 
 resources of the Government are strictly pledged to meet 
 all the conditions of interest, and payment of principal, at 
 the time arranged. This system was commenced in 18G1 as a 
 mode of permanently arranging for the debt. Banks and other 
 financial associations usually acting as agents for the sale of the 
 Bonds, the money realized for them being conveyed into the 
 Treasury and paid out 'according to law. The obligations of the 
 Government bearing this name were mostly used for purposes of 
 funding floating, temporary or short time,, obligations of such 
 various titles and forms as the circumstances and convenience 
 of the moment of their issue suggested. The character of these 
 temporary loans was affected by uncertainty as to the duration 
 of the war and the sums that would be required at any particu- 
 lar time, by the varying condition of the public credit and the 
 money market, and "by the prevailing financial views of Con- 
 gress at the time they were authorized. 
 
 The character and titles of these temporary issues, the dates 
 of authorization and amount of issues, was as follows: 
 March 2, 18G1, Treasury notes, payable in 2 years, 
 
 interest 6 per cent $ 35,364,450 
 
 March 2, 1861, Oregon War Debt, bonds payable in 
 
 20 years, interest 6 per cent 1,090,850 
 
 July 17, 1861, Old Demand Notes, payable on demand, 
 
 no interest 60,000,000 
 
 July 17, 1861, Treasury Notes, payable in 3 years, in- 
 terest 7 3-10 per cent 140,094,750 
 
313 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Feb. 25, 1862, and later, Legal Tender Demand Notes. 
 
 no interest 450,000,000 
 
 Feb. 25, 1862, Temporary Loan Deposits, payable after 
 
 10 days, interest 6 per cent 150,000,000 
 
 March 1, 1862, Certificates of Indebtedness, payable 
 
 in one year or less, interest 6 per cent 561,753,241 
 
 July 18, 1862, Fractional Currency (Postal and other 
 
 stamps), no interest 49,102,660 
 
 March 3, 1863, One Year Legal Tender Treasury 
 
 iN'otes, 6 per cent, interest 44,520,000 
 
 March 3, 1863, Two Year Legal Tender Treasury 
 
 Notes, 5 per cent, interest 166,480,000 
 
 March 3, 1863, Coin Certificates, for coin deposited in 
 
 the Treasury, payable on demand 57,883,400 
 
 March 3, 1863, Compound Interest Legal Tender 
 
 Treasury Notes, payable in 3 years, 6 per cent. 
 
 compound interest 266,595,440 
 
 June 30, 1864, and March 3, 1865, Treasury Notes, 
 
 payable in 3 years, 7 3-10 per cent, interest 830,000,000 
 
 March 3, 1867, Certificates of Deposit, payable on de- 
 mand, 3 per cent, interest 85,155,000 
 
 The sum of these floating, or short time debts was $2,898,039,- 
 791, exceeding the Public Debt at any one time, and very greatly 
 exceeding all of that Debt that was not, at any particular time, 
 permanently funded in United States Bonds. They did not ail 
 exist at the same time, some of them being soon funded in long- 
 time Bonds, some paid off by the Treasury, as the circumstances 
 and its resources made desirable, and some of the later ones 
 taking the place of the earlier. 
 
 The process of funding is indicated by the detail of the Bonds 
 issued prior to 1870. The refunding which took place after that 
 year is also described down to 1881. 
 
 UNITED STATES BONDS. 
 
 Sixes of 1861. — Dated 1861. and redeemable in twenty veal's from January 1st 
 and July 1st of that year. Interest six per cent, in gold, payable semi-annually — 
 January 1st and July 1st. Tliese Bonds were issued in three series: Under Act 
 Februaiy 8th. 1861. §18.415,000: dated variously in 1861. Under Acts July 17th 
 and August 5th. 1861, in exchange for 7-30"s. §139.317.150: dated November 16th, 
 1861. Under Act March 3d, 1863. and principal made especially payable in gold 
 coin, $75,000,000: dated June loth, 1864. Total issue. 8282,732,150. 
 
 FlVE-TwE>rTiES OF 1862. — Commonlv termed Old Five-Twenties, dated Mav 1st. 
 
ANALYSIS OF UNITED STATES BONDS. 313 
 
 1863. Redeemable after five years, and payable in twenty years from date. 
 Interest six ])er cent, in gold, payable the first of May and November. Issued 
 under Act February 25th, 1862, $514,771,600. 
 
 Five-Twenties of 1864.— Dated November 1st, 1864. Redeemable after five, 
 and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payable first of May 
 and November. Issued under Act June oOth, 1864, $125,561,300. 
 
 Five-Twenties of 1865. — Dated July Ist, 1865. Interest six per cent, in gold, 
 payable January and Jidy. They were redeemable in five years, and payable in 
 twenty years. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865 in exchange for 7-30 notes con- 
 verted, and amounted, Aug-ust 1st, 1868, to $332,998,950. 
 
 Five-Twenties of 1865. — Dated November 1st, 1865. Redeemable after five, 
 and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payable 1st of May 
 and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, $203,327,250. 
 
 Five-Twenties of 1867.— Dated July 1st, 1867. Redeemable in five, and paya- 
 ble in twenty years. Interest, six per cent, in gold, payaljle 1st of January and 
 July. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amounted 
 August 1st. 1868, to $379,618,000. 
 
 Five-Twenties of 1868.— Dated July 1st, 1868. Redeemable in five, and paya- 
 ble in twenty years. ., Interest, six per cent, in gold, paj'able 1st of January and 
 July. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30 notes, and amount, 
 August 1st, 1868, to $42,539,350. 
 
 Ten-Forties.— Dated March 1st, 1864. Redeemable in ten, and payable in 
 forty years. Interest, five per cent, in gold, payable on the 1st of March and 
 September on all Registered Bonds, and on all Coupon Bonds of the denomination 
 of $500 and $1,000. On the $50 and $100 Bonds, interest is paid annually, March 
 Lst Issued under Act March 3d, 1864; principal, payable in gold, $196,117,300. 
 
 Fives of 1870. — Redeemable at the pleasure of the United States, after May 1, 
 1881, in gold. Interest, five per cent, in gold, payable quarterly — February, May, 
 August, and November 1st. Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts of 
 July 14th, 1870, January 20th, 1871, December 14th, 1873, Januaiy 14th and March 
 3d. 1875. Amount, $517,994,750. 
 
 U. S. Pacific Railroad Currency Sixes.— Dated January 16th, 1865, and 
 variously thereafter. These Bonds were issued by the Government, under Acts 
 July 1st, 1862, and July 2d, 1864, to companies receiving their charter from Con- 
 gress, which gives them the right to construct railroads to and from the Pacific 
 Coast, and on the completion of each twenty miles of track, to receive at the rate 
 of $16,000, $22,000, or $48,000 per mile, according to the difficulty of constructing 
 the same. They are payable thirty years from date of issue, and are registered in 
 Bonds of $1,000. $5,000. and $10,000. Amount issued to September 1st, 1870, 
 $64,623,512. All of the Bonds issued "Coupon" or "Registered." Coupon Bonds 
 can be changed into Registered Bonds, but Registered Bonds cannot be cliauged 
 into Coupons. Coupon Bonds are in denominations of $50, $100. $500, and $1,000; 
 the Registered Bonds the same, with addition of $5,000 and $10,000. 
 
 Four and One-Half Per Cents of 1870. — Redeemable after September 1st, 
 1870. in gold. Interest, four and one-half per cent. Exempt from all taxation. 
 Issued under Acts of .July 14, 1870. and January 14, 1875. Amount, $240,000,000. 
 
 Four Per Cents of 1870. — Redeemable after September 1st, 1870, in gold. 
 Interest, four per cent. Exempt from all taxation. Issued under Acts July 14, 
 
3U 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 1870, and Januaiy 14th, 1876. Amount authorized, $1,000,000,000. Issued, $739,- 
 347,800. 
 
 These varioiis Bonds were issued for various pui'poses. Most of them were 
 made to take the place of Treasury Notes and other floating "debts of the Govern- 
 ment, to replace those Bonds or certificates of indebtedness of vai'ious kinds when 
 they feU due, or to re-invest that part of the Public Debt which might be paid at 
 the pleasure of the Goveitunent at a lower rate of interest. This last operation 
 is called "refunding." The total amount so I'efunded Augnist 1st, 1879,, wliich 
 completed all the refrmding practicable, according to law, imtil 1881, was 
 $l,Sy6,022,0G0; and the total interest beai-ing debt at that date was $1,797,643,700. 
 This was reduced over $100,000,000 dui-ing the following year- and all the re- 
 mainuig five and six per cent. Bonds not paid dm-ing the year, or resei^ved for 
 speedy payment from the smi^lus revenue, were continued, at the pleasiu'e of the 
 Government, at three and one-half per cent, by the acceptance of the holdere of 
 that i^roposition when made in 1881 by the Secretaiy of the Treasury. Though 
 not f oiTQaUy a refunding, no law to that effect having been passed, the result 
 was the reduction of annual interest by about $7,000,000. 
 
 THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 In Each Year. From 1796 to 1876. 
 
 1791.. 
 
 . . .75,463,476.52 
 
 1823... 
 
 . . .90,875,877.28 
 
 1855. . 
 
 . . .39,969,731.05 
 
 1792. . 
 
 ...77,227,924.66 
 
 1824. . . 
 
 ...90,269,777.77 
 
 1856. . 
 
 . . .30,963.909.64 
 
 1798 
 
 . 80 852 634 04 
 
 1825 
 
 .83 788 432.71 
 
 1857 . 
 
 . . .29,060,386.90 
 
 1794 
 
 ...78,427,404.77 
 . . .80,747,587.38 
 
 1826 
 
 . 81,054 059.99 
 
 1858. . 
 
 . . .44,910,777 66 
 
 1795. . 
 
 1827... 
 
 . . .73,987,357.20 
 
 1859.. 
 
 ...57,754.699.33 
 
 1796 
 
 . .88,762,172.07 
 
 1828. . . 
 
 . . .67,475,043. B7 
 
 1860. . 
 
 . . .64,769,703.08 
 
 1897 
 
 80 064 479 83 
 
 1829 
 
 .58 421.413.67 
 
 1861.. 
 
 . . .90,867,828.68 
 
 1798.. 
 
 ...79,228,529.12 
 
 1830... 
 
 . . .48,565,406.50 
 
 1862. . 
 
 ..524.211,371.92 
 
 1799.. 
 
 ...78,408,669.77 
 
 1831... 
 
 ...39.123,191.68 
 
 1863.. 
 
 1,119,772,188.93 
 
 1800. . 
 
 ...82,976,294.35 
 
 1832 .. 
 
 ...24,322,235.18 
 
 1864. . 
 
 1,815,784,370-74 
 
 1801.. 
 
 . . .83,038,050.80 
 
 1838... 
 
 ....7,001,032.88 
 
 1865.. 
 
 2,980,647,869.74 
 
 1802. . 
 
 ...80,712,632.25 
 .77 054 686.80 
 
 1834... 
 
 .. ..4,760,081.08 
 
 1866.. 
 1867. . 
 
 2,773,226,173.69 
 
 1803 
 
 1835 
 
 37,733 05 
 
 2,678,126,103.87 
 
 1804. . 
 
 ...86,427,120.88 
 
 1886. . . 
 
 37,513.05 
 
 1868. . 
 
 2,611,687,851.19 
 
 1805. . 
 
 ...82,312,150.50 
 
 1837. . . 
 
 386,957.83 
 
 1869.. 
 
 2,489,002,480.58 
 
 1806. . 
 
 ...75.728,270.66 
 
 1838. . . 
 
 ...10,484,221.14 
 
 18T0.. 
 
 2,386,358,599.74 
 
 1807. . 
 
 . . .69,218,398.64 
 
 1839. . . 
 
 ...11,878,223 55 
 
 1871.. 
 
 2,292,030,884.90 
 
 1808. . 
 
 ...65,196,317.19 
 
 1840. . . 
 
 ....5,12.5,077 63 
 
 1872. . 
 
 2,191,486,343.63 
 
 1809. . 
 
 . . . .57,028,192.09 
 
 1841... 
 
 ....6,737,398.00 
 
 1878.. 
 
 2,147,818,713.57 
 
 1810. . 
 
 ...53,173,217..52 
 
 1842. . . 
 
 ...15,028,486.37 
 
 1874. . 
 
 2,143,088,241.16 
 
 1811.. 
 
 . . . .48,005,587.76 
 
 1848. . . 
 
 . . .27,203,450.69 
 
 1875.. 
 
 2,128,688,726.82 
 
 1812. . 
 
 . . .45,209,737.90 
 
 1844. . . 
 
 ...24,748,188.23 
 
 1876.. 
 
 2,099,439,844.99 
 
 1813.. 
 
 . . .55,962,828.57 
 
 1845. . . 
 
 ...17,0o3,784.80 
 
 1877.. 
 
 2.060,158,223.26 
 
 1814. . 
 
 ....81.487,846.24 
 
 1846. . . 
 
 ...16,750,926.33 
 
 1878.. 
 
 2,035.286,831.82 
 
 1815. . 
 
 ...99,838,660.15 
 
 1847. . . 
 
 ...38,956,523 38 
 
 1879.. 
 
 2,027,707,2-56.37 
 
 1816.. 
 
 ...127,384,933.74 
 
 1848.. 
 
 ...48,256,370.37 
 
 1880. . 
 
 1,942,172,295.34 
 
 1817.. 
 
 ..133,491,965.15 
 
 1848... 
 
 ...64,704 693.71 
 
 1881.. 
 
 1,840,598,811.00 
 
 1818. . 
 
 ..103,466,633.83 
 
 1850. . . 
 
 . . .64,228,288.37 
 
 
 
 1819.. 
 
 ...9.5,529,648.28 
 
 1851... 
 
 . . .62,560,395.26 
 
 
 
 1820. . 
 
 ...91,015,566.15 
 
 1852. . 
 
 ...65,131,692.13 
 
 
 
 1821.. 
 
 ...89,987,427 66 
 
 1853... 
 
 ...67,340,628.78 
 
 
 
 1822. . 
 
 ...93,549,676.98 
 
 1854. . 
 
 ...47,242,206,05 
 
 
 
THE PROCESS OF REFUNDING THE DEBT. , 315 
 
 In the process of funding, which continued briskly until about 
 1868, and for some little time thereafter, the whole amount of 
 bonds issued was $2,549,070,650. No sooner was this process com- 
 pleted, and the public credit securely provided for, as to all the 
 debt except the Legal Tender Demand Notes, or "Greenbacks," 
 than the process of refunding at lower rates of interest com- 
 menced, in order to diminish the annual amount required from the 
 Treasury. The interest then being paid was G per cent, in gold, 
 although some temporary obligations had borne interest as high 
 as 7 3-10 per cent. This, however, was not in gold, but currency, 
 and the sum realized was about the same. Refunding was com- 
 menced at 5 per cent., continued at 4 1-2, and, previous to 1880, 
 at 4 percent.; but bonds were continued in 1881 at 3 1-2 percent, 
 without any special law to that effect: As the period appointed 
 by law for the payment of Demand Notes in gold approached, 
 business revived, the public credit became fairly perfect, and it 
 was apparent that the call on the Treasury for annual interest 
 might be still further reduced by refunding in future at from 3 
 to 3 1-2 per cent. A bill to tiiat effect having failed to become a 
 law, the Secretary invited the holders of bonds payable in 1881 
 to have them renewed at 3 1-2 per cent., and that wa?i done to 
 the amount of nearly $600,000,000. 
 
 On November 1, 1880, the portion of the debt bearing interest 
 at 5, 4 1-2 and 4 per cent, was as follows: 
 
 Bonds at 5 per cent $469,651,050. 
 
 4 1-2 " 250,000,000. 
 
 4 " 739,347,800. 
 
 The part of the debt remaining at 6 per cent, was: 217,699,550. 
 
 The laws regulating funding and refunding had steadily borne 
 in view possible payment, or more favorable refunding, by mak- 
 ing a considerable part of the Bonds payable in from five to 
 twenty years. This has opened the way for financial operations 
 by the officers of the Government which display a good judg- 
 ment, skill and success, wholly unparalleled in the previous 
 history of Finance in any nation. This has been on a scale so 
 vast as to greatly heighten the effect. The results of refunding, 
 for instance, between March 1. 1877 and Nov. 1. 1880 reduced the 
 annual interest due by $14,290,453. and the saving of interest by 
 payments of the principal of the Debt in the same time amount- 
 ed to $6,144,737. The refunding proposed and practicable for 
 1881 .was expected to reduce it by over $7,000,000 more, besides 
 
316 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 large payments designed to be annually made. This is a finan- 
 cial history of which Americans may well be proud. It indi- 
 cates that a financial genius commensurate with the vast resour- 
 ces of the country and with its great future is among the mental 
 endowments of Anglo-Americans and renders them, so far, 
 worthy of the institutions and the illimitable treasures they have 
 inherited. 
 
 The final result of the management of the national finances 
 from the close of the great war which so severely tried the re- 
 sources and credit of the country was that, in ISSO, all the Bonds 
 and iSTotes of the Government involving obligations on the part 
 of the Treasury were amply provided for and preferred above 
 other investments when absolute security for funds was sought. 
 Demand ISTotes could always be exchanged for gold, and Bonds 
 bore a high premium. This successful finance had so sustained 
 the business of the country, that it enjoyed the extreme of pros- 
 perity and, in its turn, gave the most effective support to the 
 financial plans of the Government. As a new country expend- 
 mg a large part of its free capital in improvements, it did not 
 possess the large cash accumulations usually found in old Euro- 
 pean countries, and its success in war so secured the credit of 
 Government Bonds in other countries that many hundreds of 
 millions of foreign capital were invested in them. But the vig- 
 orous and thrifty development of the boundless resources of the 
 Anglo-American nation soon brought its realized wealth to the 
 level of that of the richest countries in the world. 
 
 By the estimates of the United States Census, the realized 
 wealth of the country in 1860 was over sixteen thousand million 
 dollars (§16,159.000.000). In 18:0, notwithstanding the interrup- 
 tion to industry and the destruction and waste of resources by 
 the war. it was computed at thirty thousand million (830,069,000,- 
 000) and the process of reconstructing deranged civil affairs, fi- 
 nances and industries, was still incomplete. The realized wealth 
 of Great Britain in 1865 was estimated at over thirty thousand 
 miUion dollars (830.565.000,000). and in 1875 at forty-two thou- 
 sand million (842.740,000.000). That of France was estimated to 
 be about the same. Between 1870 and 1880 all the restorative 
 processes of the United States were substantially completed and 
 Tast stores of additional wealth were realized — partly by the arri- 
 Tal of investments previously made at the point of profit, and part- 
 ly by the establishment and maturity of many new sources of gain. 
 
NATIONAL FINANCE AND GENERAL PROSPERITY. 317 
 
 The processes of business had reached a degree of perfectioa 
 so high that surplus accumulations in the United States became 
 truly colossal. The short term of Government Bonds, their re- 
 investment at lower rates of interest, and the large balance of 
 trade against foreign countries and in favor of the United States, 
 caused the return of most of the Government Bonds held abroad 
 and the re-investment in them of the rapidly growing surplus 
 capital of this country. In 1880 the realized property of this 
 country cannot well be less than that of Great Britain and prob- 
 ably is much more. It is advancing in accumulation so fast 
 that it must eventually exceed, by far, that of the richest 
 nation in the world. Much of this highly favorable showing has 
 been due to wise management of the National Finances by 
 American Statesmen, since the beginning of the great war in 
 1861. Among the most important and useful measures con- 
 ceived by these Statesmen, embodied in law by Congress, and 
 put in practice with the highest success, was the system of 
 National Banks. 
 
CHAPTEE XIY. 
 
 THE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM. 
 
 This system was organized under a law enacted in 1863 with 
 such changes and regulations subsequently as experience sug- 
 gested. A Special Bureau of the Treasury Department was 
 ordered. " There shall be in the Department of the Treasury a 
 Bureau charged with the execution of all laws passed by Con- 
 gress relating to the issue and regulation of a national currency 
 secured by United States bonds; the chief officer of which Bu- 
 reau shall be called the Comptroller of the Currency, and shall 
 perform his duties under the general direction of the Secretary 
 of the Treasury." In 1790 the First Congress had chartered a 
 Bank of the United States and the Government had taken stock 
 in It, in order to facilitate the funding of the Public Debt and to 
 have a reliable resource for such temporary loans as its exigen- 
 cies might lequire. Its charter expired in 1810. Another was 
 organized and chartered in 181G to aid in the management of the 
 public indebtedness caused by the war with England closing in 
 1815. President Jackson vetoed the Bill to recharter it twenty 
 years later, and the creation of a Treasury of the United States 
 (it was called the Sub-Treasury) in which to hold Government 
 funds was substituted for a central Bank organized under the 
 laws of Congress. Each State passed such Banking Laws as 
 seemed best to it, and the currency employed in the transaction 
 of the business of the country was all furnished by Banks char- 
 tered by the States. 
 
 It appeared, however, in the course of time, that the money of 
 the country needed a central regulating head, with ample 
 executive powers to maintain its credit and insure its efficiency, 
 ahnost as sorely as the Confederated States before the adoption of 
 the Constitution. ISTo regular, permanent and compulsory sys- 
 tem being possible with so many Legislative bodies to control 
 
 (318) 
 
UNSATISFACTORY BANKING PREVIOUS TO 18G3. 319 
 
 its parts, each in their own locality, the money of the people — 
 the currency, or Bills, of the State Banks — was often very ill 
 regulated, and caused great annoyance and extensive losses. 
 Banks were established in great numbers and issued bills poorly, 
 or sometimes not all, secured by real or available capital, and 
 losses were so often suffered when they circulated at a distance, 
 that the bills of well-regulated Banks were discredited where 
 their condition was not definitely known. A sense of insecurity 
 was felt in receiving and holding money which might, as it 
 often did, suddenly lose all, or much, of its value. The want of 
 suitable laws, vigilantly executed, opened the door wide to un- 
 safe speculation, to dishonesty, and to political influence in 
 securing charters profitable to individuals or associations but 
 ruinous to business. In 1830 a distinguished financier stated 
 that "On a capital of one hundred and forty millions the failures 
 have amounted to thirty millions, or more than one-fifth of the 
 whole;" and the general losses of the country from this cause, 
 up to 1860, were, perhaps, even a larger per cent, of the bank 
 issues, in which most of the business of the people was done. 
 
 The National Banking System corrected this evil; and yet it 
 was for other reasons that it was instituted by Congress in 1863 
 and perfected in 1864. The Government could not use so uncer- 
 tain a medium in its vast money transactions during the war 
 and had issued Fractional Currency, Demand Notes, and Legal 
 Tenders of various kinds with which to effect its large payments 
 and in which to receive taxes. This was of fluctuating value 
 and it must have a currency with a more certain base. It there- 
 fore created this system which was secured by its own Bonds. 
 This increased the demand for them and enlarged the resources 
 of the Government while furnishing to it, and to general busi- 
 ness, a reliable species of money. 
 
 The process of organizing a Bank under this System is as 
 follows: Any number of person not less than five draw up arti- 
 cles of association, including any particulars not inconsistent 
 with law, and an Organization Certificate stating the name 
 assumed for the proposed Bank; its location; the amount of 
 capital and number of shares; the name, residence, and number 
 of shares of each shareholder. This is acknowledged before a 
 Notary Public, or similar authority, and forwarded to the Comp- 
 troller of the Treasury for his approval. The association then be- 
 comes a body corporate to exist for twenty years, unless specially 
 
320 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 dissolved bv itself, or by violation of law, appoints a Board of 
 Directors and other officers, and prepares for the transaction of 
 business under the law by the adoption of suitable by-laws and 
 presenting proof satisfactory to the Comptroller that all the con- 
 ditions of the law have been observed. 
 
 These conditions are that it shall have a capital of at least 
 fifty thousand dollars, if in a small town, or one hundred thou- 
 sand in a town of more than six thousand or less than fifty 
 thousand inhabitants, or two hundred thousand in a city of more 
 than fifty thousand. At least one-half of this capital must be paid 
 before the Comptroller can authorize the association to transact 
 actual banking business, and at least ten per cent, of the remain- 
 ing stock must be regularly paid in monthly thereafter. Its di- 
 rectors must all be citizens of the United States and. residents of 
 the State in which the town is located. The stockholders choose 
 the Directors, and the Directors the President. Each Director 
 must own at least ten shares of stock. Each share is 8100.00 and 
 entitles the holder to one vote in shareholders" meetings. The 
 Comptroller must see that all these conditions are observed 
 and maintained. Also, before the Comptroller can authorize 
 the commencement of banking business, United States registered 
 interest-bearing Bonds equal to one-third of the capital, though 
 never less than thirty-thousand dollars, must be deposited as se- 
 curity in the hands of the Treasurer of the United States. The 
 interest of these Bonds is duly paid to the association. 
 
 TThen this is done the Comptroller prints and delivers to the 
 association Banknotes, in forms directed by law, equal in value 
 to ninety per cent, of the sum of the Bonds deposited, if the capi- 
 tal does not exceed five hundred thousand dollars. K the capi- 
 tal be between that sum and one million dollars, only eighty per 
 cent, of the bonds can be issued in circulating notes; if between 
 one million and three millions only seventy five per cent: and if 
 more than three millions, sixty per cent. The whole amount of 
 circulation issued, however, is required by law to be distributed 
 in proportion to the population, banking capital, resouix-es and 
 business of the different sections of the country, and this may. in 
 some cases, modify to some extent the amount of notes which 
 the Comptroller of the Treasm-y may issue to any particular 
 Bank. Thus the Comptroller is required to keep constant wat€h 
 over the business of every region of the country, and to see 
 that the facihties of the National Svstem of Banks shall b« 
 
THE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM. 321 
 
 fairly proportioned to the circumstances of each State and 
 Territory. 
 
 The Comptroller procures the plates from which the Bank 
 Notes are printed and these are furnished to National Banks at 
 the cost of the Government. 
 
 At least five reports must be made to the Comptroller in the 
 course of each year and he may require such other special re- 
 ports as he deems necessary. The books of the Banks must 
 always be accessible to examination by him, or by any agent he 
 may connnission to make it. Thus he is kept accurately in- 
 formed of the business and condition of National Banks at all 
 times, and has power to enforce all the laws relating to them. 
 These laws peremptorily require that the business shall be done 
 in such a manner that the capital, deposits and circulation (Bank 
 Notes issued) shall, at all times, be secure and if any violation 
 of law in this respect, or any refusal or neglect to respond to the 
 requirements of the Comptroller occurs, he may appoint a Ee- 
 ceiver to take charge of the books, the moneys and accounts of 
 the faulty Bank, close its business and withdraw authority to 
 continue or renew it. In case of the failure of a Bank, or of a 
 desire by its stockholders to retire from business, the Bank may 
 recover its Bonds deposited for the security of its circulation by 
 sending its full value, in lawful money, to the Treasurer of the 
 United States, unless it shall have itself called in and redeemed 
 its notes. 
 
 If it has not closed out its own business fully to the satisfac- 
 tion of the Comptroller he, as the Executive of the law, takes 
 charge of it by Receivers and by redeeming the notes at the 
 Treasury of the United States. He sees that full justice is done 
 to all parties interested, in any case. The law provides that the 
 Banks shall be at all times prepared to redeem a large propor- 
 tion of their notes and to pay a part of the deposits made with 
 them by insisting that they shall not at any time use all the 
 ready money at their disposal but keep a certain "reserve" on 
 hand. Before the resumption of specie pa3^ments for Demand 
 Notes and other obligations, by the Government, the Banks were 
 not obliged to redeem their notes in coin, but since that date they 
 are required to do so, if it is desired by the holders, and therefore 
 a large part of this reserve must be in coin. 
 
 By these means as much money is kept in circulation as is 
 needed for the business of the country and is kept at all times 
 
 31 
 
322 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 free from the danger of losing its value — a point never before 
 fully secured in the Banking Systems of the United States. 
 Banks may still be authorized under State Laws and a large 
 number have continued to exist. They comprise State Banks, 
 Savings Banks, Loan and Trust Companies, and private Bank- 
 ers, numbering in all, in May, 1880, 4,456, with an aggregate 
 capital of $194,136,825, and they had invested in United States 
 Bonds to the amount of S->28,053,104. On Nov. 1, 1880. the num- 
 ber of National Banks in the United States was 2,095, with a 
 capital of 8457,600,000, and a deposit of United States Bonds as 
 security for their notes of $359,748,950, There were then held 
 also by these Banks Bonds for other purposes worth $43,620,400. 
 The value of all the National Bank Notes then circulating as 
 money was 8342,063,451 — an excess of security of between seven- 
 teen and eighteen millions of dollars — the total excess for all 
 purposes being over sixty-one millions. The amount of Govern- 
 ment Legal Tender Demand Notes, equal in value to gold, then 
 in circulation was $346,531,016. The reserve then required by 
 law to be held by all the Banks was 8201,000,000 and the amount 
 actually held was 8323,000,000. The part of this then held in 
 coin was over one hundred and nine million dollars, one hundred 
 and two million of this being in gold. The Treasury held, 
 Nov. 1, 1880, over one hundred and forty one million dollars in 
 coin for the redemption of its Notes, and over seventy-seven 
 millions for other purposes. 
 
 These facts and figures indicated the great success of National 
 Finance, and the remarkable success and value to the country 
 of the National Banking System, The thorough order and se- 
 curity maintained in that system reacted on State Banks, and 
 obliged them to maintain an equal standard of credit, under pen- 
 alty of losing their business. Nature cooperated with the finan- 
 ciers to put the affairs of the Government and the country on the 
 best footing by granting abundant crops, which the facilities and 
 cheapness of transportation enabled to reach adequate markets, 
 so as to be profitable at low prices, thus benefitting other nations 
 while giving the greatest prosperity to the people of the United 
 States, When time shall bring other trials and difiiculties to the 
 Anglo-American Government and people, they may be fairly ex- 
 pected to surmount them with still greater speed, certainty, and 
 ease, instructed and disciplined as they have been by the mis- 
 takes and successes of the twenty years that followed 1861, They 
 
THE GREAT SUCCESS OF AMERICAN FINANCIERS. 323 
 
 may fairly be considered as having proved their capacity to con- 
 trol any situation, how^ever difficult, and to invent, and success- 
 fully employ, remedies for any ills, hov^ever grievous. The Fi- 
 nancial System v^orked out, and promoting the security and 
 healthy vigor of all interests, national and popular, may be said 
 to have had as complete a success as the Federal Constitution had, 
 ninety years before, and its principles vs^ill probably prove as 
 enduring and as applicable to all future needs as that instru- 
 ment has done in the history of the United States. 
 
CHAP TEE XY. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF WAR. 
 
 The President exerts a more extensive influence on matters 
 connected ^vith the War Department by his personal decision 
 than over most other Executive Departments, by reason of his 
 position as Commander-in-Chief of the Army by appointment of 
 the Constitution. Congress regulates by law everything con- 
 nected with military affairs that is. in its nature, susceptible of 
 previous exact and permanent decision, the Senate is joined with 
 the President in the appointment of officers, and the House of Rep- 
 resentatives usually proposes the Appropriation Bills by which 
 the expenses are to be met: but there are innumerable cases, more 
 especially in time of war. in which the Commander-in-chief 
 must be left to act freely on his own judgment. 
 
 The Secretary of War is his subordinate to give personal at- 
 tention to the execution of all laws relating to the Army; to pre- 
 pare and present for his decision, all matters referred to him as 
 the final authority: to prepare all commissions for his signature, 
 issue all orders under his direction, and superintend the expend- 
 iture of all moneys appropriated for military purposes, or for the 
 support of the Army, by Congress. The officers of the array, 
 therefore, report to him. constantly and fully, pverA-thing 
 relating to the Army or military affairs that he, the President 
 and Congress require to know. He is the Secretary of the Presi- 
 dent as to the correspondence of that Department, and the high- 
 est Executive^Officer in military matters next to the President. 
 The General immediately commands all the military forces of 
 the Army, or whatever officer receives orders from him. and is, 
 therefore, the third in rank of the Army officials, as arranged by 
 the Constitution and bylaw. The President, however, is. able, 
 when he sees fit. to transmit orders directly to the immediate 
 chief of the Armv. the Secretarv performing this dutv ordinarily 
 
 (324) 
 
THE POSITION AND DUTIES OF THE SECRETARY, 325 
 
 as instructed, or as required by express law. The Secretary is 
 usually a civilian and is not strictly a member of the army 
 organization, though commonly acting as the first and most 
 general assistant of the President, as well as invested with 
 certain special powers by law. Strictly considered, he exerts 
 only, or chiefl}^ the powers of the President, but actually per- 
 forms a large part of his duty in pursuance of law, or in the 
 name of the President, by virtue of powers delegated to him by 
 that high officer. 
 
 He especially supervises all the expenditures and accounts of 
 the Army, prescribes the kinds and amounts of supplies to be 
 purchased for its subsistence, and sees that this is furnished in 
 due time to the Quartermasters Department of the Army; issues 
 regulations as to the transportation, safe-keeping and storehous- 
 es for army supplies of food, clothing, fire-arms and other mili- 
 tary stores; he superintends the Signal Service System and me- 
 tereological observations and the engineering Department, so 
 far as is needful, and keeps, in the various Bureaus of his De- 
 partment, all the general official papers and documents relating 
 to the military Service. He is therefore able to command the 
 requisite information for annual reports to the President and 
 Congress of everything important relating to current military 
 affairs, to Signal Service operations, to Engineering and all oth- 
 er affairs in which army officers are employed. 
 
 During the immense Civil War the Army absorbed a large 
 part of the Revenue, its extraordinary expenses producing most 
 of the great Public Debt of the country, and the War Office 
 was the busiest and inost important of any after the Treasury, 
 in the Government. During much of that time two Assistant- 
 Secretaries of War aided the Head of the Department in the 
 discharge of his onerous duties. All the Anglo-Saxon races have 
 ever manifested a great dislike to the maintenance of an Army 
 in time of Peace and have always avoided it when possible. 
 The Government of the Confederated States dismissed the Army 
 as soon as possible after the Revolutionary War, and Washing- 
 ton and his Generals resigned their commissions in 1783, soon 
 after the Definitive Treaty of Peace was signed. But the In- 
 dians continued to make war on the settlers in the West and 
 more or less troops had to be continued in the service, either to 
 fight them or to keep them in subjection by the occupation of 
 Forts near them; the danger of foreign war required Forts and 
 
326 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 various military defenses along the coast and. it was soon found 
 cheaper to have a small and Tvell-trained Army always ready 
 for service than to organize and disband it so often at great ex- 
 pense and delay. 
 
 As Western settlements extended this need grew still more 
 pressing from constant danger of sudden bloody hostilities by ths 
 the Indians, so that for many years a permanent army of twen- 
 ty-five thousand men has been found quite as small as could be 
 got along with, and this had to be supplied with transportation 
 and provisions on the distant frontier, at immense expenditure 
 of care, labor and money. Arms. Ordnance and AVar Supplies of 
 all kinds had to be provided, not only for immediate use but to 
 be in readiness if war should break out with any foreign power, 
 for as large a force as might be supposed needful to put imme- 
 diately in the field. The army was also made useful for various 
 other public purposes. Most of the officers, and some whole sec- 
 tions of the Service, were required to be men of high attain- 
 ments and extremely thorough education in various sciences and 
 mechanical arts, and have been much employed in the examin- 
 ation of the country for other than military ends, especially 
 scientific surveys of different kinds. 
 
 Each of these various branches of labor superintended by the 
 Secretary of War is immediately conducted by a separate Bureau 
 under an officer subordinate to the President and to the Secretary. 
 In his own office is a Chief Clerk of the War Departmext, 
 who acts, generally, as his Assistant, the two Assistant Secre- 
 taries of AVar having been dispensed with, and, in case there 
 should be no Secretary of War at any time, this Chief Clerk fills 
 the vacancy until it is filled by appointment of the President. 
 There is. also, a Disbursing Clerk who has charge of the money 
 and accounts of the Secretary's Office, a Superintendent of the 
 buildings in which are Bureaus of the Department, and such 
 clerks of the four various grades, messengers, temporary clerks 
 and laborers as maybe necessary for the care of the building, the 
 conveyance of orders, and the preparation of the papers, reports, 
 orders, commissions, and other documents originating under the 
 immediate eye of the Secretary. 
 
 The Bureau of the Adjutaxt-Gexeeal is the next in import- 
 ance and rank after the Secretary's office. The Adjutant-Gen- 
 eral of the Army is at the head of this Bureau. • He has the rank 
 of a Brigadier-General and is aided by nineteen Assistant Adju- 
 
THE BUREAUS OF THE WAR OFFICE. , 327 
 
 tants-General. This Bureau has charge of the Army considered 
 as a body of soldiers, and therefore attends to the numerous 
 chcxnges of grade in its members, to the stationing, movements 
 and changes of officers and troops, in peace and war. The 
 changes of persons in all these respects is almost constant, and 
 the orders for them must issue, in general, through this office, and 
 reports in these respects be made to it from every separate com- 
 mand or detached officer throughout the country. The general 
 orders of the highest officer, now holding the rank of General of 
 the Army, originate all movements, under the direction of the 
 Secretary, in the active service and the execution of these orders 
 in detail is attended to by the Adjutant-General. A chief Clerk 
 has immediate superintendence of the numerous other clerks re- 
 quired in conducting the correspondence of this important part 
 of the Army Service. These twenty Adjutants-General are all 
 officers of the Army, specially assigned to this work. Five In- 
 spectors-General of the Army keep watch over the condition, 
 equipment, and discipline of the whole. 
 
 The Bureau of the Quartermaster-General has a Quarter- 
 master-General, with the rank of Brigadier-General, at its head, 
 with six Assistant Quartermasters-General and twelve Quarter- 
 masters to aid him in conducting the business of the Bureau. 
 This office has general charge of the quartering, or barracks, of 
 troops, of the military stores and supplies, including their pur- 
 chase, transportation, and the care of them, and their distribution 
 as needed for military purposes. It also looks after all the 
 incidental expenses not specially assigned to other departments 
 of the service. It has great expenditures and a vast multitude 
 of accounts to superintend and prepare for the Treasury officers. 
 
 The Bureau op the Paymaster-General has in charge the 
 distribution of the monthly pay allowed by law to each 
 officer and private enrolled in the Army. The Paymaster- 
 General at its head is allowed the aid of two Assistant 
 Paymasters-General, two Deputy Paymasters-General, and sixty 
 Paymasters. The President may add to this number, when the 
 Army 4s increased by volunteers or militia, as he shall find 
 necessary. Except under unavoidable circumstances, the pay 
 is never to be more than two months in arrears. The money 
 for this purpose is disbursed, and the accounts of it arranged, in 
 this office. 
 
 The Bureau of the Commissary General has the care of 
 
328 . THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 the Subsistence, or Food Department, of the Army. The Com- 
 missary General at its head has twenty-eight Assistant-Commis- 
 saries-General. A ration is the amount of food supplied for the 
 daily consumption of each soldier, its amount and general 
 character being determined by law, but the President is author- 
 ized to make such changes in it as health, comfort, and economy 
 may require. This ration furnishes the basis of calculation and 
 purchase of food by the Commissary, or Subsistence Department, 
 for the whole army. A ration is also issued for the horses em- 
 ployed by the cavalry, and for other purposes, and is equally 
 definite in kind and quantity. When circumstances do not ad- 
 mit of the supply of the components of the standard, or legal, 
 ration the cost of that is estimated in other articles substituted 
 for it and it is often ••commuted "' or the value of the ration, in- 
 stead of the ration itself, is given by commissary officers. The 
 daily supply to the body of the army, widely scattered through 
 the States and distant Territories, sometimes has to be trans- 
 ported at great cost over hundreds of miles of territorj^, inhabited 
 only by Indians. The care of it and its distribution for daily use, 
 employ a large body of men in different capacities and of differ- 
 ent grades. All these are the subordinates of the Commissary 
 Bureau. Every Fort and Station and Camp must be reached by 
 its supplies and every moving body of men must be accompanied 
 by at least one of its representatives. 
 
 The teams, wagons, drivers, and buildings for safe deposit, are 
 almost innumerable, and the accounts and expenses of purchases, 
 of transportation companies, of teamsters, of local commissaries, 
 and the army supplies, are nearly endless in detail, making this 
 a ver}'" large and busy branch of the War Department. 
 
 The Bureau of the Surgeon-General is the chief office 
 of the Medical Department of the Army. The Sargeon-Gen- 
 eral is aided by an Assistant-Surgeon-General and a Chief 
 Medical Purveyor, with four Assistants. There are sixty Sur- 
 geons and one hundred and fifty Assistant-Surgeons. Five 
 Medical purveyors attend to the purchase and distribution of hos- 
 pital and medical supplies. A Hospital Steward is attached to 
 each military post. This Bureau supervises all the hospitals and 
 the health of the Army. All its officers must be capable physi- 
 cians. 
 
 The Bureau of Engineers has a Chief of Engineers at its 
 head, one hundred and eight other officers of various grades, 
 
THE ARTICLES OF WAR. 329 
 
 and a battalion of engineers of five companies. This Bu- 
 reau has charge of public buildings in general, the building and 
 repair of fortifications, and, in active war. of sieges, bridging- 
 streams to be crossed, etc. They are chiefly employed in plan- 
 ning and superintending these constructions. The officers are ■ 
 required to be highly skilled in that profession, and the enlisted 
 men of the Engineer Corps require special knowledge and 
 ability. The Corps in the field is always widely scattered. 
 
 The Ordnance Bureau is superintended by a Chief of 
 Ordnance assisted by seventy-six officers of different grades, 
 all specially skilled in what relates to the heavy weapons of 
 destruction without which an army would be very ineffec- 
 tive. The artillery, cannons or heavy guns, of an army or 
 fortification are called "Ordnance." On the effectiveness of 
 •this branch of the service, in modern times, the fate of wars 
 usually depends. The arsenals, or Government manufactories 
 of military weapons and ammunition, are under the care of 
 this Bureau, and also the magazines in which they are 
 stored. To improve their construction, supply them in suffi- 
 cient quantities when and where needed, to keep an exact 
 account of all Government property of that kind and to super- 
 vise all the artisans and accounts connected with their pro- 
 duction, preservation, and distribution to fortifications and 
 divisions of the army, requires a considerable clerical force. 
 
 The Bureau of Military Justice is superintended by a Judge- 
 Advocate-General and an Assistant-Judge-Advocate-General. 
 This Bureau superintends the execution of Military Law, as the 
 Supreme Court does that of Civil Law. There are eight Judge- 
 Advocates of the Army who preside over military courts, or 
 Courts Martial. Courts of Inquiry and Military Commissions 
 also report to the Judge-Advocate-General who receives, re- 
 vises, and records them. 
 
 The Articles of War form the Military Code to which 
 all military courts must conform their decisions. This Code 
 regulates the discipline of the army in order to make that 
 body as nearly as possible a vast machine. It seeks to place 
 the intelligence and energy of all the individual men an army 
 embraces under the absolute control of its officers, and to unite 
 and combine the entire body of officers and privates so as 
 to put the whole at the service of the Commander-in-chief 
 as fully as the foot and hand in the human body are at the 
 
330 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETilEXT. 
 
 command of the personal will. This is never perfectly 
 secured, but it is the principle, or theory, lying at the base of the 
 Articles of War. since that Code requires absolute obedience 
 from the subordinate to the superior. This is a body of laws, 
 however, guarding the rights of the subordinate as well as en- 
 forcing the rule of the commander. It aims to regulate the ex- 
 ercise of power as well as to secure obedience and perfect com- 
 bination, and it is over these two points that the Department of 
 Military Justice, at the head of which is the Judge-Advocate- 
 General, watches. 
 
 The Articles of War are far more strict and severe than the 
 ordinary criminal laAv, and the Courts Martial enforcing them 
 are intended to be rapid and thorough in executing them. The 
 punisliments allowed are extremely severe, indeed, relentless se- 
 verity breathes through the whole Code.. The aim is to prepare 
 the army in time of peace for a State of actual war and render 
 submission and obedience to orders a matter of habit. 
 
 In becoming a soldier a man withdraws from the control and 
 protection of common law. The Army is a body apart from the 
 rest of the people, with a different class of obligations and those 
 more imperative and enforced by the terrible and summary pen- 
 alties of Courts Martial. All officers have very summary powers 
 for the punishment of small offences, but the more serious 
 breaches of the Articles of War must be tried by Courts Martial. 
 These courts may be formed by any officer in command of an 
 Army, or separated fractions of an army, although the duty of 
 calling one and appointing its members is confined, as far as pos- 
 sible, to the higher officers. Only officers can be members of 
 such courts, and they are presided over by a Judge Advocate. 
 The formal and tedious processes of ordinary courts, designed to 
 prevent any possible mistake or injustice in the infiicti Dn of le- 
 gal penalties, are not followed very closely by these courts, the 
 object being to discover the truth in the speediest way, and to 
 inflict the appropriate penalty at once. Still, the Articles of War 
 provide as fully as may be. against malice, errors, and too great 
 severity by making the Bureau of Military Justice a Court of 
 Revision, except in prescribed urgent cases. 
 
 The sentence of the Court-Martial is submitted to the officer 
 who appointed it, for his approval: and the Judge Advocate, 
 who presided over the Court, forwards it. with the papers explain- 
 ing it, to the Judge Advocate General. A sentence of death, or 
 
GOVERNMENT HUMANITY AND RESPECT FOR RELIGION. 331 
 
 other extreme punishment, cannot be executed until it has been 
 confirmed by the President in most cases, even in time of war, 
 unless the character of the offense and the welfare and condition 
 of the Army require instant action. The harsher features of 
 stern and cruel war are much softened by the modern spirit of 
 justice and forbearance, and the full severity of the military 
 code has never been executed in the armies of the United States, 
 even in the greatest stress of war. In time of peace the same 
 considerate spirit operates to render military law, perhaps, as 
 generally just and humane as the civil law. The summary 
 severities authorized by the military law have always been rare 
 in American military annals. 
 
 Thus, although the number of persons immediately acted up- 
 on by the Secretary of War form a very small proportion of the 
 people, and immediately touch comparatively few general or 
 personal interests, those that do fall within his range of duty 
 present many and important phases. Great exactness of detail 
 is required in all parts of army organization to render it efficient 
 and the Secretary must keep careful watch over the whole 
 through the various Bureaus of his Department. 
 
 CHAPLAINS IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. 
 
 Many rulers and Governments in the most civilized countries 
 and the most modern times still continue the ancient practice of 
 recognizing, in some special way, some particular form of religion 
 as being nearest to the truth in its doctrines and most worthy of 
 countenance and support, although in most, if not all, of them 
 the more intimate "union of Church and State" formerly exist- 
 ing has ceased. The Constitution of the United States says, 
 " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- 
 ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof;" thus leaving the 
 people in absolute freedom to choose and support the forms of 
 religious faith they shall approve. That fundamental law was 
 a wise one and placed the American Republic in the front of 
 mental progress. The Government has obeyed the law to its 
 own advantage and also to the welfare of other nations. 
 
 It respects all religious views and churches which are accept- 
 ed and supported by any considerable part of the people, while it 
 especially favors none; but it has proved itself not indifferent to 
 the advantages that may flow from the teachings of Christian 
 purity and morality by making provision for the appointment of 
 Chaplains in the Army and Navy. The President is authorized 
 
332 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 to appoint thirty Post Chaplains for the Army and twenty-four 
 for vessels of war in the ISTavy. When there are colored regi- 
 ments in the Army, an additional Chaplain may be appointed 
 to each regiment. 
 
 To insure respect for them, they are given recognized and defi- 
 nite rank as officers, with suitable pay and rations. The Quarter- 
 master supplies them with lodging and the Commissary with 
 rations for two horses. In the Navy they rise in rank with length 
 of service and are retired according to the rules applicable to 
 other officers. They make report to the Secretaries of War and 
 the Navy, respectively, and occupy themselves in promoting 
 the moral welfare of the soldiers or sailors within reach of their 
 influence. 
 
 The President requires to have the advice and consent of the 
 Senate in their appointment. They must be authorized clergy- 
 men, in good standing in some religious denomination. The 
 appointing power is left to its discretion as to the persons, and 
 the denominations from which they shall be chosen. The clergy- 
 man appointed a Naval Chaplain must be not less than twenty-one 
 nor more than thirty -five years of age. The law also provides 
 for the appointment and pay of a Chaplain for each House of 
 Congress. Most of the denominations containing considerable 
 numbers are represented among the Chaplains at any one time 
 in the pay of the Government. Each House of Congress elects 
 its own Chaplain, usually selecting from among the pastors of 
 churches at the Seat of Government. 
 
 < 
 
CHAPTEE XYI. 
 
 THE ARMY. 
 
 The Army of the United States, for many years previous to 
 the Civil War, included about 20,000 enlisted men with a suit- 
 able number of officers. During that great contest it contained, 
 at times, more than a million including all arms and ranks. In a 
 short time after the close of that contest it was reduced below 
 30,000. In 1880, all the persons authorized by law to receive pay 
 as members of the Army proper, in all its different fields of 
 labor, amounted to 28.044. Those who were detached on semi- 
 military service for the Government, on service purely scientific 
 or civil, those whose special line of duty was other than for 
 purposes of immediate offensive war, the sick in hospital and 
 the proportion usuall}^ on furlough, or permits of temporary ab- 
 sence from the service, left only about 20,000, men and the nec- 
 essary officers in immediate command of them, for active service. 
 These were dispersed in small bodies, mostly west of the Mis- 
 souri River and chiefly in the Territories, or parts of States still 
 occupied by Indians, and required to do a somewhat larger 
 amount of severe labor in repressing Indian disorders and pro- 
 tecting settlements in their neighborhood than it was believed 
 reasonable to require of them. 
 
 Probably some generations must yet pass before the United 
 States can dispense wholly with a standing army always ^eady 
 for similar active service. The Governments of most European 
 countries keep large standiiig armies in a state of high discipline, 
 so as to be in full readiness to protect themselves or to make war 
 on others at the shortest notice. While such a policy prevails 
 among the most civilized nations of the Old World. Americans 
 must feel themselves in too much danger of being attacked by 
 disciplined forces before they could raise, equip and accustom an 
 army to act with promptness and vigor to feel it safe to dispense 
 with trained officers, a skeleton army, and abundant military 
 stores for an emergency. On a sudden outbreak of war the 
 
 (333) 
 
334 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 small but thoroughly disciplined army could be instantly filled 
 out to respectable strength, to act until more thorough and 
 adequate preparations could be made. 
 
 For these reasons an army is still indispensable, although a 
 part of the people find it distasteful, and the distinct policy of 
 the nation, from the beginning of the Government under the 
 Constitution, has been to keep the standing army as small as 
 possible. It not being possible to dispense with it altogether, 
 and the several wars that have occurred since 1800, besides the 
 Indians wars, having demonstrated the importance of a force in 
 thorough training, tolerably vigorous measures have been taken 
 to keep it in a proper state for possible future need, although it 
 is to be hoped such need may never again arise. 
 
 The Military Academy 
 
 long established at West Point on the Hudson River, in New 
 York, is a school for training young men in military Science. 
 The theory and practice of offensive and defensive war with 
 all the implements and arts of modern warfare is thoroughly 
 studied. The Students at this school are called "Cadets" and 
 when graduated from it are prepared to accept the lower grades 
 among ofiicers of the army holding commissions from the Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 This Institution was established in pursuance of an Act of 
 Congress passed in 1802. By later laws the range of instruction 
 was enlarged and the number of students to be received and 
 educated at the expense of the country was increased. Each 
 State may send as many pupils as it contains Congressional 
 Districts, one is allowed to each Territory including the District 
 of Columbia, and ten more from the United States at large, se- 
 lected by the President. Each, excepting the ten, must be actual 
 residents in the territorial division furnishing the member of 
 Congress to whom he corresponds. The other ten may be se- 
 lected without reference to residence. It is customary for one 
 to be nominated to the President by each member of Congress 
 when the place held by the previous appointee becomes vacant, 
 and for the President alone to fill the other ten places. The 
 power of appointment is, by law, vested in him. 
 
 The candidate must be versed in reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 geography and history, must be at least 17 years of age and 
 under 22, and must sign articles agreeing to serve the United 
 
THE MANAGEMENT OF THE MILITARY ACADEMY. 335 
 
 States at least eight years. The course of study embraces in- 
 struction in all the sciences involved in the construction and use 
 of warlike instruments and in military operations in the field 
 and in fortresses, especially in the. tactics of every branch of the 
 army, in engineering,in experimental philosophy, in mathematics, 
 gunnery and artillery practice; chemistry, mineralogy and geol- 
 ogy; the French and Spanish languages, drawing and music. 
 The cadets are considered a part of the army and subject to ac- 
 tive service at the direction of the President. They are required to 
 be regularly drilled as soldiers and to spend annually three months 
 in camp under the same regulations as soldiers in active service, 
 and are subject to the discipline and penalties prescribed for the 
 Army by the Articles of War. They each receive five hundred 
 dollars a year as pay, and one ration a day. 
 
 The President appoints the superior officers; the Secretary of 
 War has supervision of the Academy and assigns the minor 
 officers employed in superintending it and giving instruction to 
 the cadets. A Board of Visitors is appointed annually to exam- 
 ine and report on the Academy. Of this Board the President ap- 
 points seven, who report to the Secretary of War; the President 
 of the Senate appoints two Senators, and the Speaker of the 
 House three Representatives. These five make report to Con- 
 gress. Thus both the Legislative and Executive Branches of 
 the Government keep watch over the training of the future com- 
 manders of the military forces of the United States. Some sol- 
 diers enlisting in the ranks without previous technical military 
 instruction acquire the knowledge and mental discipline required 
 by commissioned officers and rise to high positions of command; 
 but the cases are rare in which all the accomplishments gained 
 by the Cadets in early life, and afterwards perfected by experi- 
 ence in active service, are acquired by officers who have had the 
 latter training alone. 
 
 All the expenses of this military school are provided for by 
 annual appropriations of Congress. The scientific as well as the 
 military training is thorough and only young men of good 
 mental capacity are able to go through the course with credit. 
 If they fall below a certain grade of scholarship they are dis- 
 missed. This is felt as a disgrace and the cadets are inspired to 
 effort to avoid it. Many eminent scientists have been educated 
 there, some remaining connected, in a special capacity, with the 
 army and others resigning to benefit the country by their 
 
33G THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 kno^'ledge and abilities in other wars. The Government em- 
 plovs many hundreds of the graduates in the scientific work to 
 which they are most adapted, as it finds occasion. 
 
 Some are detailed to make surveys of Rivers and Harbors 
 and coasts, some study the geological and mineralogical fea- 
 tures of the country, or trace the boundaries of the United 
 States, or make engineering surveys of various kinds. Wherever 
 the army goes there are cultivated and trained observers to make 
 report to the Government or the people on matters of interest 
 and value to the welfare of the country, and they often repay,, 
 a thousand fold, the public funds expended on their education. 
 
 The Signal Service Bureau 
 
 comprises a detachment of officers and privates in the army ser- 
 vice whose business it is to station and superintend observers in 
 all parts of the country to make note three times per day of at- 
 mospheric conditions and changes and report them simultane- 
 ously to the Bureau at Washington by telegraph. Here they are 
 received and compared, a summary of the general facts is im- 
 mediately arranged, the state and changes of the weather for 
 each region of the country during the following day are esti- 
 mated from the indications given by the reports, and this esti- 
 mate is furnished without cost to all the newspapers that care to 
 publish it. The origin and progress of storms dangerous to farm- 
 ing and shipping are carefully studied, and their expected arri- 
 val at particular localities is announced by Storm Signals dis- 
 played so as to give due warning to all whose interests may be 
 endangered. At the head of this Bureau is the Chief Signal Offi- 
 cer, who ranks in the army by law as Colonel of Cavalry. 
 
 The use of signals to communicate intelligence and orders in the 
 Xavy is of ancient date, and a rude system of warnings commmu- 
 nicated by signs from hills and eminences by day and by fires at 
 night is as old as social and warlike combinations among men. 
 A few years before the great Civil War an ingenious army sur- 
 geon invented an elaborate system of signals for conveying* 
 intelligence between bodies of soldiers too distant for ready 
 speech but Avithin sight of each other. In 1858 he was employed 
 by the War Department to train a body of soldiers in the use of 
 this system, for the advantage of the military service in time of 
 war. From 1861 to 18G5 it was of great service, the inventor 
 being promoted, from time to time, from the rank of captain to 
 
THE SIGNAL SERVICE AND ITS HISTORY, 337 
 
 that of Brigadier-General for the important results he effected 
 on critical occasions by the use of his signals. After the war 
 he turned his attention to the arrangement of a system for col- 
 lecting simultaneous reports of the most important facts as to 
 the weather, and the means of foreseeing storms and giving 
 warning of them to shipping about to leave ports and harbors ; 
 but it was not until 1870 that Congress passed a law, and made 
 special appropriation for the employment of a small section of 
 the Army for this purpose. 
 
 Other nations in Europe had long before established Meteoro- 
 logical Bureaus under the direction of their Governments, but 
 each was comparatively limited in the ar^a over which it made 
 observations and less perfect and precise in its methods. Dur- 
 ing the next ten years the Signal Service System, under the 
 direction of the Chief of the Bureau, who created the Ameri- 
 can organization, continued to expand and increase in useful- 
 ness by its foresight of " probabilities " — or predictions of the 
 state of the atmosphere and of local storms — and rendered in- 
 valuable service to commerce and agriculture. Often, by the 
 timely warning which its constant study of climatic conditions 
 over the whole country enabled it to give, many lives and mil- 
 lions of property were saved. Its Stations of Observation, 
 provided with suitable instruments for exact record of weather 
 conditions, were sufficiently numerous to assure a general 
 knowledge of all changes affecting large regions, and the extent, 
 force and direction of movement of storms could be ascertained 
 from hour to hour. Observations taken at all prominent points 
 over regions whose extremes were more than three thousand 
 miles apart could be received, their significance ascertained, and 
 the report made public in an hour and a half from the moment 
 the separate facts were noted at each station. 
 
 The wide extent of observation and the exactness and value of 
 the results led to the combination of all national systems into an 
 international one. This is yet in its infancy, but promises so 
 much usefulness that it is sure to have a lusty manhood and a 
 great future. In 1880 about two hundred stations were main- 
 tained, besides many ( about 30 ) daily reports from other places 
 by citizens. A similar Bureau with a large number of stations 
 was maintained by the Government of the Dominion of Canada 
 and at various stations on the different West India Islands by 
 their several Governments, with which the Bureau at Washing- 
 
 22 
 
338 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ton was in daily communication. Thus nearly all regions in 
 Xorth America, whence atmospheric influences strongly affecting 
 climatic conditions in the more thickly settled parts of the coun- 
 try and the waters frequented by commerce proceed, were 
 brought under the constant observation of the Bureau through 
 the Telegraph System of the country. 
 
 Fort Whipple, (now Ft. Meyer), on Arlington Hights, Ya., op- 
 posite Washington, early became the location of the school for 
 training Observers in the theory and practice of the "Weather 
 Reports " received, digested and published by the Signal Service 
 Bureau. After a course of study here they are sent out to the 
 Stations, first as Assistant Observing Sergeants, and, when skill- 
 ed in practice, are placed in charge of the Stations, where they 
 supply reports for local publication and manage the Danger Sig- 
 nals when occasion arises. They have the rank of Army Ser- 
 geants, and are usually enlisted specially for this service, 
 though subject to the Articles of War and military law and 
 discipline. Competent Inspectors visit and examine the Stations 
 at frequent intervals to secure the thoroughness and efficiency 
 of the service. The Bureau may be considered as having only 
 begun a series of great and most valuable services to the busi- 
 ness interests of the country. These will become greater as the 
 number and variety of observations increase and as the study 
 of the laws of meteorology and the origin of great atmospheric 
 changes mature into an exact Science of the Weather. 
 
 SOI TITERS HOMES 
 
 are permanent establishments, for which Congress provided by 
 a law passed in 1851 and by later enactments. The Adjutant- 
 General, the Commissary-General and the Surgeon-General 
 of the Army are the legal Board of Commissioners for the man- 
 agement of these institutions under the approval of the Secretary 
 of War. They form part of the military establishment of the 
 United States, the Articles of War forming the Code of Law 
 under which their government and discipline are conducted. 
 
 The funds for the support of the Soldiers Homes are derived 
 from a monthly tax of tAvelve and a half cents on the pay of all 
 privates and non-commissioned officers of the Regular Army, 
 from fines and forfeitures and other pecuniary punishments of 
 these classes in the Army by Courts-Martial or by the Articles 
 
NATIONAL HOMES FOR DISABLED SOLDIERS. 339 
 
 of War, from the unclaimed estates of deceased soldiers, and 
 from the pensions of disabled volunteer soldiers who may 
 desire its benefits but have not previously been subject to 
 the monthly tax for its support. The Governor, Deputy Gover- 
 nor, and Secretary of each Home are selected from the Army 
 by the Board of Commissioners and appointed by the Secretary 
 of War. 
 
 All soldiers are entitled to retire to it as a free home after 
 twenty years honorable service in the regular army, and every 
 soldier honorably discharged by reason of disability resulting 
 from sickness or wounds while in the service. When fully re- 
 covered from such disabilities they are discharged, if under fifty 
 years of age; otherwise it may be a permanent home for them for 
 the rest of their lives. 
 
 Various other institutions called "National Homes for Volun- 
 teer Soldiers" were authorized by law in 1866. They were sup- 
 ported by fines and forfeitures in that part of the Service, by 
 donations of money and property by the public, and by the pen- 
 sions of disabled volunteers admitted to them. The President, 
 the Secretary of War, the Chief Justice of the United States, and 
 nine others, appointed by joint resolution of the two Houses of 
 Congress, formed a Board for their management. Many were 
 established, soon after the war, in different parts of the country. 
 
 National Cemeteries. 
 
 These are burial places of soldiers killed in battle, or dying in 
 hospitals during and after the Civil War. They were committed 
 to the care of the War Department and many still serve as places 
 of burial of deceased soldiers. In 1880 there were eighty of these 
 National Cemeteries, cared for by the Secretary through the 
 Quartermaster-General's office. They then contained 170,997 
 graves, 147,495 of which contained the remains of soldiers whose 
 names were unknown. Having perished in the public Service, 
 their memory is cherished with respect and gratitude by the 
 Government and the people. i 
 
CHAPTEE XYII. 
 
 THE SECRETAET OF THE NAVY. 
 
 The President is, bj the Constitution, the Commander-in-chief 
 of the ISTavy of the United States, as well as the Armv. As the 
 Executive Power of the Government, also, he is required to see 
 that all the laws regarding the Navy are executed. In the char- 
 acter of chief, or supreme head, of the organization, however, 
 his relations to the Navy and its management vastly increase 
 his cares and duties with respect to it. Its highest officers are 
 his subordinates, bound to implicit obedience to his commands, 
 and he has all the responsibility for its organization, discipline 
 support and employment that is not removed from him by ex- 
 plicit constitutional law. 
 
 The Secretary of the ISTavy, like the Secretary of War. has no 
 proper rank as an actual part of the ISTavy organization, but he 
 exerts the powers of the President and heads the Department 
 which was expressly created, organized and regulated by the 
 Lawmaking Power. He has, therefore, in a sense, a double 
 representative character, with duties and responsibilities both to 
 the President and to Congress. Speaking and acting in the 
 name of the law and of the Supreme Chief of the ISTavy, its 
 highest oflQcer is bound to obey him. Thus, if he has no profes- 
 sional rank, in a strict sense, he has a legal rank which makes 
 him virtually the second officer of a carefully arranged organi- 
 zation. 
 
 Everything that goes on in the Navy, all its interests, move- 
 ments and accounts are subject to his regulation, and all orders 
 must reach its officers through some Bureau or official at his 
 headquarters, or Department. By a series of Reports, regularly 
 or specially made to him by the proper officers, he is acquainted 
 with every important fact, and himself makes regular reports to 
 the President and to Congress under his combined relations of 
 
THE BUREAUS OB' THE NAVY DEPARTMENT. 341 
 
 Secretary of the President as Commander-in-chief, and as Head 
 of an Executive Department established by law. Practically, 
 no such dictinction is made, and for all but extraordinary occa- 
 sions he is the virtual connnander of the Navy. 
 
 For the convenience of this superintendence and command 
 eight separate Bureaus, or offices, are organized through which 
 the business of the Department is done, besides his own 
 office, each with a Chief who must be a commissioned officer 
 
 of the Navy. 
 
 The Bureau op Yards and Docks is that on which the exist- 
 ence of the vessels of the Navy chiefly depends, for it is in the 
 Shipyards of the Government that they are mostly made. There 
 are ten of these Yards and Stations where vessels are built, 
 or repairs made on them, and it is the business of this Bureau to 
 select, purchase, and fit them up with proper buildings and 
 machinery for constructive or repairing purposes. It is property 
 of the Government which it looks after and keeps in condition 
 to be put to its appropriate use. Seven of these are on the At- 
 lantic coast from New England to Virginia, a Station at Key 
 West, which is at the southern extremity of Florida, one at Pen- 
 sacola, on the Gulf of Mexico, and one on the Pacific coast, near 
 San Francisco. These are large enough for all the materials 
 entering into the structure, rigging, and more or less of the 
 stores, of a ship, and for the convenience of workmen. Dry 
 Docks for getting vessels out of the water when undergoing re- 
 pairs, and such buildings as are required for the various officers, 
 marines and workmen, are supplied and kept in order by this 
 office. All these purposes require many men and much outlay 
 in the average of years. 
 
 The Bureau of Construction and Repairs proceeds to 
 make use of the Navy Yards, Docks and Buildings to execute 
 all orders for producing new ships or repairing old ones. This 
 Bureau must have for its Chief a naval officer who is skilled in 
 the construction of vessels. This is an art of very great impor- 
 tance on which the usefulness and success of the Navy depends. 
 It requires a wide range of special knowledge to combine the 
 various qualities of size, strength, speed and the readiest con- 
 trol of a vessel in all possible situations. In times of war 
 superiority in these respects counts very largely, as also in 
 storms and dangerous places. This Bureau employs the most 
 intelligent designers and practical builders to lay the plans to be 
 
342 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 carried out in the ship yards; has a corps of Constructors to ex- 
 amine vessels requiring repairs, to superintend the work and to 
 take the charge of the building of new vessels. Therefore, the 
 Superintendent of each Navy Yard and all the subordinates un- 
 der him are under the supervision of these experts, as well as 
 the selection and purchase of the material to be used. Some- 
 times, when a vesssel of the United States in a distant part of 
 the world requires repairs and it is not convenient or possible to 
 bring it to one of our own Navy Yards for the purpose, a com- 
 petent Constructor is sent out to superintend the repairs in the 
 Docks of some foreign place. Sometimes vessels are built by 
 contract and away from the Government Yards, in which case 
 this Bureau manages the contract, or sees that it is properly ex- 
 ecuted, and accepts the completed work on the part of the Gov- 
 ernment at the discretion of the Secretary. 
 
 The Bureau of Ordinance has the same kind of duties to 
 perform as the Bureau of the same name in the War Depart- 
 ment, and the Navy Ordinance ofl&cers co-operate, to some ex 
 tent, with those of that Bureau, since the heavy guns of ships 
 are often ma.de in the same foundries. This Bureau sees that 
 serviceable guns of proper size, number, and condition are fur- 
 nished to all vessels of War. It examines improvements and 
 novelties in naval cannon adopted by other nations, introduces 
 such changes as are proved to be desirable, and looks after the 
 warlike supplies of vessels. It has also charge of the Torpedo 
 System used for the defense of our harbors and coasts. 
 
 The Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting takes the vessel 
 from the hands of the builders when the Construction Bureau 
 has approved it and proceeds to furnish it with the rigging, sails 
 and other accessories that are required to equip it for service. 
 It provides the materials required for this purpose and for 
 repairs of the same nature. Although there were no new 
 vessels built or finished, in 1880, seventy-five were wholly or 
 partially equipped. The defensive iron plates in which so many 
 modern vessels are cased is furnished by this Bureau, as also 
 the coals required by the Steam Vessels of war. It also has 
 charge of the enlistment of recruits for the Navy and of the 
 training schools. A system of apprenticeship for the Navy has 
 been matured and put in successful operation by the Bureau. 
 By this system boys from sixteen to eighteen are enlisted and 
 placed on Training Ships where they are taught all the duties to 
 
THE BUREAU OF NAVIGATION. 3i3 
 
 be performed by the crew of a Man-of-war at the age when skill 
 is most easily acquired. 
 
 The Bureau of Steam-Engineering has charge of the ma- 
 chinery of the vessels of the Navy on which steam is employed. 
 These comprise the most of the Men-of-War now in use. This 
 is an extremely important branch of the equipment of a vessel, 
 requiring special knowledge, mechanical genius and experience, 
 and was therefore separated from the Bureau having in charge 
 miscellaneous equipments. It is composed of men having thor- 
 ough professional training as steam engineers. On their judg- 
 ment the speed and safety of the vessels depend. The Bureau 
 superintends the purchase, inspection and repairs of the engines 
 and machinery required. 
 
 The Bureau of Navigation superintends the researches and 
 compiles the information necessary for the safety of vessels in 
 all parts of the world. Those who have the charge of a vessel 
 require to know^, at all times, where they are, what surrounds 
 them, and what dangers they have to fear and avoid in passing 
 from a given point of the world to any other. Much of their 
 time is passed out of sight of land and deprived of the way marks 
 and fixed points by which the course of a traveller on the land is 
 guided. Not being able to depend on the earth for assistance in 
 this respect they turn to scientific instruments, certain signs 
 which experience has discovered and interpreted, and to the 
 stars. The position of the stars at any given time, their relation 
 to one another and to the horizon, the position of the sun and 
 moon when they are visible, and various other things serve to 
 guide tliem with almost perfect accuracy. 
 
 But they must be thoroughly familiar with the movements of 
 the heavenly bodies, with the changes in their apparent position 
 with every change of place on the earth, and must be provided 
 with time-pieces of absolute accuracy in order to calculate that 
 element of change with certainty, and require the compilation 
 of many rules and formulas, and the use of various scientific 
 instruments for ascertaining the meaning of the facts they 
 gather from observation. Navigation is, therefore, a science 
 drawing upon many sciences for its completeness. It is the 
 office of the Bureau of Navigation to furnish all needful infor- 
 mation and scientific instruments, and the charts of coasts, 
 islands, shoals, hidden rocks, and other dangers that the seaman 
 may fall in with. 
 
344 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETilEXT. 
 
 In furtherance of these objects, the Bureau of Xarigation 
 collects the best information obtainable of the character of the 
 sea bottom in the neighborhood of all parts of the continents, 
 and of all the islands throughout the world. As opportunity 
 offers, the vessels of the United States Xavy are employed in 
 making soundings and surveys along the shores of countries not 
 fully examined by competent surveyors of those and other 
 nations. These investigations, with those on our own shores, 
 by the Coast Survey Service, and all other reliable information 
 are worked up by The Hydeogeaphic Office in this Bureau, 
 The law ordering the establishment of this Office is thus ex- 
 pressed: •■'There shall be a Hydrographical Office attached to 
 the Bureau of Navigation in the Xavy Department, for the im- 
 provement of the means for navigating safely the vessels of the 
 Xavy and of the merchant marine, by providing, under the 
 authority of the Secretary of the iiSravy, accurate and cheap 
 nautical charts, sailing directions, navigators, and manuals of 
 instructions for the use of all vessels of the United States, and 
 for the benefit of navigators generally." The law also, in ful- 
 fillment of the last purpose, directs the Secretary of the Navy to 
 have •• maps, charts and nautical books relating to. and required 
 in, navigation," prepared in this Office and published for sale, 
 "at the cost of printing and paper, to all who may desire them." 
 
 The Naval Obseevatoey is also attached to, or connected 
 with, this Bureau. Its object is especially to perfect those parts 
 of the science of Astronomy that have the closest relation to the 
 interests of navigation. It calculates with perfect exactness the 
 movements and positions of heavenly bodies for years to come, 
 and gives due attention to providing navigators with standards 
 of time that are completely reliable. 
 
 This Observatory went into operation in 1844. It is furnished 
 with all the facilities for the performance of its work, and a corps 
 of learned professors. It has been distinguished for its valuable 
 services to astronomical science and to navigators. With these 
 instruments the Bureau supplies the most desirable and reliable 
 information to the sailor and makes such rules for the vessels of 
 the Navy as will secure them, as fully as possible, from the man- 
 ifold dangers they must encounter on the "great deep" — not 
 pathless, since, by its care, the best and shortest routes to all lands 
 across all seas are marked out by it with great distinctness. 
 
 The Bueeau of Peo^tsioxs axd Clothixg. besides taking 
 
PAYMASTERS AND SURGEONS OF THE NAVY. 345 
 
 charge of the Commissary Department of the Navy, has such 
 general care of the corps of Paymasters as it is needful for the 
 Navy Department to take. It has representatives on all the 
 vessels to carry out the regulations as to the uniform and to fur- 
 nish material for clothing. The Navy Ration is prescribed by 
 law, as in the Army, and is furnished in sufficient quantity un- 
 der the direction of this Bureau. 
 
 The Paymasters are organized, also, in several grades. The 
 Chief of this Bureau must be appointed "from the list of Pay- 
 masters of not less than ten years' standing." The Pay Corps 
 consists, by law, (the Navy containing about 7,500 men) of thir- 
 teen Pay Directors, thirteen Pay Inspectors, fifty Paymasters, 
 thirty Passed Assistant Paymasters, and twenty Assistant Pay- 
 masters; and this Corps disburse and keep the accounts of all the 
 moneys furnished for pay and supplies of food and clothing not 
 furnished by the ships' stores from the depots of this Bureau. 
 The Paymasters are all appointed by the President with the con- 
 sent of the Senate. 
 
 The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery answers to the 
 Surgeon-Generals Bureau of the Army. The Chief of the Bureau 
 is selected from the list of Surgeons in the Navy. The Medical 
 Corps embraces fifteen Medical Directors, fifteen Medical In- 
 spectors, fifty Surgeons and one hundred Assistant Surgeons. 
 All the appointments in the Corps, after having been approved 
 by an Examining Board of Navy Surgeons, are appointed by the 
 President and Senate. The members of the Examining Board 
 are selected by the Secretary of the Navy. This Bureau has 
 charge of the health of the Navy, provides Medical Stores, and 
 supervises the affairs of Naval Hospitals. Of these several are 
 located near the larger Navy Yards. They are supported from 
 a fund produced by a tax of twenty cents per month de- 
 ducted from the pay of all the officers, seamen, and marines in 
 the Navy by the Secretary. All fines imposed on officers or men 
 in the Navy are paid into this fund; the value of one ration per 
 day — estimated by law at thirty cents — is paid to the hospital 
 where such Navy officer or seaman is received as long as he re- 
 mains. The pensions of inmates of Navy Hospitals are also paid 
 into the Fund so long as they are maintained at a hospital. The 
 Secretary of the Navy is authorized to procure lands and erect 
 buildings for such hospitals when he finds it desirable. This is 
 done and the hospitals are conducted by the Medical Bureau of 
 
346 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 his Department. Surgeons are selected withgreat care, are kept 
 in the service during life, if not dismissed for cause, and are 
 regularly promoted. ISTo one can be appointed Surgeon till he 
 has served on a United States vessel as Assistant Surgeon two 
 years. 
 
CHAP TEE XTIII. 
 
 THE NAVY. 
 
 The larger National Vessels of the United States are called 
 "Men-of-War." In time of war they constitute an instrument of 
 attack and defense on the sea and its coasts, as an army does on 
 land. They are supplied with cannon and other arms and suit- 
 able stores, and officers and men are carefully educated in the 
 principles and, so far as may be, the practice of naval combat, 
 as well as in the management of a vessel. During the War of 
 Independence the new nation suffered greatly for the want of 
 this means of defense. The settled parts of the country were then 
 largely along the seacoast and navigable rivers, or not far from 
 them, and the enemy was well supplied with vessels for trans- 
 porting armies to the points most favorable for attack both by 
 land and naval forces. The close of the war was considerably 
 hastened by the aid rendered to the Americans toward the end 
 by French Men-of-War. Many "Privateers", as private vessels 
 armed under the authorization of Government are called, were 
 fitted out by the citizens to capture the unarmed merchant ves- 
 sels of the English, but they were too small to conquer vessels of 
 war. 
 
 When the Government under the Constitution was well estab- 
 lished and the National Finances permitted a National Navy 
 was organized. In the last three years of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury a war with France was threatened, and in 1798 the Navy 
 Department was reorganized, or enlarged, and a separate Secre- 
 tary of the Navy assigned to it. Previously, the Secretary of 
 War was also Secretary of the Navy. Several vessels were built 
 and manned especially for service in the Mediteranean Sea, to 
 protect American Commerce. A still larger development was 
 given to the Navy on the approach of war with Great Britain 
 and its services to the nation during that war were very great. 
 
 (347) 
 
348 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 It was the pride of the country and the skill and success of the 
 officers in naval combats surprised and alarmed the English, who 
 had been accustomed to regard themselves as invincible on the 
 sea. But the country was still comparatively poor, the revenue 
 small and the Navy of England large. The public vessels of the 
 United States were gradually disabled or captured in spite of 
 many glorious successes. There had never been enough to form 
 fleets equal in number and strength to those of England on the 
 open ocean. 
 
 When that war was over attention was still called to this 
 branch of the service by the growth of foreign commerce and 
 the necessity of protecting it, and - requiring other nations to 
 respect the Flag of the United States. When the Civil War 
 commenced the ISTavy Department had possession of ninety 
 vessels, of which only forty-two were in actual service. The 
 others were at once prepared to take part in the war, many new 
 ones were built, and a large number were purchased. Seven 
 thousand six hundred seamen were attached to the Navy before 
 the war. During this conflict over two hundred vessels were 
 built by the Government, over four hundred were bought, and 
 at the close of the war there were 51,500 men in the Naval 
 Service. The character of the vessels and their efficiency for 
 warlike service had been immensly improved. "Iron-clads" 
 and ''Monitors" came largely into use, the Atlantic and Gulf 
 coasts of the Confederate States were closely blockaded, and 
 fleets of Gunboats cooperated with the armies on the rivers of 
 the interior. The Navy was the means of greatly shortening 
 the war. The Confederate Government contrived, under great 
 disadvantages, to keep vessels afloat which did immense injury to 
 the commerce of the Northern cities. Their trade under the 
 United States Flag was rendered so unsafe that a large part of 
 it was transferred to the ships of England and other nations. 
 
 The experience and skill acquired in this naval warfare were 
 very great and continue to be felt: but at the close of the con- 
 flict the naval service was immediately reduced to a peace foot- 
 ing. By the end of 1865 there were only one hundred and 
 seventeen vessels in commission. At the beginning of the year 
 there had been four hundred and seventy-one vessels employed 
 in the waters of the United States alone. The number of seamen 
 and officers employed were soon reduced to 8,500 and afterward 
 to 7,500. The policy of the United States is essentially peaceful, 
 
THE VESSELS AND OFFICERS OF THE NAVY. 34t 
 
 and the people are unfavorable to larger expenditures on the 
 Army or Navy than are really indispensable for the immediate 
 purposes in view. The amount annually expended in support of 
 the naval service of the Government is usually about fifteen 
 million dollars. About fifty vessels are kept in actual use. 
 Usually in the neighborhood of thirty of these are distributed 
 among the five Squadrons cruising in different parts of the world 
 to promote the interests of commerce and serve the various pur- 
 poses of the Government. These are the European, the Asiatic 
 the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic and the Pacific Squad- 
 rons. Each of these Squadrons is under the command of a Rear- 
 Admiral whose rank corresponds to that of a Major-General in 
 the Army. The other vessels are employed for special and mis- 
 cellaneous service. 
 
 The Navy is designed for the protection of commerce and of 
 the public interests of the United States abroad. It is therefore 
 the business of the Secretary to watch for all opportunities to 
 use the Navy for the promotion of these purposes, and to coop- 
 erate with the other Executive Departments when occasion de- 
 mands. 
 
 The entire list of grades among the commissioned 
 officers of the Navy includes an Admiral, a Vice-admiral Rear- 
 Admirals, Commodores, Captains, Commanders, Lieutenant- 
 Commanders, Lieutenants, Masters, Ensigns and Midshipmen. 
 An Admiral ranks with a General in the Army and a Vice- 
 Admiral with a Lieutenant General. 
 
 The Naval Academy, located at Annapolis, Md., was estab- 
 tablished to educate young men and boys in all the principles 
 and branches of science in which naval officers must become ex- 
 pert. It corresponds with the Military Academy of West Point, 
 New York. One student is allowed for each Member or Dele- 
 gate sitting in the House of Representatives, one for the District 
 of Columbia and ten for the country at-large. The candidate 
 from each Congressional District must be an actual resident of 
 it, and is recommended by the Member of Congress or Delegate 
 of the Territory. If he neglects this duty when notified that 
 there is a vacancy the Secretary of the Navy fills it. The Presi- 
 dent selects the one for the District of Columbia and the ten at- 
 large. They must be not less than fourteen, and not more than 
 eighteen, years of age. They must pass an examination before 
 they can be appointed to the Academy. The Secretary of the 
 
350 THE EXECL'TIVE DEPARTMEXT. 
 
 Navy appoints a Board of Examiners. Tlie Students so entered 
 are called Cadet-Midshipmen and pass through a six-years course 
 of study of a suitable, and very thorough, character. Mathe- 
 matics, Engineering, all branches of IS'aval Science and various 
 other useful studies are pursued. When graduated they receive 
 appointments as Midshipmen. 
 
 A midshipman is a commissioned officer of the lowest grade 
 in the ISTavy; but by successive promotions, according to regula- 
 tions of law, the higher grades are reached from it as they 
 become vacant. If a cadet fails to reach a certain standard of 
 proficiency in study during his course, he is dismissed from the 
 Academy, a:id if unequal to the final examination, cannot be 
 graduated or received into the ISTavy. This helps to make sure 
 of intelligent and capable officers. The Cadets are subject, dur- 
 ing their period of study, to the special system of discipline and 
 law governing the ISTavy. They are clothed and fed by the Gov- 
 ernment, and receive a salary of 8500 yearly. When they are 
 commissioned as active Midshipmen they receive $1,000; Ensigns 
 receive 31,200: and the pay increases rapidly with each following 
 grade up to Admiral, whose pay is 813,000 per year. 
 
 Besides the Cadet Midshipmen there may be a class of Cadet 
 Engineers in the Academy, who are not selected, necessarily, 
 from the regularly appointed Cadets, though many are so. The 
 Secretary of the ISTavy is authorized to appoint enough others to 
 form a class, not exceeding fifty, who go through a four years* 
 course of engineering study and receive the same support as 
 other Cadets. Two years of their course of study is passed on 
 naval steamers. 
 
 The Apprentice, or Training System, originated in 1837, re- 
 constructed in 18?o, and since quite fully and successfully 
 developed, is designed for training boys enlisted between the 
 ages of sixteen and eighteen 3'ears. for the duties of common sea- 
 men and those of petty officers. These "'warrant officers" as 
 they are called to distinguish them from commissioned officers, 
 are appointed by the President from among the more skillful 
 and meritorious Seamen, Boatswains, Gunners, Carpenters and 
 Sailmakers. The boys who are enlisted as apprentices are placed 
 on board "Training Ships" where they are instructed sufficiently 
 long to become thoroughly familiar with the duties of sea- 
 men, when they are transferred to cruising vessels, as needed. 
 They are enlisted only for the time to elapse before they are 
 
THE ARTICLES OF THE NAVY. 351 
 
 twenty one years old. Other Seamen are enlisted for five 
 years. 
 
 The Marine Corps is a small body of soldiery designed to 
 guard naval Shipyards and Stations, and to be placed on ves- 
 sels as a police or fighting force, as may be required. This 
 Corps is officered in the same way as in the army, its Command- 
 ant having the relative rank of Brigadier-General. It has all 
 the officers usual in a Brigade of the same size in the Army 
 with the same names. Its members are subject to the Articles 
 of the Nav}^ ''except when cooperating with the Army, when it 
 is governed according to the Articles of War." Enlistments in- 
 to it may be made directly from civil life as in the army. Pro- 
 motions and command in it are kept separate from that of the 
 Navy officers. Though in the Navy they are not of it, doing on- 
 ly police or military duty in connection with it. 
 
 The Articles for the Government of the Navy, are sim- 
 ilar to the Articles of War, but adapted to the different charac- 
 ter of the Service. The discipline prescribed may be said to be 
 more peremptory, and more carefully guarded, both in the pun- 
 ishment of offenses and in precautions against the abuse of the 
 power necessarily intrusted to the commanders of vessels. Only 
 temporary punishment may be inflicted by the commander, all 
 but slight offenses being tried by Court-Martial, as in the Army. 
 Twenty different offenses are specified as punishable by death in 
 the discretion of a Naval Court-Martial, and many other severe 
 punishments may be inflicted. These may be revised or approved 
 by the Commander of the Squadron when on Squadron Duty, but 
 must be laid before the Secretary and the President for approval 
 unless the case is too urgent for such delay. 
 
 Twenty-four Chaplains may be appointed in the Navy. Unless 
 they resign or are removed for cause, they usually remain as 
 such while capable of active service. They are required to re- 
 port regularly to the Secretary of the Navy as to their official 
 duties. 
 
 The Seaman finds many more elements of danger on the 
 ocean, in the ordinary course of his occupations, than the lands- 
 man, and his dangers are greatly increased beyond those of sol- 
 diers in a battle, when a deadly conflict occurs between two 
 armed vessels. Confined in a narrow space, he has few of the 
 opportunities for changing position to shield himself by the nat- 
 ural or artificial defences or by rapid movement that are often 
 
352 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 offered the soldiers; and in case of failure he can leave the ves- 
 sel only to find a yet more inexorable enemy in the sea. He 
 must conquer, perish, or become a prisoner, while a soldier has 
 many more favorable chances. The Seaman, therefore, is al- 
 lowed some compensation for these disadvantages and is encour- 
 aged to exert all possible valor and skill by having lawfully 
 given to him the vessels he can capture with their contents as 
 
 Prizes. 
 
 That no innocent parties may suffer, and that the value of the 
 prize may be equitably divided, very careful provision is made, 
 by law, for a complete investigation by proper courts, and for 
 such a procedure in estimating and dividing prize money as will 
 secure justice to all concerned. The Secretary of the Treasury 
 takes care that Prize Commissioners are appointed to take 
 charge of the property and bring the case before the United 
 States Court. To these Commissioners the captors send the 
 papers of the prize, and suitable representations and witnesses 
 to prove the facts of the case. The Court examines, decides and 
 makes award according to provisions of law. If the prize taken 
 was equal or superior to the vessel or vessels making it, the 
 whole value goes to the seamen. If inferior, one-half goes to the 
 United States to be paid into the Navy Pension Fund. A portion 
 of the prize money, never exceeding a fifth, goes to the superior 
 officers of the portion of the fleet concerned. The remainder is 
 divided between all the parties making the capture in proportion 
 to the regular pay they receive from the Government by law. 
 Certain bounties are also given by the Government, in case the 
 vessel attacked is destroyed by the United States vessels, which 
 are distributed the same as prize money. 
 
 Letters of Marque and Reprisal are sometimes given to 
 private vessels making war on the vessels of the enemy cf the 
 United States. This authorizes the private vessel to such acts 
 of war, and prevents their being considered as pirates by the 
 Law of Nations. The inducement is the prize money, which is 
 adjudged in the same way as if the vessels capturing prizes had 
 belonged to the Government, only that the whole value of the 
 prize belongs to the captors in all cases. Prizes are often taken 
 into the ports of a foreign country and sold. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. 
 
 It was the policy of the United States Government at its open- 
 ing to concentrate the business of the country in a very few great 
 Departments. Three Secretaries formed the Cabinet at Wash- 
 ington. The States were thinly settled, the people were gener- 
 ally comfortable, but few were rich. All they could spare was 
 needed in building new foundations, in breaking new land and 
 promoting new industries, 'all of which were to make them rich 
 in the near future. The Public Debt was a moderate number of 
 millions, the whole public income was for ten years less than 
 that number of millions yearly (it was less than five in 1791), and 
 there was a common desire among the people to extinguish the 
 debt soon. The policy of Jefferson and his party seemed to some 
 mean and to others unpatriotic, they advocated an economy so 
 close and careful. But the precedent was of great value to fu- 
 ture times, it so encouraged? the spirit of thrift in the people. 
 
 The Heads of Departments received very small sal- 
 aries — and continue yet to do so, compared with similar officers 
 in European Governments. They are scarcely larger to this day, 
 when the cost of living and the comparative value of money 
 then and now are considered. As the country grew and public 
 business accumulated, it was classified and organized in separate 
 Bureaus, under subordinate heads with still more modest salar- 
 ies. They were supervised by such of the Cabinet officers al- 
 ready established as was found most convenient. The habit of 
 economy has always remained substantially the same with Gov- 
 ernment and people. Every fresh call on the public Treasury is 
 regarded with suspicion and denounced by the legislators, papers 
 and party in opposition with great acrimony. Sometimes pro- 
 posed expenditures that might, perhaps, be as useful as the seed 
 of the farmer in springtime are stubbornly opposed and the fail- 
 ure to authorize them becomes a real misfortune; but more dis- 
 23 (353) 
 
35-i THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 cussion and clearer light usually removes the opposition, in such 
 cases. The general habit of careful economy inherited from the 
 past is invaluable. 
 
 By 1850 the population of the country was nearly six times as 
 large as in 1790 and its resources and business had become incal- 
 culably greater. The vast expansion of all public interests de- 
 manded more care and consideration. The Postmaster General 
 and the Attorney General had already been found of so much 
 importance as to require their presence i.a the Cabinet consulta- 
 tions, and the many general interests of the interior of the coun- 
 trv required a special representative in that bod}'. England has 
 four Secretaries of State for different parts of its territory: the 
 Secretary of State for Home Affairs, or the Island of Great 
 Britain, the Secretaries of State for Ireland, for India, and for 
 the Colonies. The American Secretary of State, after 1849, gave 
 his attention almost entirely to the Department of Foreign 
 Affairs: the Secretary of "War gave up the care of the Indians to 
 the new Department of the Interior then created; and he and 
 the Secretary of the Kavy gave up to it the Bureau of Pensions, 
 and disabled soldiers and sailors were looked after by the Secre- 
 tary of the new Department. The Secretary of the Treasury 
 also found his hands full enough without the Land Office, which 
 was turned over also to the Secretary of the Interior. He be- 
 came a virtual Secretary of State for Home Affairs. 
 
 The Interior Department was established by a law of March. 
 1849. After the Civil War great developments in the business 
 and activity of the country led to the establishment of several 
 new Bureaus, and a very great increase in the work of the old 
 ones. The Secretary superintends the working of them all and 
 exercises the powers of the Executive in seeing that the laws are 
 observed and that the views of the President are duly carried 
 out. His duties are very onerous and extensive, and he is very 
 properly supplied with a permanent Assistant Secretary, besides 
 one or two others appointed, as circumstrnces require, to sign 
 documents for him when they accumulate in the Bureaus. The 
 Secretary of the Interior is now charged with the supervision of 
 ten classes of Public Business. Several of these do not require 
 separate Bureaus. 
 
 The care of The Territories of the Uxi ted States was 
 committed to him in 1873. Previously the Secretary of State 
 had represented the President in regard to those but partially 
 
 I 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE CENSUS BUREAU. 355 
 
 inhabited and organized parts of the country. The Territo- 
 ries are under the control of Congress much more fully than 
 the States, and the President and Senate appoint most of the 
 officers, including the Governor. A Territorial Legislature 
 makes laws according to local needs; but the President must see 
 that both officers and Legislatures keep within the provisions of 
 law, and is therefore required to give constant attention to them. 
 This oversight is immediately exercised by the Secretary of the 
 Interior. 
 
 Government Asylums for the Insane and for the Deaf and 
 Dumb are established in the District of Columbia, and the super- 
 vision of these is committed to the Secretary of the Interior. 
 The Insane Asylum was established by Congress for the treat- 
 ment and care of the insane of the Army and Navy and of the 
 District of Columbia. It has a Superintendent appointed by the 
 Secretary of the Interior. Insane persons are admitted on the 
 order of the Secretary and money appropriated for the sup- 
 port of the Asylum must be obtained from the Treasury on his 
 order. The Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb is char- 
 tered and aided by Congress, but other contributors to its funds 
 have a voice in the election of its President and other acting 
 officers of the Institution. The Secretary of the Interior admits 
 indigent students, in specified cases, by official order. The offi- 
 cers make a report to him annually, and he exercises a degree 
 of supervision over the affairs of the Institution in behalf of the 
 Government, without, however, interfering with the action of 
 its chartered authorities. 
 
 The Census Bureau is organized and supervised by the Sec- 
 retary of the Interior under such regulations as are contained in 
 the Constitution and laws. The Constitution provides that a cen- 
 sus should be made every ten years. As the first one was taken 
 in 1790 the second followed in 1800 and one every ten years there- 
 after; the census of 1880 was, therefore, the tenth. A Superin- 
 tendent is placed at its head by the Secretary as the time for it 
 approaches. The Bureau has usually been dissolved as soon as 
 its work was completed. Congress usually creates a law defin- 
 ing what information besides that directed by the Constitution 
 shall be collected, and determines any special organization or 
 mode of working that it may deem best, as well as makes the 
 necessary appropriation for it. 
 
 A year or more previously the law is commonly passed, the 
 
356 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Superintendent is appointed, plans are matured, and blanks pre- 
 pared under the law and at the direction of the Secretary of the 
 Interior. Superintendents of census work in the field, or Census 
 Marshals, are appointed in each state by the President and Sen- 
 ate. These employ as many subordinates as may be necessary 
 under the direction of the Superintendent of the Census Bureau. 
 The first six censuses, or until 1850, did not attempt very much 
 besides the enumeration of the people. This was very carefully 
 done because, after every such enumeration, the Representatives 
 to Congress were to be rearranged among the States according 
 to the population as so found. But industrial, social and various 
 other statistics began to be extensively gathered from the time 
 of the Seventh Census. 
 
 The arrangements made by the law passed for taking the Cen- 
 sus of 1880 were much more complete than for any previous one. 
 A large number of expert Special Agents were engaged to ob- 
 tain and compile many classes of facts and statistics not before 
 undertaken, or gathered very imperfectly, because of the diffi- 
 culty of ascertaining the facts, and for the want of agents who 
 understood the subject and knew just when they had or had not 
 obtained them. For these last purposes special Sub-Bureaus 
 were organized by the Superintendent of the Census. The offi- 
 cers of these made a prolonged inquiry, by correspondence, or 
 by traveling agents, or both, and sifted the information gained 
 thoroughly, making fresh researches whenever previous ones 
 had not gathered all that was needed to complete the subject. 
 
 Under this more thorough and extended plan every class of 
 facts gathered and published was more complete than ever be- 
 fore and various wholly new statistics of branches of the na- 
 tional condition, business, and progress were undertaken. 
 
 The Bureau of the Census received all these facts and figures, 
 carefully examined and classified them, and so presented a com- 
 plete statement, in a small compass, of the people of the United 
 States, their activities and their wealth and resources, from 
 every point of view that might be considered of interest or 
 value. As it was the first attempt at thoroughness and com- 
 pleteness it is not unlikely that the experience gained may sug- 
 gest more perfect methods and various changes for future cen- 
 suses. The Bureau employed many hundreds of clerks and still 
 required a long time to prepare the results for publication. 
 These results when complete fill many volumes. 
 
THE LAND OFFICE AND ITS COMMISSIONER. 357 
 
 The General Land Office is a Bureau of the Interior 
 Department; but it has grown to such dimensions as to be almost 
 a department in itself. The vast regions west of the States bor- 
 dering the Mississippi River were but slightly settled, and many 
 parts very imperfectly explored before the close of the Civil 
 War. Much more than half the entire territory of the United 
 States still remained in the hands of the Government, awaiting 
 purchase and occupation by private parties. In a few years the 
 Pacific Railway was completed from the Missouri River to San 
 Francisco, giving quick and easy access to the Pacific States 
 and the heart of the Rocky Mountain and mining regions. 
 Branch railways soon began to creep out from this central trunk 
 line and to push across the Plains east of the Mountains from 
 other points on the Missouri and Mississippi. Great mining 
 enterprises began; it was found that much of the most fertile 
 soil of the country lay among the mountain valleys or on their 
 eastern or western slopes. Of these a large and steady emigra- 
 tion began to take possession by gift — " Homesteading" — or 
 purchase from the Government. This made it necessary for the 
 Land Office to institute extensive surveys, and make the most 
 careful study and record of all lands not left to the Indians 
 by treaty. Local offices had to be opened everywhere 
 that surveys had been made. These were only outlying- 
 agents of the central office, for sales and transfers of land 
 could only be finally completed by the Bureau itself. All 
 the Regulations, Blanks and Deeds must originate there — 
 every important transaction must be examined, recorded and 
 completed there. 
 
 At the head of this Bureau was placed a Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office. A special Seal to be affixed to Land 
 Patents was made and placed in his care. The transaction of 
 the business required various subordinate bureaus through 
 which he attended to the execution of the Land Laws. The Re- 
 corder of the General Land Office, the Chief Clerk of the Public 
 Lands, the Chief Clerk on Private Land Claims, the Chief Clerk 
 of Surveys, were placed at the head of as many distinct offices. 
 All these, as well as the Commissioner himself, received appoint- 
 ment from the President and Senate. All Patents conveying 
 title to lands must be made out in the name of the United States, 
 signed by the President and countersigned by the Recorder. The 
 President appoints a special Secretary to sign his name and the 
 
358 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 signature is authenticated by the Seal of the Land Office affixed 
 by the Recorder. 
 
 The Surveys of Public Lands must precede, and form the basis 
 of all other business of the Land Office. The Field-work of sur- 
 veying is, therefore, of great importance. The region contain- 
 ing unsurveyed Public Lands is districted by law, and the Presi- 
 dent and Senate appoint Surveyors-Generai for each of these 
 Districts. They are commissioned for four years. The Surveyor- 
 General opens an office at a place in his District designated by 
 law or by the President. He employs Deputy-Surveyors for the 
 actual work and such assistants and clerks as may be necessary 
 for representing on maps and charts the exact condition of the 
 lands surveyed. These and all other important facts are trans- 
 mitted to the General Land Office, where the lands are classified 
 according to their quality and the circumstances relating to 
 them, and become subject to sale or such other disposal as may 
 be provided for by law. 
 
 In this process the Public Lands are constantly and rapidly 
 diminished, but the original quantity was so vast that it will be 
 long before the business of the Land Office can sensibly diminish. 
 The area of Public Lands surveyed up to the close of the fiscal 
 year 1880 was over 752,500,000 acres, leaving something over one 
 thousand and sixty-two million yet to be surveyed — or about 
 three hundred million acres more than one-half of the original 
 quantity I The entire surface of the United States and Terri- 
 tories, including Alaska, is about two thousand three hundred 
 million acres. ISTearly two-thirds of the whole, therefore, re- 
 mained unsurveyed in 1880. Alaska has about three hundred 
 and eighty million acres. If that be deducted from the unsur- 
 veyed Public Lands it would leave about an equal quantity sur- 
 veyed and unsurveyed in the body of the country. Much of this 
 unsurveyed portion consists of mountainous and seemingly sterile 
 regions; but the mountains abound in mines and desert regions 
 will be, in great part, reclaimed and rendered fertile when suffi- 
 ciently needed to lead to suitable measures for that purpose. The 
 great need is moisture and means will be found to irrigate them. 
 
 Private Land Claims, arising from grants by the authority of 
 the Spanish and Mexican authorities before the United States 
 acquired them, and from a great variety of other circumstances, 
 require to be investigated and acted on; United States grants to 
 States, Railroad Companies, Soldiers, and others, involve much 
 
EAILROAD ACCOUNTS AND PENSIONS. 359 
 
 study; and the transfer of titles to Homesteaders, Preemptors, 
 and Cash Purchasers, on conditions fulfilled only after years 
 from the preliminary entries and the conditions of whose claims 
 require to be fully met before Patents can be made out, demand 
 extensive and perfect records. Sometimes intricate legal ques- 
 tions are involved, requiring the official investigation and deci- 
 sion of the Secretary of the Interior, or a suit at law, to be 
 prosecuted or defended by the General Land Office. The care 
 of Reservations for National Parks, and a great variety of mis- 
 cellaneous business regarding the Public Domain — continually 
 increasing and more intricate as settlements multiply and 
 business about it becomes more active — accumulate work for 
 this Bureau. Not the least of these increasing interests under 
 the cognizance of the General Land Office are mining lands, 
 mining claims, and timber on the Public Domain. This last 
 becomes more important as the sources of general timber supply 
 in the organized States diminish. All these, and probably many 
 new subjects, will multiply the labors of the Bureau for a long 
 time to come. 
 
 The Bureau of Railroad Accounts has at its head, the Auditor 
 of Railroad Accounts. This office was required in consequence 
 of aid given by the Government, in land and bonds, to various 
 western railways, chiefly west of the Mississippi river, and more 
 especially, to the first Transcontinental, or Pacific Railway. The 
 Government supplied the company building this last road 
 with money by its bonds to the extent of over sixty four million 
 dollars, and certain conditions were attached to the Land Grants 
 to this and various other Railways the maintenance of which 
 required a degree of executive supervision which could best be 
 exerted through a special Bureau. A Sinking Fund was provid- 
 ed from the earnings of the Pacific Railway for the ultimate re- 
 payment of the loan, and all the land-grant railroads were re- 
 quired to conform to lawful conditions. There are, therefore 
 extensive accounts to be rendered, audited and settled, inspec- 
 tions to be made from time to time, and Reports concerning the 
 condition, finances, and business of these roads. All these 
 are attended to, and reported to the Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior, by this Bureau. The Secretary in his turn reports the 
 same through the President to Congress. 
 
 The Pension Bureau. 
 
 This Office has at its head a Commissioner of Pensions assisted 
 
360 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTilENT. 
 
 by a Deputv-Commissioner, a Medical Referee, and a Chief Clerk 
 of the Bureau. It has been the custom of the United States, al- 
 most from the time of the organization of the Government under 
 the Constitution, to pension the soldiers and sailors who were 
 disabled during a period of war, and also the dependent families 
 of those who were killed in battle or who died in consequence of 
 wounds received or of disease contracted in the service. A re- 
 tiring pension is also given to military officers and enlisted men 
 who have grown old in long and faithful service and are no 
 longer fitted for its duties. In 1861 there were between eight and 
 nine thousand pensioners on the list. This list grew rapidly to- 
 ward the close of the Civil "War. In 1870 it was about two hun- 
 dred thousand and, in June, 1880, two hundred and fifty thousand. 
 
 The Pension Office, in executing the provisions of pension 
 laws, first receives applications, which are filed, numbered and 
 examined, and if the applicant proves to belong to any of the 
 classes entitled to pensions files the name on a list corresponding 
 in class and amount. Pension Pay Agents are appointed by the 
 President and Senate for various suitable localities throughout 
 the country who pay to the pensioners the amount due them at 
 times determined by law. 
 
 Blanks are prepared by the Commissioner of Pensions for 
 such affidavits and facts as are required to prove a Pension 
 claim, statements from Army and Xavy Records and examina- 
 tions by authorized Surgeons, or other Boards of Examiners, are 
 gathered and adjudicated upon by the officers of the Bureau. 
 The clerical force required for correspondence, examination, 
 records and accounts is very large and special Agents are' em- 
 ployed in cases where a suspicion of fraud attaches to the papers 
 presented in proof. Of nearly 700,000 Army and Xavy pension 
 claims made from 1S61 to 1880 more than half had been rejected 
 or were pending investigation in the latter year. The Pension 
 Laws will be discussed in another chapter. 
 
 Various laws of Congress removing restrictions to the payment 
 of Invalid Pensions, especially as the period of financial difficulty 
 and struggle approached its close, greatly increased the labors 
 of this Bureau and the sums annually required to be paid out of 
 the Treasury for that purpose. This, however, will gradually 
 diminish as time passes. Up to 1881 about 8500,000,000 had been 
 paid to invalid soldiers and sailors since the beginning of the 
 Civil War twenty years before. 
 
THE PATENT OFFICE AND PATENT LAWS, 361 
 
 In lieu of pensions to soldiers and sailars not invalids, or in- 
 jured or dying in the service of the United States, lands have 
 sometimes been given by the Government from the Public Do- 
 main of Surveyed lands. These were called Bounty Lands. The 
 fact of service was required to be proved, in a manner similar to 
 that of pension claims to the Commissioner of Pensions, who 
 then issued Land Warrants which the Commissioner of the Gen- 
 eral Land office was required to have located in such region, 
 containing surveyed public lands, as the holder might designate. 
 These Land Warrants were transferable and could be sold if the 
 recipient preferred. 
 
 The Patent Office. 
 
 This Bureau of the Interior Department was transferred 
 to it from the Department of State in 1849. Its existence 
 results from a provision of the Constitution conferring on 
 Congress the authority to enact laws ''to promote the progress 
 of Science and useful arts by securing, for limited times, to 
 authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their writings and 
 discoveries," A Patent Law was passed by the First Congress 
 to encourage invention. It was many years before the spirit of 
 invention was fully roused, but when that was once done it 
 steadily grew with the growth of American enterprise and pros- 
 perity, and became one of the chief forces of material progress. 
 The ideas and hints of students in the Old World presently be- 
 gan to bear fruit in the ingenious and practical mind of the 
 Anglo-American. The principles and beginnings of the most 
 important inventions, commonly originated in Europe, were de- 
 veloped more perfectly and applied to new uses by Americans, 
 resulting in incalculable gain to the United States and the world. 
 By them men increased a hundred fold their power to reach re- 
 sults. The application of natural forces by ingeniously arranged 
 machinery relieved man from a vast amount of drudgery and 
 wearing physical labor. This was especially useful in the de- 
 velopment of a new country of great extent and vast resources 
 like the United States. 
 
 The Patent laws became a great encouragement to inventors, 
 and often enabled them to get the aid of moneyed men to perfect 
 inventions which, when successful, frequently secured fortunes 
 to all connected with the ownership of the Patent. Thus the 
 Cotton-Gin, the Steamboat, and a multitude of other inventions, 
 
362 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 whose ultimate effect was to enrich the whole country, were se- 
 cured. A Patent gives legal ownership of his invention to the 
 inventor, or to whomsoever he may assign it or be in legal pos- 
 session of it. The owner of a patented article has the exclusive 
 right to make use of it for his profit, and to dispose of the right 
 to manufacture and sell it in any specified place. 
 
 The time during which a patent gives exclusive ownership is 
 seventeen years. At the expiration of this time an extension of 
 the patent may be obtained in some cases. To secure an exten- 
 sion for seven years, the owner of the patent must file proof with 
 the Commissioner of Patents that he has not been reasonably 
 remunerated; his application for extension is published and who- 
 ever is concerned to prevent it may also file proof why it should 
 not be extended. The Examiners and the Commissioner then 
 decide on the case, and grant or refuse an extension. As much 
 profit, sometimes amounting to a fortune, is often involved in a 
 Patent Right, violent contests often arise over them and the 
 Courts of Law are appealed to. Sometimes the Courts require 
 the Commissioner to give a patent after he has refused to do so 
 from examination, and many suits at law arise over interferences 
 of different patents and violations of them by manufacturers and 
 vendors. Every article made or issued under a patent must be 
 so marked. 
 
 The Commissioner of Patents is at the head of the Bureau. 
 He is aided by an Assistant Commissioner, a Chief Clerk of the 
 Bureau, and several Chief Examiners, with a large corps of 
 examining clerks and other helpers. The work is very exten- 
 sive. In 1880, 20,990 applications were filed, that number being 
 1,690 more than in 1879. The expense of the Patent Office was 
 intended to be borne by the parties seeking patents, and the fees 
 paid on application, on the patent when granted, when extension 
 is applied for and when granted, and for various other services re- 
 quired of the Office, are determined by law. They are of con- 
 siderable amount. The smallest fee for which a patent for 
 seventeen years can be obtained is thirty-five dollars, and may, 
 ;n some cases, cost hundreds of dollars, in fees alone. 
 
 Drawings and descriptions of all patents are published by the 
 Patent Office and supplied to libraries and authorities in all parts 
 of the country for the information of all whose interests may be 
 involved. In most cases models are furnished to the examiners 
 by the inventor, and these are preserved in the office. Various 
 
TRADE MARKS AND PUBLIC DOCUMENTS. 363 
 
 changes have been made from time to time in the Patent Laws. 
 Sometimes they are felt as a vexatious bm-den on business and 
 the interests of the people, and the owners often lay an unrea- 
 sonable tax on their manufacture. On the whole, the country 
 appears to have been a great gainer by the powerful stimulus so 
 given to inventive genius. 
 
 Trade Marks are also examined, to prevent similarity in any 
 two, and are recorded in the Patent Office under certain condi- 
 tions of law and regulations of the Commissioner of Patents 
 A fee of twenty-five dollars is required for examining and record- 
 ing a Trade Mark, and the protection conferred by it on manu- 
 facturers and merchants affixing it to their goods remains in 
 force for thirty years. It may then be renewed on application 
 accompanied with the same fee as at first. 
 
 The Superintendent of Public Documents, 
 
 The Secretary of the Interior is charged with the care and dis- 
 tribution, according to provisions of law, of all publications 
 ordered by Congress except the Statutes of the United States, 
 which are placed in the care of the Secretary of State, and of 
 books and documents for the special use of Congress itself, of 
 the President, and the Executive Departments — these being de- 
 livered by the printer directly to the authorities authorized to 
 receive them. A Superintendent is appointed by the Secretary. 
 He has charge of the rooms in which the Public Documents are 
 stored in the Interior Department, of their preservation, pack- 
 ing and distribution. 
 
 These Documents consist,generally,of the Journals of Congress, 
 the regular and occasional Reports of all Executive and other 
 officers of the Government, published for distribution among 
 officers and the people for their information. Those designed 
 for the public at large are distributed on the order of Members 
 of Congress or on individual application. 
 
 The Superintendent also compiles and superintends the publi- 
 cation of the Biennial Register. This contains a full list of "all 
 the officers, clerks, employes, and agents, civil, military and 
 naval, in the service of the United States," with the salaries, or 
 pay, they receive, their birth-place, date of appointment, etc. 
 
 The Returns Office, under the charge of a Returns Clerk, 
 receives and files the returns of all contracts made by the 
 Departments of War, Navy, and Interior. These contracts are 
 numbered, recorded and open to the inspection of any one desir- 
 
364 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ing to see them. Copies of these contract returns may also be 
 obtained at the Returns Office. This is sometimes necessary for 
 legal purposes, and carries out the principle constantly insisted 
 on by United States law that all the acts of the Gfovernment, 
 and especially in money matters, shall be always open to the 
 scrutiny and judgment of the people. 
 
 The Bureau of Education. — This office was organized in the 
 Interior Department by a law of 1867, "the purpose and duties 
 of which ■' were ' ' to collect statistics and facts showing the con- 
 dition and progress of education in the several States and Terri- 
 tories, and to diffuse such information respecting the organiza- 
 tion and management of schools and school-systems and methods 
 of teaching " as should '' promote the cause of education through- 
 out the country." The whole country, and especially the General 
 Government, expressly organized to care for general interests, 
 is deeply concerned in the proper and thoroughly satisfactory 
 education of its youth. This Bureau expresses that interest and 
 takes care to do — what the central authority alone is able to ac- 
 complish properly — all that is possible to bring into notice the 
 best and most successful systems, give information, not readily 
 obtainable otherwise, of the m-ethods in use throughout the 
 country and among foreign nations, and in every suitable way 
 stimulate the friends of education to the highest and wisest 
 activity. 
 
 The Bureau is not invested with authority to control the edu- 
 cational systems of the States, nor undertake even to establish 
 any system at all. That would be contrary to the practice and 
 policy of the people and the Government. A monarchical gov- 
 ernment takes the lead in everything, decides on everything, and 
 furnishes the money for the support of institutions. Of course 
 it mu3t tax the people to obtain the money. This it will often 
 spend in a way not suitable or satisfactory to many localities 
 and classes, and it often resists very important reforms and 
 changes. Progress is often very slow and interrupted because 
 only the Government can act. In a Republic where government 
 IS by and for the people a different principle rules. The Gen- 
 eral Government acts where only general action is required; 
 when the action is in a matter of local interest then States, Dis- 
 tricts, Counties and Cities manage to suit themselves. 
 
 In the United States, schools are organized under State laws 
 by State and municipal authorities, as the people of each State 
 
 i 
 
THE USES OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 365 
 
 or section decide. It is their children that are to be educated; 
 they naturally are deeply interested, must have their choice of 
 methods and teachers and should have control of the money to 
 be spent. Any other mode would be that of a centralized Gov- 
 ernment acting for the people, as it deemed best and only par- 
 tially as the people might desire. That system has always proved 
 to have many inconveniences and bad consequences. Govern- 
 ment should be so far decentralized that only what communities, 
 or fractions of the Nation, could not do should be done by the 
 General Government. The Constitution vested power in the 
 Government it created only for general purposes and the people 
 have done well to be jealous of any effort by it to extend its con- 
 trol beyond the necessary point. 
 
 For these reasons the Bureau of Education has no proper 
 executive authority. Congress has never assumed the right to 
 pass laws enforcing any system of education, even on the Terri- 
 tories. The Education Office has nothing to enforce. Yet it is 
 none the less important that the best methods should prevail, 
 and that the people should know what are in use in this and 
 other countries. At the head of the Bureau is the Commissioner 
 of Education, who gathers this information, collects all the 
 statistics of education obtainable, and publislies it in the form of 
 annual Reports to the Secretary of the Interior, and of occasional 
 Bulletins to the public, and distributes these to all who are 
 interested to receive them. 
 
 There is a large amount of work to be done. The particular 
 information wanted is mostly gained by correspondence, or 
 sifted out from a great mass of local documentary matter and 
 completed by a series of special inquiries. A Chief Clerk, a 
 Statistician and a Translator take charge of the details of in- 
 quiry, compilation, printing and distribution. The Bureau is 
 the center to which educators turn for suggestions, and through 
 which they make suggestions to the country. Educational 
 organizations abound everywhere and prefer to control their 
 own work; but the Bureau is probably a much more vigorous 
 force for eschewing authority and offering only information and 
 ideas. It has the prestige of being a Government organ while it 
 stirs up no antagonism by interference. 
 
 The Government has donated large quantities of land for the 
 endowment of State School Systems and particular classes of in- 
 stitutions, and has earned the gratitude of the people of all 
 
366 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 classes. Its tender of information and counsel through this 
 Bureau is likely to unify and inspire all systems and communi- 
 ties and render the people as eminent for intelligence as they are 
 favored by nature and by the circumstances of their history. 
 
 The Public Works being prosecuted by the Government in 
 execution of laws and appropriations of Congress are divided 
 among several Departments. The appropriations for the im- 
 provement of Rivers and Harbors are expended under the direction 
 of the Engineering Bureau of the War Department, which also 
 includes fortifications and various public buildings and grounds 
 — usually those connected with that branch of the service, but 
 not necessarily, the abilities and leisure of the skilled officers of 
 that service being employed so as best to serve the country 
 
 The Treasury Department has charge of a wide range of Gov- 
 ernment construction, through its Construction-Bureau and the 
 Superintendent of Public Buildings. These are chiefl}^ structures 
 for the use of the Customs, Internal Revenue, and Postal Ser- 
 vices. The Navy Department has charge of its own buildings 
 and grounds at Navy Yards and Naval Hospitals. The Interior 
 Department has less of this to do, but its Secretary is charged 
 wiui a degree of supervision over the Architect of Capitol who 
 directs the expenditure of the appropriations for that Edifice, 
 the Grounds around it, and the buildings occupied by the Public 
 Printer. The Architect of the Capitol reports to the Secretary 
 of the Interior, who has also the care of the buildings occupied 
 by his own Department, and various other buildings in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia. 
 
 The duties of this Secretary are therefore numerous and ex- 
 tremely important. The Public Domain, in general, the in- 
 terests of Reservations and of Territories, of the public as con- 
 nected with Geological, Land and Mining Surveys, and with the 
 issue of Patents and Public Documents, of the Indians and of 
 general Education, of Pensions, of Hospitals, Asy- 
 lums and buildings about Washington, and the taking of the 
 Census, all these include an extreme variety and widespread ex- 
 tent of cares and the oversight of multitudes of officers and 
 agents. He is brought in close relations with the weightiest pe- 
 cuniary interests of many millions of the people and the general 
 internal policy of the Government is moulded, or to a large ex- 
 tent influenced, by his genius and fertility in expedients and 
 valuable suggestions. That policy is, indeed, tlie general pro- 
 
THE INFLUENCE OF THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. 367 
 
 duct of a century of precedents and customs, is embodied in law 
 and under the direct control of Congress. He, however, may- 
 procure its modification by cogent recommendations and by the 
 mode of its execution under his regulations. He is a very import- 
 ant member of the Executive Branch of the Government. 
 
CHAPTEE XX. 
 
 THE INDIAN POLICY AND INDIAN -IFFAIRS. 
 
 The relations of the United States Government to the descend- 
 ants of the Indian tribes who were in possession of the country 
 when Anglo-American settlement commenced, are conducted by 
 the President through the Secretary of the Interior, and by him 
 through The Bureau of Ixdiax Affairs. 
 
 This Bureau is almost a Department in itself from the import- 
 ance and variety of the affairs with which it is required to deal. 
 While extensive regions remained in the territory of the United 
 States which were net required, or desired, for settlement by the 
 citizens, it was the policy of the Government to interfere with 
 the Indian tribes occupying them as little as possible, while they 
 did not interfere with the border settlements. But the discovery 
 of the precious metals on the Pacific Coast, and subsequently in 
 almost every part of the vast Rocky Mountain region, gradually 
 produced, first, travel across the slope, or the ''Plains," on the 
 east of that range, and over the mountains, and then numerous 
 settlements about rich mining centers. Much valuable agricul- 
 tural land was found and farms were opened to supply the local 
 markets. The railroads penetrated the Plains and the Mountains, 
 and finally organized Territories and States covered the 
 whole of a region much larger than the area of the previous 
 States. 
 
 This progressive interference with regions occupied by a large 
 number of Indian tribes in their native wildness, and successive 
 occupation of the lands they had previously considered as ex- 
 clusively their own, required the formation of treaties, the pur- 
 chase of Indian lands, the distribution of annual supplies by 
 Government agents, and the gradual concentration of the various 
 tribes on Reservations, each with an '"Agency" to execute the 
 provisions of treaties and to guard against the intrusion of un- 
 authorized white men. The appointment, oversight and supply 
 of all these Indian agents required a special Bureau. Over it 
 
 (368) 
 
WANT OF ADAPTxVTIOis^ IN THE INDIAN POLICY. 369 
 
 was placed the Commissioner of Indian Affairs under the direc- 
 tion oY the Secretary of the Interior. Formerly this Bureau was 
 connected with the War Department. 
 
 The Secretary has been required to give special attention to the 
 Indian Policy and the general conduct of Indian Affairs by the 
 difficulties which bristled from almost every side of the Indian 
 Question. The Indians resented intrusion on them, and were 
 often maltreated by whites with whom they came in contact ; 
 deadly strife was a favorite occupation with them, and they 
 were almost constantly breaking out into war somewhere in the 
 vast Territories where they were jostled on so many sides and 
 had so many lines drawn about them. The traditional Govern- 
 ment policy of holding them as independent nations to be inter- 
 fered with only as provided by treaties, to be negotiated with 
 diplomatically, as if equals, to have their tribal customs and in- 
 ternal discipline and rule respected, was inappropriate when they 
 could no longer live by hunting and make war on each other 
 and all men at their own caprice. 
 
 These incongruities of theory and fact caused continual 
 difficulty at some point in the wide territorial field where the 
 Indians were so often disturbed by the ambitious schemes of 
 enterprising men and the prospecting of miners, eager to be the 
 first to discover a vein of precious metal that might make them 
 millionaires. Injudicious treatment caused a massacre and a 
 war, a public outcry against Indian management, a series of 
 negotiations with the tribes, to be conducted by the Secretary, 
 and of indignant charges against some Agent of the Bureau to 
 be investigated, a renewal of treaties and continual agitation and 
 alarm. 
 
 For this and other similar reasons, the Indian Bureau has never 
 been able to discharge its administrative duties in quiet, as most 
 other Bureaus have done; and the Secretary of the Interior has 
 been known to the public considerably more as manager of 
 Indian Affairs than by his connection with other branches of his 
 Department. To introduce suitable changes into the manage- 
 ment of Indian tribes would require changes in the general 
 policy followed since the Revolutionary War and embodied in a 
 large mass of legislation not easy to lay aside at once. Thus 
 the Secretary and the Bureau have had the added difficulties of 
 inappropriate legislation and popular misconception to contend 
 with. 
 
 ii4 
 
370 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Indians are children in some things, shrewd and determined 
 men in others. Simple, kindly and manageable to those whom 
 they trust and are fitted to deal with them, they are fierce sav- 
 ages to designing, inconsiderate, or well meaning but unskillful, 
 persons whom they distrust. It is not easy, therefore, to always 
 secure the services of the most suitable agents to represent the 
 Bureau and the Government among them. Bad and selfish men 
 in places of such trust, beyond the constant oversight of civil 
 ized society, create troubles that it takes long to cure. The In- 
 dian Problem, however, gradually solves itself by the necessities 
 of each case, and a growing perception of the general require- 
 ments by those who are obliged to deal with it as authors or ex- 
 ecutors of law. The principles of management that have grad- 
 ually been introduced by the Indian Bureau under the approval 
 of law seem likely to produce the results desired in the course of 
 time. In harmony with these new measures the problem will 
 gradually clear up and the troubles of the past will be removed. 
 
 These promising features of policy pursued by the Bureau 
 have an aim quite different from that which has led to so many 
 Indian treaties. Those treaties vv^ere based on the consideration 
 that the tribes were the original owners of the soil and separate 
 nations. It was intended to give them a fair equivalent for the 
 slight use they made of the lands, and to leave them free to fol- 
 low their own customs if they declined civilization. Large 
 money pa^inents — or that which cost money and would be more 
 useful thorn — were made every year, care was taken that 
 they did not seriously suffer for the loss of their hunting grounds, 
 and it was held that they had a just right to follow their own 
 customs. To carry out these theories was impossible because 
 the pressure of settlement and the frequent savage wars of the 
 Indians on the whites materially changed the conditions. The 
 Indians did not use the lands or the mines; when they made war 
 the treaties were useless: after they had been chastised new 
 treaties were made and more lands were taken from them for 
 settlement. 
 
 The treaties by which their title to lands was said to be "ex- 
 tinguished ■' Avere forced from them. It would have been better, 
 perhaps, to have adopted a different theory and system ; but 
 there was, until recently, avast unoccupied territory. There was 
 no reason why they should not occupy it and control themselves 
 in it, as formerly. Treaty tribes w^ere frequently moved into that 
 
HOW THE INDIAN QUESTION IS TO BE SOLVED. 371 
 
 territory and left mostly to themselves, because the Government 
 did not feel called upon to rule them, or ^ee it right to force them 
 to accept civilization. Yet the treaty system did not fit the cir- 
 cumstances. The Indians were really the wards of the Nation ; 
 it was impossible to allow a few thousand idle, useless savages 
 to hold boundless resources, which they could neither use nor 
 understand, locked in from the eager enterprise of the most ac- 
 tive and progressive of races when that race was ready to 
 develop them in the interest of all the world as well as to their 
 own advantage. 
 
 The treaties settled indefinite and changeable things too defin- 
 itely, and the Indian Policy adopted at first was not one that 
 could be permanent, or dispose of the subject finally. To settle 
 the manner in which that policy could best be changed became 
 the duty of the President, the Secretary of the Interior, and the 
 Indian Bureau. It was evident that the Indians must accept 
 civilization or be swept away. How they could be most effect- 
 ually led to that without suffering or injustice was the important 
 question whose answer the Executive through this Bureau found, 
 explained to Congress and the people, and, in some degree at 
 least, demonstrated as practicable through the management and 
 experience of the Indian Agents. 
 
 The Indians were encouraged to become cultivators of the 
 soil, herdsmen, teamsters, and soldiers in subordinate capacities. 
 Schools were established among them by the Agents, agricul- 
 tural implements were supplied, practical farming was taught 
 to them at each Agency, and preparations were made for 
 changes in the law and the introduction of United States Courts 
 and other civil institutions. These influences and changes all 
 led toward the dissolution of the tribal relation, the division of 
 the common lands belonging to the tribes among the individuals 
 forming it, and the final admission of Indians to the privileges 
 and duties of citizenship. This was a great work, too long neg- 
 lected, not understood until it was shown to be really practicable 
 under the efforts of the representatives of the Bureau at the 
 Agencies, but rendered absolutely necessary when the flood of 
 emigration spread over all the Plains, the Valleys and Mountain 
 slopes, and the Pacific Coast. 
 
 All the Indians in the territory of the United States, except 
 those of Alaska, are now assigned definite reservations and are 
 usually required to remain on them. There are about 353,000 in all 
 
372 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMEis^T. 
 
 the country exclusive of Alaska. Much more than a third of these 
 are already so considerably advanced in civilization as to have 
 really demonstrated how the whole Indian Problem is to be 
 solved. These are mostly in the Indian Territory south of Kan- 
 sas, or on other smaller Reservations where they have long- 
 been subjected to strong civilizing influences. In 1880 all the 
 Indians under the charge of the Bureau cultivated nearly 500,000 
 acres of land, raised nearly five million bushels of grain and 
 vegetables, and had about a million and a half, in all, of horses, 
 cattle, sheep and swine. The Indian Bureau has really done 
 m.uch excellent service to the country. At each Agency there 
 are farmers, mechanics, teachers and storehouses, all under the 
 supervision of the Agent. It was long difficult to get these 
 civilizing centers to working effectively, but they will accomplish 
 far more in the future than in the past. 
 
 The Central Bureau purchases the supplies for each Agency and 
 sees that they are duly delivered and distributed. It has become 
 a custom to enlist Indians as a police force to keep order in each 
 Reservation under the direction of the Agent. All the accounts 
 are examined and revised by the Bureau previous to sending them 
 to the Treasury accounting officers. In 1880 there were sixty- 
 seven Indian Agencies in the country, which was less than in pre- 
 vious years owing to the gradual concentration of the Indian tribes. 
 The amount now yearly expended for Indian education from all 
 sources is nearly $400,000. The expenses of the Indian Bureau 
 requiring annual appropriations by Congress are about $5,300,- 
 000; permanent Indian Annuities are somewhat over $360,000; 
 and other treaty payments, now annually made but to be finally 
 discontinued, amount to $1,425,000. These sums, altogether, show 
 an annual expenditure of nearly $8,500,000 for the support, care 
 and improvement of the condition of the 350,000 Indians in the 
 United States by the Government. The cost of the portion of 
 the Army required to police them, and chastise them when they 
 break out into open "warfare, cannot be less than the same sum 
 in addition. It is estimated that the Government has paid the 
 Indian tribes in its territory more than two hundred million dol- 
 lars for the title to their lands now in use by its citizens or open 
 to settlement. The cost of Indian wars, the waste of property in 
 them, the expense of negotiations and of Indian Agencies must 
 have been several times that amount. 
 
 A different policy might have seemed much more liberal at 
 
AN INAPPROPRIATE INDIAN POLICY. 373 
 
 much less expense, and perhaps might have been much more 
 successfuL The Government has intended, at least, to be just, 
 kind, and considerate; but the Policy did not meet all the re- 
 quirements of the case, the pressure of settlement has often been 
 irresistible, in defiance of the faith of treaties, and with all this 
 eare and expense, much odium has attached to Indian Manage- 
 ment. It was unavoidable under an inappropriate Policy. 
 
CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 When the Eevolutionary War closed the Thirteen United 
 States found themselves the heirs, by a successful war, confirmed 
 by the Treaty of 1783 with England, of a vast region lying be- 
 tween the western boundaries of those States and the Mississippi 
 River. Florida, the Gulf Coast, and the regions west of the Mis- 
 sissippi, confirmed to France by a treaty with England after the 
 Conquest of Canada in 1763, were in the posession of Spain, This 
 latter territory was transferred back to France in 1803 and at the 
 same time bought by the United States from Prance. Florida 
 was bought from Spain in 1819. The old French claims were 
 ultimately construed to cover, generally, all the present States 
 and Territories bordering the Mississippi and Missouri on the 
 west, leaving Texas, New Mexico, a part of Colorado, with all 
 south of the northern boundaries of Utah and California to 
 Spain. Within less than twenty years from the acquisition of 
 Florida, Texas separated from Mexico after a war of independ 
 ence. In a few years it was admitted into the Union as a State. 
 This admission resulted in a war between the United States and 
 Mexico. After this war, by the "Treaty of Guadelupe Hidal- 
 go" in 1848 and the "Gadsden Purchase" in 1853, all of Mexico 
 included in New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Upper California 
 came into the possession of the United States. In 1867 Alaska 
 was purchased from the Russian Government. 
 
 Thus the history of the United States reveals an Annexation 
 Policy on a vast scale. The first precedent in this series of en- 
 largements of the National Domain was made by Jefferson. It 
 was then thought that such acquisitions were not authorized by 
 the Constitution, but the need of obtaining control of the whole 
 course of the Mississippi River was pressing, circumstances were 
 just then peculiarly favorable, the public advantages of the ac- 
 quisition set aside all scruples, and the policy was inaugurated 
 
 (374) 
 
THE ACQUISITION AND AREA OF PUBLIC LANDS. 375 
 
 and followed up from time to time until 18G7. Some further ac- 
 quisitions in continuance of the same policy were soon after pro- 
 posed by preliminary negotiations for the possession of two of 
 the West India Islands ; but public sentiment favored the em- 
 ployment of all the public revenue possible to be spared to the 
 payment of the Debt and the tendency to the further increase of 
 the territory of the United States was arrested. Whether that 
 policy is to be resumed when the Public Debt is paid remains to 
 be seen. All English history seems to indicate that when a na- 
 tionpl tendency has become established by repeated precedents 
 it is not easily set aside completely, although peculiar circum- 
 stances may interrupt it for long periods. 
 
 The Public Lands, falling under the control of the General 
 Government since the treaty of 1783, have amounted to nearly 
 ten times the area of the original Thirteen States which inaugu- 
 rated the Republic and developed the principles by which its fu- 
 ture was to be guided. Omitting Maine and Vermont, not then 
 admitted as States in the Union, the area of those by which the 
 Constitution was adopted was a little over 340,000 square miles. 
 Much of Maine, Vermont and some parts of the West and South 
 already containing settlers of Anglo-American, French or Span- 
 ish origin had passed into private hands. The whole area of the 
 United States and Territories is now 3,603,884 square miles. In- 
 cluding water surfaces of the interior lakes and rivers it is about 
 4,000,000 square miles. About one-half of the area of the land 
 of the whole country still remains in the hands of the General 
 Government — the titles to large portions of many of the organ- 
 ized States not having yet been transferred to other parties. 
 
 In 1785, before the Constitution was framed, a system of sur- 
 veying the wild lands to be opened for settlement was adopted, 
 and still remains the basis of that system, though likely to be 
 modified among the valleys and mining regions of the Rocky 
 Mountains and on the Pacific Coast — at least where agriculture 
 depends on irrigation. The plan adopted in 1785 was further 
 defined by a law enacted in 1796, and the application of the law 
 by the Surveyors of the Land Department is thus explained by 
 the Surveyor-General in his Manual of Instructions to his sub- 
 ordinates : 
 
 " 1. The public lands of the United Sates are ordinarily sur- 
 veyed into rectangular tracts, bounded by lines conforming to 
 the cardinal poirits. 
 
376 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 2. The public lands are laid off, in the first place, into bodies 
 of land of six miles square, called toivnsMps, containing as near 
 as may be 23,040 acres. The townships are subdivided into 
 thirty-six tracts, called sections, of a mile square, each contain- 
 ing as near as may be 640 acres. Any number oi series of con- 
 tiguous townships, situate north or south of each other, con- 
 stitute a range. 
 
 The law requires that the lines of the public surveys shall be 
 governed by the true meridian, and that the townships shall be 
 six miles square — two things involving in connection a mathe- 
 matical impossibility-f or, strictly to conform to the meridian, 
 necessarily throws the township out of square, by reason of the 
 convergency of meridians, and hence, by adhering to the true 
 meridian, results the necessity of departing from the strict re- 
 quirements of law, as respects the precise area of townships and 
 the subdivisional parts thereof, the township assuming some- 
 thing of a trapezodial form, which inequality develops itself 
 more and more as such, the higher the latitude of the surveys. 
 It is doubtless in view of these circumstances that the law pro- 
 vides (see section 2 of the act of May 18, 1796,) that the sections 
 of a mile square shall contain the quantity of 650 acres, as nearly 
 as may he; and, moreover, provides (see section 3 of the act of 
 10th May, 1800) in the following words: " And in all cases where 
 the exterior lines of the townships, thus to be subdivided into 
 sections or half sections, shall exceed, or shall not extend six 
 miles, the excess or deficiency shall be specially noted, and 
 added to or deducted from the western or northern ranges of 
 sections or half sections in such township, according as the 
 error may be in running the lines from east to west, or from 
 south to north; the sections and half sections bounded on the 
 northern and western lines of such townships shall be sold as 
 containing only the quantity expressed in the returns and plats, 
 respectively, and all others as containing the complete legal 
 quantity." 
 
 The method here presented is designed to insure as full a 
 compliance with all the requirements, meaning, and intent 
 of the surveying laws as, it is believed, is practicable. The 
 section lines are surveyed from south to north on true meridi- 
 ans, and from east to west, in order to throw the excesses 
 of deficiencies in measurements on the north and west sides of 
 the township, as required by law. 
 
THE SYSTEM OF SURVEYING PUBLIC LANDS. 377 
 
 3. The townships are to bear numbers in respect to the base 
 line eitiier north or south of it; and the tiers of townships, called 
 '' ranges," will bear numbers in respect to the meridian line 
 according to their relative jjosition to it, either on the east or 
 west. 
 
 4. The thirty-six sections into which a township is subdivided 
 are numbered, commencing with number one at the northeast 
 angle of the township, and proceeding west to number six, and 
 thence proceeding east to number twelve, and so on, alternately, 
 until the number thirty-six in the southeast angle. 
 
 5. Standard Parallels (usually called correction lines) are 
 established at stated intervals to provide for or counteract the 
 error that otherwise would result from the convergency of 
 meridians, and also to arrest error rising from inaccuracies in 
 measurements on meridian lines, which, however, must ever be 
 studiously avoided. On the north of the principal base line it is 
 proposed to have these standards run at distances of every four 
 townships, or twenty-four miles, and on the south of the princi- 
 pal base, at distances of every five townships, or thirty miles." 
 
 The Townships, when outlined and divided into sections (640 
 acres), half sections (320 acres), quarter sections (160 acres), and 
 those quarters into still other halves and quarters are distin- 
 guished by their position in reference to two principal lines — one 
 of longitude, the Principal Meridian, and of latitude, the Base 
 Line. The country has been settled at different times, now here 
 now there, and the surveying has not been all outlined at once 
 so as to form a complete, comprehensive system from the first. 
 There is one great system covering the principal States between 
 the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and west of the latter stream to 
 the foot of the mountains, or even beyond their summits in 
 places; but there are many subordinate systems in the South, 
 Southwest, Northwest, and on the Pacific Coast. The twenty- 
 four Principal Meridians and Base Lines were thus described 
 by the Commissioner of the Land Office in 1875. 
 
 geographical positions of the principal surveying merid- 
 ians AND BASE lines. 
 
 Since the adoption of the rectangular system of public surveys^ 
 May 20, 1785, twenty-four initial points, or the intersection of 
 the principal bases with surveying meridians, have been brought 
 into requisition to secure certainty and brevity of description 
 
378 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAKTMEXT. 
 
 in the transfer of public lands to individual ownership. From. 
 the Principal Bases townships of six miles square are run out and 
 established, with regular series of numbers counting north and 
 south thereof, and from the surveying meridians a like series of 
 Ranges are numbered both east and west of the Principal Merid- 
 ians. 
 
 During the period of ninety years since the organization of 
 the system, the following numeral and independent principal 
 meridians and bases have been initiated, to wit: 
 
 The first principal meridian divides the States of Ohio and 
 Indiana, having for its base the Ohio River: the meridian being 
 coincident with 84° 51 ' of longitude west from Greenwich. The 
 meridian governs the surveys of public lands in the State of 
 Ohio. 
 
 Tlie second principcd meridian coincides with 86° 28' of longi- 
 tude west from Greenwich, starts from the confluence of the 
 Little Blue River with the Ohio, runs north to the northern 
 boundary of Indiana, and governs the surveys in Indiana and a 
 portion of those in Illinois. 
 
 The third principal meridian starts from the mouth of the 
 Ohio River and extends to the northern boundary of the State of 
 Illinois, and governs the surveys in said State east of the merid- 
 ian, with the exception of those projected from the second 
 meridian, and the surveys on the icest to the Illinois River. 
 This meridian coincides with 80° 10' 30" of longitude west from 
 Greenwich. 
 
 The fourth principcd meridian begins in the middle of the 
 channel of the mouth of the Illinois River, in latitude 38° 58' 12' ' 
 north and longitude 90° 29' 56' ' west from Greenwich, and gov- 
 erns the surveys in Illinois west of the Illinois River and west of 
 the third principal meridian lying north of the river. It also 
 extends due north through Wisconsin and Xortheastern Minne- 
 sota, governing all the surveys in the former and those in the 
 latter State lying east of the Mississippi and the third guide 
 meridian (west of the fifth principal meridian) north of the 
 river. 
 
 The fifth principal meridian starts from the mouth of the 
 Arkansas River, and, with a common base line running due 
 west from the mouth of the Saint Fi-ancis River, in Arkansas, 
 governs the surveys in Arkansas. Missouri. Iowa. Minnesota 
 west of the Mississippi, and the third guide meridian north of 
 
THE PRINCIPAL MERIDIANS AND BASE LINES. ;379 
 
 the river, and in Dakota Territory east of the Missouri River. 
 This meridian is coincident with 90° 58' longitude west from. 
 Greenwich. 
 
 The sixth principal meridian coincides with longitude 97° 32' 
 west from Greenwich, and with the principal base-line inter- 
 secting it on the 40th degree of north latitude, extends north to 
 the intersection of the Missouri River and south to the 37th 
 degree of north latitude, controlling the surveys in Kansas, 
 Nebraska, that part of Dakota lying south and west of the 
 Missouri River, Wyoming, and Colorado, excepting the valley 
 of the Rio Grande del Norte, in Southwestern Colorado, where 
 the surveys are projected from the New Mexico meridian. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing six principal meridians and bases 
 governing public surveys, there have been established the fol- 
 lowing meridians and bases, viz: 
 
 The Michigan meridian, in longitude 84° 19' 09'' west from 
 Greenwich, with a base line on a parallel seven miles north of 
 Detroit, governing the surveys in Michigan. 
 
 The Tallahassee meridian, in longitude 84° 18' west from 
 Greenwich, runs due north and south from the point of inter- 
 section with the base line at Tallahassee, and governs the sur- 
 veys in Florida. 
 
 The Saint Stephen's meridian, longitude 88° 02' west from 
 Greenwich, starts from Mobile, passes through Saint Stephen's, 
 intersects the base line on the 31st degree of north latitude, and 
 controls the surveys of the southern district of Alabama and of 
 the Pearl River district lying east of the river and south of 
 township 10 north in the State of Mississippi. 
 
 The Huntsville meridian, longitude 86° 31' west from Green- 
 wich, extends from the northern boundary of Alabama as a 
 base, passes through the town of Huntsville, and governs the 
 surveys of the northern district in Alabama. 
 
 The Choctaiv meridian, longitude 89° 10' 30' ' west from Green- 
 wich, passes two miles west of the town of Jackson, in the State 
 of Mississippi, starting from the base-line twenty-nine miles 
 south of Jackson, and terminating on the south boundary of the 
 Chickasaw Cession, controlling the surveys east and west of the 
 meridian and north of the base. 
 
 The Washington meridian, longitude 91° 05' west from Green- 
 wich, seven miles east of the town of Washington, in the State 
 of Mississippi, with the base line corresponding with the 31st 
 
380 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 degree of north latitude, governs the surveys in the southwest- 
 ern angle of the State. 
 
 The Saint Helena meridian, 91° 11' longitude west from 
 Greenwich, extends from the 31st degree of north latitude, as a 
 base, due south, and passing one mile east of Baton Rouge, con- 
 trols the surveys in the Greensburgh and the southeastern 
 districts of Louisiana, both lying east of the Mississippi. 
 
 The Louisiana meWdmw,"'longitude 92° 20' west from Green- 
 wich, intersects the 31st degree north latitude at a distance of 
 forty-eight miles of the eastern bank of the Mississippi Eiver, 
 and, with the base line coincident with the said parallel of north 
 latitude, governs the surveys in Louisiana west of the Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 The New Mexico meridian, longitude 106° 09' 52" west from 
 Greenwich, intersects the principal base-line on the Rio Grande 
 del Norte about ten miles below the mouth of the Puerco River, 
 on the parallel of 34° 19 ' north latitude, and controls the surveys 
 in New Mexico, and in the valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, 
 Colorado. 
 
 The Great Salt Lake Meridian, longitude 111° 53' 47" west 
 from Greenwich, intersects the base-line at the corner of Temple 
 Block, in Salt Lake City, Utah, on the parallel of 40° 46' 04" 
 north latitude, and governs the surveys in the Territory of 
 Utah. 
 
 TJie Boise meridian, longitude 115° 20' west from Greenwich, 
 intersects the principal base between the Snake and Boise Riv- 
 ers, in latitude 43° 26' north. The initial monument, at the in- 
 tersection of the base and meridian, is nineteen miles distant 
 from Boise City, on a course of south 29° 30' west. This meri- 
 dian governs the surveys in the Territory of Idaho. 
 
 The Mount Diablo meridian, California, coincides with long- 
 itude 121° 54' west from Greenwich, intersects the base-line on 
 the summit of the mountain from which it takes its name, in 
 latitude 37° 53 north, and governs the surveys of all Central 
 and Northeastern California and the entire State of Nevada. 
 
 The San Bernardino meridian. California, longitude 116° 56' 
 west from Greenwich, intersects the base line at Mount San Bar- 
 nardino, latitude 34° 06 north, and governs the surveys in South- 
 ern California lying east of the meridian and that part of the 
 surveys situated west of it which are south of the eighth stand- 
 ard parallel south of the Mount Diablo base-line. 
 
PRINCIPAL MERIDIANS IN THE TERRITORIES. 381 
 
 The Humboldt meridian, longitude 124"" 11' west from Green- 
 wich, intersects the principal base-line on the summit of Mount 
 Pierce, in latitude 40'^ 25' 30' ' north, and controls the surveys in 
 the northwestern corner of California lying west of the Coast 
 Range of mountains and north of township 5 south of the Hum- 
 boldt base. 
 
 The Willamette meridian is coincident with longitude 122" 44' 
 west from Greenwich, its intersection with the base-line is on 
 the parallel of 45° 30' north latitude, and it controls the public 
 surveys in Oregon and Washington Territory. 
 
 The Montana meridian extends north and south, from the in- 
 itial monument established on the summit of a limestone hill, 
 eight hundred feet high, longitude 111" 40' 54' 'west from Green- 
 wich. The base line runs east and west from the monument on 
 the parallel of 45° 4(V 27'' north latitude. The surveys for the 
 entire Territory of Montana are governed by this meridian. 
 
 The Gila and Salt River meridian intersects the base line on 
 the south side of the Gila River, opposite the mouth of Salt Riv- 
 er, in longitude 112° 15' 4G' ' west from Greenwich, and latitude 
 33' 22' 57' ' north, and governs the public surveys in the Territory 
 of Arizona. 
 
 Tlie Indian meridian intersects the base line at Fort Arbuckle, 
 Indian Territory, in longitude 97° 15' 56' ' west from Greenwich, 
 latitude 34° 31' north, and governs the surveys in that Territory. 
 
 In 1879, there were sixteen Surveyors General, each located in 
 a distinct field, or a particular division of the United States, and 
 by whom the sums previously appropriated by Congress for sur- 
 veys to be made in his field during the following year are ex- 
 pended. This appropriation is determined by the anticipated 
 needs of settlement within the year ; but private parties wishing 
 to secure title to particular portions of unsurveyed lands may 
 obtain such survey, under the direction of the Surveyor General 
 of the Division in which they are situated, by paying the whole 
 cost of survey. Deputy, or Field Surveyors, are employed by 
 contract, but the maximum amount to be paid them for the vari- 
 ous kinds of lines to be run is determined by law. Prices may 
 be regulated by the Commissioner of the Land Office at any rate 
 not exceeding this maximum, at his discretion. 
 
 The surveys determine the kinds of land, and the various 
 peculiarities belonging to them by which they are classified in 
 the Land Office. This classification embraces Agricultural 
 
382 THE EXECL'TIVE DEPARTMEXT, 
 
 Lands, Desert Lands, Saline Lands, and Mineral Lands. Swamp 
 Lands, some Timber Lands, and Town Sites are withdrawn from 
 the operation of the general Land Laws. The same may be said 
 of Mineral Lands, but all the classes, other than Agricultural 
 Lands, are subject to such special conditions as the circurastances 
 may at any time demand. 
 
 Agricultural Laxds. — These are such as may be cultivated 
 and made to produce crops under ordinary conditions. They are 
 divided into two classes, Minimum and Double Minimum lands; 
 these terms relating to the prices at which they may be sold. 
 The Jlinimum price is 81.25, the Double Minimum 82.50 per acre. 
 The Government, at first, expected to realize a large revenue 
 from the sale of public lands, but as these mostly lay remote from 
 settled regions, were only gradually freed from Indian titles, 
 and long continued without adequate accessible markets for pro- 
 duce it was found undesirable to hold them at prices that would 
 meet the requirements of such a policy. It soon came to be the 
 chief aim of the General Government to facilitate the transfer 
 of pubhc lands in small tracts to actual settlers. The sale of the 
 lands for a price such as would produce a considerable revenue 
 must be chiefly to rich men for speculative purposes; they would 
 hold them until they could sell for a large advance, to the seri- 
 ous injury of the poorer classes of the population and of immi- 
 grants from abroad. This policy of selling most of the land in 
 large tracts to capitalists and companies would have tended to 
 the formation of a landed aristocracy. That was contrary to 
 
 spirit of American institutions and was abandoned as soon after 
 the War of Independence as Congress could give full attention 
 to its interior policy. 
 
 That policy gradually settled on the plan of selling the lands 
 as much as possible to actual settlers and in small areas to indi- 
 viduals. When once the title had passed from the Government 
 moneyed speculators had only too much opportunity to buy it up, 
 raise the price, and hold large tracts in a wild state to the arrest 
 of steady progress, in a great number of localities. About 1820 
 it was determined by law that, when a region had been surveyed 
 and was ready for sale to the public, it should be offered in half 
 quarter or quarter quarter sections^80 and 40 acre lots — and 
 from that up to whole sections - 640 acres — ^to individuals, and at 
 the minimum price of 81.25. Lands, however, offered at public 
 sale were sold to the hig-hest bidder, and the law. in that case as 
 
THE DISPOSAL OF PUBLIC LANDS. 383 
 
 well as in the private sale of the remainder by entry at the Dis- 
 trict Land Office, did not limit the amount any one person might 
 purchase who should pay for it all in cash at once. No credit 
 was allowed on these sales. This threw open the lands in small 
 tracts at an insignificant price to all unless competition should 
 raise the price above the lawful minimum. 
 
 This system of occasional large sales has never been 
 formally abrogated, and under it many colonies have been 
 formed and large tracts obtained for speculative purposes ; but 
 the injury it might otherwise have wrought was counteracted by 
 the ease with which small purchases could be made and by the 
 Preemption, Homestead and Timber Culture Laws of later date. 
 The first system was begun in 1841, the second in ISO:?. The first 
 of these modes of disposing of land dispensed with immediate 
 payment ; the second gave the land outright, except the payment 
 of a small fee ; but neither allowed more than KiO acres to one 
 person, once in his life, and only on condition of actual residence 
 and cultivation. This opened the Public Domain to the great 
 masses of the landless and moneyless. These provisions have 
 been very largely made use of and gradually neutralized 
 the disposition of speculators to make use of the oppor- 
 tunities they possessed of monopolizing lands. Small farm- 
 ers passed by private lands to take Homesteads or Preemp- 
 tions, and speculation in land was made comparatively un- 
 profitable. 
 
 Meanwhile the Government adopted the policy of donating its 
 lands for a variety of objects. From the first a section in every 
 Township was given to public schools, and large amounts were 
 distributed in later years to endow Colleges and Universities; 
 vast tracts were distributed as military Bounties and among the 
 States; and, between 1850 and 1871, about two hundred million 
 acres were conditionally granted in aid of railroads, and with- 
 drawn from the control of Land Offices for entry. Up to 1879 
 about forty four million acres had been conveyed by patent, or 
 were ready for such transfer of title, to the various Railway 
 Companies to which grants had been made. Of the Agricultural 
 Lands still open ,for sale, preemption, and homesteads some 
 hundreds of millions of acres remain. 
 
 Desert Lands and Saline Lands. " Desert Lands " are 
 those which are capable of being put to profitable agri- 
 cultural use only by irrigation, or by the application of 
 
384 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 labor and capital other than what is required on agricul- 
 tural lands proper. Saline Lands are those containing salt 
 springs, deposits of salt, or other similar substances used in com- 
 merce, out of which a profit may be made. Special regulations 
 of law determine how title to them may be acquired. 
 
 Mineral Lands, are also open to public sale but in smaller lots 
 and at higher rates than others; but they are declared bylaw re- 
 served from ordinary sale, and subject to special law and to 
 such local customs of mining communities as are not inconsist- 
 ent with law. The law of 1872 allowed to a single Mining Claim 
 a length not exceeding one thousand five hundred feet, and a 
 breadth not to exceed three hundred feet on each side of the 
 middle of a vein or lode. A claim cannot be located until min- 
 erals of value have been proved to exist. An application for a 
 patent, or title, to the Land Ofiice of the District must be accom- 
 panied with a description of the claim from the survey previous- 
 ly to have been made under the direction of the Surveyor Gen- 
 eral of the State or Territory. After sixty days public notice of 
 such application, and proof that five hundred dollars worth of 
 labor has been expended on the claim by the claimant and pay- 
 ment at the rate of five dollars per acre, he is entitled to, and re- 
 ceives a patent. The notice required is to prevent fraudulent in- 
 trusion of one party on the rights of another. 
 
 Placer Mining locations are made in a similar manner, but a 
 placer claim may be larger, not to exceed twenty acres for each in- 
 dividual claimant. This is the law of 1872, but a large part of the 
 gold previously obtained in placer "diggings" was under local 
 regulations of '"Miner's Law." Proof that a claim had been held 
 and worked during a time equal to that prescribed by law for the 
 preliminaries in other cases established the right to a patent. 
 Coal lands may be obtained in tracts of 160 acres by individuals 
 and 640 by companies, at ten dollars per acre when fifteen miles 
 or more from a completed railroad, or twenty dollars when within 
 that distance. 
 
 When these mineral lands have not been previously surveyed, 
 the Surveyor-General may be required to provide for the survey 
 on deposit of the cost by the claimant, as no patent can be issued 
 until a survey has exactly defined the location. If the parties 
 making claims themselves procure the survey, it must have the 
 certified approval of the Surveyor-General. The mineral lands 
 of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota are not subject to the law 
 
TOWN SITES, STONE AND TIMBER LANDS. 385 
 
 of 1872 as to the extent of the mining claim, but are sold under 
 the same regulations as agricultural lands, it not having been 
 thought advisable to change the laws previously ruling in those 
 regions. When lands in the farther west were granted to States, 
 railroad and other corporations, for various purposes, the valu- 
 able minerals that might be found on them were expressly re- 
 served and, by the laws now in force, the mines that may be found 
 on agricultural lands in those regions are reserved for special 
 sale. 
 
 Town Sites are reserved, when they are projected or already 
 established on public land, and their sale is provided for by 
 special rates— a minimum of ten dollars per lot or such sum as 
 shall be determined by appraisement. These are first offered at 
 public sale to the highest bidder. The lots remaining unsold 
 may be entered at private sale or preempted. Provision is also 
 made for the entry of a town plot by its municipal authorities or 
 a Judge of a Court, in trust for the citizens of the town, under 
 certain regulations. 
 
 Stone and Timber Lands, unfit for agricultural use, in Cali- 
 fornia, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington Territory are subject 
 to special regulations of sale at $2.50 per acre, in lots not to ex- 
 ceed IGO acres. In all these cases mines found within the tract 
 are reserved, all the reserves to be sold under the regulations of 
 the Mining Laws. All classes of public lands are in the care of 
 the Land Officers established by law. The boundaries of the 
 District under the care of each Land Office are also exactly de- 
 termined by law, or by such action of the President in particular 
 cases as is authorized by law. 
 
 On the following page is a list of all the Land Offices in the 
 different States and Territories. 
 
 25 
 
386 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 UNITED STATES LAND OFFICES. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Dakota Ter. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Nebraska — Cont. 
 
 Huntsville. 
 
 MitcheU. 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 Niobrara. 
 
 Montgomery. 
 
 Watertown. 
 
 East Saginaw. 
 
 Grand Island. 
 North Platte. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Fargo. 
 
 Reed City. 
 
 Bloomington. 
 
 Little Rock. 
 
 Yankton. 
 
 Mai-quette. 
 
 Nevada. 
 
 Camden 
 
 Bismarck. 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Carson City. 
 
 Harrison. 
 
 Deadwood. 
 
 Taylor's Falls. 
 
 Eureka. 
 
 Dardanelle. 
 
 Grand Forks. 
 
 Saint Cloud. 
 
 New Mexico Ter. 
 
 Arizona Ter. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Du Luth. 
 
 La MesUla. 
 
 Prescott. 
 
 Gainesville. 
 
 Fergus Falls. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Florence. 
 
 Idaho Ter. 
 
 Worthington. 
 
 Oregon City. 
 
 California. 
 San Francisco. 
 
 Boise City. 
 Lewiston. 
 
 Tracy. 
 
 Benson. 
 
 Crookston. 
 
 Roseburg. 
 Le Grand. 
 
 Lakeview. 
 
 MarysviQe. 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 
 The Dalles. 
 
 Humboldt. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Redwood Falls. 
 
 Utah Ter. 
 
 Stockton. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Salt Lake City. 
 
 Visalia. 
 
 Des Moines. 
 
 Jackson. 
 
 Washington Tee. 
 
 Sacramento. 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 Olympia. 
 Vancouver. 
 
 Los Angeles. 
 
 Topeka. 
 
 Boonville. 
 
 WaUa Walla. 
 
 Shasta. 
 
 Sal in a. 
 
 Ironton. 
 
 Colfax. 
 
 Susanville. 
 
 Independence. 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 Yakima. 
 
 Bodie. 
 
 Wichita. 
 
 Montana Ter. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Kirwin. 
 
 Miles City. 
 
 Menasha. 
 
 
 Concordia. 
 
 
 Falls of St. Croix. 
 
 Denver City. 
 
 
 Helena. 
 
 Wausau. 
 
 Leadville. 
 
 Lamed. 
 
 Bozeman. 
 
 La Crosse. 
 
 Central City. 
 
 Wa-Keeny. 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Ba3r£ield. 
 
 Pueblo. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Norfolk. 
 
 Eau Claire. 
 Wyoming Tee. 
 
 , Del Norte. 
 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Beatrice. 
 
 Cheyenne. 
 
 Lake City. 
 
 Natchitoches. 
 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Evanston. 
 
 Note.— By act of Julv 31, 1876, the land-offices in Ohio. Indiana and Illinois were abolished; 
 and by act of March 3, 1877, the vacant tracts of public land in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are 
 made subject to entry and location at the General Land Office, Washington, D. C. 
 
 1 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS. 
 
 There are two classes of public lands subject to entry; one at 
 $1.25 per acre, known as minimum, and one at $2.50, known as 
 double minimum, the latter being the alternate sections along 
 the lines of railroads. Title may be acquired by purchase at 
 public sale, or by "private entry," and in virtue of the Preemp- 
 tion, Homestead, Timber Culture and other Laws. 
 
 At Public Sale. — Lands are offered at auction to the highest 
 bidder, pursuant to proclamation or public notice. 
 
 Private Entry. — Lands subject to private entry, are those 
 which have been once offered at public sale without finding 
 purchasers. In order to acquire title to these lands, a written 
 application must be made to the Land Register of the District in 
 which the land is located, describing the tract desired. The 
 Register certifies the fact to the Receiver, stating price, and the 
 applicant then pays the money and takes a receipt, and at the 
 close of the month the Register and Receiver make return of the 
 sale to' the General Land Office, when a patent or full title issues 
 on due surrender of the receipt, and will be delivered, at the op- 
 tion of the purchaser, at the General Land Office in Washington, 
 or by the Register at the District Land Office. 
 
 Land Warrants. — When lands are to be located with land 
 warrants, application must be made as in cash cases, accompa- 
 nied by an assigned warrant. When the tract is $2.50 per acre, 
 $1.25 per acre must be paid in addition to the warrant. Receipts 
 are given and patents delivered, as in the preceding case. At 
 the time of location, a fee of 50 cents for a 40 acre warrant, and 
 a corresponding amount for larger ones, must be paid to the 
 Register, and a like sum to the Receiver. 
 
 Agricidtural College Scrip. — This may be used in the location 
 of lands at private entry, but is only applicable to lands subject 
 to entry at $1.25 per acre, and is restricted to a technical "quar- 
 
 (387) 
 
388 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ter section," and to three sections in each township of land. The 
 proceeding to acquire title is tiie same as in cash and warrant 
 cases, the fees being the same as on warrants. This scrip may 
 be used in payment of pre-emption claims. 
 
 Pre-emption. — Any person being the head of a family, or wi- 
 dow, or single man over 21 years of age, and a citizen of the 
 United States, or a person who has filed his declaration to be- 
 come such, by settling upon and improving any of the ''offered" 
 "unoffered," or unsurveyed lands of the United States, may ob- 
 tain a preemption right to purchase 160 acres so occupied, at the 
 regular government price, whether it be $1.25 or $2.50 per acre. 
 Where the tract is "offered" land, the settler must file with the 
 District Land Office his statement as to the fact of settlement, 
 within thirty days thereafter, and within one year must make 
 proof to the Land Office, of his actual residence and cultivation,, 
 and secure the land by payment in cash or Land Warrant. 
 Where the land has been surveyed and not offered at public sale, 
 the statement must be filed within three months after settlement, 
 and payment made within 30 months. Where settlement is made 
 upon unsurveyed lands, the settler is required to file a statement 
 within three months after the survey, and pay within thirty 
 months thereafter. No person is entitled to more than one pre- 
 emption right. 
 
 The Homestead Privilege. — The Homestead laws give to every 
 citizen the right to a Homestead of 160 acres minimum, or eighty 
 acres double minimum. To obtain a Homestead, applicant must 
 swear that he is the head of a family, or over the age of twenty- 
 one, a citizen, or has declared his intention to become' such; and 
 that the entry is for his exclusive use and benefit, and for actual 
 settlement and cultivation. When an applicant has made actual 
 settlement upon the land he desires, he must make affidavit of 
 the fact before the Land Register, and pay fees amounting, on 
 160 acres of minimum land, to $18, or an equal sum for eighty 
 acres of double minimum, for which he gets a receipt; and after 
 five years' occupation and cultivation of the land, he is entitled 
 upon proof of such cultivation to a patent or full title to the 
 Homestead. Any loyal person in the naval or military service 
 of the United States, may acquire a Homestead by reason of 
 his family occupying land and making the application in his 
 stead. All officers, soldiers and sailors who have served in the 
 army or navy for ninety days and remained loyal, may enter 160 
 
 I 
 
HOMESTEAD AND PREEMPTION LAWS. 389 
 
 instead, of 80 acres of double minimum lands. The fees above 
 , for entering Homestead apply to surveyed lands in Michigan, 
 Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Dako- 
 ta, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Ohio, 
 Indiana, and Illinois. In California, Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, 
 New Mexico, Washington Territory, Arizona, Idaho, Utah, Wy- 
 oming, and Montana, the fees are $22 instead of $18. A settler 
 having filed a pre-emption declaration, may change his filing into 
 a Homestead, and receive the benefit of the Homestead laws. If 
 a Homestead settler does not wish to remain five years on his 
 land before obtaining title, he may pay for it in cash or Land 
 Warrants. Lands obtained under the Homestead laws are ex- 
 empt from liability for debts contracted prior to the issuing of 
 the patent. 
 
 PEE-EMPTION LAWS. 
 
 A pre-emption right is the right of a squatter upon the lands 
 of the United States to purchase, in preference to others, when 
 the land is sold. Such right is granted to the following persons: 
 Any citizen of the United States; any person who has filed his 
 declaration of intention to become a citizen; any head of a 
 family; any widow; any single woman of the age of twenty-one 
 years or over; and any person who has made a settlement, 
 erected a dwelling-house upon, and is an inhabitant of the tract 
 sought to be entered— provided such settlement was made since 
 June 1, 1840, and previously to the time of application for the 
 land, which land must, at the date of the settlement, have had 
 the Indian title extinguished, and been surveyed by the United 
 States. 
 
 A person bringing himself within the above requirements by 
 proof satisfactory to the Register and Receiver of the land dis- 
 trict in which the land may lie, taken pursuant to the rules here- 
 after prescribed, will, after having taken the affidavit required 
 by the Act, be entitled to enter, by legal subdivision, any num- 
 ber of acres, not exceeding one hundred and sixty, or a quarter- 
 section, to include his residence; and he may avail himself of 
 the same at any time prior to the day of the commencement of 
 the public sale, including said tract, where the land has not yet 
 been proclaimed. 
 
 Where the land was subject to private entry, June 1, 1840, and 
 a settlement shall thereafter be made upon such land, or where 
 
390 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMENT. 
 
 the land shall become hereafter subject to private entry, and 
 after that period a settlement shall be made, which the settler is 
 desirous of securing, notice of such intention must be given 
 within thirty days after such settlement; and, in all such cases, 
 the proof, affidavit and payment must be made within twelve 
 months after such settlement. 
 
 The tracts liable to entry are embraced under* the following 
 designations : First, a regular quarter-section, notwithstanding 
 the quantity may vary a few acres from one hundred and sixty; 
 or a quarter-section, which, though fractional in quantity by the 
 passage of a navigable stream through the same, is still bounded 
 by regular sectional and quarter-sectional lines: second, a frac- 
 tional section containing not over one hundred and sixty acres, 
 or any tract being a detached or anomalous survey made pur- 
 suant to law, and not exceeding such quantity; thir^d, two ad- 
 joining half-quarter-sections (in all cases to be separated by a 
 north and south line, except on the north side of township, 
 where the surveys are so made as to throw the excess or defi- 
 ciency on the north and west sides of the township), of the reg- 
 ular quarters mentioned in the first designation ; fourth, two 
 half -quarter or eighty-acre subdivisions of a fractional or broken 
 section, adjoining each other, the aggregate quantity not exceed- 
 ing one hundred and sixty acres ; fifth, a regular half-quarter 
 and an adjoining fractional section, or an adjoining half -quarter 
 subdivision of a fractional section, the aggregate quantity not 
 exceeding one hundred and sixty acres ; sixth, if the preemptor 
 do not wish to enter one hundred and sixty acres, he may enter 
 a single half -quarter section (made by a north and south line), 
 or an eighty-acre subdivision of a fractional section ; seventh, 
 one or more adjoining forty-acre lots may be entered, the ag- 
 gregate not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres; and, eighth, 
 a regular half -quarter, a half -quarter subdivision, or a fractional 
 section, may each be taken, with one or more forty-acre subdi- 
 visions lying adjoining, the aggregate not exceeding one hun- 
 dred and sixty acres. Forty-acre tracts, or quarter quarter-sec- 
 tions, may be entered in the same manner that eighty-acre, or 
 half-quarter sections, have been. 
 
 Only one person upon a quarter-section is protected, and he the 
 one who made the first settlement, provided he conform to the 
 other provisions of the law. A person who has once availed him- 
 self of the provisions of the Preemption Act, cannot, at any fu- 
 
LANDS NOT LIABLE TO ENTRY FOR PREEMPTION. 391 
 
 ture period, or at any other land office, acquire any other right 
 under it. No person, who is the proprietor of three hundred and 
 twenty acres of land in any State or Territory of the United 
 States, or who quits or abandons his residence on his own land 
 to reside on the public land in the same State or Territory, is en- 
 titled to the benefit of the Preemption Acts. 
 
 The approval of the tracts by the local land office is the evi- 
 dence of the survey ; but the land is to be construed as surveyed 
 when the requisite lines are run on the field, and the corners es- 
 tablished by the deputy surveyor. No assignment or transfers 
 of .pre-emption rights are recognized at the land office ; the 
 patents issue to the claimants in whose names the entries are 
 made. 
 
 The following description of lands are not liable to entry : 
 first, land included in any reservation by any treaty, law, or 
 proclamation of the President of the United States, and lands 
 reserved for salines and for other purposes ; second, lands re- 
 served for the support of schools ; third, lands acquired by either 
 of the last two treaties with the Miami Indians in Indiana, or 
 which may be acquired of the Wyandot Indians in Ohio, or any 
 other Indian reservation, to which the title ha*s been, or may be 
 extinguished at any time during the operation of the Preemption 
 Acts, by the United States ; fourtlu sections of lands reserved 
 to the United States, alternate to other sections granted to any 
 State for the construction of any canal, railroad, or other public 
 improvement ; fifth, sections, or fractions of sections, included 
 within the limits of any incorporated town ; sixth, every portion 
 of the public lands which has been selected as a site for a city or 
 town ; seventh, every parcel or lot of land actually settled and 
 occupied for the purposes of trade and agriculture ; and, eighth, 
 all lands in which are situated any known salines or mines. 
 
 Persons claiming the benefit of the Preemption Acts are re- 
 quired to file duplicate affidavits, such as are specified by law, 
 and to furnish proof, by one or more disinterested witnesses, of 
 the facts necessary to establish the requisities mentioned in the 
 first paragraph of this article ; such witnesses having first been 
 duly sworn or affirmed by some competent authority. 
 
 If adverse claims are made to the same tract, each claimant 
 is to be notified of the time and place of taking testimony, and 
 allowed to cross-examine the opposite witnesses, and to furnish 
 counter-proof, itself subject to cross-examination. If, by reason 
 
392 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 of distance, sickness, or infirmity, the witnesses cannot person- 
 ally appear before the Register of the Land Office, their deposi- 
 tions, taken in conformity with the following regulations, may 
 be received: 
 
 The notice to adverse claimants must be in writing, and 
 served in time to allow at least one day for every twenty miles 
 which the party may have to travel in going to the place of tak- 
 ing evidence. The proof, in all cases, should consist of a simple 
 detail of facts merely, and not of broad and general statements. 
 If the preemptor be " the head of a family," the witnesses must 
 state the facts constituting him such; whether he be a husband 
 having a wife and children, or a widower, or an unmarried per- 
 son under twenty-one years of age, having a family, either of 
 relatives or others, dependent upon him, or hired persons. All 
 the facts relative to the settlement in person, inhabitancy, or 
 personal residence, the time of its commencement, the manner 
 and extent of its continuance, as also those sharing the apparent 
 objects, must be stated. It must be stated t!:at the claimant 
 made the settlement on the land in person; that he has erected 
 a dwelling upon the land; that he lived in the same, and made 
 it his home, etc. ' In the event of a decision by the Land Officer 
 against the claimant, he may appeal to the Commissioner of the 
 Land Office at Washington. 
 
 No entry will be permitted until the affidavit required of the 
 claimant is taken. Duplicates thereof must be signed by the 
 claimant, and the fact of the oath being taken must be certified 
 by the Register or Receiver administering the same, one copy to 
 be filed in the Register's office, and the other to be sent to the 
 Land Office at Washington. 
 
 A purchaser of public land is only required to make written 
 application to the Register of the local land office for the tract 
 desired to be entered, and to pay to the Receiver the purchase 
 money therefor. Blank forms of such application are furnished 
 gratuitously at the Land Offica where the tract is desired to be 
 entered. 
 
 In the Instructions to local Land Officers the Commissioner 
 thus comments on 
 
 Laws to Promote Timber Culture: 
 
 The timber culture act of March 3, 1873, having been amended 
 
TIMBER CULTURE LAWS. 393 
 
 by the act of March 13, 1874, the latter has been further amended 
 by the act of June 14, 1878. 
 
 I. Certain provisions of the act of March 13, 1874, are repealed 
 by the act of June 14, 1878. 
 
 1. The act of March 13, 1874, at the close of its. first section, 
 contains the following: ''Provided, That not more than one 
 quarter of any section shall be thus granted, and that no person 
 shall make more than one entry under the provisions of this act, 
 unless fractional subdivisions of less than forty acres are entered, 
 which, in the aggregate, shall not exceed one quarter section." 
 In the act of June 14, 1878, the concluding words, "unless frac- 
 tional subdivisions of less than forty acres are entered, which, 
 in the aggregate, shall not exceed one quarter section,", are omit- 
 ted. Hence, the rule forbidding more than one entry is made 
 universal, and will govern in all future cases. 
 
 2. The provision of the act of March 13, 1874, requiring that 
 the trees shall be not "more than twelve feet apart each way," 
 is omitted from the act of June 14, 1878. The latter requires, 
 however, that the final proof shall show "that not less than 
 twenty-seven hundred trees were planted on each acre, and that 
 at the time of making such proof there shall be growing at least 
 six hundred and seventy-five living and thrifty trees to each 
 acre." 
 
 3. The closing sentence of the second section of the act of 
 March 13, 1874, provides that "in case of the death of a person 
 who has complied with the provisions of this act for the period 
 of three years, his heirs or legal representatives shall have the 
 option to comply with the provisions of this act, and receive, at 
 the expiration of eight years, a patent for one hundred and sixty 
 acres, or receive, without delay, a patent for forty acres, relin- 
 quishing all claim to the remainder." This provision is not con- 
 tained in the act of June 14, 1878. 
 
 4. The following section of the act of March 13, 1874, relating 
 to homestead entries on which timber is cultivated, is omitted 
 from the act of June 14, 1878: 
 
 Sec. 4. That each and every person who, under the provisions 
 of the act entitled: "An act to secure homesteads to actual sett- 
 lers on the public domain," approved May 20 1862, or any amend- 
 ment thereto, having a homestead on said public domain, who, 
 at any time after the end of the third year of his or her residence 
 thereon, shall, in addition to the settlement and improvements 
 
394 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 now required by law, have had under cultivation, for two years, 
 one acre of timber, the trees thereon not being more than twelve 
 feet apart each way, and in a good thrifty condition, for each 
 and every sixteen acres of said homestead, shall, upon due proof 
 of such fact by two credible witnesses, receive his or her patent 
 for said homestead. 
 
 The rights of claimants under entries actually made according 
 to the act of March 13, 1874, before the 14th June, 1878, when 
 the amendatory act took effect, are not affected by the repeal of 
 the provisions referred to. The parties interested, if they so 
 elect, may consummate their entries according to the provisions 
 of the act under which they were initiated. And homestead en- 
 tries made before the 14th June, 1878, will be patented accord- 
 ing to the fourth section above quoted, where the facts are such 
 as to bring the cases within its provisions, and the interested 
 parties so desire. But entries made since that time must be ad- 
 justed according to the principles of the law as modified b3 the 
 amendatory act. 
 
 II. The principal points to be observed in proceedings there- 
 under may be stated as follows: 
 
 1. The privilege of entry under the act of June 14, 1878, is con- 
 fined to persons who are heads of families, or over twenty-one 
 years of age, and who are citizens of the United States, or have 
 declared their intention to become such, according to the natu- 
 ralization laws. 
 
 2. The affidavit required for initiating an entry under the act 
 of June 14, 1878, may be made before the Register or Receiver of 
 the district office for the land district embracing the desired 
 tract, before the clerk of some court of record, or before any of- 
 ficer authorized to administer oaths in that district. 
 
 3. Not more than 160 acres in any one section can be entered 
 under this act, and no person can make more than one entry 
 thereunder. 
 
 4. The ratio of area required to be broken, planted, etc. , in all 
 entries under the act of June 14, 1878, is one-sixteenth of the land 
 embraced in the entry, except where the entered tract is less 
 than 40 acres, in which case it is one-sixteenth of that quantity. 
 The party making an entry of a quarter section, or 160 acres, is 
 required to break or plow five acres covered thereby during the 
 first year, and five acres in addition during the second year. 
 The five acres broken or plowed during the first year he is re- 
 
TIMBER CULTURE LAWS. 395 
 
 quired to cultivate by raising a crop, or otherwise, during the 
 second year, and to plant in timber, seeds, or cuttings during the 
 third year. The five acres broken or plowed during the second 
 year he is required to cultivate by raising a crop, or otherwise, 
 during the tiiird year and to plant in timber seeds or cuttings 
 during the fourth year. The tracts embraced in entries of a 
 less quantity than one quarter section are required to be broken or 
 plowed, cultivated, and planted in trees, tree-seeds, or cuttings, 
 during the same periods, and to the same extent, in proportion 
 to their total areas, as are provided for in entries of a quarter 
 section. Provision is made in the act for an extension of time 
 in case the trees, seeds, or cuttings planted should be destroyed 
 by grasshoppers or by extreme and unusual drought. 
 
 5. If, at the expiration of eight years from the date of entry, 
 or at any time within five years thereafter, the person making 
 the entry, or, if he be dead, his heirs or legal representatives, 
 shall prove, by two credible witnesses, the planting, cultivating, 
 and protecting of the timber for not less than eight years, ac- 
 cording to the provisions of the act of June 14, 1878, he or they 
 will be entitled to a patent for the land embraced in the entry. 
 The following classes of trees are recognized by this office as 
 timber in the meaning of the law, viz: Ash, alder, birch, beech, 
 black walnut, bass-wood, black locust, cedar, chestnut, cotton- 
 wood, elm, fir, including spruce; hickory, honey locust, larch, 
 maple, including box-elder ; oak, pine, plane tree, otherwise 
 called cotton tree, buttonwood or sycamore; service tree, other- 
 wise called mountain ash; white walnut, otherwise called butter- 
 nut; white willow, and white wood, otherwise called tulip tree. 
 
 6. If, at any time after one year from the date of entry, and 
 prior to the issue of a patent therefor, the claimant shall fail to 
 comply with any of the legal requirements, then, and in that 
 event, such entry will become liable to a contest in the manner 
 provided in homestead cases, and upon due proof of such fail- 
 ure the entry will be canceled, and the land become again sub- 
 ject to entry under the homestead laws, or by some other person 
 under the act of June 14, 1878. 
 
 7. No land acquired under the provisions of the act of June 14, 
 1878, will in any event become liable to the satisfaction of any 
 debt or debts contracted prior to the issuing of the final certifi- 
 cate therefor. 
 
 8. The fees for entries under the act of June 14, 1878, are $10 if 
 
396 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 the tract applied for is more than 80 acres, and $5 if it is 80 acres 
 or less; and the commissions of registers and receivers on all en- 
 tries (irrespective of area) are $4 ( $2 to each) at the date of en- 
 try, and a like sum at the date of final proof. 
 
 8. No distinction is made as to the area or the amount of the 
 fee and commissions, between minimum and double-minimum 
 lands. A party may enter 160 acres of either on payment of the 
 prescribed fee and commissions. 
 
 10, The fifth section of the act approved March 3, 1857, entitled 
 '"An act in addition to an act to punish crimes against the 
 United States, and for other purposes," is extended to all oaths, 
 affirmations, and affidavits required or authorized by the act of 
 June 14, 1878. 
 
 11. Parties who have already made entry under the timber 
 culture acts of March 3, 1873, and March 13, 1874, of which the 
 act of June 14, 1878, is amendatory, may complete the same by 
 compliance with the requirements of the latter act; that is, they 
 may do so by showing, at the time of making their final proof, 
 that they have had under cultivation, as required by the act of 
 June 14, 1878, an amount of timber sufficient to make the number 
 of acres required thereby, being one-fourth the number required 
 by the former acts. It will be sufficient for this if the parties 
 show that, of the entire area embraced in their respective entries, 
 they have cultivated in timber for the period required by the act 
 of 1878 an area not less than one-sixteenth part, and that they 
 have then growing upon such cultivated area the prescribed num- 
 ber of "living and thrifty trees," viz, 6,750 where the entry is for 
 160 acres, 3,375 where it is for 80 acres, and 1,688 where it is for 
 40 acres or less. 
 
 III. The following regulations are prescribed pursuant to the 
 fifth section of the act of June 14, 1878, viz : 
 
 The Register and Receiver will not restrict entries under this 
 act to one quarter section only in each section, as was formerly 
 done under the acts to which this is amendatory, but may allow 
 entries to be made of subdivisions of different quarters of the 
 same section, provided that each entry shall form a compact 
 body not exceeding 160 acres, and that not more than that quantity 
 shall be entered in any one section. Before allowing any entry 
 applied for, they will, by a careful examination of the plat 
 and tract books with reference to any previous entry or 
 entries within the limits of the same section, satisfy them-' 
 
TIMBER CULTURE CLAIMS. 397 
 
 selves that the desired entry is admissible under this 
 rule. 
 
 When they shall have satisfied themselves that the land ap- 
 plied for is properly subject to such entry, they will require the 
 party to make the prescribed affidavit and to pay the fee and 
 that part of the commissions payable at the date of entry, and 
 the receiver will issue his receipt therefor, in duplicate, giving 
 the party a duplicate receipt. They will number the entry in its 
 order in a separate series of numbers, unless they have already 
 a series under the acts to which this is amendatory, in which 
 case they will number the entry as one of that series; they will 
 note the entry on their records and report it in their monthly re- 
 turns, sending up all the papers therein, with an abstract of the 
 entries allowed during the month under this act. If the affi- 
 davit is made before a justice of the peace, which the act admits 
 of, his official character and the genuineness of his signature 
 must be certified under seal. 
 
 When a contest is instituted, as contemplated in the third sec- 
 tion of the act of June 14, 1878, the contestant will be allowed 
 to make application to enter the land. The Register will there- 
 upon indorse on the application the date of its presentation, and 
 will make the application and the contestant's affidavit setting 
 forth the grounds of contest the basis for further proceedings, 
 these papers to accompany the report submitting the case to the 
 General Land Office. Should the contest result in the cancella- 
 tion of the contested entry the contestant may then perfect his 
 own, but no preference right will be allowed under this section 
 unless application is made by him at date of instituting contest. 
 But reference is here made to the subsequent act of Congress 
 approved May 14, 1880, the provisions of which allowed prefer- 
 ence rights apply to timber culture entries as well as to home- 
 steads and preemptions. 
 
 In all cases under this act it will be required that trees shall be 
 cultivated which shall be of the classes included in the term 
 " timber," the cultivation of shrubbery and fruit trees not being 
 sufficient. (See classes of trees before mentioned.) 
 
 Provisions for the benefit of soldiers and sailors of the late 
 war, their widows and minor orphan children. — Sections 2304, 
 2305, 230G, 2307, 2308, and 2309 of the Revised Statutes, for the 
 benefit of soldiers and sailors, their widows, and minor orphan 
 children, provide — 
 
398 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 1st. In section 2304, that every soldier and officer in the 
 Army, and every seaman, marine, and officer of the Navy, who 
 served for not less than ninety days in the Army and Navy of 
 the United States, "during the recent rebellion," and who was 
 honorably discharged, and has remained loyal to the Govern- 
 ment, may enter, under the provisions of the homestead law, 
 160 acres of the public land, to be taken, if desired, from the 
 class of double minimum lands. 
 
 2d. In section 2305, that the time of service, or the whole 
 term of his enlistment if the party was discharged on account of 
 wounds or disability incurred in the line of duty, shall be de- 
 ducted from the period of five years, during which, as per sec- 
 tion 2291, the claimant must, to perfect title, reside upon and 
 cultivate the entered tract, but with the proviso that the party 
 shall, in every case, reside upon, improve, and cultivate his 
 homestead for a period of at least one year after he shall have 
 commenced his improvements. 
 
 3d. That any person entitled to the benefits of section 2304, 
 who had, prior to the 22d of June, 1874, made a homestead entry 
 of less than 160 acres, may enter an additional quantity of land 
 sufficient to make, with the previous entry, 160 acres. 
 
 4th. That the widow, if married, or in case of her death or 
 marriage, then the minor orphan children, of a person who 
 would be entitled to the benefit of section 2304, may enter land 
 under its provisions, with the additional privilege accorded, that 
 if the person died during his term of enlistment, the widow or 
 minor children shall have the benefit of the whole term of en- 
 listment. 
 
 5th. That any person entitled to the benefit of section 2304 
 may file his claim for a tract of land through an agent, and shall 
 have sis months thereafter within which f,o make his entry and 
 commence his settlement and improvement upon the land. 
 
 The following is the course of proceedings for parties to avail 
 themselves of the benefits of these sections of the Revised 
 Statutes in making homestead entries: 
 
 1st. On the party producing the proper proof of his right to do 
 so, immediate entry of the tract desired may be made; but if the 
 party so elect, he may file a declaration to the effect that he 
 claims a specified tract of land as his homestead, and that 
 he takes it for actual settlement and cultivation. The 
 Register and Receiver will number the declarations so filed in a 
 
SOLDIERS* ANL* SAILOKS' HOMESTEAi> LAWS. 399 
 
 separate series, according to the order of filing, enter them on 
 their records, and with their monthly returns forward an ab- 
 stract, to embrace all declarations of this class filed with them 
 during the month. Thereafter, at any time within six months 
 from the date of filing, the party may come forward, make his 
 entry of the land and commence his settlement and improve- 
 ment. Should the party present his declaration through an 
 agent as authorized by section 230U, said agent must provide 
 a duly executed power of attorney from the principal desiring to 
 make the entry, who will be bound by the selection his agent 
 may make the same as though made by himself. Where the 
 party has failed to make entry within six months from the 
 date of filing, he is not thereby debarred from making entry 
 of the tract filed for, unless some adverse right has intervened; 
 and if so he may enter some other tract that is still vacant. 
 
 2d. The claims of widows and minor orphan children may be 
 initiated by declaration, as above. Minor orphan children can 
 act only by their duly appointed guardians, who must file certi- 
 fied copies of the powers of guardianship, which must be trans- 
 mitted to this office by the Registers and Receivers with their ab- 
 stracts of declarations. The law does not require, as a condition to 
 enjoying its benefits, that the party should first file a declaratory 
 statement, and, as before stated, immediate entry may be made. 
 
 3d. Where a party entitled desires to make an additional entry 
 of a quantity which, with his original entry, shall not exceed one 
 hundred and sixty acres, it is required that a full recital of mili- 
 tary service be presented to this office, with due proof of the 
 identity of the party making the claim, and with proper reference 
 to his original homestead entry, giving the name of the district 
 office, date and number of entry, and description of the land. In 
 addition, a detailed statement, under oath, must be filed by the 
 party in interest, setting forth the facts respecting his right to 
 make the entry, and containing his declaration that he has not 
 in any manner exercised his right, either by previous entry or 
 application, or by sale, transfer, or power of attorney, but that 
 the same remains in him unimpaired. He must also declare, 
 under oath, that he has made full compliance with the homestead 
 law in the matter of residence upon, cultivation and improve- 
 ment of, his original homestead entry, and should further recite 
 whether or not he has proved up his claim and received a patent 
 of the land. 
 
40U THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 When these papers are filed and examined, they will, if found 
 satisfactory, be returned with a certificate attached recognizing 
 the right of the party to make additional entry under the law ; 
 and when presented with a proper application at any district 
 land office, either by the party entitled or his agent or attorney, 
 they will be accepted bythe Register and Receiver, and forwarded 
 with the entry papers to this office in the usual manner. 
 
 The fee for examination and certificate, under the seal of the 
 office, will be $1, which must in all cases accompany the papers 
 presented for approval. 
 
 Where the party's first entry has been consummated, the 
 Register and Receiver will require him to make application in the 
 form prescribed, and to pay the same fee and commissions 
 as in cases of original entry; the Receiver will issue his 
 receipt for the money paid, and these papers will receive the 
 current date and the proper numbers in the homestead series. 
 Then, to complete the transaction — it being an object, for the 
 convenience of business, that the additional entry papers, and 
 the final papers therefor, in such cases, shall be kept separate 
 and distinct— the party will make payment of the usual final 
 commissions on the entered tract, for which the Receiver will 
 issue his receipt; the Register will thereupon issue his final 
 certificate for the additional tract, the receipt and certificate to 
 bear their proper numbers in the final homestead series, like- 
 wise a reference to the original entry and to the final certificate 
 thereon by their number, and also by their district where the 
 party's first entry shall have been made in a different district. 
 
 In case the party has not made proof on his original homestead 
 entry when he applies for additional land, he will be allowed 
 to make the additional entry on proper application, as above 
 stated, and paying the usual fee and commissions, for which the 
 receiver will issue his receipt, the papers to receive their proper 
 numbers in the homestead series, with a reference thereon to 
 the original entry. Thereafter, when the party shall make final 
 proof on the original entry, he will be required to pay the final 
 commissions on both entries, when a final receipt will be issued 
 for the money, and thereupon a final certificate issued to call 
 both for the tract in the original entry and the additional tract. 
 On these papers the Register and Receiver will make a reference 
 to the original and the additional entry, and on them one patent 
 will issue for both; yet where it happens that the original entry 
 
soldiers' and sailors' homestead laws. 401 
 
 and the additional entry are made in different land districts, this 
 rule must be departed from so far as regards the issuing of one 
 final certificate and receipt for both. 
 
 The following proof will be required of parties applying for 
 the benefits of sections 2304, 2305, and 2307, in addition to the 
 prescribed affidavit of the applicant : 
 
 1st. Certified copy of certificate of discharge, showing when 
 the party enlisted and when he was discharged ; or the affidavit 
 of two respectable, disinterested witnesses corroborative of the 
 allegations contained in the prescribed affidavit on these points, 
 or, if neither can be procured, the party's affidavit to that effect. 
 
 2d. In case of widows, the prescribed evidence of military ser- 
 vice of the husband, as above, with affidavit of widowhood, giv- 
 ing the date of the husband's death. 
 
 3d.. In case of minor orphan children, in addition to the pre- 
 scribed evidence of military service of the father, proof of death 
 or marriage of the mother. Evidence of death may be the testi- 
 mony of two witnesses, or certificate of a physician duly attest- 
 ed. Evidence of marriage may be certified copy of marriage 
 certificate, or of the record of same, or testimony of two wit- 
 nesses to the marriage ceremony 
 
 The Register and Receiver will be allowed to charge one dollar 
 each for receiving and filing the initiatory declaration of the 
 parties in cases where such declarations are filed. 
 
CHAPTEE XXIII. 
 
 PENSIONS. 
 
 As soon after the Revolutionary War as the Government of 
 the United States could arrange its financial affairs it began to 
 assign pensions to those who had been disabled by service in its 
 armies. In 1791 the Treasury supplied $175,800 for pensions, 
 and the smallest amount paid in any one year since has been 
 $62,000. After the War of 1812 it soon rose to millions. At the 
 close of June, 1866, the entire sum paid in pensions since 1791, 
 amounted to $119,400,000. 
 
 The next year it was nearly twenty-one millions and averaged, 
 after 1870, about thirty millions until 1880. when it rose to over 
 $56,700,000, under the operation of a law of 1879 ordering the 
 pensions in consequence of the death and disabilities of the Civil 
 War, to date from the time when the death or disability occurred, 
 instead of the date of application or granting as had previously 
 been the custom. The ''arrears of pensions" so authorized were 
 directed to be paid by the Pension Office, which immensely in- 
 increased the amount required yearly for pensions until all the 
 arrears should have been paid. Up to June 30, 1880, almost 
 $500,000,000 had been paid out of the Treasury in pensions to the 
 invalids, widows and orphans of the Civil War. In the end the 
 pensions resulting from this war are likely to amount to one 
 thousand million dollars. This vast sum is the expression of the 
 gratitude and satisfaction of the Republic for the prompt and 
 fearless devotion of her citizens in her time of need. 
 
 The persons who are by law entitled to pensions are classed as 
 follows. 
 
 1. Invalid soldiers and sailors, or those disabled by wounds 
 or disease in the military or naval services of the United States 
 while in the discharge of duty. 
 
 2. Widows of pensioners and of those who had died during 
 the war from wounds received, or disease contracted, in the 
 military or naval service. 
 
 (402) 
 
THE PENSION LAW. 403 
 
 3. Children under sixteen years of age whose parents were 
 entitled to pensions, provided the widows have died or remar- 
 ried. 
 
 4. Mothers of deceased soldiers or sailors when no widow or 
 children survive if they were dependent on the deceased for 
 support. 
 
 5. Fathers of the deceased soldiers or sailors when none of the 
 previously mentioned pensioners survive and they depended on 
 the soldier or sailor for support. 
 
 6. Brothers and sisters under sixteen years of age if they 
 were dependent on a deceased pensioner or claimant. 
 
 There is also a class of cases in which pensions are given 
 where no death or disability has occurred. Long and faithful 
 service is rewarded, when the vigor of manhood is past, by pen- 
 sions or retiring pay— usually from fifty to seventy-five per 
 cent, of the full pay belonging to the rank of the person retired. 
 There are many cases of pensions granted by special laws of 
 Congress where the persons do not fall within any of the above 
 classes. These are commonly in recognition of some special 
 public service rendered, or special misfortune suffered, by an 
 eminent public servant or by those dependent on him. There 
 are laws regulating the retirement of the higher officers of the 
 army and the navy when they have reached a certain age — 
 generally 02 years — and enlisted soldiers and sailors and inferior 
 officers who have passed a certain number of years in the ser- 
 vice; but this does not formally terminate their connection with 
 the army or navy. It only releases them from active service on 
 partial pay and does not place them in the care of the Pension 
 Office. They are provided for by the Pay Bureaus of their De- 
 partments — War or Navy. It is those who have been honorably 
 "mustered out" of, or been dismissed from the service, or the 
 dependent relatives of those who have died while in it, whose 
 cases come before that office. 
 
 The amount of pension allowed by law in various cases is 
 stated in the Revised Statutes as follows: 
 
 Sec. 4G95. The pension for total disabilities shall be as fol- 
 lows, namely : For Lieutenant-Colonel and all officers of higher 
 rank in the military service and in the Marine Corps, and for 
 Captain and all officers of higher rank. Commander, Surgeon, 
 Paymaster, and Chief Engineer, respectively ranking with Com- 
 mander by law. Lieutenant Commanding and Master Command- 
 
404 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ing, in the Naval Service, thirty dollars per month; for Major in 
 the Military Service and in the Marine Corps, and Lieutenant, 
 Surgeon, Paymaster, and Chief Engineer, respectively ranking 
 with Lieutenant by law, and Passed Assistant Surgeon in the 
 Naval Service, twenty -five dollars per month; for Captain in the 
 Military Service and in the Marine Corps, Chaplain in the Army, 
 and Provost-Marshal, Professor of Mathematics, Master, Assist- 
 ant Surgeon, Assistant Paymaster, and Chaplain in the Naval 
 Service, twenty dollars per month; for First Lieutenant in the 
 Military Service and in the Marine Corps, Acting Assistant or 
 Contract Surgeon,and Deputy Provost-Marshal, seventeen dollars 
 per month; for Second Lieutenant in the Military Service and 
 in the Marine Corps, first Assistant Engineer, Ensign, and Pilot 
 in the Naval Service, and Enrolling-OflScer, fifteen dollars per 
 month; for Cadet-Midshipman, Passed Midshipman, Midship- 
 men, clerks of Admirals, and Paymasters, and of other officers 
 commanding vessels, second and third assistant engineer, mas- 
 ter's mate, and all warrant-officers in the Naval Service, ten 
 dollars per month; and for all other persons, whose rank or 
 or office is not mentioned in this section, eight dollars per month; 
 and the masters, pilots, engineers, sailors, and crews, upon the 
 gunboats and war-vessels shall be entitled to receive the pen- 
 sion allowed herein to those of like rank in the Naval Service. 
 
 Sec. 4696. Every commissioned officer of the Army, Navy, or 
 Marine Corps shall receive such and only such pension as is pro- 
 vided in the preceding section for the rank he held at the time 
 he received the injury or contracted the disease which resulted 
 in the disability on account of which he may be entitled to a 
 pension; and any commission or Presidential appointment, 
 regularly issued to such person, shall be taken to determine his 
 rank from and after the date, as given in the body of the com- 
 mission or appointment conferring said rank: Provided, That a 
 vacancy existed in the rank thereby conferred; that the person 
 commissioned was not disabled for military duty; and that he 
 did not willfully neglect or refuse to be mustered. 
 
 Sec. 4697. For the period commencing July fourth, eighteen 
 hundred and sixty-four, and ending June third, eighteen hundred 
 and seventy-two, those persons entitled to a less pension than 
 hereinafter mentioned, who shall have lost both feet in the mili- 
 tary or naval service and in the line of duty, shall be entitled to 
 a pension of twenty dollars per month ; for the same period those 
 
PENSIONS FOR SPECIAL DISABILITIES. 405 
 
 persons who, under like circumstances, shall have lost both hands 
 or the sight of both eyes, shall be entitled to a pension of twenty- 
 five dollars per month (since increased to seventy -two dollars per 
 month); and for the period commencing March third, eighteen 
 hundred and sixty-five, and ending June third, eighteen hundred 
 and seventy-two, those persons who, under like circumstances, 
 shall have lost one hand and one foot shall be entitled to a pen- 
 sion of twenty dollars per month (since increased to seventy-two 
 dollars per month); and for the period commencing June sixth, 
 eighteen hundred and sixty-six, and ending June third, eighteen 
 hundred and seventy -two, those persons who, under like circum- 
 stances, shall have lost one hand or one foot shall be entitled to 
 a pension of fifteen (now seventy-two) dollars per month ; and 
 for the period commencing June sixth, eighteen hundred and 
 sixty-six, and ending June third, eighteen hundred and seven- 
 ty-two, those persons entitled to a less pension than hereinafter 
 mentioned, who by reason of injury received or disease contract- 
 ed in the military or naval service of the United States and in 
 the line of duty shall have been permanently and totally dis- 
 abled in both hands, or who shall have lost the sight of one eye, 
 the other having been previously lost, or who shall have been 
 otherwise so totally and permanently disabled as to render them 
 utterly helpless, or so nearly so as to require regular personal 
 aid and attendance of another person, shall be entitled to a pen- 
 sion of twenty-five dollars per month; and for the same period 
 those who, under like circumstances, shall have been totally and 
 permanently disabled in both feet, or in one hand andonefoot,or 
 otherwise so disabled as to be incapacitated for the performance 
 of any manual labor, but not so much as to require regular per- 
 sonal aid and attention, shall be entitled to a pension of twenty 
 dollars per month ; and for the same period all persons who, 
 luiderlike circumstances, shall have been totally and permanent- 
 ly disabled in one hand, or one foot, or otherwise so disabled as 
 to render their inability to perform manual labor equivalent to 
 the loss of a hand or foot, shall be entitled to a pension of fifteen 
 dollars per month. 
 
 Sec. 4698. From and after June fourth, eighteen hundred and 
 seventy-two, all persons entitled by law to a less pension than 
 hereinafter specified, who, while in the military or naval service 
 of the United States, and in line of duty, shall have lost the sight 
 of both eyes, or shall have lost the sight of one eye, the sight of 
 
406 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 the other having been previously lost, or shall have lost both 
 hands,, or shall have lost both feet, or been permanently and 
 totally disabled in the same, or otherwise so permanently and 
 totally disabled as to render them utterly helpless, or so nearly 
 so as to require the regular personal aid and attendance of an- 
 other person, shall be entitled to a pension of thirty-one dollars 
 and twenty-five cents per month ; and all persons who, under 
 hke circumstances, shall have lost one hand and one foot, or been 
 totally and permanently disable 1 in the same, or otherwise so 
 disabled as to be incapacitated for performing any manual labor, 
 but not so much as to require regular personal aid and attend- 
 ance, shall be entitled to a pension of twenty-four dollars per 
 month : and all persons who, under like circumstances, shall 
 have lost one hand, or one foot, or been totally and permanently 
 disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to render their 
 incapacity to perform manual labor equivalent to the loss of a 
 hand or foot, shall be entitled to a pension of eighteen dollars per 
 month : Provided. That all persons who, under like circum- 
 stances, have lost a leg above the knee, an in consequence there- 
 of are so disabled that they cannot use artificial limbs, shall be 
 rated in the second class, and receive twenty-four dollars per 
 month from and after June fourth, eighteen hundred and seventy- 
 two: and all person? who, under like circumstances, shall have 
 lost the hearing of both ears shall be entitled to a pension of thir- 
 teen dollars per month from the same date : Provided, That the 
 pension for a disability not permanent, equivalent in degree to 
 any provided for in this section, shall, during the continuance of 
 the disability in such degree, be at the same rate as that herein 
 provided for a permanent disability of like degree. 
 
 Sec. 4699. The rate of eighteen dollars per month may be pro- 
 portionately divided for any degree of disability established for 
 which section forty-six hundred and ninety-five makes no pro- 
 vision. 
 
 Sec. 4702. If any person embraced within the provisions of 
 sections forty-six hundred and ninety-two and forty-six hundred 
 and ninety-three has died since the fourth day of March, eighteen 
 hundred and sixty-one. or hereafter dies by reason of any wound, 
 injury, or disease which, under the conditions and limitations of 
 such sections, would have entitled him to an invalid pension had 
 he been disabled, his widow, or if there be no widow, or in case 
 of her death without payment to her of any part of the pension 
 
PENSIONS TO CHILDREN AND WIDOWS. 407 
 
 hereinafter mentioned, his child or children, under sixteen years 
 of age, shall be entitled to receive the same pension as the hus- 
 band or father would have been entitled to had he been totally 
 disabled, to commence from the death of the husband or father, 
 to continue to the widow during her widowhood, and to his child 
 or children until they severally attain the age of sixteen years, 
 and no longer; and, if the widow remarry, the child or children 
 shall be entitled from the date of remarriage. 
 
 Sec. 4703. The pensions of widows shall be increased from 
 and after the twenty-fifth day of July, eighteen hundred and 
 sixty-six, at the rate of two dollars per month for each child un- 
 der the age of sixteen years of the husband on account of whose 
 death the claim has been, or shall be, granted. And in every 
 case in which the deceased husband has left, or shall leave, no 
 widow, or where his widow has died or married again, or where 
 she has been deprived of her pension under the provisions of the 
 pension-law, the pension granted to such child or children shall 
 be increased to the same amount per month that would be al- 
 lowed under the foregoing provisions to the widow, if living and 
 entitled to a pension: Provided, That the additional pension 
 herein granted to the widow on account of the child or children 
 of the husband by a former wife shall be paid to her only for 
 such period of her widowhood as she has been, or shall be, 
 charged with the maintenance of such child or children; for any 
 period during which she has not been, or she shall not be, so 
 charged, it shall be granted and paid to the guardian of such 
 child or children: Provided further, That a widow or guardian 
 to whom increase of pension has been, or shall hereafter be, 
 granted on account of minor children shall not be deprived there- 
 of by reason of their being maintained in whole or in part at the 
 expense of a State or the public in any educational institution, or 
 in any institution organized for the care of soldiers' orphans. 
 
 Sec. 4704. In the administration of the pension-laws, children 
 born before the marriage of their parents, if acknowledged by 
 the father before or after the marriage, shall be deemed legiti- 
 mate. 
 
 Sec. 4705. The widows of colored and Indian soldiers and 
 sailors who have died, or shall hereafter die, by reason of wounds 
 or injuries received, or casualty received, or disease contracted, 
 in the military or naval service of the United States, and in the 
 line of duty, shall be entitled to receive the pension provided by 
 
408 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMEXT. 
 
 law without other evidence of marriage than satisfactory proof 
 
 that the parties were joined in marriage by some ceremony 
 deemed by them obligatory, or habitually recognized each other 
 as man and wife, and were so recognized by their neighbors, and 
 lived together as such up to date of enlistment when such soldier 
 or sailor died in the service, or, if otherwise, to date of death; 
 and the children born of any marriage so proved shall be deemed 
 and held to be lawful children of such soldier or sailor, but this 
 section shall not be applicable to any claims on account of per- 
 sons who enlist after the third day of March, one thousand eight 
 hundred and seventy-three. 
 
 AX ACT (approved January 25. 1879) to provide that all pensions on account of 
 death, or -rounds received, or disease contracted in the service of the United 
 States during the late Tvar of the rebeUion. -^hich have been granted, or which 
 shall hereafter be granted, shall commence from the date of death or discharge 
 from the service of the United States, for payment of axi-ears of pensions. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Bejjresentatives of 
 the United States of America in Congress assembled, That all 
 pensions which have been granted under the general law regu- 
 lating pensions, or may hereafter be granted, in consequence of 
 death from a cause which originated in the United States ser- 
 vice during the continuance of the late war of the rebellion, or 
 in consequence of wounds, injuries, or disease received or con- 
 tracted in said service during said war of the rebellion, shall 
 commence from the date of the death or discharge from said 
 service of the person on whose account the claim has been or 
 shall hereafter be granted, or from the termination of the right 
 of the party having prior title to such pension: Provided, The 
 rate of pension for the intervening time for which arrears of 
 pension are hereby granted shall be the same per month for 
 which the pension was originally granted. 
 
 All persons who. under and by virtue of the first section of the 
 act entitled •'•'An act supplementary to the several acts relating 
 to pensions," approved March 3, 1865, were deprived of their 
 pensions during any portion of the time from the 2d of March, 
 1865, to the 6th of June, 1866, by reason of their being in the 
 civil service of the United States, shall be paid their said pen- 
 sions, withheld by virtue of said section of the act aforesaid, for 
 and during the said period of time from the 3d of March, 1865, 
 to the 6th of June. 1866. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS TO PENSION CLAIMANTS. 409 
 
 EEGULATIONS RELATING TO ARMY AND NAVY PENSIONS, 
 
 Department op the Interior, Pension Office. 
 
 An observance of the following instructions will generally en- 
 able a claimant to intelligently present his claim for pension to 
 the Commissioner for settlement: 
 
 A declaration must generally be filed, which must be executed 
 in conformity to the provisions of section 4714 Revised Statutes. 
 
 Blank forms for a declaration will be furnished to claimants 
 upon application therefor, but will not be furnished to attorneys 
 and claim-agents. 
 
 The declaration should set forth the company and regiment in 
 which the applicant served, the name of the commanding officer 
 of the company or organization, and the dates of enlistment and 
 discharge. In Navy cases the vessel upon which the claimant 
 served should be stated. If the claim is made on account of a 
 wound or injury, the declaration should set forth the nature and 
 locality of the wound or injury, the time when, the place where, 
 and the circumstances under which it was received, and the 
 duty upon which the applicant was engaged. 
 
 If the wound or injury was accidental, the applicant should 
 state whether it happened through his own agency or that of 
 other persons, and he should minutely detail the circumstances 
 under which it was received. 
 
 If the claim is made on account of disability from disease, the 
 applicant should state in his declaration when the disease first 
 appeared, the place where he was when it appeared, and the 
 duty upon which he was at the time engaged. He should also 
 detail the circumstances of exposure to the causes which in his 
 opinion produced the disease. Whether the application be made 
 on account of disability from injury or disease, the claimant 
 should state the names, numbers, and localities of all hospitals 
 in which he received medical or surgical treatment, giving the 
 dates of his admission thereto as correctly as he may be able. 
 
 The applicant should state whether he was in the military or 
 naval service prior to or after the term of service in which his 
 disability originated. 
 
 The applicant should state his post-office address. In cities, 
 the street and number of his residence should be given. 
 
 The identity of the applicant must be shown by the testimony 
 of two credible witnesses, who must appear with him before the 
 oflBcer by whom the declaration may be taken. 
 
410 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETilENT. 
 
 CLAIMS OF INA'ALIDS. 
 
 Nature of the evidence required to sustain a claim for invalid 
 
 pension. 
 
 Upon the receipt of a claim for pension, application will be' 
 made bv this ofl&ce, in Army cases, to the Adjutant-General and 
 the Surgeon-General of the Army, for a report of the applicant's 
 service and evidence in regard to the disability alleged which 
 may appear upon the rolls and other records in the possession of 
 those officers. In iSTavy cases, the application for such evidence 
 will be made to the proper Bureaus of the Na^'y Department. 
 
 When the records of the War or ISTavy Department do not 
 furnish satisfactory evidence that the disability on account of 
 which the claim is made originated in the service of the United 
 States and in the line of duty, the claimant will be required to 
 furnish such evidence, in accordance with the instructions here- 
 inafter given, compliance with ^vhich must be full and definite. 
 
 If the disability results from a wound or other injury, the 
 nature and location of the wound or injury, the time when, the 
 place where, and the manner in Avhicli it was received, "whether 
 in battle or otherwise, should be shown by the affidavit of some 
 one who was a commissioned officer and had personal knowledge 
 of the facts. 
 
 If the person called upon to give evidence is still in the service 
 as a commissioned officer, his certificate will be accepted in lieu 
 of his affidavit. 
 
 The applicant should furnish the testimony of the surgeon by 
 whom he was treated, showing the location and nature of the 
 wound or injury and the circmnstances under which it was 
 received. If the disability arises from disease, the testimony of 
 the person who was surgeon or assistant surgeon of the regiment 
 to which the applicant belonged, or the vessel on which he 
 served, should, if possible, be furnished, showing the name or 
 nature of the disease, the time when, the place where it was 
 contracted, and the circumstances of exposure to the causes 
 which in his opinion produced the same. 
 
 The surgeon should state whether in his opinion the habits of 
 the applicant had any agency in the production of the disease. 
 
 In any claim, whether made on account of injury or disease, 
 if it be shown that the testimony of a surgeon, assistant sur- 
 geon, or other commissioned officer cannot be produced as 
 
APPLICATIONS FOR PENSIONS. 411 
 
 evidence of the origin of the disability alleged, the testimony of 
 other persons having personal knowledge of the facts will be 
 considered. 
 
 When a claim is made on account of disability from disease or 
 rupture, the applicant should furnish the affidavit of his family 
 physician to prove his condition at the time of enlistment. 
 
 In a claim on account of disability from disease, he must fur- 
 nish the testimony of the physicians who have attended him 
 since the date of discharge, explicitly setting forth the history 
 of the disease and disability since its first appearance. It is 
 especially important that the physician who first attended the 
 applicant after his discharge should state the date at which his 
 attendance commenced and his condition at that time. If it 
 should not be possible for the applicant to show the condition of 
 his health during the whole period since the date of his discharge 
 by the testimony of physicians, the cause of his inability to do 
 so should be stated by him under oath. The testimony of other 
 persons on this point may then be presented. The statement of 
 the witnesses in regard to the manner in which the applicant 
 was affected should be full and definite, and they should state 
 how they obtained a knowledge of the facts stated by them. 
 
 Claims for increase of pension. 
 
 A pensioner who may deem himself entitled to an increase of 
 pension should file a declaration setting forth the ground upon 
 which he claims such increase. 
 
 A declaration for increase of pension may be taken before any 
 officer duly authorized to administer oaths for general purposes, 
 if it should not be convenient for the pensioner to appear before 
 an officer of a court of record. The official character and signa- 
 ture of the person before whom the declaration may be taken 
 must be certified under the seal of a court of record. 
 
 Claims for renewal of pension. 
 
 Applications for renewal of pension must be made to the Com- 
 missioner by a declaration executed as in original claims, setting 
 forth that the cause for which pension was allowed still con- 
 tinues. 
 
 In cases of unclaimed pensions, evidence must be filed satisfac- 
 torily accounting for the failure to claim such pension; and, in 
 
412 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 invalid claims, medical evidence showing the continuance of the 
 disability. 
 
 Blank forms of declaration will be furnished by this office at 
 the request of the claimant. 
 
 CLAIMS OF WIDOWS AND CHILDREN, 
 
 The declaration. 
 
 The blank form of declaration, with the accompanying notes, 
 which is furnished by this office upon the request of a claimant, 
 sufficiently indicates the facts which should be stated by the wid- 
 ow or guardian. 
 
 Evidence. 
 
 The facts relating to the cause of the soldier's death on ac- 
 count of whom the pension is claimed, including his last illness 
 and date and place of death, should be set forth fully and in de- 
 tail, and should be proven by the physicians who attended him 
 during his illness; but, when that is impossible, the testimony of 
 other persons who are acquainted with the circumstances may 
 be furnished. 
 
 Proof of marriage in widow'' s claims. 
 
 The marriage of the applicant to the person on account of 
 whose service and death the claim is made should be shown — 
 
 1st. By a duly verified copy of a church or other public rec- 
 ord; or 
 
 2d. By the affidavit of the clergyman or magistrate who of- 
 ficiated; or 
 
 3d, By the testimony of two or more eye-witnesses to the 
 ceremony; or 
 
 4th. By a duly verified copy of the church record of baptism 
 of the children; or 
 
 5th. By the testimony of two or more witnesses who know 
 that the parties lived together as man and wife, and who will 
 state how long, within their knowledge, such cohabitation con- 
 tinued. 
 
 Special provision, however, is made by section 4705 of the Re- 
 vised Statutes in regard to the character of the evidence which 
 shall be required in the claims of widows and children of colored 
 and Indian soldiers and sailors. 
 
PENSIONS FOK CHILDREN OF DECEASED CLAIMANTS. 413 
 
 Proof of the dates of birth of children. 
 
 The dates of birth of children should be proved — 
 
 1st. By a duly verified copy of the church record of baptism 
 or other public record; or 
 
 2d. By the affidavit of the physician v^ho attended the mother; 
 or 
 
 3d. By the testimony of persons v^ho were present at the 
 births, who should state how they are able to testify to the pre- 
 cise dates. 
 
 If any child of the person on whose account the claim is made 
 died after the date at which the widow's pension will commence, 
 the date of the death must be shown. 
 
 CLAIMS ON BEHALF OF MINOR CHILDREN. 
 
 In claims on behalf of minor children the guardiafi must fur- 
 nish proof upon the following points: 
 
 1st. A copy of his letters of guardianship, bearing the seal of 
 the court making the appointment, together with the certificate 
 of the court that such appointment has not been revoked; which 
 certificate should also state the amount of the guardian's bond. 
 
 2d. The cause and date of the father's death, the marriage of 
 the parents, and the dates of birth of the children must be 
 proved. When, however, satisfactory proof upon these points 
 has been furnished in the claim of the widow, it will not again 
 be required in the claiin on behalf of the minor. 
 
 3d. If the mother of the children is dead, the date of her death 
 must be proved. If she remarried, her remarriage must be 
 proved in the same manner that her marriage to the father of the 
 children is required to be proved. If the claim is made on ac- 
 count of the widow having abandoned the children, or on ac- 
 count of her unfitness to have custody of them, the abandonment 
 or unfitness can be shown only by the certificate of the court 
 having probate jurisdiction. 
 
 4th. If the mother of the children died before the father, it 
 must be shown whether he again married. 
 
 5th. It must be shown \^ether the father left any other 
 child than those for whose benefit the claim is made; and if so, 
 ^yhy such child is not embraced in the application. A guardian 
 is not entitled on account of a child which died prior to the date 
 of the application. 
 
414 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMEXT. 
 
 CLAIMS OF DEPENDENT RELATIVES. 
 
 Dependent mothers. 
 
 A mother must show her relationship, the date and cause of 
 the son's death, and whether he left a widow or minor children 
 surviving, and her dependence upon him for support at the time 
 of his death. 
 
 In proof of dependence it must be shown that previous to the 
 date of the said son's decease her husband had died, or that he 
 had permanently abandoned her support, or that on account of 
 disability from injury or disease he was unable to support her. 
 If the husband is dead, the date of his death must be proved. If 
 he abandoned the support of his family, the date of such aban- 
 donment and all the facts of the case showing whether he ever 
 returned or ever afterward contributed to the support of the 
 claimant must be fully set forth. If he was disabled, the nature 
 and cause of the disability, and when and to what extent it 
 rendered him unable to support the claimant, must be shown by 
 the testimony of his physician. The extent of his disability du- 
 ring the period from the son's death to the present time should 
 also be shown. 
 
 The value of the property of the claimant and her husband, 
 the income which they derived therefrom, and the other means 
 of support possessed by them while she was receiving the contri- 
 butions of her said son. and from that time to the present, 
 should be shown by the testimony of credible and disinterested 
 witnesses, who must state how they know the facts. The value 
 of property assessed for taxation may be shown by the testimony 
 of the officer having possession of the records relating thereto. 
 The true as compared with the assessed value should be stated. 
 
 It must be shown to what extent, for what period, and in what 
 manner her said son contributed to her support, by the testimony 
 of persons for whom the son labored, to Avhom he paid rent, of 
 whom he purchased groceries, fuel, clothing, or other necessary 
 articles for her use, or of those who otherwise had a knowledge 
 of the contributions of the son and who must state how they ob- 
 tained such knowledge. Any letter from the son bearing upon 
 the question of support should be filed. If the son, in any other 
 manner than by actual contributions, acknowledged his obliga- 
 tion to support his mother, or was by law bound to such support, 
 the facts should be shown. 
 
PENSIONS FOR DEPENDENT RELATIONS. 415 
 
 Dependent fathers. 
 
 A father claiming pension on account of the death of his son, 
 upon whom he was dependent for support, must prove — 
 
 1st. The cause and date of his son's death; that said son left no 
 widow or minor child surviving him; the cause and extent of his 
 disability during the period in which the son contributed to his 
 support, and from that time to the present; the amount of his 
 property and all other means of support possessed by him during 
 that period; and the extent of his dependence upon his son for 
 support. The facts of the case in these respects should be shown 
 by such testimony as is required in the claim of a mother. 
 
 2d. The date of his marriage, the date of the death of the moth- 
 er, and the date of birth of the son must be proved. 
 
 In case the mother applied for pension, reference should be 
 made to her application, and the number of the same or of her 
 certificate should be given. Evidence upon any point establish- 
 ed in her claim will not again be required. 
 
 Minor brothers and sisters. 
 
 The claim on behalf of minor brothers and sisters should be 
 made by a guardian duly appointed, who must furnish the evi- 
 dence of his or her authority under the seal of the court from 
 which the authority was obtained. He must prove the cause and 
 date of the death of the brother on whose account the claim is 
 made, his celibacy, the dates of death of the mother and father, 
 his relationship to the persons on whose behalf the claim is made, 
 the dates of their births, and their dependence upon the brother 
 for support. If the mother or father applied for pension, the 
 number of his or her application, or of his or her certificate 
 should be given. Evidence upon any point established in the 
 claim of the mother or father will not again be required. 
 
 In the administration of the pension laws no distinction is 
 made between brothers and sisters of the half blood and those of 
 the whole blood. 
 
 Magistrates and liiitnesses. 
 All evidence in a claim for pension (other than the declaration) 
 may be verified before an officer duly authorized to administer 
 oaths for general purposes; but no evidence verified before an 
 officer who is engaged in the prosecution of the claim, or who 
 has a manifest interest therein, will be accepted. Any officer 
 
•416 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 before whom testimony in a claim for pension may be tal^en 
 must therefore set forth in his certificate that he has no interest 
 in the prosecution of such claim. 
 
 The official character and signature of the magistrate who may 
 administer the oath must be certified by the proper ofiicer of a 
 Court of Record under the seal of such court. 
 
 When the commission of a notary public or a certified copy of 
 his appointment, with his official seal and signature attached, 
 and the certificate of the clerk of a court or other proper ofiicer 
 to the genuineness of his signature, is filed in this office, his own 
 certificate, under his official seal, will be recognized thereafter 
 during his continuance in office; but in the absence of such com- 
 mission or certified copy of his appointment, an affidavit taken 
 before such officer will not be received in any case unless it be 
 accompanied by a certificate of the proper officer showing his 
 authority and the genuineness of his signature. When a general 
 certificate as to the authority and signature of a notary has been 
 filed in this office, upon all papers verified before him thereafter 
 reference should be made to such general certificate. 
 
 When a person authorized to act as the deputy of an officer of 
 a court of record administers an oath to a witness, he must sign 
 his own name to the certificate of the fact, and not that of the 
 person for whom he is acting. 
 
 It is desirable that the facts required to be proved in the pros- 
 ecution of a claim for pension should if possible, be shown by 
 other persons than near relatives of the claimant. 
 
 Every, fact required to be proved should be shown by the best 
 evidence obtainable. Every witness should state whether he has 
 any interest, direct or indirect, in the prosecution of the claim in 
 Avhich he may be called to testify, and give his post-office ad- 
 dress. 
 
 Witnesses should not merely confirm the statements of other 
 parties, but they should give a detailed statement of the facts 
 known to them in regard to the matter concerning which they 
 may testify, and should state how they obtained a knowledge of 
 such facts. The officer who may take the deposition must cer- 
 tify as to his knowledge of the credibility of the witnesses, and 
 must state how such knowledge was obtained. If they sign by 
 mark, he must certify that the contents of their depositions were 
 fully made known to them before he administered the oath. 
 
 It is desirable that affidavits should be free from interlineations 
 
PHYSICIANS AND ATTORNEYS IN PENSION APPLICATIONS. 417 
 
 and erasures. When an alteration is made in an affidavit, or an 
 addition is made thereto, it must appear by the certificate of the 
 officer who administered the oath that such alteration or ad- 
 dition was made with the knowledge and sworn consent of the 
 affiant. 
 
 In all affidavits from surgeons or physicians, it is desirable 
 that that portion detailing the nature of the disability, dates of 
 treatment, and death, symptoms and opinions as to connection 
 between diseases, or injury and disease, should be in the hand- 
 writing of the party by whom it is signed. The testimony of 
 any person as an expert should be drawn up by some one profes- 
 sionally competent to make such a statement. 
 
 The official certificates of judicial officers using a seal, or of 
 commissioned officers of the Army and Navy in actual service, 
 will be accepted without affidavit; but all other witnesses must 
 testify under oath. 
 
 Attorneys. 
 
 Every officer of the United States, or person holding any place 
 trust or profit, or discharging any official function under or in 
 connection with any Executive Department of the Government 
 of the United States, or under the Senate or House of Repre- 
 sentatives of the United States, is prohibited under a heavy pen- 
 alty from acting as an agent or attorney in claim for pension, or 
 from assisting in any manner, otherwise than in the dis- 
 charge of his proper official duties, in the prosecution of such 
 claim. 
 
 No person can be recognized as an attorney before this office 
 until he shall have filed the following oath, sworn to before some 
 officer duly authorized to administer oaths for general purposes, 
 whose official character and signature must be certified under 
 seal: 
 
 I, , do solemnly that I will support, protect, and defend 
 
 the Constitution and Government of the United States against all enemies, wliether 
 domestic or foreign, and that I will bear true faith, allegiance, and loyalty to the 
 same, any ordinance, resolution, or law of any State, convention, or legislature to 
 the contrary notwithstanding ; and, further, that I do this with a full determina- 
 tion, pledge, and purpose, without any mental reservation or evasion whatsoever; 
 and, further, that I will faithfully perform all the duties which may be required 
 of me by law ; so help me God. 
 
 The revocation of power of attorney and substitution of an- 
 other attorney will not be permitted unless with the consent of 
 
 27 
 
418 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 the party having original power of attorney, or unless a good 
 and sufficient reason be given for said substitution. 
 
 The provisions of sections 4785 and 4786 of the Revised Statutes 
 govern the amount of fee which shall be paid for the prosecution 
 of a claim for pension filed prior to June 20, 1878, and the man- 
 ner in which it shall be paid. 
 
 In all claims filed after June 20, 1878, and in claims in which 
 the claimant was not represented by attorney prior to that date, 
 the legal fee is ten dollars, to be collected by the agent or attor- 
 ney without the interference of the Pension Office or its agencies. 
 
 No fee-agreements can be filed with the Commissioner of Pen- 
 sions after June 20, 1878. 
 
 No fee will be allowed in a claim for arrears of pension under 
 section 4711 Revised Statutes, or in a claim for a new certificate 
 or transfer of payment, or in a claim for re-issue to correct an 
 error of action, or made necessary by changes in the law, or to 
 exempt from biennial examinations, except w^here the attorney 
 shall furnish additional testimony upon a call from this office ma- 
 terial to the point at issue. 
 
 PENSIONS TO THE SURVIVORS OF THE WAR OF 1812, AND TO THEIR 
 
 WIDOWS. 
 
 The following persons are entitled to pension under the pro- 
 visions of sections 4736, 4737, and 4738, Revised Statutes: 
 
 First. Officers, soldiers and sailors, who served for sixty days, 
 who have never been pensioned for a disability incurred in the 
 service of the United States. These will be entitled to a full 
 pension of 68 per month from February 14, 1881. 
 
 Second. Officers, soldiers and sailors, who served for sixty 
 days, but who are in receipt of a pension of less than $8 per 
 month, for disability incurred in the service of the United States, 
 for the difference between the pension now received and $8 per 
 month. 
 
 Third. Widows of officers, soldiers and sailors, who served 
 sixty days, who were married to the soldier prior to the treaty 
 of peace which terminated said war (February 17, 1815), and 
 who have not since remarried. These will be entitled to $8 per 
 month from February 14, 1871. 
 
 An honorable discharge in all cases is necessary. 
 
 The claimant's identity and loyalty must be proved by two 
 ■ witnesses, certified by the judicial officer to be respectable and 
 
PENSIONS FOR SERVICE IN THE WAR OP 1812. 419 
 
 credible, who are present and witness the signature of the 
 declarant, and certify to his identity or loyalty under oath or 
 affirmation. 
 
 In addition to those above enumerated, the following persons 
 are entitled to pension at $8 per month, from March 9, 1878, for 
 services in said war, under the provision of the act approved on 
 that date: 
 
 First. Officers, soldiers and sailors who served for fourteen 
 days, and who have never been pensioned for a disability incur- 
 red in the service of the United States. 
 
 Second. Officers, soldiers and sailors who served for fourteen 
 days, and are in receipt of a pension of less than $8 per month 
 for disability incurred in the service of the United States, for the 
 difference between the pension now received and $8 per month. 
 
 Third. Officers, soldiers and sailors who were in any engage- 
 ment. 
 
 Fourth, Widows, without regard to the date of their marriage, 
 and who have not remarried, of the persons described in the 
 preceding three clauses. 
 
 An honorable discharge is necessary, but proof of loyalty is 
 not required in claims under the act of March 9, 1878. 
 
 Any application for pension on account of service in the war 
 of 1812, heretofore made under the act of Congress approved 
 February 14, 1871, granting pensions, &c., or under sections 
 4736, 4737, 4738, Revised Statutes, now pending or which stands 
 rejected, will be treated as filed under the amendatory act ap- 
 proved March 9, 1878, upon the claimant filing with the Com- 
 missioner of Pensions a statement, signed by him in the presence 
 of two attesting witnesses, requesting that the claim may be 
 adjusted under the act of March 9, 1878. In such cases new 
 applications will not be required. 
 
 The attorneys in the claims heretofore filed will be recognized 
 to prosecute said claims under the act of March 9, 1878, provided 
 they call up and prosecute the case within six months after the 
 passage of said act. A new attorney will not be recognized to 
 prosecute any such claim, unless, after having filed a power of 
 attorney therein, he shall be called upon to furnish further testi- 
 mony to establish the claim. 
 
 New application must be made before a court of record, or 
 before some officer thereof having custody of its seal, as in other 
 cases, except where by reason of infirmity of age the claimant 
 
420 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 IS Tinable to travel, in which case the declaration may be made 
 before any officer authorized to administer oaths for general 
 purposes. The infirmity must be sworn to by the claimant and 
 certified to by the officer before whom the declaration is made. 
 Applications for restoration to the rolls under the provisions of 
 March 9, 1878, will be made in the usual form for restoration and 
 executed as provided in such cases. 
 
CHAPTER XXI Y. 
 
 THE POSTAL SYSTEM. 
 
 During the earlier periods of human history, so far as it is 
 known to us, the principle of association had a very limited de- 
 velopment. Man had not only to struggle for self-preservation 
 against the animal world and the forces of nature, but against 
 the selfish instincts of his fellow-man. When social centres 
 were formed and large communities elaborately organized to 
 act together for mutual support and safety, one of the most 
 prominent features of history still continued, for thousands of 
 years, to be their mutual aggressions and conflicts — the ag- 
 grandizement of one community, or political society, at the ex- 
 pense of another; the prosperity and glory of a few fortunate 
 rulers through the destruction, misery or vassalage of multi- 
 tudes. 
 
 The distinguishing feature of modern history has been the 
 tendency to lay aside this hostile spirit, to reconcile interests in 
 an equitable manner and to arrange differences, as far as the 
 circumstances of each period allowed, without a direct destruc- 
 tive conflict. The great monarchies of modern Europe had their 
 principle of vitality and strength in this tendency; but the spirit 
 of antagonism was so difficult to control that each nation or 
 people combining to support one ruler found it necessary to con- 
 fer on him nearly or quite absolute powers in order to subdue 
 warring elements within the country he ruled, the state of con- 
 flict between separate nations and rulers being still almost unre- 
 strained. But the tendency toward peace and harmonious rela- 
 tions grew ever stronger and has manifested itself during the 
 last century— and particularly the last half -century— with an 
 overmastering vigor truly astonishing to those who realize the 
 disposition and habits of the world previously. 
 
 The most marked feature of the nineteenth century has been 
 the development of the social principle and the resolute determi- 
 
 (431) 
 
422 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 nation either to get rid of causes of antagonism, or to arrange 
 for their quiet settlement. Even the national wars of the cen- 
 tury have had for their ostensible, and usually their real object, 
 the attainment of conditions necessary for permanent peace and 
 harmonious cooperation on principles equitable to all concerned. 
 Men are not sufficiently broad in their views, or so free from 
 narrow prejudices, as yet, as to make sure that no future wars 
 will arise, and deadly conflict is still being waged somewhere 
 in the world continually; but the really leading and most intelli- 
 gent nations are sensibly advancing toward the point where war 
 will be as impossible as between two States of the American 
 Union, or between two cities of one State. 
 
 One of the principal indexes and instruments of this growing 
 spirit of harmony, and feeling of unity, among men is the Postal 
 System. Its main object is the interchange of intelligence; and 
 it has been found capable of doing its work with such exactness, 
 certainty, and speed as to become one of the most important 
 agencies of the business world. It not only undertakes the dis- 
 tribution of private letters and confidential communications be- 
 tween individuals, the transmission of printed information and 
 books, but also of values of different kinds and, in the whole, of 
 vast amount. It is a Government monopoly, except the Tele- 
 graph System — which is also solely under Government control 
 in some countries and may perhaps become so in the United 
 States — and all who are directly agents of the System are officers 
 under the supervision and control of the Executive. The Postal 
 Service was in existence long before the War of the Revolution 
 made the Thirteen Colonies one nation, and was the prophecy 
 and forerunner of that Union. It was not wholly interrupted 
 by that War and continued in operation after it up to the 
 present time, its development and improvement as a System 
 fairly indicating the measure and the kind of progress of the 
 country. 
 
 ^ The System requires, first, a place of deposit and of distribu- 
 tion — the Post Office; second, an authorized keeper of this 
 office— the Postmaster ; and, third, the transport of the matter 
 with which it deals — the Transport Service and Mail Carriers. 
 The Constitution enumerates among the powers of Congress that 
 "to establish post offices and post roads." It is a power conferred 
 on the General Government and withheld from the States and 
 the people. Those few words are construed to convey all the 
 
THE PROGKESS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POSTAL SYSTEM. 4:^3 
 
 authority needful for the development and regulation of the vast 
 and complicated System as we now know it. 
 
 But the iostal System is not only a National System, it is also 
 International ; and it may be fairly concluded that, as the im- 
 perfect Postal System before the War of Independence foretold 
 the future union of all the Colonies it served, so the * " Interna- 
 tional Postal Union " formed by a Congress of Deputies from 
 most of the prominent nations oi three continents in 1874, is the 
 sure precursor of such a union of all nations, in the near future, 
 as will consolidate them into a kind of vast Federal Union. This 
 will ultimately be as effective for the universal welfare as the 
 Union of the States of the great American Republic has been for 
 the welfare of its citizens as a whole. The Postal System com- 
 bines with the Telegraph, Railway and Steamboat Systems to 
 give triumphant effect to tTIe growing inclination of mankind 
 toward harmonious co-operation. The International System, as 
 it is now organized, is but a hint, a suggestion of what it is to 
 become in future generations. 
 
 The progress of the Postal SystQm in the United States from 
 1790 to 1880 is suggested by the following Table : 
 
 NUMBER OF POST OFFICES AND MILES OF POST ROADS IN THE U. S. 
 
 In 1790 there were but 75 post offices, and 1,875 m. of post roads. 
 
 1800 
 
 
 903 
 
 
 20,817 
 
 1810 
 
 
 2,300 
 
 
 36,400 
 
 1820 
 
 
 4,500 
 
 
 72,492 
 
 1830 
 
 
 8,450 
 
 
 115,176 
 
 1840 
 
 
 13,463 
 
 
 155,739 
 
 1850 
 
 
 18,417 
 
 
 178,672 
 
 18G0 
 
 
 28,498 
 
 
 240,594 
 
 1870 
 
 
 28,492 
 
 
 231,232 
 
 1880 
 
 
 42 989 
 
 
 343,888 
 
 The rate of progress here indicated, however, scarcely gives 
 even an adequate hint of the wonderful transformation, the in- 
 creased effectiveness of these elements of the System — much less 
 of the vastly greater field of usefulness over which its operations 
 have been spread in the later decades. To convey some idea of 
 these points the following facts and statistics are extracted from 
 a comparative view of the growth of Post Office business pre- 
 sented in the Report of the Postmaster-General for 1880 : 
 
 During the year ending June 30, 1840, the postal receipts were 
 
424 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 $4,543,521.92, and the expenditures $4,718,235; in the year 1860 
 the receipts $8,518,067.40, and the expenditures $14,874,772.89; 
 and in 1880 the receipts were $33,315,479.34, while the expendi- 
 tures were $36,101,820.38. 
 
 From 1840 to 1860 the increase of expenditure was one hun- 
 dred and twenty-eight per cent, above, the increase of receipts ; 
 but from 1860 to 1880 the increase of expenditures was one hun- 
 dred and forty-nine per cent, heloiv the increase of receipts. 
 
 The increase of postal receipts from 1840 to 1860 was eighty- 
 seven per cent, while the increase of the population of the 
 United States during the same twenty years was eighty-four per 
 cent. If the same relative increase of the population to increase 
 of receipts had continued during the next twenty years, the 
 population June 30, 1880, would have been 119,788,210. In 1840 
 the postal receipts, distributed equally among the entire popula- 
 tion, would have been 26| cents; in 1860, 271- cents; and in 1880, 
 about 66i cents. During the last period, also, the reduction in 
 postage was very great. 
 
 During the ten years from 1840 to 1850 the entire amount of 
 postal expenditure was $45,24*0,709.65, and the receipts $43,905,- 
 811.80, or 2.9 per cent, less than the receipts. During the ten 
 years from 1850 to 1860 the whole postal expenditure was $105,- 
 179,891.54, and the receipts for the same time $67,981,695.97— a 
 deficiency of 35.3 per cent. During the next ten years— from 
 1860 to 1870— the whole expenditures were $167,400,969.10, and 
 the whole receipts $138,950,664.62— a deficiency of 16.9 per cent. 
 This smaller deficiency was, in part, due to the withdrawal of 
 the Postal System from the thinly-inhabited regions of the South 
 for four years (more or less) of that time, and in part to other 
 causes. During the ten years from 1870 to 1880 the whole postal 
 expenditures were 8316,778.563.73, and the whole receipts $267,- 
 012,407.68— a deficiency of 15.7 per cent., although the System 
 was extended, during that ten years, over 112,656 more miles, 
 and those chiefly in the thinly settled regions of the newer 
 States and Territories west of the Mississippi River. 
 
 During the three years from 1858 to 1861 the whole expendit- 
 ures were $44,235,452,63 and the whole receipts $24,853,846,87, a 
 deficiency of 43.9 percent. The three years from 1877 to 1880 
 show a deficiency of only 11 per cent, the whole expenditure be- 
 ing $104,157,787.62 and the receipts $92,634,979.15. During the 
 year 1880 the deficiency of receipts was only 7.7 per cent. For 
 
THE VAST IMPROVEMENT IN THE POSTAL SERVICE. 425 
 
 the year 1860 the deficiency was 42. 7.- per cent. In spite of the 
 vast expansion there was a relative deficiency almost six times 
 less in 1880. The reduction of postage and the extension of the 
 postal service in various ways since 1860 renders this exhibit far 
 more remarkable. In 1863 postage on a single half ounce was 
 three cents for every distance within 3000 miles and ten cents 
 for more than that distance. Since that date it has been but 
 three cents to all points within the United States. Reductions, 
 also, amounting, in the average, to six hundred per cent have 
 been made in foreign postage rates. Before 1866 letters remailed 
 to changed addresses and the return of letters from the Dead 
 Letter Office were charged extra postage; but since that time 
 they have gone free. 
 
 Since 1860 third and fourth class matter has been reduced to 
 an insignificant rate, and the Postal Card, at one cent for both 
 postage and card, was introduced in 1873. Books may now be 
 sent any distance at eight cents per pound, and newspapers and 
 periodicals to actual subscribers at two cents per pound. Fourth 
 class matter, which is chiefly merchandise of various kinds that 
 will not damage the mails, is now charged one cent per ounce, 
 limited to four pound packages. 
 
 The improvement in the service in other ways has been no 
 less marked. One of these improvements is The Postal Car 
 System originated in 1864. Previously, mail travelling some 
 distance was sent to a Distributing Office to be sorted and put 
 on its direct passage for its destination, causing considerable de- 
 lay. The Postal Car is a travelling Distributing Office, saving 
 greatly in time, and often in the cost, of transportation out of a 
 direct route in reaching and leaving the fixed distributing office. 
 These postal cars were in use in 1880 on some 800 different rail- 
 roads, the sum of travel of all the cars amounting during the 
 year to nearly 65,000,000 miles. By the help of extensive con- 
 necting lines of railroads, and the growing completeness of rail- 
 way organization, mails are now carried between distant points 
 with a celerity that in I860, would have seemed incredible. New 
 York to New Orleans in fifty hours, and New York to San Fran- 
 cisco in one hundred and fifty-six hours, for all kinds of mail mat- 
 ter with distributions at all prominent points on the routes between 
 in proportionate times, seems to reach almost the perfection of 
 rapid service. Yet improvement on even this will doubtless be 
 made. 
 
426 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 The Free Delivery S-ystem employed in over 100 cities 
 by the aid of about 2700 carriers, distributes nearly one thousand 
 million separate pieces of mail matter per year, the cost being 
 about one quarter of a cent for each piece. To this convenience, 
 gratuitously afforded, is added that of street boxes for receiving 
 matter for the mail and without additional cost. Thus, in an 
 incredibly short time, mail matter may be deposited, travel 
 thousands of miles in a brief time, and the reply return to the 
 citizen's door with scarcely any trouble or additional expense to 
 the writer. 
 
 The Money Order System, also originated in 1864, makes the 
 Post Office System the Banker of the people for transmitting 
 money in small sums to all considerable centers in the United 
 States, and to many foreign countries. The rates of commission 
 are: 
 
 On orders not exceeding $15 - 10 cents 
 
 " more than $15 and not exceeding $30 15 " 
 
 " " 30 " "■ 40. ...20 " 
 « " 40 " " 50 25 " 
 
 The money is deposited to purchase the order, which is paid 
 at the designated point without risk or delay, to the extreme 
 convenience of innumerable kinds of business. On July 1, 1880, 
 there were 4,829 Money Order Post-offices in the country. The 
 number of orders issued to be paid in some one of these offices 
 was $100,352,818.83. The net profits to the Government are 
 stated to have been $257,575, the gross fees being a little less 
 than four times that sum. The differences between the deposits 
 received for money orders and the payment on orders drawn on 
 the same offices is often large, but is readily adjusted, amount- 
 ing to over $77,000,000 in 1880. In such cases it is sent to Deposit 
 (or First Class) offices. The convenience of the system is so great 
 that it grows in favor. More than seven million separate orders 
 were issued in 1880. The gain was twelve million dollars over 
 that of the previous year. 
 
 The Registry System was commenced in 1856. It did not 
 prove very successful for the first few years, registered letters 
 not being surrounded with special safeguards but mingled 
 among other letters. The mark indicated values enclosed and 
 exposed them to special risk, as registration did not give a claim 
 on the Government for losses. The system was afterwards 
 ^-^vised with extreme care and thoroughness, and every guard 
 
THE THOROUGHNESS OF THE REGISTRY SYSTEM. 427 
 
 which ingenuity could devise was placed over registered matter, 
 from the moment the conditions of registration were complied 
 with by the sender until it was delivered, and notice of its safe 
 arrival returned to the office registering and the sender. 
 
 All First Class matter, or that which pays letter rates of post- 
 age, and Third and Fourth Class matter, lawfully passable through 
 the mails, may be registered at the request of the sender on pay- 
 ment of the registration fee — ten cents in addition to regular 
 postage — and compliance with prescribed forms. The sender 
 must address, seal and affix stamps to letters, but currency for 
 redemption must be carefully examined by the postmaster and a 
 full description of it must be noted. Special envelopes and 
 stamps are required, properly marked and numbered, a receipt 
 is given to sender, and every post-office official or employee into 
 whose hands it passes must have given a receipt for it when he 
 received it. Extraordinary watchfulness surrounds it from first to 
 last. It is kept in the most secure place, it is sent, in all possible 
 cases, in special through-mail pouches in order to be handled by 
 as few persons as possible. A Return-Receipt furnishes the 
 means of notifying the sender of its safe arrival, and a Registry- 
 Bill is filled out from the record of sending office to accompany 
 package and be returned from office of destination. 
 
 The following Blanks are used in the Registry System: Regis- 
 tration Book; Registry Bill; Registry-Return-Receipt; Registered- 
 Package-Receipt ; Becord-of -registered-matter-in-transit; Carrier- 
 registry-delivery-book; Railway-mail-registry-book; Registry- 
 notices; Registry-circular-of -inquiry; Registry quarterly report; 
 Requisition for registered-package-envelopes; Registry deficiency 
 report ; Registry -tracer. Envelopes are of two kinds; Ordinary 
 official Penalty -envelopes, and Registered-package envelopes. 
 This list ma}^ aid the imagination with the foregoing facts to 
 trace the official history of a registered letter or package. Where- 
 ever it goes or stops it is in the hands of a sworn, responsible, 
 bonded official of the Government. If it disappears while in his 
 care, it cannot fail to be known, and he must be able to show 
 that he was not at fault, or take such consequences as the laws 
 and regulations prescribe. 
 
 If the Registry-Bill is not returned in reasonable time from 
 office of destination to office sending, the Circular-of -inquiry is 
 forwarded, and on notice of non-receipt the Tracer and Special 
 Agent are set at work at once to learn why and where it disap- 
 
428 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETMEXT. 
 
 peared. So much concentration of thought and care, and such 
 constant record of progress is maintained that an extremely 
 high degree of security is obtained for registered matter. Care- 
 lessness, or crimininality are so certain to be known and traced 
 to the guilty party in the service, and result so surely in blame 
 and disaster to character, position, or liberty that an extraordi- 
 narily small number of cases of default in the service occur. The 
 principal losses are experienced in the distant Territories or 
 other places when the mails are violated by highway robbers, or 
 in cases of disasters in which the mails are destroyed. 
 
 This system is extended to all foreign countries within the 
 International Postal Union and may be employed in all cases 
 whatever for greater security within the limits of that Union. 
 It is very largely used in transmitting values, but the system 
 provides means of recording the amount of such values in but 
 few cases. In the year ending June 30, 1880, a little less than 
 seven million pieces of mailable matter were registered, the in- 
 crease of Registry fees over the previous year being 29.57 per 
 cent. It is very largely used by the Government in transmitting 
 United States Bonds, Currency, National Bank K'otes, Silver 
 Certificates. Internal Revenue, Postage and other Stamps, and 
 valuable supplies for Post Offices. Of these last, in the year 
 ending June 30, 1880, articles worth nearly thirty-tivo million 
 dollars were sent in the registered mail by the Post Office De- 
 partment; and during 1879 the Treasury Department registered 
 values of its issue of over one thousand milUon dollars, abso- 
 lutely without loss. Within four years previous to July 1, 1880, 
 nearly twenty-four million dollars of gold coin and bullion were 
 transmitted by registered mail from San Francisco to Xew York 
 for the Treasury Department, and exchanges of bonds and stocks 
 with foreign countries are made almost entirely by this system. 
 
 These facts indicate that the Registry System is considered at 
 least equally as secure as any possible mode of expressing, and 
 it is much cheaper wherever it is possible to employ it within the 
 prescribed limit of weight — four pounds. Besides the intrinsic 
 service it has rendered, its effect to reduce excessive charges of 
 Express companies may be mentioned among its merits. It re- 
 ceives the close attention and study of the Postmaster General 
 and his subordinates, and may be supposed in the beginning of 
 its usefulness and likely to be much improved in organization 
 and working as time passes. 
 
THE GREAT SUCCESS OF THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 429 
 
 Bince 1S60 Financial Systems and Financial Administration of 
 all kinds have received prolonged and close attention. The pene- 
 trating ingenuity and practical genius of the Anglo-American 
 have gained no moVe valuable laurels in any field of effort than 
 this. The finances of the Post Office Department have been the 
 pivot on which its success turned, for without the highest suc- 
 cess in this field there could have been no cheap postage. With- 
 out this success cheap rates must have been coupled with large 
 apjjropriations to be raised from the people in some other form. 
 To administer so as at once to diminish rates and losses and in- 
 crease revenue is necessarily the highest test of ability, and all 
 the improvements elsewhere in the System, costly as some of 
 them have been, have not hindered success here. Many of them, 
 indeed, have greatly aided it. The changes in the country; the 
 spread of the Railway System to all sections, the great activity 
 of business, and the rapid growth of population and intelligence 
 have supported the vigorously wise measures adopted by the 
 principal managers of the Postal System. 
 
 These favoring circumstances, however, would not of -them- 
 selves have produced the very great improvement that has been 
 noted in the revenues in recent years. The immediate causes of 
 this improvement have been the strict enforcement of prepay- 
 ment by the use of stamps provided by the Department, the clear 
 definition of duties, the efficient system of accounts, and the 
 sleepless vigilance of the supervising authorities. The whole 
 Department is a machine, intricate and far-reaching, with over 
 60.000 officials and a variety of material agencies for its various 
 parts, but all so adjusted together as to produce the largest re- 
 sults with the least possible amount and cost of force. The great- 
 est peculiarity is that the revenues are mostly gathered in sums 
 of one to three cents, and the vast multitude of these "littles" 
 accumulates to several tens of millions which are so economically 
 administered as to keep the costly material agencies in perpetual 
 mo- ion over the vast area of the country and support in comfort 
 a great army of agents scattered in the widest manner over the 
 same territory. Careful and kindly supervision, an excellent 
 system of accounts, and holding everyone to the strictest ac- 
 countability, have an excellent influence on the moral character 
 of the officials employed. In the handling of nearly three hun- 
 dred million dollars by postmasters, from 1877 to 1880, the losses 
 by their fault amounted to less than $2,800. Such a showing. 
 
430 THE EXECUTIVE DEPAETI^IEXT. 
 
 ■where so many are employed and the money gathered in small 
 amounts all over the country, is equally an honor to the Depart- 
 ment and to the American people. It could be no other than an 
 admirable system ^vorked, with very f ott exceptions, by faithful 
 agents. 
 
 Post Roads are defined by law as all railroads, canals, water 
 routes of travel, plank roads, letter carrier and contract routes. 
 When there are two or more routes by which mail may be car- 
 ried between given post offices the Postmaster-General decides 
 which is to be the Post-Route. '"Star Routes" or "Star Service" 
 include all the routes other than those by railway and steamboat 
 on which the service is performed by contract. The term arises 
 frora the fact that the printed contract forms are headed with 
 three groups of stars to distinguish them from other contracts. 
 The three groups represent the three words "celerity, certainty, 
 security,"" to realize which in perfection is the great aim of the 
 Postoffice Department. In 1S80 the railroad routes extended over 
 So. 3-20 miles; Steamboat routes ^S.S'^O miles: and Star routes 
 235,248 miles. 
 
 In 1874 a Convention assembled at Berne. Switzerland, com- 
 posed of Plenipotentaries from the Governments of most of the 
 leading countries of the world, and formed a General Postal 
 Union which regulated and cheapened postal intercourse be- 
 tween the respective countries. It made provision for a subse- 
 quent Convention which was held at Paris, France, in 1878. This 
 last Convention changed the name of the treaty to "The Univer- 
 sal Postal Union"" and perfected and enlarged the System by 
 vrhich the mails were interchanged and postage rates determined. 
 
 This Union of the larger part of the world in a single Postal 
 System answered the requirements of business, which had be- 
 come world-wide through the Steamship, the Railroad and the 
 Telegraph, by a great number of careful stipulations. These 
 regulations had the force of law in each of the countries enter- 
 ing the Union. They consolidated the civihzed world into one 
 vast country for the purposes of the Union — the cheap, rapid, 
 unembarrassed interchange of intelligence, and the ready trans- 
 action of such business as could be done through the mails. For 
 these purposes the Convention formed a kind of Federal Consti- 
 tution, of mutually building force, which united the nations 
 m.ore closely than separate treaties could do and foreshadowed 
 that future Congress of Xations which will, bv the resistless 
 
THE UNIVERSAL POSTAL UNION. 431 
 
 force of mutual interests, finally make the general laws of the 
 world and abolish armies and war. 
 
 The stipulations defined the kind of matter that might pass 
 continuously back and forth across national boundaries, and 
 through country after country, without delay, or extra tax, 
 until it reached its destination, wherever that might be. The 
 Postal Systems of all the countries entering the Union — adopting 
 this Constitution, so to speak — were unified and made to form a 
 single great System, governed by universal laws. These laws 
 determined the maximum weight of pieces of mail matter, and 
 the scale of prices to be paid. The single rate of First Class 
 matter, i. e. : letter postage was reduced from a previous general 
 average of thirty cents to five cents, and other rates in propor- 
 tion. Provision was made, by a long series of Articles, for the 
 equitable settlement of the thousand and one questions con- 
 stantly coming up in a Postal System, which make such a vast 
 variety of detail. Definite principles for different classes of 
 embarrassments and details were laid down. Rules for the 
 adjustment of accounts were made, and an International 
 Bureau, or Universal Post Office Department, was organized 
 to superintend the execution of this International Postal Con- 
 stitution. This Bureau was established in Switzerland, the 
 officers of the Postal Administration of that country being the 
 authorized Agents of the Bureau. It is " charged with the duty 
 of collecting, collating, publishing and distributing information 
 of every kind which concerns the International Postal Service; 
 of giving, at the request of the parties concerned, an opinion 
 upon questions in dispute; of making known proposals for modi- 
 fying the Acts of the Congress; of giving notice of the changes 
 adopted; and, in general, of undertaking the examinations and 
 labors devolving upon it in the interest of the Postal Union." 
 The above quotation is from Article Sixteen of the Postal Union, 
 which is a virtual Constitution. Congresses for revising this 
 Constitution, or body of International Postal Laws, are to be held 
 every five years; but an extra session may be convoked at other 
 times under special conditions. The Government of the Swiss 
 Confederation answers to the Executive of a National Government 
 by many of the duties assigned to it, though it is not invested 
 with any coercive authority. The expenses of the International 
 Bureau are paid by contributions from all the Governments 
 entering the Union, a definite proportion being assigned to each 
 
t.32 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTIMEXT. 
 
 nation. The oflScial name of what has been called above a Con- 
 stitution is the " Convention of Paris." Its provisions went into 
 execution April 1, ] 879, no limit to the time they should remain 
 in force being set; but each party may withdrav/ after one 
 year's notice to the International Executive — the Government 
 of the Swiss Confederation. 
 
 The Registry System, substantially as it exists in the United 
 States, is coextensive with the Union. The Money Order System 
 is in force between the United States and Canada, Great Britain, 
 France, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. The Money Order 
 System is arranged by special convention with each country. 
 
CHAPTER XXY. 
 
 THE POSTMASTER GENERAL. 
 
 In 1880 there were over sixty thousand officials of all classes 
 employed by the Post Office Department in carrying out the de- 
 tails of postal business over the whole country, besides the nearly 
 five hundred employed at the seat of Government in superintend- 
 ing, facilitatinpf and completing their work and summarizing 
 results. The Postmaster General is the legal Head of this great 
 army of public servants, under the President. He is the Admin- 
 istrator of the law — the Executive Officer expressly nominated 
 by the President and confirmed by the Senate to enforce the 
 postal laws, to interpret them by judicial decision when neces- 
 sary, to revise the action of subordinate officers of the Depart- 
 ment, and to manage the operations of the whole Postal System 
 by appointments, suspensions, executive orders, and general or 
 particular Regulations not inconsistent with law. 
 
 He is legally invested with powers somewhat more independ- 
 ent, ample and decisive than the Heads of other Departrnents, 
 because the Legislative Power of the Government could not 
 foresee, nor provide other tribunals for acting to better effect 
 on a multitude of affairs requiring special knowledge of, and 
 intimate familiarity with, the details of the business. He de- 
 clares which of several routes shall be, in law. Post Roads; he es- 
 tablishes and abolishes Post Offices, even though the Postmasters 
 may have been appointed by the President and Senate; he ne- 
 gotiates and concludes, with the advice and consent of the 
 President, Postal Treaties or Conventions with foreign coun- 
 tries. His decisions form a body of Postal Laws in addition to, 
 or in explanation of, Congressional Statutes. All persons in the 
 Postal Service receive instructions from him, he decides the 
 forms of all official papers, superintends the keeping and report- 
 ing of accounts and the disposal of the Postal Revenue. The 
 great reforms and invaluable additions of the Postal System of 
 28 (433) 
 
43i THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 the last few years are to be placed to the credit of this officer 
 and his subordinate Assistants. The law must authorize their 
 plans but it is they who devise and execute. 
 
 Three Assistant-Postmasters-General superintend as many 
 groups of Bureaus; an Assistant- Attorney-General aids him in 
 legal administration : and the Treasury Department furnishes 
 him an Auditor of the Post Office Department — formerly called 
 the Sixth Auditor — to superintend the Accounting Bureau. 
 
 The office of the Postmaster-General himself has a Chief Clerk 
 of the Department who superintends the miscellaneous corre- 
 spondence not falling to the regular Bureaus, the employment of 
 Department employees, the record of Orders of the Postmaster 
 General, the fixing of rates of Government telegraphing and 
 advertising ; a Disbursing Clerk, for the payment of officials 
 and employees of the Department whose duties are performed at 
 the Central Office; a Topographer, who attends to the maps re- 
 quired, shoAving all the Postal Routes, and is the reference for 
 distances on all the routes whatever; a Superintendent of the 
 General Post Office Building; and a Division of Special Agents 
 presided over by a Chief Special Agent for attending to irreg- 
 ularities and losses of mails. 
 
 Special Agents are an important branch of the Service. They 
 are put in possession of keys to all the mail locks in use, and may 
 open and examine the mails whenever they find it needful in 
 their investigations. They have access to all post-offices and 
 the mails in thera. and their commission secures to them the 
 obedience of all persons in the Service. Some are attached to 
 particular parts of the service and some are employed for the 
 investigation of any matters suspected to be out of order, or the 
 collection of any sums due the Department. The success of the 
 Postal System depends largely upon their skill and efficiency. 
 Fifty-six Special agents were employed in 1880. 
 
 The First assistaxt-Postmaster-Gexeral has charge of the 
 establishment, removal or discontinuance of post-offices, post- 
 masters and employes of the Railway Mail Service: of salaries 
 and allowances to postmasters; the record of appointments, 
 bonds, and issuing of the commissions of postmasters. His 
 branch of the Department contains the office of the Law Clerk 
 who superintends the correspondence in regard to the classifica- 
 tion, character and postage on mail matter. The Division of 
 Free Deliverv. which has the care of introducing that system in 
 
ASSISTANT POSTMASTERS-GENERAL. 435 
 
 cities, appointing Carriers and supervising their work, is looked 
 after by the First Assistant, and also the Blank Agency, which 
 supplies post-offices with stationery, blanks, wrapping-paper, 
 twine, letter-balances, and canceling-stamps. He must approve 
 and sign accepted bonds and contracts for the supplies of the 
 Blank Agency Office, including those for seals and street letter- 
 boxes, for the Postmaster General, his signature being attested 
 by the Seal of the Department. 
 
 The Second Assistant Postmaster General has charge, in 
 general, of the carriage of the mail and all the business imme- 
 diately connected with its transport. He regulates frequency of 
 trips, times of arrival and departure, the conveyances to be 
 used, and the points for distribution from larger to smaller 
 routes. He has charge of advertisements and contracts for mail 
 service, for mail pouches, locks, and other things needful for se- 
 cure transportation. He is authorized to sign such contracts for 
 the Postmaster General, in the name of the United States, and 
 affix the Seal of the Department. The Division of Inspection is 
 naturally connected .with this branch of the Department by the 
 character of its duties, which are to watch over the fulfillment 
 of contracts, examine and report on all failures in frequency 
 and prompt delivery of mails. A considerable corps of Inspec- 
 tors is kept in the field to assure the utmost possible accuracy 
 of time in the transport and delivery prearranged. In 1880 forty- 
 six Inspectors were employed to watch over the Railway Mail 
 Service alone. It may be supposed that the high degree of "cer- 
 tainty and celerity" habitually attained by this service is large- 
 ^ ly due to their watchfulness. 
 
 The Third Assistant Postmaster General has charge of the 
 finances of the Department ; he disposes of its general funds in 
 making payments when due; superintends collections from the 
 authorized depositories of the funds of the Department, accounts 
 of which are monthly or quarterly reported to him. He makes 
 up the detailed estimates for the expenses of the Department for 
 the following year; and the Statement of Receipts and Expendi- 
 tures when the year is closed. 
 
 He has the duty of preparing instructions for postmasters re- 
 garding the Registry System, and superintends all the corres- 
 pondence in reference to it. The Division of Postal Stamps, 
 Postal Cards and Stamped Envelopes is under his charge. This 
 Division issues all those that are used in the country, and sup- 
 
436 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 plies them to Post Offices on proper requisition. The Third 
 Assistant Postmaster General contracts for the materials required 
 to produce them, and signs the contracts in the name of the Post- 
 master General, also affixing the Seal of the Department. 
 
 The Dead Letter, or Return Letter, Office is also connected 
 with his branch of the Department. All letters which cannot be 
 delivered are returned to this office where they are opened. If 
 they contain inclosures of value they are returned if possible ta 
 the sender. When that cannot be done they are recorded and 
 held for four years for reclaiming. Unclaimed letters, with the 
 increasingly exact and careful methods of business of the citi- 
 zens of the United States in general, are more and more marked 
 by "return requests," so that the Dead Letter Office has yearly 
 less to do. When the address of the sender is not so given, un- 
 claimed letters, after thirty days, are sent from the local to the 
 General Post Office. About one in three hundred letters mailed 
 became "Dead" in 1880. The money contained in these letters 
 the sender of which could not be found amounted to $2,700. 
 Valuable mail matter of other classes, which could not be re- 
 turned and was sold by this office, produced nearly $3,500. 
 
 There are five other Bureaus in the Post Office Department 
 besides those mentioned above. One of them is under the 
 charge of the 
 
 Superintendent of the Money Order System. As this came 
 to deal with the deposit and payment of a hundred million dol- 
 lars in 1880 in over five thousand different offices in more than 
 seven and a quarter million of separate orders, the labor and 
 care involved in watching over the safety of its operations and 
 keeping all in perfect working order were very great. It is a vast 
 banking system whose operations spread over the whole country 
 and this Bureau is its Managing and Account Office. 
 
 The Office of the Superintendent of Foreign Mails has 
 charge of the Ocean Steamship mails and of that part of the 
 Postal System connected with the broad field of the Universal 
 Postal Union. Its cares and correspondence extend wherever, 
 in all the foreign world, letters from the United States go and 
 are thus particularly varied in scope and wide reaching interest. 
 
 The Superintendent of the Railway Mail System has grad- 
 ually come to deal with the great mass of all the matter carried 
 in the mails of the United States ; for the Railway System has 
 become almost universal and comparatively few letters and 
 
ACCOUNTING AND LAW BUREAUS. 437 
 
 other articles fail to be transported on the cars on some part of 
 their route. The Railway Postal Car is the heart of the trans- 
 portation system — a Distributing Post Office going at lightning 
 speed, in which the work of receiving, assorting and delivering 
 mails is incessantly kept up in the midst of noise, movement, 
 and danger; and complete clock-work regularity, and freedom 
 from mistake, delay and criminal interference from bold and 
 ingenious ruffians seldom fail to be maintained. 
 
 This Bureau provides all the instrumentalities by which the 
 tens of thousands of tons of mail are delivered in due time at 
 the cars of mail trains, attends to the service of the Postal 
 Oars and the delivery of their contents at the various offices of 
 destination along each route. 
 
 The Sixth Auditor is, since 1875, officially designated the 
 Auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department. Instead 
 of doing his work in the Treasury Department, as the other five 
 Auditors do, he is detached to the Post Office Department for 
 convenience of receiving the details of accounts — so much greater 
 than in other parts of the public service — and to aid in various 
 ways in its financial work. An Auditor's proper work is the 
 verification and adjustment of accounts ; but this Auditor is 
 more intimately associated with the business of the Postmaster- 
 General than the title implies. There are eight Divisions, or 
 ■Offices, in this Bureau. They are the Collecting, Stating, Ex- 
 amining, Money-Order, Foreign Mail, Registering, Pay and 
 Book-keeping Divisions. The collecting done is the balance from 
 acting and ex-postmasters and contractors ; the paying entrusted 
 to the Auditor includes the balances due to the above classes 
 and to all parties transporting mails ; but the Third Assistant 
 Postmaster-General draws, signs and affixes the Seal to the war- 
 rants for payment which this Auditor countersigns. In other 
 respects all the Offices or Divisions of this Bureau deal with vari- 
 ous classes or forms of account. 
 
 The Assistant Attorney-General for the Post Office 
 Department is in charge of the Law Bureau required for the 
 consideration of legal questions. He is the legal counsellor of 
 the Postmaster-General, delivering an opinion upon any case 
 submitted to him for that purpose. He is appointed by the 
 Postmaster-General. This Bureau is properly a detail from the 
 Department of Justice. 
 
 If this statement of the organization and workings of this 
 
438 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 important Department is brief, it is because the details would be 
 almost endless, and that a general review is more impressive. 
 One of the remarkable features of the most recent times in most 
 highly civilized countries is the great success with which vast 
 details are arranged in classes and formed into harmonious 
 systems. By means of this organizing skill, and ever increasing 
 facilities for rapid transit, the rate of progress in most useful 
 directions is incalculably increased. The Postal System, worked 
 with so much skill and economy by this Department, is a prin- 
 cipal agent in all other forms of progress — material, mental, and 
 moral. The best sign for the future is that the Postmaster-Gen- 
 eral and his leading subordinates have long made the improve- 
 ment of the service — to the advantage and satisfaction of the 
 public — a point of honor and pride. Earnest care is taken to 
 perfect the systems each supervises, and the result is a shining 
 success, deserving of quite as much honor as fidelity and bravery 
 in arms. No system can be absolutely perfect while men have 
 limitations, and sometimes unworthy persons are found abusing 
 their powers in places of trust; but these are a very small per 
 cent, of the whole — rare exceptions to the rule. 
 
CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 THE DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Among the various resources and adaptations of the United 
 States, that give it a sure promise of unsurpassable eminence 
 over all other countries in the future, the most prominent is its 
 agriculture. The geological processes by which the earth was 
 prepared for the sustenance and uses of man gave to the middle 
 region of North America a vast undulating surface more gen- 
 erally covered with an extremely fertile soil than is elsewhere 
 known in all the world. To this primary advantage was added 
 a climate well fitted for the production of the grains, fruits and 
 general vegetatioa most useful to man. The cold of the North, 
 the heat of the South, and the various gradations of tempera- 
 ture, from the sub-artic to the sub-tropic, fit this soil for the 
 greatest and best variety of the products of the temperate zone. 
 The variations in the average rainfall of the different sections 
 promote both the abundance and variety of these productions. 
 
 The vast plain between the two principal ranges of mountains, 
 sometimes called the Mississippi Valley, is provided with such 
 slopes as to combine its drainage into the most perfect and use- 
 ful River System on earth. The immense basin which gathers 
 these navigable streams into the central channel of the Missis- 
 sippi is connected by a vast and deep gulf with South America 
 and the commerce of the South Atlantic, while the chain of 
 Great Lakes on the north and their eastern outlets, furnish con- 
 venient relations of that section with the North Atlantic and 
 promote commerce with Europe. The coasts of the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific are very fertile, and extremely well arranged to 
 become the seats of all the industries and activities that con- 
 tribute variety to the greatness of the country, and sustain its 
 agriculture by furnishing it adequate markets, or helping it to 
 reach the general markets of the world. 
 
 With such conveniences and resources for the greatest mea- 
 sure of agricultural development the Government, naturally, 
 
 (43!)) 
 
440 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 would, do its utmost to promcte that industry that was in keep- 
 ing with its functions as the Caretaker, the Lawmaker and the 
 Executive of the general interests of the whole country. The 
 Constitution provided that Congi ess she id regulate inter-state 
 relations, the interests that were common to all the States and 
 sections, and govern the Public Domain. It might regulate gen- 
 eral transportation, trade, and commerce, so as to assist agricul- 
 ture." Congress could not institute a public service having di- 
 rect control of agriculture, but could encourage and promote its 
 improvement in various ways. 
 
 The Agricultural Department cannot be a Branch of the Ex- 
 ecutive Government in the same sense as the other Departments. 
 The law instituting it in 1862 thus states its objects : "There 
 shall be at the seat of Government a Department of Agriculture, 
 the general design and duties of which shall be to acquire and to 
 diffuse among the people of the United States useful information 
 on subjects connected with agriculture, in the most general and 
 comprehensive sense of that word, and to procure, propagate, 
 and distribute among the people new and raluable seeds and 
 plants. 
 
 Agricultural affairs, so far as they are not wholly in the hands 
 of individuals and of voluntary associations, are conducted, 
 mostly, under State laws. Congress has interfered — by laws ex- 
 ecuted largely through the Interior Department — only indirectly 
 by opening the Public Lands for sale at a nominal price, by en- 
 couraging immigration in various ways, by presenting vast tracts 
 of land to the States for the support of Agricultural Schools, and 
 to railroads to enlarge the facilities for transportation from in- 
 terior agricultural regions to the seaboard and other markets ; 
 and by various other parts of the services of different Depart- 
 ments in which offices and Bureaus are, in whole, or in part, 
 employed in the interest, direct or indirect, of the agricultural 
 prosperity of the country. 
 
 It has refrained, as far as justice to other interests would war- 
 rant, from laying taxes or pecuniary burdens or other embarass- 
 ments on any form of agricultural production. 
 
 Indeed, the interests of the whole country and all classes of 
 business are so intimately related to agricultural prosperity that 
 some portion of every part of the Government Service has a 
 direct connection with it, as in the consular and naval services, 
 in their aid to the commerce that procures foreign markets for 
 
THE WORK OF THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. 441 
 
 its products. But the executive action of the Agricultural De- 
 partment is not of this kind, being designed to come to the aid of 
 the farmer himself by information, device and experiment. The 
 Head of the Department is called The Commissioner of Agricul- 
 ture. It was not thought necessary to make him a member of 
 the Cabinet, but his Department sustains the same relation to 
 the President in other respects. He is aided by a Chief Clerk 
 who acts as his substitute at need. The work of the Department 
 is conducted by correspondence, by Commissions, or Special 
 Agents, and by several Divisions, or Bureaus, formed into sepa- 
 rate offices under suitable heads. 
 
 The Division of Chemistry has at its head a practical Chem- 
 ist with one or more Assistants, as he may need — these some- 
 times forming a considerable force when special work is in hand. 
 Analysis and experiments, generally seeking to originate new 
 agricultural industries, or improve the processes of old ones, 
 form the occupation of his division, often producing results of 
 great value. Sometimes it examines the sugar yielding plants, 
 sometimes the comparative nutritive qualities of grasses, or the 
 adaptations of different soils for various productions. It has a 
 wide range of possible usefulness. 
 
 The Division of Statistics has a skilled Statistician at its 
 head. The arrays of facts and figures carefully compiled and 
 published by the Division are obtained chiefly from unpaid 
 Agents and Correspondents in every part of the country who reg- 
 ularly report on every class of Agricultural products. Bulletins 
 of which are published at least once a month on the areas of par- 
 ticular crops for the year, their condition during the growing 
 season, and their final yield. The summaries of quantities and 
 values have come to have important uses for the business of the 
 country and the world. In 1880 about four thousand Correspon- 
 dents collected and transmitted to the Statistician the facts 
 which his corps of clerks arranged for frequent publication. 
 Prices are partly regulated by such foresight or knowledge of 
 the quantities of food and other products that will seek a 
 market; actual or probable deficiencies are foreseen and provided 
 for. The causes of success and failure are investigated and 
 made known, as far as possible, in this office and many other in- 
 teresting points made clear. This Division prompts to fresh 
 study, energy, and foresight on the part of the farmer and leads 
 to continual progress. 
 
442 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Division of Entomology makes as thorough a study of 
 insects injurious to vegetation as possible under the direction of 
 a Chief Entomologist, with such Assistants and Special Agents 
 as he may need. Every pest of this kind carrying ruin to culti- 
 vators is diligently studied by capable persons and means of 
 arresting its ravages sought. Sometimes Commissioners are ap- 
 pointed by Congress, or by the Commissioner of Agriculture, to 
 make prolonged and widespread studies when they are specially 
 destructive. The remedies sometimes discovered against losses 
 in this way save many tens of millions of dollars to cultivators 
 and the country. 
 
 The Division of Botany, under a competent Botanist, makes 
 a collection and careful study of all American plants and forms 
 Herbariums, or collected specimens, with full descriptions of 
 their parts, qualities and habits. This in itself gives a wide 
 range of exploration and useful information the value of which 
 becomes the possession of the public. 
 
 The Division of Gardens and Grounds has at its head the 
 Superintendent of Experimental Gardens and Grounds, as he is 
 termed by the law. The design of this Division was to study 
 methods of cultivation, and to acclimate and propagate useful 
 foreign plants for free distribution through the country. The 
 gardens and grounds at the disposition of the Department are 
 yet too limited to fully carry out the intent of the law. This, 
 however, is expected to be realized fully hereafter. Hothouses, 
 gardens, and ornamental grounds surround the Department 
 Building at the seat of Government. Experiments in acclimat- 
 ing tea, coffee and other foreign plants have been made under 
 the superintendence of the Commissioner. In 1880 more than 
 150,000 plants were distributed, among which were 70,000 tea 
 plants, 3000 olives, 1000 coffee trees and 500 date palms. 
 
 The Division of Seeds has a Superintendent of the Seed 
 Room. This was instituted by the law to secure two ends: the 
 introduction of new varieties of food-producing or other useful 
 plants, and the improvement of inferior seed by furnishing, at 
 Government expense, superior kinds. More than a million and 
 a half packages are distributed through the country yearly. 
 The advantages of this system are great. It is believed to have 
 added many millions of dollars to the yearly value of the pro- 
 ducts of the country. 
 
 A Microscopist studies the texture and diseases of plants and 
 
THE USEFULNESS OF THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. 443 
 
 fruits, and devises methods of cure. In pursuance of law, the 
 Commissioner experiments in sinking artesian wells in those 
 dry regions requiring irrigation, and under his direction suitable 
 persons study the diseases of cattle, sheep and swine, and the 
 best methods of preventing their spread. 
 
 The Forestry Division makes a special study of the trees of 
 the United States, and of methods for their cultivation in the 
 treeless regions of the country. This and various other investi- 
 gations of questions involving the welfare of large regions of 
 the country are committed to experts, who make report to the 
 Department which publishes the results and distributes all this 
 various information" through the country to those concerned. 
 This analysis of its work shows it to be a center of light, of pre- 
 cautionary measures for the benefit of the agricultural interest, 
 and of suggestions that lead to improvement. 
 
CHAPTEE XXni. ' 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. 
 
 In September, 1789, during the First Session of the First Con- 
 gress, the office of Attorney-General was established. The law 
 now reads : " There shall be at the Seat of Government an Ex- 
 ecutive Department to be known as the Department of Justice, 
 and an Attorney-General who shall be the Head thereof." This 
 Office was elevated to the formal dignity of a Department in 
 1870. The duty of the Attorney-General was declared to be to 
 "give his adv^ie and opinion upon questions of law whenever 
 required by the President." This constituted him the official 
 legal adviser of the Executive Branch of the Government. 
 
 The Constitution seems to have contemplated that only in im- 
 portant cases the Secretaries, or Heads of Executive Depart- 
 ments, should counsel the President, formally, in writing. No 
 regular Cabinet meetings for oral discussion of administration 
 measures were provided for. It was soon found to be more con- 
 venient and satisfactory, however, to treat these officers as a 
 Ministry, or Executive Council. The clause in Art. II. Sec. 2, of 
 the Constitution which says, '"'he may require the opinion, in 
 Avriting, of the principal officer in each of the Executive Depart- 
 ments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
 offices," came to be applied to Annual Reports of all the opera- 
 tions of their Departments for the previous year in which they 
 gave such opinions and made such recommendations as they 
 deemed best. Congress, by law, required these details to be laid 
 before them by these officers, but the regular formal yearly Re- 
 ports and Opinions are addressed to the President, in literal ful- 
 ffllment of this constitutional duty, and by him laid before 
 Congress. 
 
 It was a long time before all the Heads of Departments were 
 required to be present at all the Executive consultations or 
 " given seats in the Cabinet " as it is called. ISTot being enjoined 
 bv the Constitution or the law. it was long considered to be at 
 
 (444) 
 
THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL AND HIS ASSISTANTS. 445 
 
 the discretion of the President; but after a time this came to be 
 regarded differently from the prominence which these consulta- 
 tions took in administrative control. It became an " unwritten 
 law " that Congress should determine if a Department should be 
 represented in the Cabinet. 
 
 Before 1814 the Attorney-General did not sit in the Cabinet, 
 but did so after that time to give legal advice as to measures 
 under consideration. A Solicitor of the Treasury was provided 
 for by law in 1830, an Agent of the Treasury performing the 
 duties previously. As the business of the Executive Government 
 increased legal advice and action in prosecuting or defending 
 suits and claims for and against the United States became con- 
 stantly more necessary, and were provided for in various ways. 
 In 1870 a general law organized all these into a single system 
 with the Attorney-General as its official Head. Thus the title 
 " Department of Justice" did not legally exist before that time. 
 
 The Department, besides the Attorney-General, was made to 
 consist of three Assistant Attorneys-General ; a Solicitor-Gen- 
 eral ; a Solicitor and Assistant Solicitor of the Treasury ; a So- 
 licitor of Internal Revenue ; a Naval Solicitor, and an Examiner 
 of Claims for the Department of State. The Assistant- Attorney 
 General for the Post Office Department was placed under the 
 supervision of the Attorney-General. The District Attorneys 
 and Marshals appointed for every Judicial District of the 
 Supreme Court had been placed under the superintendence of the 
 Attorney-General in 18G1. Thus a regular Department, embrac- 
 .ing the legal interests and action of the Executive in all Depart- 
 ments and over the whole country, was organized, and a due 
 degree of formality, control, and economy secured. 
 
 But although plenty of business is found for this whole organi- 
 zation, it is so different in kind from that of the other Depart- 
 rr.ents and so difficult to foresee, depending as it does on con- 
 flicts of interest and views between the Government and indi- 
 viduals and violations of law, that it is not easy to distribute its 
 work in the same orderly way. Although there are different 
 classes of officers, with various titles, they have, throughout, 
 much the same kind of legal work requiring the education and 
 training of a lawyer. 
 
 The Attorney-General, besides his primar}- duty as the Ad- 
 viser of the President and of the Heads of the other Depart- 
 ments, generally supervises all the other legal officers, sees that 
 
446 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 they do their work properly and distributes to them, as he may 
 deem most fitting, the various cases requiring consideration for 
 the dehvery of an official " Opinion" and the various cases of 
 legal prosecution and defense on the part of the United States, 
 coming up in the different Courts. He sometimes directs and 
 argues cases before the Supreme Court himself, but he may as- 
 sign that duty to some of his subordinates. When lands are 
 purchased by the Government for public buildings the law re- 
 quires that, before they are commenced, he shall have examined 
 the title to them and have approved it in a written opinion. The 
 District Attorneys and Marshals are required to report to him 
 their official acts and obey his directions, and he assigns some 
 officer of his Department to conduct any case involving the in- 
 terest of the United States, if the law does not designate the 
 particular official who shall take charge of it. He may employ 
 legal counsel outside his Department, when he judges it neces- 
 sary, in which case he offically commissions the party so em- 
 ployed for temporary purposes. Otherwise, it is unlawful to pay 
 Government funds, as fees, to any attorney or counselor-at-law 
 not belonging to the Department of Justice. Thus he has the 
 general charge of all lawsuits in which the United States is in- 
 terested. He supervises the accounts of the United States Courts 
 held in every District, makes report to Congress of all the busi- 
 ness done under his care during the year, and gives the statistics 
 of crime against the laws of the United States. His Depart- 
 ment also has the care of publishing the decisions Of its officers, 
 of the distribution of the Statutes of Congress, and the Decis- 
 ions of the Supreme Court to the judicial officers of the United 
 States. Most of this work is done by the subordinates of the 
 Attorney-General, but must be approved by him, 
 
 The Solicitor-General is next to the Attorney-General in rank, 
 fills his place in his absence, aids him in the general supervision 
 of the legal business of the Government, and attends to such 
 special cases as may be assigned hint. 
 
 The four Assistant Attorneys-General have charge of different 
 classes of legal work. To one is assigned Supreme Court cases, 
 to another those brought before the Court of Claims, a third is 
 the Chief Law Officer of the Interior Department, a fourth the 
 Assistant Attorney-General, or Law Adviser, of the Post Office 
 Department. 
 
 The Solicitor of the Treasury performs similar duties in the 
 
VARIOUS OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. 447 
 
 Treasury Department, where he has an office and an Assistant 
 Solicitor of the Treasury, It is his business to see to the punish- 
 ment of frauds in the Revenue, to see that suits in matters re- 
 lating to Customs are properly conducted, and to prepare Regu- 
 lations for the guidance of customs officers. District Attorneys 
 and Marshals in the suits they are required to prosecute. Suits 
 in connection with National Banks are also under his care. 
 
 The Solicitors for Internal Revenue, for the Navy, and the Ex- 
 aminer of Claims for the Department of State, have similar 
 duties. They are the Supervising Law Officers for cases requir- 
 ing legislation or advice in those executive branches. These 
 officers, the clerks required for the dispatch of office business at 
 the Seat of Government, and the District Attorneys and Mar- 
 shals, constitute a permanent legal force for aid in execut- 
 ing the laws of about two hundred persons, most of whom are 
 required to be " learned in the law." Others are added, tempo- 
 rarily, as circumstances may require. 
 
CHAPTER XXTIII. 
 
 CONGRESS. 
 
 The modern system, of legislation, which to us of the nine- 
 teenth century seems so natural and simple, is the fruit of fifty 
 centuries at least of confusion and struggle. While the supreme 
 power in a Nation or State was not distinctly defined and the per- 
 sons who were to exercise it were determined by changing cir- 
 cumstances rather than by an absolute rule, or constitution, it 
 was a glittering prize for the ambitious and fortunate. When 
 obtained it was held as a personal possession; the question of 
 rights was little considered, for it must be generally held by the 
 strongest. The distress that resulted from a constant struggle 
 for it led to the sanction of the doctrine of the "divine right of 
 kings " by the masses of the people, in order to set some limit to the 
 confusion and misery. Still, in other respects, the ruler was 
 generally more or less absolute, acting as Law-giver, Executive 
 and Judge, or appointing, removing and controlling those so 
 acting. 
 
 The world owes a boundless debt to the Romans for introducing 
 a well defined Constitution and Body of Laws and securing re- 
 spect and obedience to them. Though not perfect, and often 
 violated, the general system survived even during the Empire 
 and after its fall. Charlemagne tried to imitate it, with partial 
 success, and Roman and Greek literature preserved the knowl- 
 edge of it. Most of the nations of Western Europe afterward 
 adopted more or less of it as the foundation of their systems of 
 law ; but the Anglo-Saxons, while influenced by it, devised a 
 system much more perfect, or, at least, much better adapted to 
 their circumstances and welfare. They resembled the Romans, 
 but far excelled them in respect for the acknowledged princi- 
 ples, or Constitution, of their Government, and for the laws 
 made in conformity with these principles. It was the bulwark 
 against arbitrary rule by their Kings. The history of the rise 
 
 (448) 
 
THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE IN ENGLAND. 449 
 
 and growth of the English Constitution is the history of true 
 civilization, of regulated and protected liberty, and of the trans- 
 fer of legislative authority from the wrong to the right hands. 
 The struggles of the English people to establish and maintain 
 their rights were made not only for themselves, but for the 
 world. They established true principles which other nations 
 gradually comprehended and adopted. 
 
 Yet, correct as were the principles contended for and estab- 
 lished by the English Parliament, they were never completely 
 embodied in practice there. The very virtues, good sense, and 
 moderation of the people prevented. The power of the Crown 
 and the position and influence of the Aristocracy were never 
 abolished, even in part, but gradually transferred to the con- 
 stantly increasing masses of the people. The Sovereigns that 
 would not yield were set aside and others elevated into their 
 places. The Aristocracy almost always had the wisdom and pa- 
 triotism to give way before pressure became revolution. Besides, 
 the constitution of the aristocratic system was flexible enough 
 to make this yielding easy. The younger children of nobles were 
 a part of the body of the people — "Commoners" as they are called 
 — and the Crown had the power of ennobling persons of lower 
 rank. These customs produced a constant interchange of blood 
 and ideas of sympathy and respect between the higher and low- 
 er ranks. 
 
 This, however, had its imperfect side as well as immense ad- 
 vantages. The higher class shone in the serene lustre of heredi- 
 tary wealth, of high culture and of permanent social elevation. 
 It was possible for the successful "commoner" to enter its ranks, 
 and ambition often took that form. The Members representing 
 the people in Parliament were long almost confined to the 
 younger branches of noble families, and legislation is, even yet, 
 largely in the hands of the aristocratic classes. Actual control 
 of the Government has been very gradually diffused among the 
 people at large; the higher classes have really managed public 
 affairs. In some respects this is an advantage. The intelligent, 
 the wealthy, and those who, from their high position by birth, 
 had little to gain or lose but reputation, have commonly controll- 
 ed the Government of Great Britain, and their management has 
 been generally prudent and vigorous in a high degree. But the 
 success and dignity of a Government is not the highest end to be 
 sought. It is the "greatest good of the largest number." 
 29 
 
450 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 These imperfections in the Engiish scheme of government have 
 been and are being graduallv toned awav in the British Empire 
 by successive reforms ; but the Constitution of the United States 
 boldly abandoned, from the first, the principle of rule by a select 
 minority, educated, wealthy, and high placed. It forbade the 
 creation of a noble class, and referred the question as to who 
 should vote for members of Congress to the people of the several 
 States, by authorizing all who voted for the popular branch of 
 the State Legislature to select and vote for their Member of Con- 
 gress. The result would settle at once whether popular majori- 
 ties were capable of ruling pubUc affairs wisely. 
 
 That result determined, for all nations and for all time, that a 
 whole people were, in the long run, much wiser and better 
 Statesmen than any select class that had ever before enacted 
 the laws of a nation. While England has thought it best to 
 entrust the people with the control of their own Government 
 gTadually and cautiously — and not without great success from 
 the principle of Select Rule; the United States has justified the 
 principle of Popular Sovereignty by a century of success in every 
 feature of national life. It is no longer a question how the 
 powers of Government may be best distributed. It is proven 
 that the more fully all the people exercise the primary powers 
 of sovereignty the better for them and the State; that it is safe 
 to confer the most ample powers on the different branches of 
 the Government if the different classes of powers be carefully 
 separated: and that laws may be made effective with very little 
 trouble or display of force when those they affect have power 
 to get them made and repealed by their own Representatives. 
 The history of the United States has cleared up the great prob- 
 lems of government for all time. 
 
 Congress alone posesses true Legislative Powers. These are 
 granted by the people through their adoption of the Constitution 
 anc" oy Section First of the First Article: •'AH Legislative 
 Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
 United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
 Representatives." The President may indeed interpose a veto 
 in one case, and arrange treaties which have the force of laws in 
 another; but the will of Congress, if sufficiently decisive, may 
 prevail over the first, and the other has no validity without 
 the approving vote of the Senate. 
 
 These powers of legislation extend to all subjects of im- 
 
THE POWERS OF CONGRESS. 451 
 
 portance to the whole country. Congress can raise- a Revenue to 
 provide for all the expenses of the country in peace or war. The 
 resources of the country are in its hand and nothing can be 
 drawn from the Treasury without a law passed by it expressly 
 making the appropriation. The finances and money of the 
 country are such as it makes them by law; all its commercial 
 affairs, its general interior and inter-state interests, the regula- 
 tion of the duties of all subordinate officers of every department 
 and grade are under its control. It alone can declare war and 
 make peace, determine what is crime against the United States 
 and appoint penalties and suitable tribunals to adjudge them. 
 
 There are, however, many things which it cannot do. It can- 
 not legislate on matters not included in its special grant of 
 powers. These are left in the power of the States separately, or 
 remain as general rights of the people. It cannot take away 
 the right of every man to have justice done him, nor introduce 
 a nobility into the country, nor discriminate against States by 
 special and partial laws. Its bounds are very large but they are 
 very definite. It has no power to negative or evade any article, 
 section, or clause, of the Constitution. It cannot set aside the 
 President but for high crimes, duly proven, nor negative the de- 
 cisions of the Supreme Court; and this tribunal forms the Third 
 Co-ordinate Branch of the General Government, authorized by 
 the Constitution to examine the laws of Congress and declare 
 void those which it is not empowered to enact by that instrument. 
 The powers of Congress are great, but carefully guarded from 
 misuse. 
 
 The fact that the House of Representatives is the larger body, 
 is directly representative of the people, and renewed by fresh 
 elections every two years, forms another guard against neglect 
 of the general welfare, and, in a general way, is a very decisive 
 guard against Congressional abuse of law-making powers. The 
 First Congress commenced with March 4, 1789. The Constitu- 
 tion declares that the Members of the House of Representatives 
 shall be " chosen every second year by the people of the several 
 States ;" the term of the Fifth Congress, therefore, closed March 
 4, 1799 ; that of the Tenth in 1809, of the Fifteenth in 1819, of the 
 Twentieth in 1829, and so on — every ten years thereafter adding 
 five to the previous number of Congresses, and twenty years ten 
 Congresses ; so that the Thirtieth Congress closed March 4 1849; 
 the Fortieth in 1869 ; the Forty-fifth March 4, 1879; the Forty- 
 
45,2 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPAETilEXT. 
 
 sixth March 4, 1S81, and the Fiftieth Congress will close March 
 4, 1889 — just one hundred years from the beginning of the First. 
 
 The Constitution does not precisely determine who shall be au- 
 thorized to vote for members of the House of Representatives, 
 except that they •• shall have the requisite qualifications for elec- 
 tors of (voters for) the most numerous branch of the State Leg- 
 islature."' Those, therefore, whom the Constitutions of each of 
 the States make voters are adopted as such by the United States; 
 but the Constitution confers on Congress the power to declare 
 who may be considered or made citizens of the United States. 
 It requires that, if the laws in any State refuse to citizens of the 
 United States the right to vote, the number of their Represent- 
 atives in Congress shall be reduced in proportion; and citizens 
 of any State or of the United States must be recognized as such 
 by all the States. The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitu- 
 tion went further than this and forbid the States to refuse the 
 right to vote •■on account of color or previous condition of serv- 
 itude. 
 
 In point of fact, suffrage is so nearly universal in the States, 
 as to male citizens, that no reduction of the representation of 
 any State has ever been made on account of the denial of the 
 vote to recognized citizens. The Constitution provided that the 
 number of Representatives shoiiLd not exceed one for thirty thou- 
 sand inhabitants, and ordered a census to be taken every ten 
 years and a new distribution of Representatives to be then made 
 on the basis of one for such higher niunber of the population re- 
 garded as citizens as the law should determine. In 1792, after 
 the first census of 1790, every 33,000 of the representative popu- 
 lation, as then recognized, was allowed a Member in the House 
 of Representatives. The Constitution simply assigned the au- 
 thorized number of Representatives to the respective States, but 
 did not determine whether the number given each State should 
 be voted for as a whole, or whether the given number for each 
 Member should select and vote for him alone. Congress, how- 
 ever, ultimately regulated this by ordering the adoption of the 
 last method, and directing State Legislatures to divide contigu- 
 ous regions into 
 
 Congressional Districts. 
 
 Each of these Districts was to contain, as near as might con- 
 reniently be, the given number of population, the voters of 
 
THE ELECTION OF MEMBERS OF CONGRESS. 453 
 
 which should select and vote for one Member to represent them 
 and their interests in Congress. They must be at least twenty- 
 five years old, and residents of the State. No person of foreign 
 origin was eligible unless he had been seven years a citizen of 
 the United States. The times, places, and manner of voting for 
 Representatives are determined by the State Legislatures unless 
 Congress shall regulate them by a special law. It was long the 
 habit to leave most of these regulations to State Constitutions, 
 but after a time Congress passed general laws regulating these 
 elections in various particulars. 
 
 The practical effect of these arrangements was to render the 
 Hepresentatives dependent on the people who elect them, to 
 whom they were sent back every two years, and to lead the 
 voters to carefully watch the record they made in Congress as 
 Law-makers. It became the practice at once for each District 
 to select its Representative from among its own citizens. He 
 was known to and trusted by the voters, and if he displeased 
 them could not expect re-election. He was regarded and felt 
 himself to be their servant, bound by honor and interest to do 
 their will as far as was in his power. He assisted to shape the 
 policy and make thiG laws of the country, so that it could be 
 fairly said that the "Government was one of, for, and by the 
 people." 
 
 As the country grew in population, the Ratio of Representa- 
 tion was greatly changed, in order that the House of Repre- 
 sentatives might not become too large a body. The First House 
 contained 65 members. After 1792, or the Third Congress, one 
 member was assigned to every 33,000 of the representative popu- 
 lation and this continued the same until the elections for the 
 Thirteenth Congress, in 1812, for after the third census the Ratio 
 was fixed at one member for 35,000 of representative population. 
 After the fourth census, one member was assigned to every 
 40,000; after the fifth to 47,700; after the sixth, in 1840, to 
 70,680. 
 
 After the Seventh Census, in 1850, a different method was 
 employed; the number of members being limited to 233, making 
 so many Congressional Districts, with as equal a number of 
 representative population in each as might be. On the admission 
 of other States, however, bringing an additional representative 
 population, their Representatives on the same basis — about 94.- 
 000 population — were to be added to the 233. After the eighth 
 
454 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTilENT. 
 
 Census the number of members was fixed at 241 ; after the ninth, 
 in ISrO, at 292; in 1881 it stood at 293, with a probabihty of the 
 number being raised to 319. The following number of members 
 in the House of Representatives to each of the States was 
 assigned after the Ninth Census (1870) . 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 8 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 la 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 4 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 1 
 
 California, 
 
 4 
 
 Nevada, 
 
 1 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 4 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 3 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 1 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 7 
 
 Florida, 
 
 2 
 
 New York, 
 
 33 
 
 Georgia 
 
 9 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 8 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 6 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 20 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 19 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 1 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 13 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 27 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 9 
 
 Rhode" Island, 
 
 2 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 3 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 5 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 10 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 10 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 6 
 
 Texas, 
 
 6 
 
 Maine, 
 
 5 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 3 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 6 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 9 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 11 
 
 West A^irginia, 
 
 3 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 9 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 8 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 8 
 
 Colorado, 
 
 1 
 
 This method of periodical readjustment carries the balance of 
 
 political power of the country with the mass of the population as 
 it changes from one section to another in the- process of settling 
 the newer parts. The center of population in 1790 was near 
 Baltimore, in Maryland. With every following census to 1870 it 
 continued to move somewhat north of west, soon passed the 
 mountains of West Virginia and, at the ninth census, was north 
 of Cincinnati, in Ohio. In 1880 it was much farther on its v^ay 
 toward the Mississippi River, and a little south of the Ohio River. 
 
 Each State may send one member to represent it, even if it has 
 not the standard number of population, and every organized 
 Territory is entitled to a Delegate who has a seat in, and may 
 take part in the debates of, Congress but is allowed to vote only 
 on questions that affect the Territories. 
 
 The Senate is the smaller member of the Legislative Body. 
 It is not allowed to originate Bills for raising money, but it may 
 amend them, and its rejection of them prevents their becoming 
 laws. In all other respects it is the equal of the House of 
 Representatives, and in some it is superior. The great dignity 
 and usefulness of the Senate is another instance, of which there 
 
THE DIGNITY OF THE AMERICAN SENATE. 455 
 
 are so many in American history, of extreme good fortune due 
 to circumstances which were improved with remarkable wisdom, 
 by the statesmen and people who founded the Republic and its 
 institutions. 
 
 The Senate is a select body chosen by the State Legislatures, 
 only two from each State, for a term of six years. It rarely fails 
 that they are men of great consideration, influence and elevation 
 of character, in the several States. They are almost always older 
 and more experienced in public affairs than a large part of the 
 Members of the House of Representatives, and it is often the 
 case that they have passed several terms in that House before 
 being elevated to the Senate. The House is dissolved and all its 
 members re-chosen every two years; but Senators remain for six 
 years, and so arranged that the term of one -third of them shall 
 expire every two years. There is, therefore, in the Senate a 
 constant supply of experienced men, fitte 1 to criticize wisely the 
 measures sent to them for examination and assent from the 
 niore popular House. 
 
 It has been found by the people of other countries, in the pro- 
 cesses of reform by which political power has been taken from 
 rulers and given to Legislatures directly representing the people 
 themselves, that a second Legislative Chamber, to review and 
 moderate the acivion of the larger body, is highly desirable; but 
 it has not been found easy to so arrange its composition that high 
 character, experience, influence and safety in trusting popular 
 interests to its free control may be all combined. In England 
 the hereditary nobles, or Peers, form a Senate, called the House 
 of Lords. This body is extremely dignified, intelligent and 
 wealthy. Its members are greatly respected and very influential, 
 but they are a class apart. They are not sufliciently related in • 
 interest and experiences to the body of the people to seem of 
 them, or to fully sympathize with them. They often resist 
 changes ardently desired by the mass of citizens because they 
 may be injurious to the interests of their order. Their legislation 
 is, therefore, looked upon with distrust, and the real political au- 
 thority, both of the Crown and the House of Lords, has long been 
 declining and passing into the hands or under the control of the 
 popular body — the House of Commons. Some special qualifica- 
 tions of the American Senate are wanting to the hereditary 
 Legislative Branch of Parliament. 
 
 That which most especially favored the influence and value of 
 
456 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPAETMEXT. 
 
 the Senate of the United States was that it represented the fed^ 
 eral side of the American Union, while the lower Honse repre- 
 sented its national side. This was especially important at first, 
 because the thirteen original States had been so many colonies, 
 quite independent of each other, but all under the arbitrary con- 
 trol of Great Britain. AATien they threw off that control they 
 became independent republics, rejoicing in the liberty to man- 
 age their own affairs without control. 
 
 These States found it indispensable to unite for general pur- 
 poses, but they were unwilhng to lose their identity as sovereign 
 bodies. A part of the statesmen of the time, with Jefferson at 
 their head, thought it would be dangerous to liberty to weaken 
 State authority, too much. They found that general prosperity 
 and security were unattainable without a strong union, and to 
 guard against danger on the other side they constructed the 
 Senate. The smaller States insisted on equal representation in 
 it without regard to population, for they feared lest their inde- 
 pendent rights should be disregarded and they swallowed up by 
 the larger States. Their delegates frequently threatened to leave 
 the Constitutional Convention if their rights were not protected, 
 and the special constitution of the Senate was a compromise to 
 secure a strong Government. 
 
 In experience the anticipated difficulty did not present itself. 
 The questions not easily adjusted were those between sections 
 including several States, rather than between individual States 
 and the rest of the confederacy; and the members of the lower 
 House maintained local rights with quite as much resolution as 
 Senators. But the Senate proved to have precisely the qualities 
 and powers that were needed to moderate and elevate legislation. 
 Its members had no interests or sympathies separate from those 
 of the body of the people. They did not belong to a class apart; 
 they were not appointed through favoritism, but elected by 
 bodies having the confidence of the people and being responsi- 
 ble to them. The length of the term, the small number who 
 could attain the place, the dignity given the Senate by joining 
 it alone with the President in some of the most weighty acts of 
 Government, all conspired to render a seat in the Senate a suit- 
 able reward of distinguished ability, long experience, and great 
 service to the public. It became one of the very highest prizes 
 of a legitimate and noble ambition — ^the suitable reward of 
 special eminence in Statesmanship. 
 
THE AMERICAN COMPARED WITH EUROPEAN SENATES. 457 
 
 The Authors of the Constitution had shown equal sagacity 
 and judgment in the powers they gave the Senate and in those 
 they withheld. All tended to clothe it with importance as a se- 
 lect body without giving it interests separate from other branches 
 of the Government, or from those of the people. It shared in 
 all legislation, in the responsibilities of the Executive, and was 
 made the High Court of Impeachment, presided over by the 
 Chief Justice when a President was to be tried. It was a great 
 improvement on the most successful Senate before known to his- 
 tory — that of republican Rome. The States the Senators repre- 
 sented did not lose their own dignity as a growing national feel- 
 ing gradually consolidated the Union, but served the admirable 
 purpose of arresting too great concentration of power in the 
 General Government, and there was no decline in the prestige 
 of Senators from that side. 
 
 Thus the American Senate is one of the chief successes and 
 principal glories of the Republic. The numerous independent 
 Colonies of Great Britain and various countries in Europe have 
 hitherto tried, with but moderate success, to form a second Leg- 
 islative Chamber that should answer an equally good purpose. 
 The chiefs of a hereditary aristocracy, appointments for life 
 by royal selection, and election by large property holders to make 
 a Senate, or Upper House, represent so many distinct social, politi- 
 cal, or business interests. This separates a Senate from the 
 general interest and occasions collision, vexatious friction, and 
 delays in necessary legislation, consequent loss of influence to 
 an Upper House, and more or less failure in securing the end of 
 its existence. 
 
 The French Republic appears to have been tolerably successful 
 in the constitution of its Senate, and apparently because it 
 adopted very nearly the system of the United States. " Depart- 
 ments" in France answer, in some respects, to American States. 
 They have each a Legislature, which enacts laws and provides 
 for the local welfare. These departmental Legislatures — them- 
 selves chosen by vote of the people as in American States — elect 
 the larger number of the Senators. It is not quite the same as 
 in America, for a part of the Senators are otherwise appointed 
 for life, and the Departments have a less complete control of 
 their own affairs than our States; but it is a considerable ap- 
 proach to the American plan. It also helps to decentralize the 
 system of government in France, and so is of much indirect 
 
4:58 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 advantage ; and the French Senate seems to owe much of its 
 success to the same causes as have given weight to the Senate 
 of the United States. 
 
 The Senate and the House of Representatives together repre- 
 sent, it may be fairly assumed, both the general wishes and the 
 maturest political wisdom of the American people. Their wishes 
 and will are expressed in the appointment of Senators by the 
 men they have selected to conduct Local Government in the 
 States; and they speak and act directly from their own intelli- 
 gence and will in the election of members of the House of Rep- 
 resentatives at the polls. It is sometimes said that the best and 
 wisest men do not enter into political life, and that the manage- 
 ment of nominations in primary political gatherings and party 
 conventions is done so much through personal influence — "boss- 
 ing" and "wire-pulling," as it is popularly called — that the real 
 voice of the people is not heard in the first choice of party can- 
 didates. 
 
 Yet, success on election day, when that voice is properly the 
 only one heard, is the most important consideration to these 
 Managers or "Bosses," and he is the most successful manager 
 who most accurately foresees the pleasure and decision of the 
 voters. The politicians have to reckon with the people and the 
 shrewdest of them sometimes manage and "wire-pull" in vain. 
 Those high minded men who are supposed more especially wise 
 and yet refrain from seeking or accepting the cares and respon- 
 sibilities of otiice are more often scholars, eminent for their 
 abilities and attainments in some special line, but not well versed 
 in the interests and affairs of common life and of the common 
 people. Such men more usually prove unpractical theorists and 
 unfitted to guide public affairs. On the whole the American 
 Congress is to be considered the assembled wisdom of the Nation, 
 or so fully representative of it at any given time that it is 
 properly said to be the "United States in Congress Assembled" 
 after the formula of the Articles of Confederation. 
 
 I 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS. 
 
 The presiding officer of the Senate is the Vice-President. If 
 he be absent, deceased, or discharging the duties of President, 
 the Senate elects a President of the Senate from among its own 
 members. The oath of office may be administered to the Presi- 
 dent of the Senate by any of the Senators, and to new Senators 
 by whoever is acting as President of the Senate at the time. 
 
 The presiding officer in the House of Representatives is called 
 the Speaker. He is elected to the office by the House from among 
 its members at the beginning of each Congress, that is, every 
 other year, his term expiring with that of the Congress by 
 which he was elected. 
 
 The Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the House keep 
 the Journal of proceedings, call the roll when necessary, and 
 provide the members with all the printed documents necessary 
 for each to have. They keep a record of all pending business and 
 give due printed notice of it to the members. They are the Ex- 
 ecutive of the House or Senate in matters relating to legislative 
 business, keep and affix the Seal of the Chamber to writs, war- 
 rants, and subpoenas, certify to the passage of Bills and Resolu- 
 tions, make, or approve, contracts for purchases or labor ordered 
 for the use or convenience of Congress, and have charge of the 
 Contingent Fund, from which they are paid. 
 
 The Sergeant-at-Arms is the Executive for each House to keep 
 order, make arrests and perform such duties as the House may 
 require of him in enforcing its orders. He may employ such 
 Deputies as the case'requires. The Clerk of the House officially 
 keeps the list, or Roll of the Members, and he first organizes a 
 new House of Representatives, or presides over it until a Speaker 
 is elected. The Sergeant-at-Arms keeps account of and pays 
 their salaries and mileage. 
 
 Doorkeepers have charge of the Legislative chambers and ad- 
 mit only the proper persons. The Doorkeeper of each house has 
 
 (450) 
 
460 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT, 
 
 such Assistant Doorkeepers as he needs. A large number of 
 Clerks, Reporters, Librarians, Keepers of Stationery and Docu- 
 ments, Postmasters, and Messengers aid in the conduct of the vari- 
 ous business accomplished by each House. Each House has, in 
 addition, a Chaplain, elected by its members. All these persons 
 having something to do in connection with Legislative Work at 
 the Capitol are nearly double the number of Senators and Rep- 
 resentatives. 
 
 The Constitution requires Congress to meet in regular session 
 on the first Monday in December of each year unless that time 
 should be changed by law. No such law having been made it 
 always assembles at that date. As a Congress is elected for two 
 years it has two regular sessions. The first session is not limited 
 as to time but the second terminates at noon on the fourth day 
 of March. The President may call an extra session when he 
 deems it necessary and if Congress has not completed its work 
 at the close of its second session an extra session of the new 
 Congress may be called, its members having been elected in all 
 the Congressional Districts on the Tuesday following the first 
 Monday in November preceding. The Senate is a continuous 
 body, only one third of its members closing their terms at the 
 end of each Congress and being replaced or reelected for that 
 next ensuing. It is, therefore, never dissolved like the House of 
 Representatives. 
 
 When the Representatives elected to a new Congress meet, 
 they find that the Clerk of the previous Congress has a list of 
 the members of the new House whose election has been duly 
 certified to him by the Authorities of the several States. He 
 calls the roll and if a majority of them, which is a quorum to do 
 business by the decision of the Constitution, are present they 
 proceed to elect a Speaker, the Clerk presiding until a newly 
 elected Speaker is sworn in and takes the chair. The Vice-Presi- 
 dent has only to take the oath of ofnce when he becomes the 
 duly qualified presiding officer of the Senate. 
 
 The House next proceeds to elect its subordinate officer^ those 
 of the previous Congress holding their places until their succes- 
 sors are duly elected and qualified. It is necessary to do this at 
 once in the House of Representatives at the commencement of 
 the first session, whether it be a regular or extra session; but the 
 Senate may re-elect subordinate officers at its pleasure. It does 
 not usually make many changes, unless the political majority is 
 
THE COMMITTEES OF CONGRESS. 461 
 
 changed when, at the opening of a new Congress, one-third of 
 the Senators are changed or enter on new terms. 
 
 Before the two Houses are fully prepared for work their 
 Standing Committees must be appointed. In the Senate mem- 
 bers of these Committees are elected by the Senators; in the 
 House they are appointed by the Speaker, unless otherwise 
 specially ordered by the House. The first named member of a 
 Committee of the House is its Chairman unless the Committees 
 cheose to elect some other of their number Chairman. 
 In the Senate the Chairmen of the Committees are especially 
 elected by the Senators as such, and they can be appointed only 
 by a majority of votes, while other members may be appointed by 
 a plurality of votes. 
 
 In the House of Representatives there are nearly fifty Standing 
 Committees ; in the Senate a little over thirty. Special Commit- 
 tees are appointed, whenever the House or Senate think fit to 
 order them, and their appointment is made in the same way as 
 Standing Committees, unless by particular vote; that is, they are 
 elected in the Senate and appointed by the Speaker in the House. 
 Whenever the Senate and the House cannot agree on any meas- 
 ure they appoint a Committee of Conference — that is, a Com- 
 mittee from each confer together and make the best adjustment 
 of the differences they can, each making a report to the House 
 that appointed it; and sometimef a Joint Committee, appointed 
 in the same way. arranges for common action on a subject not 
 previously acted on in either House. 
 
 A large part of the preliminary study and discussion of pro- 
 posed measures, or of Bills offered by members, is done by Com- 
 mittees. When a Bill is "brought in," or offered, by a member 
 it is usually referred to a Committee having in charge the 
 general subject to which it belongs. Large numbers of Bills are 
 '* buried in Committee." or never reported back to the House for 
 its final action, because the Committee do not think it wise to 
 take the time of Congress with them, or because they have so 
 much 'more pressing business to consider that they do not find 
 time to make the necessary study of them themselves. They 
 often change the character of Bills referred to them by striking 
 out. or adding provisions, and sometimes they report unfavor- 
 ably on them and discourage all further action. If thc^y 
 strongly favor a measure it is much more likely to be passed by 
 the House. 
 
462 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The number of members assigned to Committees varies; some 
 in the House of Representatives having as many as fifteen, and 
 in the Senate eleven. Seven is the number assigned to many of 
 them; others have five, and some only three. The political 
 party that has the largest number of representatives usually has 
 a majority of members on the Committees; and the appointment 
 of the Committees by the Speaker of the House of Representatives 
 gives that officer much influence over legislation. It is, there- 
 fore, a matter of much interest who shall be elected Speaker at 
 the opening of a Congress. Sometimes parties are so evenly 
 balanced that a great political struggle is made over his election, 
 so that days and even weeks pass before one is appointed and 
 the House organized. More commonly, however, there is a con- 
 siderable majority on one side or the other, and the party in the 
 majority have only to agree on whom they will concentrate 
 their vote. 
 
 There are nearly three times as many members on all the 
 Standing Committees of the Senate as in the Senate itself, so 
 that each Senator must, on the average, be on three Committees. 
 In the House the members of all Standing Committees number 
 about half as many again as the Representatives and Delegates, 
 so that at least half of them must average two Committees, the 
 other half averaging but one. Most of the work of Committees 
 is done when the Houses are not sitting, so that Senators and 
 Representatives must have their time very well occupied. Much 
 of the more laborious examination is done by Sub-committees 
 ■who report to the full Committees. 
 
CHAPTERXXX. 
 
 THE PROCESS OF LAW-MAKING. 
 
 Congress has never seen fit to appoint any other time than 
 that mentioned in the Constitution for its regular annual session, 
 but the President sometimes finds it best to call an extra session 
 to provide for some sudden emergency, or to secure the enact- 
 ment of necessary laws that failed to be passed during the 
 regular session. Should an extra session be called soon after 
 the expiration of a Congress — that is, the clcse of the two years 
 for which the members of the House of Representatives were 
 elected— the reorganization by election of Speaker, subordinate 
 officers and Committees must then be made. The election in the 
 Congressional Districts of Members of the new Congress have 
 been made in the November preceding, and the State Legis- 
 latures at their last session, previous to the expiration of a Con- 
 gress, have appointed the Senatr^rs to fill the places of the one- 
 third of that body whose terms end with the Congress. 
 
 The re-organization of the House of Representatives is re- 
 quired only once in the two years, but on the first meeting of a 
 new Congress nothing can be done until that is effected. The 
 Senate, however, loses only one third of its members at any one 
 time, so that it always has a constitutional quorum and is, there- 
 fore, a perpetual body always ready for business. It cannot 
 make laws of itself, but may hold " Executive Sessions " to con- 
 sider appointments sent to it for approval by the President, or 
 any Treaty he may have made that has not previously been con- 
 firmed. After such business has been dispatched it must wait 
 until the House has completed its organization unless it then 
 sees fit to change some of its own officers or Committees, or to 
 make some independent investigation. 
 
 The organization being completed after the first meeting of the 
 new Congress, or a quorum (majority of the members) having 
 assembled at the beginning of other sessions, Congress is ready 
 
 (403) 
 
464 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 for its Legislative Work, and officially notifies the President 
 that it is prepared to receive any communication he may have 
 to make to it. This announcement at the opening of the regular 
 December session is followed at once by the receipt of the 
 " President's Message." This document conforms to the require- 
 ment of Section 3, Article II. of the Constitution, which says, 
 " He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
 of the State of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 
 such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." The 
 reports of subordinate officers and Chiefs of Bureaus to the 
 Heads of Executive Departments of all the transactions of the 
 previous year — (commencing July 1st, and closing with the fol- 
 lowing June 30th) — have already been transmitted by these Cab- 
 inet officers to the President, accompanied by a summary report, 
 review of the whole, and recommendations for such legislation 
 as they deem desirable. The President's Message, itself, is, in 
 large part, based on these Departmental Reports, and usually 
 supports the recommendations for legislation, or changes in the 
 laws, made by the Executive Chiefs. 
 
 All these reports are transmitted to Congress with the Message, 
 and Congress is made acquainted at once, and officially, with all 
 that has taken place during the year, and with "the state of the 
 Union" at its close. These reports include a detailed statement 
 of all Receipts and Expenditures, together with estimates of all 
 receipts expected and expenditures required under existing laws 
 for the current year. All this information properly forms part 
 of the President's Message, and is the immediate foundation on 
 which congressional action begins to build new legislation. At 
 an Extra or Called Session of Congress these comprehensive Re- 
 ports are not made ; but the President addresses to the two 
 Houses a Message assigning the reasons for the "Call,"' making 
 such recommendations and presenting such extra reports by ex- 
 ecutive officers as he deems best. 
 
 The two Houses proceed to consider such parts of the Message 
 and Reports as they ma}- think it most necessary to act on imme- 
 diately. At first it was the habit of Congress to discuss the gen- 
 eral features of the President's Message and make a reply in the 
 form of an Address, giving their general views on the prominent 
 subjects discussed in the Message. This was following the cus- 
 tom of the Parliament of Great Britain in reply to the "Speech 
 from the Throne " usually made by the Sovereign on the opening 
 
PROVISIONS OF THE PARLIAMENTRY RULES. 465 
 
 of a session of that body ; but it was soon abandoned as not be- 
 ing in keeping with the republican spirit and methods, and Con- 
 gress passed over in silence such parts as did not demand 
 immediate action, referring various sections of it to appro- 
 priate Committees to make examinations and lay before it 
 Bills for legislative discussion and action as they deemed 
 best. 
 
 Each House has a body of "Standing Rules for Conducting 
 Business" adopted by itself. These are for the guidance of the 
 Presiding Officer, of the Committees, and of the Members them- 
 selves, that there may be no uncertainty, confusion, or waste of 
 time. These Rules determine the order of different classes of 
 business and the manner of conducting Congressional work; but 
 in certain cases they may be temporarily suspended in order to 
 prevent interruption to business regarded as of extreme import- 
 ance. These Parliamentary Rules in general are such as long 
 experience has proved to be most useful, although they are 
 sometimes employed by the opponents of measures favored by 
 the majority to prevent or delay action. 
 
 Any member, may, at suitable times, introduce Bills, or pro- 
 posed laws. These are referred to Committees for examination 
 and report to the House in which they are offered. When so re- 
 ported they are placed on a list, called the Calendar, and taken 
 up in order as they come, or they may be immediately considered 
 and acted on. The number of Bills introduced often amounts to 
 several thousands in a single session and but few can be dis- 
 cussed and matured into laws. Man}^ Bills often relate to the 
 same subject and the House takes its choice among them or 
 rejects them all and instructs a Committee to report a Bill differ- 
 ing from them. 
 
 Some Bills are considered in a preliminary way by the House 
 after the Committee to which it was referred for examination 
 has returned it. The House then is said to be "in Committee of 
 the Whole House." The Speaker appoints a chairman to preside 
 when the House is in Committee of the Whole, but does not pre- 
 side himself until "the Committee rises," or the House resumes 
 its regular legislative work. A bill is often a long time, under 
 consideration in a Standing Committee and in Committee of the 
 Whole House before it is " put on its passage," or proposed as a 
 final enactment. Various amendments or changes may have 
 altered it very much from its original form, and long and heated 
 30 
 
466 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 debates may have been had over it as a whole, or over some of 
 its parts, before it is put on its passage. 
 
 When this occurs it must be technicallv read three times, that 
 it may be well considered, although it is printed and furnished 
 to all the members when introduced. It is not, however, always 
 read in full unless some one demands that it be so. It may be 
 sent again to a Committee for further examination and change 
 between the readings, or amendments may be made that change 
 its character or provisions very miuch, before the ''Previous 
 Question," or call for a final vote, is made. The long and 
 thorough discussion and study of measures of proposed legisla- 
 tion is often of great value and is watched with interest by the 
 country, and sometimes even by almost the whole civilized 
 world to which the debate is reported by the newspapers day 
 after day. 
 
 The management of the debate and the various parliamentary 
 proceedings between the first "bringing in" of a Bill and the 
 decisive vote is usually committed to the '"leader" of the party 
 favoring it. This leader is the member whose experience, tact, 
 and ability give him the greatest influence among his party 
 associates: yet there is no such clearly defined leadership in 
 American Legislation as is found in countries having what is 
 called "Parliamentary Government."" and a '"Responsible Min- 
 istry." In this case the principal Executive Oflicers are also 
 members of the legislative body, and they are chosen to fill 
 those offices on account of their abilities and influence in their 
 party and the country. They are expected to prepare a system 
 of laws, and modification of laws, previous to the legislative 
 session, such as it is supposed will be acceptable to the majority 
 of the law-makers. They sit in the legislative bodies and "lead" 
 the debates, advocating and defending the measures they think 
 necessary. They decide what modifications or amendments it 
 will answer to permit to be made to the original plan, or Bill, 
 and if they cannot persuade the Legislators to enact them sub- 
 stantially as they wish them, consider themselves as no longer 
 having the "confidence"" of the representatives of the people 
 and resign, or dissolve the elected Chamber and order new elec- 
 tions. This is called '"appealing to the country." 
 
 This system has the advantage of furnishing a clearly defined 
 and consistent plan of legislation to be carried through at each 
 legislative session, and one arranged by those most intimately 
 
LEGISLATION IN THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT. 467 
 
 acquainted with the situation and needs of the country. It has 
 usually a very fair prospect of being successfully carried through 
 because arranged by the recognized leaders of the majority of 
 legislators. Yet it has some disadvantages and is not appropri- 
 ate to a completely republican country. It had its origin in a 
 modification of the more or less completely personal rule of a 
 sovereign, and is found only in countries that have been, and 
 usually still remain in form, monarchies. It is, to a greater de- 
 gree than could be tolerated in the United States, a modified 
 form of personal government. It is somewhat as if the Amer- 
 ican Chief Executive, or President, should be selected by the 
 temporary majority of the House of Representatives and changed 
 whenever that majority changed, and that he should digest and 
 lead in action on the proposed legislation in Congress. He would 
 then be selected largely because of his personal influence with 
 members of Congress. He would be the Chief Lawmaker, as 
 well as Chief Executive, and gather into his hands two kinds of 
 power which it is a fundamental principle of American consti- 
 tutional policy to separate. 
 
 Many circumstances and influences, indeed, operate to moder- 
 ate and limit this personal power in the hands of such a Parlia- 
 mentary Executive as conducts both the making and executionof 
 laws in England and other countries. He is dependent on the 
 approval of the members of the House elected by the people, 
 and changes in public opinion easily affect them. He and his 
 measures are the object of general criticism, and the party in 
 opposition make every effort to awaken prejudice and ill will 
 toward his management, so that he is required to be prudent 
 and cautious to maintain his influence and place. Yet the habit 
 of looking to one man to prepare plans of legislation and to exer- 
 cise general control has great weight, and makes him virtually 
 almost a supreme ruler while his influence lasts. 
 
 The conduct of legislation in Congress gives no such definite 
 prominence to one individual. The whole constitution of all the 
 Law-making bodies in the United States tends to diffuse in- 
 fluence among many persons instead of concentrating it in 
 one. Each legislator is responsible to those who elected him, 
 and he must keep before him constantly their views of his con- 
 duct and the effect of proposed legislation on their interests. 
 He, therefore, exerts himself earnestly to meet their wishes or 
 to make the best compromise possible with influences opposing 
 
468 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 those wishes. He must be able to justify himself to his con- 
 stituents when called to account. 
 
 This tends to make the course of legislation in Congress a mat- 
 ter of general consent, rather than of personal influence and 
 popularity. "Caucuses" are meetings of members, having gen- 
 eral views and interests in common, for consultation; and party 
 caucuses of members of the House of Representatives, and often 
 of Senators also, perform much the same kind of work in pre- 
 paring plans of proposed legislation as is done by the Englisk 
 Prime Minister and his colleagues in the Cabinet. They agree 
 on the measures most needed, and most likely to be successful,, 
 and on the general policy of the party for the session or in any 
 particular important case. Talent, experience, and skill in man- 
 agement designate the person who shall generally go foremost, 
 conduct debate and act as parliamentary manager. If any one 
 can prove himself more skillful in these respects than another it 
 is for the general interest that he should be left free to lead. 
 
 Of all modern countries having a free government the United 
 States is the least dependent for good and necessary laws on the 
 power and influence of any one man or any class of men. Its 
 people, their wishes and interests, count far more than else- 
 where. Many American Statesmen, esteemed and widely re- 
 nowned for their ability in promoting legislation approved by 
 the mass of the people, have sometimes imagined that their per- 
 sonal influence had become well nigh irresistible, but when the 
 occasion came that brought them into conflict with the popular 
 wishes they have found themselves incapable of controlling 
 public affairs, though still respected for past services. These 
 and many other considerations seem to prove conclusively that 
 American citizens have a clear intelligence and positive will of 
 their own, and that the system of managing general legislation 
 in Congress is the most suitable and the only really possible one. 
 The entire House of Representatives is newly elected every two 
 years, and one-third of the Senators come fresh from the State 
 Legislatures at the same time. The approval of electors must 
 be secured if the member of the House or the Senator is to have 
 another term and the people acquire the habit of criticism. The 
 Legislators therefore cannot fail to keep constantly before them 
 the certainty that they will be laid aside and enjoy no more 
 legislative honors if they do not fairly meet the expectations of 
 their constituents. 
 
 1 
 
CONGRESSMEN AND THE PEOPLE. 469 
 
 The habit of watching the course of Congressional legislation 
 and of free criticism of men and measures by the press, which 
 is merely the servant of the public, gives the impression, some- 
 times, that much is done of which the people themselves would 
 not approve. This, however, is not very extensively true. 
 There is an extremely intimate sympathy and close understand- 
 ing between the legislator in Congress and his party friends 
 outside. Large business interests are fully represented and 
 general popular interests obtain the more support that they can 
 command the greater number of voters. The suspicion that a 
 Congressman's vote could be bought would be fatal to his politi- 
 cal ambition. He is closely watched, by friend and rival alike, 
 and the necessities of his position furnish as strong securities 
 for his faithfulness as could well surround any man in any situ- 
 ation in life. 
 
 Legislation, therefore, in each session of Congress is a fair re- 
 flection of the general views and sense of need prevalent among 
 the majority of the people at the time. As a rule, if a particular 
 class of legislation is omitted, or unsuccessful, it is because the 
 majority of the people are not impressed with its importance and 
 would be likely to feel displeased with it if accomplished. In 
 fact, the conflict between those wishing and those oppos- 
 ing particular legislation is mainly conducted outside of 
 Congress in the more important cases, that body really serv- 
 ing, as it should, chiefly to register and put in effective 
 form the aims and purposes of the dominant party in the 
 country. 
 
 A large part of the work of the two Houses during a session is 
 merely routine, arranged chiefly to secure an orderly progress in 
 their action and to guard against the insertion of undesirable 
 and inappropriate provisions in the enactments finally matured. 
 Much of the remainder of that work seems futile and useless 
 since it leads to no immediate result ; yet it has both a satisfac- 
 tory explanation and an important measure of usefulness. It is 
 the struggle of minorities to be heard, and to gainth^ir ends, and 
 causes the work of actual legislation to be very carefully 
 scrutinized and sifted. It brings forward every possible current 
 objection to the general class of measures resulting in laws, and 
 sets the views and wishes of the different parties in strong con- 
 trast. The legislators and the people are educated by the thor- 
 ough study which the conflict necessitates, and the country is 
 
470 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 the wiser for it. It also frequently ripens, at a future time, into 
 measures of great utility. 
 
 In the English House of Commons, if Bills introduced are not 
 acted upon, or fail to pass through all the stages of legislation 
 during one session, the time and labor bestowed on them are lost 
 if it is desirable to act upon them in the next session. They must 
 then be reintroduced and pass again through every stage. In the 
 second or any subsequent session of any one Congress of the 
 United States, the business already begun by tl.e same Congress 
 may be taken up where it was left and carried through the 
 remaining processes to completion by a final vote; but the unfin- 
 ished business of the last session of any Congress dies with it, 
 the new Congress recognizing no unfinished work of any preced- 
 ing one. Bills in the House of Representatives, when introduced, 
 are usually ordered printed, then referred to a committee who 
 report their views of them, when they are placed on one of three 
 Calendars, according to their character. When they are Bills 
 for raising revenue, or appropriating money or property, they 
 are placed on the " Calendar of the Whole House on the State of 
 the Union." W^hen they are Bills of a public character, not con- 
 nected with revenue or appropriations, they are placed on the 
 "House Calendar." All bills of a private character, that is, 
 relating to individuals and not to the general public, are placed 
 on the " Calendar of the Committee of the Whole House." 
 
 This is the preliminary stage. Those which are referred to 
 the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union 
 and to the Committee of the Whole House have to pass a 
 further examination before they are prepared to be "put 
 on their passage." When that is done and they get before 
 the House for the action that is to take them directly to the 
 final vote, they must pass an additional Reading, the final de- 
 bate usually occurring between the second and third reading, 
 which were had previous to reference. For the third Reading 
 they are engrossed, or a clear copy, omitting rejected parts 
 and including amendments that have been accepted, is made. 
 After the Third Reading they are ready for the Previous 
 Question, which, when ordered, stops all debate and brings on 
 the concluding vote. 
 
 The Rules of the Senate require the three Readings to be had 
 on three several days. This can be changed only by unanimous 
 consent. The Rules of the House do not define the time of the 
 
HOW BILLS BECOME LAWS. 471 
 
 Readings, but they are usually many days, sometimes several 
 months, apart. 
 
 When a Bill has passed one House it is sent to the other where 
 it is twice read, referred to a committee, reported, placed on the 
 Calendar, debated, amended as the House may see fit, read a 
 third time, and voted on. If it be rejected, that is the end of it. 
 It is often accepted with amendments, and then the House 
 where it originated goes through the same process, in whole or 
 in part, in considering the amendment. If, finally, the amend- 
 ment is not accepted a Committee of Conference is ordered, a 
 request sent to the other House to appoint a like committee, and 
 these committees endeavor to adjust the points of difference, 
 each committee reporting the result to its own House. If the 
 Joint Committee reach an agreement a vote approving or disap- 
 proving it must be taken in one or both Houses. If it fails it is 
 finally lost. 
 
 When the Previous Question is ordered a Bill is engrossed and 
 carefully examined as to its correctness by a Standing Com- 
 mittee appointed for that purpose, and when it finally passes 
 both Houses it is Enrolled, or placed on the register of final acts 
 of Congress, and again examined by a Joint Committee from 
 each House to see that it is in order, contains no mistakes or 
 omissions, and is properly signed. It is then sent to the Presi- 
 dent for his signature, if he approve it, by the House which 
 originated it. 
 
 This seems a long and tedious process, and often is so; but, 
 unless it is a Bill of much importance, on which there is great 
 difference of opinion, many of these processes are mere formali- 
 ties, and many of them are not necessary, so that it passes 
 through all the stages quietly and rapidly becomes a law. In 
 some cases the President vetoes a Bill that has painfully passed 
 through all the phases possible in both Houses. His objections 
 are then recorded on the Journal and it is reconsidered by an- 
 other vote. If two-thirds of each House vote in favor of it, in 
 spite of the objections of the President, it becomes a law without 
 his signature. 
 
 In some cases the decision of Congress is expressed in the form 
 of a Joint Resolution. This requires to pass the two Houses 
 and to have the signature of the President as in the case of a 
 more formal Bill. It also has the force of law but is a more in- 
 formal and ready way of determining the questions involved, 
 
472 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 which usually has some peculiarity distinguishing it from 
 ordinary public laws or matters of general interest. A proposed 
 Amendment to the Constitution would be originated in Congress 
 by a Joint Resolution, since it would not be Congress itself but 
 the State Legislatures that would pronounce finally upon it. A 
 call on the President or officers of Executive Departments takes 
 the form of a Resolution, but does not require the assent of the 
 other House, and is not, therefore, a Joint Resolution. 
 
 Year by year as the country increases in population, in the 
 volume of its business, and in the variety and magnitude of pub- 
 lic, corporate and private interests to be affected by Federal Leg- 
 islation, the variety of subjects to be taken into consideration by 
 Congress is multiplied. This is met by dividing up the work 
 among Committees, by classifying it more thoroughly, and by 
 more careful study by Members and Senators between the ses- 
 sions. Less and less time is given to making long speeches. 
 This gives to some persons the impression that the eloquence and 
 ability of statesmen are declining, and that the great men of 
 previous generations were more able than the leaders of the 
 present. This is an imperfect view of the case, however. It is 
 to be considered that such great efforts are much less necessary 
 now than formerly, and that the pressure of legislative business 
 is much greater in variety and importance than heretofore. 
 Every possible subject is ably discussed by competent persons in 
 the public press, and the chief stimulus to great or elaborate 
 speeches in Congress is taken away. Those speeches were 
 chiefly addressed to the people at large; but afar larger audience 
 is now reached and a stronger impression produced by the States- 
 man through a carefully prepared essay published in a news- 
 paper, or a magazine, than by a hasty speech to Congressmen, 
 whose minds are filled with a thousand cares, and who grudge 
 the time spent in listening. 
 
 Intelligence is much more widely diffused now than formerly, 
 and it is probable that the great speeches of other times would 
 now produce far less effect than then. The railroad the tele- 
 graph, the newspaper, and the thorough education necessary to 
 do business now and acquired through the widely extended bus- 
 iness relations of the time, make the situation very different. It 
 was the business of our Fathers to discuss and lay down prin- 
 ciples with which we have become familiar. Perhaps the states- 
 men of the present comprehend them more perfectly, and have 
 
AMERICAN STATESMEN HAVE NOT DEGENERATED. 473 
 
 greater skill and knowledge in applying them, than the Fathers. 
 If there are fewer men who appear to rise far above the mass of 
 their fellow legislators, it is because the general level of ability 
 and acquirement has been very much raised in later times 
 
 It seems certain that the difficulty experienced in passing im- 
 portant measures of legislation is, in large part, due to the 
 greater breadth of view, more accurate knowledge, and better 
 judgment of the mass of legislators and the bulk of the people 
 more especially interested, than was formerly the case. A care- 
 ful study of the legislative history of thetcountry shows many 
 vast mistakes that would be now quite impossible, and a much 
 more cautious spirit in the later times. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 THE LAWS OF THE LAND. 
 
 The Constitution is the Organic Law of the United States. 
 It is the foundation of, and authority for, most other laws. Con- 
 gress was created ancLin vested with legislative powers by it. It 
 is professedly and reaUy the Will of the People, and as much so 
 now as when it was first adopted by them, inasmuch as they are 
 able to supercede or amend it when they desire by the processes 
 it has itself appointed. This they have done on several occa- 
 sions, although but an insignificant part of its original provi- 
 sions have been thereby annulled. It was a weighty and im- 
 portant document and has gained more and more respect from 
 the nation and the world as time and circumstances have revealed 
 the propriety and wisdom of its provisions. Every clause and 
 form of expression in it has been carefully scrutinized by Con- 
 gress and the Courts, and whatever other law is contrary even to 
 its spirit and implications is held to be thereby annulled. 
 
 The Constitutions of the several States lose their force and 
 authority so far as they may be, in any respect, in opposition to 
 it. Anything formally declared "unconstitutional," that is, un- 
 authorized by the Constitution of the United States, thereby 
 loses all validity, however solemnly it may have been enacted. 
 It is the will of the ichole people, of the Nation. No single State 
 can set aside, or change, any of its provisions. A majority of 
 all the States alone can do that. 
 
 The Statutes of the United States. 
 
 These are held to be the Supreme Law of the Land unless de- 
 clared by competent authority to be unconstitutional. It is 
 assumed that they are in harmony with that instrument and who- 
 ever denies it must be at the pains of procuring the official decis- 
 ion of the Supreme Court to the same effect before he can be 
 released from the obligation to obey them. 
 
 The laws produced by the combined action of the House of 
 Representatives and the President are caUed the Statutes of the 
 
 (474) 
 
THE LAW OF NATIONS. 475 
 
 United States. They must be based upon, or at least in keeping^ 
 with, the Constitution. Should they not really be so a suit, in 
 any case involving their application, may be brought before the 
 Supreme Court, and they will be declared by it unconstitutional 
 and set aside as if they had not been made. All the laws made 
 by Congress may be unmade, or repealed, by the same or any 
 subsequent Congress; and the process of repeal is constantly 
 going on. Every few years the laws in force require to be sepa- 
 rated from those that have been formally repealed and such as, 
 having been applicable only to particular cases during certain 
 periods, have become obsolete or inapplicable by their own char- 
 acter. This collection of laws in force is called the Revised 
 Statutes. Provision for such revision is made from time to time 
 by Congress, when it deems best. Such a revision was completed 
 in 1878 by a committee appointed for that purpose by Congress. 
 Various laws passed since have repealed some portions of that 
 revision and added greatly to the number now in force. 
 
 The Law of Nations. 
 
 This body of law is not enacted in a formal and authoritative 
 way as are the Constitutions and Statutes of separate countries; 
 yet its origin is very similar to that of the Precedents which form 
 what is called the English Constitution. In very early times 
 the more civilized nations adopted such rules in their intercourse 
 with each other as a general sense of courtesy, justice, and in- 
 terest suggested. These gradually grew into a code of maxims, 
 or precedents, that acquired authority from use and custom and 
 came to bear the name of Laws of Nations. They acquired still 
 more authority by being often recognized and confirmed in 
 treaties between different rulers and governments and, in 
 modern times, have acquired still more definiteness and authority 
 as nations have become better acquainted with each other and 
 their interests have intermingled. 
 
 When nations are at peace their more intimate relations are 
 regulated by Treaties which usually cover some of the ground of 
 what is meant by the Law of Nations and thus make it Inter- 
 national Law. In this form its principles have all the force of 
 Laws of the Land, or Organic Laws, in the countries between 
 which the treaties exist. It often happens, however, that quar- 
 rels arise and terminate in war and the treaties cease to have 
 any binding force. There is then no regulating power between 
 
476 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 them but force and the precedents of the past applicable to a 
 state of war. 
 
 The Law of Nations often operates to soften the severities of 
 bloody conflict. Even in the midst of deadly passion and 
 destructive attack and defense, the combatants will hesitate to 
 outrage the civilized world by overstepping the bounds allowed 
 by the Law of ISTations to belligerents. This law forbids useless 
 destruction of life or property; it condemns those who make war 
 on non-combatants, on the disarmed and the feeble. It requires 
 other nations, not bound by treaties or interest to take part in 
 the war, to stand neutral; that is, not to supply "contraband of 
 war," or warlike material, to either party to the exclusion of 
 the other. It does not permit the hostile parties to continue 
 their contest outside their own boundaries, or on "neutral 
 ground," nor to disturb the persons or property of subjects of a 
 " Neutral Government" who may be residing in the theater of 
 war, if they refrain from taking part on either side. These pro- 
 visions are often disregarded in the heat of conflict; but each 
 party endeavors to clear itself before the bar of Public Opinion 
 of the charge of having done so, and thereby acknowledges its 
 respect for these Universal Laws. 
 
 Within the present century the Law of Nations has gained 
 much in extent and authority and seems to promise to finally do 
 away with military establishments, and all the destructive 
 energies of war. The Geneva Arbitration of a very threatening 
 dispute between the United States and Great Britain, after the 
 Civil War, indicated how readily a settlement of great interna- 
 tional questions could be secured without the vast expense and 
 wide spread ruin of war. Since then the leading countries of 
 Europe and America, also including some in Africa and Europe, 
 have held two International Congresses to settle a system of 
 Postal intercommunication for the mutual advantage of all. The 
 Congress of Berlin, in 1879, was an assemblage of Delegates from 
 most of the Countries in Europe, clothed with extensive powers 
 to settle the details of a treaty between Russia and Turkey after 
 a war between those nations, and to arrange the affairs of various 
 small nationalities freed from the control of Turkey by that war. 
 
 Steam and electricity are consolidating the business and inter- 
 ests of the world more fully every year and nations are begin- 
 ning to hold small Congresses to settle a great variety of ques- 
 tions. The strong tendency of events points distinctly toward 
 
TREATIES AND PRECEDENTS ARE ALSO LAWS. 477 
 
 an authoritative Congress of Nations, at some time in the future, 
 that shall be fully empowered to settle these and a wide range of 
 other questions that concern the general welfare of the world. 
 The rule of the Law of Nations will be final peace. 
 
 TREATIES. 
 
 These are agreements between two independent Govern- 
 ments which have all the force of Statute Law in each of them. 
 Thej^ are agreed upon by the Diplomatic Representatives of the 
 Executive Governments of each nation, but require to be ap- 
 proved by other appointed authorities before they can become 
 binding. In this generation these authorities are virtually the 
 Legislators of each nation, because it has become the general 
 custom to consider them alone authorized to raise money and 
 expend it for public purposes, and their refusal to appropriate 
 the funds involved in the making, or provisions, of a treaty 
 would generally prevent its " ratification " or approval. But, in- 
 asmuch as it is sometimes desirable to keep more or less of it a 
 secret, for a time, the special ratification required to give it 
 validity is almost always confided to some select body of states- 
 men. 
 
 In monarchical governments it is usual to leave it to the Execu 
 tive administration, or Cabinet, which is " responsible " to the 
 legislative body, or Parliament, and a part of it; but, nearly a 
 hundred years ago, the Constitution of the United States de- 
 volved it on the Senate. The House of Representatives has no 
 control over a treaty except that it may refuse to pay the ex- 
 penses involved. The Senate and the President, however, form 
 part of the law-making authority and are not likely to act 
 against the clearly expressed and determined wishes of the 
 House. These treaties, when duly ratified, form part of the Law 
 of the Land and are as obligatory as the enactments of the whole 
 Congress. 
 
 PRECEDENTS. 
 
 There is another class of virtual laws, which are not written 
 and a violation of which cannot be punished by the courts, but 
 which have still an authority really as great as the most care- 
 fully attested enactments of Law-makers. They are Precedents, 
 or customs repeatedly followed until they have acquired a re- 
 spect almost amounting to sacredness in the eyes of the people. 
 
478 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT, 
 
 While other laws are unfamiliar from their newness, or liable to 
 change whenever it may become desirable, these retain the same 
 "imchangeable character from generation to generation; they 
 rule the habits of the people and age makes them venerable. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon races have a peculiar clinging attachment 
 to these unwritten laws. The English Constitution is not a 
 formal written document, like that of the United States, but is 
 made up of Precedents, or previously employed modes of apply- 
 ing the doctrines and principles of English law and liberty which 
 are regarded as in keeping with the fixed purposes and wishes of 
 the nation. Precedents out of harmony with the historical de- 
 velopment of free institutions are rejected as legal standards and 
 are regarded as isolated irregularities, forming no part of the 
 constitutional body of laws and improper to be imitated or 
 quoted as standards of procedure. 
 
 In fact, the English People feel some contempt for literal Con- 
 stitutions, produced all at once without having sprung naturally 
 from the habits and inborn tendencies of the people. Such Con- 
 stitutions they regard as having many necessary imperfections. 
 They are expected to be exactly followed and yet only perfect 
 wisdom and foresight — not attributes of the wisest and best of 
 men — could adapt them to all occasions and needs. They are 
 inflexible, while being incomplete, and constantly tempt bad 
 legislators to construe them too loosely or too literally, as may 
 suit their temporary purposes, while often giving no assistance 
 in the enactment of very necessary laws. Their own system per- 
 mits new precedents to be made when the occasion arises, and 
 they have only to consider whether the action desired is in har- 
 mony with the recognized "principles of general legislation. So 
 attached are they to these principles that they find no danger in 
 a possible freedom to make innovations. The habits and spirit 
 of the people attach them too strongly to that which they have 
 inherited to make them willing to accept any changes not evi- 
 dently necessary for their welfare. 
 
 This spirit is strongly developed in Anglo-Americans also. 
 Their establishment in a new country and rejection of English 
 sovereignty made many changes necessary, and as they were 
 not comprehended in one but in many States they must have an 
 exact, written fundamental law. But this was brief and general. 
 Much of the detail of government must be left to be settled by 
 their natural preferences, and precedents older than the Con- 
 
THE RESPECT OF ANGLO-SAXON RACES FOR PRECEDENTS. 479 
 
 stitution regulated the large part of their proceedings not strictly 
 defined in that instrument. The Anglo-Saxon respect for cus- 
 toms and precedents regarded as in the line of free development, 
 and defining the "rights of Englishmen" back into the twilight 
 of English history, was maintained, so far as differing circum- 
 stances and necessities permitted, and this spirit remains even 
 to this day. Lawyers and Judges of Courts often seek assist- 
 ance, in their pleadings and decisions on obscure cases, by 
 citations from the long line of English precedents and customs. 
 State and social institutions rested, and still continue to rest, 
 largely on the same ancient foundations, and the Constitution 
 itself acquired much of its force from its harmony with the same 
 principles and habits, of which it was regarded as the most 
 suitable application and development. 
 
 The manner in which the first Presidents, Congresses and 
 Courts interpreted the Constitution, the forms they adopted in 
 the conduct of business in all departments of the Government, 
 were more or less adaptations of more ancient precedents, and 
 themselves became precedents controlling the future down to 
 our own day. They had the greater force that they were not 
 formal laws, subject to revision by the Law-makers, and they 
 remain still as unwritten parts of the Constitution, quite equal 
 in real authority, as a rule, to the written portion and exactly 
 resembling the so-called ''Constitution of England." 
 
 These are subject to such changes as may receive the tacit 
 consent of Congress and the people. Sometimes Congress em- 
 bodies the principle of the change in a law and sometimes a 
 new precedent, conforming to a new situation or line of devel- 
 opment, is established. 
 
 Thus circumstances build up a body of laws unacknowledged 
 by the statutes but really of great force, some of them being 
 fully equal to written articles of the Constitution and others to 
 the enactments of Congress. Springing from the habits and 
 temper of the people, or resting on some interest more or less 
 permanent, they enforce themselves or give way to changes 
 which continue to have the same power of perpetuating them- 
 selves. 
 
 The President and the Heads of Departments and Bureaus of 
 the Executive Government have also a limited power of making 
 rules not inconsistent with Statute Law and which have the 
 binding force of law where they are applicable. The more mas- 
 
480 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 sive the development of the country, and the more important the 
 business of the Government, the more carefully the best systems 
 are perfected. The spirit of order is introduced more and more 
 fully and all procedures are brought under authoritative rules 
 that have really the force of the most solemnly enacted laws. 
 Congress and its enactments are only a definite and formal dis- 
 play of the tendency of the American people to seek the best 
 methods of doing whatever is to be done and making these, as far 
 as possible, unalterable while they remain applicable. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT PRINTmG OPTICE, 
 
 There are several public institutions w^hich Congress has not 
 seen fit, for various reasons, to place under the charge of any of 
 the Executive Departments. Most of them are intimately con- 
 nected w^ith legislative w^ork and not of a character requiring 
 any other supervision than that which Congress can readily 
 give. 
 
 The Botanical Garden is kept by Congress in its own care ; 
 but this is under the walls of the Capitol and seems to have almost 
 inadvertently developed from a hot-house to supply floral orna- 
 ment to the Capitol grounds into a conservatory for the propa- 
 gation of rare tropical plants. It is, however, still modest in 
 dimensions, and is supported at the small annual cost of about 
 $15,000. It has a Superintendent and a suitable number of 
 gardeners, but it has never aspired to rival the completeness of 
 the Botanical Gardens of the Old World. 
 
 The Congressional Printer is at the head of a very import- 
 ant establishment that may be called a Congressional Institution, 
 for he is, in law, an officer of the Senate and responsible only to 
 Congress. The printing done under his care is only such as is 
 ordered by that body for its own use and for the public service. 
 Before 1852 the printing for the Government was done by private 
 parties, with whom arrangements were made by a Joint Com- 
 mittee of the two Houses. In 1852 a Public or Congressional 
 Printer was provided for by law to arrange the contracts and 
 superintend the work to be done under them. Under the Con- 
 tract System there were many complaints of undue expense, and, 
 in 1860, Congress determined to provide a building and machin- 
 ery of its own and to have the Public Printer conduct the work 
 under its direction, which has been done in that manner ever 
 since. This is said to be the largest printing establishment in 
 the World. 
 
 31 (481) 
 
482 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Prinusr submits estimates to the Joint Committee on 
 Printing — also sometimes to the Secretary of the Interior — for 
 the paper and other materials required, employs all the work- 
 men necessary for printing and binding, and sees that the work 
 is properly and economically performed. The work required is 
 immense and employed, in 1880, about 1,500 persons for its exe- 
 cution. 
 
 All the proceedings of both Houses of Congress are daily 
 printed under authority, in such number and forms as may be 
 required for the use of legislators, for ofiScers of the Govern- 
 ment, and for the information of the people. Bills and Resolu- 
 tions introduced in Congress are printed for the use and study 
 of members. By the Revised Statutes of 1878, there were to be 
 published 24,000 copies of the Acts and Resolutions of Congress 
 after every session. At the opening of the regular sessions 35,- 
 000 copies of Executive Reports are prepared and various publi- 
 cations, amounting altogether to about a million copies, are pro- 
 duced annually. Many of these are in several volumes and of 
 large size. Some reports of Bureaus are more frequently made 
 for the information of the public. A large part of these docu- 
 ments are scattered far and wide through the country, and 
 many thousands, altogether, are sent to foreign countries in ex- 
 change for similar documents published by other Governments. 
 All the officers of the United States Government, public libraries 
 and multitudes of individuals are gratuitously supplied with 
 every description of information needful to understand all the 
 operations of the Government. It is a large, but a necessary, 
 cost, and the people yearly learn to follow them more closely and 
 intelligently by this means. 
 
CHAPTER X XX III. 
 
 THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS— COPYRIGHT. 
 
 The vast collection of books and documents called The Library 
 of Congress, because gradually gathered under its direction, has 
 been kept in the Capitol, until the space to be afforded it there 
 has become too small. It is more properly a National Library; 
 for each House of Congress has a suitable reference library of 
 its own. Nearly all the Departments, and even the more im- 
 portant Bureaus, have each large separate collections adapted to 
 their special needs. They have been long accumulating and are 
 of great value. 
 
 A Library of Congress was founded in 1800, but was burned 
 when Washington was captured in 1814. The yet unfinished 
 Capitol, the President's Mansion and the offices of the Executive 
 Departments were fired by order of the British general ; but the 
 Library was soon after re-founded by the purchase of the library 
 of Jefferson, consisting of 6,700 rare and valuable books. It 
 was yearly increased until 1857 when, of the 55,000 volumes then 
 composing it, 35,000 were destroyed by an accidental fire. A 
 large sum was then spent on the rooms in the Capitol to contain 
 it and the collections rapidly accumulated. In 1866 the library 
 of the Smithsonian Institution was removed to the Capitol and 
 added to it. This then consisted of 40,000 volumes. In the next 
 year the Peter Force collection, the richest in the world in books, 
 maps and documents relating to American history, was purchased 
 by Congress for $100,000 and added to it. 
 
 In 1870 the Librarian of Congress was put in charge of the 
 Copyright business of the Government, and two copies of every 
 book copyrighted were required to be placed in the Library. 
 Large additions were made otherwise and it now contains 
 nearly 500,000 books and pamphlets, 350,000 being bound vol- 
 umes. It is annually increased by about 20,000 volumes. 
 Among the old nations of Europe, where learning has flourished 
 
 (483.) 
 
484 THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 for a thousand years, there are libraries very much larger — in 
 several cases numbering some millions of books and manu- 
 scripts. Sixteen of these are said to be larger than this- 
 National library; but this is the largest on the American conti- 
 nent. 
 
 The Law Library is kept separate, under the charge of an 
 Assistant Librarian. It contains over 35,000 volumes. The 
 annual additions made to it by purchase must have the approval 
 of the Chief Justice of the United States, for the design of this 
 portion of the Library was to furnish an adequate supply of 
 legal works of reference for the use of the Supreme Court, 
 whose Chambers are near at hand. 
 
 The great and rapid increase of this National Library has 
 already caused it to far outgrow the space that could be allowed 
 it in the Capitol, and a building will soon be erected of ample 
 size and convenience to hold and display all the treasures that 
 time may add to the already vast collection. 
 
 The members of both Houses of Congress, the President and 
 the high officers of the Executive Administration, the diplomatic 
 Representatives of foreign Governments, the Judges of the 
 Supreme Court, and various higher officers of Congress are at 
 liberty to draw out books from the Library for use at their 
 homes. No other persons may do so, but the public can freely 
 examine and use the books within the apartments containing it. 
 
 The Copyright Law is administered by the Librarian of Con- 
 gress, subject to the supervision of the Joint Committee on the 
 Library, which is one of the Standing Committees of Congress 
 and also supervises the Chief of the Botanic Garden. Copy- 
 rights, like Patents, are expressly provided for by the Constitu- 
 tion in order to encourage skilled and gifted persons in the pro- 
 duction of works of utility and to promote the prosperity and 
 intelligence of the people. 
 
 A Copyright is an exclusive privilege given to any citizen, or 
 person not a citizen who is resident in the United States, to print 
 and sell any literary or artistic production, the fruit of his own 
 genius and labor. The Copyright Law surrounds this right with 
 all necessary securities against invasion and appoints suitable 
 modes of relief when it has been invaded. It gives absolute pro- 
 prietorship for 28 years to the author and artist, or to such 
 persons as they ma}^ transfer the right to by sale or gift, or as 
 may be their legal heirs. 
 
the copyright law. 485 
 
 Directions for Securing Copyrights under the Revised Act 
 
 OF Congress, which took effect July 8, 1870. 
 
 A printed copy of the title of the book, map, chart, dramatic 
 or miusical composition, engraving, cut, print, photograph, or a 
 description of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, 
 or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copy- 
 right is desired, must be sent by mail, prepaid, addressed, 
 "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C." This must be done 
 before publication of the book or other article. 
 
 A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other 
 article, must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in 
 addition (or $1 in all) for each certificate of copyright under the 
 seal of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by 
 return mail. 
 
 3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other 
 article, two complete copies of the best edition issued must be 
 sent, to perfect the copyright, with the address 
 
 Librarian op Congress, Washington, D, C. 
 It is optional with those sending books and other articles to 
 perfect copyright, to send them by mail or express ; but, in either 
 case, the charges are to be prepaid by the senders. Without the 
 deposit of copies above required, the copyright is void, and a 
 penalty of $35 is incurred. No copy is required to be deposited 
 elsewhere. 
 
 4. No copyright hereafter issued is valid unless notice is given 
 by inserting in every copy published, on the title page or the 
 page following, if it be a book ; or, if a map, chart, musical com- 
 position, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, 
 chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be per- 
 fected as a work of fine arts, by inscribing on some portion of 
 the face or front thereof, or on the face of the substance on which 
 the same is mounted, the following words, viz. : Entet^ed accord- 
 ing to act of Congress, in the year , by , i7i the office of 
 
 the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has 
 not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice "Entered ac- 
 cording to act of Congress,'" etc., or words of the same import, in 
 or upon any book or other article. 
 
 5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize 
 his own work. In this case notice should be given by printing 
 
486 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 the y^ords, Bight of translation reserved, or, All rights reserved, 
 below the notice of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian 
 of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record. 
 
 6. Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing 
 the book or article copyrighted for a term of twenty -eight years. 
 At the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or 
 children, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen 
 years, making forty-two years in all. Applications for renewal 
 m.ust be accompanied by explicit statement of ownership in the 
 case of his heirs, and must state definitely the date and place of 
 entry of the original copyright. 
 
 7. The time within which any work copyrighted may be issued 
 from the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but de- 
 pends upon the discretion of the proprietor. A copyright may 
 be secured for a projected work- as well as for a completed one. 
 
 8. Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of 
 writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the ofl&ce of 
 the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The 
 fee for this record is fifteen cents for every 100 words, and ten 
 cents for every 100 words for a copy of the record of assign- 
 ment. 
 
 9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copy- 
 right entry will be furnished under seal, at the rate of fifty cents 
 each. 
 
 10. In case of books published in more than one volume, if 
 issued or sold separately, or of periodicals published in numbers, 
 or of engravings, photographs, or other articles published with 
 variations, a copyright is to be taken out for each volume of a 
 book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to size or inscrip- 
 tion, of any other article. 
 
 11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue or model or 
 design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as 
 to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such 
 design, a definite description must accompany the application 
 for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as 
 " cabinet size," must be mailed to the Librarian of Congress 
 within ten days from the completion of the work. 
 
 12. Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the 
 name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right is 
 claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal 
 application is required. 
 
CHAP TEE XXXIY. 
 
 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
 
 Mr. James Smithson, of London, England, was the son of the 
 Duke of Northumberland, his mother being the niece of the 
 Duke of Somerset. He died unmarried in 1828, having devoted 
 his life to scientific pursuits. He esteemed mental endowments 
 as much superior to the advantages of distinguished birth and 
 position and preferred to devote his large fortune to the most 
 effective dissemination of knowledge among men. Having 
 failed to make such arrangements as pleased him with the 
 Royal Society for the Advancement of Knowledge, of London, 
 for the disposition of his estate after his death, he bequeathed it 
 to the Government of the United States for the purpose of 
 establishing, under its protection and supervision, a "Smith- 
 sonian Institution for the Increase and Diffusion of Knowledge 
 Among Men." 
 
 He gave the use of it to his nephew for his life, after which it 
 was to go to the United States for the above purpose if so ac- 
 cepted by its Government. Congress accepted the bequest July 
 1, 1836, The sum received in trust for this purpose by the United 
 States Treasury, and invested at six per cent interest soon after 
 that date, was $541,379.63. It was held, by law, as lent to the 
 Treasury at six per cent, interest, payable in coin half-yearly. 
 The Institution, in fulfilment of the bequest, was nOt created 
 until 1846, when it had so largely increased by the semi-annual 
 interest gains as to permit the expenditure of $450,000 in a noble 
 building on the public grounds attached to the Capitol at Wash- 
 ington and still leaving a permanent fund of $650,000, drawing 
 the same semi-annual interest, for its support. 
 
 The corner stone of the building was laid by President Polk, 
 May 1, 1847, but it was not entirely completed until 1856. The 
 architecture was in the Norman style, built of what is called by 
 geologists New Red Sandstone, quarried near Washington. The 
 
 (487) 
 
488 THE LEGISLATIVE DEPAKTilEXT, 
 
 grounds devoted to it and adorned by Congress comprise 52|- 
 acres. A museum, mostly illustrating the natural history of the 
 American Continent, was collected, together with an extensive 
 scientific library. Congress, however, now supports the museum 
 and has constructed a magnificent separate building for it, but 
 it is under the care of the corporation and officers of the Institu- 
 tion. In 1866 the Library of the Institution was transferred to 
 the Library of Congress in the Capitol; but the officers of the In- 
 stitution have free use of it still. 
 
 The natural history and library collections, at first made, 
 and a system of free lectures, maintained for some years, were 
 temporary modes of gathering and diffusing knowledge after- 
 wards abandoned as not sufficiently effecting the purpose of the 
 founder. Its principal field of activity is to stimulate the pre- 
 paration of original and useful scientific works, which it pub- 
 lishes and distributes so as to make them available to scientific 
 students throughout the world. It is a Scientific Exchange, for 
 it receives the same class of publications from other countries in 
 exchange for its own and distributes them in the United States. 
 It annually publishes one or more volumes of " Contributions to 
 Knowledge and Reports to Congress," which are placed in Public 
 Libraries and otherwise made available to the largest number of 
 those interested. 
 
 Another field of special labor diligently cultivated by the In- 
 stitution is the study of the general Meteorological laws, or the 
 climatology, of the American Continent. This has been long 
 pursued, the aim being more extended and more exclusively 
 scientific than that of the Signal Service. It receives reports 
 from about 600 stations, covering all regions of the continent 
 where there are civilized inhabitants. 
 
 It is an authorized Bureau for the reception and most effective 
 use of all valuable facts concerning man and nature that might 
 otherwise pass into oblivion, or be imperfectly utilized for the 
 welfare of society. The collections of Government Exploring 
 Expeditions have generally been confided to it, and the officers 
 of the army furnish it ethnological, antiquarian, and natural 
 history collections made by them in distant regions of the coun- 
 try, while on the public service. The corps of scientific men of 
 high reputation and acquirements connected with the Institution 
 carefully study all these objects and facts to obtain from them 
 any special significance they may possess as additions to the 
 
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 489 
 
 world's stock of knowledge, and encourage, as far as the means 
 of the Institution will permit, similar studies by earnest and 
 capable students in the country at large. The Smithsonian 
 Institution may be regarded as the Scientific Bureau of the Gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 The Act of Congress which carried into effect the bequest of 
 Mr. Smithson, in 1846, constituted the President of the United 
 States, the Secretaries of State, Treasury, War, Navy, the 
 Postmaster-General, the Attorney-General, the Chief Justice of 
 the United States, the Commissioner of Patents, the Governor 
 of the District of Columbia, and such persons as they might 
 elect honorary members, an establishment, or corporation, 
 called the "Smithsonian Institution." The Board of Regents 
 conducting its business, or supervising its operations, is com- 
 posed of the Vice-President, the Chief Justice, the Governor of 
 the District of Columbia, three Senators, three members of the 
 House of Representatives, and six other persons. Two of these 
 last six must be residents of Washington, and the four others 
 residents of some State, but no two of them from the same 
 State. The three Senators are chosen by the President of that 
 body; the three members of the House by the Speaker; and the 
 six others by Joint Resolution of the Senate and House. The 
 Senators and members of the House appointed hold the office 
 during their terms, and the other six persons for six years. 
 
 This Board of Regents elect one of its number Chancellor of 
 the Smithsonian Institution and he is the presiding officer of the 
 Board. This Board also appoints a Secretary, not a member of 
 the Board, and an Executive Committee of three from their own 
 body. The Secretary has immediate charge of the building and 
 work of the Institution, and employs such Assistants as are 
 required, with the approval of the Board of Regents. The 
 members forming the corporation called the "Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution " hold meetings to supervise its affairs and instruct the 
 Board of Regents as they may see proper. 
 
 Thus the three Branches of the Government of the United 
 States are immediately associated in the care and management 
 of this excellent Institution, the provision of Mr. Smithson for 
 benefiting mankind is watched over, and his intentions have the 
 honor to be carried out by an assemblage of persons as high in 
 station and dignity as can be found in the world. 
 
CHAPTER XXXY. 
 
 CONGRESS AS A COURT. 
 
 When the Constitution of the United States was framed, in 
 1787, the Constitution of England was the most favorable to the 
 liberty of the people and to political and social progress then 
 known. It was less perfect then than now, very great reforms 
 having been made since. The Colonies had waged war and 
 determined on independence to maintain the " rights of English- 
 men," which they considered had been denied them. They were 
 of the same race and would not have considered it any more 
 necessary or desirable to go to war than the people of the 
 Dominion of Canada or of the Australian Colonies or England 
 now do, if they had not been treated with unwise and unconsti- 
 tutional rigor; and they regarded the essential features of the 
 English Government as the best known model on which to form 
 their own. 
 
 Having gone into a thorough examination of the theory and 
 of the practical workings of a Constitution that was to render 
 the new nation as free and prosperous as possible, however, they 
 made some important departures from the English model. The 
 most weighty of these changes were the rejection of a nobility, or 
 high social class, for the Upper House of Congress, and the 
 alxQost complete separation of the three branches of power in- 
 volved in all government. 
 
 The House of Lords in England had, for sometime after the 
 Norman Conquest, represented the old Saxon popular assembly 
 of freemen, or Wittenagemot. When the House of Commons 
 was formed, in the thirteenth Century, the Lords had preserved 
 the attribute of a Court of Final Appeal, and this they continued 
 to possess when the Constitution of the United States was 
 produced. This authority of the House of Lords is now very 
 nearly obsolete through various judicial reforms. The Authors 
 
 (490) 
 
THE TRIAL OF IMPEACHMENTS. 491 
 
 of the Constitution gave to the Senate authority to act as a 
 Court in a single class of cases — impeachments — likening it, so 
 far, to the House of Lords of the English Parliament. 
 
 In these cases the House of Representatives is the prosecutor 
 lodging the accusation, and presenting and pleading the proof; 
 and the Senate and jury to try and pronounce on the accusation. 
 Impeachments could be presented only against persons holding 
 office under the Government, and this was provided as a 
 summary method of setting aside a person who might be work- 
 ing injury to the public without the danger of delay that might 
 be experienced if the trial were left to other prosecutors and the 
 regular courts. 
 
 When the President of the United States is to be impeached 
 the Chief Justice presides, the Senate acting as a Jury, although 
 the assent of only two-thirds are required to convict. The 
 judgment rendered is final, there being no appeal to any other 
 tribunal and no authority capable of pardoning the offender. 
 The judgment, however, could go no farther than removal from 
 office and disqualification from holding any future office of 
 honor or trust under the United States Government; but the 
 offender may afterward be tried for any criminal conduct for 
 which the ordinary laws provide a penalty by such other courts 
 as have jurisdiction of the case. The House of Representatives 
 appoints a special Committee to conduct the prosecution. 
 
 In no other cases does Congress formally act as a Court, and 
 the presidency of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court over 
 the Senate during the trial of the President is the only case in 
 which the Judicial Branch of the Government is associated in 
 action with the Legislative. It will be seen that Americans 
 adopted a new principle and various new precedents evidently 
 favorable to purity of administration and the avoidance of diffi- 
 culties that have often raised great commotion in governments 
 in time past. There are no laws regarding impeachments but 
 those included in the Constitution. 
 
CHAPTER XXXYI. 
 
 THE CONSTITUTIONAL POWERS OF THE JUDICIAKY. 
 
 The Constitution commences Article III. with this statement : 
 ^' The judicial power of the United. States shall be vested in one 
 Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress may from 
 time to time ordain and establish." This was the establishment 
 of the Third co-ordinate and independent Branch, or Depart- 
 ment, of the National Gov-ernment. It had been quite wanting 
 under the Articles of Confederation and the greatest inconveni- 
 ence was experienced from the dependence of the authorities of 
 the Central Government on the State courts. These courts nat- 
 urally supported local views and interests and often left the 
 wider and higher claims and necessities of the Federal Govern- 
 ment helpless in the most critical cases. 
 
 The judicial power is that which interprets the Constitution 
 and the laws, shows their adaptation to particular cases, and 
 adjudges the penalty due to transgression of them. This power 
 is extremely decisive, for it closes all argument and hesitation. 
 It authoritatively declares what is to be done in the given case, 
 which, if those concerned decline to do they are outside the law, 
 unable to claim its protection and unfit to be citizens. There is 
 no chance for difference of opinion and alternative courses of 
 conduct when once it has spoken; its opinion is final and dis- 
 obedience becomes rebellion. 
 
 But peremptory as this power may be in decision, it has not, 
 in itself, the power of enforcing its decrees. For that it must 
 depend on the character of the people, on the respect felt for it, 
 and on the implicit co-operation of the other Branches of the 
 Government. The Legislative Branch must raise no issue with 
 it but readily conform its law-making to the decisions of the 
 Supreme Court and accept its interpretations of the Constitution 
 and construction of the laws. The Executive Bra,nch must 
 
 (49;^) 
 
THE DECISIVE POWERS OF THE SUPREME COURT. 493 
 
 support it by carrying its decisions into effect, and forcibly put- 
 ting down opposition when such is manifested among States 
 and people. 
 
 The Judiciary is, therefore, quite independents as to its judg- 
 ments, it having been specially constituted to deliver an 
 authoritative oppinion from which there was no appeal. It was 
 appointed to declare the true sense of the Constitution, and no 
 opinion of Legislators or Executive has any validity, or consti- 
 tutional authority, if opposed to that which it promulgates. If 
 the State authorities, or State courts, should decline to accept 
 the measures of Congress and resist their application as uncon- 
 stitutional an appeal, or " Writ of Error," as it would be termed 
 in that case, would bring the subject before the Supreme Court 
 and its decision would be final. If it declared the measure 
 objected to by the State constitutional, the State must submit, or 
 be considered in rebellion, and the President would be expected 
 to exert all the power in his hands necessary to subdue it. 
 Should it take the same view as the State, Congress and the 
 President must then allow the law to pass into oblivion as if it 
 had never been made. It cannot then be legally enforced. 
 
 The Judicial Power, is, therefore, an Umpire in disputed ques- 
 tions, a common Referee appointed by the Constitution, or 
 Fundamental Law, from which Congress and the President 
 receive their authority and which unites the States and the Peo- 
 ple into one nation. Its importance and value as a Standard 
 Authority, authorized to pronounce a final decision in constitu- 
 tional disputes, cannot be overestimated. Its more common 
 duties are those of interpreting United States laws and adjudg- 
 ing the penalties of disobedience to them, and in this it is the aid 
 and support of the Government; but its powers as a judge of 
 constitutional questions are those which make it the peer, and 
 even, in a sense, the superior, of the two other Departments 
 established by the Organic Law of the Nation. 
 
 Although an almost perfect embodiment of the principle of 
 respect for law, so prominent in all Anglo-Saxon history, it had 
 had no very full development in England, because of a degree of 
 confusion, or mingling of powers, between the Crown and Par- 
 liament. The sovereign alone appointed the Judges and often 
 made them, in critical cases, subordinate to him — the creatures 
 of his will. Parliament could counteract this only by judging 
 the Judges, or claiming the powers of a Court of Last Resort, 
 
494 THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 and obliging the Crown to submit to its decisions "when no com- 
 promise could be made. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States eliminated this con- 
 fusion by making the decisions of this High Court supreme — 
 giving it authority to close all contest by its simple statement of 
 the true sense of the Organic Law, The world had been so 
 accustomed to consider these questions of authority, when car- 
 ried to an extreme, as capable of being settled only by a trial of 
 strength, or by war, that the full import of this American con- 
 stitutional arrangement was not fully apprehended, even by 
 many American Statesmen. At least some, very eminent among 
 American leaders, whose opinions had great weight, still main- 
 tained the view that there was no common umpire between the 
 States and the United States — between Local Governments and 
 the Central Government. They maintained that the States 
 were the judges of the constitutionality of laws of Congress and 
 might lawfully repudiate them. 
 
 Such views were promulgated in the last years of the 
 eighteenth century by the Kentucky Legislature, in 1832 by 
 South Carolina, and became the basis of the Civil War in 1861: 
 some of the greatest Statesmen of the country having, on each 
 of these and other occasions, been referred to as favoring such 
 views. They never obtained the concurrence of a majority of 
 the people of the whole country because they would evidently 
 render the close and effective union contemplated by the Con- 
 stitution impossible. Still they greatly hindered the growth of 
 a universal national feeling and promoted sectional discord. 
 ISTo single political party was wholly responsible for the promul- 
 gation of views so hurtful to national harmony. Though first 
 advocated by Anti-Federalists, from 1795 to 1801, they were 
 adopted by Federalists, from 1810 to the close of the War of 
 1812-15, and enunciated by various larger or smaller parties after- 
 ward, but generally by those considered advocates of slavery. 
 Yet their most decided imitators in this were the violent adver- 
 saries of that institution who were discontented with the decis- 
 ions of the Supreme Court in its favor. 
 
 In all these bitter controversies, however, the Supreme 
 Judiciary was only indirectly attacked, not on its own account, 
 but because it shielded principles and customs which it had no 
 authority to set aside, or declare unconstitutional. It was found 
 to be an institution so useful and necessary that it gained in 
 
THE JUDICIARY IS THE '' KEYSTONE IN THE ARCH." 495 
 
 respect and authority and finally may be said to have received 
 full recognition by the body of the American People, and ade- 
 quate appreciation by the world. It has been the Reconciling 
 Principle in national growth and progress as it was intended to 
 be by the authors of the Constitution. The majority of the people 
 have always clung to it as the Keystone in the Arch of their 
 Government, and its proper authority has been really consecra- 
 ted by recognition and obedience during almost a century, and 
 by constant triumph when it has been assailed. It has been the 
 pivot on which American development turned. 
 
 The Constitution decided, generally, on the range of powers 
 of the Supreme Court, on the tenure of the offices of the Judges 
 and how they should be appointed, but left the details of organ- 
 ization, the number of the Judges, the different classes of 
 inferior courts forming part of the United States Judiciary, and 
 the distribution of work among them all, to be provided for by 
 statute law. The First Congress proceeded, in 1789, to carry the 
 constitutional provisions into effect by prescribing the modes of 
 organization and procedure, which did not differ very largely 
 from those of English courts of highest grade. Circuit and Dis- 
 trict Courts, inferior to, but connected with, the Supreme Court 
 so as to constitute a uniform system, were established to compre- 
 hend all the States then forming the Union. These were ex- 
 tended as the number of States increased. To these was added 
 the Court of Claims, in 1855. Suitable courts under the same 
 system had been established in the District of Columbia and the 
 Territories, from time to time, as the circumstances required. 
 
 Wherever the United States had business there was sure to 
 arise need for judicial procedure to protect its interests, to 
 enforce federal laws, to maintain the rights of citizens, and to 
 uphold the dignity of the General Government. The system has 
 been in process of constant growth and has had abundant 
 employrnent, notwithstanding that each State and Territory has 
 an independent system of courts provided by its own constitution 
 and laws. 
 
CHAPTER XXXYII. 
 
 THE SUPREME COURT. 
 
 The Constitution did not determine how the Supreme Court 
 should be constituted and authorized Congress to provide such 
 inferior Courts as it might deem expedient. These were erected 
 by law, and united into a single System of which the Supreme 
 Court was made the head. This Court consisted of a Chief Jus- 
 tice and as many Associate Justices as, at different times, it was 
 considered desirable to employ in the conduct of the System of 
 Circuit Courts which were made to include all the States. 
 
 Eight Associate Justices now, with the Chief Justice, form the 
 Supreme Court, any six of which constitute a quorum for dis- 
 patching the business before it. When such a quorum, for any 
 reason, cannot be gathered, the remainder of the Court adjourn, 
 until such time as a quorum can be had, if that be within twenty 
 days from the time appointed for the session. If a quorum can- 
 not be had within the twenty days the business before the Court 
 must be continued over to the next session. But one term is held 
 in the year unless the Court orders an adjourned or si)ecial ses- 
 sion, for the dispatch of business. The date of commencement 
 of the regular term is aj)pointed by law. That date has been 
 several times changed. It is now the Second Monda}^ in Octo- 
 ber the sitting being always at the seat of Government. It has 
 a room and offices in the Capitol at Washington. The length of 
 the Session is not restricted by law, but is determined by the 
 business before it. It cannot, however, sit continuously or with 
 temporary vacations, the Justices having to visit the Circuit 
 courts throughout the States. 
 
 The Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Presi- 
 dent — "by and with the advice and consent" of the Senate. 
 The Constitution provides that they shall hold their offices " dur- 
 ing good behavior." Unless they see fit to resign they can only 
 be removed on conviction, by impeachment before the Senate, of 
 
 (496) 
 
THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE SUPREME JUDICIARY. 497 
 
 "high crimes and misdemeanors." They have now the highest 
 salaries of any officers at the Seat of Government except the 
 President; the Chief Justice receiving $10,500, and each Asso- 
 ciate Justice $10,000 per year, which the law makes payable 
 monthly. The amount of the salary is determined by law, and 
 therefore may be changed, but the salary of any Justice cannot 
 be reduced during his continuance in office. 
 
 These two constitutional provisions are extremely important 
 since they render the members of this High Court, after they 
 have been once appointed, independent of the appointing, that 
 is of the Legislative and Executive Powers, unless they are 
 regularly impeached and convicted of serious offences. The 
 greatest judicial abuses had occurred in England while the 
 Judges were removable at the will of the King, which con- 
 tinued down to the beginning of the eighteenth century. It 
 was not until the nineteenth century that they ceased to hold close 
 relations to the Executive in England, and to be involved in the 
 struggles and passions of party politics. The Supreme Court of 
 the United States is freed as far as possible from all influences that 
 naturally warp the judgment and fetter mental independence. 
 
 The principal business of the Supreme Court is that of revising 
 the decisions of the lower Courts. If the parties whose cases 
 have been decided in those Courts are not satisfied they appeal 
 them until they get before the Supreme Court. Various pro- 
 cedures for securing a hearing before this Court of last resort 
 are prescribed by law, according to the nature of the case. 
 Questions involving the harmony of State laws with the Consti- 
 tution of the United States, or with the laws of Congress, are 
 frequently appealed from the Supreme Courts of the States to 
 some of the divisions of United States Courts, or directly to this 
 highest Court of all. By these means uniform principles are en- 
 forced throughout the country and the whole body of organic 
 and statute laws, State and Federal, are kept in harmony with 
 the Constitution of the United States. The interpretations and 
 decisions of this Court are obligatory on all the Courts, whether 
 State or National, and any law of Congress, provision of a State 
 Constitution, or law of a State Legislature, is rendered inopera- 
 tive by the adverse opinion of the Supreme Court. They are 
 nullified by the simple official statement of such an opinion, or 
 lose the legal character before possessed. This is called its 
 Appellate Jurisdiction. 
 32 
 
498 THE JUDICIAL DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 It has Original Jurisdiction in a variety of cases, some of 
 which may also be commenced in other courts. Others can be 
 tried by no other courts; in which case its jurisdiction is said to 
 be exclusive. The law on the subject, as contained in the 
 Revised Statutes' of 1878, is as follows: "The Supreme Court 
 shall have exclusive jurisdiction of all controversies of a civil 
 nature where a State is a party, except between a State and its 
 citizens, or between a State and citizens of other States, or aliens; 
 in which latter cases it shall have original but not exclusive 
 jurisdiction. And it shall have exclusively all such jurisdiction 
 of suits or proceedings against embassadors, or other public 
 ministers, or their domestics, or domestic servants, as a court of 
 law can have consistently with the Law of Nations; and 
 original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction of all suits brought by 
 embassadors, or other public ministers, or in which a Consul or 
 Vice-Consul is a party." By these provisions suits can be insti- 
 tuted against the diplomatic Representatives of foreign Govern- 
 ments, or persons in their employ, only before the Supreme 
 Court; but they can bring suits not only before it but also before 
 other courts. This is not only a matter of courtesy and of 
 respect for their dignity, but also, in the second case, of con- 
 venience to them. 
 
 The Supreme Court can interfere with proposed action by other 
 courts and authoritatively prohibit it. In many cases where its 
 officers reverse or modify the decision of a lower court, it does 
 not itself provide for the execution of the decision, but commands 
 the lower court to do so. Its authority is thus seen to be abso- 
 lute to decide, to revise, and to command. It may abolish 
 provisions of State Constitutions, nullify laws, arrest the proceed- 
 ings of United States officers and courts, and impress its own 
 views, to a considerable extent, on the general history of the 
 country. It requires men of the utmost clearness, soundness, 
 and breadth of judgment, of great purity and elevation of char- 
 acter to do honor to a place and responsibilities so high 
 and powerful. Otherwise the tribunal must fall into con- 
 tempt and lose much of its power to maintain the great 
 and wise principles of the Constitution and to guide the 
 Government to the noblest ends by the most complete pa- 
 triotism and justice. Fortunately, this has almost always 
 been the case, to the high praise of the appointing power 
 and to the success of the Republic in fulfilling its great 
 
QUESTIONS OF LAW AND FACT. 499 
 
 mission to its own people and to the less fortunate nations 
 of the earth. 
 
 Questions of law or constitutionality brought before the Su- 
 preme Court are decided by the official statement of the Opinions 
 of the Court, delivered by the Chief Justice or by the Associate 
 Justice authorized to speak for the Court in his absence. The 
 Associate Justices have precedence according to the dates of 
 their commissions. The one whose commission bears the earliest 
 date supplies the place of the Chief Justice in his absence, or in 
 a vacancy of the office. 
 
 Questions of fact, which may be judged of by ordinary persons, 
 are tried by juries, as in ordinary courts; the court merely pre- 
 siding and stating the law to the jury. Tlie members of the 
 Supreme Court hold the Circuit Courts, whenever they can be 
 present, and arrange the number each shall annually visit among 
 themselves. 
 
 The Attorney -General, who is the Head of the Executive De- 
 partment of Justice, conducts a prosecution or defense for the 
 United States when it is one of the parties in the case. The Mar- 
 shal, the Clerk, and the Reporter, are appointed by the Court. 
 The Marshal is the executive officer who enforces the processes 
 and orders of the Court and has charge of its property. He 
 appoints his assistants and messengers with the approval of the 
 Chief Justice. The Clerk keeps the record of the proceeding of 
 the Court. The Reporter has charge of the printing, publication 
 and sale of its decisions. He takes down a verbatim account of 
 the testimony and pleadings before the Court and of its deliver- 
 ances. The Court appoints the Deputy Clerks on his application. 
 
CHAPTEE XXXYIIL 
 
 THE CIRCUIT COURT. 
 
 The United States Circuit Court may be considered but an in- 
 ferior, or se.condary, form of the Supreme Court, its duties less 
 weighty and concentrated, its sphere of action lying more among 
 the common affairs and interests of the country. The States of 
 the Union are distributed into as many Circuits as there are 
 Justices forming the Supreme Court, and to each of the Circuits 
 one of these Justices is assigned. The holding of Circuit Courts, 
 however, is not dependent on the presence of the Justice of the 
 Supreme Court allotted to the Circuit. Several Circuit Courts 
 are held in each State twice, at least, in the year and a Circuit in- 
 cludes, on the average, four States and a fraction, while the law 
 requires the Justice to attend only one term of each Court held 
 in his Circuit once in two years. 
 
 To make up for this inability of Supreme Justices to be present 
 at all the sessions required to be held, a Circuit Judge is appoin- 
 ted, who must reside in the Circuit and has, in his absence, the 
 same power and jurisdiction as the Supreme Justice when pres- 
 ent. Judges of District Comls may, also, when necessary, hold 
 Circuit Courts. Sometiraes these three sit together at a Session, 
 or term, in which case the Supreme Justice is the superior, or 
 president. At his direction the other two may each try cases 
 apart, so that much more may be done in the same time. Cir- 
 cuit Courts may also in this way be held at the same time in dif- 
 ferent Districts of the same Circuit. These nine local Circuit 
 Judges, and also the District Judges, are appointed in the same 
 manner, and hold their offices by the same tenure, as the Justices 
 of the Supreme Court. They are equally immovable and equally 
 independent. 
 
 The Circuit Courts have Original Jurisdiction — that is. suits 
 may be commenced in them — in almost all cases in which, the 
 interests of the Government being involved, the United States is 
 a party, or in which the rights of citizens of the United States, 
 as such, are concerned. In various other cases suits may be 
 brought before them or transferred from State and District Courts 
 and tried as if they had commenced there. They have also an 
 extensive Appellate Jurisdiction, being higher in authority than 
 State Supreme Courts or United States District Courts. The 
 
 (500) 
 
THE CIRCUIT COURT, ITS DUTIES AND CIRCUITS. 501 
 
 classes of cases in which they have original jurisdiction are 
 enumerated in the Revised Statutes under nineteen different 
 heads. The twentieth declares that it has ' ' exclusive cognizance 
 of all crimes and offences cognizable under authority of the 
 United States, except where it is or may be, otherwise provided 
 by law, and concurrent jurisdiction with the District Courts of 
 crimes and offences cognizable under them." 
 
 The Supreme Court deals with the highest constitutional ques- 
 tions and gives final award in cases that encourage the contes- 
 tants to hope for a different conclusion from that rendered by 
 the lower courts; but, though its decisions are of the greatest 
 importance, they are few in number compared to those brought 
 before Circuit Courts. These Courts are of great weight and 
 authority, their presiding officers being often the Supreme 
 Justices themselves, they are held twice or three times in the 
 year, and sometimes oftener. They are, indeed, for some pur- 
 poses, considered always open. Nearly all the more important 
 kinds of business that affect the General Government, or inter- 
 ests not confined to a State, and so merely local, on which legal 
 conflicts arise come before them originally or for review. Multi- 
 tudes of cases between States and citizens or aliens, cases involv- 
 ing to titles to land, under revenue laws. National Banking laws, 
 claims to offices, civil rights, crimes punishable under laws of 
 Congress, and a great variety of other matters, form parts of 
 their business and crowd their calendars. 
 
 The places and times for their regular Terms are appointed by 
 law and are made as central and convenient to the people as 
 possible ; but numerous other sessions are held as occasion de- 
 mands. The Circuits have been frequently changed, as new 
 States have been admitted to the Union, and the number of 
 Justices of the Supreme Court has been changed. It is one of 
 the most important bonds of national union and harmony.* 
 
 *The nine Judicial Circuits, with the number of Districts in eacli, are as fol- 
 lows: First: Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island — four Dis- 
 tricts. Second: Vermont, Connecticut, New York — five Districts. Tliird: New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware — four Districts. Fourth: Maryland, Virginia, 
 West Virginia, North CaroUna, Soutli Carolina — seven Districts. Fifth: Geor- 
 gia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas — eleven Districts. Sixth: 
 Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, Tennessee — seven Districts. Seventh: Indiana, Illi- 
 nois, "Wisconsin — five Districts. Eighth: Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, 
 Arkansas, Nebraska, Colorado — nine Districts. Ninth: California, Oregon, Ne- 
 vada — three Districts, — making nine Circuits and fifty-five Districts in the Judi- 
 cial System of the United States. 
 
OHAPTEE XXXIX. 
 
 THE DISTRICT COURTS. 
 
 The District Courts of the United States are an integral part 
 of the Judiciary System that is crowned by that final arbiter 
 and judge of constitutional law — the Supreme Court. They are 
 the third in rank in the system ; are made most accessible to all 
 the citizens of the United States who have occasion to invoke 
 the intervention of federal authority ; and they furnish to the 
 numerous executive officers of the General Government the 
 assistance required in enforcing the law and protecting the inter- 
 ests of the Nation. 
 
 For the most part the range of their jurisdiction is the same as 
 that of the Circuit Courts, yet, being lower in rank and power, 
 they commonly take the less important cases where the Circuit 
 Courts have also original jurisdiction and are readily accessible 
 to the suitor. Being the lowest courts they have no appellate 
 jurisdiction but appeal from the decisions made in them may be 
 taken to the Circuit Courts. They do not have jurisdiction in 
 cases of crime against the United States punishable with death, 
 but have cognizance of all others. They have exclusive juris- 
 diction, for the most part, in Admirality and Maritime causes, 
 and some other cases can be commenced only in these courts. 
 For ordinary purposes and the larger number of conflicts arising 
 under United States laws they are empowered to administer all 
 desirable legal remedy. 
 
 Every State constitutes at least one District and many are 
 divided into two or three, as Congress has judged expedient. 
 The regulations as to the Districts, however, are not entirely 
 uniform, Iowa, for instance, is but one District, but is separated 
 into four Divisions, in each of which District Courts are held, at 
 designated places and times, twice in the year; and, although, as 
 a rule, each District has a special District Judge appointed ta 
 
 (502) 
 
THE POWERS OF UNITED STATES COURTS. 503 
 
 preside over its Courts, yet several States which have been 
 divided into two or three Districts have but one Judge for them 
 all. 
 
 The District Judge frequently presides over Circuit Courts and 
 usually sits in them with the Circuit Judge, or Supreme Justice, 
 or both, when a term of that Court is held within his District, or 
 one of his Districts. When it occurs that two or more of these 
 high officers sit together at any term of Circuit Court they all 
 produce an opinion on the cases requiring it; but when they 
 differ in opinion that of the one presiding, or highest in rank, 
 rules the case. 
 
 The United States Courts alone have power to try cases of the 
 following classes: 
 
 1. " All crimes and offences cognizable under the authority 
 of the United States," that is, of the Constitution or the laws of 
 Congress. 
 
 2. "All suits for penalties and forfeitures under the laws of 
 the United States. 
 
 3. "All civil causes of Admirality or Maritime Jurisdiction, 
 saving to suitors, in all cases, the right of a common law remedy, 
 where the common law is competent to give it. 
 
 4. "' All seizures under the law of the United States on land, 
 and on waters not within Admirality and Maritime Jurisdiction. 
 
 5. " All cases arising under the Patent-right or Copyright 
 laws of the United States. ' 
 
 6. " All matters and proceedings in Bankruptcy. 
 
 7. "All controversies of a civil nature where a State is a 
 party, except between a State and its citizens, or between a State 
 and the citizens of other States, or aliens." 
 
 In these cases State courts are not competent to entertain a 
 legal hearing or recognize a complaint for want of jurisdiction. 
 In multitudes of other cases State Courts have concurrent juris- 
 diction with United States Courts, or trials may be had and 
 decisions made which may be removed, or appealed, to United 
 States Courts and reviewed, or tried over. These points of con- 
 nection between the State and National Courts unite the whole 
 into a general Judicial System that harmonizes legal and consti- 
 tutional principles and renders them, and the rights and privi- 
 leges of citizens under them, pervading throughout the country. 
 Local, or State laws that conflict with these principles are there- 
 by made inoperative, if United States Courts be appealed to and 
 
504 THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 their decisions enforced. Thus laws and rights are made uni- 
 form, the people everywhere placed on an equality, and the nation- 
 al unity that was contemplated by the Constitution secured. 
 
 ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION. 
 
 This belongs, by United States law, specially to the District 
 Courts, although cases of crime punishable by death belong 
 exclusively to Circuit Courts, and other cases may be appealed 
 to the same Courts (except prize cases.) The Supreme Court 
 has "power to issue writs of prohibition in the District Courts, 
 when proceeding as Courts of Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdic 
 tion;" that is, to peremptorily forbid further action in particular 
 cases. The District Courts, however, administer, generally, the 
 laws of the United States and the Law of Nations applicable to 
 naval and maritime affairs. 
 
 The word Admiral was introduced into European languages 
 about 600 years ago, from the Arabic term " a commander of 
 the Sea." Admiralty means, relating to tlic command of, or 
 law on, the Sea. The original meaning of ]\Iaritime is, border- 
 ing on the Sea. The two terms, therefore, include all that 
 relates to the government of transactions on the ocean outside 
 national boundaries, often spoken of cis "the high seas" — and 
 also along the borders of the seas, or oceans, with gulfs, bays 
 and ports, and other waters considered as national; that is, 
 within three leagues, or nine miles, of the shore. Admiralty 
 and Maritime Laws, therefore, control vessels in ports, along 
 the coast, and on the open ocean which is used as the common 
 highway of nations. 
 
 A National Flag over a vessel indicates that it is of a particu- 
 lar country and under the protection and control of its Govern- 
 ment and laws. The peculiar condition of vessels as being of a 
 nation but often not in its recognized boundaries, and so easily 
 capable of shaking off the control of its laws and not subject to 
 the constant supervision of local officers, requires special laws 
 for their government and discipline, and special courts for the 
 trial of conflicts arising under them. Civilized nations, from the 
 time when commerce by means of vessels became general, have 
 been accustomed to erect special courts for them— courts having 
 Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction. In England the "Ad- 
 miralty Court" is held by the Lord High Admiral, or his Deputy, 
 called Admiralty Judge, and this court is distinct from all oth- 
 
COURT OF ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION. 505 
 
 ers, having jurisdiction only over such cases. In the United 
 States no such exclusive court exists, but the District Courts 
 have charge of them and when sitting to try them are called 
 *' Courts of Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction." 
 
 Vessels being much of the time beyond the sphere of local 
 authorities great power must be lodged in the Commander and 
 his officers to compel obedience and preserve discipline. Being 
 so free from restraint it is very liable to be arbitrarily and in- 
 judiciously exercised. Vessels are a chief means of intercourse 
 and trade between nations, and must be wisely managed in the 
 interest of the prosperity of their own country and of peace and 
 amity between their own and foreign Governments. All these 
 and other things are taken into account by the legislators who 
 adapt laws to them in harmony with the Constitution, Treaties, 
 and the Law of Nations. 
 
 The cases coming before Courts of Admiralty and Maritime 
 Jurisdiction relate to crime, insubordination or cruelty on ship- 
 board, to the employment, wages, and dismissal or desertion of 
 seamen; to the violation of Treaties, or other international law, 
 or laws of the United States relating to navigation, trade and 
 revenue, and various other subjects directly or remotely con- 
 nected with transactions accomplished by the National or Mer- 
 chant Marine. 
 
 In time of war vessels and goods captured from an enemy in 
 arms are called prizes, and special laws provide for the examina- 
 tion of the circumstances and the division of the property among 
 the parties in whom the law recognizes claims to it. When Dis- 
 trict Courts sit to adjust such causes they are called " Prize 
 Courts." 
 
CHAPTEE XL. 
 
 THE COUET OF CLAIMS. 
 
 This Court was established in 1855 in order to do speedy justice 
 to parties having claims against the United States and to relieve 
 Congress of too heavy a tax on its time. Three Judges were then 
 appointed to it. In 1863 its jurisdiction was enlarged and the 
 Court made to consist of a Chief Justice and four Associate 
 Justices, appointed by the President and Senate, with a salary 
 of four thousand five hundred dollars each. The appointment is 
 for life, or ■'•'good behavior."" As each of the other courts it has 
 a special seal. Its sessions are held once each year at the Seat 
 of Government, commencing on the first Monday in December 
 and continuing as long as necessary for the dispatch of business. 
 Any two of the five Judges form a quorum and may hold a 
 Court. 
 
 Its subordinate officers are a Clerk, an Assistant Clerk, a Bailiff 
 and a Messenger. The Clerk is the disbursing officer. At the 
 end of every term he is required to transmit a copy of the 
 decisions of the Court to the Heads of Executive Departments 
 and all other officers charged with the adjustment of claims 
 against the United States. At the beginning of each regular 
 session of Congress he reports to that body all the judgments 
 rendered by the Court during the previous year with a statement 
 of all important circumstances connected with them. 
 
 (1). The jurisdiction of the Court extends to all claims founded 
 on any law of Congress, executive regulations, or contract with 
 the United States and to all others that may be referred to it by 
 either House of Congress; 
 
 (2). To all claims of disbursing officers of the United States 
 for relief from responsibility for loss of funds property or papers 
 in his charge, when such loss was not his fault; 
 
 (506) 
 
 I 
 
PROCEDURE IN THE COURT OF CLAIMS. 507 
 
 (3). And to all claims to the proceeds of property captured or 
 abandoned during the civil war, as provided by law. 
 
 These claims are introduced by petition, the petitioner being 
 regarded as the plaintiff and the United States as the defendant. 
 The Court takes into consideration all counter claims, damages, 
 and set-offs brought forward by United States counsel. The pro- 
 ceedings are conducted according to the ordinary rules of courts 
 of law so far as the circumstances permit, or as are applicable to 
 the cases. Whenever judgment is unfavorable to the United 
 States an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court as also when 
 it is against the claimant if the amount in question exceeds three 
 thousand dollars. 
 
 This Court is often a convenience to Executive Departments 
 when they have claims to settle which involve doubtful points of 
 law, or when a precedent applicable to a large class of cases is to 
 be made. The Court makes a thorough examination and deter- 
 mines the legal questions, or the most suitable precedent, more 
 completely and with more authority than the ojBficers of the De- 
 partment of Justice could. 
 
CHAPTEE XLI. 
 
 OFFICERS OP UNITED STATES COURTS— JURIES. 
 
 District Attorneys are law officers of the United States Gov- 
 ernment appointed by the President and Senate for a term of four 
 years for most of the Judicial Districts of the United States. A 
 District Attorney must be "learned in the law to act as attorney 
 for the United States " in the District or Districts for which he is 
 appointed. There is always one for a State and usually one for 
 each District into which a State may have been divided; but in 
 several States two Districts are put in charge of one District 
 Attorney. 
 
 It is the duty of the District Attorney to prosecute all "delin- 
 quents for crimes and offences cognizable under the authority of 
 the United States, and all civil actions in which the United 
 States are concerned, and, unless otherwise instructed by the 
 Secretary of the Treasury, to appear in behalf of the defendants 
 in all suits or proceedings pending in his District against Col- 
 lectors or other officers of the Revenue for any act done by them 
 or for the recovery of any money exacted by or paid to such 
 officers, and by them paid into the Treasury." As these officers 
 acted, in such cases, for the United States, the Government is 
 the real defendant. The District Attorney reports to the Solici- 
 tor of the Treasury the particulars of all such causes brought be- 
 fore United States Courts in his District. He is the official legal 
 adviser of the United States in all cases involving its interests, 
 or offences against its laws, before whatever court they may be 
 tried. In matters relating to Internal Revenue he reports to the 
 Commissioner of Internal Revenue. His reports on suits in the 
 interest of the Post Office Department are made to the Depart- 
 ment of Justice. In Prize Cases the report is made to the Sec- 
 retary of the Navy. The District Attorney makes a return of 
 the fees received by him to the Attorney General. Retaining 
 
 (508) 
 
THE DUTIES AND PAY OF MARSHALS. 509 
 
 the amount allowed him by law for salary and expenses he pays 
 the remainder into the Treasury. The sum retained for salary 
 cannot exceed six thousand dollars a year, except in Prize 
 causes. 
 
 United States Marshals are executive officers of the United 
 States Courts held in each Judicial District. In several States, 
 as in the case of District Attorneys, the Marshal acts as such in 
 more than one District. A Marshal is appointed by the Presi- 
 dent and Senate for four years. He appoints one or more 
 Deputies to assist him, who are paid by fees, and removable by 
 any Judge of the District or Circuit Court held in the District. 
 Their compensation and expenses are received from him, the 
 amount of which is prescribed by law for particular services 
 rendered and expenses of travel. His own compensation may not 
 exceed six thousand dollars a year and expenses (except in 
 Prize causes), the remainder of the fees, if there be a balance, 
 being paid into the Treasury. In Prize cases the extra compen- 
 sation cannot exceed three thousand a year. If the fees do not 
 amount to these sums during the year it is the Marshals' loss, no 
 other provision being made for their payment. 
 
 They make oath before the District Judge to perform their 
 service and make returns truly, and take only lawful fees, and 
 give bonds with two satisfactory securities in the sum of twenty 
 thousand dollars for themselves and their Deputies. 
 
 The duties of the Marshals are similar to those of Sheriffs in 
 State Courts, They attend the sessions of the Circuit and Dis- 
 trict Courts and execute all orders issued to them by the Courts. 
 They have power to command all necessary aid in the perform- 
 ance of their duties. They serve summonses, make arrests, and 
 hold prisoners in custody, seize property and hold or sell it 
 according to precept of the Courts. Returns on Writs of Execu- 
 tion are made to the Solicitor of the Treasury, and, in cases of 
 moneys due to the Post Office Department, to the Sixth Auditor. 
 They account to the Attorney-General for the fees collected. 
 
 Up to 1880, United States Marshals usually had the charge of 
 taking the Census in their districts. They appointed a suitable 
 number Deputies for this purpose and superintended their work; 
 but the law under which the Tenth Census was taken placed 
 those duties in the hands of special officers appointed by the 
 President and Senate. These were called Supervisors, and Spe- 
 cial Agents were appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, or 
 
1510 THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT, 
 
 the Superintendent of the Census, to collect certain classes of 
 statistics. This system dispensed with the services of Marshals. 
 
 It is a part of the Marshals duty to pay the fees, and other 
 expenses allowed by law, of Jurors and Witnesses in attendance 
 on the Courts whose officer he is. 
 
 Commissioners, are officers temporarily appointed by Judges 
 of United States Courts to perform special duties in an emer- 
 gency, or which may be most conveniently accomplished in that 
 way. They are appointed to take testimony, to act as referees 
 by order of a Court, administer oaths to appraisers of property in 
 various cases, to act as Supervisors of Elections, and perform a 
 great variety of subordinate duties connected with civil 
 rights, the Elective Franchise and the enforcement of the 
 laws of the United States. Specified fees allowed them by law 
 are the usual mode of compensating their services. 
 
 Clerks of District and Circuit Courts, are appointed by the 
 respective Judges of those Courts, in each Circuit and District. 
 Deputy Clerks may also be appointed. In some cases the Circuit 
 and District Judges act jointly in the appointment of one or more 
 Clerks who officiate in both Courts. In some cases, specially 
 defined by law, as many Clerks or Deputy Clerks are appointed 
 in a District as there are separate places appointed for holding 
 the various sessions in the District. They make and keep the 
 Records of the Courts, prepare its official papers, and affix the 
 Seal of the Court to them. With the exception of Clerks in Cali- 
 fornia, Oregon, and Xevada, who are allowed double compensa- 
 tion — Clerks are allowed to retain only three thousand five hund- 
 red dollars of their fees above their office expenses and the pay 
 for their Deputies. The balance is turned into the Treasury. 
 
 The laws of the United States require that all questions of 
 fact — of the merits of which an intelligent person, though not 
 "learned in the law," may be considered capable of judging — 
 shall be tried by jury, although there are some cases in 
 which, with the consent of both parties to the contest, a Jury 
 may be dispensed with and the decision rendered by the Judges 
 alone. The Fifth Amendmsnt to the Constitution, which was 
 adopted soon after the Government under it went into operation, 
 provided that, '' No person shall be held to answer for a capital, 
 or otherwise infamous, crime, unless on presentment or indict- 
 ment of a Grand Jury; except in cases arising in the land or 
 naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service, in time of 
 
THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF JURIES. 511 
 
 public war or danger. " In these exceptional cases the Articles 
 of War and Articles of the Navy substitute the Court Martial 
 for the ordinary courts of law. 
 
 JURIES. 
 
 The legal customs on which the employment of these Juries 
 rest had their remote origin among the ancient Anglo-Saxons, 
 before they settled in England, where they gradually assumed 
 the form in which they now exist. They were brought to Amer- 
 ica by the First English Colonists and were regarded as among 
 the most cherished ''rights of Englishman," adopted under the 
 Charter Governments of all the Colonies, preserved under all the 
 State Constitutions and confirmed, as above, by the Federal Con- 
 stitution, and by the general laws of the United States. 
 
 The numerous tribes of Anglo-Saxons and Jutes who settled 
 in England had been accustomed to conduct the executive 
 government by their nobles. Legislative and judicial affairs, 
 crudely mingled together, were managed by the general as- 
 sembly of the freemen. Settled in England in a state of almost 
 continuous warfare, the military chief became the King, the 
 growing tribe a small Kingdom, and the families grew into 
 communities, which, in time, became so numerous that all the 
 freemen of the Kingdom could not assemble in one place. They 
 were subdivided into Hundreds, Parishes and Townships, and 
 the representative system grew up. In that early time "twelve 
 lawful men" — freemen or citizens, according to their laws — 
 represented each Hundred. By this time the small kingdoms 
 had begun to give place to larger Kingdoms, made up of many 
 original ones. The original Kingdoms remained in their original 
 boundaries as " scirs" — Shires, or Counties. Soon all England 
 was united under one ruler, but the local representation and 
 rule remained in the shires. In the course of time, the increase 
 of population, and the growing power of the King and nobles, 
 changes occurred; central bodies enacted general laws, and the 
 representative body in the Shires took more and more the form 
 of a court for the settlement of differences, or judgment of 
 crimes. 
 
 The number twelve, after the Norman Conquest, continued to 
 be the number of men called together to judge quarrels or crimes. 
 They were long both jurors and witnesses, being selected by the 
 Scir-gerefa, or Sheriff, of the county from among the acquaint- 
 
512 THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ances and equals of the party complained of. After a time 
 twelve others were selected to give testimony and assist the first 
 twelve in rendering just judgment. This was the original hint 
 both of the Grand Jury and of the witnesses, who afterward came 
 to be distinguished from the jury proper. The principle of juries 
 was very distinctly embodied in the "Magna Charta," of 1215, 
 extorted at Runnymede from King John by his Barons. That 
 document put into form the traditional memories and customs 
 of Anglo-Saxon liberty that had been preserved for more than 
 seven hundred years. 
 
 From that time the present form of English Institutions began 
 to take definite shape. Before the century closed Parliament 
 had come to sit in two Houses, and the general system of En- 
 glish Courts began to emerge to view. Ultimately the Grand 
 Jury, containing from 16 to 24 "lawful men " became a prelim- 
 inary court, as it still remains, to prevent, by a careful estimate 
 of such facts as lay on the surface, unjust or malicious accusa- 
 tions from involving the innocent in annoyance and anxiety; 
 and the accused, when put on final trial, continued, as through 
 the many hundred years past, to have the right to be tried, not 
 arbitrarily by a Judge, but by a jury of twelve of his "peers," 
 or equals in position. 
 
 Thus we may go back to the forests of Germany for the first 
 germ of many of our most important usages, and may trace 
 down through English history the gradual changes in the form 
 of these usages as they were adopted by our American forefath- 
 ers and still continue in our Organic and Statute Laws. 
 
 The Grand Jury is employed to examine the character of the 
 charges or accusations brought against any person. Instead of 
 proceeding at once to trial before a Court, the proofs are first ex- 
 amined by the Grand Jury to see if the case is really serious and 
 the proof apparently decisive enough to require the trial. It is 
 an important protection for innocent parties whose reputation is 
 endangered by suspicious circumstances or by malice. 
 
 The Statute law says: " Every Grand Jury empanelled before 
 any District or Circuit Court shall consist of not less than six- 
 teen nor more than twenty-three persons. If of the persons 
 summoned less than sixteen attend, they shall be placed on the 
 Grand Jury and the Court shall order the Marshal to summon, 
 either immediately or for a day fixed, from the body of the 
 District, and not from the bystanders, a sufficient number of 
 
GRAND JURIES AND PETIT JURIES. 513 
 
 persons to complete the Grand Jury." In a capital case the 
 defendant may challenge, or object to, any twenty Jurors and 
 the United States to five. In other cases a less number of chal- 
 lenges are allowed. The Court in these cases must order the 
 Marshal to summon others to take the places of the challenged 
 Jurors. The qualifications for, and exemptions from, serving 
 on a Jury are such as have been determined by the laws of the 
 State, in which the Court is held, for the guidance of its own 
 Courts. 
 
 A Foreman is designated by the Court, who has authority" to 
 administer the oath to witnesses testifying before it. The Grand 
 Jury does not sit in the presence of the Court. It is required 
 when in session to examine into any case of probable crime 
 that may be known to it, as well as those brought formally 
 before it. All the Courts may discharge their Grand Juries, 
 however, when they deem longer sessions unnecessary. Grand 
 Juries are employed in State courts, but cannot extend their 
 cognizance of crimes beyond the jurisdiction of the court by 
 which it was summoned. Sometimes a Jury called by one Court 
 may serve another also, if it is sitting at the same time and 
 place. 
 
 Petit Juries are those which finally try the case and adjudi- 
 cate it. The final conclusion of a Grand Jury, if it does not dis- 
 miss the defendant as innocent of the offense charged, is called 
 a Presentment, or Indictment, because it presents the case to 
 the final tribunal, which, after a more thorough hearing in the 
 presence of the court — which carefully decides what facts should 
 be considered as bearing on the conclusion — and after argument 
 by authorized persons, or counsel "learned in the law," for and 
 against the defendant, pronounces the Verdict of final acquittal 
 or condemnation. 
 
 Petit Jury means Small Jury. It always consists of the twelve 
 persons whom we have seen determining the guilt or innocence 
 of parties judicially accused from the early days of English his- 
 tory when the small tribe began to expand into an extensive com- 
 munity, each of the divisions of which was represented by this 
 number of its citizens in the general assembly that transacted 
 the public business other than executive. These twelve repre- 
 sented, then, all the citizens of the Hundred and transacted busi- 
 ness for them, being elected for that purpose. This primitive 
 idea has since developed into the various courts, juries and Parlia- 
 33 
 
514 THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ment of England, and the various judicial and legislative sys- 
 tems of America; but the Jury may still be considered to repre- 
 sent the whole community to which an accused person belongs. 
 In that early time, and even in the German Tribe, before it was 
 transferred to England, the sense of justice required that a per- 
 son accused of wrong should be judged by his equals who could 
 understand him. appreciate all the circumstances, and feel an 
 interest in him. 
 
 The present jury. Grand or Petit, is a survival and more com- 
 plete development of that principle "of justice which has presided 
 over all Anglo-Saxon history and found, as Americans are ac- 
 customed to think, its most complete maturity in the institutions 
 of the United States. United States law requires the Courts to 
 direct the summoning of Petit Jurors from such parts of the Ju- 
 dicial District as shall "be most favorable to an impartial trial 
 and so as as not to incur an unnecessary expense, or unduly to 
 burden the citizens of any part of the District with such ser- 
 vices." 
 
 The Grand Jury takes cognizance of many cases during one 
 session, but the Petit Jury serves for only the particular trial in 
 hand, at the termination of which it is discharged. If another 
 is required, it is summoned anew. Juror's fees, by the present 
 Statutes of the United States, are three dollars a day and five 
 cents a mile for travel to and from their residence. After a jury 
 has listened to the evidence and the pleading and arguments of 
 counsel for and against the defendant, and heard the charge of 
 the judge as to the law applicable to the case, it retires alone to 
 deliberate, and, having all agreed on the Verdict, returns and 
 announces it to the Court, whereupon the Judge formally pro- 
 nounces the sentence. If the members of the Jury cannot agree 
 the case fails and the accused is discharged. 
 
 A Grand Jury takes cognizance only of crimes, but a Petit 
 Jury sits in all other "causes of fact," unless both prosecutor and 
 defendant agree to accept the decision of the Judge or Judges. 
 Causes in which money or property are in dispute are often more 
 frequent than offenses against criminal law. 
 
PART THIRD. 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 A study of the General Government of the United States as it 
 has developed under the admirable Constitution framed in 1787, 
 has shown it well adapted to all the purposes for which govern- 
 ment is required among nations. It can concentrate the strength 
 of the country for defence, secure internal order, maintain the 
 public credit, and promote all enterprises essential to general 
 prosperity, which do not fall within the limits of local 
 authority, the possibilities of individuals, or the combinations 
 of citizens in corporations. It has been tried and proved during 
 more than ninety years, a period, generally, of great and grow- 
 ing prosperity, but sometimes of threatening disaster and trial, 
 through which it has stood unmoved, like a powerful oak in the 
 storm, and out of which it has passed still more flourishing and 
 vigorous. 
 
 In the history of most nations a central government so fully 
 adequate to all its purposes of combination and defense has 
 usually proved a source of danger to its own people, its rulers 
 diminishing their liberties, wasting the substance of the people 
 in useless magnificence, or profitless wars of ambition. The 
 English People, almost alone among European nations, had the 
 patient resolution, never wholly yielding during nearly fifteen 
 hundred years of national life, to resist these encroachments of 
 rulers and to grow more free as the Modern Period approached, 
 while their neighbors were generally abjectly submissive to 
 absolute rulers. They did so by virtue of their Local Institu- 
 tions. 
 
 (515) 
 
51(3 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 It was the English Shire, or County, the Parish, the Hundred^ 
 and the Town, or Borough with its chartered self-government, 
 that kept alive a proud sense of the "liberties of Englishmen,'^ 
 and made it possible for them to oblige all their Kings to respect 
 their refusal to permit themselves to be taxed without their con- 
 sent. Obstinately holding their purse strings in their own hands, 
 they could make terms with their Kings in other respects, and 
 when a line of perverse sovereigns had exhausted their patience 
 they set them aside and Parliament found means to rule itself 
 in the name of the successors they had placed on the throne. 
 
 But the English Parliament had a base too narrow among the 
 people for the welfare of the whole nation. Until very recent 
 times it represented only the higher and prosperous classes — 
 the comparatively small numbers possessed of accumulated 
 property. It has often been capable of the unwisdom of resist- 
 ing for a long time the popular demand for the most salutary 
 and important reforms, and of doing some unjust things. Yet, 
 since the first thirty years of the nineteenth century, reform has 
 spread far and wide and Great Britain has become a virtual 
 aristocratic republic, with very strong democratic tendencies, 
 that will be fruitful of results hereafter. The United States, on 
 the contrary, began to build on the ample foundation of ade- 
 quate Local Government. 
 
 These local institutions had been established under Charters 
 from the most absolute line of English Kings — the Stuarts — from 
 James I. to James II. , Georgia alone having been settled later. 
 These Sovereigns made a determined effort to rule England, by 
 their personal authority, as absolutely as the French Kings then 
 ruled France. They were not wanting in many of the qualities 
 of statesmen, and they had many reasons for wishing to rival 
 France and Spain in the New World. Instead, therefore, of 
 following the short-sighted and repressive colonial policy of 
 those nations, by holding the colonies in the most embarrassing 
 dependence on the Mother Countries and regarding them only 
 as instruments for gathering the largest amount of money in the 
 shortest time, they took the wise course of allowing them great 
 freedom and self-control. 
 
 They had the shrewdness to comprehend that the value of 
 these colonies to the Mother Country would consist in their free 
 and strong development, their internal vigor and activity, and 
 the trade with English merchants that would result. The first 
 
REPRESENTATION IN ENGLAND UNDER THE GEORGES. 517 
 
 Charters were given to companies of these merchants and 
 under them the first and most prosperous Colonies were estab- 
 lished, those of Virginia and New England, and the precedent 
 controlled, generally, the future policy as to later Colonies. 
 The twelfth colony — Pennsylvania — had already been firmly 
 established when the English Revolution of 1688 drove the 
 Stuarts from the throne and gave the virtual control of the 
 powers of the Crown to Parliament. 
 
 This closed the long struggle of the People against the King by 
 signal defeat of the latter. Unfortunately, Parliament was not 
 sufficiently representive of the mass of the people, and the Gov- 
 ernment, for more than a century, was virtually that of the aris- 
 tocracy, or landholders, and the more prosperous merchants and 
 tradesmen. These had a considerable measure of intelligent 
 Anglo-Saxon good sense, they were patriotic and meant well; 
 but they were too fully trusted by the people. Under Parliament- 
 ary Government, which was assumed to be that of the people, 
 there was a gradual breaking up, or weakening, of local organi- 
 zation in the shires and towns, and a concentration of power in 
 the Central Government unknown in previous times. Parliament 
 wielded the prerogatives of the King. While they remained in 
 his hands the people defiantly stood on their guard against an 
 unconstitutional use of them. This they did by intrenching 
 themselves in their local institutions and privileges; but they 
 grew unwisely confident and careless when Parliament came 
 into power, assuming that there was no longer any danger. 
 
 Thus it came to pass that the English colonies in America es- 
 tablished English local institutions while they were still kept in 
 their greatest vigor and fullest development to combat and resist 
 the encroachments of the Stuart dynasty of kings. In this New 
 World they were preserved with much greater purity and com- 
 pleteness than in England itself after Parliament (or the House 
 of Commons) had gained control of the Government. The con- 
 stant tendency in England for more than a hundred years after 
 1688, under the rule of Parliament and the growth of manufac- 
 turing and trading centers, was toward the restriction of suf- 
 frage, and local institutions fell under the control of a few persons 
 of influence or were gradually changed and managed by the cen- 
 tral authorities in the name and under the prerogatives of the 
 Sovereign. The tendency in America set still more strongly in 
 the contrary direction. 
 
518 LOCAL GOVERNMENT, 
 
 The separate communities, often isolated from each other 
 among serious difficulties and dangers, organized strongly for 
 defense and support on the pure Old English model which had 
 reached a fairly-complete development by the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. After a time, when Parliament began its 
 preliminary career of control, about 1650, it adopted the view, 
 which finally resulted in the loss of the Colonies, that they existed 
 chiefly for the benefit of English trade and passed "Navigation 
 Laws" in support of that principle. These were more or less dis- 
 regarded, and the Charters of several Colonies were modified or 
 other measures taken to bring them more clearly under the rule 
 of the English "Board of Trade," which was an executive com- 
 mittee responsible to Parliament, and had the principal charge 
 of colonial affairs, similar to the present "Department of the 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies." 
 
 These encroachments of the Government of the Mother Coun- 
 try on the original "chartered liberties" of the Colonies caused 
 much indignation and roused the old English spirit of resistance 
 that, in England itself, was decreasing in a marked degree. 
 Royal Governors, as they were called — Parliamentary Gov- 
 ernors they might have been more justly termed, for Parliament 
 now controlled, generally, the royal prerogatives — ruled accord- 
 ing to instructions issued by the Board of Trade, and maintained 
 a general conflict with colonial authorities which their local in- 
 stitutions, in good working order, enabled them to resist. 
 Besides this the population of New England and Virginia were 
 from the two select classes of English society — the first the yeo- 
 manry, or independent farmers, and the second from the decayed 
 gentry and malcontent "cavaliers," defeated by Oliver Crom- 
 well and obliged by political insubordination or poverty to take 
 refuge in America. Other classes were, indeed, represented in 
 each of the two Colonies; but these were the ruling spirits in their 
 respective Colonies, and both becanie still more positive in their 
 Anglo-Saxon resistance to arbitrary authority by the free life 
 afforded them in the wide spaces of the New World. They re- 
 verted more strongly than had ever been seen in England, even 
 under the Commonwealth, to the First Principles of the Anglo- 
 Saxon tribes— the equality of freemen and the subordination of 
 the executive to the common decision of the people — which had 
 been partially suppressed yet proved sufficiently tenacious of 
 life to produce the modern English Constitution. 
 
THE GROWTH OF FREEDOM IN THE COLONIES. 519 
 
 Thus a really New England was reproduced in America. 
 England, at its best and freest, had been planted afresh, and 
 with a quickened speed of growth and tenacity of life, in the 
 wilderness. Under the leadership of New England and Virginia 
 the other Colonies developed the same tendencies, and there 
 was a large degree of uniformity in the cast given to Local 
 Government and Institutions. The same experiences tended to 
 produce the same spirit and to promote the spread of the same 
 customs among all the thirteen Colonies, so that, when George 
 III. prevailed on his Parliament to attempt to completely subdue 
 the resistance of the Colonies to English arbitrary rule by force, 
 they united as by a single impulse and showed that they were 
 sufficiently alike in character and feeling to form one nation. 
 
 But although it was so imperative that all should unite for the 
 safety of each that they had no thought of doing otherwise, they 
 rejected the idea of any closer union than seemed absolutely 
 necessary. Each Colony had learned to 'manage its own affairs 
 with skill and thoroughness during the long period of separate 
 contest with the authorities of the Mother Country and the 
 royal Governors. Each had learned, when driven by disregard 
 of its interests, to devise ways and means of resistance, to think 
 for itself and cultivate the ability and skill of the statesmen and 
 diplomatist. Free at last from foreign control they each 
 enjoyed their independence and were unwilling to give them- 
 selves a master. Each felt itself able to rule itself if it could be 
 secured from interference by overwhelming force from without. 
 
 But the years that followed the Feace of 1783 revealed the 
 necessity of conferring much more vigor and power of the 
 decisive action on the central authority that acted for the com- 
 mon interest of all. An imperfect union, with a central govern- 
 ment possessing little more than advisory powers, while Eng- 
 land on the north and on the Sea, France and Spain on the west 
 and south, jealous of their future greatness eagerly sought for the 
 possession of the rich Mississippi Valley, was sure to leave them 
 helpless in an emergency. Commercial, and economic questions 
 proved equally difficult of solution without a more "perfect 
 union." This they arranged by adopting the Constitution of 1787 
 when they were few, and weak, and poor; and under it they 
 have become probably the greatest, strongest and wealthiest of 
 the nations. But this grand result has not been achieved only by 
 virtue of the Constitution and the well constructed Government 
 
520 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 under it. Although the result would have been impossible with- 
 out these it could have been but half gained — that is not gained 
 at all — without the faithful cooperation of State, County, and 
 Township governments. The Constitution and General Govern- 
 ment solved only the questions unmanageable by these — merely 
 cleared the way for these to act freely, and gave to the individ- 
 ual citizens of each full protection and necessary assistance 
 beyond the range of State Authority. The great work of the first 
 century of American independence was to be internal develop- 
 ment. This must be accomplished chiefly under the supervision 
 of State, and lesser, organizations and by the freest and fullest 
 exertion of the talents and energies of all the people. The citi- 
 zens combined in States, counties and towns in the full manage- 
 ment of local affairs while their representatives in Congress 
 watched over their interests and removed difficulties out of their 
 way in the larger field of the Union, of general business and 
 of the foreign world. 
 
 The United States has been the most marvelously, completely, 
 and rapidly successful of nations because it consisted of the best 
 and the most admirably organized elements, or local organiza- 
 tions, which the General Government did not antagonize, or 
 embarrass, but which it aided and harmonized. It, indeed, was 
 most fortunate in the boundless resources of its domain and in 
 the times in which its early history fell; but others, in all ages, 
 have been favored with immense resources and the kindly aid 
 of circumstances, none of which they knew how to improve, and 
 they have been like the brilliant meteor whose light dazzled for 
 a time only to give place to a deeper darkness; while the Anglo- 
 American Republic has been like t'he rising sun glowing with a 
 self-contained and steadily increasing light. 
 
 The wise provisions of the Constitution have been carried into 
 full effect, and the General Government has been the most use- 
 ful and beneficient of all strong governments that have ever 
 been known because the people, trained to self-government in 
 the State, the county, the town, the city ward and the school-dis- 
 trict, have watched over it and its officers with unsleeping vigi- 
 lance and corrected every serious evil in the bud. The towering 
 pillars of the Union rest on individual liberty, organized in the 
 firm foundation of Local Institutions. A general analysis of 
 Local Government will make this proposition clear. 
 
CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE STATES. 
 
 The Thirteen Original States, now a small fraction of the 
 broad Republic, adopted the Declaration of Independence, prose- 
 cuted the war that had led to it to a successful conclusion, and, 
 between 1787 and 1790, devised the System of Organic, or Consti- 
 tutional Law, under which the Union has become, in many 
 respects, the leading nation in the civilized world. There could 
 be no higher endorsement of the statesmanship, prudence, and 
 foresight of the citizens and legislators of that period than the 
 fact that the general conclusions they reached, and embodied in 
 Fundamental Law and Institutions, have remained substantially 
 unchanged and were never more valued than now. 
 
 These States had been organized as Colonies under Charters 
 of various kinds, some of them to commercial companies others 
 to individual proprietors. Few of these founders, in the first 
 instance, contemplated free representative institutions. The 
 failure of colonization as an immediately successful commercial 
 venture led the proprietors to yield to the urgency of the colo- 
 nists and their friends to allow them to manage their own local 
 government — in part at least. Such local institutions at once 
 took the freest and best form then known to Englishmen, or 
 labored toward it with such persistent resolution and clearness 
 of view, as to the end to be reached that proprietors and their 
 agents and the English Government were unable to make 
 effective opposition. 
 
 Yet opposition grew more determined and fertile in expedients 
 as time passed. The larger Colonies were forced to accept un- 
 welcome changes in the permissory Charters which served them 
 for Constitutions, and to submit to the short-sighted, selfish and 
 arrogant rule of royal Governors, over whose appointment they 
 had no control, and who regarded orders from the Board of Trade 
 in England as of much more consequence than than the wishes 
 
 (521) 
 
522 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 or welfare of the colonists they ruled. Indeed, they were some- 
 times selected with a special view to their supposed ability to 
 thwart those wishes. It was the history of the English people 
 in conflict with their kings repeated in a small but summary 
 way. 
 
 The struggle of the settlers for self-government grew more and 
 more pronounced and enlightened. It was a healthy stimulant 
 to the growth and free development of their institutions. It was 
 much in their favor that they knew what they wanted and that 
 the English authorities did not comprehend the situation of the 
 Colonies or their character, and blundered so badly in the at- 
 tempted enforcement of their policy of repression and absolute- 
 ness that success could not possibly have been looked for. Their 
 measures were so unwise as to defeat themselves. 
 
 The result was that, as the period of the Revolution ap-. 
 preached, the subordinate (or local) machinery of colonial 
 government was in good order and of a marked republican cast. 
 The representatives of the contemporary English aristocracy 
 were largely royal Governors and other officials of the Home 
 Government, or members of that class whose difficulties, often 
 arising from vice or folly, had led to a virtual exile to the 
 Colonies. Here their pride, offensive haughtiness and inability 
 to make themselves useful, led to a strong dislike to the class 
 which found expression afterward in the clauses of the Consti- 
 tution forbidding Congress or the States to issue patents of 
 nobility. Not that all of the class who came to America were of 
 this character. On the contrary, some of them were among the 
 most pure-minded and intelligent men of their generation. But 
 these were the smaller number, and they commonly sympathised 
 with the wishes and aims of the Colonists. 
 
 The general features of a Colonial Government were a Gover- 
 nor, a Council, and a Legislature. In Massachusetts and other 
 New England Colonies all these depended, in some form, on the 
 will of the people, that is, on church members or property hold- 
 ers, for their places for a considerable period — during about 
 thirty to fifty years from the first settlement. Afterward the 
 Governor and Council were appointed in England, and that 
 became the more general rule in all the Colonies after 1662. 
 The Legislative Assemblies were always elected, generally only 
 by persons of property, in all the Colonies. The Governor and 
 Council commonly shared in the legislative work as a Senate, or 
 
COLONIAL LOCAL GOVERNMENTS. 533 
 
 Upper House. In many cases, as New York and Virginia, the 
 laws passed required to be approved by the Home Government 
 before becoming valid; but the people learned how to thwart 
 and embarrass the Government so well that only the more 
 obnoxious enactments were repudiated by the Home Authorities. 
 
 The stand of the Legislatures and people in resistance was 
 generally made on the old English principle of taxation. As so 
 often in English history, they would refuse to vote the salaries of 
 the officials unless grievances were redressed, and Governors 
 and Home Authorities did not often venture to press them too 
 far, remembering, sooner or later, the determined temper of Anglo- 
 Saxons. But the history of colonial times is one of almost con- 
 tinuous contest on those and kindred points. 
 
 Thus when, on the breaking out of the War of Independence,^ 
 .the Colonies became wholly " free and independent States," with 
 full command of the ordering and character of all their institu- 
 tions, they had passed through a very thorough training in self- 
 government under difficulties. They had the substantial 
 nucleus of the best Anglo-Saxon principles and forms, shaped to 
 fairly suit differences between the Old World and the New — 
 between the crowded population, the inherited prejudices and 
 peculiarities of an old society and a narrow island, and the free 
 spaces and large opportunities for new enterprises and fresh 
 forms of growth of a vast virgin continent richer in varied 
 resources than all Europe together. In the midst of constant 
 calls for defense against the arrogant encroachments of royal 
 Governors, backed by the British Government, they had man- 
 aged to erect such a tolerable framework of free institutions that 
 they did not need to delay the war a moment to create State 
 Constitutions and Governments. They replaced the vanished 
 royal Governors and other officials by the ordinary machinery 
 of popular election or Legislative action, sent each a few dele- 
 gates to the Continental Congress, and plunged at once into war 
 with the nation that soon after vanquished Napoleon Bonaparte 
 with France, and at times half Europe besides, at his back. 
 
 After the decisive opening of the war they turned their atten- 
 tion in a leisurely way to the improvement of their State Gov- 
 ernments. One of them — South Carolina — made haste to begin 
 immediately after the outbreak in 1775, before the Declaration of 
 Independence; six — New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina — adopted written Con- 
 
524 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 stitutions in 1776; two — New York and Georgia — in 1777; Massa- 
 chus-etts in 1780; New Hampshire in 1784; Connecticut had no 
 Constitution but her colonial Charter until 1811, and Rhode 
 Island not until 1842. 
 
 These were modified from time to time, in various particulars, 
 but the essential features of those first adopted still remain. As 
 new States are admitted they form Constitutions which are laid 
 before Congress, that body being required by the Constitution 
 (as representing the United States) to make sure that they 
 "have a republican form of Government." All the States imi- 
 tated, perhaps, in the first case, the English Parliament by pro- 
 viding for the two Legislative Houses, the highest of which they 
 have uniformly agreed in naming the " Senate," and a large and 
 more popular one usually called the '* House of Representatives." 
 In a few cases the Governor, and, in earlier times, many other 
 Executive officers were appointed by joint action of the two 
 Houses of the Legislature. These are now always elected by 
 the voters at large. 
 
 These subordinate Executive officers always include a Secre- 
 tary of State, a Treasurer and an Attorney-General, and usually 
 a Lieutenant-Governor, who, as in the Congress of the United 
 States, is, by virtue of his office. President of the Senate, and an 
 Auditor. Various other executive Heads of Bureaus for some 
 branches of public business are provided for by the Constitutions 
 of different States. Many have a State Superintendent of Schools, 
 some have a Surveyor-General, or head of the office having 
 charge of the public lands of the State under some other name. 
 Tliese officers do not, usually, form a Cabinet or Council to as- 
 sist the Governor by their advice, as in the United States Gov- 
 ernment. It was common in the older States, and the custom 
 still remains in a few of them, for a Special Council, generally 
 appointed by the two houses of the Legislature, to serve as such 
 Cabinet. The custom was gradually discontinued in most of the 
 States. 
 
 The Governor is invested with the Executive Power, and, as 
 such, is required "to take care that the laws be observed." His 
 qualifications vary in the different States. In a few States he 
 must be a native-born citizen; but in most of them any citizen 
 who has resided a certain number of years in the State after be- 
 coming a citizen of the United States, and is not below a certain 
 age, is eligible. His term is generally from two to four years. 
 
THE OFFICERS OF STATE GOVERNMENTS. 525 
 
 He is voted for by all the citizens to whom the elective franchise 
 belongs, by determination of the State Constitution. His duties 
 are generally similar to those of the President under the Consti- 
 tution. He sends an official message to the Legislature at the 
 beginning of its regular sessions, reviewing the public affairs of 
 the State and making such recommendations for legislative ac- 
 tion as he deems best. Usually, but not in every case, his ap- 
 proval and signature are necessary to the validity of laws which 
 he may veto if he disapproves. Generally he has, with restric- 
 tions in some cases, as impeachment or treason, the power to 
 reprieve, pardon or commute the punishments awarded by the 
 Courts in criminal cases. A reprieve is the postponement of the 
 execution of a sentence; a commutation is a change from one 
 kind of punishment to another; and a pardon is a complete re- 
 lease from the penalty adjudged. In many of the States he has 
 the power of appointment to various offices, with the assent of 
 the Senate when it is in session, or alone if it be not in session. 
 As Executive he has general supervision of the State officers, 
 who report to him at least annually. He is usually Commander- 
 in-Chief of the Militia of the State, which he alone has the power 
 to call out to repress disorder or insurrection. 
 
 When a Lieutenant-Governor is provided for he stands in a 
 position similar to that of the Vice-President of the United 
 States, taking the Governor's place in his absence or death, and 
 being the presiding officer of the Senate. When no such officer 
 is elected the Senate appoints its own presiding officer who com- 
 monly replaces the Governor when that office becomes vacant; 
 but in some cases some other member of the State Government 
 is designated for that purpose. 
 
 The Secretary of State is much more definitely and exactly 
 what the title suggests than the Secretary of State of the United 
 States. He has charge of the records of the State, of its Great 
 Seal, which he affixes to official documents issued by the Gover- 
 nor; he receives, verifies, publishes and distributes the laws, 
 and he performs various other specific duties required by the 
 laws of the State. Frequently the Constitutions leave the 
 definition of his duty to the laws altogether. 
 
 The State Auditor, or Comptroller, attends to the property and 
 adjusts all the accounts of the State and its officers, but the 
 Treasurer receives, holds and pays out its moneys, according ta 
 the provisions of the laws. The Attorney-General has charge of 
 
526 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 all suits at law in which the State is concerned and is the legal 
 adviser of the Governor, of the other executive departments, 
 and sometimes of the Legislature. He supervises the State 
 Attorneys in the Counties, or Judicial Districts of the States. 
 Some of the States omit this officer and confer his general powers 
 on District Attorneys. The Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
 tion, when the Constitutions provide for such officer, is at the 
 head of the Common School System of the State, regulates it, 
 keeps it in good working order, and enforces the laws respecting 
 it. The Land Surveyor, or Commissioner, when there is such an 
 officer, which is usually the case in the newer States not fully 
 settled and where there still remain public lands for sale, keeps 
 an account of them, has charge of their sale and of the enforce- 
 ment of land laws. In many States it is an important office. 
 
 Some Constitutions provide for a State Engineer, or other 
 officer charged with the care of Public Works in the State. A 
 variety of other officers of scarcely less importance is provided 
 for by law. Sometimes a Geological Survey is to be made by a 
 State Geologist and his assistants; sometimes Railroad or other 
 Commissioners are appointed to promote various public interests 
 in the State. All these report to the Governor or the Legislature, 
 and some of them form really a part of the Executive Govern- 
 ment, the oversight of the execution of various laws being com- 
 mitted to them. 
 
 The Executive of a State takes no part in the foreign affairs 
 of the country, has no customs to collect, has nothing to do 
 with Patents, Pensions or with general Indian affairs. The 
 Post Offices in the State are not under its control, nor any gen- 
 eral interests of the country: but all things and interests that are 
 local to the State, and that have not been committed expressly, 
 or by plain implication, to Congress and the General Govern- 
 ment of the United States, are within the sphere of State legis- 
 lation and under the oversight of the State Executive. 
 
 State Legislatures are regulated and their powers deter- 
 mined by the Constitutions adopted by the citizens of the States. 
 The Lower House, or House of Representatives, has always 
 much the larger number of members. They are appointed by 
 Wards of Cities, Towns, Counties, or Districts, according to the 
 number of inhabitants. Sometimes the Constitutions determine 
 that the House of Representatives, or Lower House, shall con- 
 sist of a definite number of members and the whole State is 
 
STATE LEGISLATURES. 527 
 
 divided into Districts, in each of which one member, or occa- 
 sionally more than one, is selected; and sometimes it determines 
 that a definite number of people shall have one Representative. 
 These Districts are usually bounded by Ward, Township, or 
 County lines so as to include, as nearly as may be, the same 
 number of inhabitants in each. Representatives are required to 
 have been a certain number of years citizens of the State and 
 also to be citizens of the United States and to have reached a 
 certain age — seldom less than twenty-five years. They are 
 elected every year in some States, but in the most of them now 
 every two years, the sessions of the Legislatures in the larger 
 number of States being biennial, or held only once in two 
 years. 
 
 The Senators are sometimes only one third the number of Rep- 
 resentatives, seldom as many as one half. The States are 
 divided into Senatorial Districts from which one or more State 
 Senators are elected. Usually they must be thirty years of age, 
 citizens of the United States, resident a given number of years in 
 the State, and, like the Representatives, a given time in the 
 District. Usually, between the times of taking a Census of the 
 United States, a State Census is taken for the purpose of regu- 
 lating and equalizing the representation by a new apportionment, 
 or new districting of the State. 
 
 At some given time and place determined by the Constitution 
 or by law, generally soon after January First every second year, 
 the two Houses meet and proceed to organize in the same man- 
 ner as the two Houses of Congress. They are sworn to support 
 the Constitution of the United States and of their State by some 
 designated officer. They organize by electing their own officers 
 (excepting the President of the Senate when there is a Lieuten- 
 ant Governor), appoint standing committes, as in Congress, pro- 
 ceed to consider the condition of the State, and to revise old or 
 make new laws as they deem best. Some definite number is 
 declared by the Constitution a quorum to do business. This is 
 sometimes a simple majority, sometimes two thirds of the whole of 
 each House. Each is the judge of the election of its own members, 
 and forms its own rules of discipline and for the conduct of busi- 
 ness. These Rules seldom differ materially from those of Con- 
 gress, and the work of legislation is nearly the same in form and 
 style. The constitution of Congress was the model universally 
 followed by State Constitutions, and State Legislatures vary 
 
528 LOCAL GOVER^'ME^"T. 
 
 only in comparatively unimportant particulars in their manner 
 of doing business from that of Congress. 
 
 Bills are introduced, referred to Committees for study and 
 report, passed through three readings and voted on, sent to the 
 other house if passed, and then considered, amended and accep- 
 ted or rejected, as in Congress. When the two Houses have 
 agreed, passed the Bill, and it has been signed by the proper 
 officers, it goes to the Governor for approval. If he signs it, it 
 becomes a law; if he "returns it with his objections," or vetoes 
 it, it may be "passed over the veto" if a given majority favor it. 
 This is sometimes two-thirds of the members present, sometimes 
 two-thirds of all the members of each House. If so passed it 
 becomes a law without reference to the Governor. 
 
 State Judicial Systems. 
 
 The Judiciary of the States varies more from the model found 
 in the Constitution and laws of the United States than other 
 departments of State Governments. The Colonies had generally 
 modeled their courts on those of England, and, to a great extent, 
 preserved them long with little change. The new States fol- 
 lowed somewhat more nearly the model of United States Courts, 
 especially in the organization of the higher tribunals; but gen- 
 erally the inferior courts were organized by law as the Legisla- 
 tures deemed desirable. 
 
 Supreme and Circuit Courts, however, are almost universal. 
 Some States have, also. District Courts, and others, in place of 
 them, County Courts. In all there are Justices' Courts in each 
 township. Incorporated cities and towns have such special 
 Courts as have been judged desirable by the Legislatures incor- 
 porating them. 
 
 Usually the Supreme Courts have three or more Justices or 
 Judges of whom one in some States is called the Supreme Justice. 
 In most cases there are as many Circuits, Districts, or Sections 
 as there are Judges forming the Supreme Court, In each Cir- 
 cuit, District and County there is a resident Judge. Commonly 
 the Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal, but some 
 States have a special Court of Appeals as a last resort in cases 
 unsuitable for carrying into United States Courts. This highest 
 Court usually sits only at the Seat of State Government, has 
 
INFERIOR COURTS IN THE STATES. 529 
 
 original jurisdiction in the highest cases and appellate jurisdic- 
 tion in all other cases of a certain measure of importance. 
 
 In each County, or, in some cases, in two or more counties 
 united in a District for the ordinary administration of common 
 law, a State Attorney is appointed, or elected — election being 
 now the more general rule — to act as public prosecutor or as 
 counsel for the State when it is in the position of defendant. 
 His position and duties very fairly correspond with those of the 
 District Attorney in the United States Judicial System. In all 
 criminal prosecutions the accused is considered as under trial 
 for an injury to the State — some violation of its laws having 
 been alleged against him. The inferior officers of the courts are 
 usually such as have been elected by the citizens of the Coun- 
 ties, at least for the Courts of Common Pleas, in which common 
 law is administered. For the higher courts these officials are 
 variously appointed by joint action of the two Houses of the 
 Legislature, by the Governor and Senate, by the Judges of the 
 respective courts, or election by the people. The principle of 
 election by the voters of all officers instead of appointment has 
 been constantly extending in the States, especially during the 
 last fifty years, though it does not yet universally prevail. 
 
 The Justices of the Peace, universally provided for b}' all State 
 Constitutions or State Laws, are usually elected in each toAvn- 
 ship by the people. They hold the smaller class of Courts. In in- 
 corporated villages, towns, or cities they are usually called 
 Police Magistrates, or Justices. There are various other special 
 courts in most of the States for particular classes of cases. Some- 
 times these are constituted independently of the regular courts; 
 having judges and other officers not connected with those courts, 
 but more often, perhaps, the Judgesandofficersof regular courts 
 are employed for these special purposes in special sessions, in 
 which case they administer the laws in question in a way more 
 or less differing from that pursued in ordinary courts. 
 
 There are Courts of Chancery, or Equity, for the trial of cases 
 where legal forms in use in Courts of LaAv interfere with the 
 exact administration of justice; Courts of Probate for the prov- 
 ing of wills and the settlement of the estates of deceased persons, 
 and, in some of the States, Courts of Impeachment Various 
 other tribunals for special purposes, or varying forms and divis- 
 ons of those above mentioned, are provided by the Constitu- 
 tions or laws of different States. 
 34 
 
CHAPTER IL 
 
 STATE SOVEREIGNTY. 
 
 The original Thirteen States, when they ceased to be Colonies 
 of Great Britain and subjects of its Crown and Parliament, 
 became absolute masters of their Governments. They had no 
 superior. Even under the authority they delegated to the Con- 
 tinental Congress through the Articled of Confederation, they 
 reserved the real superiority, the decisive control, to themselves. 
 That Congress might constitutionally enact laws, make war, 
 conclude peace, and issue orders; but these acts had only such 
 force as the States voluntarily granted by positive action of 
 their own to correspond. Congress had no resources for enforc- 
 ing its mandates but such as the S:ates saw fit to supply, and it 
 had no authority to coerce a State to obedience to it. This left 
 the real sovereignty, even in general matters, in the States. 
 The Central Government was helpless, in itself, while the 
 States themselves possessed all the essential attributes of 
 supreme power. They could veto, or nullify by inaction, the 
 Federal Authority while all the resources of their people could 
 be drawn upon to sustain their own Governments and make 
 them strong. 
 
 This was a very feeble Union and produced most unsatisfac- 
 tory results. It was a name covering a very small degree of 
 reality. The theory of the Articles of Confederation was that 
 the State Governments were the sources of power. The Consti- 
 tutional Convention of 1787 adopted a different theory, or 
 assumption, and proceeded to construct a System of Government 
 that materially altered the position and powers of the States. It 
 assumed, what could not well be controverted, that behind the 
 States were the People to whom it attributed the only supreme 
 authority. "We the People of the United States, in order to 
 form a wore perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
 tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the gen- 
 
THE EXTENT OF THE CENTRAL SOVEREIGNTY. 531 
 
 eral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and 
 our posterity, do Ordain and Establish this Constitution for 
 the United States of America." 
 
 If this was adopted by the citizens of the States it would imply 
 the unity of the whole people and their authority to do whatso- 
 ever they would. The States themselves were not brought in 
 question at all in this fundamental act. It was adopted as a 
 national, not federal, act, and the basis of a National Union was 
 laid. The Constitution and the acts of the Government it 
 established were made supreme in authority — the "Law of the 
 Land." State action not in conformity with it must necessarily 
 be nullified. As the superior, the United States was to " guaran- 
 tee to each State a republican form of government." Its Courts 
 could revise such acts of State Legislatures and such decisions 
 of State Courts as were not in harmony with the Constitution 
 and constitutional laws of the United States. 
 
 Yet, this sovereignty of the Central Authority was not un- 
 limited. It was a grant contained in certain specifications. 
 The powers not granted, and those not necessarily implied as 
 required to execute express grants, were "reserved respectively 
 to the States or to the people;" which must mean that such 
 powers as had not been so conferred on the Government of the 
 United States were not within the range of its sovereignty. 
 They belonged, absolutely, to other parties whose attributes 
 they were. 
 
 The powers expressly granted to the different Branches of the 
 Government of the United States were such as had before been 
 generally exercised by each of the State Governments; but it was 
 only a part of them, such as could be best exercised for the gen- 
 eral good of all the States and the whole people by a General 
 Government. These, when vested in the Government of the 
 United Stated subtracted so much from the sovereignty of the 
 States. Yet only a part of some of their original powers was 
 taken from the States. 
 
 First of all, this grant took from the States the power "To lay 
 and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
 and provide for common defense and general welfare of the 
 United States" and "to borrow money on the credit of the United 
 States." The money Congress found necessary to support a fru- 
 gal Government, to preserve the public credit, and to carry its 
 decisions into effect, it was invested with sovereign power to 
 
532 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 provide. The United States no longer depended on the States, 
 and the States were no longer at liberty to impose duties on im- 
 ports or exports to raise their State revenue. Yet they were not 
 deprived of the means of sustaining themselves, and might raise 
 as large a revenue, borrow as much money on the credit of the 
 State, and take such measures to maintain its credit as its people 
 chose to authorize. Outside of United States Finance the States 
 were sovereigns in the settlement of financial questions. The 
 United States might not interfere with them in any local matters 
 not comprehended in its grant of constitutional authority. 
 
 The regulation of commerce, of relations with foreign nations 
 and the Indian tribes, and of intercourse between the States, is 
 a sovereign attribute of the United States. The States have no 
 power to send embassies, make treaties, declare war or make 
 peace, as separate bodies. In those respects they have no 
 sovereignty; they are represented and acted for by the General 
 Government. But they have full control over questions of com- 
 merce, trade and property that belong exclusively to the State. 
 They enact such laws regarding roads, railways, canals, manu- 
 factures, corporations for doing various kinds of business, as 
 seems fitting to them and fall within the powers granted by their 
 own Constitutions. Banking Laws and regulations of local 
 finance are within their prerogative; but they may not coin 
 money, that power being vested exclusively in Congress. The 
 Postal System is exclusively under the control of Congress; tLey 
 can pass no law granting titles of nobility or impairing the obli- 
 gation of contracts. 
 
 If their sovereignty is limited, however, it is only in respect to 
 matters in which all are interested and in which the law of self- 
 interest would not easily permit one party to do justice to all 
 concerned. ISTor is the higher authority of the United States 
 propf^rly a real deprivation of sovereignty; for they possess their 
 equal share in the conduct of the General Government, and in 
 holding and using the supreme powers of general control con- 
 ferred on that Government. They send their own citizens, by 
 their own free choice, to represent and act for them in Congress; 
 they, together, select the Chief Executive, and the Judges of 
 the Circuit and District Courts must reside among them, that is, 
 be of their own citizens. They are deprived of nothing pronerly 
 theirs by any laws of natural justice; they are only merged in a 
 great whole, form constituent parts of one Nation, with a cen- 
 
CONTROL OP HOME QUESTIONS THE MOST IMPORTANT. 633 
 
 tral Organ through which the welfare of the whole is secured. 
 In the control of this they exert an equal influence with all the 
 other States by the Senate and proportionate power in the House 
 of Representatives. If, in some things, the State Sovereignty 
 seems limited, it is only that it may share Supreme Power with 
 all its fellows. 
 
 But the affairs which no State, as such, can control or which it 
 can control only indirectly and partially through its Senators 
 and Representatives, form but a small part of the business of 
 government. It is only the overflow of its interests, its distant 
 and occasional relations, that fall outside the competence of its 
 own direct authority. The regulation of business, of interests 
 that lie within the State itself, are a thousand times more imme- 
 diately important to the citizens of the State at large, to the 
 mass of common men, than the questions that are acted upon by 
 Congress, the President, and the Supreme Court. It is, first of 
 all, important that local order be preserved, that the laws which 
 affect every day and hour of the citizen's life and all the most 
 pressing private interests should be suitable to the circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Over these the State is supreme — its sovereignty absolutely 
 the will of its citizens. They determine what particular repub- 
 lican form their institutions shall take, what powers of regula- 
 tion by law the Legislature shall receive and what shall be 
 withheld, when changes shall be made, how obstructions and 
 "grievances" shall be removed, and when and what new ex- 
 periments shall be tried. Relations to the world outside their 
 boundaries may be determined, or influenced, by the Represent- 
 atives and Senators they send to Congress to aid in conducting 
 the General Government; but their interest in those affairs is, 
 in most things, as dim, distant, and general as their share in 
 managing them. Home affairs fill all the foreground of their 
 thoughts and strivings, and over these they have a satisfying 
 sense of control, of sovereignty. 
 
 With somewhat rare exceptions the National Government, 
 where it most sensibly touches them, is a valuable and powerful 
 friend; keeps within a pre-arranged narrow sphere of action and 
 usefulness and suggests to the consciousness the completeness 
 of their control over their most of their affairs, even when they 
 find its authority an interference, or believe some of its opera- 
 tions among them harmful. Their neighborhood, town, city, 
 
634 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 county and general State affairs are their own. No people ever 
 had a more complete local sovereignty than Americans. It is 
 not surprising that pride in, and loyalty to, their particular State 
 where are their homes, friends and business should often be very 
 deep and strong; that they should sometimes, and in some 
 questions, overlook the Nation in favor of the State. 
 
 When the Constitution of the United States was once accepted 
 and the Government under it put in operation, the interpretation 
 of its provisions and application of its powers in unforeseen 
 emergencies, and to forms of growth and action which could not 
 have been anticipated, came in question. Parties were formed 
 and eminent Statesmen took opposite views of this interpreta- 
 tion and application to special cases. Some construed it in favor 
 of the most vigorous and extensive control of the General Gov- 
 ernment and others as a merely federal bond between the States. 
 They would have State Sovereignty as nearly like that under 
 the Articles of Confederation as possible. This meant that the 
 several States should be the judges of the action of the United 
 States and at liberty to decline to comply with it if they disap- 
 proved. 
 
 Had this doctrine been admitted, and consistently carried out 
 in all things, the Constitution would have been quite useless and 
 the central Government powerless to accomplish its great mission; 
 but the American people valued it too highly to permit any real 
 danger of such a result. Yet the doctrine was invoked by dif- 
 ferent sections, including several States at different times, and 
 sometimes threatened, or seemed to threaten, to disrupt the 
 Union. 
 
 Whenever the two questions reached the final decision, how- 
 ever, the majority of the people decided precisely as they had 
 done when the Constitutional Convention of 1787 presented them 
 with the instrument creating a decisive National Sovereignty on 
 really national questions. They saw the inconvenience, the in- 
 justice, and the paralyzing force of a principle that permitted a 
 piinority to suspend the action and defeat the wishes of a ma- 
 jority. They were never willing to admit that minorities had 
 'no rights, and a strong opposition has always existed which 
 charged itself with the defense of those rights. The various 
 compromises of American politics have been efforts, more or 
 less successful, to " redress grievances " by securing those rights, 
 as far as possible; but a rejection of these terms and the de- 
 
 a 
 
THE STATE AND THE NATION DO NOT CONFLICT. 535 
 
 termination to overrule the majority has been sternly re- 
 buked. 
 
 State Sovereignty, therefore, must always mean sovereignty 
 over local questions alone — a subordinate sovereignty, very 
 complete, positive and real, but giving full play to a higher Na- 
 tional Sovereignty. On the other hand, the people never so far 
 lost their sense of justice and wisdom as to deliberately allow 
 the higher or general sovereignty to extinguish the lower, or 
 local, sovereignty. State control of all State questions is essen- 
 tial to liberty and the best progress. It is the best possible secu- 
 rity against the "encroachments of power;" and in the exercise 
 of local sovereignty over local affairs, alone, can the people really 
 and fully rule themselves. The two sovereignties, therefore, ex- 
 ist without necessary interference. 
 
 To assume that there can be but one real sovereign, and that 
 that is the General Government, is a doctrine as dangerous, un- 
 republican, and as contrary to the fundamental principles of 
 English and Anglo-American history as the most extreme doc- 
 trines regarding State Sovereignty. The States are bound to sub- 
 mit to United States authority in given cases only. In all others 
 the right of supremacy is "reserved" to them and their people to 
 do what is proper in their own eyes. Transgression of the de- 
 fined boundaries, literal or in spirit, of the Federal and National 
 Compact, both expressed and implied in the Constitution, is as 
 criminal on the part of the United States as on the side of the 
 States. 
 
 State organizations and sovereign control over local questions 
 form the great barrier against usurpation of power. Here the 
 people rule directly, decide what is best for themselves, and are 
 trained in American principles of statesmanship. In this is the 
 real superiority of American institutions to those of the British 
 Empire and other formal or virtual republics. It is especially 
 insisted on by the first twelve amendments to the Constitution, 
 has always been insisted on, with great emphasis, by the Amer- 
 ican people; and that insistance has, apparently, brought the 
 proper habits and traditions of Local and General Governments 
 to a firm and stable equilibrium. Local sovereignty in local affairs 
 is the highest Constitutional Law of the Republic. 
 
CHAPTEE III. 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN THE STATES, COUNTIES AND TOWNSHIPS. 
 
 The Government of the United States is both National and 
 Federal, At a given time — now designated by an enactment of 
 the General Government — all the citizens in all the States meet 
 to vote for Representatives to Congress and, at longer intervals, to 
 elect a President and Vice-President. These are national acts. 
 They determine the policy of the laws and Government until 
 the next election. The majority rules — with a slight modifica- 
 tion, sometimes, caused by the interposition of Presidential 
 Electors, those from each State seldom failing to vote as a single 
 body and causing the Electoral vote occasionally to vary from 
 the decision of the Popular vote. This is a remnant preserved 
 in the Constitution of the practice, under the Articles of Con- 
 federation, of voting by States. It is objectionable, and will 
 presently be modified. 
 
 The Federal feature of the Government is the election of 
 Senators by the State Legislatures; so that one part of Congress 
 represents nationality and the other the separate and independ- 
 ent parts of which the Nation is composed. The substitution of 
 a Federal Union, in part, for a complete Legislative Union, such 
 as England, Wales, and Scotland have become, decentralized 
 government by maintaining the utmost degree of power and 
 political action in local divisions of the country. The Anglo- 
 American Nation owes much of its free, progressive develop- 
 ment to this absolute separation of the general and the local. 
 Where there is a Legislative Union the Legislative Body must 
 make all the laws and supervise everything. This has many 
 undesirable effects, the chief among them being that two classes 
 of interests crowd and jostle each other, to the detriment of 
 both; that too much power to do harm by neglect or ignorant 
 action is given to one body of men; and that the people losing 
 control of local affairs, leave everything to central authorities 
 
 (536) 
 
THE MINOR DIVISIONS OF STATES. 537 
 
 and confer on them the unchecked exercise of power. The people 
 lose much useful training and the rulers lose the sense of being 
 public servants. The Constitution of the United States commits 
 to the General Government only general interests and to Con- 
 gress the power to legislate only in reference to them. The 
 people in the States are responsible for everything else. 
 
 The States are differently constructed, the State Legislatures 
 enacting all the laws, on all subjects and interests not National, 
 that concern the people of the State. They regulate everything. 
 They are, however, the immediate representatives of the people, 
 the terms of the members of the more numerous House, and 
 often of the Senate, being seldom for more than one regular 
 session. Besides, the State Constitutions strictly define and 
 limit their powers, and the Constitutions themselves always 
 contain a provision for amendment or for the calling of a new 
 Constitutional Convention when the majority of the people may 
 desire it. 
 
 States, however, are divided into smaller areas, called Coun- 
 ties, and these again into still smaller, called Towns, or Town- 
 ships. The most important acts of the people are those 
 performed in the assemblies Avhere tliej'' can discuss and deter- 
 mine, collectively, the political affairs involving their welfare. 
 It is in the lowest of these divisions, in the Town or Ward 
 Meeting and at the Ballot Box where their final decisions are 
 recorded, that the people repeat the customs of the early Anglo- 
 Saxon Wittenagemot, exercise ultimate sovereignty by choosing 
 National and State officials, decide the policy of the country or 
 State, and manage their local interests. Congress and the 
 State Convention or Legislature are of great importance in the 
 American scheme of government, but it is here that they 
 originate and from here that the spirit that permeates them 
 proceeds. 
 
 The name County came into the English language from the 
 Latin through the French. The Roman " Comitatus" was the 
 companion of the chief, or ruler, and the title of Count was 
 given by the early French in the days of the Empire that sprang 
 from the conquests and organization of Charlemagne to a 
 representative, or one of the trusted companions, of the Emperor 
 in a certain district. The English term "Shire" was derived 
 from the Saxon and meant, originally, the territory of a sepa- 
 rate German tribe. The boundaries of these tribal possessions, 
 
538 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 or small Eangdoms, were maintained through all subsequent 
 English history. The Normans made Counts the royal repre- 
 sentatives in the Shires, so that they became to be called 
 " Counties" also. Both terms remain in England, while only 
 the latter was imported into America, to designate the chief 
 territorial divisions of the State. 
 
 The English County remained, in this New England System, 
 composed of a group of Towns; but maintained rather as a 
 Judicial District than a political division. The towns elect, each, 
 at least one representative to the Legislature. The Counties were 
 commonly Senatorial Districts, and a County Court being pro- 
 vided, a Sheriff was appointed to serve legal processes, a County 
 Clerk to serve in the same Courts, and officers to record deeds 
 and do other legal business in relation to the estates of deceased 
 persons. The proper political acts of self-government are nearly 
 all performed by citizens within the Town organization. 
 
 The Town Meeting is a local Saxon Wittenagemot, a Parlia- 
 ment, or Legislature, in miniature, so far as local questions and 
 decisions are concerned. It is the ultimate authority in the 
 State, voting for, influencing, or instructing the Members of Con- 
 gress, the Governor, the State Senators and Representatives, 
 and State or county officers. These duties it performs in con- 
 junction with other Towns; but the functionaries who imme- 
 diately execute a large part of the State laws enacted in con- 
 formity with the Constitution receive office by the election of 
 the Town Meeting, and its fiats, in local matters merely, are 
 also executed by them or by others expressly appointed by it for 
 the purpose. Roads and Bridges, Poor laws. Education, Police, 
 matters of property public and private, Taxation for Town, 
 County, and State purposes — all are provided for by the action 
 of this body. Their own Assessors and Collectors attend to 
 gathering the revenue for the Town expenditure, and its pro- 
 portion for County and State necessities; the Justices of the 
 Peace and Constables administer both civil and criminal law in 
 the small and common cases, and preliminarily in many others; 
 Roadmasters keep the Town highways in order; the Overseer of 
 the Poor and School Trustees, or Committee, care for the in- 
 digent and for education; and the Selectmen represent the Town 
 and see that the laws are properly executed. Thus the Town is 
 a little republic in itself. 
 
 It was the officers of the Shire who controlled all the powers 
 
THE TOWN, THE COUNTY AND THE MIXED SYSTEMS. 539 
 
 of local self-government preserved during the troubled times of 
 the Saxon Kings down to the Conquest by the Normans. The 
 Feudal-Norman nobility absorbed most of these powers and, as 
 it was the policy of the Norman-English Kings to reduce the 
 power of the nobles, they encouraged the concentration of 
 popular self-government in the Township and Boroughs — smaller 
 divisions of the County. The County, with its general officers 
 and Courts, remained, but the more significant and really im- 
 portant action of the common citizens, was performed in the 
 gatherings, and by the magistrates of the Towns, or the corporate 
 bodies of the chartered Burgh, or city. The best organization 
 of these was reached in the Sixteenth century, before the 
 dethronement of Charles I., and the establishment of the Com- 
 monwealth. The English Puritans who settled New England 
 took the clearest and best defined idea that the Englishman 
 could well have conceived of local institutions to their wilder- 
 ness, and gave their communities the name and the general 
 powers of the English ideal Town or Township. 
 
 In England the organization gradually changed, not for the 
 better — the ofiicers came to be appointed by authority of the 
 Crown, now that it was subject to the control of Parliament and 
 no longer feared. In the vigorous free air of New England the 
 representative English Town fiourished, underwent no radical 
 changes and remains to this day the political unit of the State 
 Governments. 
 
 In some fourteen or fifteen of the other more Northern States 
 a part of these duties are removed from the Town to the County 
 officers; and in seventeen or eighteen of the rest political power 
 is chiefly exerted by the County organization and officers, leav- 
 ing the town a skeleton and mere voting, taxation, and magis- 
 terial District. Thus in the Local Government of States there 
 are three systems which have been called the '"Town," the 
 "County" and the '' Compromise," or "mixed" systems. Of 
 course the voters exercise the fundamental power of choice and 
 election in them all, but the difference in result is considerable. 
 When the County is the political unit, the corporation to sue and 
 be sued, whose officers perform all but the most simple executive 
 acts, somewhat too large legislative unity is produced. 
 
 The local executives are then beyond the immediate criticism 
 and intimate personal acquaintance of the larger part of the 
 citizens; the interests are too large to be familiar on all their 
 
540 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 sides, to more than a few, at best; the citizens lose a portion of 
 their mental grasp of public interests and cease to follow them 
 with the same close observation and complete comprehension. 
 The office-holder and the more intelligent citizens become the 
 real forces in local decisions. They plan and submit to the 
 voters such schemes of the local policy as they deem best, and 
 the citizens, not being always fully able to judge, are usually 
 ready to follow some other judgment than their own. It pro- 
 motes political leadership, a species of personal government by 
 influence, which has less place in the Town System, where in the 
 Town meeting, all the candidates are well known to all the 
 voters and their administration is passed under the eye of all the 
 electors. Here the power to grasp the whole subject — the knowl- 
 edge essential to a clear judgment of the all the details — is with- 
 in the reach of every man required to aid in the decision. A 
 more critical spirit naturally prevails; men tend to act from 
 knowledge and their own decisions more than from influence. 
 This is pure Democracy; the other tends more or less to build 
 up the habits prevailing under an aristocracy of birth, wealth, 
 intelligence, or office. 
 
 There are not wanting arguments for the other side ; as that a 
 field of observation too circumscribed tends to beget narrowness 
 of view, and that want of breadth combined with familiar 
 knowledge of, and strong interest in, public affairs, as chiefiy 
 observed in the town, produce obstinacy and stubbornness of 
 political character. Perhaps the mixed or "Compromise" Sys- 
 tem may be considered to work somewhat better. The Town 
 System has never been carried out in its purity, except in the 
 New England States. All the Central States as far East as New 
 York, Pennsylvania and Virginia, and all the Western and 
 Northwestern States, from Ohio to Kansas and North of that line 
 are included in the " Mixed " System. The County System in- 
 cludes Delaware and Maryland, and all the States on the At- 
 lantic South of them, the Gulf States to Texas, those of the 
 interior South of the Ohio River and the States on and near the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 As all the people become more intelligent and more familiar with 
 American history and the principles of its Government, these 
 inferior points lose much of their consequence, but in the past 
 they h'ave exerted considerable infiuence — the Town System dis- 
 playing great usefulness. Below the town is the School District, 
 
THE OFFICERS OF THE ENGLISH COUNTY. 541 
 
 which, in the wide spaces and scattered population of many- 
 States, has served an important purpose where the Township 
 parted with some of its powers to the County. Here the people 
 who had no Town Meeting in which to assemble for discussion 
 and decision gather to discharge many of the same duties 
 
 Where the County or the Mixed System prevail, there are 
 usually delegates from each town under various names, as Com- 
 missioners, Supervisors, etc., who legislate in various matters 
 and supervise the Executive officers of the Counties and Town- 
 ships. These higher officers form a kind of representative cor- 
 poration. They act for the County as defendants or prosecutors 
 in any suits at law in which it may be involved. They have 
 charge of its credit, pay its debts, borrow money, and levy taxes 
 according to law or the vote of the citizens. 
 
 The English County, in Saxon times, was governed by the rep- 
 resentative of the King, the Ealdorman, or Earl, the Bishop 
 with the Sheriff acting as subordinate executives. The County 
 had its small local representative Wittenagemot, Shir-moot or 
 Parliament, out of which ultimately grew the Courts and Grand 
 and Petit Juries; but the County declined in political power un- 
 der the Norman Kings. Its highest officer continued to be the 
 military representative of the Crown and is still styled the "Lord 
 Lieutenant." The Keeper of the Rolls, or County Recorder, the 
 High Sheriff, who was always, as lie still remains, the civil rep- 
 resentative of the Crown, are appointed by the central author- 
 ity. The Justices of the Peace who hold the Courts of Quarter 
 Sessions, or County Court, and also of Petty Sessions for smaller 
 divisions of the County, are appointed by the Chief Executive of 
 the Kingdom. There are other Courts held for Counties but they 
 are not restricted to County boundaries and belong to the general 
 Judicial System of the Kingdom. 
 
 The magistrates in English Quarter Sessions possess certain 
 legislative as well as executive and judicial powers and control 
 the more general public affairs of Counties and Towns. Yet 
 they are appointed and may be removed by the Crown Adminis- 
 tration, or Ministry. In some matters they are associated with 
 an el(;ctive body in a Local Government Board. Local affairs 
 are controlled in various ways by the will of the people, but the 
 old jealousy of royal interference, which for so many centuries 
 was the principal progressive force of the English Constitution 
 and the principal agent in the preservation of old Anglo-Saxon 
 
543 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 liberties, declined when the House of Commons obtained thtj 
 ascendency in the Executive Administration. The control of 
 almost all local interests was gradually centered in individual 
 officers of that Administration or " Boards " and " Commissions " 
 appointed by Parliament. Indeed, so great has been the indif- 
 ference of the citizens as to local ifianagement that the public 
 welfare and the interests of progress required this to be done, 
 and it has become a standing objection to American Local Gov- 
 ernment by English observers that officers, civil and judicial, 
 should almost universally be elected rather than appointed. 
 They cannot comprehend how the people should discern better 
 what is for their welfare and who is most suitable to hold office 
 than the authorities of the Central Government. 
 
 In Modern England the public welfare is promoted by cen- 
 tralizing government control — taking it out of ignorant, preju- 
 diced, narrow-minded citizens' hands and giving it to intelligent, 
 distant, and disinterested parties; while, in the United States, 
 the greatest jealousy of such an accumulation of power in the 
 hands of distant officials is felt. The constant improvement of 
 American institutions, and the growing intelligence of all the 
 citizens, seem to show that the Elective Principle is the best and 
 that when the citizens acquire the habit of managing all their 
 local interests many important ends are gained that are lost by 
 the Appointive Principle. Local Sovereignty alone has the 
 decentralizing tendency necessary to make a strong General 
 Sovereignty in national affairs safe. The small area and 
 crowded population of Great Britain combine with inherited 
 social and political habits and character to render centralization 
 less harmful and more beneficial than in America, or in any ex- 
 tensive country, especially while the population is scattered. 
 But it is probable that the necessity of violent paroxysms of re- 
 form, at intervals, that have marked English history during the 
 nineteenth century would have been avoided if Local Govern- 
 ment had retained its sovereign control of local affairs there as 
 fully as in the United States. Then, changes in legal provision 
 would have been more flexible and have grown evenly and im- 
 perceptibly as other things grew, as population, industries and 
 wealth. 
 
 In the United States, if the people of any Town, County, or 
 State feel the imperative need of a re-arrangement of laws or 
 institutions they take care either to do it themselves or to pro- 
 
THE HABIT OF ACTIVITY IN AMERICAN CITIZENS. 543 
 
 cure it done through some one or more of their elected officers. 
 They have fairly adequate means of enforcing their wishes and 
 the habit of using pressure until it is done. In this habit there 
 resides a more important power of producing improvements to 
 their advantage, in the long run, than even in their formal legal 
 prerogatives as the Sovereign People. This habit in Older En- 
 gland, in spite of undefined and disputed popular rights, made 
 Modern England the freest of monarchies. A series of slow and 
 painfully wrought out reforms will probably, in time, restore 
 Local Government in England to more than its ancient vigor. 
 
CHAPTER IT. 
 
 MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 In very early periods of English history, Cities, large Villages 
 and Towns began to acquire special privileges. They, at first, 
 purchased them in various ways from local Lords or from the 
 Sovereign, and these privileges soon came to be defined and 
 assured by Charters. The term Charter is derived from a Latin 
 word meaning a paper or document. It has come to be applied 
 to written official instruments conferring defined privileges or 
 powers on corporations of various kinds. Where many people 
 are crowded together in a small space in a town or city, they 
 need more extended powers for the control of their various 
 interests and for the protection of person and property than 
 where they live in scattered habitations and engaged in the occu- 
 pations of country life. 
 
 The floating wealth and the manufacture and trade of a 
 country gather in these centres of population, and they have 
 usually been, from the special privileges granted them, a more 
 or less vigorous barrier against an unhealthy centralization of 
 government. English and American liberties, however, have 
 owed their development and much of their vigor to territorial 
 rather than to city organization. Yet, even among them, 
 Municipal Institutions have formed an important field for train- 
 ing the people to self-government and strongholds against the 
 aggressions of the central authority. 
 
 "Municipal" is derived from the name of an Italian city^Mu- 
 nicipium — whose people had obtained all the rights and privi- 
 leges of the citizens of Rome itself. This, during the growth of 
 Roman power, distinguished that city from all other Italian 
 towns as eminently privileged, and came to be applied to towns 
 and cities incorporated by charters with special powers of self- 
 control. These privileges in the Communes of France, the Free 
 Cities of Germany, and the City Republics of Italy, in the be- 
 
 (544) 
 
THE GOVERNMENTS OF CITIES. 545 
 
 ginning of modern times, helped to develop the people, as distin- 
 guished from the feudal nobility, to break down the Feudal 
 System, and to consolidate nations on the basis of their common 
 interest in the prosperity of industries and trade. The English 
 Kings encouraged them as a source of strength when combat- 
 ting the power of their Barons, and, whenever they were pressed 
 for funds, gave them Charters in return for money supplies. 
 
 These City Governments usually fell into the hands of a few 
 individuals distinguished for wealth and other advantages, and, 
 in England, did not help free political development so much as 
 County and Township Systems; but they are now, after many 
 reforms, more important factors in English local self-govern- 
 ment. In the United States, where local self-control is so strong 
 and well-defined, municipal liberties are not essentially more 
 significant than those possessed by any other body of citizens. 
 
 The State Governments incorporate cities, usually according 
 to the provisions of a general law enacted for the purpose, but 
 sometimes by laws having special reference to a particular State 
 metropolis or large town. Under general provisions, the citizens 
 themselves form their organization and, if changes are thought 
 desirable, suggest and secure them from the law-making power. 
 Municipal Government in America commonly renders the city 
 or incorporated town like a small State with a subordinate, but 
 definite and inviolable, sovereignty of its own. Its Constitution, 
 or Organic Law, is composed of the enactments of the State 
 Legislature applicable to it. This defines the different depart- 
 ments of the City Government which, like the State and Na- 
 tional Governments, are always divided into Executive, Legis- 
 lative, and Judicial. 
 
 The Executive is called the Mayor. The term is derived from 
 the Latin, its original signification being greater or superior. 
 He is so called as being the chief officer in the City Govern- 
 ment. A city is divided into Wards, each of which is an elec- 
 tion, taxation, and police district, and contributes, by the election 
 of the citizens or voters in it, one or more delegates to the Com- 
 mon Council, the Legislative Body of the City. The Common 
 Council passes laws, or Ordinances, which usually require the 
 approval of the Mayor to become binding. He may usually veto 
 if he disapprove them, but they may be passed, by a defined 
 majority, over his veto nevertheless, in most cases, as in State 
 
 Legislatures and in Congress. When a city is large it often con- 
 35 
 
546 LOCAL GOYERXMEXT. 
 
 tains more people than some States and requires many general 
 officers, Heads of Departments, or Boards of Commissioners, 
 •with various names, and such subordinates, or clerks, as may 
 be needful. 
 
 These officers usually include a Law Adviser, or City Solicitor, 
 a Chief of Police, of the Fire Department, of Water Supply, a 
 Treasurer, Assessors. Collectors, Constables, Coroners, and many 
 others with various duties and titles. The Common Council and 
 Mayor represent the City, impose taxes, contract and pay debts 
 in its name, and arrange for its welfare, generally, under the law 
 of incorporation or by the vote of the citizens, A wide range of 
 important cares and duties is assigned to them. The laying out, 
 paving, lighting and maintenance of the streets in order; the 
 regulations for the comfort and security of the citizens; for the 
 encouragement of trade and for the general prosperity: the pro- 
 vision for necessary schools, public buildings, sidewalks, 
 wharves, or business connections with the outside world ;-the care 
 for the poor, for the vicious and for the public health and 
 m.orality, and many other things, give them occasion for unceas- 
 ing action and require hundreds, sometimes thousands of officers 
 and employees. 
 
 The Judicial System of Cities varies as do those of the States, 
 but there are always, in large cities, two or more tribunals — the 
 police and some higher courts — aside from the general tribunals 
 of the State in which they are included. The Mayor has often 
 judicial duties of some sort; there are police Magistrates in the 
 Wards to try smaller offenses; and one or more judges for more 
 serious trials and for civil causes; although these last are often 
 consolidated with County and State Courts. 
 
 The Finances of Cities are matters of much moment. On their 
 proper administration depend, in a large degree, the health, 
 comfort and prosperity of the inhabitants. Large revenues are 
 required for improvements of various kinds, for the support of 
 the city government, of its schools, and various charities. 
 Sometimes the laws of States forbid taxation or debt beyond a 
 certain amount; sometimes it is left to the choice and discretion 
 of the inhabitants themselves. I'ew cities escape high rates of 
 taxation or burdensome debts, and city finance often falls into 
 bad or incompetent hands which is followed by disastrous re 
 suits. Excessive parsimony is an extremely unusual fault, but 
 excessive accumulations of debt are verv common. 
 
 2 
 
THE FINANCES OF AMERICAN CITIES. 647 
 
 American Cities, generally, have grown with very great 
 rapidity, and vast outlays have been required to be made within 
 short periods to supply conveniences that in countries of slower 
 growth and greater age have been accumulating for centuries. 
 After the Civil War, when money was abundant, hope and en- 
 terprise high, and nothing seemed impossible with such a fear- 
 ful rock of danger safely escaped and a new unity promised for 
 the development of vast resources, Cities excelled one another 
 with seemingly reckless emulation in improving their sites, 
 streets and public buildings and giving corporate aid to the 
 various — but especially railway — enterprises that were expected 
 to stimulate their prosperity and growth. In ten years their 
 debts increased two hundred per cent, and threatened to over- 
 whelm them. Then a thoughtful spirit of prudence and modera- 
 tion was aroused by disaster and evident danger. Statesmen 
 conducting the National Government achieved the greatest suc- 
 cess known to history in the conduct of National Finance, and 
 the masses of citizens forming the Cities and Towns of the coun- 
 try began to learn the same lesson and to acquire a fair measure 
 of the same wisdom. Their debts began to melt away and a 
 new prosperity smiled on the Union and seconded their planning. 
 
 City Government also began to be improved in organization, 
 their organic laws were studied and changed when it seemed 
 needful, and the wonderful resources both of the shrewd sense 
 of the people and the developing wealth and activity of the coun- 
 try produced great and favorable changes in an incredibly short 
 time. Some of the Statistics relating to Cities, from the Census 
 of 1880, will be found in the Fourth Part. 
 
 The important officials of every class in the cities of the United 
 States are elected by the voters, only the subordinate employees 
 being appointed by some suitable authority, and the general 
 control of a city government is kept within reach of those more es- 
 pecially concerned. In England special Charters have also given 
 place to general Parliamentary legislation, which, as usually in 
 the United States, forms the constitutional or Organic Municipal 
 Law. A number of Councillors are, in English cities, elected by 
 authorized voters — the property-holders and tax-payers (rate- 
 payers they are there termed). The Aldermen and Mayor are 
 appointed by these Councillors from their own number. The 
 Councillors hold office for three years, the Aldermen for six years, 
 the Mayor for one year. 
 
548 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 There is great variety in the details of Municipal Government 
 in England in the different cities and boroughs. Various Boards 
 and officers are appointed by the Imperial Administration, or 
 Cabinet Ministers, and in various other ways it watches over Lo- 
 cal Government and interferes to secure improvement and effi- 
 ciency. The failure of those locally concerned — the citizens of 
 the Towns — to take a sufficiently earnest and intelligent interest 
 in their own affairs in many directions obliges the Administra- 
 tion and Parliament to pursue this course. But it perpetuates 
 and increases the evil that made it necessary — the unfitness and 
 disinclination of the people to assume burdens, cares and re- 
 sponsibilities even in their own behalf. It is the natural and nec- 
 essary result in a country long governed by a small select class. 
 However wisely and patriotically, in a general way, that class 
 may think and act for the separate communities, the perform- 
 ance of the natural work of the members of those communities 
 by outside parties has many disadvantages. In the end the work 
 is not as well done and the effect of training and discipline is 
 lost. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons in England lie under many embarrassments 
 bequeathed by their past history and imbedded in the customs 
 and prejudices of the people. These it is very difficult to change, 
 and the present Municipal System is the best that could be pro- 
 cured, under the circumstances, to work well and meet all the 
 imperative demands of the rapid changes of modern times. The 
 Anglo-American System has a much healthier influence on the 
 people themselves and, in the end, must produce much more satis- 
 factory results. Immediate ends are better reached by an 
 intelligent central authority ; but it does not promote growth 
 and capacity in statesmanship among the people. This they 
 need for various other and still more important purposes. The 
 ultimate quality of wisdom and fitness in State Constitutions and 
 Government, and in National Policy, is determined by them. This 
 quality will not, in these wider spheres and weightier matters, 
 rise much above that found in the majority of American citizens, 
 and their education to interest, comprehension, good judgment 
 and prompt action becomes the most serious question of modern 
 times. 
 
 This problem is being more satisfactorily answered in the 
 United States than anywhere else in the world and, its final 
 complete demonstration will be made, not only for the advantage 
 
THE ADVANTAGES OF LOCAL SOVEREIGNTY. 549 
 
 and to the improvement of American progress and nationality, 
 but for all countries and all the future. The responsibility and 
 the care for local conditions, mishaps and improvements, laid on 
 American citizens, furnish the primary school m which they gain 
 the broad basis of knowledge and judgment that have kept the 
 conduct of the State and National Governments in the line of 
 republican development for a hundred years, and have made the 
 United States the Political Teacher of the nations of the world. 
 England is great and strong as a Pioneer of civilization. Her 
 power is concentrated and her undertakings rarely fail of suc- 
 cess ; but it has been the higher and smaller class of her people 
 that has ruled. Her political base has not been wide enough to 
 accommodate all her people and give all the room to act and 
 grow that they needed. 
 
 The United States widened English principles, built on plans 
 that could take in all the people who might at any time form 
 the Nation, and accustomed them all to identify themselves 
 with all public affairs, from those of the School District to those 
 of the Federal Government. Thus she built much more effectu- 
 ally and solidly than any other nation, England included, and 
 prepared her citizens, while the country was comparatively 
 small and poor, for the greater responsibilities that were to rest 
 on them in the future. The masses of Englishmen still possess 
 their inherited " rights" but discharge too few duties for their 
 own good. Yet the Elective Franchise has been greatly ex- 
 tended there within twenty-five years and many changes are in 
 prospect that cannot but prove valuable. 
 
 France is gradually developing a more complete and har- 
 monious system of Local Institutions than England or most 
 other European Nations. The trouble is that it is too artificial 
 and that a controlling veto over Local Legislation, with the 
 power of appointing and removing the higher local executives, 
 lies with the Central Sovereignty. In this it contrasts unfavora- 
 bly with the Anglo-American System, where the Central 
 Sovereignty is absolute only within defined limits, leaving a 
 separate Local Sovereignty, also absolute in its sphere, to the 
 *' States and the People." 
 
 When the Revolution of 1792 rolled over France with fire and 
 sword and guillotine and constructed the Republic of "Liberty, 
 Fraternity and Equality" on the ruins of the Monarchy and 
 Aristocracy — which both vanished during the agonies of the 
 
550 LOCAL GOYEENMENT. 
 
 " white terror" — the foundations of this System were laid. The 
 first Empire absorbed the Republic; that gave place to the old 
 Monarchy which was followed by the new or Orleans Monarchy, 
 in 1830, and that by the second Empire in 1850, with a few years 
 of nominal republican rule between, and, in 1871, by the Republic 
 still existing. None of these changes could restore the spirit of 
 ancient forms, which had withered and died before the fire of 
 the peoples' wrath. The general features and spirit of the 
 structure planned by the enthusiasts of 1792 still remain. 
 
 France is divided into 86 Departments, or provinces, in some 
 degree answering to American States. These have each a 
 Legislature of a single House called Conseil Generale. Depart- 
 ments are subdivided into Arrondissements, answering to the 
 English and American County. These are divided into small 
 Districts, for local judicial and elective purposes, called Cantons. 
 The Cantons are divided into Communes, answering to the Eng- 
 lish Towns and American Townships. The Governor of a 
 Department — called the Pref et — the Executive head of an Arron- 
 dissement — the Sous Pref et — and of a Commune — the Mayor — are 
 appointed by the central authorities, except that in the smaller 
 Communes the Mayor is appointed by the Prefet of the Depart- 
 ment. These executive officers have a double function: to repre- 
 sent the Supreme Power in the State and supervise the execution 
 of National laws, and to preside over local bodies and co-operate 
 with them in Local Government. It is as if all the Governors of 
 American States should be appointed by the President, and that 
 every County in the United States should have a Deputy- 
 Governor appointed by him also, as well as a Mayor in every 
 considerable city; and that he should be represented in every 
 other incorporated Town and Township by a Mayor appointed 
 by his obedient subordinate the State Governor; and that all 
 these could be removed and others put in their places by him at 
 1 his pleasure. 
 
 To the citizen of the United States this would seem to center a 
 dangerous amount of poAver in the National Administration, and 
 that, under such a sj'stem, they would possess few of the attri- 
 butes of self-government. With 86 Governors, 362 Deputy- 
 Governors, and almost 36.000 Mayors to represent it, to do its 
 will and intrigue for it, the Central Government would seem 
 capable of moulding the whole country as it liked. The 
 Departments and the Communes have Councils that may legis- 
 
LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN WESTERN EUROPE. 551 
 
 late. The Arrondissement, or County, has also a Council, 
 which has, however, little direct power. Its duties are princi- 
 pally advisory in respect to taxation. The members of all these 
 bodies are elected by the people. The Conseils Generales elect a 
 large part of the Senate of the National Legislature, and the 
 Commune Councils (Conseils Municipales) manage affairs exclu- 
 sively local. 
 
 There is much local action on National as well as local affairs 
 in this system; but it does not throw the checks and guards 
 against improper action around the chief National Authority 
 that Americans regard as indispensable. It gives a vast scope 
 for personal aims and influence to a commanding mind at the 
 head of National Affairs. Belgium and Holland have a system 
 somewhat similar to this, modified by more independence in the 
 unit of Administration, the Commune. Yet the difference is 
 more in the details than in the general form. The Burgomaster, 
 or Mayor, is still appointed by the King. In Germany there is 
 greater municipal freedom, since all their local officers are 
 elected by the citizens, although the Sovereign has a veto on the 
 choice of the people for Burgomaster, or Mayor. In other re- 
 spects the Local Government in Germany is in a very imperfect 
 state, so far as the interference of the people is concerned, nearly 
 everything being done by the officers receiving their appoint- 
 ment from the Central Administration, but combined in an 
 intricate and vigorous Civil Service System which does the public 
 work well and with precision. Its chief fault is the capital one 
 that it excludes the people from the actual management of their 
 own affairs. 
 
 All these countries and the rest of the nations of Western 
 Europe have Parliaments, and a more or less perfect system of 
 Administration by Ministers ''responsible" to Parliament. The 
 members of the Parliaments are elected by the people and the 
 liberties now enjoyed are secured through the Elective Franchise. 
 The United States System of National and Local Sovereignties 
 is nowhere very much developed in Europe, and, consequently, 
 the Central Governments have far too much power. Anglo- 
 America is the Pioneer free Government, the only one that is 
 sufficiently vigorous in the national part and sufficiently under 
 the control of the people by the structure of Local Government. 
 
CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 THE ELECTIVE FRANCHISE. 
 
 These terms mean a free electing, or choosing, power. Those 
 who enjoy, or possess, the Elective Franchise are legally author- ' 
 ized to vote. The Constitution of the United States does not 
 place the decision of that subject with Congress, but refers it to 
 State Governments, which is one among many limitations of the 
 general sovereignty of the United States Government. It deter- 
 mines who shall be considered citizens of the United States and 
 makes various provisions for enforcing their rights as such, but 
 in no case obliges a State to confer the voting franchise. The 
 nearest approach to this is in the Fifteenth Amendment where 
 it is said that "The right of citizens of the United States to vote 
 shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State 
 on account-of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 
 
 This was a re-enforcement, or definition, of the original pro- 
 vision that representation in the United States Congress should 
 be according to numbers, and a more specific application of the 
 principle of the Fourteenth Amendment that if a class of male 
 citizens of the United States over twenty-one years of age should 
 in any State be excluded from the elective franchise for anything 
 but crime the representation in that State should be proportion- 
 ately reduced; that is, they should not be included in the Repre- 
 sentative Population, and that such States should thus lose 
 proportionate influence and power in Congress. It was not ap- 
 plicable to the Southern States alone, where slavery had former- 
 ly existed, but to the Northern as well, many of whose State 
 Constitutions had restricted voting to white male citizens because 
 the African race was in servitude in the South and was supposed 
 to be unfit to use that prerogative. The abolition of slavery dur- 
 ing the Civil War and the determination of the citizens who had 
 been loyal to the United States to give to the emancipated race 
 the power of self -protection conferred by the elective franchise 
 was thus harmonized in the Constitution with the new situation. 
 
 (552) 
 
THE BASIS OF SUFFRAGE. 553 
 
 It went a step further than any previous provision, and forbade 
 a State to limit the franchise for a particular reason. It did not, 
 however, actually take the regulation of the franchise from 
 the States. 
 
 According to the custom of the world in general all females, 
 male minors, or those under twenty one years of age, criminals, 
 paupers and feeble minded persons have nearly always been 
 excluded from participation in the conduct of public affairs. 
 With this exception they have the rights and duties of citizens. 
 Some States have restricted the franchise still further to persons 
 able to read. When the Republic was first founded the posses- 
 sion of a definite amount of property was, in many of the States, 
 necessary to the exercise of the voting power, and .this long con- 
 tinued in some of the Original States. It has been since almost 
 universally laid aside and it may be said that the principle of 
 manhood Suffrage has been finally accepted by the people of the 
 United States. During the most of English history the exercise 
 of this power has depended on the possession of property, and it 
 still continues to be the case to some extent in many Anglo- 
 Saxon communities. 
 
 The old German tribal policy, on which the most of English 
 liberties are based, held the land to be common property and 
 public affairs were chiefly managed by the heads of families. 
 On the most important occasions all the warriors, and even the 
 women took part in the decisions. Settled in England a large 
 part of the common property gradually passed into private hands 
 and has ever since remained so. It became an accepted principle, 
 after a time, that the chief end of the lawmaking power was the 
 protection of property and it lias been, probably, the rejection 
 of that view by the United States and its success with the gen- 
 eral adoption of an enlarged principle approaching manhood 
 suffrage — which allows this fundamental sovereign attribute to 
 a man because he is a man — that other nations have begun to 
 adopt it. England is beginning to approach it. France has long 
 admitted it in important crises and now has as nearly universal 
 suffrage as any nation. Other countries are following slowly in 
 the same direction. 
 
 The cause of this important change is the constant growth 
 of the idea that the best way to train men to bear responsibilities 
 and exercise power is to devolve the duty of final decision on 
 themi. The increase of wealth in later times has shown that if 
 
554 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 only those who possessed it were permitted to exert influence on 
 public affairs through this franchise, trouble would result and 
 poverty increase. Governments have also found that the strong 
 support of all the people was indispensable to the execution of 
 the great enterprises of modern times, and the people that the 
 greater power of the higher classes, as money accumulated in 
 their hands, left them no alternative but to insist on their due 
 political weight in state affairs. 
 
 These various causes have gradually opened the way of the 
 non-property-holding laboring classes to the exercise of the 
 Elective Franchise. In the United States, at first, there were 
 few obstacles to the full exercise of this power. It was incorpo- 
 rated in the Constitutions of all the new States, as they were 
 successively admitted in the Union, and soon obtained general 
 recognition in the older ones. The first and second Napoleonic 
 Empires in France, but especially the latter, found it their policy 
 to appeal to the people in a " Plebiscitum," or vote of all the 
 males of the Nation, and after the Second Empire was over- 
 thrown, in 1871, the Republic which replaced it depended on the 
 masses to sustain it by their votes. The success of that Republic 
 has finally sealed the triumph of the principle of Manhood Suf- 
 frage in Europe as the Emancipation of the colored race in 
 America has sealed it here. The question whether rulers shall 
 be the servants of the whole people, or the mass of the people the 
 servants of the rulers and the small favored classes, appears to 
 be definitely solved. 
 
 Thus the tendency of infiuences in all the States of the Ameri- 
 can Union has been to enlarge, rather than to restrict, the Elec- 
 tive Franchise. Property restrictions were first reduced, or 
 omitted altogether; then foreigners who, under the laws of the 
 United States, became citizens were recognized as voters; finally 
 the Africans resident in the country in bondage were freed and 
 admitted to the same right. At present all males of twenty-one 
 years or over, not malefactors orof unsound mind, being citizens 
 of the United States, are almost universally acknowledged, by 
 State authority, as privileged to exercise the Elective Franchise. 
 Women and minors are supposed to be represented by fathers, 
 husbands and guardians; although the question whether adult 
 females should not be permitted the same privilege is frequently 
 discussed and voted on in Legislative Assemblies. Whether that 
 principle will yet prevail remains to be seen. It would seem that 
 
 
NATURALIZATION LAWS AND SUFFRAGE. 555 
 
 if they should generally demand it it would not be withheld from 
 them. 
 
 State Constitutions require some definite time of residence as 
 a voting qualification. As a rule, this may be said to be a year 
 in the State and from one to six months in a voting precinct, the 
 previous qualification of being citizens of the United States being 
 nearly universal. One exception to this increases in frequency 
 in the more recent Constitutions, viz: that persons of foreign birth 
 who have officially declared their purpose to become citizens ac- 
 cording to the Naturalization Laws of the United States, are 
 allowed to vote. As these persons cannot (with a few exceptions) 
 be recognized as citizens of the United States until two years after 
 this, it follows that they are made citizens of the States while 
 still Aliens under United States Laws. This shows the strong 
 tendency to enlarge the number of voters that has always been 
 manifest in American history. It is much deprecated by some 
 as admitting too many persons unfitted by want of knowledge 
 for such responsibility and leaving them, and public affairs, some- 
 times, at the mercy of designing and selfish men. Many, at 
 various times, have raised a cry of warning and prophesied dis- 
 asters from such liberality. 
 
 This, however, has not been regarded. Although sometimes 
 recognized as a serious evil it seems to have been generally felt 
 that the evil had important compensations; that the exercise of 
 the voting privilege was a powerful educator, rendering the 
 foreigner and the ignorant more respectable in their own eyes 
 and in the eyes of others, and inducing the inquiry and mental 
 effort needful for the proper use of that power. In it, chiefly, 
 consists the equality of which American citizens are proud. It 
 would seem that the future could hardly hold in store severer 
 tests of American Institutions than they have been subjected to 
 in the past, out of which they have come crowned with a 
 triumph quite unexpected by the prophets of disaster. It is evi- 
 dent that no serious harm is to be feared from foreign-born citi- 
 zens or the colored race frOm too speedy an admission to the use 
 of the vote. On the whole they may be said to have compre- 
 hended what was for the general interest about as readily and 
 pronounced on it as wisely as educated persons, or native-born 
 Americans. Education and pure Anglo-American blood do not 
 always furnish full security for wise statesmanship. 
 
 About ten million persons of foreign birth have settled in the 
 
556 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 United States since 1790, the date of the first Census, who be- 
 came identified with the American people. The descendants of 
 the earlier immigl-ants are now indistinguishable from those of 
 the Anglo-Saxons in their intelligent attachment to its Govern- 
 ment and Institutions. They were largely from the patient, 
 healthy, industrious and economical laboring classes of the Old 
 World. Here they found the liberty and openings for prosperity 
 and rising in the world not to be enjoyed in Europe, they were 
 welcomed, made citizens after a brief period, received the Elec- 
 tive Franchise after a short delay, and took an active part in 
 building up new communities and States and sustaining all the 
 various forms of American liberty. Their services have been 
 invaluable to the country, they have fully justified the wisdom 
 of the Naturalization Laws of Congress, and honored the States 
 committing to them the Elective Franchise with so much gener- 
 ous confidence. 
 
 The Naturalization Laws of the Revised Statutes of 1878 are 
 as follows: 
 
 Sec. 2165. An alien may be admitted to become a citizen of 
 the United States in the following manner, and not otherwise: 
 
 First. He shall declare on oath, before a Circuit or District 
 Court of the United States, or a District or Supreme Court of the 
 Territories, or a Court of Record of any of the States having 
 common-law jurisdiction, and a seal and clerk, two years, at 
 least, prior to his admission, that it is bona-fide his intention to 
 become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever 
 all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign Prince, Potentate, 
 State, or Sovereignty, and, particularly, by name, to the Prince, 
 Potentate, State or Sovereignty of which the alien may be at the 
 time a citizen or subject. 
 
 Second. He shall, at the time of his application to oe admitted, 
 declare, on oath, before some one of the Courts above specified, 
 that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and 
 that he absolutely and entirely renounces and abjures all alle- 
 giance and fidelity to every foreign Prince, Potentate, State, or 
 Sovereignty; and, particularly, by name, to the Prince, Poten- 
 tate, State, or Sovereignty of which he was before a citizen or 
 subject; which proceedings shall be recorded by the clerk of the 
 court. 
 
 Third. It shall be made to appear to the satisfaction of the 
 Court admitting such alien that he has resided within the United 
 
 J 
 
THE NATURALIZATION LAWS. 557 
 
 States five years at least, and within the State or Territory 
 where such Court is at the time held, one year at least; and that 
 during that time he has behaved as a man of good moral char- 
 acter, attached to the principle of the Constitution of the United 
 States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the 
 same; but the oath of the applicant shall be in no case allowed 
 to prove his residence. 
 
 Fourth. In case the alien applying to be admitted to citizen- 
 ship has borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders 
 of nobility in the Kingdom or State from which he came, he 
 shall, in addition to the above requisites, make an express 
 renunciation of his title or order of nobility in the Court to 
 which his application is made, and his renunciation shall be 
 recorded in the Court. 
 
CHAPTER YI. 
 
 THE SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The American Union was formerly considered as politically 
 divided into two great sections, the North and the South, the 
 Une of division (Mason's and Dixon's Line) being based on the 
 two Labor Systems, Free and Compulsory. The ISTorthern 
 States adopted the Free Labor System, while the Southern 
 maintained slavery, or the Compulsory Labor System intro- 
 duced during colonial times. Geographical and economical 
 differences helped to maintain and exaggerate this sectional 
 •division until after the Civil War, when the system of legal 
 compulsory labor disappeared leaving the country to the full 
 influence of natural unities and differences as soon as the 
 memories and habits of the earlier time could be obliterated. 
 
 Minor divisions, based partly on location, partly on industrial, 
 commercial, and agricultural differences, and partly on the 
 differences of origin, customs and character of the people, led 
 to the States being distinguished as New England or Eastern, 
 Middle, Southern, and Western. Various differences strongly 
 marked these groups of States during the period beginning in 
 1815 and extending to 1865, when the growth of the Railway 
 System, the massive development of settlement and business 
 accompanying the spread of that system, and the transfer of a 
 large population to the mining regions among the Rocky Mount- 
 ains and to the Pacific Coast, threw these earlier distinctions 
 quite into the background. The original States straggled in a 
 long line along the Atlantic Coast. Additional States soon 
 sprang up in the Mississippi Valley. There the number was 
 soon much more than doubled and these skeleton States grad- 
 ually filled up their boundaries with an enterprising population 
 from the original States and from Europe. The Mexican War 
 terminated with a vast transfer of the Rocky Mountain and 
 Pacific territory, before held bv that Republic, to the United 
 
 (558) 
 
THE THREE GREAT SECTIONS OP THE UNITED STATES. 559 
 
 States, and the gold of that new territory soon drew hundreds 
 of thousands of enterprising adventurers to it. Then the Pacific 
 Railway triumphed over distance and mountains, joined the two 
 oceans and the center for purposes of business, and grander 
 sectional outlines had to be drawn. 
 
 Three vast divisions based on agricultural, commercial, mining 
 and manufacturing differences now dwarfed and overrode all 
 previous section lines. The form of the Continent furnished the 
 outlines of three grand Sections: the Atlantic Slope, the Pacific 
 Slope and the vast central plain, or shallow bowl, of the Missis- 
 sippi Valley. The dividing ridges of the Alleghanies and the 
 Rocky Mountains furnished natural and permanent sectional 
 boundaries. The geological details of formation and the differ- 
 ences of relation to the outside world and to each other, estab- 
 lished permanent differences in the business character of these 
 three Sections. Oceans, Gulfs, Lakes, River Systems and Rail- 
 roads dominated these differences so far as to combine all the 
 Sections in one magnificent whole. 
 
 The unity of these three great natural divisions is secured by 
 intimate and supremely important interdependencies. The 
 Atlantic Coast, opposite Europe, with its old civilization, culture 
 and swarming population, made it the commercial section by 
 which the vast surplus products of the fertile interior couM 
 cheaply find a market. Its greater age, larger accumulation of 
 capital, and the industrious, thrifty habits of the people made it 
 the manufacturing region and the center of projects and activi- 
 ties for developing the resources of the other Sections. The 
 Alleghanies formed no serious barrier between it and the Center 
 when once Canals and Railroads began to be constructed. The 
 mountains sink in the northern part of the Gulf States and in 
 New York, and railway engineering has, generally, laughed them 
 to scorn, formidable as they seemed at first. 
 
 The Mississippi Valley— the whole space between the principal 
 crest lines of the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains — seemed, 
 in surface and situation, to have been purposely constructed to 
 be the center of a great nation. Its Ancient History, as traced 
 by Geology, has been such as to su]>ply it with the best variety 
 and the largest measure of useful minerals, of fertile soil and of 
 convenient, interlocked waterways, as well as comparatively 
 smooth surfaces for wholesale development of cultivation and 
 railroads, that the world can present. The string of Great Lakes 
 
560 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 in the north, with their eastern outlet, and the Gulf in the south 
 with a connected River System of possible navigation of over 
 20,000 miles all centering in it and flowing toward it from the 
 utmost extremities of this fertile region, render it wholly remark- 
 able for convenience and cheapness of development. 
 
 But its very vastness would be against it if it had no help in 
 getting its treasures into the forms wanted in the markets of the 
 world and in transporting them there at cheap rates when pro- 
 duced. This help is found in the older, richer commercial 
 States on the Atlantic. Those States furnished population and 
 capital, markets and manufactures, as it needed. On the other 
 hand investments and exchanges by the inhabitants of the East- 
 ern Section with the "West" and the " South "—then, and even 
 yet, so called — were extremely profitable. They were sources of 
 boundless realized wealth to the enterprizing citizens of the 
 East, while unsealing all the latent streams of plenty to the 
 Center itself. 
 
 But this mutually profitable result could be only very slowly 
 and imperfectly realized without the floating capital furnished 
 by the mining regions of the Pacific Slope. In 1850 there was 
 hardly loose capital enough in the world to create the vast Rail- 
 way and Steamship and Telegraph Systemsthat have since played 
 so conspicuous a part in the development of the United States. 
 This the "placers" and mines of the third great Section of the 
 country had already begun to supply, and the other sections 
 united in making a suitable return, furnishing it with all the im- 
 plements and facilities of the older regions in abundance and in 
 an incredibly short time. 
 
 Each extreme Section has an ocean, the Center has useful sub- 
 stitutes for one and ready and cheap communication with either 
 side. The fitness of the variety of these Sections, in many ways, 
 could not be more desirable for the advantage of each, of the 
 whole, and of the world. When all political, social and physical 
 obstacles had been fairly reduced to a minimum by the removal 
 of slavery; when the spread of the Railwa}^ System had enlarg- 
 ed private and corporate business enterprises to continental 
 proportions; when all the original States had become the 
 "East" and the "West" had become the Center — the real West 
 reaching from the Main Ridge of the Rocky Mountains to the 
 Pacific Coast — very little distinction between the New England 
 and the old Middle States New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- 
 
THE TWO BASES OF THE UNION, NATIONAL AND FEDERAL. 5G1 
 
 nia and Delaware, would be perceptible to men's minds. Even 
 the South and North would lose significance when ''Mason's and 
 Dixon's Line" came to be forgotten under the vast activities that 
 surged back and forth from ocean to ocean, from British 
 America to the Gulf, from Maine to Mexico and from Puget's 
 Sound to Florida. 
 
 Hard as it must be for the Southern States to wholly forget 
 the sacrifices and losses of their great struggle during the Civil 
 War, they would finally come to feel that they were indemnified 
 for them by the pulses of a new prosperity that flowed, un- 
 checked by sectional dissensions and differences in labor sys- 
 tems and social order, from the extremities of a great and 
 wealthy country through all their sunny land. After a time the 
 old meanings of "North" and "South" would be quite lost in 
 a new sense of American unity and the vast business diversity 
 produced by the greater sectional differences between the Two 
 Slopes and the immense Central Plain. 
 
 It is pleasant to remark that the greater facts of American 
 history have been almost uniformly and singularly fortunate. 
 For so great a country, one destined to contain so large a popu- 
 lation and possessing measureless resources for any conceivable 
 population to develop, it was above all fortunate that the Union 
 should have had a Federal, as well as National, base. Had it 
 been a Legislative Union, as in England and France, the con- 
 centration of power in the National Government would have 
 been most disastrous. A National Sovereignty, absolute in the 
 control of questions of general interest, but unable to interfere 
 with the real independence of the States and the people in local 
 questions, both centralized and decentralized at the right points 
 and in due proportions. 
 
 The country could be held closely together in a great 
 Nationality, while the inviolable local control would never per- 
 mit the National Administration to crush or injure any, the 
 smallest, community or local interest. This state of local inde- 
 pendence grew up naturally out of the English Colonial System, 
 and was adequately recognized and protected by the Constitu- 
 tion that provided for an abundantly strong and effective 
 National Union. The political party that, in the beginning of 
 the century, carefully established precedents and rules of inter- 
 preting the Constitution in favor of State Rights had much 
 reason, while the Federal party, which urged the necessity of a 
 36 
 
562 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 vigorous National Government, had no less. These were two 
 sides of one fact not so easy to appreciate then as now. 
 
 There seems to have been singular good fortune in the con- 
 junction of great development in the world at large and in the 
 United States. The growth of the first corresponded to the 
 preparation of this richly endowed land to supply its special 
 commodities in abundance. English manufactures reached a 
 high development when American cotton was ready for them; 
 the crowded population of European States and the diverse 
 industries they followed prepared them to receive American food 
 products at the time when such markets were essential to 
 American prosperity. 
 
 So also, when the territory of the United States became so vast 
 as to equal nearly the whole of Europe, the centralizing power 
 of Steam and Electricity was discovered and applied to neutral- 
 ize distance, diversity of climate, resources and interests, and 
 draw an expanding country and people much nearer together, 
 as to space, time and the means and cost of communication, 
 than in the first i'oundation of the Union, The laws of American 
 growth and those of progress in the worl I at large have been 
 harmonized in too many ways and with too great exactness not 
 to suggest, with the force of irresistible conviction, that they 
 were designedly associated; that the three great harmonious 
 Sections of the United States were reserved for the people who 
 now possess them; and that they awaited the "fullness of time'' 
 as to the outside world to receive a suitable civilization. 
 
 The first century of American Independence has been occupied 
 in taking possession of these grand Sections, preparing for the 
 great economic results to which they are capable of leading, and 
 in adjusting, at the same time, the Constitutional, National and 
 Local questions which could not be foreseen in the beginning. 
 In the course of this time the people, their Organic Law, tra- 
 ditional principles and methods of administration, both of Gen- 
 eral and Local Government, have been brought into substantial 
 harmony. The Civil War was the culmination of antago- 
 nisms which were, in principle, so definitely settled by it that they 
 ceased to be critical and absorbing questions. They were put in 
 the way of settling themselves. The South will not again desire 
 — as a whole, or very large part — to separate from the rest. There 
 is henceforth no danger that the Northeast, the Northwest or the 
 Pacific Coast will desire a separation, or feel so serious a discon- 
 
AMERICANS ARE WISE EVEN IN THEIR SELFISHNESS. 565 
 
 tent with the local measures of the South or any other Section 
 as to produce trouble. The National Union has been adjusted so 
 carefully in the interest of all, and brought into working order 
 on principles of such even justice, that future harmony cannot 
 be very much endangered. 
 
 The Anglo-American race is practical and sensible. It has an 
 enlightened view of self-interest although the most prominent 
 trait of personal character is an energetic self-seeking. Its chief 
 enthusiasms are not over political or benevolent theories but 
 rather in regard to economic affairs and opportunities of private 
 gain. The average American thinks out political problems with 
 a large measure of shrewd and broad intelligence, but with a 
 steady view to the way in which their solution may affect his 
 personal welfaie. He has risen to the height of perceiving, 
 better than the average of any other people, that his own inter- 
 ests are closely identified with those of all his countrymen. He 
 refused, for the sake of his own interest, to allow the Union to be 
 dissolved ; he perceived that the loss of a great nationality would 
 be an irreparable business disaster, for himself and the country. 
 He identified himself with the Nation and preserved 
 it. The national sentiment is therefore based on his strongest 
 characteristics; the Union is secure and sectional injustice can 
 never again be carried to a dangerous length. 
 
 The conflict over "State Rights" is closed and the States re- 
 main, not as defiant organizations ready to resist aggression, 
 but as convenient instruments fcr most effectively managing lo- 
 cal affairs. The local patriotism has been transferred to the great 
 Section, or to tiie country as a whole; and since steam and elec- 
 tricity, rapid and cheap communication, have consolidated the 
 Sections and identified their larger and more numerous interests, 
 the national patriotism is much the stronger sentiment. 
 
 This must remain so from the character of the different regions 
 and their inter-relations. Each has a large capacity for inde- 
 pendence — could, at extreme need, maintain its own people 
 so well that it is not dangerously dependent. The East and the 
 West are fertile as well as the Center. Their capacities for agri- 
 cultural production are, in themselves, immense, although they 
 could produce little compared with the possibilities of the great 
 prairies and plains, rolling uplands, and river valleys forming the 
 center and sides of the Mississippi Basin. New York and Penn- 
 sylvania are among the leading agricultural States of the 
 
564 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Union; California, Oregon and Washington display capacities of 
 soil and climate almost marvelous ; and general agricultural con- 
 ditions in all the States of either Slope would be considered 
 excellent were they not brought into constant comparison with 
 the extraordinary capacity of the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 A glance at the geological preparation in each Section for 
 agricultural results will show the extent and meaning of the 
 above statement. The geological conditions of a productive soil 
 are that the rocks formed in comparatively shallow seas enclosing 
 the remains of the former vegetable and animal life both of those 
 seas and their shores and watersheds — that is, made up of 
 decayed plants, mud and the shells or skeletons of the swarming 
 life of geological ages — should have been somehow pulverized 
 into soft earth. Wherever these rocks are raised above the sur- 
 face rain, winds, sun and frost disintegrate them, and the vast 
 Glaciers of the Great Ice Age immediately preceding the appear- 
 ance of Man in the World, added its vast and widespread ener- 
 gies to increase this provision of soil a thousandfold. The cen- 
 tral part of North America was specially favored in the produc- 
 tion of rock of this kind, in being early raised into dry land 
 exposed to the wearing influences of the elements, and in after- 
 wards being supplied with a remarkably vast and powerful gla- 
 cier to increase the mass of soft rich earth to be spread over the 
 great plains gently inclining to the Ohio, Mississippi, and Mis- 
 souri rivers and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 This region was then flooded enough to distribute this 
 material far and wide over the great shallow trough, but not 
 enough to sweep it away into the depths of the Sea. A sub- 
 tropical climate for the summer and a sub-arctic winter were 
 coupled with a generally good distribution of rainfall from the 
 Gulf of Mexico, the Mountains and the great expanse of the North- 
 ern Lakes. All these, united, give this Section its unequalled emi- 
 nence as an agricultural region. But the Atlantic Slope had 
 also a good supply of soft rocks, rich in organic remains, usually 
 reduced to the finest dust. The Glacial Age supplied the north 
 and the mountains with powerful Glaciers also, to aid atmos- 
 pheric forces in making soil. Such a Glacier must have been 
 deep and high enough to bury all New England and New York, 
 for its powerful tracings are found on the top of Mt. Washing- 
 ton, in New Hampshire. This furnished the foundation of the 
 fertility of New England valleys and sloping hills, and greatly 
 
 I 
 
THE SOIL IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 565 
 
 enriched New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. South of 
 those States the AUeghanies were worn down and the earth 
 spread eastward down their slopes to the sea-coast. 
 
 Here vegetation flourished and decayed for unnumbered cen- 
 turies and formed a rich loam. Though not so rich — or the 
 riches not so evenly spread — as westward across the mountains, 
 it made fine farming regions, well watered by the influence of 
 the mountains and the vicinity of the ocean. When the soil 
 began to be exhausted for special production, fertilizers could 
 be found in abundance to restore productive power. Even the 
 most barren tracts have been found capable of great results 
 under skillful farming. 
 
 The Pacific Slope did not share so largely either in these soft 
 surface rocks, in glacial action, or in abundant moisture, but 
 they were not wanting in either. The wonderful "Canons" 
 of the Rocky Mountain regions testify to the great depth of soft 
 rock which water could wear away, and much evidence of 
 isolated Glaciers is to be found. These regions, however, had 
 another advantage, comparatively little known further east, in 
 volcanic action. This produced and spread over all the valleys, 
 basins and plains chemical salts, mingled with soft earth, that 
 dispensed with the need of fertilizers. Wherever moisture can 
 be supplied at suitable times and in sufficient quantity agricul- 
 tural production is marvelously abundant. Except in Western 
 Oregon and Washington and a part of California, the rainfall is 
 sometimes insufficient and irrigation must often be resorted to. 
 When all the resources for irrigating are fully used the Pacific 
 Slope will become a magazine of agricultural supplies only less 
 marvelous than the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 But each of these Sections has a sufficient supply of other 
 resources and advantages to make it impolitic for its better sup- 
 plied neighbors to treat it with injustice. The useful metals 
 abound in the North and the South as well as in the West. The 
 best iron, copper, and coal are found in abundance in the bord- 
 ers, and even the midst, of the Mississippi Valley. If the East 
 has the advantage of older and larger established industries 
 and the commerce of the Atlantic, the railroads easily diffuse 
 the facilities for creating manufactures wherever they will pay 
 best, and the interior can easily build up a foreign commerce by 
 the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi River System, and the Gulf 
 ports. If these two Sections have easy command of European 
 
566 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 trade the Pacific Coast has the control of the commerce of the 
 Pacific and Eastern Asia. Until that grows to great proportions, 
 and her own agricultural and manufacturing enterprises reach 
 some maturity of development, it has nearly a monopoly in the 
 production of the precious metals. 
 
 Thus the three great Sections, now overshadowing all former 
 and minor ones, are equalized and girded with vigor for the con- 
 test for economical pre-eminence. Each has its specialties, 
 success in which benefits the rest of the country as well as itself, 
 and each has a fair supply of resources prominent with one or 
 both of the others. No such well-balanced Government, people 
 or country exists elsewhere in the world or is likely to be devel- 
 oped by the future. Important as these points have already 
 become they are only a hint, or a prophecy, of a future of bound- 
 less wealth and power. 
 
CHAPTEE YII. 
 
 NATIVE AMERICANS AND IMMIGRANTS, 
 
 The Tenth Census of the United States, taken in 1880, when 
 the process of perfecting the national unity, threatened in 1861, 
 had gone far toward completion, furnishes, in connection with 
 previous statistics, comparative facts regarding the past and 
 present and suggestions as to the future full of interest. Glanc- 
 ing back from thi^ point to the close of the Revolutionary War, 
 and following down the ever broadening development, it is seen 
 that the process of extending the outlines of the country had 
 then reached a fair degree of maturity. The political, social and 
 economical future of the United States had been distinctly plan- 
 ned. 
 
 In Politics the doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, 
 further elaborated by the Constitution of 1787. had passed 
 through the test of many conflicts. The question of Equal 
 Rights based on manhood was settled and virtually removed the 
 diversity of Labor Systems. The relations of Sections and States 
 to the General Government may be said, also, to have become 
 past and settled issues. Future conflicts would be of a different 
 kind. The country must remain united, the Central Power 
 would continue to hold supreme authority in its sphere, the 
 States and Sections would respect that Sovereignty while exer- 
 cising unquestioned supremacy in the purely local field of gov- 
 ernment. No further question of excluding millions of Ameri- 
 can-born people from the general rights of citizensliip would 
 again arise. 
 
 Social differences had been so far obliterated that natural laws 
 could operate freely. The doctrine that all men had equal 
 rights could only mean, with descendants of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 that every man should have an unobstructed opportunity to de- 
 velop his natural gifts and powers, and that one man possessed 
 as clear a right to influence the course of public affairs by his 
 
 (5G7) 
 
568 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 vote as another. Inherent differences between men, or differ- 
 ences created by education, by lawful effort and by growth of 
 character were necessarily not included in this doctrine of natu- 
 ral equality. The legal obstructions to the operation of this 
 modified equality had been removed. The Fifteenth Amendment 
 to the Constitution pledged the Nation to the future mainten- 
 ance of this point, and the opening of the whole country to the 
 free action of economical laws would, in time, harmonize all so- 
 cial discordances. 
 
 This would follow the economical expansion of the whole 
 country — the free flow of capital and industry to any point where 
 large gains could be made. When the presence and labors of no 
 class could be excluded from any one region to which they were 
 attracted by the prospect of gain more than from another, natural 
 forces would expel artificial ones and harmonize the country on 
 the basis of mutual interest. In the beginning of 1881 every sec- 
 tion of the United States was put in fairly free communication 
 with every other by the great expansion of the Railway System. 
 All the Territories, except the distant Alaska, were embraced in 
 this system and opened for free development. 
 
 The general Statistics gathered in 1880, and compiled and pub- 
 lished in that and the following year, show by comparison with 
 previous facts the rate and direction of growth, the strong points 
 in the present situation, and the necessary conclusions to be 
 drawn as to the new period on which the United States was en- 
 tering. Various comparisons with countries of the Old World 
 will help to a more perfect grasp of some phases of the present 
 and future. An analysis of a few points only of these statistics 
 can be given here to show what is and what is fairly certain 
 to be. 
 
 The Statistics of Population furnish many valuable conclu- 
 sions. Of the 50,152,866 people forming the representative popu- 
 lation of the States and Territories but 43,475,506 were native 
 born, 6,677,860 having emigrated, chiefly from European coun- 
 tries, and become Americans by adoption. About 4,000,000 other 
 immigrants had previously crossed the ocean, become incorpo- 
 rated into the American nationality and died leaving their 
 descendants true "sons of the soil." The descendants of the 
 nearly 4,000,000 inhabitants of the First Census, taken in 1790, 
 have multiplied to between thirty and forty millions — about 
 ten-fold. 
 
WHY EUROPEAN EMIGRANTS MAKE GOOD CITIZENS. 5G9 
 
 These original Americans were not all of Anglo-Saxon origin. 
 Several hundred thousand emigrated — or their ancestors did — 
 from Holland, France, Germany, or Sweden; many were Scotch 
 and many others Irish. The larger part of these pre-revolution- 
 ary immigrants other than English were, however, kindred in 
 remote origin to the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who emigrated 
 to that island in the fifth century from northern Germany. The 
 Danes and Normans who afterward invaded England were the 
 kindred of the Anglo-Saxons; the people of Holland were de- 
 scended from German tribes; the Gauls were conquered by the 
 Franks, another German tribe, and Western France, from which 
 came most of the Huguenots who settled in various of the Thir- 
 teen American Colonies, was largely of Norman blood; Sweden 
 and Norway were early settled by offshoots from the Germanic 
 Race. 
 
 Thus most of the immigrants to America had sprung from the 
 same strong, prolific race. The Scotch, and even a part of the 
 Irish, had a large mingling of the same blood and tendencies of 
 character. It was not difficult to mold all these into genuine 
 Anglo-Americans. The old German instincts yet lingered in 
 them all, and these were fully uncovered and brought out by the 
 return of the dominant English race in America to the equality 
 and individualism so marked among the early German tribes. 
 They easily fused, even after many centuries of separation, 
 with their strong-willed and resolute relatives who ruled the 
 destinies of Anglo- America. 
 
 But they conferred benefits as well as received them; they 
 strongly influenced American development as well as were 
 influenced by it. This was not by begetting antagonisms but 
 by laying a broader base for the Nation they were helping to 
 build up. They liberalized it by bringing their own national 
 views, and tendencies and sympathies. Where French Hugue- 
 nots, Hollanders, Germans, and others, formed a respectable 
 element among the freemen of the Colonies, or the citizens of 
 the Republic, prejudices against their friends in Europe must 
 melt away, the virtues they inherited must be appreciated and a 
 cosmopolitan spirit would easily and naturally spring up. This 
 was precisely what occurred. The immigrants became true 
 Americans, and Americans learned to honor all men as well as 
 their English countrymen, their mental view was enlarged, and 
 they were made receptive of all just and high ideas. This 
 
570 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 united with free development and new surroundings to cause 
 the Enghsh settlers in America to diverge from the purely 
 English standard and form a really distinct, if related, nation- 
 ality. 
 
 But the foreign element was never overpow^ering by numbers, 
 either in the Colonies or States, and was everywhere ready to 
 become penetrated and ruled by the native American tone and 
 tendency. It would have been considerably different if the ear]y 
 circumstances, both on the Atlantic coast and in the West, had 
 not been less inviting to Europeans than in the last forty years, 
 and had not employed a very stern and effective discipline to 
 bring out all the peculiar and indomitable qualities of the nati%e 
 American. He learned to dare ail difficulties, endure all hard- 
 ships and confront all dangers in a spirit that made him sooner 
 or later master of them all. If unpolished, he was high minded 
 and just, determined to gain his own rights but willing to allow 
 all justice to others. 
 
 By this enterprise, frankness, and kindly good will the Ameri- 
 can avoided antagonisms with newcomers. He welcomed their 
 aid in subduing a Xew World with heartiness, and the foreigner 
 became an enthusiastic American almost at once. 
 
 After ISoO, immigration became very great. Many stopped in 
 the East as operatives in various industries, as servants and 
 laborers on railroads or public works; the remainder were scat- 
 tered among the new farming lands of the fertile West, where 
 industry soon made them prosperous and interest led them to 
 identify themselves with the welfare of their adopted land. 
 Americans have been wise to welcome their coming and to treat 
 them with a hearty cordiality that made them feel at home. 
 They have usually been good and useful citizens from the begin- 
 ning. 
 
 In 1881 the highest number of immigrants arriving in one year, 
 589,089 was reached. Yet, in spite of the large additions to the 
 population from abroad the relative number diminished. In 1870 
 there were IG.SrO foreign born to 100,000 native citizens, and in 
 1880 only 15,359 in 100,000. The per cent, varies in the different 
 States. While residents of most of the southern States include 
 no more than two per cent, of foreign birth, some Eastern and 
 some Western states have fifty per cent, and others vary 
 between these proportions, the whole being an average of thir- 
 teen per cent. A large proportion of these are as ht artily Ameri- 
 
THE MONEY VALUE OF THE IMMIGRANT. 571 
 
 can in all their instincts and conduct as the descendants of the 
 Puritans of the Mayflower. 
 
 American citizens may very properly welcome industrious im- 
 migrants, but not merely as a matter of benevolence and because 
 they leave behind them a heavy load of hardships of various 
 kinds and here find all avenues of prosperity freely open to them. 
 They are a positive and great accession to the productive force 
 of the country. Boundless treasures, not to be developed by na- 
 tive Americans alone in many centuries, lie in the soil, amoiig the 
 mountains and hills from ocean to ocean, from the northern to 
 the southern extremes of the country. These millions of foieign- 
 ers set to work to liberate these imprisoned values and add hun- 
 dreds and even thousands of millions of dollars to the i-ealized 
 wealth of the Republic. This at once commences a course of cir- 
 culation as capital and enriches all classes of the people. 
 
 So true is this that it has been estimated that every immigrant 
 introduces an average positive value of at least one thousand 
 dollars into the countr3% in the activities of his life alone, and 
 half as much more in the property or capital he possesses on his 
 arrival that is spent or invested in some form. In this view, the 
 ten million immigrants from Europe of the past seventy years 
 have been the means of adding to the wealth of the United States 
 at least ten thousand million dollars — about one-fourth of its 
 present realized wealth. It is not yet all realized, because their 
 lives and productive energies are not yet fully expended; but it 
 is a virtual mvestment that is gradually working out the grand 
 .result. According to this estimate the 589,000 emigrants of the 
 year 1880, introduced the equivalent of more than ^600,000.000. 
 As these were generally of a higher and more comfortable class 
 of foreigners they brought more money with them for instant in- 
 vestment or expenditure, and so probably added nearly S200. 000,- 
 000 to the actual cash accumulation, or floating fund of values of 
 the country. Year by year, as they cultivate new lands, or la- 
 bor in the various industries and occupations, they add to the 
 accumulation of provisions and other property that goes to 
 make up the nation's annual production and income and so are a 
 general and vast acquisition to the common stock of wealth- 
 making agencies. 
 
 So long as latent wealth exists which the present inhabitants 
 are unable to set free to circulate for the common benefit, so 
 long will immigration be a source of great gain — a most import- 
 
572 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 ant element of progress. The land statistics included in, the 
 census bring this point into clear relief. The territory of the 
 United States includes nearly two thousand million acres — or 
 1,951,020,120 acres. Of this quantity only 752,557,195 had been 
 surveyed up to June 30, 1880. This includes Indian Reservations, 
 public lands not sold, and all private lands still unimproved and 
 in their wild state. About 450,000,000, or little more than one- 
 fourth part, were in private hands at that date. About one- 
 eighteenth of the whole, and less than one-seventh of the 
 surveyed area, was devoted, in 1880, to the production of the 
 immense cereal crop of that year, amounting to 2,448,079,221 
 bushels of grain. About one-half of the lands inclosed in, or 
 belonging to, farms is quite unimproved. 
 
 The value of the principal products of agriculture of the United 
 States in that year was two thousand million dollars. More than 
 one-third of this was not needed in the country and was exported 
 to foreign lands, or $746,967,950 forming ninety per cent, of the 
 entire exports of the country. Too much is attempted in aver- 
 age American farming for the capital and labor invested and 
 the area actually cultivated. The product is not probably one- 
 third of what it might be, and will be when the filling up of the 
 country and the improvement of methods have become more 
 complete. Agricultural development, therefore, notwithstanding 
 the above enormous figures, has only begun, and there is abund- 
 ant space for immigration as well as native increase of popula- 
 tion on American soil. 
 
 The Railway System of the United States of 1881 included 
 93,000 miles. That of all Europe, serving a population of 
 nearly 300,000,000, is only 100,000 miles. One of the interior 
 cities, Chicago, is the center of a system of diverging lines of 
 railway 31,000 miles in length. The more populous States have 
 each several thousand miles of railway intersecting them in all 
 directions. The vast expanse of the ''Plains," the mountain 
 regions, and the seemingly desert basins of the Pacific Slope are 
 all made more or less accessible by this mode of wholesale and 
 cheap carriage and are being rapidly penetrated in all directions. 
 About 110,000 miles of Telegraph line form a net-work of in- 
 stant communication between all parts of the country, com- 
 prising between three and four hundred thousand miles of 
 wire. 
 
CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 THE INDIVIDUAL STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 The Original Thirteen States are arranged in the order of 
 their permanent settlement by Europeans, and the remainder in 
 the order of their admission as Sovereign States into the Union. 
 The Territories follow in the order of their organization as such 
 under a Territorial Government. The District of Columbia as 
 being under the complete control of Congress, and the explana- 
 tion of the "Mottoes and Names of the States" officially adopted 
 by their people are placed between the States and Territories. 
 The Tables of Census Statistics will be found in the Fourth 
 Part. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 ** The Old Dominion," as this State has been called, in familiar 
 style, has certain high claims to such a distinctive appellation. 
 It was the Colony in which the first permanent settlement was 
 made, and for fourteen years before the perils of the wilderness 
 were encountered by the Puritan Fathers of New England, it 
 confronted famine and Indian hostility. Its people were quite 
 different in character from those of most of the other Colonies. 
 While many were from the lowest classes, a goodly number of 
 the gentry and nobility of England v/ere transplanted to this 
 Colony. Some were men of wealth, character and influence; 
 and the hereditary value of that element became conspicuous 
 
574 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 when revolutionary times came, and the colonial government, 
 which had been from the first kept closely dependent on the 
 royal will, being set aside, permitted to this class a free field of 
 action. None were more eloquent, more zealous, more valiant 
 or wise, during the "time that tried men's souls." The talents, 
 patriotism, and wisdom of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, 
 Monroe, and many others almost equally useful, attested the 
 quality of the Virginian stock of patriots, and shed honor on 
 their native State. 
 
 It was settled in 1607, at Jamestown. The infant colony was 
 long exposed to danger of destruction by Indian hostility; but, 
 favored by circumstances, grew up to strength, and became a 
 protection to others. An almost constant struggle was main- 
 tained with the royal governors, who were disposed to encroach 
 on their liberties. Notwithstanding the number of decayed and 
 worthless gentlemen, and the dregs of the English populace, who 
 entered as components into her population, as a whole, they 
 proved worthy of the Republic they so largely helped to rear. 
 Their best blood was spilled in its cause, and their material sup- 
 port was never withheld in time of need. 
 
 This State is much varied in surface. In the southeast it is 
 low and level; in the west and northwest mountainous, with 
 numerous large streams and fertile valleys, and a charming 
 climate. Its mineral wealth of coal, iron and salt is very great; 
 its water power for manufacturing purposes unsurpassed ; and 
 its commercial position everything to be desired. None of these 
 advantages have been more than partially improved; and the 
 future of the State is destined to be exceedingly brilliant. Old 
 and flourishing colleges testify to the interest taken in educa- 
 tion; and railroads and other means of internal development 
 have already prepared the way for its greatness. She exports 
 tobacco, flour, oysters, and cotton, and her agricultural wealth 
 is constantly improving. 
 
 Virginia is also one of the original thirteen States, and had an 
 area previous to the division in 1862. of 61,352 square miles, equal 
 to 39,265,280 acres; but after West Virginia was set off as a sep- 
 arate State, there were but 38,352 square miles left of this once 
 great State, equal to 24,545,280 acres. 
 
 The population in 1860 amounted to 1,596,318, which entitled 
 the State to twelve Members of Congress. By the division the 
 number of Representatives was cut down to nine; the new State 
 
VIRGINIA. 
 
 575 
 
 receiving three out of the twelve. Population in 1880, 1,513,800. 
 
 Virginia lies in the fourth Judicial Circuit, which by the act of 
 18G6, was composed of this State, Maryland, West Virginia, and 
 North Carolina and South Carolina. There are two Judicial 
 Districts in this State, the Eastern and the Western. 
 
 There are seven collection districts in this State, and seven 
 ports of entry ; there are also twelve ports of delivery. 
 
 Richmond is the capital. The State election is held on the 
 Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
 meets on the first Monday in December. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws of Virginia is: "' Be it enacted 
 by the General Assembly." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 William Grayson, from 
 
 Richard A. Lee, " 
 Jx)hn Walker, 
 
 James Monroe, *' 
 
 John Taylor, 
 
 Stephen T. Mason, " 
 
 John Tazewell, " 
 Wilson C. Nichols, 
 
 Abraham B. Venable, " 
 William B. Giles, 
 
 Andrew Moore, " 
 
 Richard Brent, " 
 
 James Barbour, " 
 
 Armistead T. Mason, " 
 
 John W. Eppes, " 
 
 James Pleasant, " 
 
 John Randolph, " 
 
 Littleton W\ Tazewell, " 
 John Tyler, 
 
 William C. Rives, " 
 
 Benjamin W. Leigh " 
 
 Richard E. Parker, " 
 
 William H. Roane, '* 
 
 William S. Archer, " 
 
 178!) 
 
 to 
 
 1790. 
 
 1789 
 
 a 
 
 1793. 
 
 1790 
 
 i i 
 
 1790. 
 
 1790 
 
 '• 
 
 1794. 
 
 1793 
 
 •• 
 
 1794. 
 
 1803 
 
 '• 
 
 1805. 
 
 1832 
 
 a 
 
 1824. 
 
 1794 
 
 "' 
 
 1803. 
 
 1794 
 
 . i 
 
 1799. 
 
 1799 
 
 a 
 
 1804. 
 
 1803 
 
 a 
 
 1804. 
 
 1804 
 
 i i 
 
 1815. 
 
 1804 
 
 (I. 
 
 1809. 
 
 1809 
 
 a 
 
 1815. 
 
 1815 
 
 a 
 
 1825. 
 
 1816 
 
 i( 
 
 1817. 
 
 1817 
 
 it 
 
 1819. 
 
 1819 
 
 a 
 
 1823. 
 
 1825 
 
 a 
 
 1827. 
 
 1824 
 
 i i 
 
 1833. 
 
 1827 
 
 a 
 
 1836. 
 
 1832 
 
 a 
 
 1834. 
 
 183G 
 
 li 
 
 1845. 
 
 1834 
 
 a 
 
 1836. 
 
 1836 
 
 (( 
 
 1837. 
 
 1837 
 
 li 
 
 1841. 
 
 1841 
 
 a 
 
 1847. 
 
576 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I. S. Pennybacker, " 
 
 1845 ' 
 
 ' 1847 
 
 James M, Mason, " 
 
 1847 ' 
 
 ' 1861 
 
 R. M. T. Hunter, " 
 
 1847 ' 
 
 ' 1861 
 
 John W. Johnston, " 
 
 1870 ' 
 
 ' 1883 
 
 John F. Lewis, " 
 
 1870 ' 
 
 ' 1875. 
 
 Robert E. Withers, " 
 
 1875 ' 
 
 ' 1881 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 The "Empire State" is very fortunately situated for the pro- 
 motion of all the interests that form the basis of prosperity of a 
 Nation. It contains the commercial metropolis of the country, 
 which is connected, by its great navigable river, the Hudson, 
 and the Erie canal, with the fertile interior and the commerce 
 of the chain of great lakes in the west ; while Lakes Ontario 
 and Champlain furnish the means of profitable trade with 
 Canada on the north. As its natural commercial facilities are 
 unrivaled, so, also, every auxiliary that can be furnished by art 
 is employed to develop its resources and to attract trade and 
 manufactures. 
 
 Its river was discovered by the celebrated navigator. Captain 
 Henry Hudson, in 1609, and he gave it his name. He was em- 
 ployed at this time by the Dutch, who claimed and settled the 
 territory in the following year. They established posts on Man- 
 hattan Island, where New York now stands, and at Albany — call- 
 ing the country in general New Netherlands. They held it until 
 1664; laying claim, also, to Connecticut and New Jersey. Their 
 rule was despotic, and when the Duke of York, afterward James 
 II., King of England, sent a squadron to enforce English claims 
 to it, the inhabitants declined to resist, and it became an English 
 Colony without a struggle. The city and Colony received the 
 name of New York and continued henceforth in English hands. 
 Its position favored a steady growth in population and wealth ; 
 and it took an active part in the Revolution. Its central position ii 
 
NEW YORK. 577 
 
 made it the pivot of the war, the leading struggles taking place 
 in or near it. New York City was held by the British during 
 most of the war, but the skillful strategy and watchfulness of 
 Washington, and the valor of his officers and troops preserved 
 most of the River in American hands throughout. It ratified the 
 Constitution July 27th, 1788, and soon outstripped every State 
 in all things, except education, no State being able to compare 
 with Massachusetts in that respect. 
 
 New York is the largest and richest city in the Union. The 
 State abounds in salt and mineral springs, and its central and 
 western parts are unexcelled for agriculture; while the eastern, 
 more mountainous, but nearer to markets, and more abundant 
 in water power, is equally favorable to grazing and manufact- 
 ures. 
 
 Its area is 47,000 square miles, equal to 30,080,000 acres. The 
 population in 1880 was larger than that of any other State, being 
 officially stated at 5,083,810. It has thirty -three Members of 
 Congress. 
 
 It forms part of the Second Judicial Circuit, has three Judicial 
 Districts, ten ports of entry, and eighteen ports of delivery. 
 
 The Capital is Albany. The State elections are held on the 
 Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legisla- 
 ture meets on the first Tuesday in January in each year. The 
 style of the enacting clause is: "Be it enacted by the people of 
 the State of New York represented in Senate and Assembly." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Philip Schuyler, from 1789 to 1791. 
 
 Rufus King, " 
 
 Aaron Burr, " 
 
 John Lawrence " 
 
 John S. Hobart, " 
 
 William North, " 
 
 James Watson, " 
 
 Governeur Morris, " 
 
 John Armstrong, '' 
 
 De Witt Clinton, 
 
 Theodore Bailey, " 
 
 Samuel L. Mitchell, " 
 
 John Smith. " 
 
 37 
 
 1789 
 
 " 
 
 1796. 
 
 1813 
 
 i i 
 
 1825. 
 
 1791 
 
 I i 
 
 1797. 
 
 179G 
 
 a 
 
 1800. 
 
 1798 
 
 c< 
 
 1798. 
 
 1798 
 
 a 
 
 1798. 
 
 1798 
 
 Resigned, 
 
 1800 
 
 a 
 
 1803. 
 
 1800 
 
 it 
 
 1802. 
 
 1803 
 
 a 
 
 1804. 
 
 1803 
 
 (I 
 
 1803. 
 
 1803 
 
 li 
 
 1804. 
 
 1804 
 
 i( 
 
 1809. 
 
 1804 
 
 a 
 
 1813. 
 
578 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Obadiali German, from 
 
 Nathan Sanford, " 
 
 Martin Yan Buren, " 
 
 Charles Dudley, " 
 
 William L. Marcy, " 
 
 Nath'l P. Tallmadge, '' 
 Silas Wright, 
 
 Daniel S. Dickinson, " 
 
 Henry A. Foster, '* 
 John A. Dix, 
 
 William H. Seward, " 
 
 Hamilton Fish, " 
 
 Preston King. '' 
 
 Ira Harris. '' 
 
 Edwin D. Morgan, " 
 
 Roscoe Conkling, '• 
 
 Reuben E. Fenton. " 
 
 Francis Kernan. " 
 
 1809 
 
 to 
 
 1815. 
 
 j 1815 
 ( 1825 
 
 • • 
 
 1821. 
 1831. 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1844. 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1844. 
 
 1844 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1844 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1857. 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1863. 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1867. 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1869. 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875. 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 The "Bay State,"' so named from the deep encroachments of 
 the sea on her eastern border, was settled in 1620, at Plymouth, by 
 English Puritans; a class of sternly pious men, Avho abandoned 
 England to find freedom of worship in the savage wilds of 
 America. They were men of great resolution and intelligence, 
 and succeeded in imbuing the new colony with a fair degree of 
 their own virtue. They suffered much, at first, from depriva- 
 tion of the comforts they had left in England, and from the hos- 
 tility of the Indians. They were too much in earnest to be 
 tolerant, and persecutions of pretended witches, of Quakers and 
 Baptists, have given them an unenviable notoriety. 
 
 This State was a leading one among the original thirteen, the 
 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 679 
 
 first to take up arms and to be invaded by the British forces at 
 the commencement of the War of the Revolution. Her influence 
 on the national character has been great. 
 
 This State is the first in the Union for cotton and woolen man- 
 ufactures, its cotton mills alone employing about sixty-five 
 thousand hands. In extent of all its manufactures it is third in 
 the Union. The soil is sterile in great part, but the energy of the 
 people finds abundant other sources of wealth. Commerce and 
 fisheries receive much attention, and produce much wealth. 
 
 Education is carefully attended to, and its public school sys- 
 tem is a model for other States. She has an area of 7,800 square 
 miles. Her population in 1880 was 1,788,012, and entitles her to 
 eleven Members of Congress. It is in the First Judicial Circuit, 
 and forms one Judicial District. There are eleven ports of 
 entry, and twenty-five ports of delivery in this State. 
 
 Boston is the Capital, the metropolis of New England, and an 
 important center of intellectual and business energy. The Leg- 
 islature meets on the first Wednesday in January, and the State 
 elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in 
 November. 
 
 The enacting clause is: "Be it enacted by the Senate and 
 House of Representatives, in General Court assembled, and by 
 the authority of the same, as follows: 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Tristram Dalton, 
 
 from 
 
 1789 to 1791 
 
 Caleb Strong, 
 
 (( 
 
 1789 •' 
 
 ' 1796 
 
 George Cabot, 
 
 (( 
 
 1791 ' 
 
 ' 1796 
 
 Theo. Sedgwick, 
 
 (( 
 
 1796 ' 
 
 ' 1799 
 
 Benj. Goodhue, 
 
 (( 
 
 1796 ' 
 
 ' 1800 
 
 Samuel Dexter, 
 
 {< 
 
 1799 ' 
 
 ' 1800 
 
 Dwight Foster, 
 
 <( 
 
 1800 ' 
 
 ' 1803 
 
 Jonathan Mason, 
 
 (t 
 
 1800 ' 
 
 ' 1803 
 
 John Q. Adams, 
 
 (( 
 
 1803 ' 
 
 ' 1808 
 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 
 (t 
 
 1803 ' 
 
 ' 1811 
 
 James Lloyd, 
 
 t( 
 
 j 1808 ' 
 ■ 1822 ' 
 
 ' 1813 
 ' 1826 
 
 Joseph B. Varnum, 
 
 << 
 
 1811 ' 
 
 ' 1817 
 
 Christopher Gore, 
 
 (( 
 
 1813 ' 
 
 ' 1816 
 
 Eli P. Ashmun, 
 
 (( 
 
 1816 ' 
 
 ' 1818 
 
 Harrison Gray Otis, 
 
 (( 
 
 1817 ' 
 
 ' 1822 
 
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Prentiss Mellon, from 
 Elijah H. Mills, 
 
 Nathaniel Silsbee, " 
 
 Daniel Webster, " 
 
 Eufus Choate, " 
 
 John Davis, " 
 
 Isaac C. Bates, " 
 
 Robert C. Winthrop, " 
 
 Robert Rantoul, '* 
 
 Edward Everett, " 
 
 Julius Rockwell, '* 
 
 Henry Wilson, " 
 
 Charles Sumner, " 
 
 George S. Boutwell, " 
 
 William Washburn, " 
 
 Henry L. Dawes, *•' 
 
 George F. Hoar, " 
 
 1818 to 1820 
 
 1820 ' 
 
 •' 1827 
 
 1826 ' 
 
 ' 1835 
 
 1827 ' 
 
 ' 1841 
 
 1845 ' 
 
 ' 1850 
 
 1841 ' 
 
 ' 1845 
 
 1835 ' 
 
 ' 1841 
 
 1845 ' 
 
 ' 1853 
 
 1841 • 
 
 ' 1845 
 
 1850 ' 
 
 ' 1851 
 
 1851 ' 
 
 ' 1851. 
 
 1853 ' 
 
 ' 1854 
 
 1854 ' 
 
 ' 1855 
 
 1855 ' 
 
 ' 1873 
 
 1851 ' 
 
 ' 1874 
 
 1873 ' 
 
 ' 1877 
 
 1874 ' 
 
 ' 1875 
 
 1875 ' 
 
 ' 1881 
 
 187 
 
 ' 1888. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 This State is often called "The Old Granite State," as well 
 from its mountainous character as the resolute spirit of its in- 
 habitants. It is small, having an area of only 9,280 square 
 miles, which make 5,939,200 acres. Its population in 1880 was 
 346,984, entitling it to three Representatives in Congress. 
 
 The first settlement was founded at Dover, in 1624. by the 
 English. It suffered much from Indian wars, and its growth 
 was slow. It was made a separate province in 1680, having pre- 
 viously been under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. It was one 
 of the original thirteen States, and took an active and vigorous 
 part in the Revolutionary War. 
 
 Its soil is light and unfavorable to Agriculture, but furnishes 
 good pasturage and produces fine cattle. It contains the White 
 
NEW HAMPSHIKE. 
 
 581 
 
 Mountains, the highest in New England. Its streams are utilized 
 for manufacturing purposes. Quarries of marble and granite 
 abound. Minerals and precious stones of several varieties are 
 found in various parts of the State. The hardy and enterprising 
 sons to whom it has given birth are to be found in every State in 
 the Union. 
 
 It lies in the first Judicial Circuit; constitutes one Judicial Dis- 
 trict; and is embraced in one Collection District, and therefore 
 has but one port of entry. There are five ports of delivery. 
 
 The capital is Concord. The Legislature assembles biennially 
 on the first Wednesday in June, the State election being held 
 the second Tuesday in March. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws runs thus: " Be it enacted by 
 the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly 
 convened." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Paine Wingate, 
 John Langdon, 
 Samuel Livermore 
 Simeon Olcott, 
 James Sheafe, 
 William Plummer, 
 Nicholas Gilman, 
 Nahum Parker, 
 Charles Cutts, 
 Jeremiah Mason, 
 Thomas W. Thompson, 
 David L. Morrill, 
 Clement Storer, 
 John F. Parrott, 
 Samuel Bell, 
 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 
 Isaac Hill, 
 Henry Hubbard, 
 John Page, 
 Franklin Pierce, 
 Leonard Wilcox, 
 
 Charles G. Atherson, 
 
 Benning W. Jenness, 
 
 from 
 
 1789 to 1793 
 
 1789 ' 
 
 ' 1801 
 
 1793 ' 
 
 ' 1801 
 
 1801 ' 
 
 1805 
 
 1801 ' 
 
 1802 
 
 1802 ' 
 
 1807 
 
 1805 ' 
 
 ' 1814 
 
 1807 ' 
 
 1810 
 
 1810 ' 
 
 1813 
 
 1813 ' 
 
 1817. 
 
 1814 ' 
 
 ' 1817 
 
 1817 ' 
 
 1823. 
 
 1817 ' 
 
 1819. 
 
 1819 ' 
 
 1825. 
 
 1823 '' 
 
 1835. 
 
 1825 ' 
 
 ' 1831 
 
 1841 ' 
 
 ' 1845. 
 
 1831 ' 
 
 1836. 
 
 1835 ' 
 
 1841. 
 
 1836 ' 
 
 1837. 
 
 1837 ' 
 
 1842. 
 
 1842 ' 
 
 1843. 
 
 1843 ' 
 
 1849. 
 
 1853 ' 
 
 1853. 
 
 1845 " 
 
 1846. 
 
583 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Joseph Cilley, 
 
 from 
 
 1846 
 
 to 
 
 1847. 
 
 John P. Hale, 
 
 
 J1847 
 (1855 
 
 
 1853. 
 1865. 
 
 Moses Norris, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 Jared W. Williams, 
 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 John S. Wells, 
 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 James Bell, 
 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1857. 
 
 Daniel Clark, 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1866, 
 
 George C. Fogg, 
 
 
 1866 
 
 
 1867. 
 
 James W Paterson, 
 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1873. 
 
 Aaron H. Cragin, 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 Bainbridge Wadleigh, " 1873 " 1879. 
 
 E. H. Rollins, " 1877 •' 1883. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 This State takes its name from its principal river, which, 
 entering from the north, runs through the State nearly in the 
 center. It was settled in 1633 from Massachusetts, the fertility 
 of the valley of the Connecticut attracting its hardy people to 
 brave the perils of conflict with the Indians, and with the Dutch, 
 settled where New York now stands, who laid claim to it. The 
 Dutch withdrew, the Indians were subdued in many bloody bat- 
 tles, and a Puritan State — exceeding, if possible, the religious 
 strictness of the Massachusetts colony, and not behind her in 
 energy, in virtue, in attention to education, and love of liberty — 
 soon grew up to wealth and prosperity. 
 
 A decisive battle in 1636. on the Mystic river, annihilated the 
 Pequod Indians. 
 
 Connecticut, in 1700, followed tlie example set by Massachu- 
 setts in 1638, by founding Yale college, which, to this day, very 
 faifly rivals Harvard in the former State. Both have contrib- 
 uted largely to the intelligence and culture of the American 
 people. It took a leading part in the Revolution ; ratified the 
 Constitution June 9th, 1788; and has displayed the zeal in pro- 
 
CONNECTICUT. 583 
 
 moting the public good that has been so prominent in the cultir 
 vation of her educational and material interests. 
 
 The surface of the State is uneven and rocky. Manufactures 
 and commerce are the leading interests, although agriculture is 
 not neglected. It is rich in minerals. Gold, silver, lead, iron, 
 copper and bismuth are found, while marble, of fine quality, and 
 granite abound. 
 
 Its area is small, embracing only 4,674 square miles, or 
 2,991,360 acres. It has four Representatives in Congress. The 
 population in 1880 was 622,685, It is part of the second Judicial 
 Circuit, and constitutes one Judicial District. She has five ports 
 of entry, and five collection districts, with twenty-four ports of 
 delivery. 
 
 The beautiful city of Hartford is the capital, and the State 
 election is held biennially on the Tuesday after the first Monday 
 in November. The Legislature meets annually on the Wednes- 
 day following the first Monday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause runs thus: "Be it enacted by the Senate 
 and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Oliver Ellsworth, 
 
 from 
 
 1789 
 
 to 
 
 1796. 
 
 William S. Johnson 
 
 a 
 
 1789 
 
 " 
 
 1792. 
 
 Roger Sherman, 
 
 11 
 
 1791 
 
 ^ i 
 
 1793. 
 
 S. M, Mitchell, 
 
 
 1793 
 
 to 
 
 1795. 
 
 Jonathan Trumbull, 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1796. 
 
 Uriah Tracey, 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1807. 
 
 J. Hillhouse, 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1810. 
 
 C. Goodrich, 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1813. 
 
 S. W. Dana, 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1821. 
 
 David Doggett, 
 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1819. 
 
 James Lannian, 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1825. 
 
 E. Boardman, 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1823. 
 
 H. W. Edwards, 
 
 
 1823 
 
 
 1827. 
 
 Calvin Willey, 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 Samuel A. Foot, 
 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 G. Tomlinson, 
 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1837. 
 
 Nathan Smith. 
 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1835. 
 
 John M. Niles, 
 
 
 j 1835 
 { 1843 
 
 
 1839 
 1849. 
 
584 
 
 LOCAL, GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Perry Smith, 
 Thaddeus Betts, 
 J. W. Huntington, 
 R. S. Baldwin, 
 Truman Smith, 
 Isaac Toucey, 
 Francis Gillette, 
 L. S. Foster, 
 James Dixon, 
 Orris S. Ferry, 
 W. A. Buckingham, 
 Wm. W. Eaton, 
 W. H. Barnum, 
 Orville H. Piatt, 
 
 from 
 
 1837 
 
 to 
 
 1843. 
 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 
 1840. 
 1847. 
 
 1847 
 
 a 
 
 1851. 
 
 1849 
 
 .i 
 
 1854. 
 
 1852 
 
 a 
 
 1857. 
 
 1854 
 
 •' 
 
 1855. 
 
 1855 
 
 a 
 
 1867 
 
 1857 
 
 a 
 
 1869 
 
 1867 
 
 a 
 
 1876 
 
 1869 
 
 a 
 
 1875 
 
 1875 
 
 a 
 
 1881. 
 
 1876 
 
 a 
 
 1879 
 
 1879 
 
 1, i 
 
 1885 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 This territory at first was included in the patent to the Virginia 
 Colony; but was, in 1632, re-patented to Lord Baltimore, an En- 
 glish nobleman, who had embraced the Catholic faith, and sought, 
 in the American wilderness, an asylum where he and his co-re- 
 ligionists might enjoy the freedom from persecution denied them 
 in England. It was called Maryland from the queen of Charles 
 I. , King of England. A part of this patent was covered by that 
 subsequently made to William Penn, and produced much trouble 
 between the descendants of these men, and their respective Col- 
 onies. A settlement was commenced, mainly by Catholic gen- 
 tlemen, in 1634, and called St. Mary's, on a branch of the Poto- 
 mac. 
 
 The wise liberality that distinguished the settlement of Penn- 
 sylvania marked all the earlier history of Maryland. They cul- 
 ivated friendly relations with the natives and with their neigh- 
 bors. Lord Baltimore was liberal in his expenditures for the 
 growing Colony, and gave them a liberal government. When 
 the civil war commenced in England, resulting in the death of 
 
MARYLAND. 585 
 
 Charles I. and the rise of Cromwell to power, the first troubles of 
 the colonists of Maryland began, and continued until 1710, when 
 the heirs of the original proprietor resumed their rights and 
 maintained them until the Revolution. 
 
 This State was one of the original thirteen, and gave a hearty 
 support to the patriot side during the war for freedom. 
 
 The surface of the country is, in great part, low and sandy 
 the climate agreeeble and the soil favorable to agricultural pur- 
 suits. Her commercial position is excellent, being situated on 
 either side of Chesapeake bay and bounded by the Potomac river 
 on the west. The District of Columbia, containing the National 
 Capital, was located on the last named river within her limits. 
 
 Maryland has an area of 11,134 square miles— equal to 7,119,- 
 360 acres. The population in 1880 was !)34:,632 which gives her 
 six Representatives in Congress. By an act of Congress, passed 
 in 1866, this State was put in the fourth Judicial Circuit, which is 
 composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North and 
 South Carolina. Maryland constitutes one Judicial District; has 
 three ports of entry, viz: Baltimore, Annapolis, and Crisfield; 
 and twelve ports of delivery. 
 
 Annapolis is the capital. The State election is held on the 
 Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
 meets on the first Wednesday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: " Be it enacted 
 by the General Assembly of Maryland." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Charles Carroll, t ^ ™ i non ^ i «a.. 
 
 (of Carrollton) I ^^^"^ 1^^^ ^^ ^^9'^' 
 
 John Henry, " 1789 " 1797. 
 
 Richard Potts, " 1793 " 1796. 
 
 John E. Howard, " 1796 " 1803. 
 
 James Lloyd, " 1797 '' 1800. 
 
 William Hindman, " 1800 " 1801. 
 
 Robert Wright, " 1801 " 1806. 
 
 Samuel Smith, 
 
 ( 1803 " 1815. 
 \ 1823 '* 1833. 
 
 Philip Reed, " 1806 •' 1813. 
 
 1813 '• 1819. 
 
 1836. 
 
 Robert G. Harper, " 1816 " 1816. 
 
 Alexander C. Hanson " 1816 •' 1819. 
 
 R. H. Goldsborough, " j Jgg^ 
 
 Robert G. Harper, " 1816 
 
 Alexander C. Hanson " 1816 
 
 William Pinckney, •' 1819 •' 1823. 
 
586 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Edwcirci Lloyd, from 
 
 Ezekiel F. Chambers, 
 Joseph Kent, 
 John S. Spence, 
 William D. Merrick, 
 John Leeds Ker, 
 James A. Pearce, 
 
 Reverdy Johnson, 
 
 David Stuart, 
 Thomas G. Pratt, 
 Anthony Kennedy, 
 Thomas H. Hicks, 
 John A. J. Cresswell, 
 George Vickers, 
 William T. Hamilton, 
 George R. Dennis, 
 
 William Pinckney Whyte, 
 
 James B. Groome. 
 
 1819 to 1826. 
 
 1826 " 
 
 1835. 
 
 1833 '' 
 
 1838. 
 
 1836 •' 
 
 1841. 
 
 1838 •• 
 
 1845. 
 
 1841 '• 
 
 1848. 
 
 1843 " 
 
 1862. 
 
 1845 '• 
 
 1849. 
 
 1863 '• 
 
 1868. 
 
 1849 ' 
 
 1850. 
 
 1850 ': 
 
 1857. 
 
 1857 " 
 
 1863. 
 
 1862 '• 
 
 1865. 
 
 1865 ' 
 
 1867. 
 
 1868 ' 
 
 1873. 
 
 1869 • 
 
 1875. 
 
 1873 ' 
 
 1879. 
 
 1868 ' 
 
 • 1869. 
 
 1875 ' 
 
 1881. 
 
 1879 ' 
 
 1885. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 This is the smallest of the States, having an area of but 1,306 
 square miles, or 835,840 acres. 
 
 It was settled in 1630 by Roger Williams, and became an 
 avowed place of refuge for persecuted Christians of all names, 
 but especially for Baptists, among whom Mr. Williams was a 
 leader. It was chartered as a separate colony in 1644, and the 
 excellent constitution framed under it lasted until 1818. It was 
 one of the original thirteen States and took an earnest share in 
 the struggles of the revolution, though it was not represented in 
 the Convention that framed the Constitution, and did not ratify 
 it until 1790. 
 
 Its citizens are mainly engaged in the manufacturing and 
 commercial pursuits for which their excellent Ji arbors and 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 587 
 
 streams furnish eminent facilities. It has always been prosper- 
 ous, its people being distinguished for industry and activity. Its 
 population was, in 1880, 276,528. 
 
 Rhode Island forms part of the First Judicial Circuit; consti- 
 tutes one Judicial District; and has three ports of entry, and 
 five of delivery. It has two Capitals, having been originally 
 formed by two separate Colonies. These are Providence and 
 Newport. The election for State officers is held on the first 
 Wednesday in April. The Legislature is held twice in the year, 
 in May and January. The style of her enacting clause is; "It 
 is enacted by the General Assembly, as follows. " 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Theodore Foster, from 
 
 Joseph Stanton, " 
 
 William Bradford, " 
 
 Ray Green, '* 
 
 Charles Ellery, " 
 
 Samuel L. Potter, ** 
 
 Benjamin Howland, *' 
 
 James Fenner, " 
 
 Elisha Matthewson, " 
 
 Francis Malbone, '* 
 
 C. G. Champlin, " 
 
 Jeremiah B. Howell, " 
 
 William Hunter, " 
 
 James. Burrill, " 
 James D'Wolf, 
 
 Nehemiah R. Knight, " 
 
 Asher Robbins, " 
 
 Nathan F. Dixon, " 
 
 James F. Simmons, '* 
 
 William Sprague, ** 
 
 John B. Francis, " 
 Albert C. Green, 
 
 John H. Clarke, " 
 
 Charles T. James, " 
 
 Philip Allen, " 
 
 Samuel G. Arnold, " 
 
 Henry B. Anthony, " 
 
 1790 
 
 to 
 
 1803. 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1793. 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1797. 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1801. 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1805. 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1804. 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1809. 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1807. 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1811. 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1809. 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1811. 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1817. 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1821. 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1821. 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1825. 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1841. 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1839. 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1842. 
 
 1841 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1862. 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1844. 
 
 1844 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1847 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1857. 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1859. 
 
 1862 
 1859 
 
 a 
 
 1863. 
 1883. 
 
588 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 William Sprague, from 1863 to 1875. 
 
 Ambrose F. Burnside. " 1875 " 1881. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 This State was first settled at Bergen by the Swedes sent over 
 by the Christian hero-king. Gustavus Adolphus, in the year 
 1638. They, however, soon fell mider the control of the Dutch, 
 who claimed the territory. The next settlement was made at 
 Elizabethtown, from Long Island, in 1664. New Jersey came 
 into the hands of the English along with New Netherlands (New 
 York), but soon became an independent province, Philip Carteret 
 becoming its first Governor, in 1665. It was for some time under 
 the control of the celebrated Quaker, William Penn, received a 
 liberal form of government, and, not suffering from the Indians, 
 enjoyed prosperity for many years. Afterwards it passed 
 through various vicissitudes in its gOTernment, was for a time 
 joined to New York, but recovered its independent existence in 
 1738, and was one of the original thirteen States, taking a very 
 prominent part in the Revolution. Its territory, lying between 
 New York and Philadelphia, was the field on which the hostile 
 armies fought and manceuvered, for some years. It ratified the 
 Constitution unanimously, December 18th, 1787. It has been re- 
 warded for its patriotism and devotion to liberty by unbroken 
 prosperity. Its manufactures are in a flourishing state. Its 
 vicinity to the great commercial centres of the Atlantic coast, 
 the mildness of its climate, and the adaptation of its soil to the 
 growth of fruit and vegetables have made it the Garden State of 
 the Union. Its agricultural wealth is much increased by its 
 abundant beds of marl and peat. The extreme north is hilly and 
 the extreme south low and sandy. Education receives much 
 attention. 
 
 It has an area of 8,3.20 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres. The 
 population, by the census of 1880, was 1,130,983, which gives her 
 seven Representatives in Congress. 
 
NEW JERSEY. 589 
 
 This state lies in the third Judicial Circuit, and forms one 
 Judicial District. There are six ports of entry, and as many CJol- 
 lection Districts; and also seven ports of delivery. 
 
 Its capital is Trenton. The State election is held on the Tues- 
 day after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature 
 assembles the second Tuesday in January. 
 
 The form of the enacting- clause is as follows : '*Be it enacted 
 by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New- 
 Jersey." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Jonathan Elmer, from 
 
 William Patterson, " 
 
 Philemon Dickerson, *' 
 
 John Rutherford, '* 
 
 Fred'k Frelinghuysen, '* 
 
 Richard Stockton, " 
 
 Franklin Davenport, " 
 
 James Schureman, '* 
 
 Jonathan Dayton, ** 
 
 Aaron Ogden, " 
 
 John Condit, " 
 
 Aaron Kitchell, " 
 
 John Lambert, ** 
 
 Mahlon Dickerson, " 
 
 James J. Wilson, " 
 
 Samuel L. Southard, 
 
 Joseph Mcllvaine, " 
 
 Thos. Frelinghuysen, " 
 
 Ephraim Bateman, " 
 Garret D. Wall, 
 
 Jacob Miller, " 
 William L. Dayton, 
 
 John B. Thompson, " 
 
 William Pennington, " 
 
 William Wright. 
 
 Robert F. Stockton, 
 John C. TenEyck, 
 Richard S. Field, 
 
 1789 
 
 to 
 
 1791. 
 
 1789 
 
 it 
 
 1790. 
 
 1790 
 
 <( 
 
 1793. 
 
 1791 
 
 << 
 
 1798. 
 
 1793 
 
 " 
 
 1796. 
 
 1796 
 
 (( 
 
 1799. 
 
 1798 
 
 (( 
 
 1799. 
 
 1799 
 
 (( 
 
 1801. 
 
 1799 
 
 <( 
 
 1805. 
 
 1801 
 
 ;( 
 
 1803. 
 
 1803 
 
 a 
 
 18U. 
 
 1805 
 
 a 
 
 1809. 
 
 1809 
 
 a 
 
 1815. 
 
 1817 
 
 " 
 
 1833. 
 
 1815 
 
 n 
 
 1821. 
 
 1821 
 
 " 
 
 1823. 
 
 1833 
 
 ( < 
 
 1841. 
 
 1823 
 
 a 
 
 1826. 
 
 1629 
 
 it 
 
 1835. 
 
 1826 
 
 i i 
 
 1829. 
 
 1835 
 
 a 
 
 1841. 
 
 1841 
 
 i( 
 
 1853. 
 
 1842 
 
 a 
 
 1851. 
 
 1853 
 
 li 
 
 1863. 
 
 1858 
 
 ii 
 
 1858. 
 
 1853 
 
 i( 
 
 1859. 
 
 1863 
 1851 
 
 
 1866. 
 1853. 
 
 1859 
 
 (( 
 
 1865. 
 
 1862 
 
 (< 
 
 1863. 
 
590 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 James W. Wall, 
 John P. Stockton, 
 F. T. Freling-huysen, 
 Alexander G. Cattell, 
 John P. Stockton, 
 F T. Frelinghuysen, 
 Theo. F. Randolph, 
 J. R. McPherson, 
 
 1863 
 
 (( 
 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 
 ii 
 
 1866 
 
 1867 
 
 (I 
 
 1869 
 
 1866 
 
 " 
 
 1871 
 
 " 1869 
 
 a 
 
 1875 
 
 1871 
 
 it 
 
 1877 
 
 1875 
 
 a 
 
 1881 
 
 1877 
 
 a 
 
 1883 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 The first settlement of Delaware was made by the Swedes, in 
 pursuance of the policy of the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, king 
 of Sweden. European wars, in which he was engaged, and in 
 which he lost his life in 1633, deferred the project, but it was 
 carried into effect in 1638, near the present city of Wilmington. 
 They extended their settlements from the entrance of Delaware 
 Bay far up the river, until the Dutch, from New Netherlands, 
 who claimed the country, attacked and reduced them to submis- 
 sion, uniting New Sweden, as it had been called, to their own 
 Colony, in the year 1655. It fell, with that Colony, into the hands 
 of the English in 1664. It was included in the grant made to Wil- 
 liam Penn, in 1682. It was long attached to Pennsylvania, but 
 in 1703 received permission to form a separate government, on 
 the wise and liberal plan pursued by Penn. This form of gov 
 ernment continued through the Revolutionary war. 
 
 The surface of the State is level, or gently undulating, the 
 climate is agreeable, except that, in winter, the sea breeze is 
 rather harsh; the soil is sandy but fertile. Grain and fruit are 
 raised, peaches being produced in great profusion. Her com- 
 mercial and manufacturing business is limited, and she is des- 
 titute of mineral wealth. 
 
 It is next to Rhode Island in size, containing the small area of 
 2,120 square miles, or 1, 356,800 acres. Population in 1880, 146,- 
 654. The capital is Dover. The Legislature meets biennially, on 
 
DELAWAKE 
 
 
 591 
 
 Tuesday in January. 
 
 The State election is in November 
 
 cond year. 
 
 
 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 
 George Read, 
 
 from 
 
 1789 to 1793. 
 
 R. Bassett, 
 
 
 ii 
 
 1789 ' 
 
 ' 1793. 
 
 John Vining, 
 
 
 (( 
 
 1793 ' 
 
 ' 1798. 
 
 Kensey Johns, 
 
 
 C( 
 
 1794 ' 
 
 ' 1795. 
 
 Henry Latimer, 
 
 
 a 
 
 1795 ' 
 
 ' 1801. 
 
 Joshua Clayton, 
 
 
 i( 
 
 1798 ' 
 
 ' 1799. 
 
 W. H. Wells, 
 
 
 I 
 
 j 1799 ' 
 ( 1813 ' 
 
 ' 1804. 
 ' 1817. 
 
 Samuel White, 
 
 
 I 
 
 1801 ' 
 
 ' 1810. 
 
 J. A. Bayard, 
 
 
 t{ 
 
 1804 ' 
 
 ' 1813. 
 
 O. Horsey, 
 
 
 '( 
 
 1810 ' 
 
 ' 1821. 
 
 N. Van Dyke, 
 
 
 < 
 
 1817 ' 
 
 ' 1826. 
 
 C. A. Rodney, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1822 ' 
 
 • 1823. 
 
 T. Clayton, 
 
 
 (< 
 
 J 1824 ' 
 ] 1837 ' 
 
 ' 1827. 
 * 1847. 
 
 D. Rodney, 
 
 
 t( 
 
 1826 ' 
 
 ' 1827. 
 
 H. Ridgely, 
 
 
 e< 
 
 1827 ' 
 
 ' 1829. 
 
 L. McLane, 
 
 
 St 
 
 1827 ' 
 
 ' 1829. 
 
 J. M. Clayton, 
 
 
 (( 
 
 j 1829 ' 
 ( 1845 ' 
 
 ' 1837. 
 ' 1849. 
 
 A. Naudain, 
 
 
 < 
 
 1830 ' 
 
 ' 1836. 
 
 R. H. Bayard 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1836 ' 
 
 ' 1845. 
 
 P. Spruance, 
 
 
 i 
 
 1847 ' 
 
 ' 1853. 
 
 John Wales, 
 
 
 < 
 
 1849 ' 
 
 ' , 1851. 
 
 J. A. Bayard, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1851 ' 
 
 ' 1864. 
 
 M. W. Bates, 
 
 
 t 
 
 1857 ' 
 
 ' 1859. 
 
 J. P. Comeygs, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1856 ' 
 
 ' 1857. 
 
 W. Saulsbury, 
 
 
 { 
 
 1859 ' 
 
 ' 1871. 
 
 G, R. Riddle, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1863 ' 
 
 ' 1867. 
 
 J. A. Bayard, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1867 '' 
 
 ' 1869. 
 
 Thomas F. Bayard, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 1869 ' 
 
 ' 1881. 
 
 Eli Saulsbury, 
 
 
 e 
 
 1871 ' 
 
 '' 1883. 
 
592 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 A Florentine navigator, Verrazzani, sent out by Francis I., 
 King of France, first published an account of this region. He 
 visited it in 1524. Ribault, a French Protestant, sent out with a 
 colony by Admiral Coligni, in 1564, named the southern coast 
 Carolina, from Charles IX. (in Latin Carolus), King of France. 
 The colony was not permanent. In 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh 
 made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony on Roan- 
 oke Island. Some fifty years later the colonists of Virginia 
 made a settlement in the limits of this State, called Albemarle. 
 This territory was patented to a company of noblemen. The 
 first colony, founded before this patent was issued, and enjoy- 
 ing entire liberty, became an asylum from the religious intoler- 
 ance almost universal at that time. In 1666 they numbered 100. 
 
 Many French Huguenots, attracted by this freedom, the mild 
 climate and the extreme fertily of the soil, settled here and 
 added greatly to the industrious and virtuous elements of the 
 population. The revolutionary struggle was singularly bitter 
 and bloody in .this State and in South Carolina, from the number 
 and sanguinary character of the royalists and tories, and from 
 the partisan or guerilla mode of warfare adopted. 
 
 The majority were, however, determined and valiant patriots, 
 and rendered it impossible for the British to establish a firm 
 control over this part of the country. 
 
 The eastern surface is low, the western mountainous, and 
 much of the midland is covered with pine forests which produce 
 large quantities of turpentine. The soil is favorable to agricul- 
 ture. Yams, rice, and cotton, in addition to the cereals, are 
 raised with success. The fisheries in Albemarle Sound are an 
 important source of wealth. A large number of minerals are 
 found in the State. Like most of the Southern States, its re- 
 sources have been but partially developed. 
 
 This is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area of 
 50,704 square miles, equal to 32,450,560 acres, with a population 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 593 
 
 in 1880 of 1,400,047, and entitled to eight members of Congress. 
 North Carolina, by act of 18GG,was located in the fourth Judicial 
 Circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, 
 North Carolina, and South Carolina; and is divided into two 
 Judicial Districts. There are four Collection Districts and four 
 ports of entry. 
 
 Raleigh is the Capital. The Legislature meets biennially on 
 the second Wednesday in January. The State election is held 
 on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: "Be it enacted 
 by the General Assembly of the State of North Carolina, and it 
 is hereby enacted by the authority of the same." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS 
 
 Samuel Johnson, from 
 
 Benjamin Hawkins, " 
 
 Alexander Martin, " 
 
 Timothy Blood worth, " 
 
 Jesse Franklin, 
 
 David Stone, 
 
 James Turner, 
 Nathaniel Macon, 
 James Iredell, 
 Montford Stokes, 
 John Branch, 
 Bedford Brown, 
 
 Willie P. Mangum, 
 
 Robert Strange, 
 
 William A. Graham, 
 
 William H. Haywood, 
 
 George E. Badger, 
 
 Asa Biggs, 
 
 David S. Reed, 
 
 Thomas L. Clingman, 
 
 Thomas Bragg, 
 
 Joseph C. Abbott, 
 
 John Pool, 
 
 Zebulon B. Vance, 
 
 Matthew W. Ransom, 
 
 Augustus S. Merriman, 
 38 
 
 1789 
 1789 
 1793 
 1795 
 1799 
 1807 
 1801 
 1813 
 1805 
 1815 
 1828 
 1816 
 1823 
 1829 
 1840 
 1831 
 1836 
 1840 
 1843 
 1846 
 1854 
 1855 
 1858 
 1859 
 1868 
 1868 
 1879 
 1872 
 1872 
 
 to 
 
 1793. 
 1795. 
 1799. 
 1801. 
 1805. 
 1813. 
 1807. 
 1814. 
 
 1816. 
 1828. 
 1831. 
 1823. 
 1829. 
 1840. 
 1853. 
 1836. 
 1840. 
 1843. 
 1846. 
 1855. 
 1858. 
 1859. 
 1861. 
 1861. 
 1871. 
 1873. 
 1885. 
 1883. 
 1879. 
 
§M LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 SOUTH C A R O L 1 In' A . 
 
 The first permanent settlement in this State was made in 1670, 
 at Port Royal, where the French Huguenots had failed nearly 
 a century before. The noble company Avho had received a 
 charter for the settlement and government of the Carolinas 
 employed the celebrated philosopher, John Locke, to draw up a 
 philosophical plan of government, which they attempted to 
 carry into effect, to the great annoyance of the colonists. It 
 proved impracticable, and was finally abandoned. 
 
 The French introduced the culture of the vine with success, 
 and rice was brought at an early day from Madagascar, the 
 cultivation of which became extensive. 
 
 Many vexations were endured by the colonists by the in- 
 judicious management of the proprietary government, and at 
 length they, by petition, obtained a revocation of the charter, 
 receiving, in 1720, a governor appointed by the crown. They 
 endured for many years all the horrors of warfare with the Tus- 
 carora Indians, whom they finally defeated and expelled. Rut- 
 ledge, Sumter, and Marion were distinguished leaders of the 
 patriots during the occupation of the State by the British forces; 
 employing with success a partisan warfare, and defying the 
 efforts of a superior British force to hold the State in subjection. 
 
 The climate has been likened to that of Italy, and the pro- 
 ducts of the north and of the tropics are equally cultivated. The 
 State abounds in agricultural and manufacturing resources, and 
 has a fine commercial position. 
 
 South Carolina is one of the original thirteen States, and has 
 an area of 29,385 square miles, making 18,806,400 acres, with a 
 population, in 1880, of 995,622, which gives her five Members of 
 Congress, 
 
 By an act of 1866, South Carolina was located in the Fourth 
 Judicial Circuit; has one Judicial District, three Collection Dis- 
 tricts, and three ports of entry, to-wit: Georgetown, Charles- 
 ton and Beaufort; but no ports of delivery. 
 
 The Capital is Columbia. The State election is held biennially, 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 695 
 
 on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November. 
 The Legislature meets annually, on the fourth Tuesday in 
 November, 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: "Be it enacted 
 by the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives, now 
 met and sitting in General Assembly, and by authority of the 
 same." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Pierce Butler, from 
 
 Ralph Izard, •' 
 
 Jacob Read, " 
 
 John Hunter, " 
 
 Charles Pinckney, *' 
 
 Thomas Sumpter, ** 
 
 John E. Calhoun, " 
 
 John Gaillard, " 
 
 John Taylor, " 
 
 William Smith, 
 
 William Harper, " 
 
 Robert J. Hane, " 
 
 Stephen D. Miller, 
 
 John C. Calhoun, " 
 
 William C. Preston, " 
 
 Daniel E. Huger, " 
 George McDuffie, 
 
 Andrew P. Butler, " 
 
 Franklin H. Elmore, " 
 Robert W. Barnwell, 
 R. Barnwell Rhett, 
 
 William Desaussure. " 
 
 Josiah Evans, " 
 
 James H, Hammond, " 
 
 James Chestnut, " 
 
 Arthur P. Hayne, '* 
 
 Thomas J. Robertson, " 
 
 Frederick A. Sawyer, " 
 
 John J. Patterson, " 
 
 Manning C. Butler, *•' 
 
 Wade Hampton, " 
 
 1802 
 
 ii 
 
 1804. 
 
 1789 
 
 a 
 
 1795. 
 
 1795 
 
 a 
 
 1801. 
 
 1796 
 
 li 
 
 1798. 
 
 1798 
 
 li 
 
 1801. 
 
 1801 
 
 k( 
 
 1810. 
 
 1801 
 
 ( i 
 
 1802. 
 
 1804 
 
 a 
 
 1826. 
 
 1810 
 
 << 
 
 1816. 
 
 1816 
 
 a 
 
 1823. 
 
 1826 
 
 (( 
 
 1831. 
 
 1826 
 
 li 
 
 1826. 
 
 1823 
 
 i i 
 
 1832. 
 
 1831 
 
 a 
 
 1833. 
 
 1832 
 
 li 
 
 1842. 
 
 1845 
 
 a 
 
 1850. 
 
 1833 
 
 n 
 
 1842. 
 
 1842 
 
 i i 
 
 1845. 
 
 1842 
 
 n 
 
 1846. 
 
 1846 
 
 li 
 
 1857. 
 
 1850 
 
 it 
 
 1850. 
 
 1850 
 
 a 
 
 1850. 
 
 1850 
 
 a 
 
 1852. 
 
 1852 
 
 a 
 
 1853. 
 
 1853 
 
 a 
 
 1858. 
 
 1857 
 
 it 
 
 1860. 
 
 1859 
 
 a 
 
 1860. 
 
 1858 
 
 a 
 
 1859. 
 
 1868 
 
 <( 
 
 1877. 
 
 1868 
 
 {i 
 
 1873. 
 
 1873 
 
 li 
 
 1879. 
 
 1877 
 
 li 
 
 1883. 
 
 1879 
 
 a 
 
 1885. 
 
596 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 " The Keystone State" has been eminently fortunate in three 
 various ways. Its founder, William Penn, happily united 
 benevolence and high iDolitical wisdom with a thrifty and pru- 
 dent economy, possessed sufficient influence and tact to infuse 
 his colony with his own qualities to a large degree, and the 
 advantages acquired in the beginning have shed their favoring 
 influence on all its future to the present time. 
 
 Penn, as proprietor of his province, had almost kingly power; 
 yet, as a law-giver he acknowledged the liberties of the people 
 and accustomed them to many of the forms of self-government 
 afterward incorporated into the Constitution of the United States. 
 His just and conciliatory conduct toward the Indians, and the 
 exemption of Pennsylvania from barbarous Indian wars, in con-, 
 sequence, proves the utility of the practice of unvarying justice 
 and kindness toward them, and stands in strong and significant 
 contrast with the opposite course, so often pursued with results 
 so distressing. 
 
 A colony was established by Penn in the southeastern part of 
 the State, in the year 1682. The government was conducted by 
 a Governor, a Council of three, and a House of Delegates chosen 
 by the people. The largest religious liberty was allowed, and 
 punishment of crime was mitigated from the severity, customary 
 in those times, to something like the mildness now practiced 
 among us. 
 
 The Colony enjoyed seventy years of enlightened government, 
 and prospered greatly. A large immigration of hardy and thrifty 
 Germans and Swedes spread over the State and supplied, in 
 Revolutionary times, the "fighting material" which the religious 
 principles of the Quakers forbade them to furnish. 
 
 The sei'ond eminent advantage of the State was in its central 
 position, the facilities furnished to commerce and trade by the 
 Delaware river on its eastern boundary, and the Ohio on the 
 west, connecting it with the valley of the Mississippi. 
 
 I 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 597 
 
 The third superiority, later in development in some of its fea- 
 tures, relates to its wealth of resources. Lying midway between 
 the north and south, its climate is temperate and mild. Its soil 
 on the eastern border and along the valleys of its numerous 
 rivers is of great fertility; while its inexhaustible coal deposits 
 are far more valuable in promoting the steady growth of her cit- 
 izens in wealth than mines of gold. Iron, copper, zinc, marble 
 and slate are, apparently, inexhaustible. Her railroads and 
 canals furnish a suitable means for the development of these 
 resources and the transportation of all her valuable commodities 
 to profitable markets, and prove her later citizens to have in- 
 herited the economic wisdom and thrift of the founder of their 
 8tate. 
 
 Pennsylvania valiantly bore the share in the struggles and 
 sacrifices of the Revolution to which her position, her wealth 
 and numbers called her. Philadelphia — " The City of Brotherly 
 Love " (the name means this), was the first capital of the Repub- 
 lic. It was there that the Declaration of Independence was. 
 originated and signed. 
 
 Its area is 40,000 square miles, equal to 29,440,000 acres. The 
 population in 1880 was 4,282,786, entitling her to twenty-seven 
 Representatives in Congress. 
 
 It is in the third Judicial Circuit; and forms two Judicial Dis- 
 tricts. There are three Ports of entry, and three Collection 
 Districts. Harrisburg is the capital; the Legislature assembling 
 on the first Wednesday in January, the State election being held 
 the Tuesday after first Monday in November. 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is: "Be it enacted by the 
 Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of 
 Pennsylvania in General Assembly met; and it is hereby enacted 
 by the authority of the same." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 William Maclay, 
 
 from 
 
 1789 
 
 to 
 
 1791. 
 
 Robert Morris, 
 
 
 1789 
 
 (( 
 
 1795. 
 
 Albert Gallatin, 
 
 
 1793 
 
 (I 
 
 1794. 
 
 James Ross, 
 
 
 1795 
 
 " 
 
 1803. 
 
 William Bingham, 
 
 
 1794 
 
 '' 
 
 1801. 
 
 Peter Muhlenburg, 
 
 
 1801 
 
 a 
 
 1801. 
 
 George Logan, 
 
 
 1801 
 
 a 
 
 1807. 
 
 Samuel Maclay, 
 
 
 1803 
 
 ii 
 
 1808. 
 
 Michael Leib, 
 
 
 1808 
 
 ' ' 
 
 1814. 
 
598 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Andrew Gregg, 
 Abner Lacock, 
 Jonathan Roberts, 
 Walter Lawrie, 
 William Findlay, 
 William Marks, 
 Isaac D. Barnard, 
 George M. Dallas, 
 William Wilkins, 
 Samuel McKean, 
 James Buchanan, 
 Daniel Sturgeon, 
 
 Simon Cameron, 
 
 James Cooper, 
 Charles R. Buckalew, 
 Richard Broadhead, 
 William Bigler, 
 Edgar Cowan, 
 David Wilmot, 
 John Scott, 
 Wm. A. Wallace, 
 J. D. Cameron, 
 
 from 
 
 1807 
 
 to 
 
 1813. 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1819. 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1821. 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1825. 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1827. 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1834. 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1839. 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 ( 1845 
 
 
 1849 
 
 \ 1857 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 ( 1867 
 
 
 1877 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1855 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1869 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1857 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1861 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1867 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1863 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1881 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1885 
 
 _ _ ^ ^ 
 
 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 This State was the last settled of the original thirteen. It was 
 founded in the benevolent anxiety of Gen. James Oglethorpe ta 
 relieve the distresses of the poor in England. Those imiDrisoned 
 for debt were sent out in large numbers. With this object was 
 connected the desire to prevent the extension of the Spanish set- 
 tlements in Florida, and the English Government favored the 
 undertaking. This class of settlers proving indolent and im- 
 provident, a better was attracted by laying off many towns, in 
 
GEORGIA. 599 
 
 the best locations, and offering fifty acres free to every actual 
 settler. Many Scotch and German immigrants improved this 
 opportunity, to the great advantage of the Colony. 
 
 Gen. Oglethorpe imitated the wise conduct of Penn, in his 
 treaties with the Indians. 
 
 He commenced his settlement at Savannah in 1733, cheerfully 
 assisted by the South Carolinians, who were pleased to see a bar- 
 rier placed between them and the Spaniards. Oglethorpe had 
 several conflicts with them, and succeeded in protecting his Col- 
 ony. The introduction of slaves was at first forbidden; but, as 
 the Colony seemed to fall behind the neighboring provinces for 
 want of laborers, the restriction was removed. In 1752 the com- 
 pany gave up their Charter, and Georgia became a royal prov- 
 ince. It took part with the other Colonies in resistance to the 
 aggressions of the English Ministry, at the Revolutionary period, 
 and its condition during the war was similar to that of North 
 and South Carolina. Being new, and on the frontier, it was not 
 conspicuous. 
 
 The northern part of the State is uneven, the central and 
 lower sections productive under a wise and careful culture, but 
 easily exhausted under bad management. She has long naviga- 
 ble rivers, and her manufacturing and commercial capabilities 
 are excellent. The system of slave-labor and the misfortunes of 
 the Civil War have embarrassed her progress, but the energy of 
 her people is fast raising her to her proper rank as a flourishing 
 State. 
 
 Georgia has an area of 52,009 square miles, equal to 33,285,760 
 acres. She vvas named after George II. 
 
 The population in 1880 was 1,539,018, which entitles her to 
 nine Representatives in Congress. 
 
 The State lies in the Fifth Judicial Circuit, and has two 
 Judicial Districts; also three ports of entry — Savannah, Bruns- 
 wick, and St. Mary's; and six ports of delivery. 
 
 The Capital is Atlanta. The State election is held on the first 
 Wednesday in October. The Legislature meets biennially on 
 the first Wednesday in November, 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is: "Be it enacted by the 
 Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Georgia, in 
 General Assembly met; and it is hereby enacted by the authority 
 of the same." 
 
600 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 William Few, from 
 
 James Gunn, " 
 
 James Jackson, 
 
 George Walton, " 
 
 Josiah Tatnall, " 
 
 A. Baldwin, " 
 
 J. Milledge, 
 
 George Jones, ** 
 
 W. H. Crawford, " 
 
 Charles Tait, 
 
 W. B. Bullock, " 
 
 William W. Bibb, 
 
 G. M. Troup, 
 
 John Forsyth, " 
 
 F. Walker, " 
 
 John Elliot, " 
 
 Nicholas Ware, " 
 
 T. W. Cobb, " 
 O. H. Prince, 
 
 John P. King, " 
 
 W. Lumpkin, " 
 
 J. M. Berrien, " 
 
 A. Cuthbert, " 
 
 W. T. Colquitt, " 
 
 H. V. Johnson, " 
 
 W. C. Dawson, " 
 
 Robert Toombs, " 
 
 R. M. Charleton, " 
 
 Alfred Iverson " 
 Joshua Hill, 
 
 H. V. M. Miller, " 
 Thomas M. Norwood, " 
 
 John B. Gordon, " 
 B.H.Hill, 
 
 1789 
 
 to 
 
 1793. 
 
 1789 
 
 i( 
 
 1801. 
 
 1793 
 
 i( 
 
 1795. 
 
 1801 
 
 ••' 
 
 1806. 
 
 1795 
 
 a 
 
 1796. 
 
 1796 
 
 a 
 
 1799. 
 
 1799 
 
 a 
 
 1807. 
 
 1806 
 
 a 
 
 1809. 
 
 1807 
 
 a 
 
 1807. 
 
 1807 
 
 ii 
 
 1813. 
 
 1809 
 
 a 
 
 1819. 
 
 1813 
 
 a 
 
 1813. 
 
 1813 
 
 li 
 
 1816. 
 
 1816 
 
 a 
 
 1818. 
 
 1829 
 
 a 
 
 1833. 
 
 1818 
 
 i( 
 
 1819. 
 
 1829 
 
 a 
 
 1837. 
 
 1818 
 
 a 
 
 1821. 
 
 1819 
 
 (I 
 
 1825. 
 
 1821 
 
 a 
 
 1824. 
 
 1824 
 
 li 
 
 1828. 
 
 1828 
 
 a 
 
 1829. 
 
 1833 
 
 i( 
 
 1837. 
 
 1837 
 
 a 
 
 1841. 
 
 1825 
 
 a 
 
 1829. 
 
 1841 
 
 a 
 
 1852. 
 
 1837 
 
 a 
 
 1843. 
 
 1843 
 
 a 
 
 1848. 
 
 1848 
 
 li 
 
 1849. 
 
 1849 
 
 li 
 
 1855. 
 
 1853 
 
 ii 
 
 1861. 
 
 1852 
 
 li 
 
 1853. 
 
 1855 
 
 li 
 
 1861. 
 
 1871 
 
 ii 
 
 1873. 
 
 1871 
 
 li 
 
 1871. 
 
 1871 
 
 li 
 
 1877. 
 
 1873 
 
 I . 
 
 1885. 
 
 1877 
 
 It 
 
 1883. 
 
VERMONT. 
 
 This State received its name from the French name of its range 
 of mountains, ("verd mont" meaning, " Green Mountain.") It 
 was settled in 1731, and was at first considered part of New 
 Hampshire, and afterwards claimed by New York. These claims 
 were vigorously resisted, but it had no organized government 
 until 1777. It did good service in the Revolution; but was not 
 admitted into the Union until 1791, making the fourteenth State. 
 Col. Ethan Allen at the head of 270 "Green Mountain Boys" 
 took possession of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point in the 
 name of the Continental Congress, in 1775, and thus assured the 
 northern water communication with Canada to the Americans. 
 
 The climate of Vermont though cold, is pleasant and equal, the 
 soil fertile in the valleys, and the streams supply excellent water 
 power, which, however, is little used. Maple sugar is produced 
 in abundance, while its facilities for raising stock are equal to 
 those of New Hampshire. Granite, marble of fine quality, and 
 slate quarries abound. Its provision for education is very liberal. 
 Its population in 1880 was 332,280. 
 
 It has three representatives in Congress; forms part of the 
 second Judicial Circuit, and constitutes one Judicial District. 
 One port of entry and two of delivery are authorized to be nam- 
 ed by the President of the United States. 
 
 Montpelier is the capital. The State election is held on the 
 first Tuesday in September, and the Legislature meets biennially 
 on the first Wednesday in October. 
 
 The enacting clause begins: "It is hereby enacted by the Gen- 
 eral Assembly of the State of Vermont." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Moses Robinson, 
 Stephen R. Bradley, 
 Elijah Paine, 
 Isaac Tichenor, 
 
 from 
 
 1791 
 1791 
 1801 
 1795 
 j 1796 
 ( 1815 
 
 to 
 
 1796. 
 1795. 
 1813. 
 1801. 
 
 1797. 
 1821. 
 
603 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Nathaniel Chipman, 
 Israel Smith, 
 Jonathan Robinson, 
 
 Dudley Chase, 
 
 James Fisk, 
 William A. Palmer, 
 Horatio Seymour, 
 Samuel Prentiss, 
 Benjamin Swift, 
 Samuel S. Phelps, 
 Samuel C. Crafts, 
 William Upham, 
 Solomon Foote, 
 Samuel S. Phelps, 
 Lawrence Brainard, 
 Jacob Collamer, 
 Luke P. Poland, 
 George F. Edmunds, 
 Justin S. Morrill, 
 
 from 
 
 1797 
 
 to 
 
 1803. 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1807. 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1815. 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1817. 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1818. 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1825. 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1842. 
 
 1833 
 
 
 1839. 
 
 1839 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1843. 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1866. 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1855, 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1867. 
 
 1866 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 
 p,^' 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 Kentucky was formed from the territory of Virginia, and in 
 point of seniority is the fifteenth State of the American Union, 
 having been admitted on the first of June, 1792. 
 
 The Indian name means "dark and bloody ground" and is very 
 suggestive of the sanguinary conflicts of her pioneer population 
 with the aboriginal lords of the soil. The celebrated Daniel 
 Boone was among the first white men to explore the wilderness 
 of Kentucky. The first white settlement Avas commenced at 
 Boonesborough, about the year 1769. The area of the State is 
 37,680 square miles, equal to 24,115,200 acres, 
 i The climate is mild, and adapted to the production of cereals, 
 grapes, and fruits. The soil is very fertile. The surface presents 
 
KENTUCKY. 
 
 «05 
 
 a varied aspect in its several portions. The southeastern part of 
 the State is mountainous, the central and northern portions are 
 undulating, sometimes hilly. The river bottoms are very pro- 
 ductive. The State is well timbered. Apple, pear, peach, plum, 
 and various other fruit trees are cultivated w^ith great success. 
 The staple products are corn, tobacco and hemp. Horses, mules 
 and cattle are raised. Kentucky abounds in bituminous coal, 
 lead, iron pyrites- marble, freestone, gypsum, and cliff lime- 
 stone. 
 
 The population in 1880 was 1,648,708. She is entitled to ten 
 Representatives in Congress, is the sixth Judicial Circuit and 
 forms one Judicial District, has one port of entry, Louisville. 
 Frankfort is the capital. 
 
 The State elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Mon- 
 day in November. The Legislature meets biennially, in Decem- 
 ber. The enacting clause of the laws is: "Be it enacted by the 
 General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. " 
 
 John Brown, 
 John Edwards, 
 Humphrey Marshall, 
 John Breckenridge, 
 Buckner Thurston, 
 John Adair, 
 
 Henry Clay, 
 
 John Pope, 
 
 George M. Bibb, 
 
 Jesse Bledsoe, 
 George Walker, 
 William T. Barry, 
 
 Isham Talbot, 
 
 Martin D, Hardin, 
 
 John J. Crittenden, 
 
 Richard M. Johnson, 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS 
 
 from 
 
 1793 
 1792 
 1795 
 1801 
 1805 
 1805 
 ri806 
 1 1810 
 1831 
 1849 
 
 1807 
 
 1 183 
 [184 
 180 
 j 1811 
 ( 1829 
 
 jl81 
 I 182 
 
 1813 
 1814 
 1814 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 
 1817 
 1835 
 1842 
 1855 
 1819 
 
 to 1805. 
 
 " 1795. 
 
 " 1801. 
 
 " 1805. 
 
 " 1810. 
 
 " 1806. 
 
 " 1807. 
 
 " 1811. 
 
 " 1842. 
 
 " 1852. 
 
 "' 1813. 
 
 " 1814. 
 
 " 1835. 
 
 " 1815. 
 
 " 1814. 
 
 " 1816. 
 
 " 1819. 
 
 " 1825. 
 
 " 1817. 
 
 " 1819. 
 
 " 1841. 
 
 " 1848. 
 
 " 1861. 
 
 " 1829. 
 
604 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 AVilliam Logan, i 
 
 irom 
 
 1819 
 
 to 
 
 1820. 
 
 John Rowan, 
 
 a 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 James T. Moorehead, 
 
 i( 
 
 1841 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 Jos'h R. Underwood, 
 
 (I 
 
 1847 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 Thomas Metcalf , 
 
 ii 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 Archibald Dixon, 
 
 it 
 
 1852 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 David Meriwether, 
 
 11 
 
 1852 
 
 
 1852. 
 
 J. B. Thompson, 
 
 ii 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1859. 
 
 Lazarus W. Powell, 
 
 ie 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 J. C. Breckenridge, 
 
 C( 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 Garrett Davis, 
 
 a 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1872. 
 
 Willis B. Machin, 
 
 ii 
 
 1872 
 
 
 1873. 
 
 James Guthrie, 
 
 a 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1868. 
 
 Thomas C. McCreery, 
 
 ii 
 
 J1868 
 (1873 
 
 
 1871. 
 1879. 
 
 James W. Stevenson, 
 
 it 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 James B. Beck, 
 
 ii 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1883. 
 
 J. S. Williams, 
 
 li 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 
 |i^« 
 
 ^S 
 
 
 
 
 B^^^ 
 
 II 
 
 
 5^^H _^-=-*?i- 
 
 Jl. , 
 
 ml41| 
 
 s 
 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 Tennessee belonged to the territory of North Carolina while a 
 Colony, and was settled by emigrants from it in 1757. They 
 built Fort Loudon in East Tennessee, but were destroyed, or 
 driven away, by the Indians, in 1760. Settlement was soon re- 
 sumed, but continually harrassed by Indian attacks. In 1774 
 Col. Lewis and Capt. Shelby attacked and defeated them. They 
 remained quiet until after the Declaration of Independence, when 
 the Cherokees were stirred up by British emissaries. From 
 1776 to 1779 three several expeditions were made against them, 
 the Indians being decisively defeated each time. The Cherokees 
 and Shawnees were warlike tribes, and continued, for some 
 years, to make occasional attacks on the settlements, which did 
 not, however, prevent their steady growth 
 
 In 1789 North Carolina renounced her claim to the territory, 
 and in 1790 it became a separate province, being admitted into 
 
 I 
 
TENNESSEE. 605 
 
 the Union as a Sovereign State in 1790, making the sixteenth, or 
 the third adinitted after the Revolutionary War — Vermont, in 
 1791, being the first; and Kentucky, in 1792, the second. 
 
 This State has an area of 45,000 square miles, or 29,184,000 
 acres. It had a population in 1880 of 1,542,463. 
 
 Tennessee is very agreeably diversified with mountain, hill and 
 dale, containing within its limits fertility of soil, beauty of 
 scener}^ and a delightfully temperate climate. The State is gen- 
 erally healthy. The soil in the main is good, and while among 
 the mountains it is not arable, it is favorable for grazing, and 
 stock is largely exported. 
 
 Indian corn, tobacco, an cotton are the great staples. 
 
 Gold has been found in the southeast, portion of the State. 
 Among the other minerals found here are iron in abundance, 
 some lead, silver, zinc, marble of very fine quality, and various 
 others. The State is entitled to ten Representatives in Congress; 
 is in the sixth Judicial Circuit ; has three Judicial Districts ; and 
 has two ports of delivery — Memphis and Nashville. 
 
 Nashville is the capital. The State election is held on the first 
 Tuesday in November, and the Legislature meets on the first 
 Wednesday in January, once in two years. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws of this State is: "Be it en- 
 acted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 William Blount, 
 
 from 
 
 1796 
 
 to 
 
 1797. 
 
 William Cocke, 
 
 
 j 1796 
 (1799 
 
 
 1797. 
 1805. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, 
 
 
 1797 
 ■ 1823 
 
 
 1798. 
 1825. 
 
 Joseph Anderson, 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1815. 
 
 Daniel Smith, 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1809. 
 
 Jenkin Whiteside, 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1811. 
 
 George W. Campbell, 
 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1818. 
 
 Jesse Wharton, 
 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1815. 
 
 John Williams, 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1823. 
 
 John H. Eaton, 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1829. 
 
 Hugh L. White, 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 Felix Grundy, 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 Ephraim H. Foster, 
 
 
 J 1838 
 ) 1843 
 
 
 1839. 
 1845. 
 
 A. 0. P. Nicholson, 
 
 
 1840 
 
 
 1843. 
 
LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Alexander Anderson, 
 
 from 
 
 1840 
 
 to 
 
 1841. 
 
 Spencer Jarnagin, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 Hopkins L. Turney, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 John Bell, 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 James C. Jones, 
 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1857. 
 
 Andrew Johnson, 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1863. 
 
 David T. Patterson, 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1869. 
 
 J. S. Fowler, 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1871. 
 
 William G. Brownlow 
 
 ? 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875, 
 
 Henry Cooper, 
 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1877, 
 
 Andrew Johnson, 
 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 D. M. Key, 
 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 James E. Bailey, 
 
 
 1876 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 Isham G. Harris 
 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1883. 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 The first permanent settlement in this important State was 
 made on the 7th day of April, 1788. Though this fine territory 
 lay nearest to the most populous and enterprising of the origi- 
 nal States, the intrigues of the French before the Revolution, 
 the hostility to which they excited the Indians, and the difficul- 
 ties arising from the various claims of different States to the 
 lands, which rendered titles insecure, prevented any permanent 
 settlement until about the time when the present Constitution of 
 the United States was originated. All these difficulties were now 
 removed, and emigration, long restrained, rushed like a flood 
 down the Ohio. 20,000 persons, during this year (178S), passed 
 down the river in pursuit of new homes. Cincinnati and many 
 other places were settled about this time. From 1790 to 1795 
 there was much suffering from the hostility of the Indians; but 
 this period having passed, the settlements multiplied and grew 
 apace. 
 
 The settlers were, in large part, from New England; accus- 
 tomed to wring a thrifty living from a rocky soil; and their in- 
 
OHIO. 607 
 
 dustry soon brought great results from this more generous field. 
 The population increased rapidly. In fourteen years it amounted 
 to 72,000; and was admitted into the Union with that number 
 November 20th, 1802. 
 
 The climate is healthy and mild, the soil generally very fer- 
 tile, and her inhabitants have made the most of it. Coal, Mar- 
 ble and iron are very abundant. Manufactures have been much 
 developed in this State, and they are steadily growing. The 
 Lake on the north, and the River on the south, with more 
 than 5,000 miles of railway and canals, furnish all the aids of a 
 great and steady growth. 
 
 It was, on its admission, the seventeenth State in the Union. 
 
 It has an area of 39,904 square miles, equal to 25,577,960 acres. 
 The population in 1880 was 3,198,239, entitling her to twenty 
 Members of Congress. 
 
 It is in the Sixth Judicial Circuit, and forms two Judicial Dis- 
 tricts, the Northern and Southern. 
 
 This State has three ports of entry — Cleveland, Toledo, a,nd 
 Portland; and five ports of delivery, to be located where the 
 President directs. 
 
 The Capital of this State is Columbus. The State election is 
 held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets 
 on the first Monday of January, biennially. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: 
 by the General Assembl}' of the State of Ohio. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 John Smith, from 
 
 Thomas Worthington, '* 
 
 Edward Tiffin, « 
 
 Return J. Meigs, " 
 
 Stanley Griswold, " 
 
 Alexander Campbell, " 
 
 Jeremiah Morrow, " 
 
 Joseph Kerr, " 
 
 Benjamin Ruggles, " 
 
 William A. Trimble, « 
 
 Ethan A. Brown, " 
 
 Wm. Henry Harrison, " 
 
 Jacob Burnett, " 
 
 Thomas Ewing, 
 
 lows: 
 ihio." 
 
 a 
 
 Be it enacted 
 
 RS. 
 
 1803 
 
 to 
 
 1808. 
 
 1803 
 
 u 
 
 1807. 
 
 1810 
 
 u 
 
 1814. 
 
 1807 
 
 a 
 
 1809. 
 
 1808 
 
 (I 
 
 1810. 
 
 1809 
 
 u 
 
 1809. 
 
 1809 
 
 (C 
 
 1813. 
 
 1813 
 
 (( 
 
 1819. 
 
 1814 
 
 C( 
 
 1815. 
 
 1815 
 
 (( 
 
 1833. 
 
 1819 
 
 (( 
 
 1821. 
 
 1822 
 
 (( 
 
 1825. 
 
 1825 
 
 (( 
 
 1828. 
 
 1828 
 
 (( 
 
 1831. 
 
 i 1831 
 
 (( 
 
 1837. 
 
 1 1850 
 
 (( 
 
 1851. 
 
608 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Thomas Morris, 
 
 from 
 
 1833 
 
 to 
 
 1839, 
 
 William Allen, 
 
 (( 
 
 1837 
 
 u 
 
 1849. 
 
 Benjamin Tappan, 
 
 (( 
 
 1839 
 
 a 
 
 1845, 
 
 Thomas Corwin, 
 
 (( 
 
 1845 
 
 u 
 
 1850. 
 
 Salmon P. Chase, 
 
 (( 
 
 1849 
 
 (; 
 
 1855. 
 
 Benjamin F. Wade, 
 
 (( 
 
 1851 
 
 (( 
 
 1869. 
 
 George Ellis Pugh, 
 
 u 
 
 1855 
 
 a 
 
 1861. 
 
 John Sherman, 
 
 (( 
 
 1861 
 
 u 
 
 1877. 
 
 Allen G. Thurman, 
 
 (( 
 
 1869 
 
 u 
 
 1881. 
 
 Stanley Matthews, 
 
 (C 
 
 1877 
 
 u 
 
 1879. 
 
 Geo. H. Pendleton, 
 
 (C 
 
 1879 
 
 a 
 
 1885 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 '*jVJST(cV*»^^ 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^^^^H*v 
 
 
 ^^iAi^^y 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 The Spaniards, who found so much gold in other parts of the 
 American continent, made repeated explorations of the region 
 lying near the mouths of the Mississippi in the hope of discover- 
 ing it there. Failing in this, they made no settlements. The French 
 planned the establishment of a vast empire covering the best ter- 
 ritory now in the bounds of the United States, and explored the 
 Mississippi and its tributaries with untiring courage and zeal, 
 both from the Great Lakes and from the mouth of the river. A 
 few years after La Salle had perished in his bold Avandering, a 
 French naval officer, L'emoine D'Iberville, formed the first settle- 
 ment in Louisiana (so named after the French King, Louis XIV. 
 by La Salle.) This was in 1699; but no great progress was made 
 until the Mississippi Company was formed in France, under the 
 idea that Louisiana was rich in gold and diamonds, when, in 
 1718, eight hundred persons emigrated from France and settled 
 at Kew Orleans. In 1732 the colony contained, in all, seven 
 thousand five hundred persons, and continued to prosper until 
 1763, when, by the Peace of Paris, all the French possessions in 
 America except the territory west of the Great River, were given 
 up to England. This remnant soon passed to the Spaniards, and 
 
LOUISIANA. 609 
 
 again to the French, from whom it was bought by President 
 Jefferson for $15,000,000, in 1803. 
 
 This purchase was regarded, even by Jefferson, as probably 
 exceeding the powers of the Government, under the Constitution; 
 but it was essential to the development, unity, and greatness of 
 the country. The Mississippi Valley is the heart of North 
 America, and the use of the river as necessary to the economi- 
 cal value of the prairie States lying east of it, as to the defense 
 and strength of the country. The possession of it could, 
 alone, make the United States a great power among nations. 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul of the French Repub- 
 lic, designed, in ceding it to the United States, to give Eng- 
 land, his relentless enemy, a powerful rival; but even his keen 
 foresight could not have anticipated the wonderful growth in 
 which the Louisiana Purchase was so necessary an element. 
 
 The surface of Louisiana is low, and the southern part often 
 overflowed by the high water of the rivers. Many islands of 
 great fertility and beauty lie along the coast; one of them con- 
 sisting of an immense bed or mine of rock salt. Fruits grow to 
 great perfection and orange trees are specially fruitful, a single 
 tree often bearing 5,000 oranges. Cotton and cane sugar are the 
 principal staples. New Orleans has an extensive commerce, 
 and manufactures will sometime find in it a profitable field. The 
 palmy days of this, as of all the other Southern States, is in the 
 future, her most valuable resources having been scarcely 
 touched. New Orleans will naturally become the third great 
 commercial city of the Union, New York and San Francisco, 
 only, being likely to take precedence of her. 
 
 Louisiana was admitted into the Union, April Sth, 1813, 
 making the eighteenth State. 
 
 She has an area of 46,431 square miles, equal to 39.715,840 acres. 
 The population, in 1880, numbered 940,105; she has six Repre- 
 sentatives in Congress. 
 
 Louisiana forms a part of the Fifth Judicial Circuit, and con- 
 stitutes one Judicial District, viz.: the District of Louisiana. 
 This State has two Collection Districts, denominated the Dis- 
 tricts of New Orleans and of the Teche. New Orleans and 
 Brashear are the ports of entry. The shores of the river Ohio, 
 and all the rivers emptying into the Mississippi, are attached to 
 the District of New Orleans, though most of them do not lie in 
 
 the State. Twenty-nine of the cities and towns on these rivers 
 3) 
 
610 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 are made ports of delivery. Collection Districts are not always 
 confined to one State. 
 
 New Orleans is the Capital. The Legislature meets on the 
 first Monday in January, once in two years. The State election 
 is held on the first Monday in November. 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: "Be it enacted 
 
 by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of 
 Louisiana, in General Assembly convened." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Thomas Posey, October to December, 1812. 
 
 T -D f \ 1812 to 1817. 
 
 James Brown, from j ^^-^^ <, -j^g^^ 
 
 Allan B. Magruder, '' 1812 " 1813." 
 
 Eligius Fromentin, " 1813 '' 1819. 
 
 W. C. C. Clayborne, '' 1817 " 1818. 
 
 TT T 1 ' u j 1818 " 1824. 
 
 Henry Johnson, j ^3^3 ,, -^g^^^ 
 
 Dominique Bouiingy, " 1824 " 1829. 
 
 Josiah S. Johnston, " 1824 " 1833. 
 
 Edward Livingston, " 1829 " 1831. 
 
 Geo. A. Waggaman, " 1831 " 1835. 
 
 Alexander Porter, " 1833 " 1837. 
 
 Robert C. Nicholas, '' 1835 '•' 1841. 
 
 Alexander Mouton, " 1837 " 1842. 
 
 Alexander Barrow, " 1841 " 1847. 
 
 Charles M. Conrad, " 1842 " 1843. 
 
 -D- a 1 '' il847 " 1847. 
 
 Pierre Soule, -j ^549 .. ^g^g^ 
 
 Solomon W. Downs, " 1847 " 1853. 
 
 JohnSlidell, " 1853 " 186L 
 
 Judah P. Benjamin, " 1853 " 1861. 
 
 John S. Harris, " 1868 " 1871. . 
 
 Wm. Pitt Kellogg, " | -^^^^ cc -^ggg] 
 
 J. R. West, " 1871 " 1877. 
 
 J. B. Eustis, " 1877 "' 1879. 
 
 B. F. Jonas, " 1879 " 1885. 
 
INDIANA. 
 
 611 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Indiana was first explored by the enterprising French Jes- 
 uits, who highly appreciated the beauty, resources, and grand 
 future of the vast Mississippi valley. Wiser than their sovereign, 
 Louis XIV,, they would have taken firm and effectual possession 
 of all this region, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, but Louis 
 was too much occupied with his palaces, the splendor of his 
 court, the banishment of Protestants, and war with his neigh- 
 bors to lend a due support to their plans. They explored the re- 
 gion in 1682, formed a settlement at Vincennes in 1730, and made 
 friends of the Indians. The career of the French, in Europe and 
 America, was checked by the extravagance of the Court and 
 disastrous wars; and this little colony remained for nearly three 
 generations solitary and stationary in the wilderness, fraterniz- 
 ing with the Indians and enjoying life as only the French can 
 under such drfeary circumstances. 
 
 After the Revolution all this region was included in the 
 Northwest Territory. The grim earnestness of the Americans 
 in pushing their fortunes alarmed, without conciliating, the In- 
 dians, and for a longtime a deadly struggle alone could preserve 
 the growing settlements from total extinction. The brave and 
 talented Tecumseh and his twin brother, the Prophet, made a 
 desperate effort to drive back or exterminate the settlers; but 
 they were conquered, and the Indians retreated, step by step, 
 I)efore the advancing flood of emigration. In 1809 Indiana was 
 erected into a separate Territory, and admitted into the Union 
 as a separate State on the 11th of Dec, 181G. It is 275 miles long 
 by 135 in width. The surface is mainly level or gently undula- 
 ting; the irregularities in the southern part, seldom rising more 
 than two hundred feet, but with a rocky foundation to the soil, 
 presenting many advantages to manufactures along the streams. 
 These fac^'' ' s are increased by the extent and value of bitumin- 
 ous coal deposits which underlie nearly one-fourth of the area 
 of the State. 
 
012 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Indiana has a happier mixture of prairie and woodland 
 than any other western State. Its commercial facilities are 
 great. Reaching Lake Michigan on the northwest, Chicago 
 forms a fine metropolis for the northern part; while the Ohio on 
 the south furnishes cheap transportation to Cincinnati and Pitts- 
 burg toward the east, or New Orleans to the southwest. Lying 
 between the fertile and busy regions west and the great eastern 
 markets, it is crossed in all directions by railroads. It is in the 
 centre of the most highly favored part of the Union, and its 
 advantages and resources seem boundless. Its staple in agricul- 
 ture is corn, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the 
 temperate zone are raised with success. The climate is mild, 
 but it lies in the region of variableness in weather character- 
 izing all the western States in its latitude. 
 
 The resources of the State have been in a course of rapid and 
 uninterrupted development for sixty 3 ears, but they are so great, 
 and there are so many other inviting fields luring emigrants 
 further west, that a comparatively small part of its wealth has 
 yet been reached. There is a magnificent provision for educa- 
 tion, and its intelligent and enterprising citizens are worthy of 
 the Great Republic. 
 
 Indiana was the nineteenth State in the Union. She has 
 an area of 33,809 square miles, equal to 21,637,760 acres. Her 
 population in 1880 was 1,978,362, which entitles her to thirteen 
 Representatives in Congress. Indiana is in the seventh Judicial 
 Circuit, and forms one Judicial District. There is no port of 
 entry in this State; but there are four ports of delivery, to-wit: 
 Evansville, New Albany, Madison, and Jeffersonville, which 
 are attached to the New Orleans Collection District. 
 
 The capital is Indianapolis. The State election is held on the 
 second Tuesday in October. The Legislature meets only once 
 in two years, on the first Wednesday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: " Be it en- 
 acted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 James Noble, from 
 W. Taylor, 
 
 W. Hendricks, " 
 
 R. Hanna, ^' 
 
 John Tipton, " 
 
 O. H. Smith, " 
 
 1816 
 
 to 
 
 1831. 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1825. 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1837. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1831. 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1839, 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1843, 
 
INDIANA. 
 
 
 
 
 A. S. White, 
 
 from 
 
 1839 
 
 to 
 
 1845 
 
 E. A. Hannegan, 
 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1849 
 
 J. D. Bright, 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1863 
 
 J. Whitcomb, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1853 
 
 C. W. Cathcart, 
 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1853 
 
 John Pettit, 
 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1855 
 
 G. N. Fitch, 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1861 
 
 H. A. Lane, 
 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1867 
 
 D. Turpee, 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1863 
 
 J. A. Wright, 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1863 
 
 T. A. Hendricks, 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1869 
 
 0. P. Morton, 
 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1877 
 
 Daniel D. Pratt, 
 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875 
 
 Joseph E. McDonald, 
 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1881 
 
 Daniel W. Voorhees. 
 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1885 
 
 613 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 This State was explored by De Soto, a companion of Pizarro 
 in his cruel conquest of Peru, in 1541, and later by the enterprising 
 La Salle, in 1684. The first settlement was made by the French, 
 at Natchez, in 1716. It was one of a chain of settlements by 
 which they proposed to connect the basins of the St. Law- 
 rence and the great lakes with the Mississippi valley and the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 The Natchez Indians gave the early colonists great trouble, 
 but were finally so completely conquered that the national name 
 became extinct, the few remnants surviving becoming incor- 
 porated with other tribes. They were supposed to have anciently 
 emigrated from Mexico or South America, some of their customs 
 being similar to those of the Peruvians. 
 
 In 1763 the French ceded all this territory to England, except 
 that of Louisiana, which became the possession of Spain. 
 
 The Choctaw Indians held possession of the northern part of 
 the State for a long time, and became considerably civilized. 
 
til4 
 
 LOCAL GOVEEXMEXT. 
 
 The northern part of the State is prairie, the soil being ex- 
 tremely rich, while the south is sandy. The surface is generally 
 level or undulating. Commerce and agriculture from its princi- 
 pal resources ; though neither have been highly developed. 
 Cotton is the principal staple. It is remarkably well adapted to 
 the growth of fruit, though it has been very little cultivated. 
 The State is well supplied with railroads, which, with the Mis- 
 sissippi flowing the whole length of her western boundary, 
 furnish ample transportation for all the produce of her fertile 
 soil. 
 
 The territory of Mississippi became a State in 1S17; making 
 the twentieth State. The area is 4:7,150 square miles, equal to 
 30,179,840 acres. The population in 1880 nmnbered 1,131,592; 
 which entitles her to six Representatives in Congress. The 
 State lies in the fifth Judicial Circuit, and is divided into two Ju- 
 dicial Districts, viz. : the Northern and Southern Districts of 
 Mississippi. She has three ports of entry, viz. : Natchez, Vicks- 
 burg, and Shieldsborough : also three ports of delivery, viz. : 
 Grand Gulf. Ship Island and Pearlington. 
 
 Jackson is the Capital. The State election is held on the Tues- 
 day after the first Monday in November, and her Legislature 
 naeets biennially on the Tuesday after the first Monday in 
 January. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is in these words: " Be it en- 
 acted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State 
 
 ississippi in General Assembly 
 
 convened." 
 
 
 UNITED STATES SEXATORS. 
 
 
 Walter Leake, from 
 
 1817 
 
 to 1820 
 
 Thomas H. AVilliams, ' 
 
 
 j 1817 
 1 1838 
 
 •' 1829 
 '■' 1839 
 
 David Holmes. ' 
 
 
 1820 
 
 •• 1825 
 
 Powhattan ElHs, ' 
 
 
 1825 
 
 - 1833 
 
 Thomas B. Reed, 
 
 
 1826 
 
 •■ 1829 
 
 Robert Adams, ' 
 
 
 1830 
 
 •• 1830 
 
 George Poindexter, ' 
 
 
 1830 
 
 •• 1835 
 
 John Black. ' 
 
 
 1832 
 
 '•' 1838 
 
 R. J. AValker. 
 
 
 1835 
 
 •• 1845 
 
 James F. Trotter, ' 
 
 
 1838 
 
 •'■■ 1838 
 
 John Henderson, ' 
 
 
 1839 
 
 •■ 1845 
 
 Jesse Speight, ' 
 
 
 1845 
 
 " 1847 
 
 Joseph W. Chambers, ' 
 
 
 1845 
 
 •• 1847. 
 

 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 
 
 Jefferson Davis, 
 
 from 
 
 (1847 
 I 1857 
 
 . 1851 
 ^^ 1861 
 
 Henry S. Foote, 
 
 
 1847 
 
 '' 1853 
 
 John R. Rea, 
 
 
 1851 
 
 " 1851 
 
 Walter Brooks, 
 
 
 1852 
 
 " 1852 
 
 Albert G. Brown, 
 
 
 1854 
 
 " 1861 
 
 Stephen Adams, 
 
 
 1853 
 
 " 1857 
 
 Henry R. Revels, 
 
 
 1869 
 
 '' 1871 
 
 James L. Alcorn, 
 
 
 1871 
 
 " 1877. 
 
 Adelbert Ames, 
 
 
 
 " 1875 
 
 Henry R. Pease, 
 
 
 
 " 1877 
 
 Branch K. Bruce, 
 
 
 1875 
 
 " 1881 
 
 L. Q. C. Lamar, 
 
 
 1877 
 
 •' 1883. 
 
 ^m. 
 
 ,^^^ 
 
 
 
 615 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 Illinois was first visited by Europeans in the persons of French 
 Jesuit missionaries in the year 1G72, who explored eastern Wis- 
 consin and northern Illinois in that year. The oldest permanent 
 settlement in the valley of the Mississippi was made at Kas- 
 kaskia, in this State in the year 1720, by the French. The name 
 of the State is derived from the aboriginal inhabitants. In the 
 Indian dialect it was ''Illini," and signified a perfectly formed 
 man. The French settlers changed the name to Illinois. This 
 State was formed from what was known as tlie Northwestern 
 Territory, and was the twenty-first of the American Union. It 
 was admitted and became an independent State on the 3d day 
 of December, 1818. It has an area of 55,405 square miles, equal 
 to 35,459,200 acres. Its population in 1880 was 3,078,769. Extend- 
 ing through more than five degrees of latitude, Illinois has quite 
 a variety of climate. The surface is level. The soil is fertile 
 and the agricultural capabilities of this State are not surpassed 
 by any sister State, if indeed by any portion of earth's surface, 
 of equal extent. Her staple products are corn, wheat, oats, pota- 
 toes, hay, and products of the dairy, besides large quantities of 
 
616 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 fruit. The State is rich in minerals. A large portion of the lead 
 producing region of the country is in this State. Bituminous 
 coal is found in almost every county in the State. Lime, 
 zinc, marble of excellent quality, freestone, gypsum, and 
 other minerals, are found in various parts. 
 
 The State is entitled to nineteen representatives in Congress, 
 and forms a part of the seventh Judicial Circuit. It forms two 
 Judicial Districts, the northern and southern. It has one port 
 of entry. Chicago, and four ports of delivery, viz. : Alton. 
 Quincy, Cairo, and Galena. The capital is Springfield. The 
 State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in 
 N'ovember. The legislature meets biennially on the first Monday 
 in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: " Be 
 it enacted by the people of the State of Illinois represented in the 
 General Assembly.'" 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 J. B. Thomas, 
 
 from 
 
 1818 
 
 to 
 
 1829. 
 
 N. Edwards, 
 
 
 1818 
 
 '' 
 
 1824. 
 
 John McLean, 
 
 
 j 1824 
 ( 1829 
 
 * ' 
 
 1825. 
 1830. 
 
 D. J. Baker, 
 
 
 1830 : 
 
 L month. 
 
 E. K. Kane, 
 
 
 1825 
 
 to 
 
 1835. 
 
 J. M. Robinson, 
 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1841. 
 
 W. L. D. Ewing, 
 
 
 1835 
 
 
 1837. 
 
 R. M. Young. 
 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1843. 
 
 S. McRoberts, 
 
 
 1841 
 
 
 1843. 
 
 J. Semple, 
 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1847.. 
 
 Sidney Breese, 
 
 
 1843 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 S. A. Douglas, 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 James Shields, 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 L. Trumbull, 
 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1873. 
 
 O. H. Browning, 
 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1863. 
 
 W A. Richardson, 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 Richard Yates, 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1871. 
 
 John A. Logan, 
 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 Richard J. Oglesby, 
 
 
 1873 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 David Davis, 
 
 (( 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1883. 
 
 John A. Logan, 
 
 «< 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1885. 
 
ALABAMA. 617 
 
 ALABAMA. • 
 
 This State was, at first, held by Georgia under her colonial 
 Charter, but was given up to the general Government, in 1802, 
 for the sum of $1,250,000. It then became a part of the Mississippi 
 Territory, but was separated when Mississippi became a State, 
 in 1817. 
 
 It was settled in 1701, at Mobile, by the French, it being a 
 part of the territory explored and claimed for France by La Salle 
 in 1G84. The Indian name of Alabama means '• Here we rest." 
 Its soil can scarcely be excelled for fertility in the valleys. It 
 lias every variety of climate, from the high and stern severity 
 of a mountain region in the north, through all gradations, to the 
 heat and luxuriaiit vegetation of the tropics along the squthern 
 coast. The center abounds in coal and iron, and various other 
 minerals are found in abundance. Until the Revolution it was 
 a hunting ground for the Indians. Being then stirred up by 
 British emissaries, and threatening the security of the frontiers, 
 they were severely chastised. After the return of peace, when 
 the growing wealth and population of the original States excited 
 them to enterprise, the Territory invited population by its sur- 
 passing fertility, and it graduated to the importance of a sover- 
 eign State by admission into the Union. Dec. 14th, 1819, forming 
 the twenty-second State. 
 
 It has an area of 50,722 square miles, equal to 32,462,080 acres, 
 and had a population, in 1880, of 1,262,794, by which she is en- 
 titled to eight Representatives. 
 
 It forms a part of the fifth Judicial Circuit, and is divided into 
 three Judicial Districts, the JSTorthern, Middle and Southern. 
 
 It has one port of entry (Mobile), and one port of delivery, 
 viz. : Selma. 
 
 The Capital of the State is Montgomery. 
 
 The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Mon- 
 day in November. The Legislature meets biennially in Novem- 
 ber. 
 
618 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The enacting clause of its laws is as follows: "Beit enacted 
 by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of 
 Alabama, in General Assembly convened." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 William R. King, from 
 
 John W. Walker, " 
 Wm. Kelly, 
 
 Henry Chambers, " 
 
 Israel Pickens, " 
 
 John McKinley, " 
 
 Gabriel Moore, " 
 Clement C. Clay, 
 
 Arthur P. Bagby, " 
 
 Dixon H. Lewis, " 
 
 Benjamin Fitzpatrick, 
 
 Jeremiah Clemens, " 
 Clement C. Clay, Jr., 
 
 Willard Warner, " 
 
 George Goldthwaite, " 
 
 George E. Spencer, " 
 
 John T. Morgan, " 
 
 George S. Houston, " 
 
 j 1819 
 
 to 
 
 1844. 
 
 t 1848 
 
 ti. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1819 
 
 ti 
 
 1822. 
 
 1822 
 
 (.(. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1835 
 
 u 
 
 1826. 
 
 1826 
 
 n 
 
 1826. 
 
 1826 
 
 c. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1831 
 
 1,1 
 
 1837. 
 
 1837 
 
 u 
 
 1841. 
 
 1841 
 
 (,i 
 
 1848, 
 
 1844 
 
 u 
 
 1848, 
 
 (1848 
 "j 1852 
 
 u 
 
 1849. 
 
 u 
 
 1861. 
 
 1849 
 
 u 
 
 1853. 
 
 1853 
 
 u 
 
 1861, 
 
 1868 
 
 (( 
 
 1871, 
 
 1872 
 
 (( 
 
 1877, 
 
 1868 
 
 (( 
 
 1879, 
 
 1877 
 
 u 
 
 1883, 
 
 1879 
 
 a 
 
 1885, 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 This State forms the northeastern boundary of the Republic; 
 Canada and New Brunswick lying north and east. It was at 
 first a province, granted by charter to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, by 
 the King of England, in 1638; but was united with Massachusetts 
 by purchase in 1652. It was settled by the English, at Bristol, 
 in 1625. It was admitted as a State into the Union March 15, 
 1820, being the twenty-third State in order of admission. It con- 
 
MAINE. 619 
 
 tains 31,766 square miles, or 20,330,240 acres in area. In 1880 the 
 population was 048,945, 
 
 It has now five Representatives in Congress. 
 
 The northern part of this State is almost a wilderness, and fur- 
 nishes large quantities of lumber, which are floated down her 
 large rivers, and supplied, in great abundance, to the Atlantic 
 seaports, and the West Indies. Ship-building is an extensive 
 branch of industry, the great length and irregular line of coast 
 forming numerous harbors. It has extensive fisheries, and a 
 large sea-faring population. Its numerous streams are highly 
 favorable to manufactures, though comparatively little has as 
 yet been done in this direction. The climate is severe and the 
 soil somewhat sterile, so that it ranks low as an agricultural 
 State. It has received comparatively few additions to its popu- 
 lation by foreign immigration; and its inhabitants are mainly 
 from the old English stock, and the State ranks high in moral- 
 ity. It depletes itself by furnishing, like many other of the older 
 States, annually, a large number of vigorous, enterprising young- 
 men to settle the new and fertile regions of the West. 
 
 It forms part of the first Judicial Circuit, and constitutes one 
 Judicial District. It has fourteen ports of entry, and thirty -four 
 ports of delivery. 
 
 The Capital is Augusta, on the Kennebec river. 
 
 The State elections are held on the second Monday in Septem- 
 ber; and the Legislature meets biennially on the first Wednesday 
 in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of its laws is : " Be it enacted by the Sen- 
 ate and House of Representatives, in Legislature assembled." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 John Holmes, from 1820 to 1833. 
 
 John Chandler, ' " 
 
 Albion P. Harris, " 
 
 Peleg Sprague, " 
 
 Ether Shepley, " 
 
 John Ruggles, " 
 
 Judah Dana, *' 
 
 Reuel Williams, *' 
 
 George Evans, " 
 
 John Fairfield, " 
 
 Wyman B. S. Moore, " 1848 " 1848. 
 
 1820 ' 
 
 • 1829. 
 
 1827 ' 
 
 ' 1829, 
 
 1829 ■ 
 
 • 1835. 
 
 1833 • 
 
 • 1836. 
 
 1835 • 
 
 • 1841. 
 
 1830 • 
 
 ' 1837. 
 
 1837 ' 
 
 •' 1843. 
 
 1841 ' 
 
 •• 1847. 
 
 1843 ' 
 
 ' 1847. 
 
620 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 James W. Bradbury, i 
 Hannibal Hamlin, 
 Amos Nourse, 
 William P. Fessenden, 
 
 Lot M. Morrill, 
 Ii]"atlianA. Farwell, 
 J. G. Blaine, 
 
 om 1847 t 
 
 1853 
 
 j 1848 ' 
 I 1869 ' 
 
 ' 1861 
 
 '' 1881 
 
 1857 ' 
 
 ' 1857 
 
 j 1853 ' 
 
 ' 1864 
 
 ( 1865 ' 
 
 ' 1869 
 
 1861 ' 
 
 ' 1877 
 
 1864 ' 
 
 ' 1865 
 
 1876 ' 
 
 ' 1881 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 This State was first settled by the French, at or near the pres- 
 ent Capital, in the year 1719. Here a fort was established, called 
 Fort Orleans, and the neighboring lead mines were worked the 
 next year. St. Genevieve, the oldest town in the State, was 
 settled in 1755, and St. Louis in 1764. In 1763 it, with all the 
 territory west of the Mississippi, was assigned by treaty to 
 Spain. This territory was ceded back to France in 1801, and 
 with Louisiana was purchased by the United States in 1803. It 
 remained a part of Louisiana until the admission of the State of 
 that name, when the remaining portion of that purchase was 
 called Missouri. In 1821 it was admitted into the Union, form- 
 ing the twenty-fourth State. This State has an area of 67,380 
 square miles, equal to 43,123,200 acres. 
 
 Her population in 1880 was 2,168,804, entitling her to thirteen 
 Representatives in Congress. 
 
 The climate in Missouri is variable; in winter the thermometer 
 sinks below zero; the summers are excessively hot; the air is 
 dry and pure. The State is quite as healthful as any in the 
 west. The soil is good and of great agricultural capabilities. 
 The great staple is Indian corn. The other products cultivated 
 largely are hemp, wheat, oats, tobacco. Sheep and cattle are 
 considerably raised, and fruit culture is successful. This State 
 is in the Eighth Judicial Circuit; and forms two Judicial Dis- 
 
MISSOURI. 
 
 621 
 
 tricts, the Eastern and Western. It has no port of entry, and 
 three ports of delivery, St. Louis, Kansas City and St. Joseph. 
 
 The Capital is Jefferson City. The State election is held on 
 the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legis- 
 lature meets biennially on the Wednesday after the first Mon- 
 day in January. The enacting clause of the laws is: ''Be it 
 enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Missouri as 
 follows:" 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. , 
 
 Thomas H. Benton, 
 David Barton, 
 Alexander Buckner, 
 Lewis F. Linn, 
 David R. Atchison, 
 B. Gratz Brown, 
 Henry S. Geyer, 
 Trusten Polk, 
 James S, Green, 
 Waldo P. Johnson, 
 John B. Henderson, 
 Charles D. Drake, 
 Carl Schurz, 
 Francis P. Blair, 
 Lewis V. Bogy, 
 Frank M. Cockrell, 
 David H. Armstrong. 
 James Shields, 
 George G. Vest, 
 
 from 
 
 1831 to 1851. 
 
 1831 ' 
 
 ' 1831. 
 
 1831 ' 
 
 ' 1833. 
 
 1833 ' 
 
 ' 1843. 
 
 1843 ' 
 
 ' 1855. 
 
 1863 ' 
 
 '■ 1867. 
 
 1851 ' 
 
 ' 1857. 
 
 1857 ' 
 
 ' 1861. 
 
 1856 *• 
 
 ' 1861. 
 
 1861 ' 
 
 ' 1863. 
 
 1863 ' 
 
 ' 1869. 
 
 1867 ' 
 
 ' 1871. 
 
 1869 ' 
 
 ' .1875. 
 
 1871 ' 
 
 ' 1873. 
 
 1873 ' 
 
 ' 1877. 
 
 1875 ' 
 
 • 1881. 
 
 1877 ' 
 
 ' 1879. 
 
 1879 ' 
 
 ' 1879. 
 
 1879 ' 
 
 ' 1885. 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 The name of this State is a contraction of two words in the 
 Chippewa language, meaning " Great Lake," and was applied, 
 by the Indians, to the two surrounding the lower peninsula 
 
 It 
 
<;22 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 was explored by Jesuit missionaries, who established numerous 
 missions among various Indian tribes, and pushed their way, 
 through perils and fatigues, west to the Mississippi, which they 
 followed far north and south; to be soon outstripped by the 
 adventurous La Salle. Detroit was founded about 1701. The 
 settlements made little progress under French rule; and when, 
 in 1763, it passed under English control, the conspiracy of Pon- 
 tiac nearly destroyed them. It was not till 1796 that the United 
 States government took possession of the territory. Its growth 
 was much retarded by the war of 1812, when it endured, for two 
 years, all the barbarities of Indian war. 
 
 A Territorial Government was organized in 1805. In 1818 the 
 lands were brought into market, since which time its prosperity 
 has been uninterrupted. It is remarkable in its position, and 
 eminently so by its resources. The southern peninsula is very 
 productive. The northern peninsula contains the richest copper 
 mines in the world, and unlimited supplies of iron, while the 
 quantity of the finest lumber, and the facilities for transporting 
 it are superior. The fish taken in its lakes are excellent and 
 abundant, its people are- enterprising and intelligent; and its 
 State authorities have established one of the best Universities in 
 the Union. Its future promises to become equal at least to that 
 of the most favored State. 
 
 The Territory of Michigan was changed into a State prelimi- 
 narily June 15, 1836, and was fully admitted to an equality with 
 all the States January 26, 1837, making the twenty-fifth State 
 (Arkansas was admitted on the same day). Her area is 56,243 
 square miles, equal to 35,995,520 acres. The population in 1880 
 was 1,636,331, which entitles her to nine Eepresentatives in Con- 
 gress. By an act of 1866, Michigan was located in the sixth 
 Judicial Circuit; and forms two Judicial Districts, and has four 
 Collection Districts and four ports of entry, viz. : Detroit, Port 
 Huron, Grand Haven, and Michilimackinac; also five ports of 
 delivery (if the President deem them necessary). 
 
 The capital is Lansing. The State election is held on the Tues- 
 day after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets 
 biennially on the first Wednesday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: " The people of 
 the State of Michigan enact." 
 
. MIC'HKiAN. 
 
 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 
 Lucius Lyon, 
 
 from 
 
 1836 
 
 to 1839. 
 
 John Norvall, 
 
 a 
 
 1836 
 
 " 1841. 
 
 Augustus S. Porter, 
 
 11 
 
 1839 
 
 '• 1845. 
 
 William Woodbridge, 
 
 a 
 
 1841 
 
 " 1847. 
 
 Lewis Case, 
 
 a 
 
 j 1845 
 ( 1849 
 
 " 1848. 
 " 1857. 
 
 Alpheus Felch, 
 
 {( 
 
 1847 
 
 " 1853. 
 
 Thomas Fitzgerald, 
 
 (C 
 
 1848 
 
 " 1849. 
 
 Charles E, Stewart, 
 
 ( 
 
 853 
 
 " 1859. 
 
 Zachariali Chandler, 
 
 i( 
 
 j 1857 
 \ 1879 
 
 •' 1875. 
 '' 1879. 
 
 Kinsley S. Bingham,. 
 
 ii 
 
 1859 
 
 •• 1861. 
 
 Jacob M. Howard, 
 
 a 
 
 1862 
 
 " 1871. 
 
 Thomas W. Ferry, 
 
 i( 
 
 1871 
 
 " 1880. 
 
 Isaac P. Christiancy, 
 
 a 
 
 1875 
 
 '-' 1879. 
 
 Henry P. Baldwin, 
 
 a 
 
 1879 
 
 " 1881. 
 
 623 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 Arkansas was originally a portion of the Territory of Louis- 
 iana. It remained a part of that Territory until 1812, when the 
 present State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union. The 
 remainder of the territory was then formed into the Missouri 
 Territory, and so remained until 1821 when Missouri was admit- 
 ted into the Union, and Arkansas was erected into a separate 
 territory, bearing the present name. In 1836, a State Constitu- 
 tion was formed at Little Rock, and Arkansas became a State in 
 the Union. It constituted the twenty-sixth State. It has an 
 area of 52,193 square miles, equal to 33,406,720 acres. The popu- 
 lation in 1880 was 802,564, which entitles her to four Representa- 
 tives in Congress. The eastern portion of the State, extending 
 back one hundred miles from the Mississippi, is generally a vast 
 plain covered with marshes, swamps, and lagoons. The Ozark 
 
r,24 
 
 LOCAL govern:.ient. 
 
 mountains which enter the northwest part of the State divide it 
 into two unequal parts, of which the northern has the climate 
 and productions of the Northern States, while the southern por- 
 tion, in climate and productions, resembles Mississippi and 
 Louisiana. The lowlands of Arkansas are unhealthy, while the 
 more elevated portions of the State will compare favorably with 
 the most healthful and invigorating portions of the ISTorthwest. 
 There is a great variety of soil in this State. While some por- 
 tions, like the river bottoms, are exceedingly fertile, other parts 
 are sterile and barren. 
 
 The staple products are Indian corn, cotton and live stock. 
 Arkansas gives indications of rich mineral resources. 
 
 This State lies in the eighth Judicial Circuit, and forms two 
 Judicial Districts, the Eastern and Western. It has no Ports of 
 entry or delivery. 
 
 The Capital of the State is Little Rock. She holds her State 
 election the first Monday in September. The Legislature meets 
 but once in two years, .on the first Monday in January. The 
 enacting clause of the laws is : " Be it enacted by the General 
 Assembly of the State of Arkansas. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 William S. Fulton, 
 Ambrose H. Sevier, 
 Chester Ashley 
 William K. Sebastian. 
 Solon Borland, 
 Robert W. Johnson, 
 Charles B. Mitchell, 
 Alexander McDonald, 
 Benjamin F. Rice, 
 Powell Clayton. 
 Stephen W. Dorsey, 
 A. H. Garland, 
 J. D. Walker, 
 
 from 
 
 1836 to 1844. 
 
 1836 ' 
 
 •" 1848 
 
 1844 ^ ' 
 
 '• 1847. 
 
 1848 ' ' 
 
 ' 186L 
 
 1848 ' 
 
 ' 1853. 
 
 1853 ' 
 
 ' 1861. 
 
 1861 ' 
 
 ' 1861. 
 
 1868 ' 
 
 ' 1871. 
 
 1868 ' 
 
 ' 1873. 
 
 1871 ' 
 
 ' 1877. 
 
 1873 ' 
 
 ' 1879. 
 
 1877 • 
 
 •' 1883. 
 
 1879 • 
 
 ' 1885. 
 
FLORIDA. 625 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 This peninsula was discovered by Ponce de Leon, a compan- 
 ion of Columbus, in 1512, on Easter Sunday, called by the Span- 
 iards Pascua Florida, which, with the profusion of flowers found 
 at this early season in that tropical region, caused him to name 
 it Florida — "the flowery land." It was first colonized by French 
 Huguenots, for whom Admiral Coligni desired to find an asylum 
 in the New World, from the fierce bigotry of the times. The first 
 settlers (1564) became discouraged and returned; the second 
 colony, established in 1566, was destroyed by the Spaniards. 
 These founded a settlement in 1565 at St. Augustine, which was 
 the oldest town in the United States settled by Europeans. It 
 remained in their hands until 1763, when, by the terms of the 
 "Peace of Paris," it fell into the hands of the English. It was 
 returned to Spain in 1783. 
 
 It was acquired from Spain by treaty made with the United 
 States in 1819, but the American authorities did not take pos- 
 session until July, 1821. The consideration given by our Gov- 
 ernment was about five million dollars. It is a point running 
 out from the Southeast border of our territory, of but little eleva- 
 tion above the sea level, and swampy, but covered with an ex- 
 uberant growth of vegetation, with a chain of lakes from south 
 to north through the center. The warmth of the climate, where 
 no winter was ever known, promotes the growth of the rarest 
 and most beautiful flowers; the clustering vines and dense 
 foliage render its forests almost impenetrable, and its delicate 
 mosses are the wonder and delight of the naturalist; while the 
 splendid plumage of its tropical birds, flitting among the lemon 
 and orange groves, laden at once with bud, flower and fruit, 
 combine to add the scenery of the equatorial regions to the 
 homely but more useful vegetable growth and beauty of our 
 temperate zone. It is a resort of invalids during the rigors of 
 the northern winter, its otherwise excessive heat being tempered 
 
 40 
 
626 ' LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 by the sea breezes from either side. With its marshes drained 
 and its vegetable growth subdued and guided by the industrious 
 agriculturist, its supply of the fruits and other productions of 
 warm climates would be inexhaustible. It is but partially settled, 
 and its agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing facilities 
 but slightly developed. Its wealth of resources remain to re- 
 ward the enterprise and industry of the future. The railroad 
 connections between its cities and other States furnish a 
 sufficient basis for improvement. 
 
 Florida was admitted into the Union, March 3, 1845, making 
 the twenty-seventh State. This State has an area of 59,768 
 square miles, equal to 37,931,520 acres. The population in 1880 
 amounted to 267,351. She has two Representatives in Congress. 
 
 Florida lies in the Fifth Judicial Circuit, and forms two 
 Judicial Districts; and has seven ports of entry, and four ports 
 of delivery, and others in the discretion of tlie President. 
 
 The Capital is Tallahassee. The State election is held on the 
 Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature 
 meets on the Tuesday after the first Mondaj^ in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is: "Be it enacted by the Sen- 
 ate and House of Representatives of the State of Florida, in 
 General Assembly convened." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 David Levy Yulee, from 
 
 J. D. Wescott, 
 
 Jackson Morton, " 
 
 S. R. Mallory, « 
 A. S. Welch, 
 
 Thomas W, Osborn, '* 
 
 Abijah Gilbert, *' 
 
 Simon B. Conover, " 
 
 Chas. W. Jones, " 
 
 Wilkinson Call, " 
 
 1845 
 
 to 
 
 1851, 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1861. 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1849, 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1855, 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1861, 
 
 1868 
 
 
 1869, 
 
 1868 
 
 
 1873. 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875. 
 
 1873 
 
 
 1879. 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1881, 
 
 1879 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 I 
 
TOWA. 637 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 1. The name of this State in the Indian tongue is said to mean 
 *' This is the Land.'' Few States have a surface, soil, and 
 position so uniformly excellent for all their different sections. 
 A high rolling prairie, well drained by streams, of great fertility, 
 and almost no sterile or waste land; beautiful to look upon in 
 its alternations of rise and fall, of prairie, stream, and timber; 
 bounded on its extremes by the two mighty branches of the 
 "Father of Waters," with numerous smaller rivers hundreds of 
 miles in length within its , limits ; its southern region underlaid 
 by a vast bed of coal, its northern rich in deposits of lead; a 
 climate free from the severity of Minnesota and Wisconsin win- 
 ters, and from the intemperate heats of Missouri and Kentucky 
 summers, it is a land to be satisfied with; and justifies the pic- 
 turesque name given it by its ancient appreciative owners. 
 
 2, It was first visited by Europeans in 1673, Marquette and 
 Joliet, two French Jesuit missionaries, whom the vast magni- 
 tudes of the North American continent .seemed to stimulate like 
 new wine, roamed alone over these immense distances, preserved 
 by their characteristic French cordiality from the suspicion and 
 hostility of the numerous warlike Indian tribes — who every- 
 where received them with hospitality, treated them with respect, 
 and dismissed them with assistance — passed, in that year, down 
 the Mississippi, and, landing a little above the mouth of the 
 Moingona — which, from the similarity of sound, they corrupted 
 into Des Moines (Monk's River) — they fearlessly followed an 
 Indian trail fourteen miles into the interior to an Indian village. 
 Some tradition or prophecy had forwarned the Indians of vener- 
 able white visitors, and they were received at once as expected 
 and honored guests. The new religion they announced, and the 
 authority of the king of France which they proclaimed, raised 
 no remonstrance or hostile feeling, and they were sent on their 
 
1528 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 way down the river with the "Pipe of Peace." The grand 
 visions of the future entertained by these and other French 
 explorers were never realized by that nation. It was more 
 than a hundred years later that the first settlement was made by 
 Julian Du Buque on the site of the present city of that name. 
 He obtained a grant of 180,000 acres from the Indians, estab- 
 lished a trading post, and worked the lead mines, with great 
 profit; but the time had not come for dispossessing the Indians, 
 and almost fifty years more passed before any other settlement 
 was attempted. 
 
 3. In 1832 the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes united under 
 the Winnebago chief. Black Hawk, to invade and repossess the 
 lands in Illinois which they had ceded to the government. Gen. 
 Atkinson met and defeated them on the Upper Iowa, taking 
 Black Hawk and his son prisoners. They were taken east, 
 kindly treated, and set at liberty ; and in the following year a 
 treaty was made which ultimately extinguished the Indian title 
 to the whole of Iowa, the Indians removing west of the Missouri. 
 In the same year a settlement was rmade at Burlington. The 
 time for Iowa had come. In 1834 it was joined to the Territory 
 of Michigan, in 1837 was reorganized as part of the Wisconsin 
 territory, and, in 1838, became a separate territory with the cap- 
 ital at Burlington. March 3d, 1845, it was conditionally, and 
 Dec. 20th, 1846 fully, admitted into the Union as a Sovereign 
 State. In 1840 it had a population of over 40,000, in 1850 of 
 nearly 200,000. A steady growth followed, and she has now 
 nearly two million inhabitants. Six parallel lines of railroad 
 pass entirely across the State from east to west, three from north 
 to south, and various others are in process of building or form 
 intersecting lines. She is scarcely yet fully launched into her 
 career of greatness. When her virgin soil shall all be broken 
 up and its hidden wealth evoked by her intelligent and skillful 
 agriculturists, when the full tide of commerce on her two great 
 rivers shall have set in to supplement her railroads, and mature 
 organization shall have made all her resources available, she 
 will take her proper place in the first rank of States in thej 
 Union, and her citizens will repeat with satisfaction and pride] 
 the Indian declaration, "This is the Land." 
 
 Iowa was the twenty-eighth State, on its admission, 1845. I| 
 has an area of 55,045 square miles, equal to 35,228,800 acres.' 
 
IOWA. 
 
 629 
 
 The population in 1880 was 1,624,620, which entitles her to nine 
 Representatives in Congress. This Sta.te lies in the eighth Ju- 
 dicial Circuit, and makes one Judicial District. She has no port 
 of entry, but has three ports of delivery, to-wit: Burlington, 
 Keokuk, and Dubuque; all of which are attached to the Collec- 
 tion District of New Orleans, in the State of Louisiana. 
 
 Des Moines is the Capital. The State election is held on the 
 second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets biennially 
 on the second Monday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: "Be it 
 enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Iowa." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 George W. Jones, 
 Augustus C. Dodge, 
 
 James Harlan, 
 
 James W. Grimes, 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood, 
 James B. Howell, 
 George G. Wright, 
 William B. Allison, 
 S. J. Kirkwood, 
 
 from 
 
 1848 
 
 to 
 
 1859, 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1855, 
 
 1856 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1873, 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1869. 
 
 1866 
 
 
 1867. 
 
 1870 
 
 
 1871. 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1877. 
 
 1873 
 
 
 1885. 
 
 1877 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 This State forms the southwestern portion of the United States. 
 The first settlement in Texas was made on Matagorda Bay, under 
 the French led by La Salle, in 1685. It passed into the possession 
 of the Spanish in the year 1690. 
 
 After the independence of Mexico, in 1822, Texas remained a 
 Mexican Province until the revolution of 1836, when it gained its 
 independence. It continued an independent Republic, modeled 
 on that of the United States, until 1845, when, the Texan Con- 
 gress having accepted the conditions imposed by the Congress 
 of the United States, it became the twenty-ninth State in the 
 
630 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Union. It has an area of 274,356 square miles, equal to 175,587,- 
 840 acres. The population in 1880 was 1,592,574, which entitles 
 her to six Members of Congress. 
 
 This States embraces every variety of surface ; mountain, 
 plain, hill, and desert waste lie within its limits. The climate is 
 free from the extremes of both the temperate and torrid zones, 
 producing, in the north, many of the products of the temperate, 
 and in the south many of those of the torrid zone. The varia- 
 tion in the temperature from the season of winter to that of sum- 
 mer is quite small, giving the State as equable a climate as any 
 in the world. While it shares the genial climate of the ' " sunny 
 South " it is free from all the deadly swamp exhalations of the 
 lower Mississippi States. The soil, on the whole, is as fertile as 
 any in the world. It furnishes the very best natural pasture all 
 the year round. Cotton in large quantities — Indian corn, wheat, 
 rye, oats and other small grains — tobacco, indigo and rice, are 
 the staple products. The grape, mulberry and the vanilla, are 
 indigenous and abundant. Cayenne pepper is grown in vast 
 quantities. Fruit is no less various and abundant than its other 
 products. The peach, nectarine, fig, plum, quince and a great 
 variety of berries flourish here. Oranges, lemons, limes and 
 melons, grow well. Live stock of all varieties and in vast num- 
 bers fatten on the plains, and are shipped in all directions to 
 supply every demand. 
 
 T^exas abounds in minerals. Rich silver mines are already 
 worked successfully at San Saba. Gold in small quantities has 
 been found west of the Colorado river. Coal is abundant. Iron 
 is found in many parts of the State. There are also salt lakes 
 and salt springs, copper, alum, lime, agates, chalcedony, jasper 
 and a white and red sandstone. Texas lies in the fifth Judicial 
 Circuit, and makes three Judicial Districts, the Eastern, Western 
 and Northern. There are five Collection Districts in the State, 
 and five Ports of entry. There are attached eight Ports of 
 delivery. 
 
 The Capital is Austin. The Legislature is composed of a Sen- 
 ate, elected for four years, and House of Representatives for 
 two. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial and are held 
 in January. The Governor is elected for four years. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Thomas F. Rusk, from 1846 to 1856. 
 
WISCONSIN. 
 
 631 
 
 Samuel Houston, from 1846 to 1859. 
 
 Pinckney J. Henderson, " 1858 " 1857. 
 
 Matthias Ward, " 1858 •' 1861. 
 
 John Hemphill, <' 1859 " 1861. 
 
 Lewis T. Wigfall, " 1859 
 
 J. W. Flannagan, " 1869 
 
 Morgan C. Hamilton, " 1869 
 
 Samuel B. Maxey, " 1875 
 
 Kichard Coke, " 1877 
 
 1861. 
 1875. 
 1877. 
 1881. 
 1883. 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 1. This State was visited and crossed by the early French 
 explorers about 1665, and a settlement was made at Green Bay 
 in 1669 and soon after on the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. It 
 was the policy of these enterprising men to connect the French 
 settlements on the lower St. Lawrence by a chain of stations on 
 the lakes and rivers with the mouth of the Mississippi. This 
 would have passed through the heart of the country and have 
 laid open its chief resources at once. It was a bold conception. 
 We see it nowhere among the English explorers and settlers, 
 who seemed not to like to lose sight of their ships; but it is quite 
 in keeping with the grand and rapid genius of the French; and, 
 as in so many other cases, by attempting too much they lost the 
 whole. The English, if sloAver, were sure, and consolidated their 
 possessions on the coast, gradually pushing westward as they 
 were able to hold their ground. 
 
 3. The French explorers have left traces of their untiring 
 activity in the names of rivers and places, and even Indian 
 tribes, but the attention of their Home Government was soon 
 withdrawn from them. ■ No further extension was given to set- 
 tlement for near 50 years, notwithstanding it was So easy of 
 access from the south by the Mississipi river, and from the east 
 
632 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 by the chain of Great Lakes. Very fortunately, as it now seems, 
 all this vast and valuable territory in the heart of the continent, 
 equal, perhaps in its natural wealth, to the original resources of 
 the whole of Europe, was reserved to reward the labors and con- 
 solidate the beneficent power of a Nation of Freemen, carefully 
 trained and adapted to their high destiny. 
 
 3. The tide of emigration flowed westward by way of tiie 
 Ohio river, and the States south were settled and admitted into 
 the Union long before Wisconsin received even a Territorial 
 Government. This occurred in 1836, and in 1840 the census gave 
 it but little over 30,000 inhabitants. Population now flowed 
 steadily to it and we find, in 1850, over 300,000 inhabitants. It 
 was admitted into the Union in 1848, making the thirtieth State. 
 Its high latitude probably had something to do with this deferred 
 settlement, the milder winters of the more southern range of 
 States attracting the emigrants first. The climate, however, has 
 important advantages over the States in question, being drier, 
 less changeable, and not so subject to extremes. It is very 
 healthy, and probably the oldest man in the country was living, 
 hale and hearty, in this State, a few years ago, at the patriarchal 
 age of 139. The climate is milder than in the same latitude 
 farther east. 
 
 4. The surface is a high rolling prairie, open and mostly tree- 
 less, except near streams and bodies of water in the south, but 
 in the north covered with timber. Vast forests of pine grow on 
 the northern slope, which is some 1,200 feet above the level of 
 the sea. Some parts of the State fall 600 feet below that eleva- 
 tion; and a succession of ridges having a general direction east 
 and west, separate the rivers flowing into Lake Superior, Green 
 Bay, and Lake Michigan, while many streams flow southwest 
 into the Mississippi. The State is 285 miles long by 255 wide. 
 Its beautiful prairies, gratefully returning a bountiful harvest 
 to the intelligent farmer; its numerous charming lakes and 
 ponds; its remarkable commercial advantages by lakes and 
 rivers, supplemented by canals and railroads; its great manu- 
 facturing facilities and valuable mineral deposits, give great 
 promise to its future. Wheat is the leading agricultural staple, 
 but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the Northern States 
 well reward cultivation. It has an area of 52,924 square miles, 
 equal to 34,511,360 acres. In 1880 the population amounted to 
 
WISCONSIN. 
 
 63^ 
 
 1,315,480, which gave her eight Members of Congress. Wiscon- 
 sin lies in the seventh Judicial Circuit (which is composed of 
 Wisconsin, Indiana and Illinois), and forms two Judicial Dis- 
 tricts. It has one Collection District, one port of entry (Mil- 
 waukee), and five ports of delivery, viz.: Kenosha, Racine, 
 Sheboygan, Green Bay and Depere. 
 
 The Capital of the State is Madison. The Legislature meets 
 on the second Wednesday in January. The State election is on 
 the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is as follows; "The people 
 of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as 
 follows." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Henry Dodge, 
 Isaac P. Walker, 
 Charles Durkee, 
 James R. Doolittle, 
 Timothy O. Howe, 
 M. H. Carpenter, 
 Angus Cameron, 
 M. H. Carpenter, 
 
 from 
 
 1848 
 
 to 
 
 1857 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1855 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1861 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1869 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1879 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1881 
 
 1879 
 
 " 
 
 1881 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 Is said to have been visited by the Spaniards in 1542, and by 
 Sir Francis Drake, a celebrated English navigator, in 1578. The 
 first mission was founded by Spanish Catholics in 1760. It was 
 sparsely settled by Mexican rancheros, who occupied themselves 
 chiefly in raising cattle. In 1846 Fremont, who had been con- 
 ducting an exploring party across the great plains and the Rocky 
 Mountains, defeated, in conjunction with Commodore Stockton, 
 the' Mexican forces in California, and took possession of it in 
 the name of the United States, to which it was definitely ceded 
 by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2d, 1848 ; the United 
 
634 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 States Government paying Mexico for that territory and New 
 Mexico $15,000,000, besides paying $3,500,000 indemnity, due 
 from Mexico to citizens of the United States. 
 
 Scarcely had this arrangement been made, when it was pub- 
 lished that California was rich in gold, and adventurers from all 
 sections of the Union, and various countries of the Old World, 
 rushed in like a flood. For some years, society there, composed 
 in large part of the wildest and most ungovernable elements of 
 old communities, was like a seething volcano; but, to the im- 
 mortal honor of American citizens, it was subdued by the supe- 
 rior resolution and summary vigor of the better class of emi- 
 grants from the States, and was admitted into the Union on the 
 7th of Sept. 1850, with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting 
 slavery. The discussion in Congress on this point came near 
 precipitating the Civil War that broke out ten years later. The 
 difficulty between the slavery and anti-slavery parties was ad- 
 justed by compromise measures, for the time, but only served to 
 allay temporarily the agitation produced by conflict of interests 
 and opinions, which were irreconcilable. 
 
 California, " The Golden," proved extraordinarily rich in pre- 
 cious metals and other minerals, as quicksilver, platinum, 
 asphaltum, iron, lead, and rare qualities of marble. Its gold 
 mines alone from 1858 to 1868 produced over $800,000,000. 
 
 It is a broken country, traversed by two ranges of mountains. 
 The valleys are exceedingly productive. They are unexcelled 
 for wheat; all kinds of fruit grow in the greatest perfection; 
 and grape culture promises to equal, if not to excel, the pro- 
 ducts of the most famous vineyards of Europe. Surprising as 
 is her mineral wealth, her agricultural possibilities are far 
 greater, and her commerce is already immense and bids fair, 
 from her position and relations to Eastern Asia and the western 
 parts of South America, to rival that of the Atlantic States. 
 
 The world was ripe for the discovery of these unparalleled 
 treasures, and civilization was prepared to use them for the good 
 of mankind. The ready passage across the vast and inhospit- 
 able deserts of the American continent, by means of railways, 
 has already changed (and will probably change still more in the 
 future) the course of commerce; and San Francisco and New 
 York may hope to rule, in large part, the commerce of the 
 world. 
 
 California is remarkable for the salubrity of its climate, where 
 
CALIFORNIA. 
 
 635 
 
 the rigors of winter (save on the mountains), and the excessive 
 heats of summer are equally unknown, and for the variety and 
 magnitude of its natural curiosities. Of the last the Yosemite 
 valley and the Big Trees are the most prominent. She has near 
 2,000 miles of railroad, and has made ample provision for edu- 
 cation. 
 
 California was the thirty-first State. It has an area of 157,801 
 jsquare miles, equal to 100,992,040 acres. The population in 1880 
 was 864,086, entitling her to four Representatives in Congress. 
 
 By act of 1866, this State, with Oregon and Nevada, constitute 
 the ninth Judicial Circuit, and forms one Judicial District. Cal- 
 ifornia has two Ports of entry and four Ports of delivery. 
 
 The capital is Sacramento. She holds her State election on the 
 first Tuesday after first Monday in November. Her Legislature 
 meets biennially on the first Monday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of her laws is: "The people of the State 
 of California, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as 
 follows." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 John C. Fremont, 
 
 from 
 
 1850 to 1851 
 
 William M. Gwin, 
 
 
 1850 ' 
 
 ' 1861 
 
 John B. Weller, 
 
 
 1851 ' 
 
 ' 1857 
 
 H. P. Haun, 
 
 
 1859 ' 
 
 ' 1860 
 
 David C. Broderick, 
 
 
 1857 ' 
 
 ' 1859 
 
 Milton S. Latham, 
 
 
 1860 ' 
 
 ' 1863 
 
 John Conness, 
 
 
 1863 ' 
 
 1869. 
 
 Cornelius Cole, 
 
 
 1867 ' 
 
 1873. 
 
 J. A. McDougall, 
 
 
 1861 ' 
 
 1867. 
 
 Eugene Casserly, 
 
 
 1869 ' 
 
 1873. 
 
 Aaron A. Sargent, 
 
 
 1873 ' 
 
 1879. 
 
 John S. Hagar, 
 
 
 1874 ' 
 
 1875. 
 
 Newton Booth, 
 
 It 
 
 1875 ' 
 
 1881. 
 
 James T. Farley, 
 
 it 
 
 1879 " 
 
 1885. 
 
636 LOCAL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 MINNESOTA. 
 
 This State might be called the Mother of Rivers, since it con- 
 tains the high watershed, or table-land, where the rivers sending 
 their waters to two oceans, in three directions, have their 
 sources. The head waters of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, 
 and the streams flowing into the frozen ocean of the north are 
 all found here. In 1680 the unwearied La Salle sent a companion 
 to visit the head-waters of the Mississippi, but this region was 
 long left to the sole occupation of the Indians. 
 
 Fort Snelling, near St. Paul, was built in 1819. No other ter- 
 ritory was acquired, by extinction of the Indian title to the soil, 
 until 1837; and in 1849 the civilized population gathered about 
 the trading posts and missions amounted to less than 5,000. It 
 then received a Territorial Government. A considerable portion 
 of the State having in 1851 been ceded, by treaty with the In- 
 dians, to the Government, was immediately entered by the 
 settlers; and in 1858 it was prepared to take rank among the 
 sovereign States. It was admitted in May of this year, by Act 
 of Congress. 
 
 In 1862 the State passed through the appalling crisis of an In- 
 dian massacre of the outlying settlements. It began without 
 warning, in the midst of fancied security, and before adequate 
 protection could be forwarded^ some five hundred men, women 
 and children were murdered with all the accompaniments of 
 savage cruelty. Some $3,000,000 of property was destroyed. In 
 a short time sufficient force was gathered to overpower the 
 savages, and they were in large part removed from the State. 
 
 The surface is undulating and high, and the soil, in good part, 
 extremely fertile. Portions are open and rolling prairie; the re- 
 mainder heavily wooded. Though the winters are long and cold, 
 the air is dry and invigorating, and the climate healthy. It is 
 specially favorable to the growth of wheat. Commerce is favored 
 
DKIXS OF THK SI. CHOfX KIVEK. MINN. 
 
MINNESOTA. 
 
 637 
 
 by the Mississippi, navigable to St. Paul, and by good harbors 
 on Lake Superior, as well as by numerous railways. Its provis- 
 ion for education is excellent, and a State University at Minne- 
 apolis promises to form a suitable crown to its intellectual 
 advantages. 
 
 This State was admitted into the Union on the 11th day of May, 
 1858, and made the thirty-second State. It has an area of 83,- 
 531 square miles, equal to 53.459,840 acres. The population in 
 1880 amounted to 780,806. This State is entitled to three Mem- 
 bers of Congress. 
 
 It lies in the Eighth Judicial Circuit, which is composed of 
 Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Arkansas and Minnesota, Minnesota 
 forms one Judicial District, and has two ports of entry and one 
 of delivery. 
 
 St. Paul is the capital. The Legislature meets biennially on 
 the Tuesday after the first Monday in January. The State elec- 
 tion is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 SENATORS. 
 
 
 
 Henry M. Rice, from 
 
 1857 
 
 to 
 
 1863. 
 
 James Shields, '' 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1859. 
 
 Alex. Ramsey, " 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1875. 
 
 Daniel Norton, " 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 1871. 
 
 Mort. S. Wilkinson, " 
 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 William Windom, " 
 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 S.J. R. McMillan,' 
 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 OREGON 
 
 Was discovered by Spanish adventurers in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. In 1793 Capt. Grey, of Boston, discovered the Columbia 
 river and entered it, securing the sovereignty of the country to 
 the United States by right of first exploration. It was more thor- 
 oughly explored by Lewis and Clark, appointed for that purpose 
 
638 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 by the United States Government, in 1804-5-6- The northern 
 part (now Washington Territory) was claimed by Great Britain, 
 and the conflicting claims produced long and dangerous diplo- 
 matic contention, which was finally peaceably ended in favor of 
 the United States. 
 
 In 1811 a fur trading company established a fort and settle- 
 ment at the mouth of the Columbia, which was taken possession 
 of by the English in the latter part of 1813. The country was 
 claimed by them until 1846, when the boundaries were settled by 
 treaty, giving Oregon to the United States. Settlement from the 
 States, however, commenced in 1839, and continued to increase 
 until 1848, when a Territorial Government was organized. The 
 excitement consequent on the discovery of gold in California 
 drew off many of its citizens; but was, in part, counteracted by 
 the extraordinary inducements made to actual settlers. A State 
 Constitution was adopted by the people Nov. 9th, 1857, but it was 
 not admitted, by act of Congress, into the Union, until Feb. 14th, 
 1859, making the thirty-third State. 
 
 The surface of the country is divided by three ranges of 
 mountains, the Cascade, Blue and Rocky Mountains. The Cas- 
 cade Range has the highest peak found in the United States. 
 The climate is mild near the coast, but more severe in higher 
 eastern parts. The high eastern regions are volcanic, contain- 
 ing vast tracts of lava, entirely sterile; the middle is well 
 adapted to grazing, in many parts. The most valuable farming 
 lands are in the western division, on the various tributary 
 streams of the Columbia. Wheat is the great staple; rye, oats, 
 and vegetables are grown with success. Fruit is also produced 
 in abundance. Its supply of coal and copper is said to be unlimit- 
 ed, audit is specially celebrated for its extensive forests of gigan- 
 tic trees. Manufactures and commerce are, as yet, undeveloped; 
 but will be important in the future. Much is now being done in 
 the way of internal improvement. 
 
 Oregon has experienced the disadvantage of growing up in 
 the shade of her splendid neighbor, California, but has a solidly 
 prosperous future before her. 
 
 It has an area of 95,274 square miles, equal to 60,975,360 acres. 
 The population amounted in 1880 to 174,767, which did not reach 
 the number required to entitle it to two Members of Congress 
 according to the ratio. But every State is entitled to one 
 member, whatever its population may be. By act of 1866, the 
 
OREGON. 
 
 039 
 
 States of Oregon, Nevada and California were constituted the 
 Ninth Judicial Circuit. Oregon forms one Judicial District, and 
 has, with Washington Territory, four Collection Districts and 
 three ports of entry. 
 
 The Capital is Salem, where her Legislature ' meets biennially 
 on the second Monday of September. The State election is held 
 on the first Monday in June. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Joseph Lane, 
 
 from 
 
 1850 to 1861 
 
 Delazon Smith, 
 
 
 1859 
 
 ' 1860 
 
 Edward D. Baker, 
 
 
 1861 
 
 ' 1861 
 
 Benjamin F. Harding, 
 
 
 1862 
 
 ' ^ 1865 
 
 James W. Nesmith, 
 
 
 1861 
 
 ' ' 1867 
 
 Benjamin Stark, 
 
 
 1861 
 
 ' 1862 
 
 Geo. H. Williams, 
 
 
 1865 
 
 ' 1871 
 
 Henry W. Corbett, 
 
 
 1867 
 
 ' 1873 
 
 James K. Kelley, 
 
 
 1871 
 
 ' 1877 
 
 John H. Mitchell, 
 
 
 1873 
 
 ' 1879 
 
 L. F. Grover, 
 
 
 1877 
 
 ' 1883 
 
 J. H. Slater, 
 
 
 1879 
 
 ' 1885 
 
 KANSAS, 
 
 1. Nearly every State in the American Union has some ad- 
 vantage that is peculiar to it, or that it shares in a degree so 
 eminent as to distinguish it from all others. Kansas is not an 
 exception, and some of these are exceedingly attractive. They 
 enter, to some extent, into the painful and bloody history of its 
 first settlement ; the mighty tragedy of the Civil War having 
 enacted its prelude on her fertile plains. The Kansas and 
 Nebraska Bill, in 1854, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and 
 this Territory was opened to a trial of strength between Freedom 
 
640 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 and Slavery, the contest being transferred from the floors of 
 Congress and the Representatives of the people to the settlers of 
 the soil, who were to determine whether slavery should, or not, 
 exist in it, as a State. The attraction of a decisive political 
 struggle was added to the many favorable features of position, 
 climate, and intrinsic value. Southern people sought to intro- 
 duce their peculiar institution, and northern people resisted. 
 There was much disorder and bloodshed. Every effort was 
 made, by strategy and force, on the one side and the other. The 
 southern party was signally defeated and there was henceforth 
 no hope of preserving to the slave States a balance of power in 
 the national government, and the Civil War followed, almost 
 as a natural consequence. 
 
 2. Kansas is larger by more than 3,000 square miles than the 
 whole of New England. It lies very near the geographical center 
 of the country, and stretches a friendly hand, by the Pacific 
 and Eastern Railroads, to both the Atlantic and Pacific States. 
 A good part of her soil is declared to be much superior to that 
 of ordinary prairie land in richness, and to average four feet in 
 depth. It is fairly watered and timbered, and freely produces 
 everything, except the proper tropical products of the extreme 
 south, that is grown in the United States. The climate is that 
 of Virginia, without its excessive heat; which may, perhaps, be 
 considered balanced by its occasional excessively sharp and cut- 
 ting winds in winter. These, however, are tolerably rare, and 
 the winters, for the most part, short and mild, the climate be- 
 ing, on the whole, very healthy. Its deposits of salt are exceed- 
 ingly rich, and other minerals abound in various parts. Its 
 commercial position is excellent, and its manufacturing capa- 
 bilities all that the future will be likely to require. Its resources, 
 under suitable development, cannot be considered inferior to any 
 
 other equal area in the country; which is speaking in the strong- 
 est language we can command, considering what may be said 
 of so many different localities. 
 
 3. The eastern surface is a succession of waves, or undula- 
 tions, the ridges generally extending north and south. A nar- 
 row section west of it, stretching across the State, is more level 
 and the soil lighter. Beyond this long reaches of level, fertile, 
 and well-watered lands are adapted to flocks and herds. These 
 are much higher than the river beds, the valleys of which abound 
 in bottoms, beautiful in appearance and situation; and of inex- 
 
KANSAS. 
 
 G41 
 
 haustible fertility. Vast beds of coal, a good quality and abun- 
 dant quantity of iron ore, and petroleum and lead have been dis- 
 covered. Corn and wheat are the leading staples, and it is 
 believed that fruit culture will soon become a leading interest of 
 this promising State. 
 
 Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State, Jan. 29, 1861, 
 making the thirty-fourth State. Kansas has an area of 78,841 
 square miles, equal to 50,187,520 acres. The population in 1880 
 was 995,966, giving her three Representatives in Congress. This 
 State is in the eighth Judicial Circuit, and forms one Judicial 
 District. It has one port of delivery, Leavenworth. 
 
 Topeka is the capital. The State election is held on the Tues- 
 day after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets 
 biennially on the second Tuesday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: *'Be it enacted 
 by the Legislature of the State of Kansas." 
 
 James Henry Lane, 
 Samuel C. Pomeroy, 
 E. G. Ross, 
 Alexander Caldwell 
 Robert Crozier, 
 James M. Harvey, 
 John J. Ingalls, 
 P. B. Plumb, 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 from 1861 
 
 1861 
 
 to 
 
 1866 
 1871 
 1873 
 ,1874 
 1873 
 1877 
 
 1866. 
 1873. 
 
 1871. 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 1877. 
 1885. 
 1883. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 
 This is the only State ever formed, under the Constitution, by 
 the division of an original State. The interests of West Vir- 
 ginia were always different from those of the eastern part: and 
 when, at the commencement of the Civil War, the eastern 
 part seceded, the western remained loyal and was erected into a 
 
 41 
 
642 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 separate State; thus realizing the ancient wishes of its citizens. 
 
 The Act of Congress organizing it as a State was passed 
 Decetnber 31st, 1862, with condition that it should take effect 60 
 days after proclamation of its admission by the President of the 
 United States. This proclamation was issued April 21st, 1863; 
 and it was admitted to representation in Congress as a sovereign 
 State June 20th thereafter, A temporary government without 
 representation in Congress had been formed in May, 1862. It 
 was the thirty-first State admitted into the Union. 
 
 It is varied in surface; from high mountain ranges, hilly and 
 undulating midlands, to level and rich bottom; and is nearly all 
 available either for cultivation or grazing; while its valuable 
 deposits of coal lie very near the surface in nearly all parts of 
 the State. Iron abounds, and timber of the best quality. Its 
 manufacturing facilities are great; and its canals and railroads, 
 with the Ohio River, on its northwestern border, furnish the 
 means of making it one of the richest States in the Union. The 
 climate is healthy, and the scenery picturesque, and in places it 
 rises to wild grandeur. 
 
 It has an area of 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres. 
 
 The population in 1880 was 618,443. The State has now three 
 Members of Congress. West Virginia is in the Fourth Judicial 
 Circuit, and constitutes one Judicial District. Parkersburg is a 
 port of delivery. 
 
 Wheeling is the Capital. The State election is held on the 
 second Tuesday in October. The Legislature meets biennially 
 on the second Tuesday in January. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Peter G. Van Winkle, 
 
 from 
 
 1863 
 
 to 
 
 1869. 
 
 Waitman T. Willey, 
 
 
 1863 
 
 
 1871. 
 
 Arthur J. Boreman, 
 
 
 1869 
 
 
 1875. 
 
 H. G. Davis, 
 
 
 1871 
 
 
 1883. 
 
 Allen T. Caperon, 
 
 
 1875 
 
 
 1876. 
 
 Frank Hereford, 
 
 
 1876 
 
 
 1881. 
 
NEVADA. 643 
 
 NEVADA 
 
 " The Snowy Land " derives its name from the Sierra Nevada, 
 or Snowy Range of mountains forming the eastern boundary of 
 California. It lies in the western part of the basin of the Great 
 Salt Lake, and among those mountains in whose rocky bosom 
 was found the stimulus that has changed so much of the Pacific 
 Slope and the Rocky Mountain region from a wild and dismal 
 waste to populous and thriving States. 
 
 Gold was found in moderate quantities among the mountains, 
 and population began to scatter slowly over them about 1850, 
 and soon settlers began to improve the valleys at the foot of the 
 mountains on the east for agricultural purposes. Carson county 
 was organized by the Territorial Government of Utah in 1854; 
 but in June, 1859, rich deposits of silver were found ; and emi- 
 gration began to pour in rapidly. In March, 1861, the Territory 
 of Nevada was organized, and the same month, three years 
 later, it was admitted into the Union, making the thirty-sixth 
 State. 
 
 The history of these States, so rich in precious metals, puts to 
 the blush the fantastic fables of the Arabian Nights. The silver 
 mines of Nevada are believed to be the richest in the world. The 
 celebrated silver mines of Potosi, in South America, never pro- 
 duced over $10,000,000 a year, while in 1867, one mine in Nevada 
 produced $17,500,000, and is thought to be almost, or quite inex- 
 haustible. The climate, like that of California, is healthy; the 
 seasons are divided into wet and dry, and agriculture is depend- 
 ent on irrigation. With time and pains its products will be con- 
 siderable. It has much wild and sublime scenery, and some 
 natural curiosities; as Lake Mono, with its waters so sharply acid 
 as to destroy cloth and leather immersed in it. Its gloomy sur- 
 roundings, and the great distance from the tops of the precipitous 
 rocks surrounding its shores to the surface of the water lend an 
 impressive and fearful character to its severe desolation. It lies 
 
644 . LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 below the reach of the winds, and no living thing can exist in 
 its waters. 
 
 Nevada has an area of 63,473 square miles, or 40,622,720 acres. 
 The population in 1860, while yet a Territory, was 6,857. In 1880 
 it had increased to 62,265. In conformity with the Constitutional 
 provision that every State shall have one Representative in Con- 
 gress, Nevada has one. This State lies in the ninth Judicial Cir- 
 cuit, and forms one Judicial District, called the District of Ne- 
 vada. 
 
 Carson City is the Capital. The State election is held on the 
 first Tuesday in November; and the Legislature meets biennially 
 on the first Monday in January. 
 
 The enacting clause of the laws is in the following words : 
 "The people of the State of Nevada, represented in Senate and 
 Assembly, do enact as follows." 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 James W. Nye, from 1865 to 1873. 
 
 William M. Stewart, " 1865 " 1875. 
 
 John P. Jones, " 1873 " 1885. 
 
 Wm. Sharon, " 1875 '' 1881. 
 
 NEBRASKA 
 
 Formed a part of the Louisiana Purchase from the French 
 Government in 1803. It received a Territorial Government in 
 1854, and was, by the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 
 equally with Kansas, exposed to the introduction of slavery; 
 but the Southern people limited their efforts in that direction to 
 Kansas, and Nebraska did not share in its disorder and blood- 
 shed. 
 
 The greater portion of the country consists of a high, 
 rolling prairie. The soil in the eastern part of the State is nearly 
 the same as that of the adjoining portions of Iowa and Kansas. 
 
NEBRASKA. 645 
 
 It is a rich loam, finely pulverized, and admirably adapted to 
 cultivation. The second district, near the center of the State, is 
 varied in soil and surface. The third, or western section, has a 
 fair soil, but is destitute of timber, and insufficiently supplied 
 with water, but is a good pastoral region. 
 
 Throughout the fertile portion of the State, wheat, corn, oats, 
 and other cereals, and vegetables and fruits yield largely. Vast 
 herds of buffaloes formerly roamed over its prairies; but they 
 are now mostly exterminated. The altitude of Nebraska secures 
 to it a dry, pure, and salubrious atmosphere. Rain is not abun- 
 dant, but, in the eastern part, is sufficient for the purposes of 
 the agriculturist. Salt, limestone, and coal are found in various 
 localities, and not improbably other minerals will be found in 
 paying quantities. The State is too new to fully estimate all its 
 resources and capabilities. 
 
 The educational advantages are good. The Common School 
 System, modeled on that of Ohio, is well supplied with funds, 
 embracing one-sixteenth of the public land, or 2,500,000 acres. 
 Ninety thousand acres were given to endow a State Agricultural 
 College, and 46,081 acres to the State University. 
 
 Its commercial facilities are supplied by the Missouri River, 
 the Pacific and other railroads, and are amply sufficient to 
 develop its resources. The future of the State has many ele- 
 ments of promise. No public debt impedes its growth, and 
 within the last few years it has increased in wealth and popula- 
 tion more rapidly than most of the adjoining States and Terri- 
 tories. An unknown, but certainly not limited, amount of 
 wealth still lies locked up in its soil, and its relation to ocean 
 commerce by the mighty Missouri, and to inter-State trade by 
 lying in the great traveled route between the Atlantic and Pacific 
 States, with a remarkably fine, healthy climate, and the ease 
 with which its soil is worked, contribute to form a powerful 
 attraction to labor and capital, and there is no reason to antici- 
 pate any decrease in its rapid progress. 
 
 On its admission, in 18G7, it was the thirty-seventh State. 
 It has an area of 122,007 square miles, or 78,084,480 acres. 
 
 Population in 1880, was 452,433. It forms the ninth Judicial 
 District of the eighth Circuit, and has one port of delivery. 
 
 The capital is Lincoln. The State election is held on the Tues- 
 day after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets 
 biennially on the first Tuesday in January. 
 
646 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 John M. Thayer, from 
 
 Thomas W. Tipton, 
 PhineasW. Hitchcock, " 
 Algernon S. Paddock, " 
 Alvin Saunders, " 
 
 1867 
 
 to 1871. 
 
 1867 
 
 '•' 1875. 
 
 1871 
 
 " 1877. 
 
 1875 
 
 " 1881. 
 
 1877 
 
 " 1883. 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 Was formed from parts of Kansas, Nebraska and Utah. Its 
 Territorial Government was organized by Act of Congress, March 
 2nd, 1861. It is situated west of Kansas, on the great route from 
 the Pacific to the Atlantic States, and on the dividing-ridge, or 
 backbone, of the continent. The rivers that find their head waters 
 within the territory run southeast and south to the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico, and southwest to the Gulf of California. The surface is 
 nearly equally divided between a plain, gently descending from 
 the al3rupt mountain wall of rock constituting the eastern flank 
 of the Rocky Mountains, and the mighty mass of that chain, 
 with its peaks, rising nearly three miles above the surface of the 
 sea, now forming an elevated plateau, and again sending off 
 spurs and lateral ranges containing beautiful valleys, or. in a 
 more lavish and genial mood, taking a wide circuit inclosing an 
 immense sunken plain containing hundreds of square miles of 
 charming, well-watered farming land called parks. Of these 
 there are seven. It is a magnificent region, and contains all the 
 elements of extreme mineral and much agricultural wealth. It 
 has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead and iron. Coal abounds 
 in all parts, oil flows from the wells with a little encouragement, 
 and salt is easilj^ obtained in some parts. An immense soda- 
 fountain is found near Colorado City, called Fontaine qui Bouille 
 (boiling fountain) and there are indications of cinnabar, platina, 
 and precious stones. 
 
COLORADO. 647 
 
 The climate is fine, the general temperature like Southern 
 Pennsylvania or Maryland; and, from the elevation, the air is 
 very dry and pure. The plain rises by imperceptible degrees to 
 5,000 feet, (about one mile,) above the level of the sea, at the 
 foot of the mountains. The numerous valleys, the parks, and 
 much of the sloping plain, form as fine an agricultural region, 
 with proper irrigation, as any State possesses, and much of the 
 remainder furnishes excellent pasturage through the entire year. 
 Occasionally heavy snow falls and for a few days extreme cold 
 prevails, but these are exceptional years; and snow does not lie 
 long. Its effects can be guarded against with prudent care. 
 Corn, wheat, and other small grains and vegetables reach their 
 greatest perfection here. 
 
 It furnishes excellent manufacturing facilities along the un- 
 failing mountain streams in the valleys, and will no doubt ulti- 
 mately unite with Montana and Southwestern Dacotah to supply 
 the immense central part of our domain with all the products of 
 manufacturing genius and skill. 
 
 Denver, the Capital and principal city, is situated near the 
 eastern base of the mountains, where these put on their severest 
 and sublimest aspect. Clear lakes are set like stars, here and 
 there, and the beautiful and grand in scenery are nowhere more 
 striking, or more agreeably combined. 
 
 Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, was admitted into the Union 
 August 1st, 1870, by proclamation of the President, according to 
 law. It is estimated to contain 104,000 square miles, or 66,560,- 
 000 acres. Its population in 1880 was 194,649. It has one Repre- 
 sentative in Congress, and constitutes one Judicial District. The 
 elections are held on the first Tuesday in October, and the Leg- 
 islature meets biennially the first Wednesday in January. 
 
 UNITED STATES SENATORS. 
 
 Jerome B. Chaffee, from 
 Henry M. Teller, 
 E. P. Hill, 
 
 THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 The first Congress convened under the new Constitution in 
 1789 held its session in New York. The seat of government was 
 then removed to Philadelphia. There was much dissension as to 
 where it should be permanently located. The North and the 
 
 1877 
 
 to 
 
 1879. 
 
 1877 
 
 i( 
 
 1883. 
 
 1879 
 
 a 
 
 1885. 
 
648 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 South were each equally obstinate in their desire to locate it in 
 their own section, and the quarrel threatened a rupture of the 
 Confederacy. The great political question of the time was the 
 debts of the States contracted in carrying on the War of Inde- 
 pendence. The South, disliking a strong central government, 
 opposed giving the charge of the finances of the country into its 
 hands; while the North strongly approved the plan of clothing 
 it with authority to concentrate the strength of the nation to a 
 reasonable extent, so that it might be able to act with vigor and 
 make the country formidable to its enemies. The reservation of 
 as much power as possible to the individual States was a vital 
 question with the South, since it wished to maintain Slavery, 
 and it was always foreseen that the North must preponderate, 
 ultimately, in the General Government; and the North was un- 
 friendly to slavery. The Constitution could make its way in the 
 South only by compromise as to that labor system. 
 
 The question was a very difficult and delicate one to adjust, 
 but with much tact Jefferson and Hamilton, usually antagonists 
 in politics, united to urge a compromise; the North conceding 
 the location of the National Capital, and the South the assump- 
 tion, by the General Government, of the State debts. This was 
 accomplished in 1790, and Washington selected the site on his 
 own Potomac, Virginia and Maryland uniting to give a tract ten 
 miles square, extending on both sides of the river. A new city 
 was laid out, and buildings erected which were occupied for the 
 first time in 1800. This small territory, the government and con- 
 trol of which was lodged wholly in Congress, was called "Co- 
 lumbia." The possession of its own Capital was considered im- 
 portant in order to avoid a possible conflict of Federal and State 
 authority. 
 
 The capital city was located on the Maryland side, and called 
 Washington. The territory on the Virginia side was, in 1846, 
 re-ceded to Virginia. On Feb 21st, 1877, the District was made 
 a Territory, with a Legislature for its internal government, and 
 the right to be represented by one member in the House of Rep- 
 resentatives. This, however, was afterward changed. 
 
 The population in 1880 was 177,638. Washington is adorned 
 with many immense buildings erected for the various Depart- 
 ments of the Government, and the Capitol itself is one of the 
 largest in the world, and cost $13,000,000. It is worthy of the 
 great nation represented in its halls. 
 
MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES. 649 
 
 MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES. 
 
 United States — E Plurih^is Unum, "Out of Many, One." 
 
 Alabama — Has no motto. Name, from its principal river, 
 means "Here we rest," and denotes the satisfaction of the In- 
 dians with its agreeeable landscape and climate. 
 
 Arkansas — Regnant popnli — "The people rule." Has the In- 
 dian name of its river. Is called the "Bear State." 
 
 California — Eureka, her Greek motto, means "I have found 
 it." Derives her name from the bay forming the peninsula of 
 lovN^er California. 
 
 Colorado — Latin motto. Nil sine numine, means "Nothing 
 can be done without divine aid." Named from the river. 
 
 Connecticut — Qui transtulit Sustinet, "He who brought us 
 over sustains us," Name from her river, which means, in the 
 Indian tongue, "The long river." Is called the "Nutmeg State." 
 
 Delaware — Motto, "Liberty and Independence." Was named 
 from Lord Delaware, an English statesman. Is called "The 
 Blue Hen." 
 
 Florida — Motto, "In God is our trust." Name from the abun- 
 dance of flowers when discovered, on Easter Sunday. In Span- 
 ish Florida means flowery. 
 
 Georgia — Motto, "Wisdom, justice and moderation." Named 
 from George II. , King of England when it was settled. 
 
 Illinois — Motto, "State Sovereignty, National Union." Name 
 derived from an Indian tribe, also applied by them to Lake Mich- 
 igan and her largest inland river. Means "We are the men." 
 Is called the "Sucker State." 
 
 Indiana — Has no motto. Name suggested by its numerous 
 Indian population. It is called the "Hoosier State. "" 
 
 Iowa — Motto. "Our liberties we prize, our rights we will main- 
 tain." Its Indian name means "This is the Land." Is called 
 the "Hawk Eye State." 
 
 Kansas — Motto, Ad astr a per asjoera, "To the stars through 
 difficulties." Name means "Smoky water," and is derived from 
 one of her rivers. 
 
 Kentucky— Motto, "United we stand, divided we fall." Bears 
 the Indian name of one of her rivers. The Indians termed it the 
 "dark and bloody ground." It was the battle-field of Northern 
 and Southern Indians. It is called the " Blue Grass State." 
 
G50 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Louisiana— Motto, "Justice, union and confidence." Named 
 from Louis XIV., King of France. It is called " The Pelican 
 State." 
 
 Maine— Latin motto, Dirigo, " I direct f indicative of sover- 
 eignty. Was named for a province of France. Is called " The 
 Pine Tree State." 
 
 Maryland— Latin motto, Crescite et multiplicamini, "In- 
 crease and multiply." Name from the Queen of England, the 
 wife of Charles I. 
 
 Massachusetts— Latin motto, Ense petit placidam sub lib- 
 ertate quietem, "By the sword she seeks placid rest in liberty," 
 or " Conquers a peace." The name was acquired from an Indian 
 tribe and the bay on her coast. Is called the " Bay State" from 
 her numerous bays. 
 
 Michigan — Latin motto, Tuehor, and, Si quwris peninsulam 
 amcenam circumspice. "I will defend." " If you seek a pleas- 
 ant peninsula, look around you." The name is derived from 
 two Indian words meaning "Great Lake," by them applied to 
 Huron and Michigan lakes. Is called " The Wolverine State." 
 
 Minnesota — French motto, UEtoile du Nord, "The Star of 
 the North." The name, meaning whitish water, (foam of the 
 falls,) is derived from the Indians. 
 
 Missouri — Latin motto, Salus populi suprema lex esto. " Let 
 the warfare of the people be the supreme law," Named from 
 her great river. It means " Muddy water." 
 
 Mississippi — Has no motto. It is named from the river, whose 
 name signifies " The Father of Waters." 
 
 Nebraska — Motto, "Equality before the law." Its name is 
 derived from one of the rivers, meaning "broad and shallow, or 
 low." 
 
 New Hampshire — Has no motto. It is named from a county 
 in England. Familiar name is " The Old Granite State." 
 
 New Jersey — Motto, "Liberty and Independence." Named 
 for the Island of Jersey on the coast of England. 
 
 New York — Latin motto. Excelsior, "Higher." Named from 
 the Duke of York. Is called " The Empire State." 
 
 North Carolina — Has no motto. It was named for Charles 
 IX., King of France. It is called "The old North," or "The 
 Turpentine State." 
 
 Nevada — Latin motto, Volens e^pof ens, "Willing and Able. " It 
 w^s named from its mountains. Spanish name means "Snowy." 
 
MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES. 651 
 
 Ohio — Latin motto. Imperium in imperio, " An empire in an 
 empire." It took its name from the river on the south boundary. 
 It is familiarly called '' The Buckeye State,"' 
 
 Oregon — Latin motto, " Alis volat propriis,'- She flies with 
 her own wings." Name is derived from her principal river. 
 
 Pennsylvania — Motto, ''Virtue, liberty and independence." 
 Named from Wm. Penn, " Penn's woods." Is called the " Key- 
 stone State." 
 
 Rhode Island — Her motto is " Hope." Named from the Isl- 
 and of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean Sea. Is familiarly called 
 " Little Rhody." 
 
 South Carolina — Latin motto, Animis opibusque parati, 
 " Ready in will and deed." Has the Latin name of Charles IX, 
 of France (Carolus). Is known as the " Palmetto State." 
 
 Tennessee — Motto, "Agriculture, Commerce." Has the 
 Indian name of one of her rivers. She is called " The Big Bend 
 State." 
 
 Texas — Has no motto. Has preserved its Mexican name. Is 
 called " The Lone Star State." 
 
 Vermont — Motto, " Freedom and Unity." Has the French 
 name of her mountains {Veixl Mont, " Green Mountains"). 
 
 Virginia — Latin Motto, Sic semper tyrannis, " So always with 
 tyrants." Was named from Elizabeth of England, the "Virgin" 
 Queen. It is called *' The Old Dominion." 
 
 West Virginia — Latin motto, Montani semper liberi, "Mount- 
 aineers are always free." Retained the former name, when 
 divided from Virginia." 
 
 Wisconsin — Latin motto, Civilitas successit barbarum, " The 
 civilized man succeeds the barbarous." Has the Indian name of 
 one of her rivers. It is called " The Badger State." 
 
 DAKOTA. 
 
 The territory received an organization and government in 1861. 
 It contains 340,000 square miles, is greater in extent than 
 all New England together with the great and wealthy States of 
 New York and Pennsylvania and possesses some peculiar 
 advantages. 
 
 The Missouri River passes from northwest to southeast diagon- 
 ally through it, navigable for its whole length, a distance of 
 more than a thousand miles; tlie Red River of the North skirts 
 its eastern line, its valley being unrivalled for its richness, and 
 
652 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 adaption to the growth of wheat. Except the extreme northern 
 part, it is said to have the dry, pure, and healthy climate of 
 Southern Minnesota, with the soil of Central Illinois. 
 
 It is free from the damp, raw, and chilly weather prevailing 
 in Iowa and Illinois, and from the embarrassments to agricul- 
 ture often experienced in these States from excessive spring 
 rains; while, in late spring and early summer, copious showers 
 supply sufficient moisture to promote a rapid vegetable growth. 
 The surface east and north of the Missouri is largely an undu- 
 lating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, and slough, traversed 
 by many streams and dotted with many lakes of various sizes, 
 which supply the purest water and lend the enchantment of 
 beauty to the landscape. 
 
 It has all the conditions of climate, soil, and transportation 
 for the most profitable production of the two great staples of 
 American agriculture, wheat and corn. West of the Missouri 
 the country becomes more rolling, then broken and hilly, until 
 the lofty chain of the Rocky Mountains is reached. The 
 Black Hills cross the southwestern section. A most desirable 
 stock-raising region is furnished here, and mining flourishes 
 in the mountains. In 1880 it had a population of 135,180. Yank- 
 ton is the Capital. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 The Spaniards visited the valley of the Colorado at an early 
 day ; but the distance from Mexico, and the warlike character 
 of the Indians, did not favor settlement beyond what was gath- 
 ered about the few missions that were constructed so as to 
 answer for fortresses. 
 
 ^The part of this territory lying between Sonora, (of which it 
 formed part,) and California was acquired to the United States 
 by the Gadsden treaty, made with Mexico Dec. 30th, 1853. The 
 American Government paid $10,000,000 for it. A Territorial Gov. 
 ernment was organized Feb. 24th, 1863, and embraced part of 
 New Mexico, containing, altogether, an area of 131,000 square 
 miles, or 77,440,000 acres.- 
 
 Efforts had been made previously to settle the country and 
 develop its mines ; and an overland mail stage route was estab- 
 lished. This proved a success ; but the fierce hostility of the 
 Apache Indians, and the desperate character of such whites as 
 had gathered there, fleeing from justice in California and Sonora, 
 
ARIZONA. 653 
 
 discouraged the immigration of law-abiding citizens ; and the 
 breaking out of the Civil War withdrew the soldiers in garrison 
 there for the protection of the country. After the war the main 
 stream of emigration followed the line of the newly opened 
 Pacific railroad. The development of the mines required capital 
 and machinery and, though they are thought to be the richest 
 in the world, nothing could be extracted from them by individ- 
 uals without means. So the population has until recently in- 
 creased slowly, the census of 1880 giving 40,441. 
 
 It is a strange and somewhat fearful land ; in great part a 
 region of desolate mountains and deep canons. There are many 
 sections susceptible of cultivation that even now produce im- 
 mense returns under irrigation ; but the efforts in this direction 
 long miscarried from the desolating ravages of the Indians. 
 The rainless season reduces the whole couutry to the semblance 
 of a desert. It is, however, declared to have more arable land 
 in proportion to its surface than New Mexico, or California; and 
 will probably, in time, have a large and prosperous farming 
 community. Cotton is easily cultivated, and sugar cane, in the 
 lower parts, produces abundantly. Grains, vegetables, and 
 melons are produced in the greatest possible perfection, and ma- 
 ture in an incredibly short space of time. 
 
 When the Apaches are subdued, and society is reduced to 
 order, it will become a favorite resort of the thrifty farmers of 
 the older States, and the diligent German and other foreign im- 
 migrants. 
 
 It contains many traces of a race that has disappeared ; some 
 of their dwellings yet remaining in a partially ruinous state. 
 They ruled Mexico before the conquest by Cortez, or are more 
 ancient still. They irrigated the dry plains, great canals being 
 still visible, and there are remains of large cities. They were 
 perhaps Toltecs, the race that preceded the Aztecs in Mexico. 
 
 The completion of the Southern Pacific Railway introduced the 
 hum of industry among its desolate mountains and among its 
 numerous fertile valleys, and the acquisition of the mouth of 
 the Colorado, a lare river opening into the head of the Gulf of 
 California, will give it a profitable commerce. Arizona lies south 
 of Utah, to which it is superior in the number and size of its 
 streams, its larger quantity of timber, and the amount of rain- 
 fall in some parts, which is deemed, in some sections, sufficient 
 to dispense with the necessity of irrigation. 
 
654 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 This Territory was organized March 3d, 1863. It originally 
 embraced a vast region lying on both sides of the main chain of 
 the Rocky Mountains; but the eastern portion has since been 
 erected into the territory of Montana. It has about 86,294 square 
 xniles of territory, and had, in 1880, 32,611 inhabitants. 
 
 Idaho had very little history prior to the organization of its 
 Territorial Government. Its chief attraction to settlers lies in 
 its mines, as yet, and the population is floating, but railroads 
 will soon develop its resources. The difficulty of reaching 
 it has prevented its rapid growth. It is exceedingly rich in 
 the precious metals and this will, in time, attract a large popu- 
 lation. The eastern and northern parts are very mountainous, 
 abounding in wild and striking scenery and natural curiosities. 
 The soil in the southern, central, and western parts, is fertile, 
 producing wheat and other small grains, and vegetables very 
 successfully, but is unfavorable for corn from the late frosts of 
 spring and the early cold of autumn. Snow falls to a great 
 depth in the mountaihs; but the streams are numerous, and 
 there is much choice farming land, which may, ultimately, serve 
 to support its mining population. 
 
 It runs from the northern boundary of Utah to the south line 
 of British America, Washington Territory and Oregon, lying 
 west. When railroads shall render it accessible, and open the 
 way for its treasures to a market, it will be filled with an in- 
 dustrious and hardy population who will find all the elements of 
 a prosperity as great as any section of the Union enjoys. It has 
 three beautiful lakes — the Coeur d' Aline, the Pen d'Oreille, and 
 the Boatman — of some size, and navigable for steamers. Boise 
 City is the Capital. 
 
 MONTANA TERRITORY 
 
 Was organized May 26th, 1864. It lies among the Rocky 
 Mountains, in part on the western slope, but extending far into 
 the eastern valleys; and contains the sources of the streams 
 forming the Missouri River; while Idaho lies west and furnishes 
 many oi the tributaries of the Columbia. 
 
 Montana abounds in mines of gold and silver; and these are 
 said to be much richer than those of California. The average in 
 yield of ores in the latter State is $20 per ton, but the average in 
 
MONTANA. 655 
 
 Montana is stated to be four times that amount. Great as is the 
 yield of gold mines here it is declared that the ease with which 
 silver is separated from its combinations in the ore will make 
 that branch of mining more profitable. Copper also abounds. 
 This territory has some material advantages over other mining 
 districts. It is reached by steamboats on the Missouri River, 
 from St. Louis, without transhipment, navigation being free to 
 Ft. Benton, in the heart of Montana. The river voyage from St. 
 Louis to Ft. Benton, is made in twenty -eight days. 
 
 There is a large and constant supply of water, a point of great 
 difficulty in most of the other mining regions; and the country 
 everywhere furnishes easy natural roads, the principle range of 
 the Rocky Mountains not presenting the broken and rugged 
 character of most other ranges. Associated with this point is 
 the important fact of great agricultural capabilit}^ It is one of 
 the best grazing regions west of the Mississippi. Small grain 
 and fruit are grown with the greatest ease, as also the more im- 
 portant vegetables. There is abundance of timber for all pur- 
 poses of home consumption. 
 
 The area is stated at 143,776 square miles. The population in 
 1880 was 39,157. 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 Was visited at an early period by Spaniards, who, excited by the 
 success of the followers of Cortes and Pizarro in discovering 
 rich mines of gold and silver, sought the wealth in the dangers 
 and hardships of travel which is more often, if more slowly, 
 found as the reward of patient toil. An expedition from Florida 
 made the formidable overland journey to New Mexico, in 1537; 
 and another from Mexico, after visiting the Gila River, passed 
 eastward beyond the Rio Grande in 1540. In 1581 its mineral 
 wealth became known and a mission was attempted; but no 
 settlement was made until 1600, when formal possession was 
 taken by an adequate army. The missions now became very 
 successful and the mines were worked. Many of the natives 
 were considerably advanced in some of the arts of civilization. 
 In 1680 the natives revolted, from the severe servitude to which 
 they were subjected, and drove the Spaniards out of the country. 
 They only recovered it in 1698. It was never very numerously 
 peopled by whites. In 1846 it was conquered by General Kear- 
 ney, and in 1848 ceded to the United States by the treaty of 
 
656 LOCAL govern:ment. 
 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo. The difficulties of transportation and the 
 wild and lawless character of the inhabitants long prevented any 
 extensive emigration to it by Americans. It is an elevated table- 
 land, nearly 7,000 feet above the surface of the sea, crossed by 
 several ranges of mountains sometimes rising 8,000 feet above 
 the general surface of the country. The atmosphere is dry; 
 little rain falls; and agriculture is usually successful only with 
 irrigation. In the valleys, where this is employed, the fertility 
 of the soil is marvelous. Often two crops are raised, on the 
 same land, in the year. Wheat sLnd other grains are raised in 
 great perfection. Cotton is successful in some parts, fruit can 
 be raised in abundance, and the soil is said to be specially 
 favorable to the grape, the wine rivaling that of France. 
 
 Gold and silver abound, but the mines have never been effect- 
 ively worked for want of transportation and the requisite capi- 
 tal. Stock raising is a profitable occupation in this territory. 
 Much of the land unfit for cultivation produces grass which cures 
 in drying during the hot months, and preserves aU its nutricious 
 qualities. Sheep and mules are extensively raised. When the Pa- 
 cific railroads shall fully open the country to immigration, and or- 
 der,industry, and capital make the most of its resources, it will be 
 ranked among the favored parts of the Union. 
 
 It has many natural curiosities, and much wild and beautiful 
 scenery. The length of the Rio Grande, in its windings in the 
 Territory, is about 1200 miles; and its valley from one to twelve 
 miles wide. Its Territorial Government was organized in 1850. 
 The population, in 18S0, was 118,430. Many tribes of Indians 
 roam over the territory and through Texas, Arizona, and north- 
 ern Mexico. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. It 
 includes an area of 121,201 square miles. Every free white 
 male inhabitant living in tlie territory at the time of its organi- 
 zation had the right of suffrage, that right being regulated in 
 other respects by its legislative Assembly. 
 
 UTAH 
 
 Was formerly a part of the Mexican Territory of Upper Cal- 
 ifornia, and was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the 
 treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was too distant, desolate, and 
 dangerous a region for much settlement by Mexicans, and has 
 little known history anterior to the explorations of Fremont 
 between 1843 and 1846. 
 
UTAH. 657 
 
 The first American settlement was made by the Mormons on 
 July, 1847, and was supposed by them to be out of the territory 
 of the United States, and beyond the reach of possible interfer- 
 ence. Here, in the depths of the desert, they determined to 
 build up a peculiar religious society embracing customs opposed 
 to the institutions of the people of the United States. Their success 
 was a surprise to the world, and probably to themselves; the 
 capacity of the depths of the Great American Desert, as it was 
 called, for cultivation, exceeding all previous expectation. But 
 the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw this, before inac- 
 cessible, desert into the limits of the American Union; and the 
 discovery of gold in the neighboring Territory of California, 
 throwing them almost midway between the old western settle- 
 ments and the new Eldorado, subjected them to contact with, 
 and interference by, the tide of modern civilization, as it flowed 
 toward the setting sun, and in ten years from their first appear- 
 ance in the Great Central Basin of the continent, they came 
 again into hostile conflict with the established authorities they 
 thought to have finally escaped. Their conflict with the United 
 States Government, whose customs and prejudices were at 
 variance with their own, was deferred by the troubles which 
 precipitated the civil war; and their institutions remain sub- 
 stantially unaltered to the present time. The Pacific Railroad is 
 now built through their territory. What changes will be 
 brought about in consequence of the immigration which is 
 taking place by means of the facilities thus afforded, time alone 
 can tell. 
 
 Utah was organized as a Territory by Act of Congress Sept. 
 9th, 1850. Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon Church, 
 became the first Governor. In 1854 it was vainly attempted to 
 remove him; and in 1857 an army was sent to enforce Federal 
 authority. A final conflict was avoided by compromise. In 1862 
 the Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union as a 
 State, with their "peculiar institutions," but failed. A Terri- 
 torial Government exists, and will probably continue while 
 the Mormons remain largest in numbers. According to the gen- 
 eral habits of our people, conflict is avoided so far as possible, to 
 await the more peaceable and natural solution of the difficulty. 
 
 Utah is unique in one respect; though lying nearly a mile 
 above the surface of the sea, and having a complete system of 
 lakes and rivers, there is no visible connection of these witli the 
 
 43 
 
658 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 ocean. It is a continent embosomed within the depths of a con- 
 tinent. The Great Salt Lake is 100 miles long by 50 broad, and 
 its waters are very salt — four parts of the water producing one 
 of pure salt. No fish can live in it. It receives the contents of 
 many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in subjection 
 by evaporation or have a concealed outlet to the ocean is not 
 certainly known. The soil, though in its natural state an 
 apparent desert, is extremely fertile when irrigated, and pro- 
 duces wheat and other cereals in great profusion. Its moun- 
 tains are rich in silver and gold; but the mines are as yet 
 comparatively undeveloped, very little having been done in' that 
 direction until recently. 
 
 Cotton is very successful in the southern settlements, and 
 experiments with flax and silk culture have been favorable. 
 The climate is mild and healthy. 
 
 Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. 
 Its population in 1870 was 86,786; its area about 84,476 square 
 miles. 
 
 WASHINGTON TERRITORY 
 
 Was organized in 1853, and then contained a much larger area. 
 It was at first a part of Oregon, and its meagre early history 
 was the same. The Straits of San Juan de Fuca were visited 
 and named by a Spanish navigator in 1775. The English Gov- 
 ernment claimed the territory north of the Columbia, and for 
 some years there was a joint occupation by both nations by 
 special agreement. The difficulties concerning this boundary 
 came near involving the two nations in war, but it was settled 
 in 1846, giving the United States the territorj^to the 49th parallel 
 of latitude. Vancouver Island was assigned to Great Britain. 
 
 Washington is estimated to contain, west of the Columbia 
 river, where it flows down from British America, 22,000 square 
 miles of arable land. There is much that is adapted only to 
 grazing, and vast quantities covered with forests in the wild 
 mountain regions of the eastern part of the Territory. 
 
 It has an almost inexhaustible supply of coal, and more or less 
 of the precious metals. The great distinction of Washington 
 Territory is its forests. The warm ocean currents from the In- 
 dian ocean, after traversing the eastern coasts of Asia, are thrown 
 across the North Pacific against the western shores of North 
 
WASHINGTON. 659 
 
 America, and effect an important modification in the severity 
 and humidity of the temperature of our Pacific Slope. The 
 climate is much milder and more equable than in the same lati- 
 tude east of the mountains, and the moisture is highly favorable 
 to forest growth. It is the best ship building timber in the world. 
 The trees are immense, often reaching a height of 300 feet with 
 a diameter of 8 to 12 feet. 
 
 The portion of Washington territory lying west of the Cascade 
 mountains is rich farming land, heavily timbered; while east of 
 the Cascades the country is open prairie, well watered, with 
 small and thinly wooded valleys. The land immediately about 
 Puget Sound is sandy; not valuable for farming though pro- 
 ducing timber, but a little way back is unrivaled in richness. 
 
 Corn does not thrive well, but wheat, oats, potatoes, etc., are 
 very prolific. Large quantities of butter, cheese, and wool are 
 produced. There is little snow in the winter and that soon melts 
 away, except far up in the mountains, Washington shares with 
 Oregon the possession and use of the Columbia river. There 
 are fine fisheries on the coast and excellent oysters, and these 
 produce a considerable trade. Immense quantities of lumber 
 are exported to all parts of the Pacific coast of both North and 
 South America, and even to Buenos Ayres on the South Atlantic. 
 The French come here for their best and cheapest masts and 
 spars. Thus we see that this corner of the Republic brings to 
 the common stock of national treasures some of its best and 
 most valuable material of wealth, and is prepared to whiten the 
 Pacific with the sails of the unlimited commerce which is already 
 beginning to grow up between us and the Asiatics. Puget Sound 
 can float with ease the navies of the world on its peaceful bosom. 
 The Northern Pacific railroad will originate here, probably, 
 another great commercial emporium. Washington will, in due 
 time, become a great and wealthy State. 
 
 Its area is 69,994 square miles; and the population in 1880 
 was 75,120. 
 
 ALASKA TERRITORY. 
 
 Was acquired to the United States by treaty with Russia in the 
 year 1867, for $7,200,000, It is a vast region containing 577,390 
 square miles. 
 
 It was first explored by command of Peter the Great of Russia, 
 
660 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 in 1728. A government was first established on Kodiak island in 
 1790. In 1799 the Russian American fur company was chartered 
 by the Emperor Paul. 
 
 The northern portion is a tolerably compact body of mainly 
 level country about 600 miles square, and a line of coast runs 
 south for a long distance, including many islands. The Aleutian 
 group of islands is included. The principal value of the region 
 to Russia Avas the fur trade. The annual export of these amounted 
 to only a few hundred thousand dollars. American thrift will 
 probably make much more of it. 
 
 The country is much warmer than its high latitude would seem 
 to imply — Sitka in the southern part having about the same mean 
 temperature, by the thermometer, as Washington I It is, how- 
 ever, extremely damp. In one year there were counted only 66 
 entire days without rain or snow. The coast is broken with 
 mountains. The peninsula of Alaska has some very high mount- 
 ains — Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fairweather being estimated at 15,- 
 000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. The islands of the Aleutian 
 group are volcanic in origin. There are several rivers, the larg- 
 est, the Yukon, or Kwickpak being 2,000 miles long, and naviga- 
 ble for 1,500 miles. There are vast supplies of timber, much 
 being a pine found nowhere else on the Pacific coast. Vegetables, 
 and some grains, may be raised without difficulty ; and the soil, 
 in parts, is rich. Abundant supplies of coal are believed to exist. 
 The precious metals and iron, it is thought, are abundant.but the 
 country has been very imperfectly explored. 
 
 In the lively and extensive trade that is likely to grow up with 
 Japan, China, and the East Indies, it will no doubt be found of 
 great value, and its resources contribute to the wealth of our 
 country. 
 
 WYOMING TERRITORY 
 
 Was organized by act of Congress July 25th, 1868, and is the 
 youngest of the Territories. Its area is stated at 97,833 square 
 miles, and it had a population, in 1880, of 20,708. 
 
 The Pacific Railroad passes through it, to which its settlement 
 is probably mainly due. Montana lies on the north: Dakota and 
 Nebraska on the east; Colorado and Utah on the south, with the 
 northern part of Utah and Idaho on the west. 
 
 The main chain of the Rocky Mountains crosses it from north- 
 west to southeast which maintain here the same general charac- 
 
WYOMING. 661 
 
 teristic as in Montana, viz. : that of a rolling upland. Its out- 
 lying ranges are more broken. Most of the country is good 
 arable, or grazing land, the arable sufficiently fertile to give 
 excellent returns for labor, though requiring irrigation. A 
 few regions are remarkably sterile, but they are limited in com- 
 parison with the fertile lands. 
 
 Gold mining has been successful, to a considerable extent; 
 coal is extremely abundant and accessible, the supplies for the 
 ^Pacific Railroad being obtained in this Territory. Iron has been 
 found in considerable quantities, together with lead and copper 
 ores. Oil and salt springs promise to be productive. 
 
 Thus without, as yet, developing any eminent specialty, the 
 resources of this Territory seem to promise all the requisites of 
 prosperity to a large population; while the climate is mild and 
 extremely healthy, and the great thoroughfare between the East 
 and the West furnishes all necessary facilities for transporting 
 its supplies to the best markets. More intimate knowledge of 
 its mineral deposits may perhaps give it a higher rank as a 
 mining State. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. 
 
 This Territory was set apart from the Public Lands of the 
 United States for the occupation of several Indian tribes, then 
 resident on Reserves east of the Mississippi, June 30, 1834, by 
 Act of Congress. It was never organized in the manner of 
 other Territories, but the tribes to whom it was destined were 
 partly persuaded and partly forced to remove to it, and were 
 then permitted to organize their tribal governments according 
 to their own habits and will. This region contains 68,991 square 
 miles or 44,154,240 acres. It is about one-fifth larger than the 
 great State of Illinois, and contains some of the choicest agri- 
 cultural land on the continent. On the east is Arkansas with 
 a range of mountains in its western half, but which do not enter 
 the Territory. The Arkansas river enters it from Kansas and 
 passes diagonally through the eastern part of the Territory. 
 Some of the tributaries of the Red River also water it. It has a 
 sufficient rainfall with timber along the streams, and much nat- 
 ural prairie with a great depth of the richest soil. 
 
 The climate is mild without being very oppressive as the coun- 
 try slopes upward to a considerable altitude at the western part. 
 
662 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 It is described as a more desirable region than Kansas, northern 
 Texas, Arkansas, Colorado or New Mexico. It contains the 
 half -civilized remnants of many tribes. The Cherokees, formerly 
 of northern Georgia, are, perhaps, the most nearly civilized, but 
 all the tribes there obtain their food from the cultivation of the 
 soil rather than from hunting. Their number altogether is about 
 70,000. The country is really able to support several millions of 
 industrious people, and this small number of not very thrifty 
 Indians make very little use of its wealth of resources. The 
 Government of the United States, in fulfillment of treaty stipu- 
 lations, supplies them with large sums of money or goods 
 annually, which helps largely to render them independent of 
 the manual labor which the soul of the Indian abhors. 
 
 The principal tribes, besides the Cherokees, are the Creeks, 
 Choctas, Chickasas, Seminoles, Osages, and some others. Blacks, 
 whom they held in slavery before the Civil War, chiefly culti- 
 vated their fields. They cast in their fortunes with the South at 
 first, but made peace with the Government and abolished slav- 
 ery before the conclusion of that struggle, thereby saving their 
 annuities. They have executive governments, legislatures and 
 laws according to their own notions of propriety and necessity. 
 These are not very efficient, a,ccording to a white man's ideas, 
 but seem to maintain as fair a degree of internal order as the 
 Indian considers needful. In certain cases of offenses against 
 white men they are amenable to the United States District 
 Courts of the neighboring States. Otherwise they are very 
 slightly interfered with by the Government. Many of the peo- 
 ple of Kansas and other adjoining regions, thinking it a shame- 
 ful waste to let so much valuable land lie unused here, at vari- 
 ous times endeavored to press their way into the Territory. 
 The United States Government, however, considered it neces- 
 sary to observe the faith of treaties and has as often obliged 
 them to leave. Probably the tribes will ultimately be willing to 
 sell their unused lands, advance more rapidly in civilization, and 
 the Territory at length be admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
PART FOURTH. 
 
 THE CHRONOLOGICAL, POLITICAL AND STATISTICAL 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 UNDER THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION— FROM 1783 TO 1789. 
 
 1783. 
 Washington's army had lain in camp at Newburg, N. Y., since the surrender of 
 Comwallis. The PreUminaiy treaty of peace was signed Jan. 20th, at Paris i but 
 it was not officially announced in the camp at Newburg, until April t9th ; just 
 eight years from the Battle of Lexington that commenced the war. 
 July — Congress prepared to disband the anny, and Washington to resign his 
 commission as Commander-in-Chief. 
 " 21 — The great difficulty Congress had to contend with was raising money to 
 pay the troops. Congress had no authority, under the Confederation, to 
 lay taxes or impose duties. It exhausted its own credit in the issue of 
 paper money which soon became of Uttle value. It made some foreign 
 loans, and persuaded the States, which alone could lay taxes, to raise a 
 small sum. But this did not suffice to pay the army at last. There was 
 much suffering and discontent. 
 
 On this day a body of soldiers, in large part new recruits, who had com- 
 paratively little to complain of, without muskets, but wearing side arms, 
 beset the doors of Congress in Philadelphia, for three hours. No violence 
 was offered. Congress adjourned to Princeton, N. J. 
 Sept. 3 — The final and definite Treaty of Peace between England, France, and the 
 United States, in which the independence of the latter was acknowledged, 
 its boundaries defined, and various matters of interest arranged to the 
 profit of the United States, was signed at Paris. 
 Nov. 2 — A proclamation is issued by Congress for disbanding the army. 
 " 25 — The British troops evacuate New York, and it is occupied by American 
 troops under Gen. Knox. 
 Dec. 4 — Long Island and Staten Island abandoned by the British. Washington 
 takes leave of his officers, at New York. 
 " 25 — lie resigns his commission to Congress, in a public audience given him 
 at Annapolis, Md., where Congress was then sitting, and goes home to 
 Mt. Vernon. 
 
 (663) 
 
664 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Caesar Rodney, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this 
 year. 
 
 1784. 
 The people could now give their attention whoUy to domestic affairs ; but the 
 want of pubhc credit and a good circulating medium distressed State finances 
 and private. business equally with those of Congress and the General Government. 
 Indian war raged ta Kentucky and Tennessee, which formed parts, respectively, 
 of Virginia and North Carolina. The poverty and financial trouble of the East 
 sent, multitudes of emigrants to these new regions notwithstanding that wai'. 
 Spain had possession of the lower course of the Mississippi River and refused the 
 Western settlei-s the use of it as a highway of commerce. Tennessee in this year 
 set up an independent government called the "State of Franklin," and Kentucky 
 was much agitated. Difiiculty and danger threatened from all sides. 
 
 Still, the public authorities negotiated some commercial treaties and private 
 enterprise began to enlarge foreign co m merce. 
 Nov. 1 — The Continental Congress met at Trenton, N. J. The Pennsylvania State 
 
 authorities had not been prompt enough to act for its protection when 
 
 beset by a threatening mob of soldiers, in 1783, and it refused to return 
 
 to Philadelphia for several years. 
 Oct. 4 — A Treaty of Peace was made with the Six Nations, or Iroquois Indians, 
 
 who had taken the side of England dm-ing the Revolutionary War. After 
 
 this they remained friendly. 
 
 1785. 
 Jan. — Congress adjourned to New York where it continued to meet imtil 
 
 1790. 
 Mar. 10 — Thomas Jeffei-son was appointed Minister of the United States to 
 France in the place of Benjamin Fi'ankUn, who -^vished to return home. 
 He had been there nine years. 
 July — Commercial treaties negotiated with Prussia, Denmark, Portugal and 
 Tuscany. 
 
 The treaty with Prussia stipulated that, in case of war between that 
 countiy and the United States, there should be no privateering. 
 " 13_Stephen Hopkins, of R. I., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
 
 died. 
 i' 28 — ^Wm. Whipple, of N. H., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
 
 died. 
 " " — Treaties made with the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. 
 
 1786. 
 The financial difficulties were approaching a crisis and unperatively required 
 some pohtical change. In 1784-5 the importations from England alone had 
 amoimted to $30,000,000; the esportations to only $9,000,000. The paper money 
 formerly issued by CongTess was almost valueless, nearly all the coin was drained 
 away to other countries, and neither Government or people could obtain much 
 credit. Debt oppressed them both and the internal peace of the States began to 
 be threatened. 
 
 Dec. 5— Shay's RebeUion broke out in Mass. That State wished to raise money 
 to aid CongTess in paying the mterest on the federal debt. The people 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 665 
 
 felt unable to pay it. They mobbed the courts but were dispersed by 
 troops under Gen. Lincoln. Three were killed and one wounded, in an 
 attack the insurgents made on an arsenal. There was little other figlit- 
 ing. Fourteen persons were tried and condemned to death but after- 
 wards pardoned. 
 These and other events convinced the people that an important change in the 
 government was necessary. It became clear that a vigorous central authority 
 alone covdd answer the purpose. The States were nearly independent; tliis pro- 
 duced conflicts, or want of harmonious action, that nearly ruined them all. 
 Sept. — A congress of deputies from various States, called by Virginia — it is said at 
 the suggestion of Washington — assembled at Annapolis, Md., to consider 
 commercial questions, recommended the Continental Congress and the 
 States to call a Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation, no 
 effective relief from financial distress appearing possible under the pro- 
 visions of that instrument. 
 
 1787. 
 
 Feb. 2 — Congi-ess assembled at New York, electing Gen. St. Clair its President. 
 " 12 — Congress endorsed the call for a Constitutional Convention and officially 
 invited all the States to appoint Delegates to meet the following May for 
 that purpose. 
 
 May 25 — The Convention assembled in Philadelphia, and elected Gen. Geo. Wash- 
 ington its President, or Chairman. 
 
 July 11 — Tlie Continental Congress organized the Northwest Territory — north of 
 the Ohio river. Preparations were immediately made for settling it. 
 
 Sept. 28 — The Constitution, as signed by the members of the Convention, laid 
 before Congress, which sent it to the States for approval. 
 Arthur Middleton of S. C, and Thomas Stone of Md., signers of the 
 Declaration of Independence, died Jan. 1st and Oct. 5th, respectively. 
 
 Dec. 7 — Delaware ratifies the Constitution. 
 " 12 — Pennsylvania accepts the Constitution. 
 
 1788. 
 July 4 — The anniversary of Independence is kept with great display, in Phil- 
 adelphia, in special honor of the adoption of the new Constitution. 
 By the close of July nine more States had ratified the Constitution, and 
 it became binding. 
 Sept. 13 — Congress selects the first Wednesday of Jan. (1789) for the appointment 
 of Presidential electors ; the first Wednesday in February for their 
 appointment of President and Vice-President ; and March 4th (tlie first 
 Wednesday in that month) for the new government to go into operation. 
 This year was rendered memorable by the first settlement of Ohio at Marietta 
 under tlie famous "Ordinance of 1787." Cincinnati was settled the same year. 
 Several thousand settlers crossed the mountains to Kentucky and Ohio, braving 
 the deadly hostility of the Indians. The " State of Franklin" collapsed and disap- 
 peared during the year. 
 
 The country now eagerly, but with conflicting views, awaited the organization 
 and action of the new Government. The most sanguine did not venture to hope 
 so much as proved time — tliat the wisest and most noble political document of 
 
66G THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 all time had been produced by the Convention of 1787. In the summer of 1788 
 popular conventions of three-fourths of the States had ratified the Constitution 
 and it became authoritative as the Organic Law of the United States. The Con- 
 tinental Congress, therefore closed its own career by ordering elections for the 
 new Congress, and for the electors who were to appoint the fu-st President. It 
 directed that these elections should take place on the first Wednesday in Janu- 
 ary, 1789; that the electors shoiild meet on the first Wednesday in February fol- 
 lowiag, to discharge the duty to which they were appointed; and that, on the 
 first Wednesday in March (which, in that year, was the fourth,) Congress should 
 meet, the President be inaugurated, and the new government be put in operation. 
 This brought all these important events close upon the heels of one another; 
 and on the 4th of March there was not a quorimi of the Members of Congress 
 assembled. The States lay far apart, and the roads were bad in those times, and 
 at that season of the year. Though a bare quortim had gathered by the last of 
 March, and many measures of pressing necessity were attended to, a full repre- 
 sentation was waited for before the President elect was notified that they were 
 ready for his inauguration; and that event took place only on the 30th of April. 
 The presidential term, however, was considered to have legally commenced at 
 the time previously ordered, and closed on that day of the year and month; so 
 that it became the first day of our political year. It commences and closes the 
 President's term of office and ends the second regular session of Congress. 
 
 sectio:n l 
 
 First Administration, from 1789 to 1797—7 years, 10 months 
 
 AND 4 DAYS. 
 THE FIRST ELECTION, 1789. 
 
 The election of the persons in each State who were to choose the President was 
 first made by the State Legislatures. New York, North Carolina and Rhode 
 Island did not vote at the first election. There were but 69 electors who all cast 
 their votes for George Washington, and 34 for John Adams. There were ten 
 other candidates for whom one or more votes were cast, John Jay receiving the 
 most of any of them, viz. : 9. Washington was therefore President and Adams 
 Vice President. Washington's good judgment and patriotism were fully trusted. 
 There was no fear of abuse of power in his hands. He reluctantly left his farm 
 to inaugurate and direct the new government wliich he had done so much to 
 originate. 
 
 AU the precedents determining the spirit in which the Constitution should be 
 applied were to be established, and they were almost as important as that docu- 
 ment itself. In most cases those precedents have ever since governed lawmaking 
 iand the administration of both Constitution and laws to the satisfaction of the 
 people. The various changes of method have been only such as rapid growth 
 and changing circumstances demanded. 
 
 George Washington, Va.. President. 
 John Adams, Mass. , Vice-President. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 667 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va., Secretary of State. 
 Edmund Randolph, Va., " 
 Timothy Pickering, Mass., " " 
 
 Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Oliver Wolcott, Conn., •• " 
 
 Timothy Pickering. Mass., Secretary of War. 
 James McHenry, Md., "• " 
 
 Henry Knox, Mass., " " 
 
 It will be noticed that only three Heads of Departments sat in the Cabinet as 
 advisers of the President. These were all then considered important as leaders in 
 the business of Executive Government. 
 
 Jan. 4 — Thomas Nelson, of Va. , signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. 
 Feb. 13 — Ethan Allen, of Revolutionaiy fame, died. 
 April 30 — Washington inaugurated as first President. 
 
 May 12 — A Tariff Bill for raising a revenue reported in Congress. This became a 
 law, and went into effect Aug. 1st, 1789. 
 " 20 — The Department of Foreign Affairs (afterwards called State Department), 
 organized. 
 
 The Treasury Department is next established, followed by the War 
 Department, to which the Navy was joined for the present. 
 The Judiciaiy vras then constituted. Salaries, and the rules for parlia- 
 mentary procedure were determined. The Postmaster General had long 
 been an officer of the government, and required less change than most of 
 the others. This made a very busy session. Congress also passed a reso- 
 lution to add ten Amendments to the Constitution — which were submitted 
 to the States and afterward ratified. Congress adjourned the last of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 The democratic tone of the Government, and the spirit appUed to the 
 interpretation of the Constitution by tlie first Congress, has generally pre- 
 vailed ever since. That tone and spirit were truly republican.^ 
 Nov. 8 — The President commenced a tour through New England. 
 " 18— North Carolina ratified the Constitution. 
 Many Indian treaties were made this year. 
 
 1790. 
 Jan. 8 — Congress reassembled. This session was scarcely inferior in interest and 
 importance to the first from the variety of new questions required to be 
 settled, and the more perfect development given to former ones. 
 Feb. 8 — Provision was made for the payment of the foreign debt. 
 Mar. 1 — An act ordering a census to be taken was passed. 
 
 " 24 — A naturalization law was originated. 
 Apr. 15 — A patent law was constiiicted. 
 
 " 30 — Treason was defined and the penalty determined on. 
 May 29 — The Constitution ratified by Rhode Island ; making up the whole num- 
 ber of thirteen States. 
 " 31 — "An act to encourage leai'ning" secured copyrights to authors. 
 July 16 — Three very exciting debates that had occupied much of the time of Con- 
 gress, had a bearing on the location of the National Capital, which w^as 
 
668 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 this day permanently settled. The President was authorized to deter- 
 mine the site on the Potomac, and to have the buUdings erected so as to be 
 ready for occupation in 1800. Agi-eeably to this act Maryland and Vn- 
 ginia ceded the District of Columbia to the United States. 
 Gen. Putnam, a brave Revolutionary soldier, Benjamin Franklin, of Pa., 
 Wm. Hooper, of N. C. , and Francis Hopkinson, of N. J. , all except Put- 
 nam signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. 
 The Tei-ritory south of the Ohio was organized this year. The financial 
 system of the country was established, the slavery question debated and 
 settled in accordance with the compromise of the Constitution, and tlie 
 State debts transferred to the United States. 
 
 Aug. 12 — Congi-ess adjom-ned to meet in Philadelphia thereafter imtU 1800. 
 " 13 — A treaty with the Creek Indians solemnly ratified by "Washington. 
 
 Dec. 6 — The Thu-d Session of Congress commenced. The President congratulates' 
 Congress on the improvement of the finances, and the prosperity of the 
 
 country. 
 
 1791. 
 
 Yeh. — The United States Bank established. It was to have a capital of $10,- 
 000,000— its charter to run twenty years. 
 " 4 — Kentucky voted admission into the Union in the next year (June 1st 
 
 1792). 
 i' 18 — Vermont having (Jan. 20th) ratified the Constitution and asked admis- 
 sion into the Union, it is granted this day. 
 
 The immediate prosperity that followed the adoption of the Constitution 
 of 1787, the strength, vigor, and moderation seen to be combined in its 
 arrangement of the government, led most of the States to remodel their 
 State Constitutions on it, in a short time. 
 
 July —The subscription to the stock of the National Bank was aU taken in a 
 few hours after the books were opened. 
 
 Aug. —Great Britain first sent a minister to the United States Government. 
 
 Sep. 17— An expedition of 2,000 troops, imder Gen. St. Clair, started from Fort 
 "Washington against the Indians in the Northwest Territory. 
 
 Nov. 4— Gen. St. Clair was surprised and defeated by the Indians. There were 
 600 kOled— the whole loss amounted to more than 900. Several other 
 smaller expeditions had been sent against the Indians in the course of the 
 year. One, Gen. Harmer's, had been defeated. Internal taxes on spirits 
 were first collected this year. 
 
 Benj. Harrison, of Va., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
 died this year. A voyage around the world, by way of Oregon, China, 
 and the Cape of Good Hope, had opened wide fields to commerce. The 
 first census was now completed. The Second Congress, assembled at 
 Philadelphia, Oct. 24th, was occupied in an-anging the new Ratio of Repre- 
 sentation. It was a very difficult matter to settle from the sectional 
 straggles that entered into the question. 
 
 1792. 
 
 Feb. 16 — A bounty for fishing vessels provided. 
 " 20— The Post Office Department re-organized. 
 
 ^pr. 2 — The establishment and regulations of the U. S. Mint are embodied in a 
 law. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 669 
 
 Apr. 14 — Act apportioning Representatives passed. This gave the next House of 
 
 Representatives in Congress 105 members. 
 May 8 — Laws organizing the Militia are passed. 
 Dec. 8 — Henry Laurens, first President of the Continental Congress, died. 
 
 THE SECOND ELECTION, 1793. 
 
 The second Presidential election this year resulted in the re-election of Wash- 
 ington and Adams. Washington received all the electoral votes that wei'e cast — 
 the Anti-Federalists opposing only Mr. Adams. The whole number of electoral 
 votes should have been 135, but there were 3 vacancies. Washington received 
 132 ; Adams 77. The Anti-Federalists concentrated mainly on George CUnton, giv- 
 ing him 50 votes. Washington had desired at the close of his first term as Presi- 
 dent in 1793 to lay down office ; but there were many difficult questions, both in 
 home and foreign affairs, to be settled and the leading public men did not think 
 it safe for him to retire. His name and influence were essential to a Government 
 yet so new and sUghtly rooted. Vermont and Kentucky had been admitted into 
 the Union and there were 15 States voting. At the First Election there had been 
 but 10. The fearful French Revolution was then at its height ; there was great 
 sympathy with it on the part of many, and the Diplomatic Agents of tlie Frencli 
 Republic employed all the influence that sympathy gave them to induce the 
 United States Government to take part with them in their war against England. 
 Washington and the wiser statesmen thought it best to avoid getting entangled 
 in the diplomacy and wars of Europe and established the principle of the first 
 half of the "Monroe Doctrine," as it was afterward called — viz : that the United 
 States would not interfere with European contests but remain friendly to aU, 
 however much they might privately sympathize, sometimes, with one side. The 
 Federal party was friendly to England — at least unwilling to go to war with her 
 unless obliged — the Anti-Federalists were anxious to help France, and very bitter 
 toward England. 
 
 Washington was a Federalist. He established the fortunate and prudent policy 
 of non-intervention in the compUcations of foreign nations. He thought the 
 RepubUc shoiild not be aggressive, but treat all with courtesy and attend strictly 
 to its own affairs. This principle was of great importance to the welfare of the 
 country then and after. 
 
 Much seditious opposition was made about this time in North Carohna and 
 Pennsylvania to the excise law, — the tax on spirits. The President issued a procla- 
 mation against them, Sept. 29th. 
 
 1793. 
 
 Jan. 24 — The proclamation of the French Republic is greeted in Boston with a 
 celebration in its honor. The close and friendly relations of the United 
 States with France, arising from their aid to us in the Revolutionary 
 War, led the French minister. Genet, to a course of conduct inconsist 
 ent with the existence of our friendly relations with England. The U. 
 S. Government decided to proclaim neutrality — the people sympathized 
 strongly with France. Washington and his cabinet pursued a strict 
 neutral course, in which the people finally acquiesced, and Genet's recall 
 was solicited and obtained. 
 
670 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 July 23 — Roger Sherman, signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. 
 
 Oct. 8 — John Hancock, of Mass., the first signer of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, died. This year laid the foundaition of the policy of neu- 
 trality, or non-interference with European wars, that became the settled 
 policy of the United States. 
 The year was also distinguished by the violence of party f eeUng, 
 
 Dec. 2 — Congress assembles at Philadelphia. 
 
 " 31 — Jefferson resigns his seat in the Cabinet. He was Secretaiy of State. 
 
 1794. 
 
 Mar. 11 — An act is passed for building four ships of war, which laid the founda- 
 tion of our present navy. 
 
 Some hostile English " Orders in Council" led to arrangements for forti- 
 fying the harbors of the country. 
 " 22 — The Slave trade is regulated by law, no Amei'ican vessel being allowed 
 to supply slaves to another nation. The imijortation of slaves into this 
 country had been allowed until the year 1808, by Art. 1st, Sec. 9th, of 
 the Constitution. 
 " 26 — As a retaUation on the British " Orders in Council" for seizing air goods 
 going to France in American vessels, an embargo was laid on aU shipping, 
 which was continued 60 days. This stopped all commerce for the present. 
 
 June 5 — A law relating to neutrality passed in Congress. 
 
 " 19 — Richard Henry Lee, of Va., died; Abraham Clark, of N. J., and John 
 Witherspoon, of N. J., later, all signers of the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence died. ■ 
 
 Jul. 16 — An insuiTection broke ovit against the excise law in western Pennsyl- 
 vania, by an armed attack on the officers of the law. An anny of 
 15,000 naen was raised and marched into that region, the appearance 
 of which immediately restored order. 
 
 Aug. 20 — Gen. Wayne inflicts a thorough chastisement on the Indians of Ohio, 
 on the Maumee river. 
 
 Nov. 4 — Congress again assembles. 
 
 •' 28 — Baron Steuben, a German, who had done us great sei-vice as an officer 
 in the Revolutionary v/ar, died, aged 91. 
 
 1795. 
 This year a commercial treaty was negotiated with England, which was the 
 cause of violent demonstrations of the two parties. Only the finnness and 
 moderation of Washington and his supporters saved the countiy from war with 
 that power. 
 
 Jan. 23 — Gen. SuUivan died. He had been an able Major General in the Revo- 
 lutionary war. 
 " 29 — A more stringent naturalization law passes. 
 May 19 — Josiah Bartlett, of N. H. , signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
 
 died. 
 Aug. 3 — A Treaty with the Northwestern Indians concluded, which closed the 
 
 Indian ^var. 
 Sept. 5 — A treaty is concluded with Algiers, which closed a war with those 
 pirates, whose attacks had been so disastrous to our commerce. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 671 
 
 Oct. 30— A treaty of boundaries, and which opened the Mississippi to navigation, 
 
 is concluded with Spain. 
 Dec. 7 — The Fourth Congress meets. 
 
 1796. 
 
 Mar. 34— The U. S. House of Representatives require the President to send them 
 the papers relating to the British Treaty. The President declines, denying 
 that they form part of the treaty making power. The Senate con- 
 finned the treaty. 
 
 Apr. 30— The exciting stmggle on the British Treaty is closed by a provision 
 made by the House of Representatives for carrying it into effect. 
 
 Jun. 1— An act is passed admitting Tennessee into the Union. 
 
 •' 39 — A new treaty is made with the Creek Indians, and the Southern, as well 
 as the Northern Indians, are pacified. 
 
 Sept. 19 — Washington's Farewell address is issued, to let the people know that he 
 would not accept office again. Serious difficulties began to arise with 
 France, which took great offense at the treaty with Great Britain. 
 
 SECTIOlSr II. 
 
 Adams' Administration. 
 
 The Third Election, 1796. Four persons were voted for at this eleetion, 
 
 John Adams received 71 electoral votes. 
 Tliomas Jefferson '"69 
 Thomas Pinckney "59 '• " 
 
 Aaron Burr "30 " " 
 
 As, by the constitutional provision regarding electors, the person having the 
 largest number of votes became President, and the one who had the next in num- 
 ber became Vice-President, Adams was now President and Jefferson was Vice- 
 President. Tennessee had now been admitted to the Union, and there were 16 
 States voting. 
 
 Conflicting views on foreign policy, and vexing questions of internal adminis- 
 tration began to exert a strong influence, and party spirit, for the next twenty 
 years, was very bitter. Mr. Adams was a FederaUst ; Mr. Jefferson was an Anti- 
 Federalist. 
 
 There were now 138 Presidential Electors : 48 votes were scattered among 9 
 other candidates. 
 
 Second administration. 1797 to ISOl— 4 Years. 
 
 John Adams, Mass. President. 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va. , Vice-President. 
 
 cabinet. 
 Timothy Pickering, Mass. . Secretary of State. 
 John Marshall, Va., " •' 
 
672 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Oliver Wolcott, Conn., Secretaiy of the Treasury. 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Mass., " " " 
 
 James McHemy, Md., Secretary of the War. 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Mass., • " " " 
 
 Roger Griswold, " •' " 
 
 George Cabot, Mass., Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 Benjamin Stoddert, Md. " •' " 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte now began to rise to power in France, and he and the 
 Enghsh Government endeavored to iujure each other by interfering with Ameri- 
 can commei'ce. Bonaparte wished to drive the United States into war with En- 
 gland by treating American commerce harshly. For some time a war with 
 France was imminent, and a Secretary of the Navy was appointed to prepare a 
 naval armament. He took a seat in the Cabinet, forming its fom'th member. 
 
 1797. 
 
 Feb. 3 — Mr. Pinckney, American Minister to France, was refused a reception by 
 by the French Government, and obliged this day to leave the country. 
 Much violence was done about this time, to American commerce, by the 
 French. 
 
 Mar. 4 — John Adams is inaugurated President of the United States. 
 
 35 — A special session of Congress is called to consider the threatening posture 
 of our relations with France. 
 
 Jun 14 — Congress imposed a, fine of $10,000 and ten years imprisonment on any 
 American who should engage in privateering, in any way, against a na- 
 tion with whom we were at peace. 
 
 July 3 — The President transmits to Congress evidence of Spanish troubles on the 
 southern and western frontier. These were afterwards discovered to 
 have aimed at detaching the Mississippi and Ohio vaUeys from the 
 United States, and erecting them into an independent power, in close 
 alliance with Spain. 
 
 The new envoys are sent to France. These envoys spent many months 
 in Pai'is, treated with insolence and neglect. 
 
 In this year Francis L. Lee, of Va. , Carter Braxton, of Va. , and Oliver 
 Wolcott, of Conn., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died. 
 
 1798. 
 
 The French Government continued to labor to draw the United States into a 
 war with them against England. Two of the three Commissioners were required 
 to leave France. 
 April 3 — The Mississippi Territory organized. 
 
 " 14 — The na\'y is taken from the control of the Secretary of War, and a Navy 
 Department with a Secretary, organized. 
 Jun 12 — All commercial intercourse with France suspended. In anticipation of 
 war the naturalization law is amended, an " Alien Act" passed, and the 
 Navy and Ai-my largely strengthened. 
 ' ' 21 — The President announces the failure of the Commissioners sent to France, 
 to make peace. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 673 
 
 July 8 — A limited naval warfare with France is authorized, and several U. S. 
 vessels of war are sent to sea. 
 
 " 16 — An additional naval armament provided for. 
 
 " 17— Washington accepts the appointment of Commander-in-Chief of the 
 Army, which is being raised in expectation of war. 
 
 " — About this time some 365 anued vessels had been commissioned by the 
 U. S. government, besides the regular Navy, to make wai- on the armed 
 vessels of France. This armament was, however, chiefly used for defense. 
 Lewis Morris, of N. Y., James Wilson, of Pa., and Geo. Reed, of Del., 
 signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. 
 
 1799. 
 
 At the commencement of this yeai* Congress provided for the raising of an 
 
 army of 40,000 men. 
 
 Feb. 18 — By invitation of the French government, the President nominates an- 
 other embassy to France. 
 
 June 6 — Patrick Henry, a distinguished patriot of Virginia, died, aged 63. 
 
 Feb. 7 — The French Frigate I'lnsurgente is captured in the West Indies by the U. 
 S. frigate. Constitution. 
 
 April — The Legislature of New York abolishes slavery. 
 
 Dec. 14 — Gen. Washington's death, in the 68th year of his age. 
 
 Wm Paca, of Md., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died 
 this yeai\ 
 
 A change in the Government of France, and the vigorous action of the 
 U. S. Government in arming for war, induced the French to retreat 
 from their unfriendly position and offer to arrange the differences. The 
 refusal of our government to entangle themselves with European politics 
 became a settled principle, of great value to us, though it was strongly 
 opposed by the Anti-Federalists. 
 
 1800. 
 
 Jan. 23 — Edward Rutledge, of S. C, a signer of the Dec. of Ind., died. 
 
 Feb. 1 — The U. S. Frigate Constellation beats, without capturing, the French 
 frigate La Vengeance. 
 
 Apr. 4 — A general bankruptcy law passed by Congress. 
 
 May 7 — The territory of Indiana organized by act of Congress. 
 
 " 10 — An act authorizing the election of a Territorial Assembly in the Terri- 
 tory of Mississippi, organized some years before, was passed. 
 
 July 10 — The Government is moved to the new Capitol at Washington. 
 
 Oct. 4 — The envoys of France arrange a Convention, or temporary treaty, which 
 prevents the formal outbreak of war, though it had long continued to be 
 waged on the sea. More than .50 vessels had been captured from the 
 French this year. The gratitude of Americans to France for her aid, 
 formerly, made a large part of the people unwilling to declare war; but 
 her arrogant demands and war on our commerce had the good effect to 
 separate the country from all close alliances in Europe. 
 
 Nov. — The fourth presidential election resulted in the defeat of the Federalist 
 party, by the election of Thomas Jefferson as President. Its opponent, 
 43 
 
674 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 the Anti-Federalist, or Republican party, feared a strong central govern- 
 ment; yet when tliey canie into power they adopted very much tlie same 
 methods. Any other pohcy would have injm-ed the country. 
 
 1801. 
 
 Feb. 16 — The Convention with France, to remain in force eight years, ratified. 
 Mar. 3 — The Sixth Congress terminates, and with it the administration of Preffl- 
 dent Adams. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Jefferson's Adimnisteation — 1801 to 1809. 
 the fourth election, 1800. 
 
 The same candidates as in the thu'd election were again in the field. The polit- 
 ical parties v^-ere clearly defined. Adams and Pinckney were the Federal candi- 
 dates, receiving — Adams 64, Pinckney 63, electoral votes, while Jefferson and 
 Binrr had each 73. They were of the Anti-Federal or Repubhcan party. 
 
 The election did not decide which of the two, Jefferson or Burr, should be Pres- 
 ident and Vice-President, and, by the propulsions of the Constitution, the House 
 of Representatives decided in favor of Jefferson. Party heats were so great that 
 it took 7 days and 36 ballots to reach this result. It was felt that thex'e was a 
 defect in the constitutional provision that left it undecided, in such a case, which 
 of the candidates was the choice of the electors for President, and it resulted in 
 the ratification of the 12th amendment before the next election. 
 
 The Federal party never regained the power of administration lost at this elec- 
 tion, though they continued to be a strong opposition until the close of the war 
 of 1812. But an opposition, to criticize and point out faults, is often more useful 
 out of office than in ; and the Republican partj^ was obliged to adopt substantially 
 the general features of the policy pursued by their predecessors, while they added 
 some very important ones of their own, in their disposition to favor popular" rights. 
 There were 16 States and 138 electoral votes, as in the previous election. 
 
 THIRD ADMINISTRATION, 1801 TO 1809 — 9 YEARS. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va., President. 
 Aaron Biirr, N. Y.. Vice-President. 
 George Clinton, N. Y., 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 James Madison, Va., Secretaiy of State. 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Mass. . Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Albert Gallatin, Pa.. 
 
 Henry Dearborn, Mass., Secretary of War. 
 
 Benjamin Stoddert, Md., Secretaiy of the Navy. 
 
 Robert Smith, Md.. 
 President Jefferson was an earnest Republican, but very extreme in some of 
 his views. He was veiy useful to the country, by insisting on economy of the 
 public funds, a most important virtue in a Statesman, although when war broke 
 out some foiTus of it were found to have been unwise. The navy and the coast 
 defences had been neglected and great loss resulted. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 675 
 
 1801. 
 Mar. 4 — Jefferson inaugurated President. The trial of the Constitution was now 
 past. It was permanently settled in the respect of the people, and had 
 made the country respected by other nations. The "Sedition Laws" 
 passed in July, 1798, became inoperative at this time, by the provisions 
 accompanying them. Tliey had been framed for the suppression of 
 dangerous political intrigues in time of war. Party spirit was exceed- 
 ingly bitter at this time, and these laws produced much excitement, but 
 contributed to the safety of the Govei-ument. 
 
 June 10 — The Bashaw of Tripoli declares war on the United States. 
 *' 14 — Benedict Arnold died in Loudon. 
 
 Aug. 6— The U. S. vessel of war Experiment, captures a Tripolitan vessel in the 
 Mediteraneau Sea. 
 
 Dec. 7— The Seventh Congress assembles. The reaction at this time, in public 
 sentiment, produced by the French Revolution, the excesses of which 
 resulted in a military despotism under Napolean Bonaparte, infused a 
 spirit of moderation and caution into the politics of the T^Tiited States 
 under the party now in power, that was !ii-hly beneficial. Ex- 
 treme views were checked, and no serious change was made in the pol- 
 icy of the country. 
 
 IS02. 
 
 Jan. 4 — The re-apportionnien t of Representatives in Con.i^rpss by the census of 180u 
 was made. No change in the number of inhabitants to one Representa- 
 tive (one to every 30,000) was introduced. The foundation of a Militarj- 
 Academy at West Point, N. Y.. was laid at this time. 
 
 April 14— The Naturalization Laws, made veiy stringent in the last Administra- 
 tion to correspond with a state of war, were liberalized. 
 " 30 — An act authorizing the formation of a State Constitution in Ohio, pre- 
 paratory to its admission into the Union, is passed. 
 
 May 3 — Washington, D. C. incorporated as a city. 
 
 Oct. 16 — Commerce on the Mississippi by American citizens, suspended by the 
 Spanish authorities at New Orleans. 
 
 It became evident that the possession of the Mississippi River and 
 territory near it was of the highest importance to the welfare of the 
 West, and measures looking toward the acquisition of it began to be 
 taken. 
 
 A large reduction was made this year in the Public Debt, and the policy 
 of economy in public expenditures became a leading feature of the 
 Administration. 
 
 1803. 
 
 Mar. 3— The anxiety of the people in regard to the navigation of the Mississippi 
 leads Congress to invest the President with extraordinary authority to 
 negotiate, or use force, in his discretion. He was authorized to call on 
 the States to furnish 50,000 men, if need be. 
 
 Apr. 30 — A treaty is concluded with Napoleon Bonaparte for the purchase of the 
 whole of the Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000. 
 
676 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Aug. 13 — By a treaty with the Kaskaskia Indians a large part of Illinois is opened 
 to settlement. 
 
 Oct. 31 — The U. S. frigate Philadelphia ran on a sunken rock in the harbor of 
 Tripoli, and was captured. The American fleet had captured or destroyed 
 several Tripolitan vessels of war during the summer. 
 
 Dec. 20 — The President takes possession of Louisiana. 
 
 1804. 
 
 Feb. 2 — Geo. Walton, of Geo., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. 
 " 15 — New Jersey passes a law freeing all the slaves bom in the State after the 
 
 next 4th of July. 
 " 16 — Lieut. Decatur, of the U. S. Navy, ran into the harbor of Tripoli in the 
 night and burned the Philadelphia — captured by the Tripolitans some 
 time before. This done he withdrew in safety, in the sloop he had em- 
 ployed for the bold enterprise. 
 
 July 11 — Alexander Hamilton, an eminent statesman, was killed in a duel with 
 Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United States. He was 48 years old 
 and liis death was considered as a pubhc calamity. 
 
 Aug, 3 — Com. Preble attacks TripoU, sinks two vessels, captures three more, and 
 bombards the city. 
 
 The city was blockaded during the remainder of the year and through 
 the winter. 
 
 Nov. 18 — Gen. PhUip Schuyler died at Albany, N. Y. 
 
 THE FIFTH ELECTION. 
 
 took place in the autum of 1804. There were now 17 States and 176 electoral 
 votes. By Article xil of the Amendments to the Constitution, which were pro- 
 claimed in force September 25th of this year, the electors were required to ballot 
 separately for President and Vice President, and the People could definitely 
 determine who should be President. Charles C. Pinckney of S. C. was the Fed- 
 eralist candidate for President, and Rufus King of N. Y. for Vice-President. 
 Jefferson was re-nominated by the Republicans for President, and Geo. Clinton 
 for Vice-President. 
 
 Jefferson received 162 electoral votes. 
 
 Pinckney " 14 " " 
 
 Clinton " 162 " 
 
 King " 14 " " 
 
 There were, thus, no scattering votes, and there was no uncertainty as to 
 whom the people wanted. Jefferson had made a good President and was very 
 popular. He was friendly to France, and disliked England whose arbitrary 
 " Orders in Council ' were very offensive to Americans generally. 
 
 1805. 
 
 Great commercial prosperity marked this period. France and England were 
 at war and most of the canying ti-ade feU to American vessels. The peaceful 
 acquisition of Louisiana, and the prosperity of the West in consequence, con- 
 tributed much to the development of the country. The grand era of progress in 
 the United States began to dawn, though overcast by threatening difficulties with 
 Spain and England. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 677 
 
 March — Afisociate Justice Chase having been impeached by the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, was acquitted by the Senate. 
 " 4 — Jefferson's second inauguration as President. 
 
 June 3 — A treaty of peace made with Tripoh. 
 
 The Territory of Louisiana is organized and a Territorial Legislature 
 authorized. 
 
 Jun 11 — The Territory of Michigan is organized. It was veiy thinly settled, but 
 separated by so great a distance from the inhabited parts of Indiana 
 Territory as to require a separate government. 
 
 ^uly 4 — Large cessions of land are obtained, by treaty and purchase, from the 
 Indians. Most of their lands in Ohio, Indiana, and along the Oliio river 
 were acquired in an equitable manner. Large cessions were obtained this 
 year from the Creeks and Cherokees, who received a fair equivalent. 
 
 Sept 12 — Wm. Moultrie, a distinguished Revolutionary soldier, died. 
 
 Measures wei'e set on foot to purchase Florida from the Spaniards. There 
 seemeed no alternative but such a purchase or a war. Difficulties with 
 England began to increase. Several American vessels with valuable 
 cargoes were seized by the British. 
 
 1806. 
 
 Jan. 10 — Two million dollars are voted that the President may commence negoti- 
 ations with Spaih for Florida. The British continue to violate our flag 
 by impressing seamen on our vessels. 
 
 Mar. 26— A retaliatory law was enacted by Congress forbidding the importation 
 of certain English goods, to take effect in November in order to give 
 time for negotiation. Provision was also made for increasing the army 
 and navy. 
 
 The summer of this year was disturbed, in the West, by rumors of a de- 
 ,sign to separate the Louisiana Territory and Western States from the 
 Union, by the establishment of an independent government. 
 
 Apr. 10— Gen. Horatio Gates, an officer of the Revolution, died. 
 
 Dec. — The session of Congress commencing the first of this month was largely 
 occupied with a law forbidding the slave trade after 1808. There was 
 much violent debate, but the law was enacted early in the next year. 
 Robt. Morris, of Pa., on the 8th of May: Geo. Wythe of Va., on the 8th 
 of June; James Smith, of Pa., on the 11th of July, signers of theDeclara- 
 tion of Independence: and Gen. Henry Knox, an officer of the Revolu- 
 tion, died. Gen. Knox was Secretary of War during Washington's 
 Administration . 
 
 1807. 
 
 Feb. 10— An act for commencing the Coast Survey, and appropriating $50,000 for 
 that purpose, is passed. 
 
 The English had defeated and almost annihilated the French and Spanish 
 Navies, and became very tyranical toward neutral nations, which begins 
 to injure our commerce. Bonaparte retaliates in the same spirit, which 
 doubles the difficulty. 
 
 Mar. 10 — A treaty made by American Embassadors with England was rejected by 
 President Jefferson because the British refused to allow that British 
 
678 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 born citizens could become American citizens by naturalization. These 
 the English Government claimed the right of impressing from our ves- 
 sels, which we denied. 
 
 Jun 22 — A British ship of war, theLeoj^ard, fires into the American frigate, Chesa- 
 peake while iinprepared to resist, and took several men from her. Three 
 Americans were killed, and eighteen wounded. It gxeatly exasperated 
 the Americans. 
 
 July 2— The President ordered all EngUsh ships of war to leave American waters. 
 
 Aug.25— Com. Preble, of the U. S. Navy, died. 
 
 Sept. 15— Aaron Buit, tried for treason (he was the leader of the conspiracy 
 believed to have endeavored to detach the Mississippi Valley from the 
 Union), was acquitted for want of evidence, though generally beUeved 
 guilty. 
 
 Nov. 26— Oliver Ellsworth, U. S. Chief Justice, died. 
 
 Dec. 17 — Bonapai-te's " MUan Decree" subjects American commercial vessels to 
 seizure. 
 ' 22 — This and Mke British " Orders in Council" caused Congress to lay an Em- 
 bargo, forbidding any vessels to sail from our ports. 
 
 1808. 
 
 Jan. 1 — The act of Congress, passed in the previous session, to caiTy out the pro- 
 visions of the Constitution to abolish the slave trade at this time, goes 
 into effect to-day. 
 
 Apr. 17 — Bonaparte orders the seizure and confiscation of all American vessels in 
 France, or that should afterwards arrive there. 
 
 Nov. 17 — The Tenth Congress assembles again. Much discussion is had over the 
 Embargo, but it is finally determined to make it still more stringent and 
 place the country in a state of defense. 
 
 SECTIOIsr IT. 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 THE SIXTH ELECTION, 1808. 
 
 There were 17 States at this time and 136 electoral votes. James Madison, of 
 Va., was the Republican, or Democratic, nominee for President, George Clinton 
 for Vice President. Charles C. Pinkney, of S. C, and Rufus King, of N. Y., 
 were again selected by the Federalists, There were some scattering votes. 
 Madison received 122 electoral votes. 
 Clinton " 113 
 
 Pinkney " 47 " " 
 
 King " 47 " " 
 
 Chnton died before the end of his terai. He had also received 6 electoral votee 
 of his party for the Presidency. 
 
 FOURTH ADMIN^STRATION. 1809 TO 18l7. 
 
 James Madison. Va.. President. 
 George Clinton. N. Y.. Vice-President. 
 Elbridge Gerry, Mass., " " 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 679 
 
 CABINET, 
 
 Robert Smith, Md., Secretary of State. 
 Jaines Monroe, Va., •" " " 
 
 Albert Gallatin, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury, 
 George W. Campbell, Tenn, " " " " 
 
 Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., " '* " " 
 
 William Eustis, Mass., Secretaiy of War. 
 John Armstrong, N. Y., " " " 
 
 James Monroe, Va., " " " 
 
 WiUiam H. Crawford, Ga., " " " 
 
 Paul Hamilton. S. C. , Secretary of the Navy. 
 William Jones, Pa. , " '* " " 
 
 B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., a a <.i 
 
 1809. 
 
 Jan. 7 — An act is passed " more eifectually to enforce the Embargo." 
 
 Feb. 3 — Illinois organized under a Temtorial Government. 
 " 27 — The Embargo is partially repealed. 
 
 Mar. 3 — The Tenth Congress closes, at the same time as the administration of 
 Jefferson. Madison was inaugurated the next day. He served two 
 terms. A war with Great Britain was commenced in his first, and 
 ended in his second term. 
 " — Thos. Haywood, of S. C, signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
 died. 
 
 Apr. 19 — An aiTangement of the difficulties with England w^as concluded with the 
 British Minister, Erskine, and, in the expectation of permanent peace, 
 the Embargo and Non -intercourse acts cease by proclamation of the 
 President. 
 
 May 22 — An extra Session of the Eleventh Congi-ess meets. 
 
 July 20 — Newsan'ives of the rejection by the English Government of the Erskine 
 Treaty. 
 
 Aug. 9 — The President forbids, by proclamation, all intercourse with Great Brit- 
 ain and France. 
 
 Nov. 8 — A new English minister having been sent, his arrogant tone causes the 
 U. S. Government to decline further intercourse with him. 
 
 1810. 
 
 Mar. 23 — Bonaparte orders the sale and confiscation of 132 American vessels 
 (detained in France by previous decree) and their cargoes, and the same 
 confiscation is ordered of all American vessels afterwards entering 
 French ports. The 132 vessels and their cargoes were worth $8,000,000. 
 
 Aug 5 — The French Government announce the revocation of their confiscation 
 act, to take effect Nov. 1st. A deadly stiniggle had been, for many years, 
 going on between Napolean Bonaparte and England. This hostility of 
 France to American commerce was in retaliation of the British ' ' Orders 
 in Council" against neutral commerce trading with France. England 
 had nearly destroyed the French Navy and considered herself Mistress of 
 the Seas. She wished to reduce American commerce to the condition of 
 
680 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 colonial times, which, with impressment of seamen, was the cause of 
 the present struggle. Our commerce was constantly growing, our peo- 
 ple spirited, and resolved to have their rights and Flag respected. 
 
 Feb. 26, — An act passed estabhshing Naval Hospitals. 
 
 May 16 — The American frigate President, and the British sloop of war Little Belt, 
 fire into each other. The Little Belt is disabled. This was a retaliation 
 for the firing of the British ship Leojiard into the American Chesapeake, 
 four- years before, and also of the capture of an American merchantman 
 bound to France, off New York, by a British vessel about this time. 
 Several instances of impressment, by the British, from American vessels, 
 had lately occurred, and there was a feeling of great exasperation 
 toward England. The English Government had not yet made any atone- 
 ment for the attack on the Chesapeake. 
 
 J\m. 1 — Gen, Eaton, ijromtnent in the war with Tripoli, died. 
 " 19 — Samuel Chase, Associate Justice of the U. S., died. 
 
 AxLg. 9 Wm. WUhams, of Conn. , died. The two last were signers of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence. 
 
 The reUef of American commerce from outrages by the French proved 
 delusive, and many grievous wrongs are suffered this year. 
 
 jq"ov. 7 — Two twin brothers of the Shawanee tribe of Indians (Tecumseh and 
 the Prophet) had been for some years engaged in forming a conspiracy 
 among a large nmnber of Indian tribes on the Northwestern frontier to 
 exterminate the whites. Gen. HaiTison's army is attacked by the Indians 
 this day, at Tippecanoe. They are defeated by Gen. Harrison. 
 
 j)ec. 2 — Tlie ratio of representation is revised on the census of 1810, and fixed 
 at 35,000. 
 
 1812. 
 
 Jan. 1 — Various acts are passed for puttmg the army and navy in a condition 
 
 for -wax. 
 Apr. 4 — An Embargo is laid on American shipping, by an Act of Congress. 
 " 8 — Louisiana admitted into the TJnion as a State. 
 " 20 — Gen Clinton, Vice-President of the United States, died. 
 Jun. 4 — The territory of Missomi organized. 
 <' 18 — Congress declares war on Great Britain. 
 
 '< 23 — The British Government repeal the obnoxious " Orders in Council," but 
 refuse to give up the i-ight of search and impressment on American 
 vessels. The American Government refuses to be satisfied with this; 
 besides, it had already declared war. 
 
 THE WAR OF 1812. 
 "We have stated in connection with the appropriate events, the causes of this 
 war which had accumulated during the last five years at a rapid rate. The 
 seizure and capture of American vessels by Great Britain amoimted to 917; by 
 France to 558. Upwards of 6. 000 cases of impressments were recorded in the 
 American Department of State; and in aU of these our flag had been violated. 
 It was estimated that about as many more had been made, of which no official 
 information had been received. The Americans were averse to war and had 
 long borne these injuries in the hope that a settlement might be reached by nego- 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. G81 
 
 tiation: but they insisted on the inviolabihty of our Flag, and the right of 
 
 naturaUzation. On the commencement of hostiUties 2,500 of these impressed 
 
 sailors, claiming to be American citizens, refused to fight against America, and 
 
 •were imprisoned by the English Government, where most of them were kept to 
 
 the close of the war. 
 
 Aug.24 — The English Government, however, had the magnanimity, when news 
 arrived of the Declaration of War by the United States, to allow all 
 American vessels then in their ports six weeks to dispose of their lading 
 and return undisturbed. 
 
 The gi-eat success of the war on the American side was on the sea, where 
 it was much more seriously detrimental and mortifying to the English 
 than victories on the land would have been. The land forces were gen- 
 erally inefficiently conducted, though the close of the war was signalized 
 by the victoiy of Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, which was extremely 
 gratifying to American pride. 
 
 Jtdy 12 — Gen. Hull, with 1,800 troops, invades Canada. 
 
 Aug. 8 — After various mishaps, Hull retreats to Detroit. 
 
 " 9 — Col. Miller defeats Tecumseh and a body of British troops at Maguaga. 
 " 15 — Fort Dearbon (now Chicago) was abandoned by its small garrison, by the 
 order of Hull. During their retreat they were attacked, and most of 
 them massacred by the Indians. 
 " 16 — Gen. Hull surrendered Detroit and all the military forces and stores to 
 the British. He was afterward sentenced to death by court-martial, 
 but pardoned by the President, though degraded from all military com- 
 mand. 
 " 19 — The U. S. frigate Constitution, Capt; Hull, does great honor to the 
 American arms by the capture of the English frigate Guen-iere. This 
 vessel had challenged the American vessels in a contemptuous M^ay. She 
 had 79 killed and wounded, the Constitution only 13. There were 10 
 impressed American seaman on the Guerriere. 
 
 Sept. 7 — The U. S. frigate Essex captures the Alert in 8 minutes. 
 
 Oct. 13 — In another invasion of Canada by Gen. Van Eensselaer. though much 
 gallantry was displayed, an unexpected British reinforcement obliged 
 the suiTender of 700 men after 160 had been killed and wounded. 
 " 18 — ^The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Frolic, 
 which was the strongest vessel. The Frolic had 100 killed and wounded, 
 the Wasp but 10. Both were captured by a British 74-pounder the same 
 day. 
 *' 35 — Capt. Decatur, of the frigate United States, captures the Macedonian, a 
 British frigate. British loss 104. American only 7. 
 
 Nov. 22 — The U. S. brig Vixen is captured by the English frigate Southampton. 
 Both were afterward shipwrecked. 
 
 THE SEVENTH ELECTION, 1812. 
 
 This election occurred in the midst of a war which was violently opposed, 
 especially by the Federalists of New England, which had as yet few manufact- 
 ures and was more deeply interested in commerce than any other section of the 
 country. This commerce was ruined by the M'ar, and the people were gi'eatly 
 
682 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 distressed; but tlie Democratic party was very strong. It supported the war and 
 re-elected Madison to carry it through. Elbridge Gei-ry, of Mass., was the Demo- 
 cratic nominee for the Vice-Presidency. DeWitt Chnton, of N. Y., and Jared 
 IngersoU, of Pa. , were the nominees of the Federalists for President and Vice- 
 President. 
 
 Madison received 128 Electoral votes. 
 GeiTy " 131 
 
 Clinton " 89 
 
 Ingersoll " 86 " "' 
 
 Louisiana had been admitted ^as a State, making 18, and a new apportionment 
 t)f Representatives raised the number of Presidential Electors to 218. 
 Dec. 20 — The U. S. frigate Constitution, Commodore Bainbridge, captures the 
 British frigate Java, off the coast of BrazU. American loss 44, British 
 151. These naval victories with so little loss produced much exidtation 
 in America, and much surprise and mortification in England. The 
 Americans Avere able seamen, and had long burned to avenge the insults 
 and contempt of the English Navy. Americans are capable of extraor- 
 dinary vigor when thoroughly aroused. The operations on land had 
 ' been much interfered with by the strenuous and almost treasonable 
 opposition of tlie anti-war party, and this continued to be on embarrass- 
 ment during nearly its whole course. The general disfavor with which 
 this violent opposition was regarded, however, and the sympathy felt for 
 the President, so embarrassed, procured his re-election. 
 
 1813. 
 MUitary operations this year were, in part, more creditable and encouraging. 
 The regular force amoimted to about 55,000 men: an act had been passed author- 
 izing the construction of four 74-pounder ships, and six forty-fours; and for an 
 increase of the Navy on the lakes. 
 
 Jan. 22— A disastrous enterprise at Fi-enchtown (now Monroe, Mich.) results in 
 the loss of nearly 900 American troops imder Winchester. The 
 wounded were left by Gen. Proctor, the British commander, to be 
 massacred by the Indians. 
 «' 23— Gen. Clymer, Pa., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. 
 " 26— An act of Congi-ess authorized the President to bon-ow $16,000,000. 
 " 27— He is authorized to issue Treasury notes to the amount of $5,000,000. 
 Feb, 24— The Hornet captures the British brig Peacock, on the coast of South 
 America. 
 
 Tlie Delaware and Chesapeake Bays are blockaded by the British about 
 this time. 
 MlEix. 4 — Madison is inaugurated for his second teiTti. 
 
 " 8 — The emperor af Russia having offered his services as mediator between 
 the United States and England, the President appomts commissioners to 
 treat for peace. 
 Apr. 10— The British attack Lewiston, Del., but are repulsed after having bom- 
 barded it for several days. 
 " 27— Americans under Gen Pike, captured York, Upper Canada, with a large 
 quanity of stores. Gen. Pike is killed. 
 Mav 1— The British Gen. Proctor besieges Gen. Harrison in Fort Meigs. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 683 
 
 May 5 — Gen. Clay coming to liis assistance Proctor retreats. Col. Dudley, mak- 
 ing a sortie from Ft. Meigs, is drawn into an ambuscade and loses 650 
 men. He is himself mortally wounded. 
 
 The British Admiral Cockburn barbarously ravages the shores of Chesa- 
 peake bay. 
 27 — Ft. George, at Niagara, surrenders to the Americans, and Sir Geo. Pro- 
 vost is repulsed from Sackets Harbor, N. Y., by Gen. Brown. 
 
 June 1 — The U. S. frigate Chesapeake captured by the British frigate Shannon. 
 American loss 138; British loss about half as many. Capt. LawTence of 
 the Chesapeake is mortally wounded. 
 " 6 —Gens. Chandler and Winder surprised in the night by the enemy they 
 were going tcj attack. The two generals are taken prisoners, but their 
 troops repulse the enemy and retire. 
 
 Jun. 23 — Col. Boerstler, in command of an American force of 600 men, is sur- 
 rounded by a superior force at Beaver Dams and compelled to sun-ender. 
 '* 25 — Admiral Cockburn, failing in his attack on the American forces at 
 Craney Island, Va., lands at Hampton and commits many outrages. 
 
 Jvily 31 — American Com. Chauncey lands at York, U. C, captures and destroys 
 stores, and the British do the same at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain. 
 
 Aug. 2— Gen. Proctor with 1.000 British and Indians attacks Col. Croghan Mdth 
 160 men, at Ft. Stephenson, Lower Sandusky, O., and is repulsed with a 
 loss of 150. 
 
 About this time the American frigate Essex, Capt. Porter, cnaising in 
 the Pacific ocean, captured 12 armed British whalers. 
 
 Aug.l3 — ^The American sloop of war Argus, cniising in the English Chaimel, 
 captured 31 British merchantmen, but was herself captured by the Peli- 
 can after a severe engagement. 
 *' 30 — Tecumseh had stirred up the Creek Indians to war, and they attacked 
 Ft. Minis, which they surprised and captured, massacreing all but 20 
 out of the 400 men, women and children. 
 
 Sept. 3 — The American brig Enterprise captvires the Boxer on the coast of Maine. 
 " 10 — Perry's victory on Lake Erie. He captures the whole fleet (6 vessels) of 
 the enemy. His laconic dispatch to Gen. Harrison was, ' * We have met 
 the enemy, and they are ours." 
 
 Oct. 5 — Battle of the Thames (Upper Canada). Gen. Harrison, commanding the 
 Americans, defeated the British and Indians, imder Gen. Proctor and 
 Tecumseh. The latter was slain. The British lost about 600 in killed, 
 wounded and prisoners: the Americans 17 killed and 30 wounded. 
 " " Commodore Chauncy captures 5 British vessels on Lake Ontario. 
 
 Nov 8 — Gen. Cofl'er attacks the Creek Indians, at Tallasehatchie, Ala. 200 
 warriors are killed. 
 " 9 — Gen. Jackson defeats the Indians at Talladega, Ala., killing 200 of 
 them. Two other battles with the Indians occiu-red this month, and 
 one in Dec. in which they were defeated with great slaughter, and little 
 loss to the Americans. Yet so spirited and resolute were they as to 
 require to be almf)st exterminated befoi-e they would make peace. 
 " 11 — 1,200 Americans, under Gen. Boyd, engage 2,000 British, under Lt. Col. 
 Morrison, and are repulsed with a loss of 339. British loss 180. 
 
684: THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Dec. 10 — Ft. George, at Niagara, evacuated and the town of Newark burned by 
 the Americans. 
 " 19 — Ft. Niagara is taken by the British and Indians who massacre the gar- 
 rison. Youngstown, Lewistown, the Tuscarora Indian village, and 
 Manchester, all in N. Y. , are burned, in retaliation for the destruction of 
 Newark. 
 " 30 — The British bum Black Rock, Buffalo, three vessels of Perry's fleet, and 
 large quantities of provisions. Gen. Proctor justifies it as a proper 
 retaliation. The burning of Newark was barbarous, but was avenged 
 tenfold. Naturalized Irishmen, taken by the British in our armies this 
 year, were sent to England to be tried for treason. An equal number of 
 EngUsh officers were imprisoned by the American Government and 
 notice given to the Governor of Canada that they should receive the same 
 treatment and fate as our Irish soldiers. This had its effect, and the 
 latter remained simply prisoners of war. This claim, and correspond- 
 ing action on the part of the English Government, which was one of 
 the principal causes of the war, was, from this time, practically relin- 
 quished. In December an Embargo was laid by Congress on American 
 goods and provisions, to prevent their being employed to supply the 
 British blockading force and armies. It produced gi'eat discontent in 
 New England, where a large part of the people were dependent on com- 
 merce, and were thrown into great distress. There was much factious, 
 and even seditious, opposition to the Government. 
 The army operations had been unsuccessful in Canada during the last 
 campaign, owing, it was thought, to the inefficiency of the commanders, and, 
 perhaps, partly to the want of experience of their subalterns. Changes, that were 
 found much for the better, were made, and the campaign of this year, in this 
 quarter, showed a more honorable record. Since the commencement of the war 
 till this year, the English Government had been carrying on an immense Euro- 
 pean war, which was closed by the abdication of Bonaparte and his banishment 
 to the island of Elba. They prepared for a more vigorous effort in America, by 
 sending considerable armies of the veterans of Wellington, who had conqiiered 
 in Europe. They had received the impression that the opposion to the war and 
 the Republican party would co-operate with them, and that they might reestab- 
 lish their dominion over their former colonies. 
 
 But they did not comprehend American character. Party politics have always 
 been conducted in a bitter and hostile spirit, but that hostility has not been directed 
 against their institutions. Extreme attachment to these, and jealous care to 
 preserve all rights guaranteed by the Constitution, have always led the opposition 
 to a close and sharp criticism of all measures of the party in power differing from 
 their own interpretation of Constitutional rights. When these institutions are 
 really in danger all parties unite in a defense, the obstinacy and vigor of which 
 carries everything before it. It stops at no obstacles, hesitates before no sacri- 
 fices, and counts no odds. This became apparent to the British during the 
 summer, dispelled forever their dream of conquest, and led to a peace at the close 
 of the campaign. The British sent 14,000 troops to Canada this spring, which 
 was supported, in July and August, by a large reinforcement. A strong naval 
 force, with a large body of troops, was sent to invade the heart of the country 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 685 
 
 and capture Washington. After failing in maintaining their ground here, they 
 were directed against the Gulf coast and the Mississippi river, ending in their 
 decisive defeat by Gen. Jackson at New Orleans, Jan. 8th, 1815, some weeks before 
 the treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, in Belgium, Dec. 24, was known in America. 
 Mar. 24 — A loan of $25,000,000 authorized by Congress. 
 
 " 27 — Gen. Jackson's defeat of the Indians at Great Horseshoe Bend, Ala. 
 This battle accomplished the subjection of the Creek Indians. Jackson 
 had fought them on the 21st, 24th and 27th of Jan., when they came 
 near defeating him, but, notwithstanding their fierce and obstinate 
 bravery he conquered each time, and finally nearly exterminated them. 
 " 28 — The brilliaut career of the U. S. frigate Essex, in the Pacific ocean, is 
 terminated by its captui'e, at Valparaiso, Chili, by the British frigate 
 Phebe and another sloop of war. 
 " 30 — Gen. Wilkinson is i-epulsed in an advance into Canada, at La Colle, 
 and is afterwards tried by court-martial. Gen. Brown is given the 
 command of the Niagara frontier, and Gen. Izard of northern New 
 York. 
 Apr. 21 — The U. S. sloop of war Frolic captured by the British frigate Orpheus. 
 " 27 — The U. S. sloop of war Peacock captures the British brig-of-war Epervier 
 with $118,000 specie'on board. 
 May 7 — A British force captures and destroys the American fort at Oswego, N. 
 Y., and carries off several guns. 
 " 29 — The Americans capture a British force at Sandy Creek, N. Y. 
 June 9 — The U. S. sloop of War Rattlesnake captured by a British 50 gun ship. 
 " 12 — The U. S. sloop Syren captured by a British 74. 
 
 " 28 — The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Rein- 
 deer, in the British Channel. 
 July 3 — Gen. Brown captures Ft. Erie, near Niagara, U. C. 
 
 " 5 — Battle of Chippewa, Canada. Gens. Brown, Scott and Ripley, with 
 about 3,000 men, were opposed by the British Gen. Riall with an equal 
 number of veterans of Waterloo. Gen. Scott attacked them with such 
 prudence and valor as to conquer a largely superior force before Gen. 
 Ripley could conue up to his aid. It was a splendid test of American 
 mettle. Loss of the British 514. of Scott 328. The British fall back 
 to Ft George. 
 " 11 — The British make a descent on the coast of Maine. 
 
 " 25 — Gen. Scott engages a British force of seven times his number, and holds 
 his ground for some hours when Gen. Ripley comes to his aid, and they 
 drive the British from the field; but having only 1,600 men left, while 
 the British have 5,000, they retreat next day. The British lost 878, the 
 Americans 860. 
 Aug. 4 — Americans besieged in Ft. Erie. 
 
 " 8 — First meeting of the U. S. and English commissioners to treat for peace, 
 who arranged the terms at the close of this year. The English were 
 very high in their demands till the failure of their much vaunted vet- 
 eran troops. 
 " 9 — The British make an unsuccessful attack on Stonington, Conn. A 
 treaty is made with the Creek Indians. 
 
686 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 " 15 — The British repailsed from Ft. Erie with the loss of 930 men. The 
 Americans lost 84. 
 Aug. 20 — A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake marches on 
 Washington. 
 
 " 24 — The battle of Bladensburg, near Washington. The Americans, much 
 inferior in numbers, were defeated. The British, under General Ross, 
 entered Washington the same day. They destroyed much private prop- 
 erty, as well as public stores, buUdings and documents. 
 Not deeming it prudent to remain, the British retreated from Washing- 
 ton to their vessels, leaving the people greatly exasperated at conduct 
 unworthy of the army of a civilized nation. 
 
 " 27 — Alexandria, Va.. delivers up the public stores and shipping there and 
 much merchandise as a ransom from pliinder and biu-ning. 
 Sept. 1 — The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop Avon. After 
 taking three other prizes in European waters, she disappeared and was 
 never again heard of — supposed to have foundered at sea. The British 
 Gen. Prevost advanced toward Plattsbui-g, N. Y., with 12,000 veteran 
 troops. 
 
 " 11 — The battle of Plattsburg. Com. McDonough, American, with 4 vessels, 
 10 gun-boats, and 850 men. captures the British Com. Downie's fleet of 4 
 vessels, 12 g-un-boats. and 1,000 men. A simviltaneous attack by Provost 
 on Plattslmrg miscarried by the failure of the fleet and the panic of the 
 soldiers. They return, in disorder, to Canada. 
 
 ■" 12 — The British who had captured Washington appear near Baltimore and 
 land a force which repulses the Baltimore militia, and, next day 
 advances toward the city; but the attack seems so formidable to them 
 that they retreat in the night to then- vessels and depart. The British 
 Admiral could not reduce Ft. McHenry so as to co-operate in an attack 
 on the city by water. The pati'iotic song. " The Star Spangled Banner," 
 was ^^Titten during this bombardment of Fort McHenry. Gen. Eosa, 
 the British commander, was killed soon after the landing of the troops. 
 About this time various attacks are made at difl'erent places on the 
 coast of New England, and the British pretend, by proclamation, to 
 take possession of all of Maine east of the Penobscot river and annex it 
 to New Brunswick. 
 
 " 17 — A sortie is made from Ft. Erie and the works of the enemy are sur- 
 prised and taken with a loss to them of 1,000 men in killed wounded and 
 prisoners. 
 
 Thus, in the midst of ravages and alarms on the coast, the destruction 
 of our commerce, the stagnation of business, the financial difficulties of 
 our Government that almost amounted to bankruptcy, and the com- 
 plaints of the peace party, (which produced much alarm by the calling 
 of a Convention of the New England States, in December of this year, at 
 Hartford, Conn..) the honor of the United States was preserved. The 
 formidable armies in Canada had been baffled and defeated, the capture 
 of Washington followed immediately by the withdrawal of the invaders, 
 and a strong point made which had its effect in substantially gaining 
 the cause that had brought on the war, for the Americans, in the treaty 
 
THE HISTORY OF THK UNITED STATES. G87 
 
 negotiations in progress. The British now turned their attention to the 
 Mississippi river and the coast of the gulf of Mexico. 
 Nov. 1 — Gen. Jaclison takes Pensacola from the British, who were laboring to 
 
 raise the Indians to war again. 
 Dec. 18 — A British fleet captures the flotiUa on Lake Borgne, La. 
 
 " 22 — 13,000 British troops land below New Orleans, and repulse the Ameri- 
 cans. 
 " 24 — The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, but is not known in America 
 until February following. 
 
 1815. 
 
 Jan. 8. — Gen. Jackson, with only 6,000 men, had intrenched himself in front of 
 the British, who now made an assault on his position. They were 
 repulsed with great slaughter, losing their general, Packingham, and 
 near 2,000 men. Jackson had but 7 killed and 6 wounded. The British 
 retreated to their vessels. 
 
 " 15 — The U. S. frigate President captured by four English vessels. 
 Feb. 18 — Ft. Bowyer, near Pensacola, Fla. , invested by the British fleet. It 
 surrenders on the 21st. 
 
 " 17 — The treaty of peace which arrived at New York on the 11th by the 
 British sloop of war Favorite, ratified liy the American Government and 
 Peace proclaimed, 
 
 " 24 — Congress authoi-izes the loan of f 18,400,000, and the issue of treasury 
 notes to the amount of $25,000,000. 
 
 "■ 28 — The naval war was continued some time longer. The U. S. frigate Con- 
 stitution cajitures two British vessels of war, the frigate Cyane and the 
 sloop Levant, off the island of IVIadeira. In March the U. S. frigate 
 Hornet captured the British brig Penguin, on the coast of Brazil. 
 The British Government, elated by their triumph over Bonapai-te, their 
 large army accvistomed to conquer in Europe, and the fleets set free 
 from the blockade of the Continent, thought to make an easy conquest 
 of America. But all their attempts were defeated. Had peace been 
 made a little later the Americans might have obtained much better 
 terms. 
 
 This war had been waged under many difficulties by the American 
 Administration. The country and its institutions were new, and there 
 was no such reserved f imd of wealth and credit as is always found in an 
 old and well organized state. They depended largely on commerce, 
 wliich was almost destroyed by the great naval force of Great Britain, 
 and the Embargo policy. Our Navy was gallant and successful, but 
 the Government lacked the means, and the unanimous support of the 
 people, requisite to increase it to the necessary strength. The Adminis- 
 tration did not act with the vigor and efficiency calculated to bring all 
 sections and classes to its support, and the people had not yet the 
 experience and knowledge of the value and streng th of their institutions 
 needful to inspire confidence, so that they were critical and difficult to 
 please, and this spirit impaired the efficiency of nearly all Government 
 measures. What they undertook could be only imperfectly done. The old 
 
688 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 soldiers of the Revolution were dead or unfit by age for good service, 
 and time was necessary to train others and ascertain who had the 
 necessary military capacity for conducting operations with success. 
 Yet, under all these great difficulties, the United States came out of the 
 war T\dth the respect of the world, such as it had never before enjoyed. 
 It became formidable to Europe as a great and vigorous power with 
 which it was not safe to trifle. 
 
 This was still more clear when the Government declared war on the Dey 
 of Alo-iers, one of the pirate princes of the North of Africa, whose people 
 for hundreds of years, had made war on the commerce of all nations almost 
 with impunity- Having violated their treaty with us, the President sent 
 out an adequate naval force which captured two Algerine vessels of war, 
 June 17-19— and threatened Algiers. The Dey, intimidated, inmiediately made 
 peace, giving hberty to all prisoners without ransom, and full satisfac- 
 tion for the injm-ies done to our commerce. No Em-opean nation had 
 before so himibled these pirates, and it at once raised the credit of our 
 Government, and gained us respect and esteem. 
 June 30— The last hostile act at sea, took place in the Straits af Sunda, in the East 
 Indies, where the U. S. brig of war Peacock captured the Nautilus, a 
 British sloop of war. Thus the three American vessels at sea when the 
 war closed, each came home crowned -u-ith laui-els. The British vessels 
 captui-ed during the war numbered 1,750 — the American 1,683. The 
 spirit and energy of the Americans, under all their embarrassments, gave 
 an unmistakable indication of the futui'e greatness and power of the 
 United States, 
 
 1816. 
 The last two years' experience had taught the Government and the people many 
 important lessons by wliich they hastened to profit. The coast was fortified, the 
 Navy increased, manufactures and commerce encouraged, and the best measures 
 that the wisdom of the times could suggest, employed to restore the finances. 
 The violently factious opposition of parties was much moderated by the confi- 
 dence gained to our Government and Institutions, and the evident foUy of exces- 
 sive feai-s. The Second U. S. Bank was chartered for 20 years, with a capital of 
 $35,000,000. 
 
 Nov. 5 — Govemeur Morris, an eminent and excellent American statesman, died. 
 Dec. 11 — Indiana admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
 SECTIOI^ T. 
 
 Monroe's Administration. — The Eighth Election, 1816. 
 
 Though admitted late in the year Indiana took part in the election of a new- 
 President, this making 19 States which were entitled to decide it. There were, 
 however, 4 vacancies in the Electoral College — one in Delaware and three in 
 Maryland. There should have been 221 Presidential Electors— reaUy there were 
 but 217. 
 
 James Monroe, of Ta.. was the nominee of the Democrats — as the Repubhcans 
 were now called— for President, and Daniel D. Tompkins for Vice-President. 
 
MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 689 
 
 The Federalists nominated Rufus King, of N. Y., for President, and John E. 
 Howard for Vice-President. Twelve votes were divided among three others for 
 the latter office. 
 
 Monroe received 183 electoral votes. 
 Tompkins " 183 " " 
 
 King " 34 " " 
 
 Howard " 23 
 
 THE FIFTH ADMINISTRATION, 1817 TO 1825. 
 
 James Monroe, Va., President. 
 
 Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 John Quincy Adams, Mass., Secretary of State. 
 
 William H. Crawford, Ga., Secretary of the Treasury, 
 
 Isaac Shelby, Ky., Secretary of War. 
 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C, " 
 
 B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 Smith Thompson, N. Y., " " " 
 
 Samuel L. Southard, N. J., 
 A new era for America commenced with this administration, or rather reached 
 its period of uninterrupted development; for the whole past history of the 
 country had been a preparation for it, but especially so the late war and its 
 results. The failure of the French Revolution, and, finally, the failure of Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte and the re-establishment of the old monarchy in France, as a 
 result of the excess, first of the French Republic, and then of the military inter- 
 ference of Bonaparte with the existing state of things in Europe, had an import- 
 ant influence in modifying the politics of the Republican party in the United 
 States; so that they came partially in Jefferson's administration, and completely 
 by the close of Madison's, to follow the wise and vigorous policy pursued by 
 Washington and the Federal party; while the General Government and the insti- 
 tutions of the country became deeply imbued with the regard to popular rights, 
 and attention to the interests and will of the people that formed the leading idea 
 of Jefferson and the original Democratic, or, as it was then called, the Republican 
 party. Thus the two points of supreme importance, vigor in the General Gov- 
 ernment, and security to the people, were happily mingled and wrought into the 
 spirit and form of our institutions. 
 
 The leading events of Monroe's two Administrations were the attention given 
 to internal improvements — among which may be mentioned the Erie Canal in 
 New York, and the encouragement to manufactures, the acquisition of Florida 
 from Spain, and a definite settlement of the slavery question (for the next thirty 
 years only, as it proved,) by the " Missouri Compromise."' The people now 
 began to feel and act together, as a single nation, and material progress was 
 
 rapid. 
 
 1817. 
 
 Mar. 3 — The observance of the neutrality laws strictly enjoined on citizens of 
 the United States by Congress. 
 " 4 — James Monroe, the fifth President, inaugurated. WJth his administra- 
 44 
 
690 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 tion commences "the era of good feeling," as it was called. The bitter- 
 ness of party controversy ceased for the time. 
 
 Jun 25 — Thos. McKean, of Del., signer of the Declaration of Indej^endence, died. 
 
 Dec. — Mississippi admitted into the Union, and Alabama erected into a Territory. 
 " — ^A war broke out with the Seminole Indians on the borders of Florida. 
 It came near involving us in a war with Spain. Internal taxes are 
 abolished by Congi-ess. 
 
 1818. 
 
 Mar. 18 — ^A law enacted giving pensions to indigent officers and soldiers. 
 
 April 4 — The Flag of the U. S. rearranged; the stripes to represent the thirteeBi 
 
 original States, the stai's the present ntmiber of States 
 " 18 — minois is authorized to form a State Constitution. 
 May 34 — Gen. Jackson took Pensacola, Fla., from the Spaniards, on account of 
 
 the support given by them to the Indians. 
 Oct. 20 — A Treaty of Commerce and for settling boundaries is made with England. 
 
 1819. 
 
 Feb. 2S— A Treaty for the cession of Florida 'ratified by Congress, but not by the 
 King of Spam untU October 20th, 1820. 
 
 Mar. 3 — Arkansas organized into a Tei-ritory 
 
 Dec. 14 — Alabama admitted into the Union. 
 
 In this year commenced the discussion on the balance between the 
 North and the South in relation to slavery. Missomi and Maine both 
 desired admission as States. Tlie discussion resulted in a settlement of 
 the whole question Feb. 2Tth, 1821, by the application of the -'Missouri 
 Compromise" to the admission of that State. 
 
 1820. 
 
 Feb. 15— Wm. EUeiy, of R. I., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. 
 Mar. 15— Maine and Missoiui admitted into the Union, The "Missouri Com- 
 promise" was arranged at this time. 
 Aug.23— Com. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie, died in the West Indies. 
 The Fourth Census was taken in this year. 
 
 The Ninth Election occm-red in the autumn of 1820. Five new States — 
 Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, Illinois, Alabama— had been admitted since the last 
 election. There were 24 States to take part and 235 Presidential Electoi-s. It was 
 scarcely a party election, for only one Electoral vote was cast for any one but 
 Monroe for President. There were 3 vacancies and Monroe received 231 Elec- 
 toral votes, a few being scattered from Tompkins on several persons. He received 
 218 votes. 
 
 The United States had already cleared the Mediterranean Sea of pirates. This 
 year and the next it did the same in the West Indies. Tlie disti-ess following 
 the war was over; the Slaveiy question settled for the present; Steam applied to 
 vessels began to open up a new prosperity in the West, and the country began to 
 foresee its future gi-eatness more clearly. It was in this temi that President Mon- 
 roe warned off monarchical European Governments from making further clamis 
 to the Western Continent, and recognized the new Spanish American Republics. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 691 
 
 The New World was dedicated to freedom by this " Monroe Docrine," now added 
 to Washington's pohcy of Non-interference with European quarrels. The United 
 States placed itself on guard over liberty of self-government in all America. 
 
 1821. 
 
 Mar. 4 — James Monroe inaugurated on his second term. 
 
 " 25 — Com. Decatur died at Washington. 
 Aug. 29 — Gen. Jackson takes possession of Florida as its Governor. The U. S. 
 Government paid $5,000,000 for Florida. The Spanish officers were 
 reluctant and dilatory in giving up their places, and Gen. Jackson had 
 occasion for his remarkably decisive action in dealing with them. The 
 Governor, Don CavaUa, refusing to give up certain papers according to 
 the Treaty, he sent him to pi'ison until aU the papers were produced, 
 and banished six other Spanish officers who interfered with him. 
 
 1822. 
 . June — A Commercial Treaty is negotiated with France. Capt. Allen of the 
 U. S. schooner Alligator, engages a band of pirates in the West Indies, 
 captures one of their schooners, and recaptures five American vessels. 
 Capt. Allen is killed. 
 
 The ports of the West India islands are opened to American commerce 
 by the English government. 
 
 Com. Truxton, a meritorious naval officer, Gen. Stark, the hero of Ben- 
 nington, Vt., and Wm. Lowndes, a statesman of S. C, died this year. 
 A new arrangement of the Ratio of Representation gives one member of 
 Congress to 40,000 inhabitants. 
 
 1823. 
 Com. Porter makes a successful expedition against the West Indian pirates. 
 This year our government acknowledged the independence of the South Ameri- 
 'oan Republics, and ministers were appointed to Mexico, Columbia, Buenos Ayres, 
 and Chili. 
 
 A treaty for the mutual suppression of the slave trade was made by Great 
 Britain and the United States. 
 
 1824. 
 April — American and Russian Commissioners settle the boundaries between the 
 
 two countries. 
 Aug. 15 — Lafayette arrives from France. He was everywhere received as the 
 guest of the people with the utmost affection and reverence. He spent 
 a year visiting all parts of the Union. 
 
 A protective tariff was made this year to encourage cotton manu- 
 factures. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 John Quincy Adams' Administration. — The Tenth Election, 1824, 
 
 found the country highly prosperous, but there were growing differences of views 
 And interests as to questions of economical policy between the East, the South, 
 and the West. This, however, was but the small beginning of what grew into 
 prominence afterward. The Federalist party had dissolved and a clearly defined 
 
692 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 new party was not yet formed ; but the Democrats of different sections could not 
 settle on a common nominee and four were voted for — two in the West, Andrew 
 Jackson, of Tenn., and Henry Clay, of Ky.; one in the East, John Quincy Adams, 
 of Mass. (called the "Coalition" candidate); and one in the South, WiUiam H. 
 Crawford, of Ga. 
 
 A rearrangement of Eepresentatives in Congress after the Fourth Census had 
 increased the number of Presidential Electors to 261. although there were stiU 
 only 24 States, as in the election of 1820. It required 131 votes to elect. 
 
 Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes. 
 
 Jolin Quincy Adams " 84 • ' " ' 
 
 Wilham H. Crawford " 41 " "' 
 
 Henry Clay " 37 
 
 John C. CaUioun had received 182 electoral votes for Vice-President, no other 
 receiving more than 30. He was, therefore, elected. As no election of President 
 had been made the choice between the three first candidates devolved on the 
 House of Representatives. They voted, as the Constitution directs, by States, 
 the majority of Representatives from each State casting one vote. John Quincy 
 Adams received the vote of 13 States ; Andrew Jackson of 7 States : WiUiam H. 
 Crawford of 4 States. The Electors of Delaware, Georgia, Louisiana, New York, 
 South Carolina, and Vermont were stiU appointed by their State Legislatures. In 
 the remaining 18 States the popular vote was for the first time recorded. The 
 total popvdar vote was 352,062. 
 
 Jackson received 155.872. 
 
 Adams •• 105,321. 
 
 Crawford " 44,282. 
 
 Clay " 46,587. 
 
 Adams was, therefore, not the choice of the larger number of the people. 
 
 SIXTH ADMINISTRATION, 1825 TO 1829. 
 
 John Quincy Adams, Mass., President. 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C, Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 Henry Clay, Ky., Secretary of State. 
 
 Richard Rush, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 James Barbour, Va. , Secretaiy of War. 
 
 Peter B. Porter, N. Y., " 
 
 Samuel L. Southard, N. J., Secretary of the Navy. 
 Up to this time the nomination of a party candidate for the Presidency had 
 usually been made by a Caucus of the Members of Congress. The people revolted 
 against that method in the election of 1824, and it fell into disuse. About 1830, 
 Pai-ty Conventions, whose members were appointed by the people in Con- 
 gressional Districts, began to take the place of this caucus, and have ever since 
 been the habitual method of making nominations. 
 
 This Presidential tenn was a period of transition in politics. The Fathers of 
 the Republic had passed away and the political issues of their times were quite 
 forgotten. Those of the last war with England also had ceased to occupy the 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 693 
 
 attention of the people. Questions involving moneyed interests now i*eplaced 
 those of Constitutional and foreign policy. An immense prosperity with free 
 and vast openings for gain stimulated private energy and corporate and sec- 
 tional ambition. The liveliest competition for pecuniary advantages began and 
 produced bitter rivalries. Manufactures and commerce chiefly occupied the East; 
 cotton culture the South; and general agriculture the West. It was long before 
 their various interests could be harmonized. The Labor Systems of the North 
 and the South gradually became more antagonistic; presently the growth of the 
 Railway System began to harmonize the Eastern and Middle States and those in 
 the West north of the Ohio River. 
 
 These rivalries took more than thirty years to fully develop and then brought 
 on the Civil War. During this administration their influence was only sufficient 
 to prevent political harmony and lay the foundation for new parties. The 
 Executive soon lost the support of the majority of the House of Representatives 
 that had placed it in power, and former political friends became bitter enemies, 
 so that Mr. Adams had an uneasy time in cariying on the Government. 
 
 1825. 
 
 Mar. 4 — J. Q. Adams inaugurated sixth President. 
 
 " '• — An act of Congress establishes a Navy Yard at Pensacola, Fla. 
 Jun. 11 — Dan. D. Tompkins, Vice-President with Monroe, died. 
 Nov. 10 — Com. McDonough, the hero of Lake Champlain, died. 
 
 1836. 
 
 July 4 — John Adams and Thos. Jefferson, whose lives were identified with the 
 foundation and development of our institutions, simultaneously died on 
 this day. 
 
 Sept. 11 — Wm. Morgan, an anti-Mason, mysteriously disappears, and is never'again 
 heard of. 
 
 1837. 
 
 An Anti-Mason- party is formed, opposing secret societies. Much " political 
 capital" is made of it. 
 Jan. — The first considerable railroad was begun and completed in May. It was 
 
 nine miles long, a beginning of the wonderful transformation that was 
 
 to be produced by this agent. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Feb. 11 — De Witt Clinton. Governor of N. Y. and originator of the Erie Canal, 
 died. 
 
 The tariff was amended and enlarged this year. This tariff was violently 
 opposed in the South, and produced the " Nullification Ordinances" of 
 S. C. . some time later. 
 
 1829. 
 
 Feb. 39 — The Virginia Legislature passes a resolution denying the right of Con- 
 gress to pass a protective tariff law. 
 
694 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 SECTIOISr VII. 
 
 Jackson's Administration, 1829 to 1837. 
 
 The House of Representatives had not respected the popular vote in 1824, when 
 they installed Mr. Adams as President, and resentment at this seems to have led 
 to a determination on the part of a majority of the people not to be dictated to 
 by Congressmen. 
 
 The opposition, or Democratic party voted very largely for Andrew Jackson for 
 President and Jolin C. Calhoim for Vice-President. The party supporting the 
 Administration of Adams was now called the "National Republican." It again 
 made him its nominee for the Presidency and Richard Rush for the Vice-Presi^ 
 dency. There were still but 24 States and 261 Presidential Electors. 
 
 Jackson received 178 electoral and 641,231 popular votes. 
 
 Calhoun " 171 
 
 Adams and Rush "83 " ,. 509,097 
 
 Jackson's popular majority was 138,134; his majority of electoral votes was 95. 
 Only South Carolina appointed Presidential Electors by her Legislature, which 
 she continued to do till the Civil War. The political excitement preceding the 
 election seemed dangerous but subsided as soon as the election was over. The 
 North and the South took opposite sides as to a Protective Tariff. This question 
 threatened political division or Civil War a few years later. That result was 
 avoided by the decision and energy of President Jackson and subsequent com- 
 promise measiires of Congress. 
 
 Jackson's Administration. 
 
 SEVENTH administration, 1829 TO 1837 — 8 YEARS. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, Tenn., President. 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C, Vice-President. 
 Martin Van Buren. N. Y., " 
 CABINET. 
 
 Martin Van Buren, N. Y., Secretaxy of State. 
 Edward Livingston, La., " " " 
 
 Louis McLane, Del., " " " 
 
 John Forsyth, Geo., " " " 
 
 Samuel D. Ingham. Pa., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Louis McLane, Del.. " " " 
 
 WUham J. Duane. Pa., " " " 
 
 Roger B. Taney, Md., " " " 
 
 Levi Woodbiuy, N. H.. " " " 
 
 John H. Eaton, Tenn.. Secretary of War. 
 Le"«ds Cass, Mich,. " " " 
 
 Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., " •'' " 
 
 John Branch, N. C, Secretary of the Navy. 
 Levi Woodbury, N. H., " " " 
 
 Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., " " " 
 
 John McLean, O., Postmaster-General. 
 William F. Barry. Ky.. 
 Amos Kendall, Kv.. " 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 695 
 
 The Postmaster-General first became a member of the Cabinet in this Adminis- 
 tration. 
 
 1829. 
 
 Mar. 4 — Gen. Andrew Jackson, the seventh President, inaugurated. Tlie oppo- 
 sition in the Soutli to a higli or "protective" tariff brought on the im- 
 portant debate in Congress between Haynes, of S. C, and Webster, of 
 Mass., on the Union and the Constitution. 
 
 May 19 — A treaty of friendship and commerce conchided with Brazil. 
 
 " — John Jay, ex-President of the Continental Congress, Chief Justice of the 
 U. S., Governor of N. Y., etc., died. In purity of patriotism, modera- 
 tion, and soundness of judgment, he came nearer to Washington than 
 any of his contemporaries. He was above the reach of the violent party 
 spirit that prevailed after Washington retired from public life. 
 
 1830. 
 
 May 7 — A treaty made with Turkey gives U. S. commerce the freedom of the 
 Black sea. The vigorous dealing of our government with the Barbary 
 States secured the respect and friendship of Turkey. 
 The important movement and interests of this year were connected with 
 the progress of I'ailroads (the first American built locomotive was made 
 this year) and the rapid rise of that great interest, and with the agitation 
 produced by the nullification proceedings of South Carolina. Tliat 
 State claimed the right to pronounce upon, and disregard the enactments 
 of Congress. This was subversive of the Constitution. It drew the 
 "Key Stone" from the arch, and the whole structure of the Union 
 would have fallen. No decisive action was reached till the yeai- 1832. 
 
 May 29 — The office of Solicitor of the Treasury created. 
 
 1831. 
 Jan. 19 — The King of the Netherlands, being accepted as Arbitrator of the 
 northern boundary between the United States and the British Pos- 
 sessions, by the two Governments, decides the question in our favor. 
 July 4. — James Monroe, ex-President of the U. S., died, aged 73. 
 Oct. 1 — A Free Trade Convention meets at Philadelphia. 
 
 " 20 — A Tariff Convention meets at New York. There were over 500 delegates. 
 It was the absorbing political topic of the time. 
 
 1832. 
 Apr. 1 — The Black Hawk War breaks out by the attack of the Winnebagoes, 
 Sacs, and Foxes from the west bank of the Mississippi on the settlers in 
 Illinois, under the Indian chief. Black Hawk. 
 " 2 — The Creek Indians sell all their lands east of the Mississippi river to the 
 United States. 
 May 6 — A Commercial and Boundary Treaty concluded with Mexico, 
 
 " 27 — A new Ratio of Representation based on the 5th Census gives one mem- 
 ber of Congress to 47,700 inhabitants. 
 June 1 — Gen. Sumter, a hero of the Revolution, died. 
 
 " 9 — The cholera broke out at Quebec, Lower Canada. It swept over the 
 country, following the lakes and rivers and routes of travel, with fear- 
 ful violence. 
 
696 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 July — The cholera broke up Gen. Scott's army, on the -^-ay to meet Black 
 Hawk while in vessels on the lakes. 
 
 ' ' 9 — Congress creates the office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs. 
 
 '• 10 — Naval Hospitals established at Charlestown, Mass., Brooklyn, N, Y., and 
 Pensacola, Fla. 
 
 " " — The President vetoes the bill rechartering the U. S. Banks. 
 Aug. 27 — Gen. Atkinson defeats the Indians and takes Black Hawk prisoner. 
 Nov. 14 — Chas Can-oil, of Carrollton, Md. , last surviving signer of Declaration of 
 Independence, dies. 
 
 " 19 — An Anti-tariff Convention in S. C. issues the famous "Nullification 
 Ordinance. 
 
 " 24 — The Unionists of S. C. meet and protest against this ordinance. 
 Dec. 10 President Jackson issues a proclamation against the nulUfiers. He fol- 
 lows word with deed, garrisoning the forts, and sending vessels of war 
 into the harbor of Charleston. His well known vigor left the nullifiers 
 no hope of success, and they finally submitted. ' 
 
 " 18 — A commercial treaty concluded A^'ith Eussia. 
 
 " 20 — Gov. Hayne, of S. C, defies the President in a counter proclamation. 
 
 " 38 — J. C. Calhoun, of S. C, the Vice President, resigns Ms office. President 
 Jackson is re-elected this fall. His anti-nullification measures made 
 him very popular. 
 
 THE TWELFTH ELECTION, 1832. 
 
 President Jackson's determined Avill and vigorous action ai-oused much opposi- 
 tion and some alarm for Republican institutions, and concentrated the opposition 
 into what soon came to be called the Wliig party. The nominations were made 
 by National Conventions, Jackson and Van Buren by the Democrats; Clay and 
 Sergeant by the National Republicans, or "V^^^igs. There were still 24 States, but 
 the number of Members of Congress had been increased after the Fifth Census, 
 (in 1830) and there were 288 Presidential Electors. 
 
 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Jackson received 687,502 popiilar and 219 Electoral votes. 
 Clav '• 530.189 " " 49 
 
 Jackson's majority 157.313 " " 170 " " 
 
 Van Buren received 189 Electoral votes for Vice-President, 143 being necessary 
 to elect. There were two vacancies in the Electoral College. The rest of the 
 votes were scattered among several persons. 
 
 1833. 
 Feb, 12 — Hemy Clay introduces a bill on the tariff compromising the points at 
 
 issue between the maniifacturing States and the South. 
 Mar. 3 — It becomes a law, and gives general satisfaction. 
 
 ' ' 4 — President Jackson reinaugurated on his second term. 
 May 20 — The death of LaFayette. in France 
 
 June 1 — Oliver Wolcott, Sec. of the Treasury under "Washington, dies. 
 July 27 — Com. Bainbridge, a famous naval commander, dies. 
 Sept 30 — President Jackson removes his Secretary of Treasury W. J. Duane for 
 refusing to carry out his policy in regard to the U. S. Bank. The presence 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 697 
 
 of the Indians in Mississippi, Alabama. Georgia, and Florida, produces 
 so much conflict and so frequent a necessity for chastising tliem that 
 they are in danger of total extermination. Gen. Jackson persuades Con- 
 gress and the Indians to arrange for their removal to lands west of t\w 
 Mississippi. Some of the Indians quietly remove this year. Many resist, 
 but all are finally joersuaded to this course by Gen. Scott and others, 
 except the Seminoles of Florida- 
 
 1834. 
 
 Mar. 38 — The U. S. Senate formally censures the President for his course in 
 regard to the U. S. Bank. 
 
 Oct. 38 — A conditional treaty made with the Seminoles at Payne's Landing, May 
 9, 1833, for their removal to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi, 
 was afterwards confirmed by the chiefs but rejected by the tribes. Gen 
 Thompson was sent, at this time, by President Jackson to insist on their 
 carrying out the treaty. 
 
 Dec. 38 — A council of the Indians, called by Gen. Thompson, seemingly accept 
 
 the terms of the President. 
 
 1835. 
 
 Mar. 3. — Congress establishes branch mints in La., N. C. and Ga- 
 
 May 14 — A treaty with the Cherokees purchases all their lands east of the Missis- 
 sippi for $5,363,351, and ample lands in exchange in the Indian Territory. 
 
 June 3 — Osceola, a Seminole chief, imprisoned by Gen. Thompson. 
 
 July 6 — Chief Justice Marshall dies, aged 80. 
 
 Dec. 16 — A desti-uctive fire in New York. $17,000,000 worth of property consumed. 
 " 38 — The Seminoles killed their chief, Mathla. Avho had been prominent in 
 making the obnoxious treaty, and suddenly attack a U. S force vxnder 
 Maj. Dade. But one man out of 110 escaped. He was wounded and 
 afterwards died. The same day Gen. Thompson and others were sur- 
 prised and massacred. 
 '• 31— Gen. Clinch is attacked by the Indians at Withlacoochee. He repulses 
 
 them and retires. 
 
 1836. 
 Early in this year the Indians laid waste the whole country, burning the build- 
 ings and killing all who had not taken refuge in the forts. 
 Jan. 30 — A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with the Republic of 
 
 Venezuela, South America. 
 Feb. — The U. S. Bank was chartered by the Legislature of Pa. 
 " —Gen. Gaines lands an army at Tampa Bay. He is surrounded by the 
 Indians on his march toward Fort King. He repulsed them, but his 
 army is nearly starved. While tlie army is held here, the tribe remove 
 their families and effects into the impenetrable swamps of the interior. 
 Mar. 3 — The Texans proclaim their independence of Mexico. 
 Apr 36 — Wisconsin receives a territorial government. 
 " 81— Battle of San Jacinto. Texas. Santa Anna, the Mexican General, taken 
 prisoner. 
 Jun 15 — Michigan erected into a State, conditionally 
 ." " — Arkansas admitted into the Union. 
 
 " 83 — A surplus revenue having accumulated, it is loaned to the States. 
 *' 38 — James Madison, the ex-President, dies, aged 86. 
 
698 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Jiily 4 — Office of Commissioner of Patents created. 
 
 Sept 15 — Aaron Burr, an able but dishonest and disloyal statesman, formerly 
 
 Vice-President, dies, aged 81. 
 
 The Creek Indians commenced hostilities in May of this year, in their 
 
 usual fierce and bai'bai'ous m ann er. Gen. Scott and the State authorities 
 
 of Georgia subdue them early in the summer. 
 
 In the Presidential election this faU Martin Van Buren was elected. 
 Dec. 15 — The General Post Office and Patent Office. ^Hith many records and 
 
 ai-ticles of A-alue, are destroyed by ffi'e. 
 
 1837. 
 Jan. 16 — The U. S. Senate repealed and exprmged its resolution of March 28th, 
 1834, censuring President Jackson as having exceeded his Constitutional 
 powers when he ordered the pubhc funds to be withdrawn from the 
 U. S. Bank. 
 
 SECTION" VIII. 
 
 VanBuren's Admimstration. — The Thirteenth Election, 1836. 
 
 Van Buren was run by the Democrats for the Presidency, and Eichard M. 
 Johnson for the Vice-Presidency, against Wm. H. Harrison, Hugh L White, 
 Daniel Webster, and W. P. Mangiim. Van Buren's vote was 762, 149 popular, and 
 170 electoral. Harrison and the others united was 736,736 popular, and 134 
 electoral. The whole number of Electors being 294, the number necessary to a 
 choice was 148. Jolinson failed by one electoral vote to be elected to the Vice- 
 Presidency, and the case went to the Senate for decision, as directed by the Con- 
 stitution. The remaining electoral votes for Vice-President being divided be- 
 tween 3 candidates. Jolinson was appointed hj the Senate. 
 
 Michigan and Arkansas having been admitted this year took part in the elec- 
 tion, making 26 States. 
 
 1837. 
 Mar. 4 — Van Buren inaugurated the eighth President. 
 
 eighth administration, 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. 
 
 Martin Van Buren, N^ Y. , President. 
 Richard M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 John Forsyth, Ga.. Secretary of State. 
 
 Levi Woodbury, N. H. , Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Joel R. Poinsett, S. C. , Secretary of War. 
 
 Malilon Dickerson, N. J. , Secretary of the Navy, 
 
 James K. Paulding, N. Y. , ' ' • ' " 
 
 Amos Kendall. Ky.. Postmaster General. 
 
 JohnM. Niles, Ct', 
 " 4'^^peculation having been carried to an extreme length for sometime, and 
 somewhat aiTested by the "specie circular" of the Government requir- 
 ing payments for public lands to be made in coin, a revulsion, producir^ 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 699 
 
 great distress, unci suspension of payments by the banks, occurred this 
 
 spring. 
 May 3 — The merchants of New York present a memorial to the President urging 
 
 him to remit the regulations of the "specie circular." The President 
 
 declines, but calls an extra session of Congress. 
 Aug. 4 — Texas proposes annexation to the U. S. The President declines to enter- 
 tain the proposition. 
 " 13 — The banks resume specie payments. 
 Sept. 4 — Congress assembles in extra session. 
 " 29— A treaty made with the Sioux Indians for the purchase of their lands^ 
 
 5,000,000 acres, for $1,000,000. 
 Oct. 1— The Winnebagoes sell their lands for $1,500,000. 
 
 " 12 — Congress authorizes the issue of $10,000,000 in Treasury notes. 
 
 " 21 — Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 70 of his warriors, visits the camp of 
 
 Gen. Jessup. They are detained, and Osceola was imprisoned in Ft. 
 
 Moultrie, S. C,, wliere, in a few months, he died. 
 Dec. 25 — The battle of Okee-cho-bee fought with the Seminoles in the swamps of 
 
 Florida, by Col. Zachary Taylor. The Indians are defeated. 
 
 The Magnetic Telegraph was patented in this year. 
 
 1838. 
 Jan. 5 — The President issues a proclamation enjoining neutrality on American 
 
 citizens, during the "Patriot war," or insurrection in Canada. 
 June 12 — Iowa receives a Territorial Government. 
 Aug. 19 — An Arctic exploring expedition, with six vessels, sails from Hampton 
 
 Roads, Va. 
 
 The Cherokee Indians completed their emigration to the Indian Territory 
 
 this year. 
 
 1839. 
 Gen. Macomb makes a treaty early in this year with the Seminoles, which they 
 very imperfectly kept. 
 
 A difficulty with England in regard to our northeast boundary narrowly avoids 
 war, but is, at length, peaceably adjusted. 
 Dec. 2 — Congress assembles. 
 
 4— A Whig Convention prepares for the contest of the coming year by the 
 nomination of Wm. H. Harrison for the Presidency. Great discontent 
 was felt with the financial policy of Van Buren's administration, and 
 lively interest taken in the coming election, which made the campaign 
 the most stirring and the noisiest ever experienced in this country. 
 
 1840. 
 May 5 — The Democrats renominate "Van Buren for the Presidency. 
 
 This year was chiefly memorable for the "Log Cabin and Hard Cider' 
 election gatherings, and the extreme interest of the people in the elec- 
 tions, on financial grounds. 
 June 30 — Congress passes the sub-treasury bill recommended by President Van 
 
 Buren, in 1837, but then rejected. 
 Nov. — "W. H. Harrison elected President, and John Tyler Vice-President. 
 
 1841. 
 Jan. 14 — Imprisonment for debts due the U. S. abolished. 
 
700 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 SECTIOI^ IX. 
 
 Harrison and Tyler. 
 
 The Administration of President Van Buren had been one of great financial 
 disturbance, of conflicting financial views among tlie people and Statesmen, and 
 of more or less undeserved censui'e of the Administration because of difficulties 
 it could not set aside. The Democratic party, which had been in power since 
 the commencement of the century, now lost control of the Government and 
 became the Opposition. 
 
 The Fourteenth Election, 1840. 
 There were 26 States, 294 Presidential Electors, and a popular vote of neai-ly 
 two and a half millions. This election involved the decision of a financial policy 
 after a period of great suffering and a determined effort to exclude the Demo- 
 cratic party from power. The Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison, a 
 Western farmer, but distinguished as a soldier and statesman in earlier Western 
 history. He had commanded and conquered in the battle of Tippecanoe, in 
 which the future hopes of the hostile Indians and of the British in the Northwest 
 were annihilated by the death of Tecumseh and the defeat of Gen. Proctor. 
 " Tippecanoe," the " Log cabin" in which he lived, and the "Hard cider" he was 
 said to drink, were the watchwords of the campaign and the emblems of a policy 
 that was expected to seek the welfai-e of the struggling masses of the common 
 people. John Tyler was nominated for the Vice-Presidency. Van Buren and 
 Johnson were re-nominated by the Democrats. 
 
 HARRISON AND TYLER. 
 
 Harrison received 1,275,017 ijopular and 234 Electoral votes. 
 
 Van Buren " 1,128,702 •' " 60 
 
 Tyler " for the Vice-Presidency 234 " " 
 
 Johnson " " " 48 
 
 Harrison's popular majority was 139,256, Van Buren having carried but 6 States 
 hy moderate majorities. Gen Harrison was duly inaugurated March 4, 1841, but 
 died one month thereafter. 
 
 NINTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1841, TO APRIL 4, 1841. 
 
 Wm. Heniy Harrison, O., President. 
 John Tyler, Va., Vice-President. 
 
 cabinet. 
 
 Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State. 
 
 Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury, 
 
 John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War. 
 
 George E. Badger, N. C., Secretaiy of the Navy. 
 
 Gideon Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General. 
 The canvass and election had been made especially to secure certain financial 
 changes eagerly desired by the "Wliig party. Some of these President Tyler did 
 not approve, and he vetoed the Acts embodying them when passed by Congress, 
 which defeated the chief end sought by the party. The Cabinet selected by 
 Harrison mostly resigned, and there were many changes in it during his term, 
 as follows: 
 
 d 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 701 
 
 Tenth Administration, April 6, 1841, to March 4, 1845. 
 John Tyler, Va., (acting) President, by death of Harrison. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State. 
 Abel P. Upshur, Va., " " " 
 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C, " " " 
 
 Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Walter Forward, Pa., " " " 
 
 John C. Spencer, N. Y , " " " 
 
 George M. Bibb, " " " 
 
 John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War. 
 John C. Spencer, N. Y., " " " 
 James M. Porter, Pa. , " " " 
 William Wilkins, Pa., " " " 
 George E. Badger, N. C. , Secretary of the Navy. 
 Abel P. Upshur, Va., 
 
 David Henshaw, Mass., " " " 
 
 G. W. Gilmer, Va., 
 
 John Y. Mason, Va., " " " 
 
 Hugh S. Legare, S. C, Attorney General. 
 John Nelson, Md., " " 
 
 Francis G. Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General. 
 Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky., 
 Mar. 4 — HaiTison inaugurated ninth President. 
 
 " 11 — The steamer President sails from New York, but is never again heard 
 
 of. She had 109 passengers. 
 " 17 — The President calls an extra session of Congress to consider financial 
 questions. 
 Apr. 4 — President Harrison died and John Tyler became acting President. 
 May 31 — Congress convenes. 
 June 25 — Gen. Macomb died. 
 July 6 — The proceeds of the public lands ordered to be distributed to the States. 
 
 " 21— Congress orders a loan of $12,000,000. 
 Aug. 9 — The Sub-Treasury act repealed. 
 
 " 16 — President Tyler vetoes the National Bank BiU. 
 " 18-^A general Bankrupt Law passed. 
 Sept. 9— A Second Banking Bill vetoed. This was the fourteenth time the veto 
 power had been used; by Washington twice, Madison four times, Mon- 
 roe once, Jackson five times 
 Oct. 11— Failure of U. S. Bank under the Pennsylvania Charter. 
 
 1842. 
 Jun. 25 — The new Ratio of Representation, based on the census of 1840, gives one 
 
 Member of Congress for every 70,600 inhabitants. 
 Jul. 23 — Bunker Hill Monument finished and dedicated. The corner stone was 
 
 laid by Lafayette 17 years before. 
 Aug 20 — The Ashburton-Webster Treaty with England, settling the N. E. Bound- 
 ary, ratified by the U. S. Senate. 
 " 28 — Tlie U. S. fiscal year ordered to commence with July 1st. 
 
702 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 Oct. 2 — The U. S. sloop of war Concord wrecked on the African coast 
 " 14 — The Ashburton- Webster Treaty ratified in England. 
 
 1843. 
 
 Mar, 3 — Congress appropriates $30,000 for building Morse's electric telegraph 
 line from Washington to Baltimore. It was the beginning of that 
 magnificent enterprise. 
 Com. Porter, minister to Turkey, dies in Constantinople. 
 
 Apr. 18 — Commences " Don-'s Rebellion" in Rhode Island. 
 
 Aug. 26 — The U. S. frigate Missouri burned at Gibraltar, Spain. 
 
 1844. 
 
 Feb. 28 — A large canon on board the war steamer Princeton, bursts while ih« 
 President and others are visiting the vessel, kiUing Messrs. Upsher and 
 Gilmer, Secretaries of War and Navy, and others. 
 
 May 6 — The " Know-nothing" or American excitement produces a serious riot im. 
 Pliiladelphia. 
 
 Jvd. 7 — Joseph Smith, the originator of the Mormons, kiUed at Carthage, 111. 
 
 SEOTIOlSr X. 
 
 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION — THE MEXICAN WAR. 
 THE FIFTEENTH ELECTION, 1844. 
 
 The change in the Ratio of Representation after the Census of 1840 from one 
 for every 47,700 inhabitants, as the law of 1831 had made it, to one for 70,680 
 had reduced the Representatives from 242 to 223 and the Presidential Electors 
 from 295 in 1840 to 275 in 1844. 
 
 Texas had separated from Mexico and was seeking admission into the Union afl 
 a State. The chief question during this presidential canvass was that of her 
 admission. It involved the extension of the area given up to forced labor and 
 was opposed by the Wliig party but supported by the Democratic party. The 
 Democrats nominated James K. Polk for President and George M. Dallas for 
 Vice-President; the Whigs opposed to them Henry Clay and Theodore Fi*eling- 
 huysen. It was Clay's third nomination for President — and his third defeat, to 
 the regret even of many of his opponents. 
 
 Polk received 1,337.243 popular and 170 Electoral votes. 
 Clay " 1,299,068 " " 105 
 
 Polk's pluraUty over Clay was, therefore, 37,175; and his electoral majority 70. 
 The Liberty, or Anti-Slavery party had a candidate in the field who received 
 62,300 popular votes, depriving Polk of an absolute popular majority. Thus the 
 Democrats returned to power. 
 
 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1845, TO MARCH 4, 1849 — 4 YEARS. 
 
 James K. Polk, Tenn., President. 
 Greorge M. Dallas, Pa., Vice-President. 
 
THE HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. 703 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 James Buclianan, Pa., Secretary of State. 
 Robert J. Walker. Miss., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of War. 
 George Bancroft, Mass., Secretary of the Navy. 
 John Y. Mason, Va., " " " 
 
 Cave Johnson, Tenn., Postmaster General. 
 John Y. Mason, Va., Attorney General. 
 Nathan Clifford, Me., 
 Isaac Toucey, Ct., " 
 
 This election implied a war with Mexico. This with a sister Republic, and 
 much weaker than ourselves, had been considered to be an unworthy act. The 
 Whigs, with Henry Clay as their candidate for President, opposed it. It was 
 caiTied, in great part as a pro-slavery measure, although the bitter and barbarous 
 conduct of the Mexicans towards Texans and American citizens had something 
 to do with it. 
 
 1845. 
 Jan. 16 — A treaty made with China, ratified by U. S. Senate. 
 
 " 23 — An act of Congress orders Presidential elections to be held in all the 
 States on the First Tuesday after the first Monday in November. 
 Feb. 28 — Congress annexes Texas to the Union, by a Joint Resolution of both 
 
 Houses. 
 Mar. 3 — Florida admitted into the Union. 
 
 " 4 — Mr. Polk inaugurated the eleventh President. 
 Jun. 18 — Andrew Jackson died. 
 
 The Congress of Texas accepted the conditions of the U. S. and it 
 became a State in the American Union. 
 Jul. 30 — Gen. Taylor ordered to the frontier of Texas. 
 Sep. 10 — Judge Joseph Story, of the U. S. Supreme Court, died, aged 66. 
 Dec. 15 — A misunderstanding had long existed between the U. S. and England 
 as to the northern boundary of Oregon. Much excitement is now pro- 
 duced by a speech and resolution of Mr. Cass, which seemed the prelude 
 to war with Great Britain. 
 
 1846. 
 Jun. 18 — A Treaty was negotiated by Mr. Packenham and Mr. Buchanan settling 
 the Northwest Boundary satisfactorily. 
 
 THE MEXICAN WAR. 
 
 Texas was a nearly uninhabited part of ]\Iexico. lying between Louisiana and 
 the Rio Grande River. It was a fertile region, with a fine climate. The Spanish 
 possessors of Mexico, in the bigoted and bitter spirit that was traditional with 
 the Spaniards toward Protestants, and deeply hostile in feeling from the rather 
 high-handed and vigorous proceedings of Gen. Jackson before and after the ces- 
 sion of Florida, did not encourage the settlement of Texas, pi'eferring to be sepa- 
 rated by a wilderness from the United States. In 1821 the Mexicans finally 
 threw off the Spanish yoke and established an independent Government. 
 
 About this time the Americans, and especially those of the South, fox'eseeing 
 the probable spread of the northern part of the Republic to the Pacific, began to 
 
704 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 look witli covetous eyes on the fine Savannas of Texas, as an excellent field foi* 
 land speculations, and also for extending the Southern area, so as to keep its 
 balance in the niiniber of slave States equal to the free States of the North, as 
 they had been provided for by the Missouri Compromise. It was believed to be 
 the plan of Mr. Calhoun, an able and far-seeing statesman, thoroughly in earnest 
 in the maintenance of slavery and the political equality of the slave with the free 
 States. A settlement was made by people from the United States. In a few 
 years they grew to be numerous, and came in conflict Avith the rigid Spanish 
 Catholic laws, still maintained by the Mexicans. The United States Govei'nment 
 made advances toward purchasing Texas, but the Mexicans wei'e resolute in their 
 pui-pose to hold it, and bring its people under the dominion of strict Mexican law. 
 The Americans resisted this with the settled determination of ultimate separation 
 from Mexico, and probable annexation to the United States. 
 
 The Mexicans undertook to reduce them to submission. The Texans, supported 
 by bold and fearless adventurers from the Southern States, resisted. The war 
 commenced Oct. 2d, 1835, by a battle at Gonzalez, followed by various others. 
 March 2d, 1836, the Texans formally declared Independence, which they main- 
 tained by force of arms. March 3d, 1887, the United States Government recognized 
 the Independence of Texas. England did the same in 1842. Propositions of 
 annexation had been made to Pi-esidents Jackson, Van Buren, and Tyler, success- 
 ively, by the Texas Government, but as often rejected by them as tending neces- 
 sarily to a wai- with Mexico; that power having distinctly and repeatedly declared 
 that she should regard such a step as a declaration of war. 
 
 The Democratic paily regaining the ascendency in the election of 1844, made 
 this annexation the issue of the Presidential campaign. A majority of the people 
 were in favor of it. 
 
 The Southern view, however, was not alone in its influence on this decision. 
 Indignities and injuries had been inflicted by the Mexicans on American citizens 
 in that country; its haughty, exclusive, and unfriendly spirit awakened strong 
 indignation ; and the Pacific coast of California, with the mining regions of the 
 northern interior of Mexico, both nearly uninhabited, were objects of desire to the 
 American people. Thus a wish to extend the bounds of the Republic, and to 
 chastise an insolent neighbor, combined with the ardent wishes of the pro-slavery 
 interest, to lead the nation to determine on a war, somewhat imgenerously, with 
 a neighbor notoriously too weak and disorganized for effectual resistance to the 
 whole strength of the United States. The whole plan, as afterward carried out, 
 was arranged in the Cabinet at Washington almost before hostilities had actually 
 commenced. 
 
 1846. 
 
 Mar. 28 — Gen. Taylor takes position with a small army at the mouth of the Eio 
 Grande opposite'Matamoras. This the Mexican Government regard as a 
 declaration of wai', for which they had prepared and were waiting. 
 
 Apr. 24 — Hostilities commence by an attack on Capt. Thornton. He loses 16 men 
 out of 63, and surrenders. 
 
 May 8— The battle of Palo Alto. Gen. Taylor with 2,300 men defeats 6,000 Mexi- 
 cans. Mexican loss 100 killed, 300 wounded; American 4 killed 40 woun- 
 ded. 
 " 9— The battle of Resaca de la Palma. The Mexicans are totally defeated 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 705 
 
 with a loss of about 600; the Americans lose about 160. Gen. La Vega 
 
 (Mexican,) taken prisonei". The Mexicans fled in total rout across the 
 
 Rio Grande. The object of the war, so far as Texas was concerned, was 
 
 gained; but the Mexicans were still spirited, and California, Utah, and 
 
 New Mexico were not gained. An invasion and march on the city of 
 
 Mexico were the next steps. 
 " 12— Congress ordered the raising of 50,000 men, and voted $10,000,000 to 
 
 caiTy on the war. 
 July 6 — Monterey, on the California coast is taken by the American Navy under 
 
 Com. Sloat. 
 " 9 — Congress re-cedes the Virginia portion of the District of Columbia to 
 
 that State. 
 " 30 — The tariff on imported goods is reduced. 
 Aug. 3 — President Polk vetoes the River and Harbor Bill, 
 " 8 — He vetoes the French Spoliation Bill. 
 '* 18 — Gen. Kearney takes possession of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and declared 
 
 the U. S. authority established over the people. 
 " 23 — California is at this time entirely in the possession of U. S. forces. 
 Sept. 5 — Gen. Taylor, with 6,000 men, commences his march on Monterey. 
 " 21 — Gen. Worth, with 650 men, fights the Mexicans near Monterey. 
 " 22 — The " Bishops Palace," strongly fortified, is stonned and taken. 
 
 The previous attacks were directed on the rear of Monterey. An advance 
 
 is now made in front with success. 
 " 23 — The defenses are assaulted in front and rear. The city surrenders. Gen. 
 
 Ampudia, the Mexican commander, had about 10,000 men and very 
 
 strong fortifications. A truce of some weeks was agreed upon. Gen. 
 
 Santa Anna having recently come into power, it was thought peace 
 
 would be made. This proved delusive. 
 Oct. 25 — Tobasco bombarded by the U. S. fleet, and the Mexican vessels in the 
 
 port taken or destroyed. 
 Nov. 14 — Tampico sui'renders to Com. Connor. 
 Dec. 25 — Battle of Bracito. Col. Doniphan, with 500 men, defeats a Mexican 
 
 force of 1,200. Mexican loss, 200, American but 7 wounded, none 
 
 kiUed. 
 
 1847. 
 
 Jan. 8 — The Mexican Congress votes $15,000,000 to cany On the war, to be raised 
 
 on the property of the church. 
 Feb. 23 — The larger part of Gen. Taylor's army was withdrawn from him to sup- 
 port Gen. Scott in his march from Vera Cruz on the City of Mexico. 
 Gen. Taylor, with only 4,500 men, is attacked by Santa Anna with 20,000 
 men. Santa Anna is completely defeated with a loss in killed and 
 wounded of 2,000. American loss 264 killed, 450 wounded, 26 missing. 
 Mar. 1— Gen. Kearney proclaims California annexed to the United States. 
 . " 3 — A bill admitting Wisconsin into the Union passed, 
 " 9— Gen, Scott landed 12,000 men at Vera Cruz. 
 " 18 — The cannonade of Vera Cruz commences. 
 " 26 — Vera Cruz capitulates to Gen. Scott. 
 45 
 
706 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Apr. 18 — The battle of Cen-o Gordo. Santa Anna is defeated. He had 12,000 men. 
 Gen, Scott 8,500. The Mexicans lost 1,100 in killed and wounded, and 
 3,000 prisoners; Gen. Scott lost in kiUed and wounded, 430. The Mexi- 
 cans were vigorously pursued April 19, and the city of Jalapa taken 
 possession of. 
 ' ' 22 — Gen. "Worth takes possession of the town and castle of Perote. 
 May 15 — Pueblo is entered. It is the second city in Mexico. 
 
 Offers of peace were now made by the Americans but rejected by the 
 Mexicans. 
 Aug. 11 — Tlie army advances to the neighborhood of the City of Mexico. 
 
 " 19 — The battle of Contreras. Americans successful in cutting the enemy's 
 communications. The Americans march ia the night to attack a forti- 
 fied camp which is carried at sunrise. American force 4,500, Mexican 
 7,000. Mexican loss in killed, wounded and prisoners, about 4,000; 
 American, 66. 
 " 20 — Cherubusco, a fortified hUl, stormed and taken by Gen. "Worth with 
 9,000 men. An armistice is now agreed on, and peace offered, but the 
 Mexicans still hold to their first terms, and refuse to give up the ter- 
 ritory. 
 Sept. 8 — The Mexicans determine to yield only to absolute force, and the Ameri- 
 can army again advances. Battles of Molinos del Key, and Casa Mata. 
 The Mexicans ai-e largely superior in numbers and fight with determined 
 valor, but are overcome. American loss 800. 
 ' ' 13 — Battle of Chapultepec. This fortress was the last exterior defense to the 
 City of Mexico. It was once the site of the "Palace of the Montezu- 
 mas." The Mexican force within and outside the fortress 20,000. The 
 American force 7,180. Mexican loss in killed, wounded, prisoners and 
 deserted, about 14,000; American, 900. A part of the army gained a 
 foothold in the City of Mexico. 
 '* 14 — Gen. Scott enters Mexico in triumph. 
 Oct. 9 — Battle of Huamantla. Santa Anna again defeated. 
 
 " 18 — Again at Attixco, with heavy loss. Santa Anna is now deserted by his 
 troops, and resigns his office. 
 Nov. 11 — The Mexican Congress assembles, and appoints commissioners to treat 
 for peace. 
 
 1848. 
 Feb. 2 — A treaty of peace signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo (a town four nules from 
 Mexico). 
 " 23 — John Quincy Adams expires at "Washington. 
 May 20 — The treaty having been ratified by the President and Senate of the U. S., 
 March 10, it was followed by that of the Mexican Govenament on this 
 day. 
 " 29 — Peace was proclaimed in the American camp. 
 
 The war was now over. The Mexicans relinquished all claim to Texas, 
 and ceded Upper California and New Mexico to the United States. In 
 return the United States gave them $18,500,000, of which 3,500,000 
 was due by a former ti-eaty to citizens of this country and paid them 
 by our Government. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 707 
 
 It will not be easy for an American to wholly condemn an act that gave 
 US California and the fertile valleys and vast mining territory of the 
 Pacific slope as well as New Mexico, or the chastisement which the 
 Mexicans had merited for their barbarity; though he may blame the 
 eagerness for the acquisition of territory and the support of slavery that 
 led us to invade another country and humble her pride. The ability of 
 Americans as soldiers would appear by this war to be unrivaled, and, 
 in that view, arouse our pride. The moral sense of the world must ever 
 be shocked by war. though there seem many cases in which it is far the 
 least of two evils. Our Government was fairly genei-ous so far as it 
 dared be in dealing with tlie vanquished, as soon as its demands for ter- 
 ritory were satisfied. It is also evident that this territory will be better 
 developed and governed than would have been the case under Mexican 
 rule. 
 
 Aug. 13 — Oregon received a Territorial Government. 
 
 Nov. — Gen. Taylor was elected President this month and Millard Fillmore 
 Vice-President. 
 
 1849. 
 
 Jan. 26 — Postal Treaty with England concluded. 
 Mar. 3 — Minnesota receives a Territorial Government. 
 
 S E C T I o ]sr XI. 
 
 Administrations of Taylor and Fillmore. 
 
 The beginnings of great events were now commencing to tread on the heels of 
 each other. Forces httle considei-ed at the time of their birth were soon to show 
 that they possessed elements of power before unknown to mankind and such as 
 to make the world almost unrecognizable at the end of another generation tlu-ough 
 the magnitude and thoroughness of its development. The foundations of the 
 Railway System had been slowly laid during the previous twenty years; the 
 Electric Telegraph had first dazzled men by flashing the news of the nomination 
 of Polk to the Presidency, May 29, 1844, in an instant from Baltimore to Washing- 
 ton. The Webster- Ashburton Treaty with England had settled Oregon in the 
 quiet possession of the United States and the Mexican War, the Treaty of Guada- 
 lupe Hidalgo, and the payment by the United States of a large indemnity had 
 secured to it all the invaluable treasures of the Pacific Slope and the Rocky 
 Mountain Plateau. 
 
 Education and intelligence as well as the railway system were to keep pace 
 with, and even vastly exceed, the massive growth of business by the help of 
 California gold. The one great hindrance to the harmony, real unity, and high- 
 est development of the country — the ignoble system of forced labor — would 
 presently go down and disappear amid the shock of vast armies and the fearful 
 commotions of civil war, from which the United States would emerge finally 
 with a splendor of greatness and a prosperous vigor not before conceived possible; 
 but for the present all was quiet and Polk's administration closed without a sus- 
 picion of the terrible agitations and conflicts to which its manner of closing the 
 war was to give birth. 
 
708 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 The Sixteenth Election. 1848, 
 turned on the popularity of the ^ATiig candidate for the Presidency, 
 Gen. Zachary Taylor, and on a division in the Democi'atic party on the 
 question of the extension of the area of slavery. This new party asstimed 
 the title of "Free SoU Democrats." In the course of time it absorbed much 
 of the Whig party, drew from the ranks of the Democrats, and became the 
 Repubhcan party of the Civil War. Since the fifteenth election four new States 
 had been admitted into the Union, viz.: Texas, Florida, Iowa and Wisconsin. 
 There were now 290 Presidential Electors — 146 being necessary to elect. With 
 Gen. Taylor the WTiigs nominated Millard Fillmore for Vice-President; the Free 
 Soil Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren and Charles F. Adams for Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President: the Democrats Lewis Cass and William O. Butler. 
 
 Taylor and Fillmore received 1,360,101 popular and 163 electoral votes. 
 
 Cass and Butler ' 1,220,544 •• '• 127 
 
 Van Buren and Adams ••' 291,263 
 
 The Free Soil candidates did not receive the majority in any State, and there- 
 fore no electoral votes. 
 
 Taylor's popular plurality over Cass was 139,557. 
 Twelfth Administkatiox, Mauch 4. 1849. to July 10, 1850—1 teak and 4 
 
 MONTHS. 
 
 Zachary Taylor. La.. President. 
 Millard Fillmore. N. Y., Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 John M. Clayton. Del.. Secretaiy of State. 
 George W. Crawford, Ga., Secretary of War. 
 William M. Meredith, Pa. , Secretary of the Treasury. 
 WiUiam B. Preston, Va., Secretary of the Navy. 
 Thomas Ewing, Ohio, Secretarj^ of the Interior. 
 Jacob CoUamer. Vt.. Postmaster General. 
 Reverdy Johnson, Md. , Attorney General. 
 " 4 — Gen. Taylor inaugurated President. 
 May 7 — Gen. Worth, a ver>' gallant officer of the Mexican wai\ died, 
 gept. — A State Constitution is formed by the people of California, which 
 
 excludes slaveiy. 
 Dec. 31 — The House of Representatives ballots 63 times for a Speaker, and now 
 elects Howell Cobb, of Geo. 
 
 Gold was discovered in CaUfomia, in Feb., 1848, and through 1849 emi- 
 grants — gold seekers — were arriving here by tens of thousands. By the 
 end of this year it was a populous region. The mass of Ameiican emi- 
 grants were from the northern States, and disapproved of slavery, whQe 
 the special end of the Mexican war was to procure more territory for 
 that institution. At this time a violent contest was waged in Congress 
 over that admission. It was not ended until late in the f ollo-n-ing year. 
 
 1850. 
 .Jan. —Gen. Twiggs obtains the consent of the Seminoles of Florida to emigrate 
 to the Indian Territory. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 709 
 
 Feb. 13 — President Taylor sends the Constitution of California to Congress. There 
 were many threats of secession in case California was admitted free. 
 
 Mar. 7 — Mr. Webster's great speech for the Union. 
 
 " 31 — John C. Calhoun, the most .eminent of Southern Statesmen, died. 
 
 May 8 — The " Omnibus Bill" reported by Henry Clay. 
 " 18 — A pi'ivate expedition from the South under command of Lopez invades 
 Cuba. Thej^ are driven off with a loss of 30 killed or executed aa 
 pirates, on the 19th. The remainder returned to Key West on the 22d 
 of the same month. 
 
 July 9 — Death of President Taylor. Fillmore becomes acting President. 
 
 THIRTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, JULY 10, 1850, TO MARCH 4, 1853—3 YEARS AND 8 
 
 MONTHS. 
 
 Millard Fillmore (acting) President by death of Taylor. 
 No Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State. 
 Thomas Corwin, O., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Charles M. Conrad, La., Secretary of War. 
 William A. Graham, N. C, Secretary of the Navy. 
 Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Secretary of the Interior. 
 Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., Postmaster General. 
 John J. Crittenden, Ky., Attorney General. 
 Sept. 9-30 — A committee of thirteen, of which Heniy Clay was chairman, had 
 been appointed Apr. 19th, and they had prepared four measures fonning 
 a compromise between the North and South as to slavery, which were 
 debated and passed into laws, receiving the concun-encc of tlie President: 
 First, the South conceded to the North the admission of California as a 
 free Srate, and fhe abolition of the slave trade in tlie District of Colum- 
 bia; Second, the North conceded to the Soutli a stringent Fugitive Slave 
 Law, and the organization of Territorial Governments in New Mexico and 
 Utah without mention of slavery, but in the understanding that they 
 were finally to form slave States. The real gain was to the North, as 
 anti-slavery was advanced two steps, while the Fugitive Law could not 
 be generally enforced in the North from the invincible aversion of the 
 people to it, and the Soutliern people were not sufficiently migratory in 
 their habits to introduce slavery into distant regions not naturally ad- 
 apted to that institution. Still, the question was laid aside for the 
 present. 
 Nov. 19 — Richard M. Johnson, a former Vice-President of the U. S., died. 
 Dec. 16 — A Treaty of Amity and Commerce ratified with Switzerland. 
 
 1851. 
 Mar. 3 — A cheap postage law passed by Congress is approved. 
 Apr. 25 — The President issiies a proclamation against military expeditions to the 
 
 Island of Cuba. 
 Aug. 3 — Gen. Lopez leaves New Orleans with such an expedition. It is unfor- 
 tunate and a large part of the 500 men under Lopez are killed in battle 
 or captured and shot. 
 
710 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Dec. 5 — A fire in the Library of Congress at Washington destroys 35,000 
 volumes. Kossuth, the eloquent Hungarian patriot and refugee arrives 
 at New York this month and is received with gi-eat honor and syra- 
 pathy. 
 
 1852. 
 
 Jun 28 — Henry Clay, orator and Statesman, died. 
 
 July 3 — A Branch Mint is established in San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Oct. 24 — Daniel Webster died. Calhoun, Clay and Webster were the alkst and 
 most representative Statesmen of the period extending from the close 
 of the War with England, in 1815, to this time. They were constantly 
 in public Ufe. Calhoun represented Southern sentiment and policy; 
 Webster was the great Constitutional Leader as viewed from the North; 
 Clay was the author of the most important compromises which kept 
 the peace between the North and the South from 1830 to 1851. From 
 this time occasions of antagonism multiplied, until they broke out in 
 deadly conflict and finally a vast war. 
 
 SECTIOI^ XTT. 
 
 Pierce's Administration — The Seventeenth Election, 1852. 
 
 The agitation following the repeal of the "Missouri Compromise" and an 
 abortive effort at readjustment had continued through the previous three years. 
 A party resolved to limit the gTo^vth of the area of forced labor was gradually 
 organizing, but the crisis was yet distant. Those who dreaded violent conflicts- 
 gathered sufficiently to the support of the Democratic party to restore it to 
 power, although the previous names and party organizations remained. The 
 Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce for President and Williaiu R. King for 
 Vice-President; the Whigs selected Gen. Winfleld Scott and William A. Graliam. 
 John P. Hale was the Free Soil candidate: but this partj' did not carry any State, 
 nor receive as many votes as in the previous election. 
 
 Pierce and King received 1,601,474 popular and 2.j4 electoral votes. 
 Scott and Graham " 1 386,578 " "42 
 
 Hale " 156.149 " 
 
 California had been admitted into the Union since the election of 1848. making 
 31 States and 296 electoral votes. Pierces absolute majority was 58,847. 
 Fourteenth Administration march 4, 1858 to march 4, 1857. 
 Franklin Pierce, N. H.. President. 
 King died before he took his seat and there was no Vice-President during 
 Pierce's Administration. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 William L. Marcy. N. Y.. Secretary of State. 
 
 James Guthrie. Ky.. Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Jefferson Davis, Miss.. Secretary of War, 
 
 J. C. Dobbin, N. C, Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 James Campbell. Pa., Postmaster General. 
 
 Caleb Cushing. Mass., Attorney General. 
 
 Robert Mc Cieliand. Mich , Secretary of the Interior. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 711 
 
 This year was distinguished by the conunencement of engineering surveys to 
 locate the line of the Pacific Railroad. This conception was completed 16 years 
 later, helping to bind together the distant parts of a country vastly different 
 from that which had looked on tliis early beginning. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Mar. 4 — President Pierce was inaugurated fourteenth in succession from Wash- 
 ington, the first. 
 
 July 14 — Commodore Perry lands in Japan on a friendly expedition, which 
 resulted in a treaty and ultimately in vast and beneficial changes in 
 that country. 
 " " — The Crystal Palace is opened by the President in New York. It was the 
 first Exposition, or World's Fair, held in America. 
 
 Aug 14 — A proclamation is issued by the President against the invasion of Cuba 
 by armed Americans. 
 
 1854. 
 
 Mar 23 — An important treaty of commerce negotiated with tlie Empire of Japan 
 by Com. PeiTy, which opened a new era in the progress of that country, 
 and of United States commerce and influence in Asia. 
 
 May 30 — The failure of the compromise measures of 1850 to realize the hopes of 
 the South from the rapid development of anti-slavery views in the 
 North caused the subject to be again agitated, and the Missouri Compro- 
 mise, wliicli stopped the formation of slave States north of its south 
 boundarj' line, was repealed. The question of the admission of slavery 
 into Kansas and Nebraska, lioth being north of that line, was referred, 
 by the famous "Kansas-Nebraska Bill," to tlie "squatters" or first set- 
 tlers. This was called " squatter sovereignty.'" This measure gave sat- 
 isfaction to the South, but was strongly reprobated by many of the 
 Northern people. Botli sides prepared to renew the ctiutest there, and 
 civU war raged in Kansas for near three years. Each side sought to 
 secure its end but it terminated in favor of the North. The South could 
 not compete with it in numbers, nor drive the extra numbers away. 
 This was the last hope of the South for preserving equilibrium in the 
 general government. 
 
 The Democratic party in the North, anxious to sootlie and conciliate the 
 Southy and not holding so advanced opinions against slaveiy. was still 
 strong enough to maintain itself in power in the administration: but the 
 Eepublican party, formed about this time by the dissolution of the Whig 
 party, constantly grew in numbers and influence, and, by the end of the 
 next administration, its numbers were so large and the ultimate result so 
 certain that the South resolved on secession rather than give up the 
 institution. 
 
 1855. 
 Jan. 28— The first railway train crosses the Isthmus of Panama, Central America. 
 
 It long remained the chief commercial route from the eastern States 
 
 to California and the Pacific Coast. 
 Feb. 24 — The Court of Claims is estabUshed by Congress. 
 
712 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Mar. 30 — An election for a Temtorial Legislature occurs in Kansas with great 
 confusion and conflict, those desirous of establishing slavery in the Tw- 
 ritory being for the present successful. 
 
 July 3 — The Kansas Legislature meets at Pawnee. 
 
 Aug. 8 — It selects Lecompton as the capital. 
 
 '• 14 — The Advocates of a Free State Constitution assemble at Lawrence Kan- 
 sas, to concert measures of resistance to the Lecompton Legislature. 
 Duiing 1854 and 1855 the cholera raged in the United States with great 
 violence. 
 
 Sept. 3 — Gen. Hamey gains an important victory over the Sioux Lidians at Sand 
 Hills on the North Fork of the Platte river, Nebraska. 
 
 Oct. 23 — A Free State Constitutional Convention meets at Topeka, Kansas. 
 
 Mar. 4 — A Free State Legislature meets at Topeka, Kan. It was a rival of the 
 Lecompton Legislature and not recognized as a lawful body by the 
 United States authorities. 
 
 July 4 — The Free State Legislature is dispersed by Col. Sumner with United 
 States troops. The advocates of a free State repudiated the 
 Lecompton Legislature and the Constitution it produced on the ground 
 of its fraudulent election. It was otherAvise formally legal and was 
 sustained by the President and the TeiTitorial oflicers he appointed. 
 The Democratic and Republican parties throughout the countiy took 
 opposite sides and the Presidential canvass of this year discussed it 
 with great energy. Kansas was in a state of gi-eat disorder, with some 
 bloodshed, through much of the year. The State Constitutions drawn 
 up by the rival bodies were voted on only by the people favoring them 
 and neither were approved by Congress. But the Free State party grew 
 in strength and voted a new Constitution in 1859 under whicli Kansas 
 became one of the United States in 1861. 
 
 SECTIOl^ XIII. 
 
 Buchanan's Adjunistration — The Eighteenth Election. 1856. 
 
 The Wliig party had now ceased to exist, the principal political excitement of 
 the country gathering those who wished to exclude slavery from all the Terri- 
 tories into the Free Soil party — now called the Repubhcan party — and those who 
 decidedly favored slavery, or who were unwiUing to disturb the country by com- 
 batting it, into the Democratic party. A thu-d party, comparatively smaU in 
 numbers, called the National American, or ' ' Knownothing" party, ignored the 
 slaveiy question and made their issue the exclusion of all persons of foreign birth 
 from the higher privileges of citizenship. They would make a radical change in 
 ]N'; uralization Laws — a very un-American policy, and necessarily unsuccessful 
 in the end; for those laws were the gloiy. and had secured many, of the most 
 important aims, of the countiy. 
 
 There were still only 31 States, ^vith 296 Presidential Electors. The Democrats 
 nominated James Buchanan for President and John C. Breckenridge for Vice- 
 President; the Republicans, John C. Fremont and WiUiam L. Dayton; and the 
 National Americans, Millard Fillmore and Andrew J. Donelson. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 713 
 
 Buchanan and Breckenridge received 1,838,169 Popular and 174 Electoral votes. 
 Fremont and Dayton " 1,341,364 " " 114 
 
 Fillmore and Donelson " 874,534 " '' 8 
 
 Buchanan had a popular plurality over Fremont, of 496,905; but the popular 
 votes of his rivals, combined, exceeded his by 377,639. He, however, received a 
 majority of 53 electoral votes over theirs combined. It was now very evident 
 that the inclination of the Northern, or free States, toward a continuation of the 
 compromising policy with the slave States, which had prevailed in every crisis 
 from the foundation of the Government, was giving way. Pro-slavery efforts in 
 Kansas already gave signs of decisive defeat. It soon became clear to Southern 
 Statesmen that the only way to save their institution of forced labor from grad- 
 ual extinction through unfriendly legislation and the progress of the free labor 
 system was in a successful division of the Union. 
 
 FIFTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4. 1857. TO MARCH 4, 1861. 
 
 James Buchanan, Pa., Pi-esident. 
 
 J. C. Breckenridge. Kv.. Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 Lewis Cass, Mich . Secretary of State. 
 
 Jeremiah S. Black. Pa., " " " 
 
 Ho well Cobb, Ga., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 Philip F. Thomas. Md.. " " ' 
 
 John A. Dix, N. Y.. " - " 
 
 John B. Floyd, Va. , Secretary of War. 
 
 Joseph Holt, Ky.," " " 
 
 Isaac Toucey, Conn., Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 Jacob Thompson, Miss., Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 Aaron V. Brown. Tenn., Postmaster General. 
 
 Joseph Holt, Ky., 
 
 Horatio King, " " 
 
 Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Attorney General. 
 
 Edwin M. Stanton, Pa.. " •' 
 
 1857. 
 
 Feb. 2— Nathaniel Banks, of Mass., a Republican, is elected Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives. It had required two months and 133ballotings 
 to settle this point: indicating the nearly equal balance of parties, and 
 the final success of the Republican element in the popular branch of 
 Congress. 
 
 Mar. 4 — Buchanan inaugurated President. 
 
 The next three years (after the decision of the Kansas troubles) were 
 marked by the unnatural quiet that forbodes the storm. Anti-slavery 
 feeling was maturing in the North, and discontent and secession ten- 
 dencies in the South. 
 
 Aug.l7.— The "Dred Scott case" decided in the XJ. S. Supreme Court. A Con- 
 vention assembles at Salem, Oregon, to form a State Constitution. 
 
714 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Sept. 25— A severe financial crisis, soon extending to all parts of the Union, com- 
 mences with the suspension of specie payments by the Bank of Pennsyl- 
 A'ania, in Philadelphia. 
 
 Nov. 9 — The Lecompton, or pro-slavery, Constitution of Kansas adopted in Con- 
 vention. Only portions of it were submitted to the people, the Free- 
 State citizens not voting on it. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Feb. 3 — The Banks in Philadelphia resume specie payments. 
 
 Mar. 25 — A new Free State Constitutional Convention meets at Leavenworth, 
 Kansas. Congress rejected both the Constitutions, but, 
 
 Apr. 30 — The "English Kansas Bill" passes the House of Representatives by 113 
 to 103 and afterward the Senate by 31 to 22. It was rejected by the peo- 
 ple of Kansas. 
 
 May 11 — Minnesota is admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
 Aug 16 — The first Atlantic cable is comnleted. The first message is one of con- 
 gratulation from Queen Victoria to President Buchanan. This cable 
 was imperfect and soon ceased to be serviceable. 
 
 1859. 
 Feb. 14 — Oregon admitted into the Union as a State. The admission of these two 
 without any corresponding ones in the South indicated the strength of 
 Northern sentiment, and that the Soutli had given up the struggle in 
 that way. John Brown's raid on Harpei''s Feriy, in this year, as show- 
 ing the tone of Northern feeling, still further estranged the South from 
 the Union. Brown's attack on Harper's Ferry was made Oct. 16th. He 
 "was hung Dec. 2d. 
 It was John Brown's object to organize the slaves to secure their liberty. At 
 Harper's Feny, in Virginia, was a National Arsenal. He attacked it with 21 
 men, got possession and held it two days. United States troops and Virginia 
 militia were soon upon him. Thirteen of his men were killed; two made their 
 escape. Brown and the remainder were captured, tried by Virginia authorities 
 and hanged. This event made a deep impression on both North and South, and 
 ripened the indignation of slaveholders. Looked upon as a mad follj^ and a legal 
 crime it was yet secretly, and sometimes openly, held as an act of heroism by 
 many in the North. The " Dred Scott Decision" of the Supreme Court giving 
 the weight of its vast authority to the most extreme pro-slavery doctrine revolted 
 and horrified the Republican party, filling them vinth equal indignation and 
 alarm. Thus the Presidential canvass was prepared for under burning excite- 
 ment by the two leading parties. 
 
 SECTIOlSr XIV. 
 
 THE ELECTION OF 1860. 
 
 The year 1860 was chiefly given up to eager partisan efforts to prepare for the 
 coming shock of equally resolute parties. The Southern States claimed the right 
 to manage their local institutions in their own way and their equal interest inthe 
 common territory of the Union; the Republican party, mainh^ of Northern States, 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 715 
 
 insisted that foix-ed labor was contrary to ecouoiuical and moral laws and that it 
 should be no further extended. Minnesota and Oregon had been admitted with- 
 out corresponding new slave States. Since the ' ' Missouri Compromise "' admis- 
 sions had been paired to hold a balance in the United States Senate. That balance 
 had been lost by these admissions, the preponderance of population in the free 
 States and the rapid gi'owth of the "Free Soil" doctrine in those States had fur- 
 nished a Republican majority in the House of Representatives some years before. 
 The only hope of the South was in the part of the people of the North favoring 
 its views and interests. This was still very large, and if it could be made to 
 •unite solidly with the great majorities of the South that section might yet carry 
 its point. 
 
 There were 33 States and 303 Presidential Electors. The Free Soil, or Republi- 
 can party nominated Abraham Lincoln for President and Haimibal Hamlin for 
 Vice-President. The southern Statesmen found it impossible so to unite the 
 whole Democratic party as to make sure of a vigorous and successful maintenance 
 of specially southern interests. The Anti-Slavery agitation of the last ten yeai-s 
 had taken too strong hold of almost the whole people of tlie North to allow even 
 the Democratic party there to commit themselves wholly to the support of south- 
 ern views and interests. When the first Democratic Convention for nominating 
 a party candidate for President assembled the discord appeared. No nomination 
 was then made, after the most strenuous efforts, and a division fatal to the wishes 
 of southern delegates was inevitable. The northern wing of the party afterwai-d 
 held a Convention and nominated Stephen A. Douglas for President and Hershel 
 V. Johnson for Vice-President. A " Constitutional Union "" Democratic Conven- 
 tion seeking to put aside the conflict and take middle ground nominated John 
 Bell and Edward Everett. The southern wing of tlie party nominated John C. 
 Breckenridge and Joseph Lane. The vote of the country was as follows: 
 Lincoln and Hamlin received 1,866.391 popidar and 180 electoral votes. 
 Douglas and Johnson •' 1.375.157 " ••72 " 
 
 Breckem-idge and Lane " 845.763 " "39 
 
 BeU and Everett " .589..581 " " 12 
 
 Lincoln's popular plurality over Douglas was 491,191; his majority of electoral 
 votes over his competitors combined was 57; but he fell about 1,000,000 short of 
 an absolute popular majority 
 
 Sixteenth Administration, 1861 to 1865. 
 Abraham Lincoln, 111., President. 
 Hannibal Hamlin, Me.. Vice-President. 
 Andrew Johnson, Tenn. , 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 WiUiam H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State. 
 Salmon P. Chase, O., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 "William P. Fessenden, Me.. " " " 
 
 Hugh McCuUoch, Ind., 
 Simon Cameron, Pa., Secretary of V/ar. 
 Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., " " " 
 Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy. 
 Caleb B. Smitli, Ind., Secretary of the Interior. 
 
716 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TLilK. 
 
 John P. Usher, Ind. , Secretary of the Interior. 
 
 Montgomery Blair, Md., Postmaster-General. 
 
 WiUiam Dennison, O., 
 
 Edward Bates, Mo., Attorney-General. 
 
 James Speed, Ky., 
 The election of Not. 6, 1860, was too decisive to be disputed. There had been 
 a very full vote, a large electoral majority, and a large pluraUty in the popular 
 vote to support the majority of the Electoral CoUege. The South had maintained 
 its equal share in the Government by alertness and constant effort for many 
 years. It could do so no longer and was permanently defeated, unless it could 
 effect a peaceful retirement from the Union or conquer in arms. It began 
 almost immediately to prepare for the future. 
 
 SECTIOl^ XY. 
 
 The Civil War, 
 
 was the inevitable result of an antagonism of interests, sentiments, and social 
 structure in the two great sections of the Union — the North and the South. The 
 foundation of these tendencies was laid before the fonnation of the Union, in 
 early colonial times. The conflict commenced as soon as a close union 
 was attempted and the Constitution was adopted only through the 
 personal influence of Washington and other statesmen of that time, and from 
 the general conviction that it was essential to the protection of the new nation 
 from England and other Evu'opean powers. Some provisions of the Constitu- 
 tion involved a compromise between the North and the South; and a constant 
 series of compromise was requii'ed to be arranged from time to time, down to 
 this period. 
 
 The institution of slavery, it was beheved by many of the revolutionary 
 fathers, would expire of itself at no distant time; but the value of the cotton cui- 
 livated at the South, and the intimate relations that slavery bore to its social life, 
 made it profitable and agreeable to that section and they held to it with great 
 tenacity. Meanwhile the compromises of the Constitution grew more and more 
 disagreeable to the Nortli. The requirement of that instrument — that persons 
 held to service in the South, and becoming fugitives in the North, should be 
 returned by them was objected to on humane and religious grounds, and they 
 found slavery an industrial embarrassment. The enterprise and vigor of the 
 northern population gave their section a more rapid growth, and its political 
 power became continually greater. 
 
 But three ways of peacefully avoiding the conflict were open: the North must 
 fully carry out the spirit of concession that gave birth to the Union, the South 
 must consent, sooner or later, to abolish its peculiar institutions, or they must 
 agree to separate. Interest, habit, and the aristocratic pride of the South forbade 
 the second; while, in the Noi-th, interest, religious sentiment, and the working- 
 man's pride as decidedly forbade the first. The natural relation of the two sec- 
 tions, especially by the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, so essential to the commercial 
 interests of the Western States; the improbability of maintaining amicable inter- 
 com-se, with slavery in the South, and fugitives from it to produce constant irri- 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 4 17 
 
 tation; the apparent probability that, if the right of dissolution were conceded, 
 the West and the Pacific States would follow this example; and tlio conviction 
 that the true interests of the whole country, internal and external, required an 
 indissoluble Union, inspired the majority of the Northern people to resist dis- 
 union at every cost. On the other hand, the South claimed the right to depart 
 in peace. Thus, war was inevitable; nor can it be correctly affirmed that any 
 party, or any generation, or either section of the Union, was properly responsible 
 for so lamentable a result. Each section, generation, and party follows the line 
 of its own interest, ideas, and habits. It is a law of humanity, and each sees 
 therein its duty and pleasure. While interests do not clash very seriously, while 
 ideas are not sharply and clearly defined, and while habits are yet unsettled, 
 compromises may be really effected. Humanity, taken together, in the most 
 advanced societj^ heretofore known to men, is not yet capable of views so high, 
 liberal, and far-seeing as to free it from tlie possibility of such conflicts. It will, 
 however, reach that height, in the course of time 
 
 We could not reasormbly have expected either the North or the South to have 
 acted differently from what they did. While so gigantic a war was an immense 
 evil, to allow the right of peaceable secession would have been ruin to the enter- 
 prise and thrift of the industrious laborer and keen-eyed business man of the 
 North. It would have been the greatest calamity o{ the age. War was less 
 to be feared. 
 
 The Southerner, generous, warm blooded, accustomed to rule and make his 
 own will the law of otliers in his home, courageous and fiery, could not give 
 way. Besides, secession would be less damaging to him. He would own the 
 outlets to much of Northern commerce, he had a b(md of union of the Southern 
 States in the common institution of slavery, and a monopoly of the world's 
 c;otton that must soon secure profitable alliances in Europe. Secession was 
 commenced peaceably, and the Southern government fairly consolidated before 
 the trumpet sounded to battle. The Democratic party, then in possession of the 
 administration of the General Government, had long been in close relations with 
 the South. It was impossible for it to realize the momentous character of the 
 crisis, or to help sympathizing more or less with the vieA^'s and feelings of the 
 South; it was near the close of its period of nile; and it left the active manage- 
 ment of the herculean difficulties of the situation to the incoming administration 
 of the Republican party. The whole country was quiet, failing, perhaps, as well 
 as the Democrats, to realize the significance of the events taking place. It was 
 a period of breathless waiting for what would come next. The signal was given 
 by the South. Fort Sumter, in South Carolina, a National fort, was bombarded 
 April 13th, 1861. It was an electric shock. The Noi'th answered the summons 
 by a note of defiance, and mustered for war. 
 
 The South was better prepared, mon^ alert, more accustomed to arms, and 
 secured, at first, many advantages. She also had the advantage of b^ing on the 
 defensive when the contest became close. But, as the months ran into years, tlie 
 courage and iron resolution of the North did not falter. She had the advantage 
 of numbers, of the General Government, of wealth, and of naval force. Step by 
 step she conquered, generally liolding what she gained grew skilful and wise 
 by defeat, and April 8th. 1865, the main army of the Confederates surrendered, 
 and the war was over; the gallant South succumbed to the plucky North. It was 
 
?18 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 a predestined conclusion. The free States were necessarily the strongest, and 
 then- strength was supported and inspii'ed by religious sentiment and enthusiasm. 
 The Union, so important to the world and to civil Kberty, was preserved, but at 
 fearful cost. 
 
 Probably 500,000 lives were sacrificed altogether, on both sides; and eight or 
 nine billions of dollars. The desolation of the South, which had been mainly the 
 theater of these mighty conflicts: the extreme change in pecuniary cncumstances 
 and social life there; the affliction, to freemen, of subjection of any kind; the 
 ^eat loss of valuable hfe to both sides; the unmense debt of the Government, 
 with the unavoidable demoralization of certain parts of society, everywhere, by 
 the license of war, and many other evils, form the dark side of the pictui'e. 
 
 Yet the time might come when the south would feel that nothing could out- 
 weigh the value of the Union, especially when freed from the discordant element 
 that now disappeared. It must be long before all wounds can be healed. When 
 that time shall come the South and the country will be recompensed for all they 
 have suffered. 
 
 1860. 
 l^ov, 7 — News of Lincoln's election received in South Carolina with cheers for a 
 
 Southern Confederacy. 
 '• 9 — An attempt made to seize the arms at Ft. Moultrie. 
 " 10 — South Carolina Legislature propose to raise 10,000 men. 
 
 Election of Convention to consider secession ordered. 
 
 Jas, Chestnut, U. S. Senator from South Carohna, resigned. 
 " 11 — Senator Hammond, of South CaroHna, resigned. 
 " 15 — Gov. Letcher, of Virginia, caHs an extra session of the Legislature. 
 
 Georgia Legislature appropriate $1,100,000 to aiTu the State. 
 
 Major Anderson sent to Ft. Moidtrie to reheve Col. Gardiner, 
 " 19 — Gov. Moore calls an extra session of Louisiana Legislature. 
 Dec. 1 — Florida Legislatxii-e orders the election of a Convention. 
 
 Great secession meeting in Memphis, Tenn. 
 " 3 — Congi-ess assembles. President Buchanan denies the right of a State to 
 
 secede, but also the propriety of coercion, 
 *' 5 — Election of secession delegates to South Carolina Convention. 
 _,' 10 — Howell Cobb, U. S. Secretary of Treasruy, resigned. P. F. Thomas, of 
 
 Maryland, appointed in his place. Senator Clay, of Ala., resigned. 
 
 Louisiana Legislature orders the election of a Convention, and appro- 
 priates 1500,000 to arm the State. 
 ' ••' 13 — Extra session of the Cabinet held to consider if Ft. Moultrie shall be 
 
 reinforced. President opposed, and reinforcements not sent. 
 *' 14 — Gen, Lewis Cass, U, S. Secretary of State, resigns. J, S. Black, of Pa., 
 
 appointed, 
 *' 17 — South Carolina Convention assembles. 
 " 18 — Crittenden Compromise proposed in U, S, Senate. 
 
 " 19 — Gov, Hicks, of Slar^-land, refuses to receive Mississippi Commissioners. 
 " 20 — South Carolina Convention unanimously adopts a Secession Ordinance. 
 *' 22 — Crittenden Compromise rejected in Senate Committee, 
 " 34 — People of Pittsburg, Pa., stop shipment of mihtary stores, from the 
 
 Arsenal there, to Southern forts. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 719 
 
 Dec. 24 — Gov. Moore calls extra session of Alabama Legislature. Election to 
 Alabama Convention; secession majority over 50,000. 
 South Carolina Members of U. S. House of Representatives resign. 
 
 ' 25 — Maj. Anderson abandons Ft. Moultrie for Ft. Sumter, Charleston Harbor. 
 He has only 111 men. 
 
 South Carolina Commissioners arrive in Washington. President 
 Buchanan refiises to receive them. 
 
 " 28 — South Carolina authorities seize Castle Finckney, Ft. Moultrie, U. S. 
 Custom-House. and other Government property, at Charleston. 
 
 " 29 — John B. Floyd, U. S. Secretary of War, resigns. Joseph Holt, of Ky., 
 appointed. 
 
 *' 31 — South Carolina sends Commissioners to other Southern States to ar- 
 range the organization of a Southern Confederacy. 
 
 1861. 
 Jan. 2 — Gov. ElUs, of North Carolina, takes possession of Ft. Macon. 
 
 Georgia troops seize Forts Pulaski and Jackson and U. S. Arsenal, at 
 Savannah. 
 
 " 4 — Gov. Moore, of Ala., seizes Ft. Morgan and U- S. Arsenal at Mobde. 
 Fast Day by proclamation of the President. 
 
 •" 7 — State Conventions of Alabama and Mississippi, and State Legislatures of 
 Virginia and Tennessee assemljle. 
 
 *' 8 — Jacob Thompson, U. S. Sec. of Interior, resigns. Fts. Jolmson and Cas- 
 well, North Carolina, seized by State authorities. 
 
 ** 9 — U. S. steamer Star of the West fired on in Charleston Harbor and driven 
 away. 
 Mississippi Convention adopt Secession Ordinance. Vote 84 to 15. 
 
 ■" 10 — Florida Convention secedes by vote of 62 to 7. Florida authorities seize 
 Ft McRae. 
 
 ■" 11— Alabama secedes by vote in Convention of 61 to .39. P. F. Thomas, U. S. 
 Sec. of Treasury, resigns. John A. Dix appointed. The Governor of 
 Mississippi seizes Forts Philip and Jackson, on the Mississippi river; 
 Forts Pike and Macomb, on Lake Pontcliartrain, and U. S. Arsenal at 
 Baton Ro 
 
 *' ■*3 — Florida takes possession of Pensacola Navy Yard and Ft. Barrancas. 
 Lieut. Slemmer, in command of Ft. Pickens, ordered by Com. Armstrong 
 to deliver the Fort to Florida, refuses, and preserves that important post 
 to the Government of tlie Union. 
 
 •" 16— Legislature of Arkansas calls a Convention. Col. Hayne. of South Caro- 
 lina, demands of the President the surrender of Ft. Sumter, and is 
 refused. Missouri Legislature orders a Convention to consider secession. 
 
 ■" 18— The Legislature of Virginia appropriate f 1,000,000 for the defense of the 
 
 State. 
 
 *' 19 — Georgia adopts Secession Ordinance by vote of 208 to 89. 
 
 *' 21 — Members of Congress from Alabama resign. 
 " " Jefferson Davis resigns his seat in the U. S. Senate. 
 
 " 23 — Georgia members of Congress resign. 
 
 *' 24 — U. S. Arsenal, Augusta, Geo., seized. 
 
 " 26 — Louisiana Legislature passes Secession Ordinance. Vote 113 to 17. 
 
 *' 29— Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, admitted into the Union. 
 
720 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Jan. 30 — North Carolina Legislature submits the question of calling a Convention 
 to the people. 
 
 " " — Revenue cutters Cass, at MobUe, and McClelland, at New Orleans, sur- 
 rendered to Southern authorities. 
 Feb. 1 — Texas Convention passes Secession Ordinance, to be submitted to the 
 * people. Vote, 166 to 7. Louisiana government seize the U. S. Mint and 
 
 Custom House, at New Oiieans. 
 
 " 4 — Peace Convention of Delegates from eighteen States assembles at 
 Washington; ex-President Tyler presides. 
 
 " " Delegates'from seceded States meet at Montgomery, Ala., to organize a 
 Confederate Government. 
 
 " " John SlideU and Judali P. Benjamin, U. S. Senators fi-om Louisiana, 
 resign then* seats. 
 
 *' 9 — Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stevens elected provisional President 
 and Vice-President of Confederate States, for one year. 
 
 " 13 — Electoral vote counted. Abraham Lincoln receives 180 votes; S. A. 
 Douglas, 12; J. C. Breckenridge, 72; John Bell, 30. Majority required to 
 elect, 157. 
 
 *' 18 — Ft. Kearney, Kansas, seized by Southern forces. 
 
 '* 23 — Gen. Twiggs, U. S. Commander in Texas, delivered his army prisoners 
 of war, and U. "S. property valued at $1,200,000 to Confederate authori- 
 ties. 
 
 " 38 — Territorial Government organized in Colorado. 
 Mar. 1 — Gen. Twiggs expelled from the army. Peace Congress adjourned. 
 
 " 3 — ^Territorial Government organized in Dacotah and Nevada. 
 
 Revenue cutter Dodge surrendered to the South, at Galveston, Texas. 
 
 "" 4 — Abraham Lincoln inaugurated 14th regular President of the United 
 States. 
 
 ** " The people of Texas, having voted for the Secession Ordinance by 40,000 
 majority, the Convention declared the State out of the Union. 
 
 " 5 — Gen. Beauregard takes command of Southern forces, at Charleston. 
 Foiii Brown, on the Rio Grande, surrenders to Confederate troops. 
 Federal troops evacuated the Fort and sailed for Key West, Florida. 
 
 " Confederate Senate confirm nominations of President Davis to his Cab- 
 
 inet, viz: R, Toombs, of Ga., Sec. of State: C S. Memminger. of South 
 Carolina. Sec. of Treasury; L. P. Walker, of Ala., Sec. of War; S. R. 
 Mallory, of Fla., Sec. of Navy; J. H, Regan, of Texas, Postmaster Gen.; 
 J. P. Benjamin, of La.. Attorney General. 
 
 «' ll_The Constitution of Confederate States adopted in convention at Mont- 
 gomery. Ala. ; afterwards ratified by the several States. 
 
 " 28 — Vote of Louisiana on secession — 20,448 for, 17,926 against — made public. 
 
 '• 30 — Mississippi Convention ratifies the Confederate Constiti.it'' on. by 78 
 to 70. 
 Apr. 3 — South Carolina Convention ratifies Confederate Constitution, by 114 to 6. 
 Apr. 4 — Virginia Convention refuse to present a Secession Ordinance to the peo- 
 ple, by a vote of 80 to 45. 
 
 " 7 — Intercourse between Ft. Sumter and Charleston stopped by order of 
 Gen. Beauregai'd, 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 721 
 
 SEOTIOIsr XVI. 
 
 THE FIRST PHASE OF THE WAB. 
 
 Each side hesitated to strike the first blow ; but the South having been prepar- 
 ing while the Federal Government temporized, and co end a suspense that 
 threatened to be hurtful to their cause, opened the conflict by the bombardment 
 of Ft. Sumter. Each now hastened preparations with vigor. Yet so long had 
 intimate friendly relations existed, that neither could believe in a determined, 
 deadly struggle. More tlian three months passed, during which frequent skir- 
 mislii>s occurred; but the leaders avoided bringing on a general battle. The 
 Southern forces advanced toward Washington, but stopped short of an attack, 
 Sending out small bodies to make trial efforts and get possession of important 
 points. 
 
 The battle of Bull Run was the first great, serious combat. The brilliant 
 bravery of Southern troops would have been overcome but for au opportune 
 reinforcement at the decisive moment. The leaders did not feel it safe to pursue 
 the vanquished Federalists to Washington. There was a large reserve force 
 there. Thus, if they won a battle they lost the object sought — the capture of 
 the National Capital — and the Union forces, though defeated, gained the most 
 important point — the protection of Washington. 
 
 Both sides now recognized the magnitude of the undertaking, the indomitable 
 resolution of their opponents, and the need of thoroughly disciplining their 
 troops, of organizing all branches of the military and naval service, of gathering 
 stores, and distributing forces in accordance with the plan proposed by each. 
 
 This period continued vmtil February, 1862. The U. S. Navy was increased 
 from 43 vessels at the beginning of the war to about 300 at the close of this pre- 
 paratory period. These blockaded the South and served for transport and attack. 
 Two series of operations were planned by the U. S. Government for the land 
 forces: one in the Mississippi Valley and one in Virginia. In tlie meantime the 
 Confederate leaders saw that it was impossible to invade the North as they had 
 proposed without long preparation and large armies. They organized with speed 
 but were thrown on the defensive. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Apr. 7— The steamer Atlantic, with troops and supplies for Fort Sumter, sailed 
 
 from New York. 
 " 8— The Federal Government notified South Carolina that provisions would 
 
 be sent to Maj. Anderson, by force, if necessary. 
 
 U. S. State Department refused to recognize the Commissioners from the 
 
 Confederate States. 
 " 11— Troops are gatliered in Washington, and oath of allegiance administered. 
 
 The Confederate Commissioners leave Washington. 
 
 Gen. Beauregard demands the surrender of Ft. Sumter. Maj. Anderson 
 
 refuses. 
 
 BOMBARDMENT OF FT. SUMTER. 
 
 " 12— This was the real commencement of the Civil War. Batteries were con- 
 structed on Morris and Sullivan islands, and Cumming's Point. The Con- 
 46 
 
723 THE FOOTPEINTS OF TIME. 
 
 April — federate forces employ Ft. Moultrie, and a floating battery, in addition, 
 
 against Ft. Sumter. 
 
 The South Carolina Legislature appropriate $500,000 to arm the State. 
 
 Ft. Pickens is reinforced by the U. S. Government. 
 " 14 — Ft. Sumter was reduced to a mass of niins, its fire silenced, and Major 
 
 Anderson capitulated with the honors of war, and evacuated the fort, 
 
 sailing for New York. 
 
 Governor Yates, of Illinois, called an extra session of Legislature, to meet 
 
 April 22. 
 *' 15 — The President issues a proclamation commanding all in arms against the 
 
 Government to disperse in 20 days; calling also for 75.000 voliinteers to 
 
 defend Washingto;i; and the New York Legislature authorizes the rais- 
 ing of $3,000,000 for their equipment and support. 
 
 Tlie President calls an extra session of Congi-ess, for July 4. 
 ti 16 — The Governors of Kentucky, Vii-ginia, Tennessee and Missouri refuse to 
 
 furnish troops under the President's proclamation. 
 
 The Confederate Government calls for 32.000 men. 
 " 17 The Virginia Convention, in secret session, adopt a Secession Ordinance, 
 
 to be submitted to the people in May. The vote was 60 to 53. 
 
 Virginia forces sent to seize U. S. Ai-senal at Hai-per's Ferry, and Gos- 
 
 port Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, A"a. 
 
 All the military power of the State of Virginia placed tmder the control 
 
 of President Davis. 
 
 President Davis issues a proclamation offering Letters of Marque and 
 
 Reprisal to privateers against Federal commerce. 
 « 18 — U. S. Ai-senal at Hai-per's Ferry destroyed by Federal troops, to prevent 
 
 its falling into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 Col. Coke, with 400 of 25th Penn. regiment, arrives in Washington for 
 
 its defense. 
 i< 19 — u. S. steamer Star of the West seized at Indianola. Texas. 
 
 Massachusetts troops on the way to Washington, attacked by a mob in 
 
 Baltimore. Ti-oops fired on the mob. Blood shed on both sides. 
 
 President issues a proclamation declaring the coast from North Carolina 
 
 to Texas in a state of blockade. 
 
 IVIilitary department of Washington covering Maryland. Delaware, and 
 
 Pennsylvania, put under command of Gen. Patterson. 
 
 City Council of Philadelphia appropriate $1,000,000 to equip volunteers, 
 
 and support tlieir families. 
 « 20 — Governor of North Carolina seizes U. S. Branch Mint, at Charlotte. 
 
 Bridges and railroads in Maryland destroyed to prevent passage of troops 
 
 to Washington. 
 
 U. S. Navy Yard, at Gosport. and property worth $25,000,000, destroyed 
 
 by the Federals in charge, to prevent their falling into the hands of the 
 
 enemy. Eight vessels of war were destroyed, and one, the Cumberland, 
 
 was towed out. 
 
 Massachusetts troops aiTive at Fortress Monroe. 
 
 Gov. Curtin calls special meeting of Pennsylvania Legislature, for 
 
 April 30th. 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 723 
 
 Apr. 21— Federal Government takes possession of Philadelphia and Baltimore raU- 
 
 road. 
 
 Senator Andrew Johnson mobbed at Lynchburg, Va. 
 " 22 — U. S. Arsenals in North Carolina and Arkansas seized. 
 " 24 — Fort Smith Arkansas, seized. Cairo, 111., occupied by Union troops. 
 
 Maj. Sible}^ surrenders 450 U. S. troops to Col. Van Dorn, in Texas. 
 " 26 — Gov. Brown, of Ga., forbids payment of debts to Northern people. 
 " 27 — A steamer at Cairo, loaded with military stores for the South, seized. 
 
 Blockade extended to ports of Virginia and North Carolina. 
 " 29— The Maryland House of Delegates votes against secession, 63 to 13. 
 
 Governors Harris of Tennessee and Moore of Louisiana seize Government 
 
 property. 
 
 May 1— The Legislatures of N. C. and Tenn. prepare for formal secession. 
 " 3 — President Lincoln calls for 82,714 additional troops. 
 
 Fourteen companies of Kentucky troops offer themselves to the govern- 
 ment, though the Governor had refused a levy. 
 " 4 — Gen. McClellan takes command of the Depai'tment of the Ohio. 
 " 6 — Virginia admitted into the Confederacy. Tennessee and Arkansas pass 
 
 Ordinances of Secession. 
 •' 10 — Gen. R. E. Lee takes command of the Southern troops in Virginia. 
 " 13 — Convention called at Wheeling to organize a new State. 
 ♦' 14 — Vessels with stores and property for the South seized at Baltimore. 
 " 15— JVIassachusetts offers U. S. Government $7,000,000 to carry on the war. 
 " 16^^Gen. Scott orders the fortification of Arlington Heights. 
 " 17 — Confederates commence fortifying Harper's Ferry. 
 " 18 — Gen. Butler takes command of Department of Virginia. 
 " 19 — Sewalls Pt. attacked by U. S. steamers. Two schooners with Southern 
 
 troops captured. 
 *' 20 — North Carolina formally secedes. Kentucky proclaimed neutral. 
 *' 21 — Southerners blockade the Mississippi at Memphis. 
 " 24 — Alexandria and Arlington Heights occupied by Union troops. 
 " 26 — Western Virginia voted largely in favor of the Union. 
 " 27 — One hundred slaves fled to Fortress Monroe. Gen. Butler declared them 
 
 ' ' contraband" of war. 
 " — Two steamers engage the rebel batteries at Acquia Creek. 
 June 1 — Various skirmishes between parties of the hostile armies. 
 " 3 — Senator S. A. Douglas, of Illinois, died. 
 
 Battle of Philippi, Va. Union Col. Kelly wounded but A'ictorious. Gen. 
 
 Beauregard assumed command of Confederate forces at Manassas 
 
 Junction. Voluntary contributions of Noi'thern States in aid of the 
 
 Government over $32,000,000. 
 " 10— Battle of Big Bethel. 
 
 Three Federal regiments defeated. 16 killed, 41 wounded. 
 '♦ 11 — Skirmish at Romney. Wheeling Convention meets. 
 " 14 — Harper's Ferry evacuated and burnt by Southern forces. 
 " 15 — Confederate privateer. Savannah, brought, a prize, to New York. 
 " 17 — Wheeling Convention of Unionists determine to make West Virginia an 
 
 independent State. 
 
724 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME, 
 
 June 18 — Battle of BooneTille, Mo.. Gen. Lyon defeats Confederate Gen. Price. 
 *• 20 — At Cole Camp Mo., Union men defeated; at Liberty, Mo., Southerners 
 
 overcome. 
 " 23— Forty-eight locomotives of Baltimore and Ohio R. R. destroyed by 
 
 Southem forces; value, $400,000. 
 " 26 — Pi'esident Lincoln recognizes the Wheeling Government. 
 " 29 — Southern privateer, Smnter, escapes through blockade at New Orleans, 
 July 2 — Battle near Martinsburg, Va. , Gen. Patterson. Union, and Gen. Jackson, 
 
 Confederate. 
 " 4 — Southern forces seize Louisville and Nashville raih-oad. 
 " 5 — Congress assemble at Washington. Pi'esident calls for 400, ODD volunteers. 
 
 Battle of Carthage, Mo. . between Sigel, Union, and Gen. Jackson, South- 
 em. Gen. Sigel reti'eated. 
 " 11 — Nine Southern Senators ex^jeUed from U. S. Congress. 
 " 12 — Battle of Rich Mountain, Va. Col. Rosecrans, Union, defeated CoL 
 
 Pegram, taking 800 prisoners and his camp stores. 
 " 13 — Confederates under Gen. Gamett, defeated at Carrick's Ford, by Gen. 
 
 Morris. Gen. Gamett killed. 
 *' 15 — Col. Stuart commanding Confederate cavahy, attacks Union forces at 
 
 Bunker Hill, Va., and is defeated. 
 " 16 — SkiiTuishes at Millville, Mo., and Barboui'sviJle, Va. 
 '' 18 — Outposts of the two armies fight at Blackbm-n's Ford, on Bull Run, 
 
 some 20 miles from Washington. Southem troops withdraw. 
 
 BATTLE OF BULL RXTS. 
 
 " 31 — This was the first great battle. The Confederate government aims at the 
 captui'e of Washington. Their forces, under Gen. Beaui'egard, about 
 22,000 afterwards strengthened by 6,000, are attacked by Union army 
 tmder Gen. McDowell, ■with 28,000 men. It turns in favor of McDowell 
 until arrival of Confederate reinforcement of 6,000, when Union aiTay 
 was totally defeated, the fugitives flying in great disorder to the defenses 
 of Washington. 
 
 " 25 — Gen. McClellan takes command of the Army of the Potomac. 
 Aug. 1 — Confederate forces at Harper's Ferry retreat to Leesburg. 
 
 •' 2 — Congress authorized the raising of 500.000,000 to suppress the insurrec- 
 tion, providing for the cost by tax and tariff. 
 Gen. Lyon repulses the Confederates at Dug Spring, Mo. 
 
 " 5 — Commodore Allen bombarded Galveston. Texas. 
 
 " 7 — Hampton, Va., bumed by Southem forces. 
 
 " 10— Battle of Wilsons Creek. Mo. 
 
 Gen. Lyon (Union), with about 5,000 men, attacked Gen. McCullough 
 (Confederate), with over 10.000. Gen. Lyon killed. Federal losses in 
 killed, wounded, and missing, 1,211: Southem losses over 1,600. Union 
 forces retreated to Springfield. McCullough too much shattered to 
 follow. 
 
 " 12 — President Lincoln proclaimed Sept. 30 a Fast Day. 
 
 " 14 — Gen. Fremont declared martial law in St. Louis. 
 
 " 15 — President Davis ordered all Northern men to leave the South in 40 
 davs. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 725 
 
 Aug. 16 — President Lincoln forbids commercial intercourse with the South. 
 
 " 23 — Cherokee Indians take part with the South. 
 
 " 28 — Capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C, by Gen. Butler and Com. 
 Stringham. 
 
 " 31 — Gen. Fremont proclaims freedom of slaves and confiscates property of 
 disuniouists in Missouri President Lincoln countermands it. 
 Sept. 1 — Southerners defeated at Boonville, Va-, and town destroyed. 
 
 " 4— Confederate Gen. Polk occupies Columbus, Ky. Southern forces, at- 
 tempting to cross Potomac at Great Falls, repulsed. 
 
 '* 10 — Gen. Banks attacks Confederate Gen. Floyd, in intrenched camp, at 
 Carnifex Feny. Gen. Floyd retreats in the night. 
 
 '" 17 — Battle of Cheat Mountain, a Union victory. Col. J. A. Washington 
 killed. 
 
 " 18— Secession members of Maryland Legislature imprisoned. 
 
 "19 Arrest of Gov. Morehead and others for ti'eason, in Louisville, Ky. 
 
 " 20 — Col. Mulligan, Union, besieged, at Lexington, Mo., and compelled to sur- 
 render with over 2,000 men, after a fight of four days. 
 Oct. 2 — Battle of Chapmanville, Va. Confederates defeated. 
 
 •• 3 — Battle of Greenbriar, Va. Federal success. 
 
 '• 4— Confederate success at Chicamacomico, Va. Federals retreated. 
 
 " 5 — Steamer Monticello drives Southern forces from Chicamacomico. 
 
 " 7— Confederate Iron Clad Merrimac appears at Fortress Monroe. 
 
 " 11— Confederate Commissioners Slidell and Mason escape from Charles- 
 ton. S. C. 
 
 " 16— U. S. troops recapture Lexington, Mo. Battle of Pilot Knob. Mo. Union- 
 ists successful. 
 
 " 21— Battle of Balls Bluff. U. S. forces under Col. Baker, member of Con- 
 gress, 1,900 strong, defeated with loss of 918 men. Col. Baker killed. 
 Gen. Zollicoffer defeated by U. S. troops at Camp Wild Cat, Ky. 
 
 " 25— Gen. Kelly gains a battle against Confederates at Romney. Va. 
 
 " 29— U. S. naval and military force of 27,000 men and 75 vessels leave Fortress 
 Monroe for the South. 
 Nov. 1— Gen. Scott retires from command of the Union aixny. Gen. McClellan 
 appointed Gen. in Chief. Gen. Floyd fails in his attack on Gen. Rose- 
 cranz, at Gauley, Va. 
 
 " 2 — Gen. Fremont superseded by Gen. Hunter in Mo. 
 
 " 4 — Houston, Mo., taken by Union troops. 
 
 «« 7— Com. Dupont and Gen. Sherman capture Forts Walker and Beauregard, 
 S. C , and occupy Beaufort and Hilton Island. 
 
 Gen. Grant captured Confederate camp at Behnont, Mo., near Columbus. 
 Reinforcements arriving he retired. 
 
 " 8— Mason and Slidell. Confederate Commissioners to Europe, were taken 
 from British steamer Trent, i)y U. S. ship San Jacinto. On subsequent 
 demand of the English Government they were given up. 
 
 «« 10— Union soldiers having been killed by inhabitants of Guyandotte, Va., 
 the town was burned in retaliation. 
 
 " 15— The San Jacinto arrived at Fortress Monroe with Slidell and Mason. 
 
 •" 23— Bombardment of Pensacola, Fla., by Ft. Pickens and U. S. war vessels. 
 
726 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 NoT.2'7 — Gen. McClellan orders obserA'ance of the Sabbath in the army. 
 
 ■• 29 — Skirmish at Warsaw, Mo. Town partly destroyed. 
 
 " 30 — Fight at Salem, Mo. Southern forces defeated. 
 Dec. 3 — Congress met at Washington. 
 
 " 4 — Two Congressmen and Senator Breckenridge of Kentucky, expelled for 
 treason. 
 
 " 5 — Naval engagement at Cape Hatteras. 
 
 Forces of U. S. army and navj- reported very near TOO.OOC men. 
 
 " 9 — Confederate Congi-ess declares Kentucky a State in the Southern Con- 
 federacy. 
 
 " 13 — Gen. lililroy defeats Confederate Col. Johnson, at Camp Alleghany. 
 
 '* 16 — Platte City, Mo., burnt by Southern forces. 
 
 " 17 More than 20 vessels, filled with stone, simk at the entrance of Charles- 
 ton and Savannali harbors. 
 
 " 18 Gen. Pope captui-ed 1.300 Southerners and 1.000 stand of arms atililford,. 
 
 Mo. 
 
 '• 31 u. S. Navy increased from 42 vessels at beginning of the war to 246, of 
 
 all kinds, up to this date 
 
 1862. 
 Jan. 1— ]\Iason and Slidell leave Ft. Warren, Boston Harbor, for England. 
 
 'i 2 Success of Unionists on Port Royal Island, near Charleston. S. C. 
 
 " 4 — Gen. Milroy defeats Confederates at Huntersville. Va. 
 
 " 7 Confederate defeat at Romney. U. S- ti'oops captm-e stores in Tucker Co.,. 
 
 Va. 
 
 " 8 — rnion victoiy by Gen. Palmer at Silver Creek. Mo. 
 
 " 10 — Humphrey Marshall defeated by Union troops in Kentucky 
 
 Senators Johnson and Polk, of Mo., expelled from the U. S. Senate. 
 
 " 11— Simon Cameron. U. S. Secretaiy of War. resigned: E. M. Stanton 
 appointed. 
 
 Naval engagement on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Ohio: Union 
 vessel? superior. 
 
 - 12—126 vessels and 150.000 troops, under Gen. Bumside. sail for the Soutli, 
 
 " 18 — Ex-President Tyler dies. 
 
 ' 19 — Union victory at Mill Spring, Ky.. by Gen Shoepf over Gen. Zolhcoffer 
 and Gen. Crittenden. Much spoil taken: Gen= Zollicoffer killed. 
 
 .- 27— Bishop Ames and Gov. Fish, of New York, appointed to visit prisoners 
 in the South, to look after the interests of Union prisoners. Confeder- 
 ate authorities refuse to receive tliern. 
 
 SECTION XTII. 
 
 THE SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR. 
 
 The previous period, though abovmding in battles, so-called, were really skir- 
 mishes of detached bodies without any well defined plan. It covered much of 
 the surface of all the Border States, but especially Virginia and Missouri, and was 
 a trial of braverv and strategy in which both parties learned how to fight, and of 
 what metal their opponents were made. 
 
 The Second Period covered about eleven months — from the advance of the 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 737 
 
 Federal armies on the South in West and East, in Feb., to the close of the year. 
 
 Tliis period is defined in its commencement, by the surrounding of the southern 
 territory on nearly all sides by the Union forces, both naval and military; the 
 inauguration of aggressive movements both by sea and land; and in its close by 
 the failure of the two southern Generals, Bragg in the West, and Lee in the East, 
 in the endeavor to break through this beleaguering lino. It was an immense and 
 desperate conflict. 
 
 In the West it began by the attack of Grant on Fts. Henry and Donelson, fol- 
 loM'ed up by the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and various other operations in 
 Tennessee and Mississippi; in the east by the advance of McClellan on Rich- 
 mond, and his campaign in the Peninsula, his failure and return to Washington; 
 the strengthening of the Southern Army, and the advance of Lee northward into 
 Maryland and his defeat there. The disasters to the Union army in Virginia 
 served to check the successes of the Western Army under Grant, Sherman, 
 BueU, Rosecranz and others; the Confederate forces in the West were increased 
 imder Bragg, who checked the advance of U. S. troops eastward at Chattanooga, 
 and he himself assumed the offensive, by invading Kentucky. He was com- 
 pelled to retreat again to Chattanooga. Thus there was an alternation of great 
 successes and gi'eat reverses on both sides. 
 
 The Union Army commenced with about 600,000 men, and the Southern with 
 about 400,000. They both largely added to these during the campaign. 
 
 MeanAvhile the navy was not idle. A foothold was gained in South Carolina, 
 and in North Carohna, as well as Norfolk, Virginia; the mouth of the Mississippi 
 was opened by Admiral Farragut, and New Orleans captui'ed. The compression 
 of a vast naval and land force was applied in all directions, even west of the Mis- 
 sissippi. Missouri had been quieted by driving the organized forces into the border 
 of Arkansas, and inflicting on them a heavy blow at Pea Ridge. This, however, 
 was not followed up, the disasters to the Union cause in Virginia, and the 
 rebound of the Confederates in East Tennessee, requiring concentration. 
 
 The South had shown the most determined bravery and great steadiness in 
 disaster, and activity and ability in making the most of circumstances. The 
 speed with which she collected other levies and armies and used them within the 
 campaign greatly impressed the authorities and people of the Federal Govern- 
 ment. They were convinced that the blacks left at liome to till the ground, or 
 employed on the fortifications and other labor of the war, contributed much to 
 the strength of the South; enabling them to concentrate all their resources on a 
 given point with extreme rapidity, and to use all their best fighting material. 
 After so vast an outlay, to see their immense armies defied and the Northern 
 States threatened with invasion was discouraging. Hitherto slavery had not 
 been interfered with much, in deference to the sentiment in the Border States, 
 and the views of the Democratic party. The Union administration determined 
 to weaken the South by abstracting as much as possible of the slave element 
 from it and to use it themselves. The issue of the Proclamation of Emancipa- 
 tion marks a third phase of the war. 
 
 1862. 
 Feb. 3— The Federal Government decides to treat crews of privateers taken in 
 arms, not as pirates but, as prisoners of war. 
 " 5— Jesse D. Bright, of Indiana, expelled from the U. S. Senate, 
 
728 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TII.IE. 
 
 Feb. 6 — Com. Foote, acting iu concert with Gen. Grant, advances up the Ten- 
 nessee river, in Ky. . and captures Fort Henry. * 
 
 '• 8 — Gen. Buruside and Com. Goldsborough capture forts, forces and war 
 material on Roanoke Island, in Albemarle Sound, N. C. 
 
 " 10— Gunboats of Confederate Government taken or destroyed. 
 
 " 12— Gen. Grant invests Ft. Donelson, on Crunberland river, Ky. 
 
 " 13 — Gen. Curtis advances to Springfield, Mo. 
 
 U. S. Congress determines to construct 20 iron clad giinboats. 
 
 " 15 — Bowling Green, Ky.. evacuated by Southern forces. 
 
 "• 16— Gen. Grant captures Ft. Donelson with 13,300 prisoners. 
 
 " 18— Gen. Cui-tis drives Confederates out of Missouri into Arkansas. 
 Confederate Congress assemble at Richmond, Va. 
 
 " 19 — Jefferson Da^^s and A. H. Stevens elected permanent President and 
 Vice-President of Confederate States for six years. 
 
 " 31 — Defeat of Union forces at Clarksville, New Mexico. 
 
 " 23 — Nashville, Tenn., occupied by Union forces. 
 
 " 27 — Columbus, on the ^Mississippi, in Ky.. evacuated by Confederates. 
 Mar. 2 — Severe encounter between Union gunboats and Confederate battery at 
 Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee. Union success. 
 
 " 3 — Gen. Beaui-egard assumes command of Southern ai-my in Mississippi. 
 
 " 6-8 — Gen. Curtis defeats Gen. McCidlough at Pea Ridge. Ark. Ciu-tis' army 
 22,000. McCullough"s 35,000. McCullough killed. 
 
 '. 9 — First trial of Monitors. The formidable ]\Ierrimac, a Confedei-ate iron 
 clad vessel, conquered by the Monitor. 
 
 " 11 — Gen. McClellan's command confined to the army of the Potomac. 
 
 " 12 — Com. Dupont takes possession of Jacksonville. Florida. 
 Mar. 13— Confederates evacuate New Madrid. Mo., in haste, leaving $1,000,006 
 worth of military stores. 
 
 " 14 — Newbum, N. C, captured by Gen. Burnside. Immense stores taken. 
 
 " 18— Confederate fortifications at Acquia Creek, Va., evacuated. 
 
 " 23— Battle of Winchester, Va. Southern forces defeated. 
 
 " 28— Fight at Union Ranch, New Mexico. Union troops 3,000. Texaiis 1,100. 
 Result Tondecided. 
 Apr. 6-7— Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh. Fu-st day's battle fought hj 
 Beauregard and Johnston, Confederate Generals, with 40,000 available 
 troops, by Gen. Grant with 33,000. He was supported by gunboats in 
 the Tennessee river. Attack and defense desperate, and tlie slaughter 
 feai-ful. The second day Beauregard had no more than 20,000 effective 
 men. Grant was reinforced by BueU, and his effective force was 45,000. 
 It was great honor to Union troops not to recognize defeat on the 6th, 
 and highly creditable to Confederates to make a desperate stand and in- 
 flict an immense loss on Federals on the 7th. They were almost annihi- 
 lated but retreated without immediate pursuit. 
 
 •' 8 — Island No. 10, Mississippi river, captured. 
 
 " 11 — Ft. Pulaski captured by Gen. Hunter — commands entrance to Savannah^ 
 Ga. Gen. Mitchell occupies Huntsville, Ala. 
 
 '^ 12— Gen. Mitchell captures 2,000 prisoners at Chattanooga, East Tennessee. 
 
 " 16— Slavery abolislied in the District of Columbia, by U. S. Congress. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 729 
 
 Apr. 18— Gen. McClellan's advance attacked on the Peninsula, Va. 
 " 19 — Success of Union Gens. Burnside and Reno, in North Carolina. 
 " 25 — Com. Farragnt, passing the forts, captures New Orleans. 
 " 28 — Forts Jackson and St. Philip, near mouth of Mississippi below New Or- 
 leans, surrender. 
 " 29 — Gen. Mitchell defeats Confederates at Bridgport, Ala. 
 May 1 — Union cavalry cajitured at Pulaski, Tenn. 
 " 3 — Yorktown evacuated by Southern troops. Occupied by McClellan. 
 " 5 — Battle of Williamsburg, Va. Lasts all day. Unionists successful. 
 " 7 — Southern Gen. Lee attacks McClellan's army but is repulsed. 
 " 8 — Union Gen. Milroy repulsed at McDowell's, Va., after a five hour's fight. 
 " 9 — Pensacola Fla., evacuated by Southern forces. 
 
 " 10— Norfolk, Va., occupied by Union forces. The Merrimac, Gosport Navy 
 Yard, and vast quantities of stores destroyed by retreating Confederates. 
 *' 15 — The Agricultural Department created by Congress. 
 " 12 — Natchez, on the Mississippi river, surrendered to Farragut. 
 " 17 — Union forces drive Confedei-ates over the Chickahominy, Va. 
 " 24 — Southern success at Front Royal, Va., over Col. Kenley 
 
 25 — Gen. Banks, defeated at Winchester, Va., retreats across the Potomac. 
 " 27— Confederates defeated at Hanover, Va. 
 " 30 — Union ti'oops occupy Corinth, Mississippi. 
 " 31— Battle of Fair Oaks. Union troops repulsed, 
 June 1 — Battle of Fair Oaks renewed. Southern forces repulsed with heavy loss. 
 " 6 — Gunboats captm-e Memphis, Tenn., and Confederate vessels. 
 " 8— Battle of Cross Keys, Va. Gen. Freemont defeats Stonewall Jackson. 
 " 14 — Union forces defeated on James Island, near Charleston, S. C. 
 " 18 — Union troops occupy Cumberland Gap., Tenn. 
 " 19 — Congress prohibits slavery in the Territories. 
 " 22 — Six days fight before Richmond commenced at Mechanicsville. Union 
 
 forces repulsed. 
 " 27 — Bombardment of Vicksburg. Gen. Fremont relieved of command. 
 
 Battle before Richmond renewed. 
 ' 28 — Severe battle before Richmond; enemy repulsed at night. Unionists 
 
 fall back. 
 " 29 — Battles of Peach Orchard and Savage's Station, Va. Federal repulse. 
 " 20 — Battle of White Oak Swamji. McClellan continues to retreat toward 
 James river. Confederates repulsed with loss. 
 July 1— Battle of Malveni Hill. Southern forces repulsed. End of 6 days 
 fight. 
 
 President Lincoln calls for 600,000 volunteers. 
 
 Internal Revenue Bill passed Congress, Polygamy forbidden in the 
 United States. 
 
 Union Pacific Railroad chartered by Congress. 
 " 7— Fight at Bayou Cache, Ark. Gen. Curtis, Union, defeats Gen. Pike, 
 
 Southern. 
 " 9— Hamilton, N. C, captured by Federal troops, 
 
 ■" 11— Southern Gen. Morgan enters Glasgow, Ky. Gen. Halleck appointed 
 Commander-in-Chief of the U. S. armies. 
 
730 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, 
 
 July 13 — Southern forces capture Murf reesborough, Tenn. Stores and prisonei-s 
 taken. 
 
 ' 17 — Cynthiana, Kentucky, captured. 
 " — Southern raid mto Indiana. Gen, TwiggB died. 
 
 '< 22 — Siege of Vicksburg abandoned by U. S. forces. 
 
 This mouth is generally disastrous to Eastern and Western Union armies. 
 Confederate armies become strongly aggressive, and advance north intO' 
 Ky., and toward ]\Iaryland. 
 Aug. 3— Gen. Jeff. Thompson, Confederate, defeated near Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 '• 4— U. S. Secretary of War ordered a draft of 300,000 men to sei-vefor nine- 
 months. 
 
 - 5— Battle of Baton Rouge, La. Gen. Breckenridge defeated. 
 
 " 10— Battle of Cedar Mountain. Gen. Jackson fails to drive Gen. Banks. 
 
 " 16— Gen. McClellan evacuates the Peninsula. 
 
 " 21— Gen. Sigel obtains an important and bloody advantage on the Rappahan- 
 nock. 
 
 <' 26— Confederate Gen. Ewell drives Unionists from Manassas, Va. 
 
 Union expedition up the Yazoo river, Mississippi, is successful. 
 
 " 27— Gen. Pope defeats Gen. Ewell at Haymarket, Va. 
 
 <' 28— Battle of Centreville. Gen. Jackson repulsed. 
 
 .' 29— Battle of Groveton, near Bull Run, Va. Confederates repulsed, but 
 renewed the fight next day and Gen. Pope withdrew. 
 
 '^ 30— Battle near Richmond, Ky. Union Gen. Nelson defeated with heavy- 
 loss. 
 
 " 31— Battle of Weldon, Va., a Union victoiy. The general operations of this 
 month by the main armies east and west largely in favor of the South, 
 notwithstanding heavy losses inflicted and successes gained in detached 
 engagements by the U. S troops. The armies under Lee and Bragg- 
 pressed on northward with incredible vigor. No repulses or defeats 
 could stop their headlong rush. 
 Sept. 1— The last of Gen. Pope's battles in Va., near Washington. Two of his- 
 generals were killed— Kearney and Stevens. The enemy retired, leaving^ 
 their dead and wounded. In 6 days Pope had lost near 10,000 in killed 
 and wounded. 
 
 Battle at Britton's Lane, Tenn. Confederates fled. 
 Union Army evacuate Lexington, Ky. Fight at Jackson, Tenn. 
 
 .' 2 — McClellan put in command of army for the defense of V^ashington 
 
 " 5— Confederate army cross the Potomac to Frederick. Maiyland. 
 Attack on LTnion troops at Washington, N. C. It is repulsed. 
 
 " 6 — Col. Lowe recaptured Clarksville, Tenn. 
 
 " 8— Gen Lee issues a proclamation to the Mary landers. 
 
 " 9— Col. Grierson overcomes Southern forces at Cold water, Miss. 
 Union forces repel the enemy at Williamsburgh, Va. 
 Fredericksburg. Va., evacuated by Southern forces. 
 
 " 10— Great fears of invasion in Pennsylvania and Ohio. Philadelphia and 
 Cincinnati begin to prepare for an attack. 
 
 " 11— Ganby. Va.. Maysville, Ky., and Bloomfield. Mo., taken by Southern 
 forces. 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 731 
 
 Sept 12 — Charleston, S. C, bombarded and partial!}' burnt. Fight on Elk river, 
 
 Va., and at Middletown, Maryland. 
 •• 13 — Harpers Ferry, Va., besieged. It surrendered on the 15th with 11,500 
 
 men. 
 "■ 14 — McClellan engages Lee's army at South Mountain, Md. Lee retired to- 
 ward the Potomac. The invasion of the North was stopped, for this 
 
 time, in the East. 
 " 16 — Munfordsville, Ky., captured by Confederates and 4,000 prisoners 
 
 taken. 
 " 17 — Lee unwilling to give up his plan of invasion, makes another stand at 
 
 Antietam creek, and a great battle was fought. Near 100,000 men on 
 
 each side. The result was indecisive, the losses nearly equal, each in the 
 
 neighborhood of 13,000. Lee retreated across the Potomac m the night, 
 
 and Harper's Ferry was evacuated. 
 " 20 — Gen. Rosecrans defeats the Southerners with great loss at luka, Miss. 
 " 22 — President Lincoln issues an Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all 
 
 the slaves free, unless the Southern States discontinued the war within 
 
 100 days. 
 " 27 — U. S. garrison at Augusta, Ky.. surrender after a very gallant fight. 
 Oct. 3 — Battle of Corintlx, Miss. Confederates defeated with great loss. 
 
 "8-9 — Battle of Perry ville. Ky. Southern army having been arrested in its 
 
 advance and obliged to retreat before Gen. Buell, turned on his advance 
 
 and inflicted a severe blow, but are forced to resume tlieir retreat. 
 " 10 — Confederate cavalry, under Stuart, make a raid on Chambersburg, 
 
 Penn. They capture 500 horses and many stores and liastily return to 
 
 Virginia. 
 '• 14— One liundred thousand dollars sent to Sanitary Commission from San 
 
 Francisco. ^ 
 
 " 15 — Battle near Richmond, Ky. 
 
 " 19 — Gen. Forrest defeated by the Union forces, near Gallatin, Tex. 
 " 22 — Southern defeat at Maysville, Ark., by Gen. Blunt. 
 " 24 — An English vessel bringing military stores to the South captured. 
 " 28— Confederates defeated by Gen. Herron, at Fayetteville. Ark 
 " 30— Gen. Rosecrans supersedes Buell in Kentucky. Gen. Mitchell, the 
 
 astronomer, died in S. C. 
 Nov. 5— Gen. McClellan relieved of command in Va. by Gen. Burnside. 
 
 Attack on Nashville by Confederates. They are repulsed. 
 •• 11— Southern defeat at Garrettsburg, Ky., by Gen. Ransom. 
 
 Exchange of prisoners effected. 
 •' 16— President Lincoln enjoins on soldiers in camp and garrison observance 
 
 of tlie Sabbath. 
 " 17— Cavalry fight near Kingston, N. C. Southerners beaten. 
 •' 22— All political State prisoners released by U. S. Government. 
 .' 25— Newburn, N. C, attacked by Southern troops. They soon retire. 
 •' 28— Battle of Cane Hill, Ark. A Union victory. 
 Dec. 1— The Pittsburg Battery, captured on the Peninsula, retaken by a Union 
 
 force sent from Sufl'olk, Va. 
 • .")— Battle of Coffeeville, MisK. Southern loss was heavy. 
 
732 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Dec. 6 — Gen. Banks' expedition for the South sailed for New Orleans. 
 
 " 7 — At Prairie Grove, Ark., Gens. Blunt and Herron defeated Confederates. 
 
 Confederate Gen. Morgan captured several regiments of Western troops. 
 " 8 — Steamer Lake City destroyed by Southernei-s. 
 ' ' 9 — U. S. troops burn Concordia, on the Mississippi. 
 " 13 — Battle of Fredericksburg. A severe repulse to the Union army. 
 
 Gen. Foster makes a cavalry raid into the interior of N. C. a success. 
 
 Commodore Parker destroys Confederate salt vt-orks. five schooners and 
 
 two sloops. 
 " 17 — Gen. Banks captures Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana. 
 " 19 — Confederates retake Holly Springs, Miss., and large stores with 4,000 
 
 bales of cotton. 
 •" 26 — Indians, engaged in the Minnesota massacre, hung — 38 in number. 
 " 27 — ^Vicksburg attacked by Gen. Sherman and gunboats, unsuccessfully. 
 " 31 — Battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River, commenced with a Federal re- 
 pulse. 
 
 The Monitor that conquered the Merrimac foundered at sea. 
 
 Act of Congress admitting West Virginia into the Union as a sovereign 
 
 State. This was to take effect 60 days after the President's proclamation 
 
 making this announcement. 
 
 SECTIOJ^ XTIII. 
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1863. 
 
 The preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation, issued Sept.-22d, 1862, was not 
 to take effect for 100 days, or until Jan. 1st, 1863. Meanwhile the final details of 
 the great operations undertaken on both sides during 1862 were wound up. The 
 bold efforts of the Sotith, in the East and West, to transfer the war into the 
 North, and indemnify themselves for the strict blockade of the coast by drawing 
 supplies from the enemy, had resulted in defeat and withdrawal; not unaccom- 
 panied with booty, especially in the west, where Bragg's train of supplies was 
 said to have been 40 miles long. The Southern people had failed in the main 
 point, yet they had gained much. Federal reverses in the east had stopped the 
 victories in the west in mid career, both by withdrawing' from those armies to 
 the east, and adding to the Confederates from the same region. Grant and Sher- 
 man failed at Vicksbiu-g. and Buell at Chattanooga. 
 
 Yet these reverses to the Union arms served to stimulate the North, to 
 demonstrate the energy, resources, and indomitable resolution of the National 
 Government, and to undeceive the South as to the real sentiments of the great 
 body of the Democratic party from which they had hoped aid on an invasion in 
 force. Several of the European Powers, who would have liked to support the 
 South, seeing the formidable strength of the General Government, drew back in 
 fear. The South might have foreseen that her cause was really hopeless; but she 
 was too American not to feel an unconquerable resolution to carry her point or 
 perish. She strengthened her armies and prepared for another invasion. 
 
 The Federal armies were now (Jan., 1863) about 800,000 strong: her navy con- 
 sisted of near 450 vessels, a large number being iron-clads. Tlie great events of 
 the campaign were Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania and his retreat after the battle 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 733 
 
 of Gettysburg, and Grant's success at Vicksburg and Chattanooga. Tlie resolu- 
 tion of the South, enveloped in the embrace of so mighty an antagonist, was 
 wonderful; the unfaltering spirit and readiness of the Northern people to furnisli 
 whatever were required for success was not less so. The whole South, at least 
 every State, was the theater of many contests of move or less importance; but 
 the main interest centered on the Mississippi river, at Chattanooga and its vicin- 
 ity, and on Gen. Lee's army in Virginia or Pennsylvania. It was a contest of 
 giants; yet, struggle as she might, the South was doomed. At the end of this 
 year she was still strong, her armies were veterans, her spirit unbroken. Tho 
 Federal Government had gained much, but it was step by step, inch by inch; 
 and, in some parts, as in Virginia, what had been gained many times <.)ver, in 
 territoiy, had been as often lost. Her general gain over the Confederate States 
 lay most largely in the fatal process of exhaustion to which the vast operations 
 of the Federal Government forced the South. Increase of numbers made the 
 battles more bloody and wasteful of life. The three leading events in this cam- 
 paign — the capture of Vicksburg (the battle of Chickamauga was a Confederate 
 victory, but balanced by that of Chattano(jga), the battle of Gettysburg, and the 
 battle of Chattanooga — were all decisive against the Confederates, yet leaving 
 her strength for a long and vigorous contest of more than a year and a half. 
 
 1863. 
 Jan. 1 — The year opened with a Confederate success at Galveston, Texas. An 
 attack by sea and land resulted in tlie capture o{ 300 troops, the destruc- 
 tion of one vessel with its crew, and the capture of another, the Harriet 
 Lane. Com. Renshaw was blown up with his vessel. 
 Confederate defeat at Lexington, Tenu., after an obstinate fight. 
 Proclamation of Emancipation issued by President Lincoln. 
 Long, but indecisive battle of Stone River. Federal killed and wounded, 
 8,000. 
 " 3 — Union army withdraws from before Vicksburg. Southern army retreats 
 
 at Murfeesborough, Tenn. 
 " 7— Springfield, Mo., successfully defended by Unionists. 
 " 9 — 20,000 prisoners exchanged. 
 " 11 — A combined attack on Fts. Hindnian and Arkansas Post by gunboats and 
 
 land forces, resulted in Union success — over 7,000 prisoners. 
 " 12— Three Federal transports and a gunboat captured on Cumberland river. 
 " 18 — The Southern steamer, Florida, escapes from Mobile. 
 " 17— $100,000,000 issued by the U. S. government in notes to pay the army. 
 " 20— Blockading vessels captured by Confederates, at Sabine City, Texas. 
 " 22— Attack on Vicksburg resumed. Gen. Porter dismissed from U. S. army. 
 " 25 — A regiment of colored soldiers organized at Port Royal, S. C 
 " 26— Gen. Hooker succeeds Gen. Burnside, in command of the Union Army 
 
 of the Potomac, and Gens. Sumner and Franklin are relieved from duty. 
 
 The Confederate war steamer, Alabama, destroys one vessel and captures 
 
 another. 
 Feb. 1 — A second unsuccessful gmiboat attack on Ft. McAUister. 
 
 " 5— Desti-uction of transports on Red River. La. Ft. Donelson repels 
 
 Southern troops. 
 " 12 — The Florida captures the Union merchant vessel, Jacob Bell. 
 
734 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Feb. 13 — Tiie iron-clad, Indianola, nins the blockade at Vicksburg, and is 
 captured. 
 
 " 18 — Vicksburg bombarded by the gunboats — ineffectually. 
 
 ' ' 31 — The Alabama, a Confederate cruiser, destroys two vessels on the Afri- 
 can coast. 
 
 " 25 — The Bureau of Currency and National Banks established by U. S. 
 Congress. 
 
 " 25 — The Cherokees return to the Union and abolish slavery. 
 
 Twenty-eight cars, with stores, destroyed by Confederates, in Ken- 
 tucky, 
 
 " 28 — Confederate iron-clad, Nashville, destroyed in Ogeechee river, Geo. 
 Mar. 1 — Third fruitless Union attack on Ft. McAllister., Geo. 
 
 " 2 — U. S. Generals increased to 358. 
 
 '• 3 — Congi-ess authorizes loan of $900,000,000. These are called ten-f(n^y's. 
 The President authorized to suspend the -wi-it of Habeas Corpus. 
 U. S. Assistant Treasurer provided by an act of Congress. 
 Territorial Government organized in Idaho. 
 Two U. S. gunboats destroyed. 
 
 <' 5 — ^Van Dorn (Confederate) captures Springfield, Tenn., and many 
 prisoners. 
 6— Van Dom captures a considerable Union force at Franklin, Tenn. 
 
 ■" 7 — Gen. Minty captures a Confederate cavalry force at Unionville, Tenn. 
 
 " 10 — Colored troops captured Jacksonville, Florida. 
 
 " 10 — Port Hudson, Mississippi River, attacked by the Union gunboat fleet 
 under Com. FaiTagut. Tlie flag ship disabled and burnt. 
 
 *' 17 — Gallant and successful exploit of Union cavaliy at Kelly's Ford, Va. 
 
 " 19 — An English steamer with arms for the South desti'oyed off Charleston. 
 
 " 20— Defeat of Morgan (Confederate) at lilflton, Tenn. 
 
 ■" 15 — Two Union vessels lost before Vicksburg. 
 
 " 28 — Confederate steamer Iris captured near Cliarleston, S. C. 
 
 Great scarcity of many things in the Confederacy from the strictness of 
 the blockade, and exti-eme depreciation of Confederate money. No cot- 
 ton could be sold. 
 Apr. 7 — An attack on Fort Sumpter by nine Union iron-clads. They are 
 worsted. 
 The Alabama Confederate cniiser captures the U. S. ship Morning Star. 
 
 " 10— Two Union gunboats destroyed on Cumberland River. 
 
 Van Dom repulsed by Union General Granger, at Franklin, Tenn. 
 
 " 16 — Com. Porter i-uns the batteries at Vicksburg successfully. 
 
 " 17 — Gen. Banks vanquished Southern troops at La Teche and Grand 
 Lake, La. 
 
 " 22 — The Queen of the West captured on Grand Lake. Grigsby, Confederate, 
 surprised at McMmnvUle, Tenn. Banks occupied Opelousas and Wash- 
 ington, Miss. 
 
 " 23 — Gen. Hunter informs Confederate authorities that colored soldiers must 
 be treated as other prisoners of war, on pain of retaliation. 
 
 " 24 — Union defeat at Beverly, Va., and victories at Weber Falls, Ark., and on 
 Iron Mountain Railroad, Mo. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 735 
 
 May 1 — Gen. Grant defeated tlie Southern troops at Port Gibson. 
 Gen. Pegram, Confederate, defeated at Monticello, Ky. 
 A third defeat of Southern troops, at South Quay, Va. 
 Unionists defeated af La Grange, Ark. Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., 
 begins. 
 
 " 2 — Col. Grierson, of U. S. army, finished a daring and successful raid 
 through the interior of Miss. Traveled 800 miles in 16 days. 
 Battle of Chancellorsville continued. It was a Federal repulse. Loss 
 each side 15,000. 
 3 — Capture of Grand Gulf, Miss., by Admiral Porter. 
 
 2 — Vallandigham arrested in Ohio on the cliarge of treason. He was sent 
 South. 
 10 — Stonewall Jackson, an able and brilliant Southern general, mortally 
 
 wounded. 
 11— Gen. Logan, Union, defeats Gen. Grigg at Faniden's Creek, Miss. Each 
 
 had about 5,000 men. 
 12 — Gen. McPherson captured Raymond, Miss., from Confederates. 
 13 — Yazoo Citj' and $2,000,000 worth of pi-operty captured by Union gun- 
 boats. 
 
 Gen. Grant defeats Pemberton at Baker's Creek, Miss., with heavy loss. 
 Each had about 25,000 men. Pemberton lost 4,000 men and next day 
 2,000 more. 
 
 " 18 — Grant commences siege of Vicksburg, Miss. 
 
 " 26 — Gen. Breckenridge, Confederate, suffered defeat in Tennessee. 
 
 " 29 — An immense train an-ives in Gen. Banks' lines near Port Hudson; 600 
 wagons, 3,000 horses and mules, 1,500 cattle, 6,000 negroes. 
 Gen. Banks fails in several attacks on Port Hudson. 
 June 3 — A brilliant raid by a colored regiment in South Carolina. 
 
 " 11 — Forrest, of Confederate cavalry, defeated at Triune, Tenn. 
 
 " 15 — President Lincoln calls for 120,000 militia to repel Lee's invasion of 
 Penn. 
 
 " 18 — About 100,000 Southern forces enter Penn., near Chambersburg. 
 
 " 20 — ^West Virginia admitted as a State into the Union. Missouri Legislature 
 abolishes slavery. 
 
 In this month the great events of the camjjaign, the taking of Vicks- 
 burg and opening the Mississippi river, and the failure of Gen. Lee's in- 
 vasion by his loss of the battle of Gettysburg, are rapidly approaching 
 the grand crisis. 
 July — The first days of this month formed the crisis of the war. 
 
 " 3 — Gen. Lee, with 100,000 men, was defeated by Gen Meade at Gettysburg, 
 Pa., with about equal numbers. Lee retreated to Virginia. The Union 
 losses at Gettysburg were 23,000. Lee had lost in his 17 days in the Free 
 States 60,000 men, altogether. 
 
 *♦ 4 — Vicksburg surrendered to Gen. Grant, after a siege of 46 days. In the 
 battles immediately preceding, under Grant, and in this siege and capit- 
 ulation, ihe South lost near 50,000 men. Grant's losses were about 
 9,000. 
 Gen. Prentice defeated a greatly superior force at Helena, Ark. 
 
736 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 July 8 — Port Hudson surrenders to Gen. Banks, with 7,000 men. 
 
 Morgan, of Confederate cavalry, invades Indiana and Ohio with 5,000 
 men. He is captured before he can return. 
 
 " 13 — Great riot in New York city. 
 
 " 17 — Gen. Sherman defeats Confederate Gen. Johnston, and occupies Jackson, 
 Miss. 
 
 <' 20 — Two successful Union cavahy expeditions in N. C. and Va. 
 
 " 23 — Battle of Manassas Gap. Unionists defeat a superior force. A Con- 
 federate victory at Richmond, Ky. 
 
 ' ' 31 — Confederates beaten ui Ky. 
 
 Aug. 1 — Two cavalry battles in Va. 
 
 •' 4 — Disastrous loss of U. S. steamer Ruth, on the Mississippi, by fire. 
 
 " 12 — Qen. Gilmore bombarded Ft. Sumter and Charleston most of the month. 
 
 " 17— Successful cavalry raid into Mississippi to destroy stores. 
 
 " 20 — Lawi-ence, Kansas, attacked and destroyed by guerUlas. 
 
 A g-uerilla war was carried on veiy largely this month, both east and 
 west of the Mississippi. 
 Sept. 1— Knoxville, Tenn., captured by Gen. Bumside. 
 
 Gen. Blunt defeated the Confederates, and captured Ft. Smith, Ark. 
 
 " 6 — Yts. Wagner and Gregg captured by Gen. Gilmore, Charleston, S. C. 
 
 " 8 — Cumberland Gap taken by Gen. Burnside. 2,000 prisoners. 
 
 '• 20— Little Rock occupied by Union forces. 
 
 19.20 — A terrible battle is fought at Chickamauga (in Indian the "River of 
 Death,"') in which Gen. Rosecrans with some 50,000 or 60,000 troops is 
 severely defeated by Bragg, ^-ith about 45,000. Federal losses 15,000. 
 Yet Bragg did not captm-e Chattanooga. 
 
 <« 22 — Severe battle at Madison Court House, Va. Union Victory. 
 
 <' 28— General Burnside repulses Confederates at Knoxville, Tenn. 
 Oct. 3 — Union forces throw Greek fire into Charleston, S. C. 
 
 '< 5 — Chattanooga bombarded by Bragg. 
 
 " 9— Defeat of Wlieelers Confederate cavalry, in Tenn. 
 
 — Battle at Bristow Station, Va. Favorable to U. S. troors. 
 
 «' 16— Gen. Grant takes command of the Western amiies. 
 
 " i7_The President calls for 300,000 more troops. 
 
 " 21 — A battle in Alabama, in Mississippi, and in Tennessee. 
 
 • ' 27 Battle of Brown's Feriy, near Chattanooga. Confederates beaten, 
 
 " 28 — Gen. Hooker takes Lookout Mountain. 
 
 .. 31_Gen. Hooker gains the battle of Shell Mound. 
 Nov, The main interest of the month gathers about the great and decisive bat- 
 tle of Chattanooga, between Gens. Grant and Bragg. All the forces to 
 be spared on either side were concentrated here. Chattanooga has been 
 called, " The back door of the Confederacy." 
 Nov. 5— Chattanooga bombarded by the Southern forces. 
 
 Gen. Aveiy gains a Union victory at Lewisburg, Va. 
 
 '< 7 Gen. Meade drives Southern army across the Rappahannock. 
 
 i( 11 The British Government makes known an intended invasion of the North 
 
 from Canada, by Confederates. 
 
 n i5_G«n. Banks takes Corpus Christi. Texas. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 737 
 
 Nov. 17 — Charleston continues to be shelled. 
 
 Gen. Longstreet detached from Confederate army at Chattanooga, with 
 
 15,000 men, to attack Burnside. 
 " 19 — National Cemetery consecrated, at Gettysburg, 
 " 23-26 — Battles of Chattanooga and Lookout Mountain. Southern forces 
 
 about 60,000, Grant's about 80,000. Confederate losses 10,000, Union, 
 
 5,616. It was a blow never recovered by the Confederacy. 
 " 28 — Gen. Longstreet attacks Knoxville and is repulsed with loss. 
 
 SECTION XYIII. 
 
 CAMPAIGN OF 1864- 
 
 There was a lull, for a time, in the tempest of war. The Confederate forces 
 had lost ground that they could hardly hope to regain. The Mississippi river and 
 Eastern Tennessee, both of supreme importance to the Confederacy, were in pos- 
 session of the Union armies, whicli gi'ew ever stronger. They were now about 
 1,000,000 strong, and the navy had increased to over 600 vessels. This force was 
 in vigorous hands, that gripjied fast what they once held. The misfortune of 
 many commanders and continual changes, from political rather than military 
 considerations, began to be well understood. Grant had gained so uniformly 
 when others had failed, he was recognized as so tenacious and unwearied, that 
 he received and held the confidence of the people and the Government. This was 
 a jjoint of great importance for shortening the war; for the Southern people were 
 stUl resolute, had still a vast country, were on the defensive in a smaller region 
 than before, and could resist more effectively with a smaller anny. They still mad^ 
 a most gallant and determined resistance which the vast resources of the National 
 Government did not enable them to overcome for nearly a year and a half. Tlie 
 country was still covered with detached bodies of troops. A desultoiy war was 
 maintained where strong armies failed to hold the ground, or were concentrated 
 at a few points. The great movements were in Virginia and Georgia; the 
 secondaiy in Tennessee, in Mississippi, and Texas. 
 
 It took a year to break the will of the Southern people after they were really 
 conquered. This period covers the year 1864: 1865 furnishes only the dying 
 struggles of the Confederacy, already mortally wounded. 
 
 1864. 
 
 The bombardment of Charleston continued during the preceding month. Some 
 cavalry movements were made, tlie President of the U. S. offered amnesty to all 
 who would take an oath of allegiance, and Gen. Butler announced that the Con- 
 federate Government refused to receive any more supplies for Union prisoners 
 from the North. 
 
 Jan. 7 — Three blockade runners captured. 
 " ll^Two more were destroyed, making 22 in a few months. 
 " 25 — Cornelius Vanderbilt, having presented a steamer worth $800,000 to the 
 U. S. government, received the thanks of Congress. 
 Feb. 1— The President of the U. S. ordered a draft of 500.000 men. 
 " 5 — Two English steamers, with supplies for the South, captured. 
 " y— Cotton worth $700,000 burned at Wilmington, N. C. 
 47 
 
738 THE FOOTPRIXTS OF TIME. 
 
 Feb. 20 — Negro troops cover the reti-eat of a defeated white Union force at Okis- 
 tee, Fla. 
 
 " 28 — The large armies being brolien up or concentrated, and the lines of com- 
 munication very much interiaipted, many Union cavalr\- raids, aiming 
 to break the lines of communication by raih'oad completely, to lay waste 
 the country, and to free the negToes. who "we^e raising supplies for the 
 Southern armies in the far interior, were undertaken. That of Sher- 
 man to Meridian, in Miss. ^ and of Grierson and Smith, and many smaller 
 ones, were executed dui'ing this month. The damage to raih'oads and 
 the supplies destroyed was incalculable. 18 blockade runners and other 
 vessels bringing supplies to the South were destroyed during the 
 month. 
 Mar. 2 — Gen. Grant made Lieut. General; the only one who had reached that 
 dignity since Gen. "Washington — Gen. Scott being Lieut. Gen. only by- 
 brevet. 
 
 " 12 — Gen. Grant made Commander-in-chief of the U. S. armies 
 
 " 15— The President of the U. S. calls for 200.000 more men. 
 
 " 25 — Confederate Gen, Forrest makes tliree assaults on Paducah, Ky., with 
 loss of 1,500 men, in vain. 
 
 " 28 — A severe defeat inflicted on Southern forces at Cane Eiver, La. 
 Apr. 4 — Gen, Marmaduke defeated by Gen. Steele, Unionist, at Little Missouri, 
 Ark, 
 
 " 8 — Gen. Banks suffers a reverse on the Red River, La., and retreats with 
 loss, 
 
 " 12 — Gen, Fon-est takes Ft. Pillow. The garrison consisted largely of 
 negroes. 
 
 i' 21 — Salt works in Xoith Carolina desti-oyed— value §100,000. As salt was 
 indispensable to army operations, the utmost effort was made to ruin as 
 many works as possible. 
 23 — Governors of "Western States offer the L", S. Govermnent 85,000 men for 
 100 days. The President accepts them. 
 May 2 — Union prisoners are exchanged and brought to Annapolis. 
 
 " 4 — Gen Grant crosses the Rapidan, in Va., and commences operations in the 
 Wilderness. He, with 140,000 men confronts Lee, who has 60,000 
 
 " 5 — Fighting in the Wilderness for two days without decided result. Costs 
 Grant 30,000 (0.000 were prisoners") and Lee 10,000, Lee was inti'enched 
 and familiar with the ground, which was highly unfavorable to the 
 Union army. 
 
 " 6 — Gen. Sherman confronts Gen, Johnston near Chattanooga, Sherman 
 has near 100,000. Johnston 60,000. 
 
 " 7 — Lee retreats toward Spottsylvania Court House, Union army follows, 
 fighting 
 
 To this date 1 50, 000 Southern soldiers had been made prisoners during 
 the course of the War. 
 May 8 — Battle of Spottsylvania continued : result indecisive. 
 
 " 10 — Battle of Spottsylvania continued. Still indecisive. Losses to each side 
 10,000 men. 
 
 " 12 — Lee and Grant fight again, without victory by either. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 739 
 
 May 13— Sheridan destroyed Lee's depot of supplies in his rear, at Beaver Dam. 
 
 " 15— Sherman drives Johnston from Resaca, Ga.. after two days' fighting. 
 
 " 21 — Lee is flanked at Spottsylvania, and retires to the North Anna. 
 
 " 23 — Morgan (Confederate cavalry) enters Ky., with 4,000 men. 
 
 " 25 — Sheridan rejoins Grant, after a brilliant series of daring deeds in the 
 rear of Lee. Gen. Stuart, a veiy able Confederate cavalry leader, is 
 killed in this raid. 
 
 " 27 — Grant again flanked Lee, crossing the Pannmky to Hauovertown. 
 June 1 — Battle of Cold Harbor, north of, and near, Richmond. It was fought 
 with the utmost braveiy and obstinacy-, but gained no more decisive end 
 than the destruction of men and material involved. This was very 
 severe on Lee, from the smaller number he had to fall back on. 
 
 '* 7 — Abraham Lincoln renominated for the presidency of the U. S. 
 
 *' 14 — Gen. Polk (a Southern bishop) killed. 
 
 " 15 — An unsuccessful assault for three days on Petersburg. Union losses 10,- 
 000 men. 
 
 " 18— To this time Grant had lost 64,000 men— Lee 38,000 during this cam- 
 paign. 
 
 " 19 Steamer Kearsarge sinks the famous Alabama, off the coast of France. 
 
 " 20 — Petersburg strongly reinforced by Lee. 
 
 " 27 — Sherman, pushing Johnston at Kenesaw, meets a severe repulse. In 
 one month he had driven Johnston 100 miles, fought six battles, and 
 killed, wounded or taken prisoner 17,000 men. 
 July 1— Public debt over $1,740,000,000. 
 
 " 9 — Gen. Early, with 20,000 Confederate troops, passes into Grant's rear, and 
 makes a hasty march north into Maryland. This day he gained a victory 
 over Gen. Wallace, but his losses were so great that he was hindered in 
 his design of capturing Washington, though -^vithin six miles of it at one 
 time. He retreats, but soon turns back. 
 
 ** 18 — President Lincoln calls for 500,000 more troops. 
 
 *' 19— Gen. Averill (Union) gives Early a check, but finally falls back. 
 
 " 20-22 — Severe battles in the neighborhood of Atlanta, Ga. Gen. Sherman 
 victorious. Union Gen. McPherson killed. 
 22 — A mine, made under the fortifications of Petersburg, completed. It was 
 charged with 8,000 lbs of powder. 
 " 28 — Early sent a detachment into Penn., which burnt Chambersburg. 
 *' 31 — Gen. Stoneman defeated and taken prisoner near Macon, Geo., by Con- 
 federates. 
 
 The mine exploded at Petersburg, blowing up a fort and its garrison; 
 but, from unskillful management, proved a Union disaster; 4,000 men 
 were lost in killed, wounded and prisoners. A constant artillery attack 
 was kept up on Petersburg through this month. 
 Aug. 2 — Gen. Banks puts all the negroes in his region in the army (Grand Gulf, 
 La.). 
 
 ' 3 — Constant fighting at Atlanta. Hood (Confederate) repulsed. 
 *' 5 — Admiral Farragut enters Mobile Bay with 18 vessels, and captures or 
 destroys the vessels and forts. It was the last seaport of the Con- 
 federacy. 
 
740 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Aug. 7 — Union Gen. Averill gains a complete victory at Moorfield, West "Va. 
 " 9 — Atlanta, Ga , bombarded by Sherman's army. 
 " 11 — The Confederate vessel Tallahassee bunas 5 vessels, and 5 more in the 
 
 course of Aug. 
 "■ 13 — Mosby, Confederate, captures an immense supply train at Berry ville, 
 
 Va. 
 " 19 — Success of Southern forces before Petersburg. Took 2,000 prisoners. 
 " 21 — Lee fails to dislodge Warner, who is destroying the Weldon R. R. In 
 
 three days Grant lost 4,500 men in this undertaking. 
 •' 31 — Gen. Howard, of Sherman's army, gains a decided victory at Jones- 
 borough, Geo. 
 Sept. 2 — Gen. Hood evacuates Atlanta, Geo., a very important place, which 
 Sherman at once occupies. Sherman had lost 30,000 men in this cam- 
 paign. 
 " — Gen Morgan, an active Southern cavalry officer, is killed at Greenville. 
 
 Tenn. 
 " 13— Gen. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, "Va. 
 " A strong force of Confederate cavalry drive off 2,500 beeves belonging to 
 
 the Union army on the James River. 
 " 19 — Sheridan defeats Early, (at Oquequan, Shenandoah Valley,) inflicting a 
 
 loss of 8,000 men. 
 " — Sheridan again inflicts a loss of near 4,000 on Early, at Fisher's Hill, Va. 
 " 29 — Gen. Grant advances to within ten miles of Richmond, on the north. 
 Gen. Price again invades Missouri. 
 
 The blockading force captured and destroyed 50 vessels this month. 
 Oct. 5 — A repulse of Southern forces at Altoona, Geo. 
 
 7 — The Confederate steamer Florida captured by the Wachusett, on the 
 coast of Brazil. 
 
 Sheridan, having laid waste the Shenandoah valley, returns South. 
 " 8 — Sheridan defeats the Confederates again in the Shenandoah valley. 
 " 11 — Maryland votes for a constitution abolishing slavery. 
 " 19— Gen. Early is still again disastrously defeated by Sheridan, at Cedar 
 Creek, at the moment of apparent triumph. 
 Confederate refugees from Canada rob a bank in St. Albans. Vt. 
 «' 23— Gen. Price defeated at Blue river, Missouri. 
 
 " 27 — Gen. Grant closes the active campaign by an extensive reoonnoisance. 
 " 28— Gen. Blunt defeats Price and drives him out of Missouri. He returns no 
 more. . 
 
 Nov. — Gen. Hood, in command of the forces in Georgia, withdrew from the 
 neighborhood of Atlanta, for the purpose of destroying Sherman's base 
 of siipplies, and invading Tennessee and Kentucky. He had now about 
 40,000 men. Gen. Thomas was sent into Tennessee, by Sherman, with a 
 strong force, to contend with him; and Sherman, breaking away from 
 his northern connections, commences his celebrated " march to the sea," 
 in which he is lost to his friends for 40 days, but reaches Savannah in 
 safety. 
 <« 4— Johnsonville, Tenn., bombarded. 3 gunboats and 8 transports, with $6,- 
 000,000 worth of property destroyed. 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 741 
 
 Nov. 8 — President Lincoln re-elected. Gen. McClellan resigns his commission. 
 " 11 — A gunboat, the Tulip, blows up on Potomac river. 
 " 13 — Gen. Breckenridge attacks Gillem, near Morristown, Tenn, capturing 
 
 his artilleiy, and several liundred prisoners. 
 •' 14 — Atlanta partially destroyed by Sherman, before his march South. 
 
 Gen. Sherman starts for Savannah through the heart of the Confed- 
 eracy, with over 50,000 troops. He destroys railways and lays the 
 country waste wherever he is treated in a hostile manner. 
 ■*' 22 — Sherman's army reach Milledgeville, the Capital of Georgia. The Gov. 
 and Legislature hastily retire. The soldiers amuse tliemselves by hold- 
 ing a mock Legislature, passing loyal resolutions, etc. 
 " 24 — The Union army in Va. receive nearly 100,000 pounds of turkeys, sent 
 
 from the North to supply them a Thanksgiving dinner. 
 " 25 — An attempt to fire New York city miscarries. 
 
 " 30 — Gen. Hood, Confederate, with 40,000 men, attacks Schofield, 18 miles 
 from Nashville. Gen. Schofield had only 17.000 men. He made fovir 
 attacks, and was each time repulsed. 
 
 At midnight Schofield retreated to Nashville, and joined Thomas, fol- 
 lowed by Hood's army. 
 Dec. 1 — The U. S. navy has 671 vessels, carrying over 4,000 guns, and 51,000 men. 
 It has captured 334 vessels during the year— during the war, 1,379—267 
 being steamers. 
 '' 5_65 blockade runners, ships and cargoes worth .$12,000,000, have been 
 captured or destroyed by the U. S. navy, at Wilmington, N. C, yet the 
 number of vessels which were successful in running the blockade in 1 3 
 months previous to Oct. 1, 1864, was 397, and their trade with the South 
 amounted to $65,185,000. 
 e— Mr Chase, ex-Sec. of the U. S. Treasury, appointed Chief Justice of the 
 Supreme Court. 
 " 12 — Gen. Sherman's army reaches the rear of Savannah, Ga., which is occu- 
 pied by the Confederate Gen. Hardee, with 15.000 men. 
 " 13_Gen. Hazen, of Sherman's command, captures Ft. McAllister, near 
 
 Savannah. It had been frequently attacked by gunboats, in vain. 
 " 15-16— Battle of Nashville, Tenn., in which Gen. Hood is completely defeated 
 by Gen. Thomas. Federal commander. Hood's flying troops pursued 
 200 miles. It was one of the most fatal blows of the war for the 
 South. 
 " 19— President Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers to finish the war 
 <' 20— Gen. Stoneman, Unionist, captures Forts and destroys salt works, lead 
 mines, and railway bridges at Saltville. East Tennessee. 
 Gen. Sherman summons Savannah to surrender. Gen. Hardee retreated 
 in the night. Gen, Sherman takes possession next day. 
 
742 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 SEOTIOl^ XX. 
 
 CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN. 
 
 The year 1864 closed in general disaster to the Confederacy. Sherman had broken 
 the Confederate power in Georgia, destroyed its communication with the Mississippi 
 States, and taken Savannah. Gen. Thomas had broken up Hood's army in Tennes- 
 see, and Grant had closely beleagured the Southern army in Virginia within Rich- 
 mond, Petersburg and their defenses; while Sheridan had dealt blow after blow on 
 Earl}', in the Shenandoah Valley. 
 
 The future operations required the subjugation of the interiors of jSTortli a-nd 
 
 South Carolina, the taking of a few forts on the coast, and the capture of Lee's- 
 
 army in Richmond. The only other army of strength, the remnant of Hood's forces. 
 
 was in the Southern interior. The Federal Government was stronger than ever, both 
 
 by sea and land. The Southern people were much discouraged, their finances 
 
 ruined; their lighting men mostly disabled, scattered, forced into submission, or 
 
 hopeless of ultimate success, had voluntarily withdrawn from the contest in so large 
 
 numbers that the Confederate forces were everj^where inferior, and only upheld by 
 
 tlie indomitable pride and bravery inherent in the Anglo-American. They would 
 
 submit only when necessity absolutely compelled them and thus saved their lienor, 
 
 in their own eyes; but they reaped the full harvest of ruin. Yet, their prolonged 
 
 rjsi.<tance served to utterly annihilate slavery; raised the negroes to the honorable 
 
 position of Defenders of the Union; and, the last of Jan. 1865, an amendment to the 
 
 U. S. Constitution was prepared, forever abolishing slavery in the country. In the 
 
 end, the blacks became citizens. We have now but a short record to complete our 
 
 View of the Civil War. The South had still over 100,000 men in arms, but they 
 
 were surrounded, cut ofE from supplies, outnumbered, and pressed with relentless. 
 
 vigor. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Jan. 14— Vessels are sent from Boston and New York with large supplies from the 
 charitable, for Southern sufferers in Savannah, Ga. 
 " i5_Ft. Fisher, on the coast of N. C, captured by Gen. Terry, in conjuuctioa 
 with the U. S. fleet. It is the last stronghold of the South on the sea. 
 Edward Everett died, at Boston, Mass. 
 16 — The magazine at Ft. Fisher exploded, killing and wounding 300 Union men. 
 17— A Federal monitor blown up by torpedoes, in Charleston Harbor, S. C. 
 20— Corinth, Miss., evacuated by Southern troops. 
 
 23_Gen. Hood surrenders his command in the Southern army to Gen. Taylor. 
 28 — Gen. Breckenridge becomes Confederate Sec. of War. 
 29_Southern Commissioners seek an interview with President Lincohi al 
 Fortress Monroe, in the interest of Peace. They failed to make any satis- 
 factory terms. 
 " 31— Joint resolution of Congress to amend the U. S. Constitution abolishing: 
 slavery (14th Amendment). 
 Feb. —Nine States ratify the Constitutional Amendment in this month. 
 " 5— Grant suffers a repulse at Hatcher's Run. Loss 2,000 men. 
 " 17— Columbia, S. C, burned. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 743 
 
 Feb. 18 — Union troops take possession of Cliarleston, S. C, as a result of Slicrp'iin's 
 march from Savannali north-eastward toward Richmond. Many buildings 
 in Charleston burned in the destruction of Confederate stores by the re- 
 tiring army. 
 
 Gen. Lee in favor of arming the negroes for the defense of the South. It 
 is declined by the Confederate Government, until too late. 
 
 " 25 — Eight hundred soldiers desert, and come into Union lines. 
 Mar. 2 — Sheridan completely routs Gen. Early again, taking 1,700 troops prisoners. 
 4 — President Lincoln inaugurated for his second term. 
 
 " 10 — Gen. Bragg defeated at Kingston, N. C. 
 
 " 15 — Gen. Hardee (Confederate), defeated by Sherman's army. 
 
 " 18 — The Confederate Congress adjourned. It never met again. 
 
 Battle of part of Sherman's Army with Johnston (Confederate), 24,000 
 strong. Southern forces made si.x assaults, which were withstood. After 
 fighting and manouvering three days, Johnston retreated, having lost 3,000 
 men. Sherman lo.st 1,646. 
 
 " 25 — Fort Steadman, near Petersburg, Va., captured by Confederates ; but was 
 immediately retaken, with 2,000 prisoners. This attack was made by Lee, 
 preparatory to evacuating Richmond. Grant had about 120,000 troops ; 
 Lee, 70,000. 
 
 " 29 — Sheridan commences an expedition to the rear of Richmond to cut off Lee's 
 retreat South. 
 
 " 31— Sheridan attacked and hard pushed by Lee's forces ; but at night they fall 
 back. 
 Apr. 1— Sheridan, in turn, follows the Confederates, and drives them toward Rich- 
 mond. He takes more than 5,000 prisoners. This was the battle of Five 
 Forks. It was fatal to Lee's retreat. 
 
 " 2 — Grant's forces make a grand assault. It is successful, and Lee prepares to 
 evacuate Richmond. President Davis leaves his capital in haste for Dan- 
 ville, N. C. Gen. Lee commences his retreat in the night. 
 
 " 3— Richmond occupied by colored Federal troops. They find the city in flames. 
 
 " 4— President Davis endeavors to make a stiind, against disaster. He issues a 
 proclamation from Danville. 
 
 " 9 — Terms of surrender arranged by Generals Grant and Lee. 
 
 " 10 — Gen. Lee issues his farewell address to his army. 
 
 " 12— Confederate army yielded prisoners of war at Appomattox Court House, 
 Va. 27,805 Confederate soldiers paroled. 
 Gen. Stoneman defeats a Confederate force at Salisbury, N. C. 
 Gen. Canby (Union), occupies Mobile, Ala. 
 
 «' 14— President Lincoln assassinated in Washington, by J. Wilkes Booth. 
 Mr. Sevt-ard stabbed in bed ; but not killed. 
 
 " 15— Abraham Lincoln died at 7 A. M. The whole country is in mourning. 
 Andrew Johnson assumes the office of President of the United States. 
 
 •• 18— Paine, or Powell, who endeavored to assassinate Secretary Seward, arrested 
 at Mrs. Surratt's house in Washington. Mrs. Surratt arrested. 
 Gen. Sherman arranges preliminaries for the surrender of all the remaining 
 Confederate forces with Gen. Johnston, commanding Southern army in 
 North Carolina, with consent of Confederate Secretary of War and Presi- 
 
744 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TlilE. 
 
 dent Davis. It includes the basis of a general peace, and a policy of i-ccon- 
 struction. It is sent to the Federal Government for their approval or 
 rejection. 
 Apr. 19 — Funeral ceremonies of President Lincoln at Washington. Funeral ser- 
 vices are held all over the North. The body is carried in state to Spring- 
 field, 111., stopping at prominent places on the route, and visited by great 
 numbers of the people. 700,000 were said to have been in the procession 
 at New York. 
 
 " 21 — Gen. Sherman's arrangement with Johnston disapproved by the Govern- 
 ment, and he is ordered to resume hostilities. Steamboat Sultana blows up 
 on the Mississippi, and about 1,300 U. S. soldiers returning home were killed. 
 
 " 24 — Gen. Grant visits Sherman. 
 
 " 25 — J. W. Booth, the assassin of the President, taken prisoner near Port Royal, 
 Va. Refusing to surrender, a soldier shot him, contrary to orders. 
 
 " 26 — Johnston surrenders to Gen. Sherman all the Confederate troops in liis 
 command, on the terms granted Gen. Lee. 
 
 " 29 — Arms and stores of Gen. Johnston's army delivered to L". S. authorities, at 
 Greensboro, N. C. 
 May 2 — Reward offered for capture of President Davis, of $100,000. He was under- 
 stood to be flying toward Texas. 
 
 " 3 — President Lincoln's remains arrive at Springfield, 111. 
 
 " 4-9 — All the Confederate forces disbanded, or sun-endered to U. S. officers, east 
 and west of Mississippi river. 
 
 " 10 — President Davis captured in Georgia. 
 
 Gesteral Data. 
 
 The nimiber of volunteer troops to be mustered out of the 'Union army. May 1st, 
 1865, was 1,034,064. They were mostly discharged and paid in the next three months. 
 The entire enlistments in the Federal army, during the whole war, were 2,688,528. 
 Many were re-enlistments. It is believed that the whole number of individuals 
 forming the armies was only 1,500,000. 75 per cent, were native Americans, 9 per 
 cent. Germans, and 7 per cent. Irish. Various nationalities made up the remaining 
 9 per cent. 
 
 Of this million and a half 56,000 were killed in battle, 35,000 died in hospital of 
 their wounds received in battle, and 184,000 died in hospitals of disease. Many after- 
 wards died, and others were ruined in health for life. 
 
 It has been stated by the Adjutant General of the Confederate army, since the 
 close of the war, that the available Confederate force during the entire war was 600,- 
 000, and that they never had more than 200,000 in the field at any one time. This 
 would seem likely to be an underestimate, but is the nearest to official data now at 
 hand. He states the entire force opposing the 1,000,000 men in the closing campaign 
 to have been 100,000. There is reason to believe that the Confederate killed, and 
 the wounded and sick who died in hospital, were about 300,000. 
 
 The entire amount expended by the National Government, by States, counties and 
 towns, and contributed in other ways to the comfort and sustenance of the army, is 
 computed at $4,000,000,000. The support of the Southern army cannot be ascer- 
 tained, but it is thought that those expenses and the destruction of property inflicted 
 about an equal loss on them. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 745 
 
 These losses in life and property are fcarfvii ; hut they are tlie price of Freedom 
 and of Nationality. The general prosperity of tiie country has made it richer 
 than before, while natural increase and immigration have tilled the places made 
 vacant by death. 
 
 The South was hopeless and exhausted at tlie close of tlie war; it had ])evr\ feared 
 that a guerrilla war, tlie most desolating and bloody of all wars, would follow the 
 defeat of the great armies. It could result only in the destruction of what remained 
 to the Southern i)eoi)lc, and they submitted quietly to their fate. Various excesses 
 and deeds of blood were indeed committed, but the peri)etrators were not sympa- 
 thized with l)y the mass of the people. It was only the dt'sperate and lawless class 
 that come to the surface naturally in war. 
 
 Many of the influential Southern leaders connseled submission to inevitable neces- 
 sity, and themselves set the example. The policy of reconstruction adopted by the 
 National Government, at first, excluded all who had taken a part in the rebellion from 
 political infiuence. The loyal element small as it was, was alone to restore tlie 
 Southern States to their place in the Union. It was, however, proposed to admit 
 otliers, both individuals and classes, to participation in political action as they proved 
 themselves trustworthy and loyal to the new order of things. After some years 
 these disabilities Averc nearly all removed. 
 
 The most distasteful act of the General Government, to the people of the Soutii. 
 was clothing the blacks with the rights of citizens. They received tlie idective fran- 
 chise, and assisted to rule over their former masters. It was coiKsidered necessary, 
 since tliey had now no masters to be interested in them, to give them the power to 
 protect themselves, and to elevate them to something of influence and respectability 
 by force of the ballot. That advantage given tiiem, they must take their chances 
 with others and win their own way. They had been loyal to the Union, which 
 strongly recommended this policy to the Government. The Northern people who 
 now settled in the South and the blacks mainly reorganized the State Governments. 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 THE TWENTIETH ELECTION, 1864. 
 
 Since the Nineteenth Election in 1860, three States had been admitted into the 
 Union, making 36 in all. Of these, U claimed to be out of the Union by formal 
 acts of secession, and had a General Government, with a Congress, Judiciary and 
 Executive, in actual operation. The Federal Government denied their right or legal 
 power to secede without the consent of the remaining States, but as the actual 
 authorities of these 11 States gave their adhesion to the Confederate Government, 
 the civil officers of the United States Governraent could not execute their duties 
 there. The Electoral College of 1864, therefore, contained Electors from only 25 
 States. The whole number of Electors for the 36 States would have been 314; but 
 80 belonged to the seceded States, and there could lie only 334 appointed at this elec- 
 tion. There was one vacancy among the Nevada Electors, the actual number lieing 
 333. The Republicans re-nominated Lincoln, with Andrew Johnson for Vice-Presi- 
 dent. The Democratic party embraced persons of all shades of opinion, from ear- 
 nest "War Democrats" to hearty sympathizers with the South. As a whole, it 
 sustained the Federal Government, to the great disappointment of the South, 
 
746 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 though it often criticised Republican measures and policy severely. Many of the 
 party utterances questioned the possibity of success in a war of subjugation, and of 
 the value of that success if gained. There has always been good reason in the 
 United States for great toleration of opinion, for it is the practice of political rivaU 
 to be moderate in act, however extreme they may have been in statement. When 
 the hope of carrying a point animates the opposition, it often approaches the verge 
 of sedition, but after the point is lost, quietly submits. 
 
 The Democrats nominated a prominent officer of the army, Gen. George B. Mc- 
 Clellan, for President, and George H. Pendleton for Vice-President. 
 
 Lincoln and Johnson received 2,216,067 popular and 212 electoral votes. 
 
 McClellan and Pendleton " 1,808,725 " " 21 
 
 Lincoln's majority was - - 407,342 " " 191 
 
 A majority so decisive greatly eacom-aged the Federal Government, and helped 
 forward the speedy conclusion of the war, which occurred soon after the second 
 inauguration of Lincoln. President Johnson's administration was as follows : 
 Andrew Johnson, Tenn., Acting President, April 15, 1865, to March 4, 1869. 
 
 CABrSTET. 
 
 William H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State. 
 Hugh McCullough, Ind., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Edwin M. Stanton, Pa.. Secretary of War. 
 U. S. Grant, 111.. 
 L. Thomas, " 
 
 J. M. Schofield, 
 
 Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy. 
 James Harlan, la.. Secretary of the Interior. 
 Orville H. Browning, 111., " 
 James Speed, Ky., Attorney General. 
 Henry Stanberry, O., 
 William M. Evarts, N. Y., " 
 William Dennison, O., Postmaster General. 
 Alexander W. Randall, Wis., 
 Hay 13— During the week ending with this day, there was subscribed to the U. S. 
 seven-thirty loan |98,060,000. It was an expression of the enthusiastic 
 confidence of the people in the Government and its resources. 
 " 22-23— Grand Review of Gen. Sherman's army at Washington. There were 
 
 200,000 men. 
 " 2&— Kirby Smith, the last leader of a Southern military organization sm-ren- 
 
 dered his command. 
 " 30— The great Sanitary Fair opened at Chicago. 
 " 31— Gen. Hood and his staff surrendered prisoners of war. 
 June 1— A day of fasting and national humiliation for the death of President Lincoln. 
 July 5— The four confederates of Booth, the assassin of President Lincoln, were 
 found guilty. They were hanged on the 6th and 7th. These were Harold, 
 Atzerott, Powell and Mrs. Sm-ratt. 
 " 11— Gen. R. E. Lee appointed president of the Washington College, Va. It 
 was done by Southern people as a mark of respect, and to furnish him a 
 support; he having lost his property in the war. 
 
THE HISTORY OFTHE UNITED STATES. 747 
 
 Sept.30 — The marking of the graves of 13,000 of the Andersonville prisoners com- 
 pleted. 
 " 29 — Cession of 1,000,000 acres of land to the Governmeut by the Osage Indians, 
 for $300,000. 
 
 Oct. 30 — Champ Ferguson, noted for his crimes in guerilla, warfare, hung at Nash- 
 ville, Tenn. 
 
 Nov. 10 — Henry Wirz, the former keeper of Andersonville prison, hung, after trial 
 and condemnation. 
 
 Dec. 18— Secretary Seward officially announces that the 13th Amendment to the 
 Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States, has been adopted by 
 three-fourths of the States, and is now the law of the land. 
 
 186G. 
 Jan. 1— Third anniversary of Emancipation celebrated by the colored people. 
 " 2— Funeral of Hon. Henry Winter Davis, M. C, of Baltimore. 
 '• 12— The Kentucky University purchases the homestead of Henry Clay. 
 " 23— The 13th Constitutional Amendment reconsidered by the Legislature of 
 
 New Jersey and passed. It had been rejected in the previous year. 
 " 25 — Kentucky refused to pass the 13th Amendment. 
 
 " 31— Commissary and quartermaster warehouses burned at Ft. Riley, Kansas. 
 $1,000,000 lost. 
 Feb. 2— The Civil Rights Bill passed the Senate. 
 " 11— The U. S. Sanitary Commission closed with an anniversary meeting at 
 
 Washington. 
 " 12 — Memorial services in honor of President Lincoln held in the Capitol, at 
 Washington; address delivered by the Hon. Geo. Bancroft, statesman and 
 historian. 
 " 19 — President Johnson vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill. 
 " 22— The 134th anniversary of Washington's birthday celebrated. 
 " 26— Meeting held at Richmond to ratify President Johnson's policy. 
 Mar. 10 — North Carolina passes a Negro Rights Bill. 
 '* 13 — North Carolina passes a Negro Testimony Bill. 
 
 Texas Convention declare their Secession Ordinance null and void. 
 " 13— The Civil Rights Bill passed the House of Representatives. 
 " 19— The Reciprocity Treaty with Canada expires. 
 " 27— The Civil Rights Bill vetoed by President Johnson. 
 Apl. 9 — Gen. Hawley elected republican Governor of Connecticut. 
 4 — Gen. Burnside elected Governor of Rhode Island. 
 6-7— Civil Rights Bill passed Congress over the veto. 
 " 30— Tw^o churches of colored people burned by incendiaries in Richmond, Va 
 May 15— The President vetoes the Bill admitting Colorado as a State. 
 
 " 29— Gen. Scott died at West Point, N. Y. 
 June 3— Gen. Meade goes to Bulfalo to prevent the Fenians (Irish Patriots) from 
 invading Canada. 
 " 6— President Johnson issues a proclamation forbidding belligerent operations 
 
 against Canada from the United States. 
 " 8-13— The 14th Constitutional Amendment passed by Congress. 
 July 3— Great fire at Portland, Me. Loss. $15,000,000. The U. S. government a 
 heavy loser by this fire. 
 
748 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 Jul}^ 23 — Tennessee readmitted as a State in the Union, by joint resolution of Con • 
 gross. Tliis was the first State readmitted after the war. 
 " 24 — Lieut. Gen. Grant nominated General— tlie highest grade known in our 
 military organization — never before occupied. 
 Vice Admiral Farragut nominated Admiral. 
 * 27 — Hon. J. A. Harlan, Sec. of the Interior, resigns. O. H. Browning 
 
 appointed. 
 " 78 — The Great Eastern reaches Hearts Content, Newfoundland, with the At- 
 lantic Telegraph Cable, which proved successful. It had failed in the 
 previous year. Great rejoicings. It was one of the most important events 
 of this century. 
 " 30 — Great riot in New Orleans, in which many were killed. 
 Aug. 1 — Gen. Sherman commissioned as Lieut. General. 
 
 8 — Queen Emma, wife of the late King of tlie Sandwich Islands, arrives at 
 New York, and is received as a National Guest. 
 " 12 — Telegraphic communication between New York and Europe complete, by 
 
 the Atlantic Cable. 
 " 31 — American and English naval forces unite to break up piracy by Chinese 
 junks in the East Indies. 
 Sept. 6 — The monument to S. A. Douglas, at Chicago, inaugurated. 
 Oct. 9 — Gen. Geary elected Governor of Pennsylvania. 
 
 " 28 — Dedication of the Stonewall Jackson CemeterJ^ at Winchester, Va. 
 Nov. 6 — State elections in 12 States are held to-day. 
 " 20 — The Grand Army of the Republic, formed of the present and previous offi- 
 cers of the U. S. Armj^ serving in the late war, hold a convention at Indian- 
 apolis, Ind. 
 " 22 — Raphael Semmes, former Commander of the Confederate war steamer Ala- 
 bama, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Louisiana State 
 Seminary. 
 Dec. 7— The Louisiana Legislature rejects the 14th Amendment to the Constitutioa 
 " 18 — Territorial Legislature of Colorado organized. 
 '• 16 — The U. S. frigate New Ironsides burned at League Island. 
 " 22— Massacre of nearly a hundred soldiers near Ft. Kearney by the Indians. 
 " 24_"U. S. Minister John A. Dix enters on his duties in France. 
 
 1867. 
 Jan. 7— A Suffrage Bill for the Dist. of Columbia vetoed by President Johnson, but 
 passed over the veto by Congress. Congress was laboring to harmonize 
 the laws of the country with the changes produced by the war. President 
 Johnson did his utmost to prevent the success of this policy. Congress, 
 however, succeeded in carrying its point. This is an important and inter- 
 esting history, since it shows how the Representatives of the People may 
 check and neutralize the power of a President. 
 " 8-10— 14th Amendment ratified by two States (Missouri and New York) and 
 
 rejected b}^ another (Virginia). 
 " 28 — Nebraska Bill vetoed, but passed over the veto. 
 Feb. 20 — Military Government Bill passed Congi-ess. 
 Mar. 1 — Nebraska proclaimed a State by the President. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 749 
 
 Mar. 2 — The President vetoes the military Government and Civil Tenure of Office 
 
 Bills. They are passed over his veto. 
 " 4 — The 39th Congress ends, and the 40th is organized. 
 " 11 — Military governors assigned to various districts in the South. 
 " 30 — The President announces the ratification of the treaty with Russia, by which 
 
 the United States bought all her North American possessions for $7,200,000 
 Apr. 3 — Gen. Burnside re-elected Governor of Rhode Island. 
 May 13 — Ex-President Davis admitted to bail in $100,000 ; Horace Greeley and others 
 
 furnish the bonds. 
 June 19 — The Arch Duke Maximilian, Titular Emperor of Mexico, shot by order of 
 
 the Mexican Republican Government. The remonstrances of the U. S. 
 
 Government obliged the French to withdraw their support from Maxi- 
 milian. 
 July 13 — The steamer Dunderberg, bought by France, sailed for Cherbourg. 
 Aug. 1 — Gov. Brownlow re-elected Governor of Tennessee. 
 
 5 — The President requires Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, to resign. He refuses, 
 
 when the President suspends him and appoints Gen. Grant. 
 
 Grand ovation to Admiral Farragut, by Russian officers at Cronstadt. 
 Sept.17 — The National Cemetery at Antietam dedicated. 
 Dec. 4 — The Patrons of Husbandry, or Farmers' Grange, organized in Washington. 
 
 1868. 
 
 Jan. 1 — Fifth Emancipation Anniversary celebrated by the colored oeople in 
 various places. 
 
 " 6 — Censure of the President by Congress for removing Gen. Sheridan from 
 command of the 5th Military District. 
 Fed. 7 — The resignation of U..S. Minister to England, Hon. C. F. Adams, announced. 
 
 " 19— Senate refuse his seat to P. F. Thomas, of Maryland, on account of dis- 
 loyalty. 
 
 " 20 — The Legislature of New Jersey withdraws its ratification of the 14th Amend- 
 ment. Ohio and Oregon did the same. This action, considered as absurd 
 as Secession, was not recognized. 
 
 " 21— President Johnson expels Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, and appoints Gen. 
 Thomas. This is done in defiance of the Senate, by whose "advice and 
 consent" the Constitution requires it to be supported. 
 
 " 24 — The House of Representatives adopt articles of impeachment of the Presi- 
 dent presented by Thaddeus Stephens, of Pa,, by a vote of 126 to 57. This 
 was 13 more than the requisite two-thirds. 
 Mar. 5— The Senate is organized as a Court of Impeachment, Chief Justice Chase 
 
 presiding. 
 May 16 — The impeachment trial terminated by a vote in the Senate of 35 for, to 19 
 against. As a two-thirds vote was necessary, the impeachment failed. A 
 few Republican Senators incurred great odium by voting for the President's 
 acquittal. 
 
 " 20— Gen. Grant nominated for President by the Republican Convention at 
 Chicago. 
 
 " 22— A Chinese embassy, headed by Hon. Anson Burlingame. who had been U. 
 S. Minister to China, and acquired the confidence of the Government of 
 
750 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 China to such an extent as to be chosen by them as the leader of their em 
 bassy to this country and the Governments of Europe, arrived in New York. 
 May 29 — Gen. Schofield appointed Sec. of War. 
 
 June 5 — Mr. Burlingame and the Chinese embassy presented to the President. 
 6 — A Bill for the re-admission of Arkansas passes Congress. 
 " 9 — Bills for the re-admission of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
 
 Louisiana, Alabama and Florida are passed. 
 " 12 — Hon. Reverdy Johnson appointed Minister to England. 
 " 20 — The Bill for the admission of Arkansas vetoed by the President, but passed 
 
 over his veto by a two-thirds vote. 
 " 24 — The Bill for the admission of the other States being vetoed by the Presi- 
 dent, was likewise passed over his veto. 
 July 4 — Horatio Sej^mour, of N. Y., and F. P. Blair, of Mo., nominated for Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President by the Democrats. 
 A political amnesty proclamation issued by the President. 
 " 16 — Admiral Farragut received with distinguished honor by the Queen of Eng- 
 land. 
 " 20 — A Bill to exclude the electoral votes of the Southern States not re-admitted 
 
 vetoed by the President, and passed by Congress over the veto. 
 " 21 — The 14th Amendment declared ratified, and a part of the Constitution. 
 " 28 — Military government ceases in Arkansas, North and South Carolina, Louis- 
 ana, Georgia, Florida and Alabama. 
 Aug. 6 — Jefferson Davis, President of the Southern Confederacy, lands in Liverpool, 
 England. 
 " 13 — U. S. steamers Wateree and Fredonia destroyed during an earthquake at 
 Lima, Peru; 40,000 lives were lost in this dreadful catastrophe. 
 Sept. 7 — Negro members of tlie Georgia Legislatm-e expelled. 
 " 18 — Battle with the Indians on Republican River. Lt. Beecher and others killed. 
 " 19 — Riot at Camilla, Ga. Many negi-oes killed. 
 
 " 29 — Gen. Reynolds, military governor of Texas, forbids the election in that 
 State for President, Texas not having been re-admitted. This was in ac- 
 cordance with the law of Congress passed the 20th of July. 
 Oct. 17 — The Legislature of Oregon withdraws its assent once given to the 14th 
 
 Amendment. 
 Fov. 3 — U. S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax elected President and Vice-President- 
 The whole popular vote was 5,722,984. In Florida the electors were chosen 
 by the Legislature. 
 " 27— The Indians defeated by Gen. Custer, on the Washita river. Black Kettle, 
 the chief, and more tlian a hundred warriors killed. 
 Dec. 1 — Ft. Lafayette, N. Y., destroyed by fire. 
 
 " 3 — Political troubles in Arkansas, in which many murders are committed. 
 
 " 7 — Third session of the 40th Congress begins. 
 
 " 15 — A social gathering of the Union soldiers at Chicago. 
 
 1869. 
 Jan. 7 — John Minor Botts, a statesman of Va., imprisoned by the Confederate 
 
 Government during the war for his Union sentiments, died. 
 Feb. 27 — A joint resolution of Congress recommends to the States the adoption of 
 
 the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 751 
 
 SECTIOI^ XXIL 
 
 GKANT'S administration — TWENTY-FIRST ELECTION, 1868. 
 
 There were now 37 States, Nebraska having been admitted into tlie Union in 1867. 
 Mississippi, Texas and Virginia, however, had not j^et been readmitted and there 
 were but 34 States voting. These three States would have been entitled to 23 Elect- 
 oral votes; of these the whole was 317, leaving 294 to the States actuallj^ voting. 
 The Democratic party, although performing the special duties of an opposition by 
 criticising and protesting had really assisted in the war and accepted the results that 
 followed it, and they retained for many following elections the same party organiza- 
 tion and name, laboring to soften the bitterness of the situation to the South. 
 
 In this election the chief question was whether the Reconstruction Policy adopted 
 by the dominant party should be followed out to its full results; the Republicans 
 insisting that it should be, the Democrats maintaining that it was unwise, cruel and 
 impracticable. There was also a financial issue of impoitance, though, for the pres- 
 ent, subordinate to the other. 
 
 The Republicans nominated Gen. U. S. Grant for President and Sciiujier Colfa.x 
 for Vice President ; the Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour and Francis P. 
 Blair. 
 
 Grant and Colfa.x received 3,015,071 popular and 217 Electoral voles. 
 Seymour and Blair " 2,709,613 " " 80 
 
 Grant's majority was 305,458 " " 134 " " 
 
 Eighteenth Administration 1869 to 1877. 
 Ulysses S. Grant, 111., President. 
 Schuyler Colfax, Ind., Vice-President. 
 
 cabinet. 
 E. B. Washburne, 111., Secretary of State. 
 Hamilton Fi.sh, N. Y., 
 
 George S. Boutwell, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 William A. Richardson, 111., " " 
 
 Benjamin H. Bristow, Ky., " " 
 
 Lot M. Morrill, Me, " '« 
 
 John A. Rawlins, Secretary of War. 
 William T. Sherman, O., 
 William W. Belknap, la. 
 Alonzo Taft, O., " 
 
 J. Donald Cameron, Pa., " ^ 
 
 Adolph E. Borie, Pa., Secretary of the Navy. 
 George M. Robeson, N. J., " " 
 
 Jacob D. Cox, O., Secretary of the Interior. 
 Columbus Delano, O., " " " 
 
 Zachariah Chandler, Mich., " " 
 
 John A. J. Cresswell, Md., Postmaster General. 
 
752 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Marshall Jewell, Conn., Postmaster General. 
 John W. Tyner, Ind., 
 Eben R. Hoar, Mass., Attorney General. 
 Amos T. Ackerman, Ga,, " " 
 
 George H. Williams, Oregon, " " 
 
 Edwards Pierrepoint, ]Sr. Y., " " 
 
 Alphonzo Taft, O., 
 Mar. 4 — Gen. Grant inaugurated eighteenth President. 
 " 4 — First session of the 41st Congress commenced. 
 " 13 — James Guthrie, a statesman of Ky., died. 
 " 25 — Hon. E. Bates, of Mo., Att'}-^ Gen'l under Lincoln, died. 
 May 15 — The Union Pacific Railroad was completed by joining the two ends at 
 Ogden, Utah. Distance from Omaha to San Francisco, 1,904 miles. This 
 completed the line of railroad joining the Atlantic and Pacific. The greatest 
 triumph of engineering j^et known was accomplished in the Nevada Mts., 
 by carrying the road to a height of over 7,000 feel in 105 miles. 
 July 30 — Hon. I. Toucey, of Conn., who had filled many oflices in the State and 
 
 United States Government, died. 
 Sept. 8 — William B. Fessenden, of Me., a statesman of reputation, died. 
 " 10 — John Bell, of Tenn., candidate for the Presidency in 1860, died. 
 
 6— Gen. J. A. Rawlin.s, Sec. of War, died. He had been Gen. Grant's Chief of 
 Staff during the war. 
 Oct. 8— Franklin Pierce, of K H., ex-President, died. 
 Nov. 7 — Rear Admiral Stewart, of U. S. Navj'-, died. 
 
 Dec. 24r— Edwin M. Stanton, of Pa., Sec. of War during most of the civil war, died. 
 This year closes a most important era in the history of the United States, 
 and of the world. The account with the civil war was definitely closed, 
 and the final seal set on the policy of reconstruction by the iuaugm-ation of 
 Gen. Grant and the continuance of the Republican partj" in power by the peo- 
 ple together with the readmission of most of the Southern States, and the 
 possibility of the reversal of the decision in regard to slavery Avas done away 
 by the adoption of the fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving the 
 elective franchise to the colored population. Much emphasis was given to 
 all these things by the prosperity of the countr3', and the rapid reduction 
 of the debt, by the generally wise conduct of the Southern people, and the 
 slowly increasing prosperity of that section. These results reacted in other 
 countries to strengthen the tendency to freer and more popular governments, 
 and seem, in some respects, to have introduced the Era of Republicanism. 
 However slow may be the changes in this direction, they are sm-e to be 
 
 made. 
 
 1870. 
 Jan. 1. — Ten years ago the cloud of civil war settled densely over the country, and 
 thrdbtened its destruction. To-day the tornado has been passed nearly six 
 years, and its ruins are almost bm-ied under the new and more thrifty growth 
 of all industries, even in the South. 
 " 20 — H. R. Revels, of Miss., is chosen the first colored Senator who ever repre- 
 sented a State in Congress. 
 " 23 — The U. S. steamer Oneida sunk by collision with another vessel on the coast 
 of Japan. 176 lives lost. 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 753 
 
 Feb. 23 — Hon. Anson Burlingame, head of the Chinese embassy to the powers of 
 
 Christendom, died at St. Petersburg, Russia. 
 Mar. 28— Gen. G. H. Tliomas dies at San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 " 30 — The Sec. of State proclaims the ratification of the 15th Amendment to the 
 U. S. Constitution by three-fourtlis of the States. 
 June 15 — Death of Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, at Baltimore, Md. 
 July 12 — Death of Admiral Dahlgren, at Washington, D. C. 
 
 " 20 — Death of M. Prevost Paradol, French Minister at Washington. 
 Aug. 14 — Death of Admiral Farragut, at Portsmouth, N. H. 
 Sept. 7 — Recognition of the French Republic by the U. S. Government. 
 Oct. 12 — Death of Gen. R. E. Lee, formerly of the Confederate army. 
 
 1871. 
 Great changes have taken place in Europe. The Emperor, Napoleon III., taken 
 prisoner by the Germans, his government was set aside by the people of France, who 
 founded a Republic. 
 
 Jan. 1 — At this time the German army, under the lead of the King of Prussia 
 (about this time made Emperor of Germany), is besieging Paris, the capital 
 of France. 
 " 17 — The San Domingo Commission sail from New York. 
 Feb. 16 — An important Japanese mission to the U. S. and other Governments arrives 
 
 at San Francisco. 
 •Apr. 20 — A Bill against the Kuklux, a secret organization of the South, was passed 
 
 in Congress. 
 May 1 — The Legal Tender Act declared Constitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court. 
 June 18 — An earthquake on Long and Staten Islands, N. Y. 
 " 20— The first Atlantic Cable of 1865, which soon broke and became useless, is 
 recovered and worked. 
 July 5 — Earthquake at Visalia, Cal. 
 " 12 — Irish Catholic riot in New York; 51 killed, 20 wounded. 
 " 30 — Steamer Westfield explodes, killing near 100 people. 
 Oct. 2 — Brigham Young, the head of the Mormons in Utah, arrested for bigamy. 
 " 8 — A fire nearly consumes Chicago, destroying property worth $200,000,000 
 and many lives. Fires rage in the forests of Wisconsin and Michigan. 
 Much property, some towns, and many persons are burned. 
 •' 17 — South Carolina is placed under martial law. 
 
 $2,050,000 received in aid of the people of Chicago. 
 Nov. 15 — Cholera appears on vessels at New York. 
 " 18— The Grand Duke Alexis, of Russia, arrives at New York. He traveled 
 through the country for some months. 
 Dec. 9— Commissioners of the English and U. S. Governments meet in Washington 
 to settle the difficulties between the two Governments arising from the 
 spoliations of the Confederate war vessel, Alabama. It was built in En- 
 gland to prey on Federal commerce. 
 " 16— Catacazy, the Russian Minister, called home at the request of our Govern- 
 ment. 
 " 29— Investigation of abuses in the New York city government commences. W. 
 M. Tweed surrenders to the sheriff. 
 48 
 
754 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 1873. 
 Jan. 2 — Brigham Young arrested on a charge of murder. 
 
 Mar. 7 — Trial and conviction of Kuklux prisoners in Ala. ; 3 sentenced to imprison- 
 ment for 20 years. 
 Apr. 1 — The colored people celebrate the adoption of the 15th Amendment. 
 May 3 — Horace Greeley nominated for President by a convention at Cincinnati, O. 
 " 22 — The General Amnesty Bill signed by the President. 
 " 30 — Graves of the Union soldiers decorated throughout the country. 
 June 6 — Grant and Wilson nominated for President and Vice-President. 
 July 24 — Spotted-Tail and other Western Indians visit Washington. 
 Aug. 16 — Yellow fever appears at New York. 
 
 Sept. 2 — Father Hyacinthe, a liberal French Catholic priest, marries an American 
 lady. 
 " 14 — The arbitrators of the Alabama Claims, to whom the case had been sub- 
 mitted, and who had been two months sitting at Geneva, Switzerland, 
 announced their award. The United States was to receive $15,500,000 in 
 gold. 
 Oct. 14 — Wm. H. Seward, one of our most distinguished statesmen, is this day 
 
 buried at Auburn N. Y. 
 Nov. 5 — In the presidental election on this day President Grant is re-elected. 
 " 9 — A great fire in Boston, Mass. Loss $75,000,000 in buildings and merchan- 
 dise. Insurance $50,000,000. 
 " 29 — Horace Greeley, recent candidate for President of the U. S., died, aged ^ 
 years. 
 Dec. 12 — The actor, Edwin Forrest, dies, at Philadelphia. 
 " 17 — Edward A. Pollard, Southern editor and author died. 
 
 Important investigations of abuses in New York city and in the conduct 
 of the Pacific Railway are made this winter, and many healthy reforms 
 inaugurated. The order of Patrons of Husbandry becomes popular among 
 agriculturists and spreads rapidly through the coming year. 
 
 1873. 
 Jan. 7, 8, 9 — A dreadful snow storm occurs in Minnesota, by which 70 lives are lost 
 Feb. 1 — M. F. Maury, formerly distinguished in the U. S. Naval service, dies at 
 Lexington, Va. 
 " 9 — J. W. Geary, ex-Governor of Penn., died at Harrisburg. 
 
 THE TWENTY-SECOND ELECTION, 1872 
 
 The Republican party divided at this election into Republican and Liberal Repub- 
 lican, the latter disapproving some of the methods of the administration. 
 
 The Republicans nominated President Grant with Henry Wilson for Vice-Pres- 
 ident. The Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Greeley for President and B. 
 Gratz Brown for Vice-President. The Democratic National Convention decided to 
 nominate the candidates of the Liberal Republicans — Greeley and Brown — although a 
 faction of the party afterward made independent nominations of Charles O'Connor 
 for President and John Quincy Adams for Vice-President. The chief issues of this 
 election were the same as in 1868, although the policy so far pursued had accom- 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 75f 
 
 plished its end to a considerable extent and would be substantially continued by any 
 party holding power. 
 
 There were still 37 States, all now voting. The reapportionment of Representative 
 Population had increased the members of the House of Representatives and there 
 were now 366 Presidential Electors in the National Electoral College. 
 
 Grant and Wilson received 3,597,070 popular and 286 Electoral votes. 
 Greeley and Brown " 2,834,079 " " 47 
 
 O'Connor and Adams " 29,408 " " ... 
 
 Mr. Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast— about a month after the 
 ■election. 42 Electoral votes were cast for Thomas A. Hendricks, and 18 for B. Gratz 
 Brown. Brown received 47 as candidate for Vice-President. Two other candi- 
 dates for President received a few votes and 17 were not counted. Seven other 
 candidates than Wilson and Brown received among them all 19 electoral votes and 
 14 were not counted. All Grant's popular majorities in the States were given at 
 825,326; his absolute popular majority at 727,97."). His electoral majority above the 
 number sufficient to elect was 103. 
 
 As the popular majorities are not officially returned to Congress and are only of 
 importance to State Returning Officers whose business it is to declare the results of 
 the elections the actual majorities are frequently in dispute; published numbers 
 vary by a few hundreds — sometimes by several thousands. Those given in this his- 
 tory are taken from the Election Statistics published by the Librarian of Congress. 
 Mar. 3 — Congress enacted a law increasing their own pay, and that of the President. 
 It extended over the whole previous term of the 4'2d Congress, commen- 
 cing March 4th, 1871. This law v.' as very offensive to the mass of the 
 people. 
 Apl. 1 — Steamer Atlantic wrecked near Halifax, N. B. 535 lives lost. 
 May 5 — James Orr, American Minister to Russia, died at St. Petersburg, aged 51. 
 " 4 — An Iron bridge at Dixon, 111., crowded with people witnessing a baptism, 
 
 fell, killing and drowning 100 persons. 
 " 7 — Salmon P. Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died in New York, aged 65. 
 June 27 — Hiram Powers, the distinguished American sculptor, died in Florence, 
 
 Italy. 
 July 4 — Severe storm, very destructive to crops in Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin and 
 
 Missouri. 20 persons drowned in Green Lake, Wisconsin. 
 Aug. 2— Great fire at Portland, Oregon. Loss $1,000,000 
 " 24 — A storm of unprecedented severity raged on the coast of British America, 
 and, at the same time, on the coast of Mexico. More than 100 vessels were 
 destroyed in and near the gulf of St. Lawrence. Some populous islands 
 were quite laid waste. 176 sailing vessels and 12 steamers were lost in the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 Sept. 15— The propellor Ironsides foundered in Lake Michigan, 31 lives lost. 
 
 The Patrons of Husbandry organize about this time at the rate of near 
 1,000 Granges a month. 
 
 In this month commenced a most serious financial panic at New York, that 
 spread over the whole country. 
 Nov. 6— Gen. Sickles, U. S. Minister to Spain, telegraphs to Washington the capture 
 of the Virginius by the Cubans. 
 " 8 — Stephen R. Mallory, former Sec. of the Confederate Navy, died, aged 63. 
 
756 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Nov. 19 — John P. Hale, of N. H., a statesman of some celebrity, died. 
 
 " 23 — The steamship Ville du Havre run into and sunk by the Loch Earn in mid 
 ocean. 226 lives lost. 
 
 " 27 — ^Richard Yates, ex-U. S. Senator and ex-Governor of Illinois, died at St. 
 Louis, aged 55. 
 Dec. 1 — The 43d Congress assembles for its first session, 
 
 " 14 — Louis Agassiz, a distinguished naturalist and man of science died at Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. 
 
 1874. 
 Jan. — The U. S. Government narrowly escaped a war with Spain on account of 
 the taking of the Virginius by Cuban authorities. That vessel was sailing 
 under the American flag which was violated by its capture. 54 men were 
 shot as pirates, some of them American citizens. The Spanish Govern- 
 ment disavowed the act, and gave up the vessel, Dec. 16, 1873. It was so 
 much damaged as to sink while on the way to the United States. 
 
 " 5 — The President sends a message to Congress concerning the Spanish difficul- 
 ty, now substantially settled. 
 
 " 8 — U. S. Senate repeals the law of March 3, 1873, increasing the pay of mem- 
 bers of Congress. 
 
 " 19 — Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio, was nominated by the President as Chief 
 Justice, and confirmed afterward by the Senate. 
 Feb. 4 — The seventh annual meeting of the National Grange of the Patrons of 
 Husbandry occurs in St. Louis, Mo. 8,000 subordinate Granges have been 
 added during the year. The Executive Committee state that farmers had 
 saved $8,000,000 during the year by their co-operative system. 
 Mar. 8— Ex-President Fillmore died at Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 " 11 — Death of Hon. Charles Sumner, a distinguished statesman and Senator 
 from Mass., in Washington. He was born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 6, 1811, 
 and was 63 years old. He was of a patriotic race which originated in the 
 county of Kent, England. His grandfather was a Major distinguished for 
 valor in the Revolutionary army. Charles Sumner graduated from Har- 
 vard College in 1830, was admitted to the bar in 1834, and became highly 
 distinguished as a lawyer. He succeeded Daniel Webster in the IT. S. 
 Senate in 1851, in which he remained till his death, being always conspicu- 
 ous as one of the foremost leaders in public affairs. 
 
 " 24 — A Bill increasing the currency to $400,000,000 passed the U. S. House of 
 Representatives by 168 to 77. 
 Apr. 1— The U. S. debt officially stated to be $2,152,690,728.62. Decrease of debt 
 during March, 1874, $2,189,338.46. 
 
 " 14 — The Senate Bill increasing the currency passes the House of Reprepresenta- 
 tives. Many protests from different parts of the country are presented against 
 it as injurious to the credit and interests of the country. The discussion of 
 this measure has occupied much of the time of Congress for some months. 
 
 " 17 — Gov. Wm. B. Washburn is elected by the Mass. Legislature to represent the 
 State in the U. S. Senate, made vacant by the death of Charles Sumner. 
 
 " President Grant vetoes the Currency Bill increasing the issues of paper 
 
 money, which defeats the measure, its friends in Congress not being nu- 
 merous enough to pass it over the veto. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 757 
 
 Apr. 24 — The Congressional committee on Transportation, after long and careful in- 
 vestigation, advised Government oversight of Railroads, but against Govern- 
 ment ownership. 
 
 " 28— Congress voted $90,000 in aid of sufferers by the inundation of the lower 
 Mississippi. 
 May 7— $100,000 were added to the above sum for the same purpose. 
 
 " 19 — The system of payments to informers in customs revenue cases, repealed. 
 That system appeared to have been very grossly abused. 
 
 " " The conflict in Arkansas ended in the retreat of Brooks and the reinstate- 
 ment of Gov. Baxter. 
 
 " " The New York Legislature passed a Compulsory Education Bill, which be- 
 came a law in that State. 
 June 1 — Mr. Richardson, Secretary of the Treasury, resigned. Gen. Benj. H. Bris- 
 tow, of Kentucky, was appointed to succeed him. 
 
 " " The number of subordinate Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry is 19,492. 
 The number of Patrons who are voters is estimated at 1,000,000. 
 
 " 23 — Congress adjourned. The sums appropriated at this session for carrying on 
 the Government, amounted to $189,874,346.25. The largest item was for 
 the Post Ofiice Department— over $41,000,000. 
 
 " 24 — Postmaster-General, John A. J. Creswell resigned, and Hon. Marshall Jew- 
 ell was appointed in his place. 
 
 " 25 — Telegraphic communication between the United States and Brazil introduced 
 by congratulatory messages between the Emperor of Brazil and the Presi- 
 dent of the U. S. 
 July 8 — Message of Gov. Davis, of Minnesota to the Sec. of War, announcing the 
 entire destruction of crops in many counties of that State by gi-asshoppers. 
 
 " 14 — Another great fire in Chicago. Loss ove-r $4,000,000. 
 
 Gen. Custer, commanding an exploring expedition in the Black Hills of 
 Dacotah, reported discoveries of rich gold mines there. 
 
 " 27 — An International Congress for mitigating the sufferings of war by means of 
 an International code of laws, convened at Brussels, Belgium. 
 Aug. 19 — A riot between whites and blacks in Kentucky resulted in several murders 
 
 of blacks. The Gov. called out the militia to restore order. 
 Sept. 2 — Four hundred Mormons sail from England for this country en route to Utah. 
 
 " 5 — Gen. Sherman orders Military head quarters of the U. S. Army removed from 
 Washington to St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 " 5 — The one hundredth anniversary of the first meeting of the Continental Con- 
 gress in Philadelphia celebrated. 
 
 " 14 — The white League, a secret organization opposed to the enfranchisement of 
 the colored people, produced a conflict in New Orleans. Seventeen were 
 killed, and 32 wounded in a street fight, and the State government com 
 pletely overthrown. 
 
 " 16 — President Grant interfered by proclamation, and the Government was sur- 
 
 " 18 — rendered to the regular authorities under protest. 
 Oct. 13 — Elections held in 6 states returned 12 democratic Congressmen more than 
 
 the previous number. 
 Nov. 3— State and Congressional elections in 23 states give a strong democratic gain, 
 indicating a reaction against the Government. A sense of the necessity of 
 
758 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 reform in various ways, and of greater purity and integrity of administration 
 was wide spread. It liad caused, in part, ttie rapid growth of ttie Patrons 
 of Husbandry, and was again expressed by political reaction. 
 It was a significant rebuke to those in power. 
 Dec. 1 — The nvimber of Granges in the United States is 21,472. 
 
 " 7 — The last session of the forty-third Congress commenced. The President's- 
 Message strongly recommends early resumption of specie payments. 
 
 " 12 — IvLilakaua, King of the Sandwich Islands, reached Washington 'on a visit. 
 He was received by the President on the 15th, and by Congress on the 18th. 
 
 " 21 — Disturbances at Vicksburg, Miss., called out a proclamatian from the 
 President. 
 
 " 28 — Gerrit Smith, a distinguished abolitionist and philanthropist, died in New 
 York, aged 78. 
 Jan. 4 — Gen. Sheridan took command of the Department of the Gulf at New Orleans. 
 On that day, the Legislature of Louisiana was organized, and United States 
 troops, acting under the orders of the speaker and of Gov. Kellogg, ejected 
 several members, who, it was alleged, were not entitled to seatS^. It pro- 
 duced much excitement throughout the country ; the opposition denouncing 
 it as an unexampled interference of the Federal Executive with State Govern- 
 ment. Congress sustained the action of the President ; but exerted its- 
 influence to quiet the excitement in Louisiana, and a compromise was 
 effected, under which it gradually ebbed away. 
 
 " 12— The emigrants arriving at the port of New York during the year 1874, num- 
 bered 149,762, a decided falling off, the arrivals having, for some years, 
 amounted to 250,000. The Governments of Germany are endeavoring to 
 remove the causes of emigration, which threatens to affect their resources, 
 seriously. 
 Feb. 3 — A proposed reciprocity treaty with Canada was rejected by the Senate. 
 
 " 5 — The Civil Rights Bill, adopted by the Senate during the last session, was: 
 amended by an omission relating to schools, and adopted by the House. It 
 was accepted by the Senate Feb. 27th, and signed by the President March 1st. 
 Mar. 2 — A Bill increasing the Tariff was passed by the Senate. 
 
 Gen. Lorenzo Thomas, of the U. S. army, died, aged 71. 
 
 " 3 — A law admitting Colorado as a State was passed. 
 
 " 4 — A law, passed in haste in the last hours of the session, restored the Fi-anking 
 Privilege to members of Congress until Dec. 1, and increased the postage on 
 newspapers and packages for the people. The forty-third Congress came to 
 a close. 
 
 " 5 — The Senate convened in extra session in accordance with a call previously 
 made by the President. G. S. Orth was confirmed U. S. Minister to Austria, 
 and Horace Maynard U. S. Minister to Tm-key. 
 
 " 10 — A new treaty with Belgium was ratified. 
 
 " 18 — The Senate ratified the treaty with Hawaii, which renders the interests of 
 the Sandwich Islands substantially identical with those of the United 
 States. 
 
 " 20 — A destructive tornado in Georgia caused great loss of life and property. 
 Mar. 24 — The Senate, after officially approving the action of the President in Lou- 
 isiana, closed its special session. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 759 
 
 Mar. 24 — F. E. Spinner, United States Treasurer, resigned, and John C. Ne^v, of Ind. 
 
 was appointed his successor. 
 Apr. 19— The centennial anniversary of the battle of Lexington was celebrated with 
 great interest. The battle was the first decisive step in the War of Inde- 
 pendence. Its scenes and their consequences were dwelt on by some of the 
 ' most distinguished literary Americans, and honored by the presence of the 
 
 President of the United States and many of its most eminent authorities. 
 • 10 — Centennial anniversary of the capture of Fort Ticonderoga by Ethan 
 
 Allen. 
 " 15 — Attorney General Williams resigned and Judge Edwards Pierrepont was 
 
 appointed his successor. 
 " 17 — John C. Breckenridge, formerly Vice-President of the United States, 
 and a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War, died, 
 aged 54. 
 " 20 — Celebration of the Mecklenburg, N. C, Declaration of Independence, with 
 great enthusiasm. 
 J\me 17 — Centennial anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill was celebrated with 
 great eclat. Its most interesting feature was the fraternal spirit mani- 
 fested by the North and South toward each other. Several Southern States 
 were represented by bodies of soldiers. 
 " 30 — Business failures since Jan. 1, of this year reported at 3,377, with liabilities 
 amounting in all to $74,940,869. 
 July 8 — Gen. Frank P. Blair, Jun., died in St. Louis. 
 " 28 — The most prominent political issue of the time is hard money and cur- 
 rency. A Democratic Convention in Md., and a Republican Convention in 
 Minn., each, yesterday and to-day, adopted a hard money platform. 
 Ohio and Pa. Democratic Conventions afterward declared for paper money. 
 " 31 — Ex-President Andrew Johnson died in Tenn., aged 67. He was recently 
 elected U. S. Senator from Tennessee. 
 Aus. — The Gov. of Tenn. appointed Hon. D. M. Key, to fill the vacancy in the 
 Senate caused by Andrew Johnson's death. 
 
 The census population in Louisiana gives 850,390, an increase of over 15 
 per cent, since 1870. The excess of increase of colored over white popula- 
 tion has been 45,668. 
 
 The census in Wisconsin gives a population of 1,236,090, being an increase 
 of 17J per cent, since 1870. 
 " 26— The Bank of California suspended payment. It has long been the leading 
 
 bank in the Pacific States. 
 " 27— W. C. Ralston, president of the Bank of California, was drowned while 
 bathing. 
 Sept. 1— Violent disturbances in Mississippi between whites and blacks result in 
 many deaths. 
 " 7— The Governor of Miss, called on the President for federal aid to protect 
 
 citizens and restore order. 
 " 14— The President declined to interfere in the domestic affairs of Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 " 16— A destructive cyclone in the Gulf of Mexico threatened to submerge Gal- 
 veston. 
 
760 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Sept. 16 — Most of the State Conventions and elections of this month urged a speedy 
 return to specie paj'ment. 
 " 30 — Hon. Zachariah Chandler appointed Sec. of the Interior in place of Delano, 
 resigned. 
 Nov. 1 — The steamship Pacific wrecked on the coast of California. Near 200 lives 
 lost. 
 " 22 — Henry Wilson, Vice-President of the United States, died in Washington, D, 
 C, aged 63. 
 Dec. — The Forty-fourth Congress commenced its first session. Republican majority 
 in the Senate 11 — Democratic majority in the House of Representatives, 63. 
 ■ «« 7 — The President's Message urged the taxation, to some extent, of church 
 property, now valued at $1,000,000,000. The revenue of the last fiscal 
 year was $288,000,051— the expenses $274,623,392. The army is reduced to 
 25,000 men. In the navy there are 26 iron-clads, 95 steam, and 26 sailing 
 vessels. 
 " 15 — The House adopted a resolution against a third Presidential term of office. 
 The close of the 99th year of the American Republic, under circumstances 
 so satisfactory in most respects, renders the coming year one of great in- 
 terest. 
 
 1876. 
 
 Jan. 5 — Congress reassembled after the holidays. 
 " 10 — A Bill for universal amnestj^ failed to pass the House, lacking a two-thirds 
 
 majority. 
 " 14 — The Pension Bill, appropriating $29,533,500, was passed. 
 " 25 — The Centennial Bill passed by the House appropriating $1,500,000. 
 
 Feb. 11 — The Centennial Bill passed the Senate, and was signed on the 16th by the 
 President with a quill from the wing of an American eagle. A postal 
 treaty between the U. S. and Japan has been signed, reducing letter post 
 age to 5 cents. The death penalty has been abolished by the Legislature 
 of Maine. 
 
 Mar. 1 — A Bill recommends all the counties and towns in the country to have their 
 histories prepared for July 4th and filed with the county clerks and the Li 
 brarian of Congress. 
 " 10 — The Senate passed a Bill for the admission of New Mexico as a State. 
 
 Apr. 13 — The President signed the Bill for the substitution of coin for fractional 
 currency. All efforts for the repeal of the Resumption Acts of last year 
 have failed. 
 
 May 10 — The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, Pa., was opened by President 
 Grant in a very appropriate address. The Emperor of Brazil was present 
 and assisted in some of the ceremonies. Most of the high officers of the 
 U. S. Government, the Representatives of foreign Governments, the mem- 
 bers of the U. S. Senate and House of Representatives, officers of the 
 Army and Navy and officials of various State Governments took part in the 
 opening exercises. All the various nations of the civilized world had been 
 invited by our Government to a friendly competion with us in a display of 
 the best results of industrial, commercial and artistic skill, in this way as- 
 sociating all other people in our celebration of the one hundredth birthday 
 of the Republic. Very few, out of the large family of nations, failed to 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 761 
 
 respond, and this was the opening of the International Exposition, or 
 World's Fair. We can compare our progress in a single century with the 
 achievements of older countries. 
 
 The time and thought of Congress have been largely occupied through the 
 month by the preparations for the impeachment of the late Secretary of 
 War, Belknap, accused of selling lucrative appointments. The Govern- 
 ment, Congress and the Press, have vied with each other in searching in- 
 vestigations into all cases of alleged misconduct in office. Although some- 
 times unreasonable, the general effect has been to improve the efficiency 
 and purity of administration. The Treasury Department, in answer to a 
 call from the U. S. Senate, recently presented a statement showing the 
 losses to the Government by theft, fraud and defalcation m each adminis- 
 tration. The number of dollars so lost on each thousand of public treasure 
 in President Jackson's last term, were $11.18; in President Van Buren's 
 term, were $26.19 ; in President Harrison and Tyler's term, were $14.49 : 
 in President Polk's term, were $10.35 ; in President Taylor and Fillmore's 
 term, were $8.96 ; in President Pierce's term, were $6.94 ; in President 
 Buchanan's term, were $8.77 ; in President Lincoln's first term, were $2.07 ; 
 in President Lincoln and Johnson's term, were $1.86 ; in President Grant's 
 first term, were $1.59; in President Grant'second term to the present, were 
 $1.01. The income of the Government in 1836 was $33,000,000, in 1876 
 $288,000,000. A much larger number of persons must be employed in 
 handling it, and much larger sums are handled in each branch of the ser- 
 vice. While the revenue has increased more than 5 times, the losses on 
 equal sums have diminished more than 10 times. We have, then, a more 
 perfect organization and more trusty officials. It is a cheering and hopeful 
 sign for the future. 
 Junel6— The National Republican Convention, assembled at Cincinnati, O., nom- 
 inated Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, as its candidate for President of the 
 United States, and Wm. A. Wheeler, of N. Y., for Vice-President. 
 
 " 17— H. B. Bristow resigned his seat in the cabinet as Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 " 20— The President announced, by special message to Congress, the termination 
 of the Extradition Treaty with Great Britain, by the refusal of that Gov- 
 ernment to give up certain criminals claimed under it by the Government 
 of the United States. 
 
 " 25— Gen Custer was killed in a battle with the Sioux Indians on the Little Big 
 Horn river, together with his whole command of U. S. troops, nearly 300 
 in number. 
 
 " 27— The National Democratic Convention assembled in St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 " 28— Samuel J. Tilden, of N. Y., was nominated as the Democratic candidate 
 for President of the United States. 
 
 " 29— Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, was nominated as the Democratic can- 
 didate for Vice-President. 
 
 The Centennial year was greeted at midnight, Jan. 1, with unusual rejoic- 
 ing and display in most of the cities, and particularly at Philadelphia, in 
 and near Independence Hall, where was assembled the Congress of 1776. 
 Local celebrations of important events of that year were held from time to 
 time; but the great event of the year was the celebration of the Declaration 
 July 4 — of Independence, July 4th. 
 
762 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, 
 
 All parts of the country celebrated the memory of the day on which its 
 liberties were proclaimed with extreme enthusiasm. In many cases sev- 
 eral days were devoted to these rejoicings. It was designed to be the Great 
 Day of the International Exhibition, where the progress of the country 
 during its century of existence was shown by the best specimens of its 
 various industries and arts, made more interesting by corresponding exhibi- 
 tions of the sliill of other, and, in most cases, older lands. It was a fine 
 picture of great achievement. Illuminations, processions, orations and 
 poems, vied with each other in the effort to give full and fitting expression 
 to the exultant pride and patriotism of the people. 
 
 The Declaration of Independence, proclaiming the freedom and political 
 equality of all men, was made by a people worthy of freedom. It was then 
 an abstract truth, and was to be an experiment. In no great nation had all 
 its citizens ever been free and politically equal. The Independence was 
 secured by a long and bloody war, the Freedom was expressed in the Con- 
 stitution and Laws of the Land, and has been gradually embodied in the 
 Institutions and habits of the people as the century rolled away. The Idea 
 has been constantly assuming Form and controlling Law and Administra- 
 tion ever more perfectly. 
 
 To be perfectly free men must be completely wise in thought and conduct ; 
 but a very high degree of relative freedom has been reached, and it will be 
 comparitively easy to advance. Freedom has advanced during the century 
 by successive steps. The War of the Revolution secured the freedom of 
 the country ; the second war with Great Britain and the war with Algiers, 
 the freedom of the seas ; acquisitions of territory have secured an unem- 
 barrassed development of the whole country ; educational facilities are 
 beginning to be equal to the proper instruction of all the people ; and the 
 civil war has, let us hope, improved the chances of true national harmony. 
 It may now be said truly that we can grow, naturally, out of the wrong 
 into the right in all directions. We have good reason to be cheerfully and 
 proudly patriotic, and what is yet wanting will come without destructive 
 commotion, At least we have fair reason for believing so. 
 The material progress of the country has been very great. Steam, elec- 
 tricity, the invention of labor saving machinery, the prosperity of other 
 nations (giving us profitable markets), the immigration of nearly 8 millions 
 from the Old World, many of them with means, to aid in the development 
 of our wild lands, mines and educational facilities for rendering labor intel- 
 ligent and fruitful — all these and many other favorable circumstances have 
 crowned vnlh a grand success the First Century of the experimental Republic, 
 and the doctrine of the Declaration is beginning to be the Faith of the 
 World. 
 July 5 — The U. S. Senate unanimously passed a bill granting Capt. Moreno the 
 right to lay and work a sub-marine cable across the Pacific Ocean. There 
 are already in operation more than 50,000 miles of sub-marine telegraphic 
 cable in different parts of the world. 
 
 " 7 — Senator L. M. Morrill, of Maine, took his seat in the Cabinet as Secretary 
 of the Treasury. Jas. G. Blaine was appointed Senator in his place. 
 
 " 12 — James M. Tyner, of Ind., was confirmed Postmaster-General, in place of 
 Marshall Jewell, resigned. 
 
THE HISTORY OFTHE UNITED STATES. 765 
 
 July 26 — A. T. Caperton, U. S. Senator ffom West Virginia, died. 
 
 Aug. 1 — The President proclaimed Colorado a State in the Union. Gen. Belknap, 
 late Secretary of War, impeached by the House of Representatives, was- 
 acquitted by the Senate, 25 voting for non-conviction and 36 for conviction, 
 not the necessary two-thirds. 
 " 19 — M. C. Kerr, Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives, died. 
 
 Sept. 3 — Braxton F. Bragg, ex-Confederate General, aged 61, died 
 
 Oct. 3 — State election in Colorado. 
 " 10 — State elections in Ohio, Indiana and West Virginia indicate a close presi- 
 dential contest. 
 " 17 — President Grant issues a proclamation commanding the rifle companies in 
 South Carolina to disperse in three days. 
 
 Dec. 4 — The second session of the Forty-fourth Congress is opened. S. J. Randall is 
 chosen Speaker of the House. The Secretary of the Treasury reports the 
 public debt reduced between August 81st, 1865, and June 30th, 1876, by 
 1656,992,226.44. Exports during the year ending June 30th, 1876, exceeded 
 imports by $79,684,481, gold. 
 " 6 — Electoral votes are cast in all the Electoral Colleges. Representative men 
 from each party had been present to see that a fair count was made at the 
 canvass of the returns in Florida and Louisiana by Returning Boards, organ- 
 ized under the laws of those States. Those boards were Republican, and 
 discredited some of the returns for alleged violence and intimidation, giving 
 those States to Hayes and securing. his election. The Democrats maintained 
 that such a result could only be reached by fraud, and their electors cast the 
 votes of those States for Tilden, making thus two returns from which Con- 
 gress must choose. 
 
 1877. 
 Jan. 18 — Most of the time and thought of Congress has been occupied in devising^ 
 means to settle the disputed election. On this day, a joint committee re- 
 ported a Compromise Bill for securing that end. 
 " 25 — The Compromise Bill is passed by both Houses — 47 yeas to 17 nays in the 
 Senate, and 191 yeas to 86 nays in the House. The majority in the Senate 
 was Republican, and in the House Democratic, making a dead lock unavoid- 
 able but for a compromise which was secured by the law It organized an 
 Electoral Commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Judges 
 of the Supreme Court, to which the contested points were to be submitted. 
 Their decision was to be final, unless the two Houses agreed to order other- 
 wise. Eight members, when selected, proved to be Republicans, and seven 
 Democrats. The Republican majority of the commission decided that a 
 re-examination of the State returns by Federal authorities would trespass on 
 State independence ; the Democratic minority held that elections of the 
 Federal Executive were a proper subject of investigation by the Federal 
 Congress. The decision was made by the commission on party lines, and 
 gave the disputed States to the Republicans by eight votes over seven. 
 The two Houses coulcj not agree to change that decision, and by the com- 
 promise law, it was so recorded, to the dissatisfaction of the Democrats 
 who believed that investigation would establish the fact of fraudulent or 
 illegal action by the Returning Boards, and give the presidential office to 
 
764 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 their candidate. Returns by two Electoral Colleges were also made from 
 Oregon and South Carolina, on technical grounds, which were decided by 
 the electoral tribunal in favor of the Republican Colleges. 
 Feb. 21 — The President proclaims the ratification of an Extradition Treaty with 
 
 Spain. 
 Mar: 1 — The statement of the public debt made by the Secretary of the Treasury 
 declares that the decrease of the debt since June 30, 1876, had been $10,- 
 658,201 ; making the whole decrease since the close of the war $667,650,427. 
 
 " 2 — The count of the electoral vote by the two Houses of Congress is concluded. 
 Rutherford B. Hayes is found elected President of the United States, and 
 William A. Wheeler Vice-President. 
 
 *' 4 — The Forty-fourth Congress comes to a ciose 
 
 SECTIOI^^ XXIII. 
 
 HAYES' ADMINISTRATION — THE TWENTY-THIRD ELECTION, 1876« 
 
 By tliis time the work of Reconstructing the Union so disturbed by the Civil War 
 ■svas fax on toward its accomplishnient. The two great parties, Republican and 
 Democratic, still maintained their organizations and names, but no great vital 
 principle of public policy divided them. Their differences were those of method 
 and detail. They were so equally divided that the decision of the election could 
 only be made by Congress. Three States. Florida, Oregon, and South Carolina, 
 had two sets of certificates from their Electoral Colleges and one, Louisiana, had 
 three. No such dilemma had been experienced before nor had it been anticipated 
 by the Constitution or the Law. It ^vas decided by an Electoral Commission 
 appointed by the two Houses of Congress as before described. The statistics 
 of the election were as follows : 
 
 There were now 38 States to vote and 369 Presidential Electors, Colorado having 
 come into the Union earlier in the year. 185 electoral votes were therefore required 
 to elect. The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden for President, and Thomas 
 A. Hendricks for Vice-President ; the Republicans Rutherford B. Hayes for 
 President, and William A. "V^Tieeler for Vice-President. A National "Greenback" 
 Convention made a separate issue in favor of Government Currency and nom- 
 inated Peter Cooper and Samuel F. Cary ; the Prohibition Reform party was 
 organized on a Temperance issue and nominated Green Clay Smith and R. T. 
 Stewart. These two parties embraced comparatively few popiilar and no electoral 
 votes. 
 
 THE TWENTY-THIRD ELECTION. 
 
 The figures, as accepted by the Electoral Commission, were as foUows: 
 
 Tilden and Hendricks received 4,284,757 popular and 184 electoral votes. 
 Hayes and Wheeler " 4,033,950 " " 185 " « 
 
 Cooper and Cary <' 81,740 " " 
 
 Smith and Stewart " 9,522 
 
 The Anti-Masonic and Temperance Alliance tickets received together 2,636 pop- 
 ular votes. 
 
 The whole number of votes cast, by this count, numbered 8,412,605; but the 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 765 
 
 count of the Returning Boards so accepted had cast out many thousand votes 
 which they held to be fraudulent. A majority of the members of those Boards 
 were Republicans, and the Democrats disputed the justice of their decision. 
 
 NINETEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1877, TO MARCH 3, 1881. 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, O., President. 
 William A. "Wheeler, N. Y., Vice-President. 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 William M, Evarts, N. Y., Secretary of State. 
 John bhemaan, O,, Secretary of the Treasury. 
 George W. McCrary, la.. Secretary of War 
 Alexander Ramsey, Minn., " " 
 
 Richard W. Thompson, Ind., Secretary of the Navy. 
 Nathan Goff, Jr., W. Va., " " " 
 
 Carl Shurz, Mo., Secretaiy of the Interior. 
 David M. Key, Tenn., Postmaster General. 
 Horace Maynard, Tenn., " " 
 
 Charles Devens, Mass., Attorney General. 
 
 1877. 
 
 Mar. 5 — Hayes is quietly inaugurated President in Washington. The Democratic 
 party has given proof of moderation and patriotism in submitting to a 
 decision they deemed inconclusive, and which deprived them of victory 
 at the moment of seeming success. 
 " 23 — It is decided, by the new administration, that the Southern States are 
 now" so fully reconstructed that Federal interference is no longer nec- 
 essary; that the harmony of the sections, and even the wellfare of the 
 freedmen will be promoted by confining the action of the General Gov- 
 ernment to its ordinary sphere. This is called the President's " Southern 
 Policy." South Carolina and Louisiana have each two Governors claim- 
 ing legal election; the Republican Governors, in each, being upheld in 
 nominal authority by the United States troops. At a Cabinet meeting 
 this day, it is decided to invite Governors Hampton (Democrat) and 
 Chamberlain (Republican), of South CaroUna, to visit and confer with 
 the Government at Washington. 
 
 Apr.lO — The result is the withdrawal of the United States troops from the South 
 Carolina State House, the retirement of Chamberlain, and the recogni- 
 tion of Hampton as Governor without disturbance. 
 " 20 — A Commission, appointed by the President, arranged the contest in 
 Louisiana between the two rival Legislatures; the troops which had sus- 
 tained Packard (Republican) were withdrawn; and the Democratic 
 administration, with Nichols as Governor, was recognized. 
 
 Jun. 15 — About this time an Indian war commences in Idaho, under the leader- 
 ship of Chief Joseph, by the massacre of some twenty settlers. Gen. 
 O. O. Howard defeated the Indians in battle, and, after a long chase, 
 captured them, and put an end to the war (September 5th.) 
 
 June 22 — President Hayes issues a circular to office-holders under the United 
 States Governmant, forbidding them to take part in the management 
 
766 THE FOOTPRINTS OP TIME. 
 
 of political organizations, or to make, or pay assessments for political 
 
 purposes. 
 
 The Iowa Republican Convention protests against the President's 
 
 Southern policy. 
 
 July 5 — On the other hand, proceedings are instituted against the Louisiana 
 Returning Board, which had secured that State for Hayes in the Presi- 
 dential election. 
 " 16 — A strike of railroad employes commences on the Baltimore and Ohio 
 Railroad, and soon spreads to most of the roads in the Northern States, 
 the strikers taking energetic measures to interrupt raUroad traffic till 
 their demands should be complied with They refused to accept a re- 
 duction of wages, generally determined on by most of the railroad 
 companies. 
 " 19 — Troops are called out to suppress the unlawful obstruction of business. 
 Riots in Baltimore and Pittsburg are especially bloody and destructive 
 to property; and disorders occui- at numerous points, the destmction of 
 property being due to the criminal classes rather than railroad employes. 
 The internaption to business lasted nearly two weeks, and was ended 
 partly by conciliatory measures of railroad officers and partly by the 
 submission of the strikers. 
 
 Aug. 29 — Brigham Young, the Mormon leader, died at Salt Lake City, Utah, 
 aged seventy-six. 
 •• 20— Senator L. V. Bogy, of Missouri, died, aged sixty-four. 
 
 Oct. 15 — An extra session of the Forty-fifth Congress commences. The special 
 necessity for it was to make appropriations for the support of the army, 
 which had not been made at the usual time. 
 
 Nov. 1 — Hon. Oliver P. Morton, a distinguished statesman and United States 
 Senator from Indiana, dies, aged fifty-four. He was bom in Wayne 
 County, Indiana, in 1823, graduated at Miami University, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1847 ; was elected Circuit Judge in 1852. He took 
 part in organizing the Republican party ; became Lieutenant Governor 
 of Indiana in 1860 ; was acting Governor from 1861-4, when returned to 
 the office by election ; and represented his State in the United States 
 Senate from 1867 to his death. He was a natural leader of men, and 
 respected, even .by his opponents, as an able and upright statesman. 
 
 X)ec. 3 — The extra session of the Forty-fifth Congress terminates, and the first 
 regular session commences. 
 
 1877. 
 " 20— An amendment to a Post-office Bill revives the franking privilege for 
 
 members of Congress. 
 *' 28 — A Bill remonetizing silver, making the old silver dollar of 412^ grains a 
 legal tender, becomes a law by its passage over the veto of the President 
 in both Houses of Congress. 
 *• 18— The Louisiana Court before which General Anderson, of the Returning 
 Board, was tried, had sentenced him two years in the Penitentiary. The 
 Supreme Court of the State overrules the decision, and orders his 
 release. 
 
 Apr. 1 — Since July, 1877. the Public Debt has been reduced more than twenty 
 million dollars, in spite of financial trouble. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATS^. 767 
 
 The most noteworthy facts of the month have been the success of the 
 Secretary of the Treasury in preparing for formal resumption of specie 
 payments by the Government; the nominal difference between the value 
 of greenbacks and gold, and actual resumption by many banks and 
 business houses. 
 May 1— The National debt was reduced in April $3,015,865. 
 
 Sitting Bull, the Sioux Chief, proposes to make peace. 
 '< « —Congress is in session during this month, and produces some important 
 legislation, among which is the repeal of the Bankrupt Law, from Sep- 
 tember 1st, voting the payment to England of the Halifax Fisheries 
 award. ($5,500,000,) and measures to prevent further contraction of the 
 currency. 
 Jun. 12— William Cullen Bryant, a distinguished American poet, dies, aged 83. 
 u 20— The second session of the Forty-fifth Congress comes to a close. The 
 first session commenced in December, 1877; the second, in March, 1878. 
 July 9— A " heated term" of unusual severity commences, during which hun- 
 dreds of deaths by sunstroke occur. 
 _A.ug. —The Yellow Fever commences with great fatality in Memphis, New Or- 
 leans and other parts of the South, mostly near the Mississippi River, 
 causing a general suspension of business in those regions. All parts of 
 the country, and especially large Northern cities, supply the sick and 
 suffering with many hundred thousand dollars in money. 
 Great political activity, and an attempt to build up new political parties, 
 have characterized the spring and summer. 
 Sept. 3— The State election occurs in Vermont, followed 
 
 " 9— By that of Maine. 
 Oct. 8— Ohio. Indiana, Iowa and West Virginia hold State elections. 
 Nov. 5— Thirty-one States hold elections for State officers and Representatives to 
 the Forty-sixth Congress. There is a considerable reaction in favor of 
 the Republicans on the whole, although the Democrats will have a small 
 majority in both Houses of the Forty-sixth Congress. New parties 
 show less strength than was expected, owing chiefly to the success of 
 preparations by the U. S. Government to resume specie payments in Jan- 
 uary coming. 
 Dec. 2— The third session of the Forty-fifth Congress commences. The Public 
 Debt, less cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1st, $2,027,414,235. 
 » 17_Gold was sold at par in New York for the first time in nearly seventeen 
 years. 
 
 1879. 
 Jan. 1— Resumption by the U. S. Treasury becomes an accomplished fact. Rail- 
 ways have been built in the last year to the extent of 2,688 miles, making 
 the total miles in the U. S. 81,896. Iron has been produced in the coun- 
 try during the year to the amount of 4,154,000 tons, about one-fourth 
 the production of the world. The mining of precious metals for the 
 year gives a value of about $84,000,000 ; the crops raised by tlie farmers 
 were the largest in our history. The export of merchandise for the year 
 was about $100,000,000 more than in the previous, or any other year, m 
 our history. 
 
768 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Mar. 4— The Forty-fifth Congress comes to an end with its work incomplete. The 
 President, by proclamation, calls together the Forty-sixth Congress in 
 extra session for March 18th. 
 ii 18— The Forty-sixth Congress met in extra session. The Forty-fifth Con- 
 gress had expired without having passed the necessary Appropriation 
 Bills. 
 Apr. 29— The President vetoed the Army Appropriation Bill, to which Congress 
 had attached legislation called " political riders." The Bill failed to pass 
 over the veto. 
 May 15— A Congress of Engineers and^eminent men met in Paris, France, to con- 
 sider the project of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. It 
 resulted in an effort to organize a company to commence the under- 
 taking. 
 May 29— The President vetoed the Legislative Appropriation Bill, on account of 
 
 objectionable legislation joined to it. 
 June 23— The Judicial Appropriation Bill was vetoed for a similar reason. 
 
 " 28— The track of the Iron Mountain Railroad, in Missouri, 700 miles long, 
 was changed to standard gauge in one day by 3,000 men. 
 July 1— Congress adjourned, after an extra session of 105 days. All the appro- 
 priations necessary for carrying on the Government, except that for the 
 pay of United States Marshals, were finally agreed on by Congress and 
 the President. 
 «' 9— The first death this year, from yellow fever, occurred in Memphis, 
 
 Tenn. , and produced wdde-spread alarm and obstruction of business. 
 «' 21— The United States Government sent 1,500 tents and rations for 10,000 
 people to Memphis, for the use of the suffering people. 
 Sept. 20— General U. S. Grant landed at San Francisco, on his return from a two- 
 years' tour around the world. 
 " 26— Deadwood, D. T., had a great fire. Loss, |2i500,000. Two thousand 
 people were made houseless. 
 Oct. 29— Yellow fever was officially declared at an end in Memphis. 1.530 cases 
 were reported, and 470 deaths. In 1878 the number of cases reported in 
 the United States were 75.976, and 14,809 deaths, of which 5,160 were in 
 Memphis. In that year $4,548,672 were contributed in aid of the 
 sufferers— about $176,000 of it being from foreign countries. 
 Nov. 1— Hon. Z. Chandler, U. S. Senator from Michigan, died, aged 66. 
 
 " 4 — Elections were held in eleven States. 
 X)ec. 1 — The first regular session of the Forty-sixth Congress commenced. 
 " 31— Hon. George S. Houston, U. S. Senator from Ala., died, aged 66. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Jan. 1— The great national facts of 1879 were the brilliant success of resump- 
 tion; the refunding, at 4 per cent., of such U. S. Bonds, bearing interest 
 at 5 and 6 per cent., as could be legally called in; a great and general 
 revival of business; a still larger volume of agricultural produce than 
 ever before and an increased balance of trade with Europe in favor of 
 the United States. About 5,000 miles of new railway were built, and 
 270,000 immigrants from other countries settled here. 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 709 
 
 Jan. i — The Public Debt — less cash in the Treasury and bonds and interest of 
 Pacific railroads— was $2,011,789,504. 
 " " — Since the Debt reached the highest point, at the close of the Civil War, 
 the principal had been reduced by $769,325,030.31; and the annual inter- 
 est is less by $57,847,809.37. wliile the annual revenue has been reduced, 
 in various ways, by about $200,000,000. Success in finance has been 
 added to our long and brilliant record of progress in other lines, and a 
 new decade begins with bright promise of a still inoiv wonderful 
 future. 
 
 Feb. 1 — The Public Debt decreased during January $11,014,263. A quiet session 
 of Congress leaves the general forces of business and politics to work 
 out their own issues, undisturbed by doubtful legislation. 
 
 Feb. 25 — An efi'ort is made in Congress to provide for a Constitutional Amend- 
 ment changing the manner of voting for President and Vice-President 
 of the United States and for the official count of that vote, it being clear 
 that such an Amendment was generally desired; but the parties could 
 not agl'ee on its details and no result was obtained. 
 
 Mar. 1 — The decrease of the debt during February was $5,667,010. This leaves 
 the whole, less cash in the Treasury and obligations temporarily as- 
 sumed for the Pacific railroads, $1,995,112,221. The part of tlie debt on 
 which interest is to be paid is much less— $1,770,212,850— the annual in- 
 terest on this being $82,211,663. Meantime business is so brisk, and so 
 much greater in volume that it is estimated that $80,000,000 of the prin- 
 cipal may be paid off in 1880, unless taxation is reduced. February, 
 1880, produced $7,000,000 more revenue to the Treasury than February, 
 1879. 
 ^» 3 — A new set of Parliamentary Rules were adopted by the U. S. House of 
 Representatives. They go into operation March 8, 1880. 
 
 May 4— The Session of Congress was prolonged through the spring because Con- 
 gress and the President could not agree on details of the Appropriation 
 BiUs and the " Riders " attached by the Houses. The President vetoed 
 the Deficiency Appropriation Bill because of wliat he considered inap- 
 propriate legislation attached. 
 
 June 2— The National Republican Convention assembles in Chicago, Ills., to select 
 party nominees for the Presidency and Vice-Presidency. 
 " —The National Greenback Labor Convention assembled at Chicago to 
 
 select the candidates of that party for the approaching elections. 
 " —Congress adjourns. Many important measures introduced had failed to 
 become laws, but all the regular and necessary Appropriation Bills finally 
 passed in such form as to receive the approval of the President. Their 
 amount was $186,000,000. Some special bills were also passed, among 
 them $30,000 was for the celebration of the Centennial of the Surrender 
 of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Va., Oct. 16, 1782, with $100,000 for a mon- 
 ument to commemorate it. This monument was voted in 1782 by the 
 Continental Congress, but no appropriation having ever been made it 
 was not erected. 
 " —The National Democratic Convention met in Cincinnati, 0., to nominate 
 the party candidates for President and Vice-President. 
 
 July 1— Hon. Horace Mavnard, of Ky., becomes Postmaster General. 
 49 
 
770 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 July 1 —The Public Debt now stands at $1,919,326,747.45, and the annual interest 
 due on it at $79,633,981 — the Debt having been reduced in 14 years and 
 10 months nearly one-third and the interest almost one-half. 
 " " — The number of immigrants arriving in the United States during the 
 year ending June 30, 1880, was 457,243. 
 
 Sept. 23 — The capture of Maj. Andre one liundred years ago was celebrated at 
 Tarrytown, N. Y., by an immense assembly with impressive cere- 
 monies. 
 
 Nov. 2 — The Presidential election takes place in all the States of the Union. 
 Many members of the U. S. House of Representatives were elected at the 
 same time. That body receives a majority of Republican members for 
 the first time in several years. 
 " 17 — Two Treaties negotiated by the Plenipotentiaries of the United Stat^ 
 with China are signed by the Chinese Government at Pekin. 
 
 Dec. 6 — The Third Session of the Forty-sixth Congress commences. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Jan. 1 — The Supt. of the Census ofl&ciaUy reports the population of the States 
 
 and Territories at 150,152,356. 
 Peb. 9 — The Electoral votes for President and Vice-President are officially 
 
 counted. Garfield and Arthur are proclaimed elected. 
 Mar. 3 — A BiU for Refunding a part of the Public Debt is vetoed by President 
 
 Hayes. 
 
 SECTIOlSr XXIY. 
 
 Garfield's administration. 
 
 the twenty-fourth election, 1880. 
 
 The great parties still retained their names, as much of their traditional policy 
 as change of circumstances permitted, and tlieir nearly equal popular strength. 
 There were stiU 38 States and 369 Presidential Electors, 185 of which would be 
 an electoral majority. The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield for Presi- 
 dent and Chester A. Arthur for Vice-President; the Democrats nominated Win- 
 field S. Hancock and WiUiam H. English; the Greenback party, in favor of the 
 issue of the currency of the cormtry by the Government, James B. AVeaver and 
 B. J. Chambers. 
 
 Garfield and Arthur received 4,443,950 popular and 214 Electoral votes. 
 Hancock and English " 4,442,035 " " 155 
 
 Weaver and Chambers " 306.867 " " " 
 
 12,576 votes were scattering. 
 
 WTiole number popular votes 9.204,428. 
 
 Garfield's popular plurality was 915 over Hancock by the count here followed- 
 His electoral majority was decisive, being 59. 
 
 TWE^^^ETH administration, mar. 4, 1881 to sept. 19, 1881. 
 
 James A. Garfield, O., President. 
 Chester A. Arthur, N. Y., Vice-President 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 771 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 James G. Blaine, Me., Secretaiy of State. 
 William Windom, Minn., Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Robert T. Lincoln. 111., Secretary of War. 
 William H. Hunt, La., Secretary of the Navy. 
 Samuel J. Kirkwood, la.. Secretary of the Interior. 
 Thomas L. James, N. Y., Postmaster General. 
 Wayne McVeagh, Pa., Attorney General. 
 
 1881. 
 
 Mar. 4 — The Forty-sixth Congress and the Nineteenth Administration come to a 
 close and James A. Garfield is inaugurated the Twentieth President. 
 This number includes Tyler, Fillmoi'e and Johnson who were elected 
 Vice-Presidents and were inaugurated on the death of Harrison, Taylor 
 and Lincoln, during their term of office. 
 *' "—An Extra or Executive Session of the Senate of the Forty-Seventh Con- 
 gress was called by President Hayes before his term closed. Its mem- 
 bers, therefore, inaugurate the new Vice-President, Arthur, as its 
 President and continue to meet. After confirming the nominations of 
 the new Pi-esident to his Cabinet its members engage in a prolonged 
 party struggle over the re-appointment of its officers and Chairmen of 
 Committees. 
 *' 13— Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, killed by the explosion of a glass 
 Ijomb thrown at his feet by a Nihilist assassin. His son, Alexander III., 
 succeeded to the throne. 
 
 May 5— The two Chinese Treaties are confirmed by the Senate; an Extradition 
 Treaty with the United States of Colombia; a Consular Convention with 
 Italy; a Convention relating to American residents in Morocco with that 
 poM^er; and a special Treaty with Japan relative to shipwrecks. 
 " 16— Hon. Roscoe Conkling and Hon. Thos. C. Piatt, Senators from New York 
 resigned their seats in the Senate. 
 
 May 16— They were dissatisfied with some of the nominations of the President to 
 Federal offices in their State; were unable to prevent their probable con- 
 firmation in the Senate and resigned as an appeal to their State, offering 
 tliemselves to the State Legislature for re-election. After a struggle of 
 about six weeks they failed to receive the endorsement of a re-election, 
 two others being elected to tlie Senate to fill the vacant places. 
 " 20— The Senate adjourns after confimiing the nominations objected toby the 
 resigning N. Y. Senators and some others. * 
 
 June —-The month was politically distinguished by the failure of the friends of 
 Ex-Senators Conkling and Piatt to secure their reelection by the New 
 York Legislature. 
 
 July 1— The President made four appointments of Ministers to foreign Govern- 
 ments viz: to Spain, Denmark, Venezuela and Liberia. 
 " 2 — The President was shot by an assassin named Guiteau, ostensibly on 
 political grounds. The sympathies of all parties of the whole country 
 and of the civilized world were given to the wounded President, who 
 
772 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 lingered long in extreme suffering. The common solicitude for the 
 i-ecoTery of the Chief Magistrate South, North and West, indicates that 
 the Sections are truly reunited as one Nation. 
 
 July r25 — Nathan Clifford, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, died aged 78. 
 
 Aug, — The month was marked by excessive heat, drouth, forest fires and the 
 anxious suspense of the country over the condition of President Gar- 
 field. 
 
 Sept- 1 — The Public Debt was decreased during August |14,181,221, and since 
 July 1st $24,159,244. During the financial year ending June 30, 1881 
 there was paid $101,573,464.34. The Debt, less cash in Treasury now 
 stands at $1,817,339,567. The amount of this drawing interest is less by 
 nearly four hundred millions. 
 " <9 — President Garfield died at Long Branch, N. J., from the effects of his 
 wound, to the extreme regret of the Nation. President James A. Gar- 
 field was born in Cuyahoga Co., Ohio, in 1831 and wa^s thei'efore 50 years 
 old. Early left without a father or family wealth he acquired an educa- 
 tion by his own energy, and soon after graduating at Williams College, 
 Massachusetts, became President of an Ohio College. He entered public 
 life in the Ohio State Senate in 1859, went into the army in 1861 as Col- 
 onel of the 42nd Ohio regiment, took part in many important events in 
 the campaigns in the West up to the great battles about Chattanooga in 
 1863, rising to the rank of Major-General. He then entered Congress as 
 Representative of his District in Ohio and became conspicous as a States- 
 man among the many great men of that body. His eminent ability and 
 acquirements, his moderation and worth as a man were generally recog- 
 nized by friend and rival alike. Among many distinguished competitors 
 for the Presidency in the electoral campaign of 1880, he proved to be the 
 choice of the people for that high office, and discharged its duties for 
 four months when he was stricken down by the bullet of an assassin — not 
 as a man, but as the Chief Magistrate of the United States. He lingered 
 80 days in extreme suffering, dying on the anniversary of the battle 
 of Chickamauga where his distinguished services won him promo- 
 tion to the rank of IMajor-General. 
 " 20 — Chester A. Arthiu', Vice-President of the United States, was sworn in 
 as acting President before Judge Brady, of New York, about one o'clock 
 A. M., and three hours after President Garfield expired (10:35 P. M. 
 Sept. 19tb). For that three houi's the U. S. Government was without a 
 head. s 
 " 22 — To comply with the usual custom President Arthm* again f onnaUy took 
 the oath of office before the Chief Justice, Supreme Court, members of 
 the Cabinet, and others, in the Capitol at Waslaington, and delivered a 
 brief inaugural address. 
 " 23 — President Arthur issued a Proclamation calling the Senate together in 
 
 extraordinary session for Oct. 10th. 
 '■ 26 — President Garfield's funeral was celebrated at Cleveland, O. 
 
 Oct. 1— The Public Debt was diminished during September by $17,483,641; the 
 principal, less cash in the Treasury, now standing at $1,748,855,925. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 
 
 We give in this chapter the rules for conducting business in the House of Representatives 
 of the United States, as a proper compend of Parliamentary rules for the people of the United 
 States. They are naturally a standard of procedure in all public bodies in this country so far 
 as the circumstances are parallel; they have been carefully compiled and used by our highest 
 popular Legislative Body during the course of more than three-quarters of a century, and 
 may therefore be considered thoroughly well adapted to the genius of our people and the 
 character of our institutions; and they were originally based on Jefferson's Manual, compiled 
 by him for the use, and at the request of, the Senate, when, as Vice President of the United 
 States, he became its presiding officer, and was digested by him from the usages of the 
 English Parliament and other legislative bodies in Europe. 
 
 The value of this manual is attested by its use continued to the present day, so far as it is 
 applicable. The Rules of the House are therefore representative of the wisdom of the Old 
 World on this point as well as of the usages of the New. 
 
 They deserve to be carefully studied by American citizens above any other body of parlia- 
 mentary rules for several reasons besides those mentioneii above. Hardly any other will be 
 likely to contain so many points of adaptation to popular use; everyone should be fairly 
 -acquainted with the prevailing usages that he maybe ready to act his part well it called on 
 to preside in any public meeting; all who read the reports of congressional doings require 
 such acquaintance with parliamentary usage to fully appreciate many points in such reports, 
 and these rules are a fine illustration of the spirit of our government and the genius of the 
 American people. 
 
 The following Rules were adopted March 2, 1880. A committee had been appointed to 
 digest and prepare them during the interval between two sessions of Congress, and they were 
 cai-efuUy examined and discussed by the members of the House at intervals for more than 
 two months during the winter of 1879-80. 
 
 During the last quarter of a century, and more especially between 1870 and 1880, the United 
 States has grown with bewildering rapidity. The activities and interests of the people have 
 spread over more than twice as much surface as that to which they were chiefly confined 
 twenty-five years ago; the population has doubled; the realized wealth, and the vast resources 
 about to be developed, are probably ten times as great. Production and exchanges have been 
 made with constantly increasing rapidity and massiveness of volume. Legislation has all 
 these interests to deal with, and its business has become vastly more important and complex. 
 Its methods must be arranged to meet the requirements of a situation so changed. 
 
 Jefferson's Manual adapted to American needs the Parliamentary usages in Europe at the 
 beginning of this century. It is still an accepted authoritj' on points not included in these 
 Rules, whenever applicable. 
 
 The revision contemplated greater adaptation, clearness, precision, and such an order and 
 regulation of business as should favor attention to subjects according to their relative im- 
 portance, combined with speed and thoroughness— very difficult points to achieve where «n 
 many general and personal interests are clamoring for attention. 
 
 Public affairs are very closely criticised in our country, as is right and proper; but critics 
 are apt to forget how difficult it is for a body which has so many subjects claiming its atten- 
 tion and decision to maintain exact impartiality of judgment; noris it easy to give a suitable 
 propoi-tion of care to all interests where such an ocean of details is to be e.vplured in order to 
 
 773 
 
774 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, 
 
 arrive at a conclusion which the future shall approve as wise and just. Let us be considerate 
 while we are watchful. " The work approves or condemns the workman" and the history of 
 the Republic up to this time renders a more favorable verdict on past legislation than the 
 critics of the time. Our fathers, guided by a sound instinct, " built wiser than they knew." 
 The " New Rules " and a rising tide of prosperity seem to indicate that the sons have not 
 degenerated. 
 
 EULES OF THE HOUSE OP REPRESENTATIVES, ADOPTED MARCH 2. 1880. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 DUrrES OF THE SPE.4.KER. 
 
 1. The Speaker shall take the chair on every legislative day precisely at the hour to which 
 the House shall have adjourned at the last sitting, immediately call the membcKS to order, 
 and on the appearance of a quorum cause the journal of the proceedings of the last day's 
 sitting to be read, having previously examined and approved the same. 
 
 2. He shall preserve order and decorum, and in case of disturbance or disorderly conduct 
 in the galleries, or in the lobby, may cause the same to be cleared. 
 
 3. He shall have general control, except as provided by rule or law of the hall of the 
 House, and the disposal of the unappropriated rooms in that part of the Capitol assigned to 
 the use of the House until further order. 
 
 4. He shall sign all acts, addresses, joint resolutions, writs, warrants and subpoenas of, or 
 issued by order of, the House and decide all questions of order subject to an appeal by any 
 member, on which appeal no member shall speak more than once, unless by permission of 
 the House. 
 
 5. He shall rise to put a question, but may state it sitting; and shall put questions in this^ 
 form, to-wit: " As many as are in favor (as the question may be) say Ay" ; and after the af- 
 firmative voice is expressed, "As many as are opposed say No"; if he doubts, or a division 
 is called for, the House shall divide; those in the alBrmative of the question shall first rise 
 from their seats, and then those in the negative; if he still doubts, or a count is required by 
 at least one-fifth of a quorum, he shall name one from each side of the question to tell the 
 members in the afQrmative and negative; which being reported, he shall rise and state the 
 decision. 
 
 6. He shall not be required to vote in ordinary legislative proceedings, except where his 
 vote would be decisive, or where the House is engaged in voting by ballot; and in all cases of 
 a tie vote the question shall be lost. 
 
 7. He shall have the right to name any member to perform the duties of the chair, but 
 such substitution shall not extend beyond an adjoui-nment; Provided, however, That in 
 case of his illness he may make such appointment for a period not exceeding ten days, with 
 the approval of the House at the time the same is made ; and in his absence and omission to 
 make such appointment, the House shall proceed to elect a Speaker pro tempore, to act 
 during his absence. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 ELECTION OF OFFICERS. 
 
 There shall be elected by a viva voce vote at the commencement of each Congress, to con- 
 tinue in olficc until their successors are chosen and qualified, a Clerk, Sergeant-at-Arms 
 Doorkeeper, Postmaster, and Chaplain, each of whom shall take an oath to support the Con 
 stitution of the United States, and for the true and faithful discharge of the duties of his of- 
 fice, to the best of his knowledge and ability, and to keep the secrets of the House, and each 
 shall appoint all the employes of his department provided for by law. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 DUTIES OF THE CLERK. 
 
 1. The Clerk shall, at the commencement of the first session of each Congress, call the 
 members to order, proceed to call the roll of members by States in alphabetical order, and, 
 pending the election of a Speaker pro tempore, preserve order and decorum, and decide all 
 questions of order, subject to appeal by any member. 
 
I'AKLIAMENTAKY RULES. 775 
 
 2. He shall make, and cause to be printed and delivered to each member, or mailed to hia 
 address, at the commencement of every regular session of Congress, a list of reports which 
 it is the duty of any oflBcer or department to make to Congress, referring to the act or resolu- 
 tion and page of the volume of the laws or journal in which it may be contained, and placing 
 under the name of each officer the list of reports required of him to be made; also make a 
 weekly statement of the resolutions and bills upon the Speaker's table, accompanied with a 
 brief reference to the orders and proceedings of the House upon each, and the dates of such 
 orders and proceedings, which statement shall be printed. 
 
 3. He shall note all questions of order, with the decisions thereon, the record of which 
 shall be printed as an appendix to the journal of each session; and complete, as soon after the 
 close of the session as possible, the printing and distribution to members and delegates of 
 the Journal of the House, together with an accurate and complete index; retain in the library 
 at his ofiBce, for the use of the members and officers of the House, and not to be withdrawn 
 therefrom, two copies of all the books and printed documents deposited there; send, at the 
 end of each session, a printed copy of the Journal thereof to the executive and to each branch 
 of the legislature of every State and Territory; preserve for and deUver or mail to each 
 member and delegate an extra copy, in good binding, of all documents printed by order of 
 either House of the Congress to which he belonged; attest and affix the seal of the House to 
 all writs, warrants and subpoenas issued by order of the House, certify to the passage of all 
 bills and joint resolutions, make or approve all contracts, bargains or agreements relative to 
 furnishing any matter or thing, or for the performance of any labor for the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, in pursuance of law or order of the House, keep full and accurate accounts of the 
 disbursements out of the contingent fund of the House, keep the stationery accounts of mem- 
 bers and delegates, and pay them as provided by law. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 DUTIES OF THE SERGEANT-AT-ARMS. 
 
 1. It shaU be the duty of the Sergeant^at-Arms to attend the House during its sittings, to 
 maintain order under the direction of the Speaker, and, pending the election of a Speaker or 
 Speaker pro tempore, under the direction of the Clerk; execute the commands of the 
 House, and all processes issued by authority thereof, directed to him by the Speaker; keep 
 the accoiints for the pay and mileage of members and delegates, and pay them as provided 
 by law. 
 
 2. The symbol of his office shall be the mace, which shall be borne by him while enforcing 
 order on the floor. 
 
 3. He shall give bond to the United States, with sureties to be approved by the Speaker, in 
 the sum of fifty thousand dollars, for the faithful disbursement of all moneys entrusted to 
 him by virtue of his office and the proper discharge of the duties thereof, and no member of 
 Congress shall be approved as such surety. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 DUTIES OF OTHER OFFICERS. 
 
 1. The Doorkeeper shall enforce strictly the rules relating to the privileges of the hall and 
 be responsible to the House for the official conduct of his employes. 
 
 3. At the commencement and close of each session of Congress he shall take an inventory 
 ©f all the furniture, books, and other public property in the several committee and other 
 rooms under his charge, and report the same to the House, which report shall be referred to 
 the Committee on Accounts to ascertain and determine the amount for which he shall be held 
 liable for missing articles. 
 
 3. He shall allow no person to enter the room over the hall of the House during its sittings; 
 and fifteen minutes before the hour for the meeting of the House each day, he shall see that 
 the floor is cleared of all persons except those privileged to remain. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The Postmaster shall superintend the postofflce kept in the Capitol for the accommodation 
 of Representatives, Delegates, and officers of the House, and be held responsible for the 
 prompt and safe delivery of their mail. 
 
77G THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 The Chaplain shall attend at the commencement of each day's sitting of the House and 
 open the same with prayer. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 OF THE MEMBERS. 
 
 1. Every member shall be present within the hall of the House during its sittings, unless 
 excused or necessarily prevented; and shall vote on each question put, unless, on motion 
 made before division or the commencement of the roil call and decided without debate, he 
 shall be excused, or unless he has a direct personal or pecuniary interest in the event of such 
 question. 
 
 2. Pairs shall be announced by the Clerk, after the completion of the second roll call, from 
 a Avritten list furnished him, and signed by the member making the statement to the Clerk, 
 which list shall be published in the Record as a part of the proceedings, immediately follow- 
 ing the names of those not voting; Provided, pairs shall be announced but once during the 
 same legislative day. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 QUESTIONS OF PRIVILEGE. 
 
 Questions of privilege shall be, first, those affecting the rights of the House collectively, its 
 safety, dignity, and the integrity of its proceedings; second, the rights, reputation, and con- 
 duct of members individually in their representative capacity only; and shall have prece- 
 dence of all other questions, except motions to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn 
 to adjourn, and for a recess. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 OF COMMITTEES. 
 
 1. Unless Otherwise specially ordered by the House, the Speaker shall appoint, at the com. 
 mencement of each Congress, the following standing committees, viz. : 
 On Elections, to consist of fifteen members. 
 On Ways and Means, to consist of thirteen members. 
 On Appropriations, to consist of fifteen members. 
 On the Judiciary, to consist of fifteen members. 
 On Banking and Currency, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Coinage, Weights and Measures, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Commerce, to consist of fifteen members. 
 On Agriculture, to consist of fifteen members. 
 On Foreign Affairs, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Military Affairs, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Naval Affairs, to consist of eleven members. 
 
 On the Post OfiBce and the Post Roads, to consist of eleven members. 
 On the Public Lands, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Indian Affairs, to consist wf eleven members. 
 On the Territories, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Railways and Canals, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Manufactures, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Mines and Mining to consist of eleven members. 
 Oh Public Buildings and Grounds, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Pacific Railroads, to consist of eleven members. 
 
 On Levees and Improvement of the Mississippi River, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Education and Labor, to consist of eleven members. 
 On the Militia, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Patents, to consist of eleven members. 
 On Invalid Pensions, to consist of fifteen members. 
 On Pensions, to consist of eleven members. 
 
PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 777 
 
 Oil Claims, to consist of fifteen members. 
 
 On War Claims, to consist of eleven members. 
 
 On Private Land Claims, to consist of eleven members. 
 
 On the District of Columbia, to consist of eleven members. 
 
 On Revision of the Laws, to consist of eleven members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the State Department, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the Treasury Department, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the War Department, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the Navy Department, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the Post Office Depai-tmeut, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the Interior Department, to consist of se^■en members. 
 
 On Expenditures in the Department of Justice, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Expenditures on Public Buildings, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Rules, to consist of five members. 
 
 On Accounts, to consist of seven members. 
 
 On Mileage, to consist of five members. 
 
 Also the following joint standing committees, viz.: 
 
 On the Library, to consist of three members. 
 
 On Printing, to consist of three members. 
 
 On Enrolled Bills, to consist of seven members. 
 
 2. He shall also appoint all select committees which shall be ordered by the House from 
 time to time. 
 
 3. The first named member of each committee shall be the chairman; and in his absence, 
 or being excused by the House, the next named member, and so on, as often as the case 
 shall happen, unless the committee by a majority of its number elect a chairman. 
 
 4. The chairman shall appoint the clerk of his committee, subject to its approval, who 
 shall be paid at the public expense, the House having first provided therefor. 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 POWERS AND DUTIES OF COMMITTEES. 
 
 All proposed legislation shall be referred to the committees named in the preceding rule, as 
 follows, viz. : Subjects relating, 
 
 1. To the election of members: to the Committee on Elections: 
 
 2. To the revenue and the bonded debt of the United States: to the Committee on Ways 
 •and Means; 
 
 o. To appropriation of the revenue for the support of tho gdvernnicnt: to the Committee 
 on Appropriations; 
 
 4. To judicial proceedings, civil and criminal law: to the Conimittee on tho .Tudieiary ; 
 
 5. To banking and currency: to the Committee on Banking and Currency: 
 
 15. To coinage, weights and measures: to the Committee on Coinage, Weights iind 
 Measures; 
 
 7. To commerce, life saving service, and I'ght ho>i«Ps. other than iipproprintioTis for life 
 saving service and light house's: to the Committee on Cnnimcree. and the Committee on Com- 
 merce shall have the same priAilegcs in reporting l)'"ll's making nppropriations for the 
 improvement of rivers and harbors as is aceoi-ded to the (Committee on Appropriations in 
 reporting general appropriation bill's; 
 
 .'<. To agriculture and forestry: to the Committer on Agrieiiltni'e. who shall ree('i\'e the 
 estimates and report the approprintions for the Agricultural DepnrtTnent: 
 
 !>. To the relations of the United States with foreign nations, othei- than appropriations 
 therefor: to the Committee on Foreign .Affairs: 
 
 10. To the military establishment and the public defense, other than the appropriations for 
 its support: to the Committee on Military Affairs; 
 
 11. To the naval establishment other than the appropriations for its support: to the Com- 
 mittee on Naval Affairs; 
 
 13. To the post office and post roads, other than appropriations foi- their support: to the 
 Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads; 
 LS. To the lands of the United States: to the Committee on the Public Lands; 
 
778 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 14. To the relations of the United States with the Indians and the Indian tribes, other than 
 appropriations therefor: to the Committee on Indian Affairs; 
 
 15. To territorial legislation, the revision thereof, and affecting Territories or the admission 
 of States: to the Committee on the Territories; 
 
 16. To railways and canals other than Pacific railroads: to the Committee on Railways and 
 Canals; 
 
 17. To the manufacturing- industries: to the Committee on Manufactures; 
 
 18. To the mining interests : to the Committee on Mines and Mining; 
 
 19. To the public buildings and occupied or improved grounds of the United States, other- 
 than appropriations therefor: to the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds; 
 
 20. To the railroads and telegraphic lines between the Mississippi River and the Pacifie 
 coast: to the Committee on Pacific Railroads; 
 
 31. To the levees of the Mississippi river: to the Comtnittee on Levees and Improvements of 
 the Mississippi River; 
 
 32. To education and labor: to the Committee on Education and Labor; 
 •^'6. To the militia of the several States: to the Committee on the Militia; 
 
 34. To patents, copyrights and trade marks: to the Committee on Patents; 
 
 35. To the pensions of the civil war: to the Committee on Invalid Pensions; 
 
 26. To the pensions of all the wars of the United States, other than the ci-eil war: to the 
 Committee on Pensions; 
 
 27. To private and domestic claims and demands, other than war claims, against the United 
 States: to the Committee on Claims; 
 
 38. To claims arising from any war in which the United States has been engaged : to the 
 Committee on War Claims ; 
 
 39. To private claims to lands: to the Committee on Private Land Claims; 
 
 30. To the District of Columbia, other than appropriations therefor: to the Committee for 
 the District of Columbia; 
 
 31. To the revision and codification of the statutes of the United States: to the Committee- 
 on the Re-vision of the Laws; 
 
 33. The examination of the accounts and expenditures of the several departments of the 
 government and the manner of keeping the same ; the economy, justness, and correctness of 
 such expenditures; their conformity with appropriation laws; the proper application of pub- 
 lic moneys; the security of the government against unjust and exti-avagant demands ; re- 
 trenchment; the enforcement of the payment of moneys due to the United States; the econo- 
 my and accountability of public officers; the abolishment of useless offices; the reduction or 
 increase of the pay of oflBcers, shall all be subjects within the jurisdiction of the eight stand- 
 ing committees on the public expenditures in the several departments, as follows: 
 
 33. In the Department of State: to the Committee on Expenditures in the State Depart- 
 ment; 
 
 34. In the Treasury Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Treasury De- 
 partment; 
 
 35. In the War Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department; 
 
 36. In the Navy Department: to the Committee on Expenditui-es in the Xavy Department; 
 
 37. In the Post Office Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Post Office De- 
 partment ; 
 
 38. In the Interior Department: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Interior Depart- 
 ment: 
 
 39. In the Department of Justice: to the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of 
 Justice; 
 
 40. On public buildings: to the Committee on Expenditures on the Public Buildings; 
 
 41. All proposed action touching the rules and joint rules shall be referred to the Commit- 
 tee on Rules; 
 
 42. Touching the expenditure of the contingent fund of the House, the auditing and set- 
 tling all accounts which may be charged therein by order of the House: to the Committee on 
 Accounts; 
 
 43. The ascertainment of the travel of members of the House shall be made by the Com- 
 mittee on Mileage and reported to the Sergeant-at-Arms; 
 
 44. Touching the Library of Congress, statuary and pictures: to the Joint Committee on 
 Library; 
 
PARLIAMENTARY RULES 779^ 
 
 45. All proposed leg-islation or orders touching printiug- shall be referred to the Joint Com- 
 mittee on Printing on the part ol the House; 
 
 46. The enrollment of engrossed bills: to the Joint Committee un Enrolled Bills; 
 
 47. The following named committees shall have leave to report ut any time on the matters 
 herein stated, viz.; The Committee on Elections, on the right of a member to his seat; the 
 Committee on Ways and Means, on bills raising revenue; the 'Committee on Appropriations,. 
 the general appropriation bills; the Ct.muiitttc on EurollLd Bills, enrolled bills; the Com- 
 mittee on Printing, on all matters relerrtd to them of printing l(jr the use of the House or 
 two houses; and the Committee on Accounts, on all matters of expenuiture of the contingent 
 fund of the House ; 
 
 48. No committee shall sit during the sittings of the House without special leave. 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 DELEGATES. "• 
 
 The Speaker shall appoint from among the Delegates one additional member on each of the 
 following committees, viz. : Coinage, Weights and Measures; Agriculture; Military Affairs; 
 Post Offices and Post Roads; Public Lands; Indian Attairs; Territories; and Mines and Min 
 ing; and they shall possess in their respectiA'e committees the same powers and privileges aa 
 in the House, and may make any motion except to reconsider. 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 CAL,ENDAKS. 
 
 1. There shall be three calendars of business reported from committees, \iz. : 
 
 First. A calendar of the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, to 
 which shall be referred bills raising revenue, general appropriation bills, and bills of public 
 chanujter, directly or indirectly appropriating money or property. 
 
 Second. A House calendar, to which shall be referred all bills of public character not rais- 
 ing revenue nor directly or indirectly appropriating money or property; and, 
 
 Third. A calendar of the Committee of the Whole House, to which shall be referred aH 
 bills of private character. 
 
 .' . The question of reference of any proposition, other than that reported from a committee, 
 shall be decided without debate, in the following order, viz. : a standing committee, a select 
 committee; but the reference of a proposition reported by a committee, when demanded, 
 shall be decided according to its character, without debate, in the following order, viz.: 
 House Calendar, Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union, Committee of the 
 Whole House, a standing committee, a select committee. 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 OF DECORUM AND DEBATE. 
 
 1. When any member desires to speak or deliver any matter to the House, he shall rise and 
 respectfuUj' address himself to "Mr. Speaker," and, on being recognized, may address the 
 House from any place on the floor or from the Clerk's desk, and shall confine himself to the 
 question luider debate, avoiding personality. 
 
 3. When two or more members rise at once, the Speaker shall name the member who 1» 
 first to speak; and no member shall occupy more than one hour in debate on any question in 
 the House or in committee, except as further provided in this rule. 
 
 3. The member reporting the measure under consideration from a committee may open 
 and close, where general debate has been had thereon; and if it shall extend beyond one day, 
 he shall be entitled to one hour to close, notwithstanding he may have used an hour in 
 opening. 
 
 4. If any member, in speaking or otherwise, transgress the rules of the House, the Speaker 
 ehall, or any member may, call him to order; in which case he shall immediately sit down, un- 
 less permitted, on motion of another member, to explain, and the House shall, if appealed 
 to, decide on the case without debate; if the decision is in favor of the member called to oi^ 
 der, he shall be at liberty to proceed, but not otherwise; and, if the case require it, he shall be 
 liable to censure or such punishment as the House may deem proper. 
 
780 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 5. If a member Is called to order for words spoken in debate, the member calling' him to 
 order shall indicate the words excepted to, and they shall be taken down in writing at the 
 ClcFk's desk and read aloud to the House; but he shall not be held to answer, nor be subject 
 to the censure of the House therefor, if further debate or other business has intervened. 
 
 6. No member shall speak more than once to the same question without leave of the House, 
 unless he be the mover, proposer, or introducer of the matter pending, in which case he shall 
 be permitted to speak in reply, but not until every member choosing to speak shall have 
 spoken. 
 
 7. While the Speaker is putting a question or addressing the House no member shall walk 
 out of or across the hall, nor, when a member is speaking, pass between him and the Chair; 
 and during the session of the House no member shall wear his hat, or remain by the Clerk's 
 desk during the call of the roll or the counting of ballots, or smoke upon the floor of the 
 House; and the Sergeant>at-Arms and Doorkeeper are charged with the strict enforcement of 
 this clause. .«• 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 ON C.iliLS OF THE ROLL AND HOUSE. 
 
 1. Upon every roU call, the names of the members shall be called alphabetically by sur- 
 name, except when two or more have the same surname, then the whole name shall be called; 
 and after the r(>li has been once called the Clerk shall call in their alphabetical order the 
 names of those not voting; and thereafter the Speaker shall not entertain a request to record 
 a vote or announce a pair. 
 
 3. In the absence of a quorum, fifteen members, including the Speaker, if there is one, 
 shall be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, and in all calls of the House 
 the names of the members shall be called by the Clerk, and the absentees noted; the doors 
 .shall then be closed, and those for whom no sufficient excuse is made may, by order of a ma- 
 jority of those present, be sent for and arrested, wherever they may be found, by officers to 
 be appointed by the Sergeant-at-Arms for that purpose, and their attendance secured; and 
 the House shall determine upon what condition they shall be discharged. 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 ON MOTIONS, THEIR PRECEDENCE, ETC. 
 
 1. Every motion made to the House and entertained by the Speaker, shall be reduced tr 
 writing on the demand of any member, and shall be entered on the journal with the name oi 
 the member making it, unless it is withdrawn the same day. 
 
 3. When a motion has been made, the Speaker shall state it, or (if it be in writing) cause it 
 to be read aloud by the Clerk before being debated, and it shall then be in possession of tht 
 House, but may be withdrawn at any time before a decision or amendment. 
 
 3. When any motion or proposition is made, the question Will the House now consider it? 
 shall not be put unless demanded by a member. 
 
 4. When a question is under debate, no motion shall be received but to fix the day to which 
 the House shall adjourn, to adjourn, to take a recess, to lay on the table, for the previous, 
 question (which motions shall be decided without debate), to postpone to a day certain, to 
 refer or amend, or to postpone indefinitely, which several motions shall have precedence in 
 the foregoing order; and no motion to postpone to a day certain, to refer, or to postpone 
 indefinitely, being decided, shall be again allowed on the same day at the same stage of the 
 question. 
 
 .5. A motion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, a motion to adjourn, and to 
 take a recess shall always be in order, and the hour at which the House adjourns shall be 
 entered on the journal. 
 
 6. On the demand of any member, before the question is put, a question shall be divided if 
 it include propositions so distinct in substance that one being taken away a substantive 
 proposition shall remain. 
 
 7. A motion to strike out and insert is indivisible, but a motion to strike out being lost shall 
 neither preclude amendment nor motion to strike out and insert; and no motion or propcsi- 
 
PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 781 
 
 tion on a subject different from that under consideration shall be admitted under color of 
 amendment. 
 
 8. Pending a motion to suspend the rules, the Speaker may entertain one motion that the 
 House adjourn; but after the result thereon is announced he shall not entertain any other 
 dilatory motion till the vote is taken on suspension. 
 
 9, At any time after the expiration of the morning- hour it shall be in order to move that 
 the House resolve itself into the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union for 
 the purpose of considering bills raising revenue or general appropriation bills. 
 
 RULE XVIL 
 
 PREVIOUS QUESTION. 
 
 1. There shall be a motion for the previous question, which, being ordered by a majoritj' of 
 members present, it a quorum, shall have the effect to cut off all debate and bring the House 
 to a direct vote upon the immediate question or questions on which it has been asked and 
 ordered. The previous question may be asked and ordered upon a single motion, a series of 
 motions allowable under the rules, or au amendment or amendments, or may be made to em- 
 brace all authorized motions or amendments and include the bill to its engrossment and third 
 reading, and then, on renewal and second of said motion, to its passage or rejection. It shall 
 be in order, pending the motion for or after the previous question shall have been ordei-ed on 
 its passage, for the Speaker to entertain and submit a motion to commit, with or without in- 
 structions, to a standing or select committee; and a motion to lay upon the table shall bo in 
 order on the second and third reading of a bill. 
 
 2. A call of the House shall not be in order after the previous question is ordered, unless it 
 shall appear upon an actual count by the Speaker that a quorum is not present. 
 
 3. All incidental questions of order arising after a motion is made for the previous ques- 
 tion, and pending such motion, shall be decided, whether on appeal or otherwise, without de 
 bate. 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 RECONSIDERATION. 
 
 1. When a motion has been made and carried or lost, it shall be in order for any member of 
 the majority, on the same or succeeding day, to move for the reconsideration thereof, and 
 such motion shall take precedence of all other questions except the consideration of a con- 
 ference report, a motion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, to adjourn or to take 
 a recess, and shall not be withdrawn after the said succeeding day without the consent of the 
 House, and therefore any member may call it up for consideration : Provided, That such 
 motion, if made during the last six days of a session, shall be disposed of when made. 
 
 3. No bill, petition, memorial, or resolution referred to a committee, or reported therefrom 
 for printing and recommitment, shall be brought back into the House on a motion to recon- 
 sider; and all bills, petitions, memorials, or resolutions reported from a committee shall be 
 accompanied by reports in writing, which shall be printed. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 OF AMENDMENTS. 
 
 When a motion or proposition is under consideration, a motion to amend and a motion to 
 amend that amendment shall be in order, and it shall also be in order to offer a further 
 amendment by way of substitute, to which one amendment may be offered, but which shall 
 not be voted on until the original matter is perfected, but either may be withdrawn before 
 amendment or decision is had thereon. 
 
 RULE XX, 
 
 OF AMENDMENTS OF THE SENATE. 
 
 Any amendment of the Senate to any House bill shall be subject to the point of order that 
 it shall first be considered in the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union 
 if originating in the Mouse, it would be subject to that point. 
 
783 THE FOOTPKINTS OF TIME. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 
 ON BU>LS 
 
 1. Every bill and joint resolution shall receive three readings before its passage, which 
 shall be as follows : The first and second readings by title on introduction for reference, or, 
 being original bills, on report from committees for commitment, except when the second 
 reading in full shall be demanded by a member: Provided, That original bills on being 
 reported by unanimous consent for present consideration, shall be read the first time in full; 
 the second and third time by title, unless the third reading in full shall be demanded by a 
 member. 
 
 2. Bills and joint resolutions on their passage shall be read the first time by title and the 
 second time in full, when, if the pre%ious question is ordered, the Speaker shall state the 
 question to be: Shall the bill be engrossed and read a third time? and, if decided in the 
 affirmative, it shall be read the third time by title, unless the reading in full is demanded by a 
 member, and the question shall then be put upon its passage. 
 
 3. No appropriation shall be reported in any general appropriation bill, or be in order as an 
 amendment thereto, for any expenditnre not previously authorized by law, unless in contin- 
 uation of appropriations for such public works and objects as are already in progress. Nor 
 -shall any provision in any such bill or amendment thereto changing existing law be in order, 
 except such as, being germane to the subjectrmatter of the bill, shall retrench expenditures 
 by the reduction of the number and salary of the oflicers of the United States, by the reduc- 
 tion of the compensation of any person paid out of the Treasury of the United States, or by 
 the reduction of amounts of money covered by the bill : Provided, That it shall be in order 
 further to amend such bill upon the report of the committee having jurisdiction of the sub- 
 ject-matter of such amendment, which amendment, being germane to the subject-matter of 
 the bill, shall retrench expenditures. 
 
 4. No bill or resolution shall at any time be amended by annexing thereto or incorporating 
 therewith the substance of any other bill or resolution pending before the House. 
 
 5. All bills for improvement of rivers and harbors and for the establishment or change of 
 post routes shall be delivered to the Clerk, as in the case of petitions and memorials, for 
 reference to appropriate committees. 
 
 6. Upon all general appropriation and revenue bills, and bills for the improvement of rivers 
 and harbors, the yeas and nays shall be taken on the passage of such bills in the House and 
 entered upon the Journal. 
 
 RULE XXII. 
 
 ON PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS. 
 
 1. Members ha^ang petitions or memorials to present may deliver them to the Clerk, in- 
 dorsing their names and the reference or disposition to be made thereof; and said petitions 
 and memorials, except such as, in the judgment of the Speaker, are of an obscene or insult- 
 ing character, shall be entered on the Journal together with the names of the members pre- 
 senting them, and the Clerk shall furnish a transcript thereof to the official reporters of de- 
 bates for publication in the Record. 
 
 2. Any petition or memorial excluded under this rule shall be returned to the member 
 from whom it was received; and petitions which have been inappropriately referred may, bj 
 direction of the committee having possession of the same, be properly referred in the manner 
 originally presented. 
 
 RULE XXIII. 
 
 OF COMMITTEES OF THE WHOLE HOUSE. 
 
 1. In all cases in forming a Committee of the Whole House the Speaker shall leave his chair 
 after appointing a chairman to preside who shall, in case of disturbance or disorderly con- 
 duct in the galleries or lobby, have power to cause the same to be cleared. 
 
 2. Whenever a Committee of the Whole House iinds itself without a quorum, the Chairman 
 shall cause the roll to be called, and thereupon the committee shall rise, and the Chairman 
 shall report the names of the abse itees to the House, which shall be entered on the Journal; 
 but if on such call a quorum shall appear, the committee shall thereupon resume ita sitting 
 'Without further order of the House. 
 
PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 783 
 
 3. All motions or propositions involving a tax or charge upon the people; all proceedings 
 touching appropriations of money, or bills making appropriations of money or property, or 
 requiring such appropriation to be made, or authorizing payments out of appropriations al- 
 ready made, or releasing any liability to the United States for money or property, shall be 
 first considered in a Committee of the Whole, and a point of order under this rule shall be 
 good at any time befoi-e the consideration of a bill has commenced. 
 
 4. In Committees of the Whole House business on their calendars shall be-taken up in regu- 
 lar order, except bills for raising revenue, general appropriation bills, and bills for the im- 
 provement of rivers and harbors, which shall have precedence, and when objection is made to 
 the consideration of any bill or proposition, the committee shall thereupon rise and report 
 fiuch objection to the House, which shall decide, without debate, whether such bill or proposi- 
 tion shall be considered or laid aside for the present; whereupon the committee shall resume 
 its sitting without further order of the House. 
 
 5. When general debate is closed by order of the House, any member shall be allowed five 
 minutes to explain any amendment he may offer, after which the member who shall first 
 obtain the floor shall be allowed to speak five minutes in opposition to it, and there shall be 
 no further debate thereon; but the same privilege of debate shall be allowed in favor of and 
 against any amendment that may be offered to an amendment; and neither an amendment 
 nor an amendment to an amendment shall be withdrawn by the mover thereof unless by the 
 unanimous consent of the committee. 
 
 6. The House may, by the vote of a majoiity of the members present, at any time after the 
 ■Ave minutes debate has begun upon proposed amendments to any section or paragraph to a 
 bill, close all debate upon such section or paragraph, or, at its election, upon the pending 
 amendments only; but this shall not preclude further amendment, to be decided without 
 debate. 
 
 7. A motion to strike out the enacting words of a bill shall have precedence of a motion to 
 amend; and, if carried, shall be considered equivalent to its rejection. Whenever a bill is 
 reported from a Committee of the Whole with an adverse recommendation, and such i-ecom- 
 mendation is disagreed to by the House, the bill shall stand recommitted to the said com- 
 mittee without fui-ther action by the House. But before the question of concurrence is sul> 
 mitted, it is in order to entertain a motion to refer the bill to any committee, with or without 
 instructions, and when the same is again reported to the House, it shall be refei-red to the 
 Committee of the Whole without debate. 
 
 8. The rules of proceeding in the House shall be observed in Committees of the Whole 
 House so far as they may be applicable. 
 
 RULE XXIV. 
 
 ORDER OF BUSINESS. 
 
 1. Each Monday morning during a session of Congess, immediately after the Journal of 
 the proceedings of the last day's sitting has been read and approved, the Speaker shall call all 
 the States and Territories in alphabetical order for bills and joint resolutions for printing and 
 reference, on which call, joint and concurrent resolutions and memorials of State and Terri. 
 torial legislatures may be presented and appropriately referred, and on this call only, resolu- 
 tions of inquiry directed to the heads of the executive departments shall be in order for 
 reference to appropriate committees, which resolutions shall be reported to the House within 
 one week thereafter. 
 
 2. On all days other than Monday, as soon as the Journal is read and approved, and on all 
 Mondays (except the first and third in each month) after the call of States and Territories, 
 there shall be a morning hour for reports from committees, which shall be appropriately 
 referred and printed, and a copy thereof mailed by the Public Printer to each member and 
 delegate; and the Speaker shall call upon each standing committee in regular order and then 
 upon the select committees; and if the whole of the hour is not consumed by this call, then it 
 shall be in order to proceed to the consideration of other business; but if he shall not com. 
 plete the call within the hour, he shall resume it in the succeeding morning hour where he 
 left off. 
 
 3. The morning hour for the call of ommitter^s shall not bo dispensed with oxojpt by a 
 vote of two-thirds of those present and voting theroon. 
 
784 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 4. Alter the hour shall have been devoted to reports from committees, it shall be in order 
 to proceed to the consideration of the unfinished business in which the House may have been 
 engaged at an adjournment, and at the same time each day thereafter, other than the first and 
 third Mondays, until disposed of ; and it shall be in order to proceed to the consideration of 
 all other unfinished business whenever the class of business to which it belongs shall be 
 in order. 
 
 5. Unfinished business having been disposed of, it shall be in order to entertain a motion 
 that the House do now proceed to the business on the Speaker's table, which, the motion pre- 
 vailing, the Speaker shall dispose of in the following order: 
 
 First. Messages from the President and other executive communications. 
 
 Second. Messages from the Senate and amendments proposed by the Senate to bills of the 
 House. 
 
 Third. Bills and resolutions from the Senate on their first and second reading, that they be 
 referred to committees or put on their passage; and the motions so to refer shall have prece- 
 dence of all other motions touching their disposition. 
 
 Fourth. Engrossed bills and bills from the Senate on their third reading. 
 
 6. Business on the Speaker's table ha\ing been disposed of, it shall then be in order to en- 
 tertain motions, in the following order, viz. : 
 
 First. That the House resolve itself into the Committee of the Whole House on the State of 
 the Union to consider, first, bills raising revenue and general appropriation biUs, and then 
 other business on its calendar. 
 
 Second. To proceed to the consideration of business on the House calendar. 
 
 Third. On Friday of each week, after the morning hour, it shall be in order to entertain a 
 motion that the House resolve itself into the Committee of the Whole House to consider busi- 
 ness on the private calendar; and, if this motion fall, then public business shall be in order as 
 on other days. 
 
 RULE XXV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 
 
 PRIORITY OF BUSINESS. 
 
 All questions relating to the priority of business shall be decided by a majority without de- 
 bate. 
 
 RULE XXVI. 
 
 PRIVATE BUSINESS. 
 
 Friday in every week shall be set apart for the consideration of private business, unless 
 otherwise determined by a two-thirds vote of the members present and voting 
 
 RULE XXVII. 
 
 UNFINISHED BUSINESS OF THE SESSION. 
 
 After si.x days from the commencement of a second or subsequent session of any Congress, 
 all bills, resolutions and i-eports, which originated in the House, and remained undetermined 
 at the close of the last preceding session, shall be in order for action, and all business before 
 committees of the House at the end of one session shall be resumed at the commencement of 
 the next session of the same Congress in the same manner as if no adjournment had taken 
 place. 
 
 RULE XXVIII. 
 
 CHANGE OR SUSPENSION OF RULES. 
 
 1. No standing rule or order of the House shall be rescinded or changed without one day's 
 notice of the motion therefor, and no rule shall be suspended except by a vote of two-thirds 
 of the members present, nor shall the Speaker entertain a motion to suspend the rules except 
 on the first and third Mondays of each month after the call of State and Territories shall have 
 been completed, preference being given on the first Monday to individuals and on the third 
 Monday to committees, and during the last six days of a session. 
 
PARLIAMENTARY RULES. • 785 
 
 2. All motions to suspend the rules shall, before being submitted to the House, be seconded 
 by a majority by tellers, if demanded. 
 
 3. When a motion to suspend the rules has been seconded, it shall be in order, before the 
 final vote is taken thereon, to debate the proposition to be voted upon for thirty minutes, one- 
 half of such time to be given to debate in favor of, and one-half to debate in opposition to, 
 such proposition, and the same right of debate shall be allowed whenever the previous ques- 
 tion has been ordered on any proposition on which there has been no debate. 
 
 RULE XXIX. 
 
 CONFERENCK REPORTS. 
 
 The presentation of reports of committees of conference shall always be in order, except 
 when the Journal is being read, while the roll is being called, or the House is di%ading on any 
 proposition. And there shall accompany every such report a detailed statement sufficiently 
 explicit to inform the House what effect such amendments or propositions will have upon the 
 measures to which they relate. 
 
 RULE XXX. 
 
 SECRET SESSION. 
 
 Whenever confidential communications are received from the President of the United 
 States, or whenever the Speaker or any member shall inform the House that he has communi- 
 cations which he believes ought to be kept secret for the present, the House shall be cleared 
 of all persons except the members and officers thereof, and so continue during the reading of 
 such communications, the debates and proceedings thereon, unless otherwise ordered by the 
 House. 
 
 RULE XXXI. 
 
 READING OF PAPERS. 
 
 When the reading of a paper other than one upon which the House is called to give a final 
 vote is demanded, and the same is objected to by any member, it shall be determined without 
 debate by a vote of the House. 
 
 RULE XXXII. 
 DRAWING OF SEATS. 
 
 1. At the commencement of each Congress, immediately after the members and delegates 
 are sworn in, the Clerk shall place in a box, prepared for that purpose, a number of small 
 balls of marble or other material equal to the number of members and delegates, which balls 
 shall be consecutively numbered and thoroughly intermingled, and at such hour as shall be 
 fixed by the House for that purpose, by the hands of a page, draw said balls one by one from 
 the box and announce the number as it is drawn, upon which announcement the member or 
 delegate whose name on a numbered alphabetical list shall correspond with the number on 
 the ball shall advance and choose his seat for the term for which he is elected. 
 
 2. Before said drawing shall commence, each seat shall be vacated and so remain until 
 selected under this rule, and any seat having been selected shall be deemed forfeited if left 
 unoccupied before the call of the roll is finished, and whenevei- the seats of members and 
 delegates shall have been drawn, no proposition for a second drawing shall be in order during 
 that Congress. 
 
 RULE XXXIII. 
 
 HALL OP THE HOUSE. 
 
 The hall of the House shall be used only for the legislative business 'of the House, and for 
 the caucus meetings of its members, except upon occasions where the House by resolution 
 agree to take part in any ceremonies to be observed therein; and the Speaker shall not enter- 
 tain a motion for the suspension of this "ule. 
 50 
 
786 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 RULE XXXIY. 
 
 OF ADMISSION TO THE FLOOR. 
 
 The persons hereinafter named, and none other, shall be admitted to the hall of the House 
 or rooms leading thereto, viz. : The President and Vice President of the United States and 
 their private secretaries, Judges of the Supreme Court, Members of Congress and Members 
 elect, contestants in election cases during the pendency of their cases in the House, the Sec- 
 retary and Sergeant-at-Arms of the Senate, Heads of Departments, Foreign Ministers, Gov- 
 ernors of States, the Architect of the Capitol, the Librarian of Congress and his Assistant in 
 charge of the Law Library, such persons as have, by name, received the thanks of Congress, 
 ex-Members of Congress who are not interested in any claim or directly in any bill pending 
 before Congress, and Clerks of committees, when business from their committee is under 
 consideration; and it shall not be in order for the Speaker to entertain a request for the sus- 
 pension of this rule or to present from the chair the request of any member for unanimous 
 consent. 
 
 RULE XXXV. 
 
 OF ADMISSION TO THE GALLERIES. 
 
 The Speaker shall set aside a portion of the west gallery for the use of the President of the 
 United States, the members of his Cabinet, Justices of the Supreme Court, Foreign Ministers 
 and suites, and the members of their respective families; and shall also set aside another poi^ 
 tion of the same gallery for the accommodation of persons to be admitted on the card of 
 members. The southerly half of the east gallery shall be assigned exclusively for the use of 
 the families of members of Congress, in which the Speaker shall control one bench, and on 
 request of a member the Speaker shall include their visitors, and no other person shall be 
 admitted to this section. 
 
 RULE XXXVI. 
 OFFICIAL AND OTHER REPORTERS. 
 
 1. The appointment and removal, for cause, of the oflBeial reporters of the House, including 
 stenographers of committees, and the manner of the execution of their duties, shall be vested 
 in the Speaker. 
 
 2. Stenographers and repoiters, other than the offlcial reporters of the House, wishing to 
 take down the debates and proceedings, may be admitted by the Speaker to the reporters' 
 gallery over the Speaker's chair, under such regulations as he may, from time to time, pre- 
 scribe; and he may assign two seats on the floor to Associated Press reporters, and regulate 
 the occupation of the same. 
 
 RULE XXXVII. 
 
 PAY OF WITNESSES. 
 
 The rule of paying witnesses subpcEnaed to appear before the House, or either of its com- 
 mittees, shall be as follows: For each day a witness shall attend, the sum of two dollars; for 
 each mile he shall travel in coming to or going from the place of examination, the sum of five 
 cents each way; but nothing shall be paid for traveling when the witness has been summoned 
 at the place of trial. 
 
 RULE XXXVIII. 
 
 PAPERS. 
 
 The clerks of the several committees of the House shall, within three days after the final 
 adjournment of a Congress, deliver to the clerk of the House all bills, joint resolutions, peti- 
 tions and other papers referred to the committee, together with all evidence taken by such 
 committee under the order of the House during the said Congress, and not reported to the 
 House; and in the event of the failure or neglect of any clerk of a committee to comply with 
 this rule, the Clerk of the House shall, within three days thereafter, take into his keeping all 
 such papers and testimony. 
 
PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 787 
 
 EULE XXXIX. 
 
 WITHDRAWAL OF PAPERS. 
 
 No memorial or other paper presented to the House shall be -withdrawn from its flies with- 
 out its leave, and if withdrawn therefrom, certified copies thereof shall be left in the office of 
 the Clerk; but when an act may pass for the settlement of a claim, the Clerk is authorized to 
 transmit to the officer charg-ed with the settlement thereof the papers on file in his office 
 relating to such claim, or may loan temporarily to any officer or bureau of the executive de- 
 partments any papers on file in his office relating to any matter pending before such officer or 
 bureau, taking proper receipt therefor. 
 
 RULE XL. 
 
 BALLOT. 
 
 In all other eases of ballot than for committees, a majority of the votes given shall be neces- 
 sary to an election, and where there shall not be such a majority on the first ballot, the ballots 
 shall be repeated until a m^ajority be obtained; and in all ballotings blanks shall be rejected 
 and not taken into the count in enumeration of votes or reported by the tellers. 
 
 RULE XLI. 
 
 MESSAGES. 
 
 Messages received from the Senate and the President of the United States, giving notice of 
 bills passed or approved, shall be entered in the Journal and published in the Record of that 
 day's proceedings. 
 
 • RULE XLII. 
 
 EXECUTIVE COMMUNICATIONS. 
 
 Estimates of appropriations, and all other communications from the executive departments 
 intended for the consideration of any committees of the House, shall be addressed to the 
 Speaker and by him submitted to the House for reference. 
 
 RULE XLIII. 
 
 No person shall be an officer of the House, or continue in its employment, who shall be an 
 agent for the pi-osecution of any claim against the government, or be interested in such claim 
 otherwise than as an original claimant: nnd it shall be the duty of the Committee on Accounts 
 to inquire into and report to the House any violation of this rule. 
 
 RULE XLIV. 
 
 JEFFERSON'S MANUAL. 
 
 The rules of parliamentary practice comprised in Jefferson's Manual shall go%'ern the House 
 in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with the 
 standing rules and orders of the House and joint rules of the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives. 
 
 RULE XLV. 
 
 These rules shall be the rules of the House of Representatives of the present and succeed- 
 ing Congresses unless otherwise ordered. 
 
792 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GOVERNMENT STATISTICS. 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE. 
 
 CHESTER A. AKTHUE, of New York, President of the United States Salary, $50,0(X> 
 
 CABINET. 
 
 JAMES G. BLAINE, of Maine, Secretary of State Salary, $8,00a 
 
 WILLIAM WINDOM, of Minnesota, Secretary of the Treasury " 8,00& 
 
 ROBERT T. LINCOLN, of Illinois, Secretary of War " 8,000 
 
 WILLIAM H. HUNT, of Louisiana, Secretary of the Navy " 8,000 
 
 SAMUEI J. KIRKWOOD, of Iowa, Secretary of the Interior " 8,000 
 
 THOMAS L. JAMES, of New Vorl£, Postmaster General ■•• " 8,000 
 
 WAYNE McVEAGH, of Pennsylvania, Attorney General " 8,000 
 
 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite Ohio Jan. 31, 1874 $10,500 
 
 Justice Noah H. Swayne Ohio Jan. 24, 1863 10,000 
 
 Justice Samuel F. Miller Iowa July 16, 1863 18,000 
 
 Justice Stephen J. Field California Mar. 10, 1868 10,0(10 
 
 Justice Joseph P. Bradley New Jersey Mar. 31, 1870 10,000 
 
 Justice Ward Hunt New York Dec. 11, 1873 10,030 
 
 Justice John M. Harlan Kentucky Nov. 29, 1877 10,000 
 
 Justice William B. Woods Georgia Dee. 31, 1880 10,000 
 
 Justice Stanley Matthews Ohio 1881 10,000 
 
 DIPLOBIATIC SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 From the Register of the Department of State, December, 1880. 
 
 Country. Name and Rank. Whence. Date Com. Salary 
 
 Argentine Republic Thomas A. Osborn, Minister Res.. Illinois.,.. Feb. 10, '74 8^ 7,500 
 
 Austria-Hungary John A. Kasson,* E. E. and M. P . . Iowa. . . . June 11, '77 12,000 
 
 John F. Delaplaine, Sec. Leg New York June 1, '69 1,800 
 
 Belgium James O. Putnam, Minister Res.... New York June 4, '80 7,500 
 
 Bolivia Charles Adams, M. R. and +C. G... . Colorado . April 6, '80 5,000 
 
 Brazil -. H. W. Hilliard, E. E. and M. P Georgia . . July 31, '77 12,000 
 
 John C. White, Secretary Leg Illinois.. . . June 28, '78 1,800 
 
 Central American States Cornelius A. Logan, Minister Res.. Illinois... . April 3, '79 10,000 
 
 Chili Thomas A. Osborn, B. E. and M. P. Kansas. . May 31, '77 10,000 
 
 China James B. Angell, E. E. and M. P. . . Michigan . April 9, '80 12,000 
 
 Ches. Holcombe, Sec'y and Int Aug. 15, '76 5,000 
 
 Colombia Ernest Dichman, Minister Res Wlscons'n June 15, '78 7.500 
 
 Denmark Charles Payson, Charge d'Aff Mass July 1, '81 .5,000 
 
 France Edward F. Noyes, E. E. and M. P. . Ohio July 1, '77 17,500 
 
 Robert R. Hitt, Sec. of Legation.. . Illinois.... Dec. 15, '74 3,635 
 
 Henri Vignaud, 3nd Sec. of Leg... . Louisiana Dec. 14, '75 3,000 
 
 Germany Andrew D. White, E. E. and M. P. . New York April 2, '79 17,-500 
 
 H. Sidney Everett, Sec. of Leg Mass Aug. 1, '77 3.635 
 
 Chapman Coleman, 3nd Sec Leg... Maryland. May 8, '74 2,000 
 
 Great Britain.. James Russell Lowell Mass Jan. 26, 'SO 17,500 
 
 Wm. J. Hoppin, Sec. of Legation. . New York .June 22, '76 2,625 
 
 E. S. Nadal, 2nd Sec. of Legation.. N. Jersey. June 8, '77 2,000 
 
 Hawaiian Islands James M. Comly, Minister Res Ohio July 1, '77 7,500 
 
 Hayti John M. Langston, M. R. and C. G.. D. C Sept. 28, '77 7,500 
 
 Italy Geo. P. Marsh, E. B. and M. P Vermont. Mar. 30, '61 12,000 
 
 Geo. W. Wurts, Sec. of Legation. . . Pa April 16, '69 1,800 
 
 Japan John A. Bingham, E. E. and M. P. Ohio May 31, '78 12,000 
 
 Durham W. Stevens, Sec. Leg D. C Aug. 6, '73 2,.50O 
 
 Da^ad Thompson, Interpreter Ohio Nov. 18, '74 2,500 
 
 Liberia H. H. Garnett, M. R. and C. G N. Y July I, '81 4,000 
 
 Mexico Philip H. Morgan, E. E. and M. P. . Louisiana Jan. 36, '80 13,0(X) 
 
 Edward M. Neill, Sec. of Leg R. Island. Mar. 37, '79 1,800 
 
 Netherlands James Birney, Minister Res Michigan. Jan. 10, '76 7,500 
 
 Paraguay and Uruguay John C. Caldwell, ChargJ d'Aff Maine Aug. 15, '76 5,000 
 
 Peru I. P. Christiaucy, E. E. and M. P. . . Michigan. Feb., 1870 10,000 
 
 Portugal Benj. Moran, Charge d' Affaires. . . . Pa Aug. 16, '76 .5,000 
 
 Roumania Eugene Schuvler, Dip. Agent and 
 
 Consul General New York June 11, '80 4,000 
 
 Russia John W. Foster Indiana. . . Jan. 36, '80 17,.500 
 
 Wickham Hoffman. Sec. Leg New York May 31, '77 2,625 
 
 Spain HannibMl Hamlin, E.E. and M. P.. . Maine.... July 1, '81 12,000 
 
 Dwight T. Reed, Sec. of Leg New York July 9, '77 1,800 
 
 *Envoj' Extraordinai'y and Minister Plenipotentiary. 
 +Consul-General. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 793 
 
 DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES, CONTIN'D. 
 
 Country. Name and Rank. Whence Date Com- Salary- 
 
 appointed, mission. 
 
 Sweden and Norway John L. Stevens, Minister Res Maine Aug. 28, '77 $ 7,500 
 
 Switzerland M. J. Cramer Charge d' Affaires.. .. Kentucky Juno 20, '81 
 
 Turkey Lew Wallace, Minister Res Georgia .. June 14,' '81 
 
 G. H. Heap, Consul General and ex 
 
 off. Sec. ol' Legation Pa July 12, '"8 
 
 A. A. Gargiulo, Interpreter July 1, '73 
 
 Venezuela Geo. W. Carter, Minister Resident. Louisiana July l, '81 
 
 FOREIGN LEGATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 From the Register of the Department of State, December. 1880. 
 
 .5,009 
 7,.500 
 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 7,500 
 
 Country and Date of 
 Presentation. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 March 16, 1869. 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 May 13, 1879. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 May 21, 1873. 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 November 18, 1880. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 October 9, 1871. 
 
 Chili 
 
 June 13, 1879. 
 
 China 
 
 September 28, 1878. 
 
 Colombia 
 
 November 15, 1880. 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 March 21, 1876. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 October 7, 1S80. 
 
 France 
 
 February 23, 1877. 
 
 Germany 
 
 August 1, 1871. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 February 7, 1868. 
 
 Guatemala , 
 
 August 2, 1880. 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 January 14, 1870. 
 
 Hayti 
 
 February 18, 1873. 
 
 Italy 
 
 November 12, 1875. 
 
 Japan 
 
 December 18, 1874. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 May 7, 1878. 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 April 27, 1875. 
 
 Peru 
 
 October 9, 1880. 
 
 Portugal 
 
 October 8, 1878. 
 
 Russia 
 
 November 15, 1880. 
 
 Salvador 
 
 August 2, 1880. 
 
 Spain 
 
 February 3, 1779. 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 May 8, 1876. 
 
 Turkey 
 
 October 14, 1873. 
 
 V enezuela 
 
 April 21, 1880. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Seiior Don Manuel K. Garcia 
 
 Baron Ernst Mayr 
 
 Mr. Maurice Dclfosse 
 
 Senor Don Ladislao Cabrera 
 
 Councillor A. P. de Carvalho Borges . 
 Sefior Don F. S. Asta-Bui-uaga 
 
 Chen Lnn Pin 
 
 Yung Wing 
 
 Senor Don Ramon Sto. Domingo Vila. 
 
 Sefior Don Manuel M. Peralta 
 
 Mr. Carl Steen Andersen de Bille 
 
 Mr. Max Outrey 
 
 Mr. Kurt Von Schlozer 
 
 The Right Honorable Sir Edward 
 
 Thornton, K. C. B 
 
 Sefior Don Arturo Ubico 
 
 Mr. Elisha H. Allen 
 
 Mr. Stephen Preston 
 
 Baron Albert Blanc 
 
 Jushie Yoshida Kiyonari 
 
 Sefior Don Manuel M. de Zamacona. 
 
 Mr. de Pestel 
 
 Sefior Don Ramon Ignacio Garcia. . . 
 
 Viscount das Noguciras 
 
 Mr. Michel Bartholomel 
 
 Senor Don Arturo Ubico 
 
 Senor Don Felipe Mendez Vigo 
 
 Count Carl Lowenhaupt 
 
 Gregoire Aristarchi Bey 
 
 Sefior Don Simon Camacho 
 
 Rank. 
 
 *E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 Ass't E. E. and M. P. 
 Minister Resident. 
 
 Minister Resident. 
 
 Charge d' Affaires and Con- 
 sul General. 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 Minister Resident. 
 
 Charge' d' Affaires. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P 
 
 M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 E. E. and M. P. 
 
 Charge d'Affaires. 
 
 ♦Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 
 
794 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 COMPLETE LIST OF CHIEF AND ASSOCIATE JUSTICES OF THE 
 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Chief .Justices. 
 
 Associate Justices. 
 
 State 
 
 Whence 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 Term of 
 Service. 
 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 John Jay+ 
 
 John Rutledget 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 New York 
 
 1789-1795 
 1789-1791 
 1789-1810 
 1789-1798 
 1789-1796 
 1789-1790 
 1790-1799 
 1791-1793 
 1793-1806 
 1795-1795 
 1796-1811 
 1796-1801 
 1798-1829 
 1799-1804 
 1801-1835 
 1804-1834 
 1806-1823 
 1807-1826 
 1811-1845 
 1811-1836 
 1823-1845 
 1826-1828 
 1829-1861 
 1830-1846 
 1835-1867 
 1836-1864 
 1836-1841 
 1837-1865 
 1837-1852 
 1841-1860 
 1845-1872 
 1845-1851 
 1846-1869 
 1851-1857 
 1853-1861 
 1858-1881 
 1861-.... 
 1862- . . . . 
 1862-1877 
 1866-. . . . 
 1864-1873 
 1870-1880 
 1870-.... 
 1872-.... 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 1 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 "iS" 
 
 5 
 31 
 
 5 
 34 
 30 
 17 
 19 
 34 
 25 
 22 
 
 2 
 32 
 16 
 32 
 28 
 
 5 
 28 
 15 
 19 
 27 
 
 6 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 23 
 
 •i5- 
 
 it 
 
 1 
 
 1745 1829 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 John Rutledg-e 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Maryland.. 
 
 1739 180O 
 
 
 William Gushing 
 
 James Wilson. .. 
 
 
 1733 ISIO 
 1742 1798 
 
 
 John Blair+.. 
 
 Robei-t H. Harrisont.. 
 James Iredell 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 1732 180O 
 1745 179ft 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1751 1799 
 
 
 Thomas Johnson+ 
 
 William Patterson. . . 
 
 1732 1819 
 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 1745 1806 
 
 •> 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1739 180a 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Samuel Chase. 
 
 4 
 
 1741 1811 
 
 3 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 1745 1807 
 
 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 Bushrod Washington. 
 Alfred Mooret 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1762 1829 
 
 4- 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1755 1810 
 1755 1835. 
 
 
 Roger B. Taney. . . . 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 William Johnson 
 
 Brockh't Li\'ingston. . 
 
 Thomas Todd 
 
 Joseph Story 
 
 G abriel Duval+ 
 
 Smith Thompson 
 
 Robert Trimble 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 § 
 
 q 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 New York 
 
 1771 1834 
 1757 1823- 
 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 1765 1826 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1779 184.S 
 1752 1844 
 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 18 
 10 
 T' 
 
 New York 
 
 17071845 
 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 1777 1828 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1785 1861 
 
 
 Hem-y Baldwin 
 
 James M. Wayne§ 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1779 1846- 
 1790 1867 
 
 .5 
 
 
 Marvland 
 
 1777 1864 
 
 
 Salmon P. Chase 
 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 
 Philip P. Barbour 
 
 John Catron 
 
 16 
 § 
 § 
 
 22 
 17 
 15 
 20 
 27 
 24 
 29 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Virginia 
 
 New York 
 
 1783 1841 
 1778 1865 
 
 
 John McKinley 
 
 Peter V.Daniel 
 
 Samuel Nelson+ 
 
 Levi Woodbury 
 
 Robert C. Griei-+ 
 
 Benjamin R. Curtis+.. 
 
 John A. Campbell+ 
 
 Nathan Clifford 
 
 Noah H. Swayne 
 
 Samuel F. Miller 
 
 David Davis+. 
 
 1780 1852: 
 1785 1860 
 1792 1873. 
 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Alabama 
 
 1789 1851 
 17941870' 
 1809 1874 
 1811 
 
 
 Maine 
 
 1803 188L 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1805 
 
 ' 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Illinois 
 
 18161.... 
 1815!.... 
 
 
 Stephen J. Field. 
 
 California 
 
 18J6L ... 
 
 6 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 !Su8 1873. 
 
 
 Morrison R. Waite.... 
 
 36 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 William Strong+ 
 
 Joseph P. Bradley 
 
 Ward Hunt. 
 
 28 
 § 
 26 
 
 10 'J808!.... 
 .... I8i:!:.... 
 
 
 
 
 1811 .... 
 
 7 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1874-.... 
 
 18,7-.... 
 1880- . . . . 
 1880-.... 
 
 
 l.slO. 
 
 
 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 ]83r.... 
 
 
 William B. Woods.... 
 Stanley Matthews 
 
 36 
 
 
 1826 .... 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 * The figures before the names of the Associate Justices indicate the order of their app.oint- 
 ment. The numbers following refer to the same numbers in the fii'St column, and show the 
 vacancy filled by each appointment. 
 
 t Resigned. 
 
 t Presided one term of the court; appointment not confirmed by the Senate. 
 
 §The Supreme Court, at its first session in 1790. consisted of a Chief Justice and five Asso- 
 ciates. The number of Associate Justices was increased to si.x in 1807 by the appointment of 
 Thomas Todd; increased to eight in 1837 by tho appointment of John Catron and John Mc- 
 Kinley; increased to nine in 1863 by the appointment of Stephen J. Field; decreased to eight 
 on the death of John Catron in 1865; decreased to seven on the death of James M. Wayne ia 
 1867; and again increased to eight in 1870. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 795 
 
 SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 
 
 Name. 
 
 F. A. Muhlenberg-. . . 
 Jonathan Trumbull. 
 F. A. Muhlenberg.. . 
 Jonathan Dayton 
 
 Theodore SedgAvlck.. 
 Nathaniel Macon 
 
 Joseph B. Varnum. 
 Henry Clay 
 
 Langdon Cheves 
 Henry Clay 
 
 ...-! 
 
 John W. Taylor 
 
 Philip P. Barbour. . 
 
 Henry Clay 
 
 John W. Taylor . . . . 
 Andrew Stevenson. 
 
 John Bell. 
 
 James K. Polk 
 
 Robert M. T. Hunter 
 
 John White 
 
 John W. Jones 
 
 John W. Davis 
 
 Robert C. Winthrop. 
 
 Howell Cobb 
 
 Linn Boyd 
 
 Nathaniel P. Banks. 
 
 James L. Orr 
 
 Wm. Pennington. . . . 
 
 Galusha A. Grow 
 
 Schuyler Colfax 
 
 James G. Blaine . 
 
 Michael C. Kerr. 
 
 Samuel J. Randall.. 
 
 State. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 Connecticut ... 
 Pennsylvania. 
 New Jersey. . . 
 
 Massachusetts 
 North Carolina 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Kentucky.. 
 
 Congress. 
 
 S.Carolina. 
 
 2d 
 Session .... 
 Kentucky . . 
 
 New York. 
 3d 
 
 Session 
 
 Virginia.. . 
 Kentucky. 
 New York. 
 Virginia... 
 
 Tennessee. . . / 
 
 3d '- 
 
 Session \ 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Massachusetts 
 South Carolina 
 New Jersey. . . 
 Pennsylvania. 
 Indiana 
 
 Maine.. 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Penn I 
 
 2d V 
 
 Session ) 
 
 1st Congress. 
 2nd Congress. 
 3rd Congress . 
 ■4th Congress . 
 5th Congress. 
 6th Congress . 
 7th Congress. 
 8th Congress. 
 9th Congress. 
 10th Congress. 
 11th Congress . 
 12th Congress. 
 13th Congress . 
 
 13th Congress. 
 
 14th Congress . 
 15th Congress. 
 16th Congress . 
 
 16th Congress. 
 
 17th Congress. 
 18th Congress. 
 19th Congress. 
 30th Congress. 
 21st Congress. 
 22d Congress . 
 23d Congress . 
 
 23d Congress. 
 
 2-lth Congress. 
 2.')th Congress. 
 2Hth Congress. 
 27th Congress. 
 28th Congress. 
 29th Congress. 
 80th Congress. 
 31st Congress. 
 32d Congress . 
 33d Congress. 
 34th Congress . 
 35tl^Congress . 
 ot)th Congress. 
 57th Congress. 
 3><th Congress. 
 o9th Congress. 
 40th Congress . 
 41st Congress. 
 42d Congress. 
 4.3d Congress . 
 44th Congress. 
 
 44th Congress . 
 
 4.5th Congress. 
 
 Term of Service. 
 
 Born 
 
 April 1, 
 Oct. 24, 
 Dec. 2, 
 Dec. 7, 
 May 15, 
 Dec. 3, 
 Dec. 7, 
 Oct. 17, 
 Dec. 2, 
 Oct. 26, 
 May 22, 
 Nov. 4, 
 May 24, 
 
 1789, 
 1791, 
 1793, 
 1795, 
 1797, 
 1799, 
 1801, 
 1803, 
 1805, 
 1807, 
 1809, 
 1811, 
 1813, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 3, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Mar. 4, 
 to Jan. 18, 
 
 1791. 
 1793. 
 1795. 
 1797. 
 1799. 
 1801. 
 1803. 
 1805. 
 1807. 
 1809. 
 1811. 
 1813, 
 1814, 
 
 Jan. 19, 1814, to Mar. 4, 1815, 
 
 Dee. 4, 1815, to Mar. 4, 1817, 
 Dec. 1, 1817, to Mar. 4, 1819. 
 Dec. 6, 1819, to May 15, 1820, 
 
 Nov. 15, 1820, to Mar. 4, 1831, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 1833, 
 to Mar. 4, 1835, 
 to Mar. 4, 1837. 
 to Mar. 1, 1839. 
 to Mar. 4, 1831, 
 to Mar. 4, 1833. 
 to June 2, 1834. 
 
 Dec. 4,1831, 
 
 Dec. 1,1823, 
 
 Dec. 5,182,5, 
 
 Dec. 3, 1827, 
 
 Dec. 7,1829, 
 
 Dec. 5, 1831, 
 
 Dec. 3,1833, 
 
 June 2, 1834, to Mar. 4, 1835, 
 
 Dec. 7, 18K 
 Sept. 5, 183( 
 Dec. 16, 1839 
 May 31, 1841, 
 Dec. 4, 1843, 
 Dec. 1,184,5, 
 Dec. 6, 1847, 
 Dec. 32, 1849, 
 Dec. 1,1851, 
 Dec. 5, 18.53. 
 Feb. 2, 18.56. 
 Dec. 7, 1857, 
 Feb. 1, 1860, 
 July 4, 1861, 
 Dec. 7, 1863, 
 Dec. 4,186,5, 
 Mar. 4, 1867, 
 Mar. 4, 1869, 
 Vlar. 4, 1871, 
 Dec. 1, 1873 
 Dec. 6, 1875, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 
 to>a,. 4, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 
 to Mar. 4, 
 
 tf) Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 , to Mar 4, 
 
 , to Mar. 4, 
 
 I to Mar. 4, 
 
 to Aug. 20, 
 
 1837. 
 1839. 
 1841. 
 1843. 
 1845. 
 1847. 
 1849. 
 1851. 
 1853. 
 1855. 
 18.57. 
 18.59. 
 1861. 
 1863. 
 1865. 
 1867. 
 1869. 
 1871. 
 1873. 
 187.5. 
 1876. 
 
 Dec. 4, 1876, to Mar. 4, 1877. 
 Oct. 15, 1877, to Mar. 4, 1879. 
 46th Congress. Mar. 18, 1879, to Mar. 4, 1881. 
 
 1750 
 1740 
 
 1760 
 
 1746 
 1757 
 
 1750 
 
 i777 
 
 1776 
 
 1784 
 1783 
 
 irei 
 
 1797 
 
 1795 
 
 1809 
 1805 
 18U5 
 1799 
 1809 
 1815 
 1800 
 
 isie 
 
 1822 
 1796 
 1823 
 1823 
 
 im 
 
 i827 
 1828 
 
 Died. 
 
 1801 
 1809 
 
 1824 
 
 1813 
 1837 
 
 1821 
 i853 
 
 1857 
 
 1854 
 1841 
 
 i8,57 
 
 1869 
 1849 
 
 1845 
 
 1848 
 18.50 
 
 1868 
 18.59 
 
 1873 
 186; 
 
 Note.— Speakers elected pro tempore are not included in the above table. The figures pre 
 fixed indicate the number of Speakers, not the sequence of their official terms. 
 
796 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TKIE. 
 
 SENATORS OF THE FORTY-SEVENTH CONGRESS— JIARCH 4, 1881, tO MARCH 4, 1883. 
 President, Pro. Tem., 
 
 Close 
 of Term. 
 
 ALABAJVIA: 
 
 John T. Morgan 1883 
 
 James L. Pugh 1885 
 
 ARKANSAS: 
 
 Aug. H. Garland ISaS 
 
 James D. W alker 1885 
 
 C-\I>IFORNIA: 
 
 James T. Farley 1885 
 
 James F. Miller 1887 
 
 COLORADO : 
 
 Henry M. Teller 1883 
 
 Nathaniel P. Hill 1885 
 
 CONNECTICUT: 
 
 Or^-ille H. Piatt 1885 
 
 Joseph R. Hawley 1887 
 
 DELAWARE: 
 
 Eli Saulsbury 1883 
 
 Thomas F. Bayard 1887 
 
 FLORIDA: 
 
 Wilkinson CaU 188o 
 
 Charles W. Jones 1887 
 
 GEORGLl: 
 
 Ben. H. HiU 1883 
 
 Joseph E. Brown 1885 
 
 ILLINOIS": 
 
 Da^-id Davis io™ 
 
 John A. Logan 1885 
 
 DfDIANA: 
 
 Daniel W. Voorhees 18bo 
 
 Benj amin Harrison 1887 
 
 IOWA : 
 
 J. W. McDill 1883 
 
 WilUam B. Allison ISSo 
 
 KANSAS: 
 
 Preston B. Plumb 1883 
 
 John J. Ingalls 1885 
 
 KENTUCKY: 
 
 James B. Beck 1883 
 
 John S. Williams 1885 
 
 LOUI-^IANA: 
 
 WilUam P. KeUogg. 1883 
 
 B. Frank Jonas 1885 
 
 MAINE: ,„„„ 
 
 William P. Frye 1883 
 
 Eugene Hale 1887 
 
 MARYLAND: 
 
 James B. Groome 1885 
 
 Arthur P. Gorman 1887 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS: 
 
 George F. Hoar 188o 
 
 Henry L. Dawes 1887 
 
 MICHIGAN: ^^^^ 
 
 Thomas W. Ferry 1883 
 
 Omar D. Conger 1887 
 
 MLNNESOTA: 
 
 A. J. Edgerton 1883 
 
 Sam. J. R. McMiUan 1887 
 
 Close 
 of Term. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI: 
 
 L.Q.C. Lamar 1883 
 
 James Z. George 1887 
 
 MISSOURI: 
 
 George G. Yest 18&5 
 
 Francis M. Cockrell 1887 
 
 NEBRASKA: 
 
 Ahin Saunders 1883 
 
 C. H. Van Wyck 1887 
 
 NEYADA: 
 
 John P. Jones 1885 
 
 James G. Fair 1887 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE: 
 
 E. H. Rollins 1883 
 
 Henry W. Blair 1885 
 
 NEW JERSEY : 
 
 J. R. McPherson 1883 
 
 W. J. Sewell 1887 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 1885 
 
 Warner MiUer 1887 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA: 
 
 M.W. Ransom 1883 
 
 Zeb. B. Vance 1885 
 
 OHIO: 
 
 George H. Pendleton 1885 
 
 John Shei-man 1887 
 
 OREGON: 
 
 Lafayette Grover 1883 
 
 John H. Slater 1885 
 
 PENNS rL V ANIA : 
 
 J. Donald Cameron 1885 
 
 JohnL Mitchell 1887 
 
 RHODE ISL ANTD : 
 
 Henry B. Anthony 1883 
 
 1887 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA: 
 
 M. C. Butler 1883 
 
 • Wade Hampton 1885 
 
 TENNESSEE : 
 
 Isham G. Harris 1883 
 
 HoweU E. Jackson 1887 
 
 TEXAS: 
 
 Richard Coke 1883 
 
 Samuel B. Maxey 1887 
 
 VERMONT: 
 
 Justin S. Morrill 1885 
 
 Geora-e F. Edmunds 1887 
 
 VIRGINIA: 
 
 John W. Johnston 1883 
 
 William Mahone 1887 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA: 
 
 Henry G. Da\-is 1883 
 
 Johnson N. Camden. 1887 
 
 WISCONSIN: 
 
 Angus Cameron 1985 
 
 Philetus Sawyer 1887 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 797 
 
 STATE CAPITALS AND GOVERNORS IN 1881. 
 
 State. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Fl irirta 
 
 Georjiia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Neviida 
 
 NewHampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania.. 
 Rhode Island .. 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 ■\^irginia 
 
 West Virginia . 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Montgomerj' 
 
 Little Rock 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 Denver 
 
 Hartford 
 
 Dover 
 
 Tallahassee 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Spring-field 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 Topeka 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Baton Rouge 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Annapolis 
 
 Boston 
 
 Lansing 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Jefferson City. . . 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Carson City 
 
 Concord 
 
 Trenton 
 
 Albany 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Salem 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 N'port & Prov . . 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Nashville 
 
 Austin 
 
 Montpelier 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 Madison 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Rufus W.Cobb, D... 
 Tho's J. Churchill, D 
 George C. Perkins, R 
 Fred'k W. Pitkin, R. 
 Hobart B. Bigelow, R 
 
 John W. Hall, D 
 
 Wm. D. Bloxham, D. 
 Alfred H. Colquitt, D 
 Shelby M. Cullom, R. 
 Albert G. Porter, R.. 
 
 John H. Gear, R 
 
 John P. St. John, R. . 
 L. P. Blackburn, D. . 
 Louis A. Wiltz, D. . . . 
 Harris M. Plaisted,*D 
 Wm. T. Hamilton, D 
 
 John D. Long, R 
 
 David H. Jerome, R. 
 John S. Pillsbury, R. 
 John M. Stone, D . . . . 
 Thos. T. Crittenden, D, 
 Albinus Nance, R. . . . 
 John H. Kinkead, R. 
 Charles H. Bell, R... 
 George C. Ludlow, D 
 Alonzo B. Cornell, R. 
 Thomas J. Jarvis, D. 
 
 Charles Fostei-, R 
 
 William W. Thayer, D 
 Henry M. Hoyt, R.. . 
 A. H. Littlefleld, R . . 
 Johnson Hagood, D.. 
 Alvin Hawkins, 11... 
 Oran M. Roberts, D.. 
 Roswell Farnham, R 
 F. W. M. Molliday, D 
 Jacob B. Jackson, D. 
 William E. Smith, R. 
 
 Years 
 
 of 
 Term 
 
 Terra 
 Began. 
 
 Nov. 39, 
 Jan. 4, 
 Jan. 5, 
 Jan. 11, 
 Jan. 5, 
 Jan. 21, 
 Jan. 4, 
 Nov. 8, 
 Jan. 10, 
 Jan. 10, 
 Jan. 13, 
 Jan. 10, 
 Sept. 3, 
 Jan. . . , 
 Jan. .5, 
 Jan. 14, 
 Jan. .5, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 6, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 10, 
 Jan. 4, 
 Jan. 6, 
 June 1, 
 Jan. 18, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 13, 
 Sept. 13, 
 May 3.5, 
 Mav 2.5, 
 Dec. 30, 
 Jan. 15, 
 Jan. 15, 
 Oct. 6, 
 Jan. ], 
 I Mar. 4, 
 'Jan. 5, 
 
 Term 
 Ends. 
 
 Nov. 39, 
 Jan. 3, 
 Jan. 7, 
 Jan. 9, 
 Jan. 3, 
 Jan. 31, 
 Jan. (i, 
 Nov. 3, 
 Jan. 13, 
 Jan. 13, 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Sept 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 13, 
 Jan. 3, 
 Jan. 3, 
 June 6, 
 Jan, 31, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 9, 
 Sept. 13, 
 May 31, 
 May 31, 
 Dec. 30, 
 Jan. 15, 
 Jan. 15, 
 Oct. 4, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Mar. 4, 
 Jan. 3, 
 
 Sal- 
 ary^ 
 
 f3,000 
 3,.500 
 (),0(.HI 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 2,000 
 3,500 
 3,000 
 6,000 
 5,000 
 4,000 
 3,000 
 5,000 
 4,000 
 3,000 
 4,500 
 4,000 
 1,000 
 3,800 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 3,.'i00 
 6,000 
 1,000 
 5,000 
 
 10,000 
 3,000 
 4,000 
 1,500 
 
 10,000 
 1,000 
 3,500 
 4,000 
 4.000 
 1,000 
 5,000 
 2,700 
 5,000 
 
 Republican Governors, 20. 
 Republican Legislatures, 31. 
 
 Democratic Governors, 18. 
 Democratic Legislatures, 17. 
 
 Elected by a fusion of the Democratic and Greenback parties. 
 
 GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORIES IN 1881. 
 
 Territory. 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Montana 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 
 Wyoming . . . 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Prescott 
 
 Yankton 
 
 Boise City 
 
 Helena 
 
 Santa Ft' 
 
 Salt Lake City . 
 
 Olympia 
 
 Cheyenne 
 
 Governor. 
 
 John C. Fremont, R . . . 
 Neh. G. Ordway, R . . . . 
 
 JohnB. Neil, R 
 
 Benjamin F. Potts, R. 
 
 Eli H. Murray, R 
 
 William A. Newell, R. 
 John W. Hoyt, R 
 
 Y'ears 
 
 of 
 Term. 
 
 Term 
 Began. 
 
 Term 
 Ends. 
 
 Sal. 
 ary. 
 
 June 13, '78 June IS, '83 3,600 
 May 33, '80 Mav 22, '84' 2,600 
 Julv 13, '80 July 13, '84 ■" -"■^ 
 July 13, '78jJuly 13, '83 
 
 Jan. 37, '80'Jan. 37, '84 
 April 36, '80| April 36, '84 
 April 10, '78 April 10, '83 
 
 2,600 
 2,600 
 3,600 
 3,600 
 3,600 
 2,600 
 
798 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 BATES OF FOREIGN POSTAGE. 
 
 [From the United States Official Postal Guide, October, 1880.] 
 The standai'd single rate is Vz ounce avoirdupois. 
 * Prepayment optional in case of country marked with a star, embraced in the Postal Union 
 Treaty of 1878. "When not prepaid, double rates are charged. 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Africa, British Possessions on 
 West Coast 
 
 Africa, French, Portuguese, and 
 Spanish Possessions 
 
 Amoy 
 
 Argentine Kepublic 
 
 Australia, except New South 
 Wales, Victoria, and Queen- 
 land 
 
 Austria 
 
 Azores 
 
 Balearic Isles 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 Boliva, British Mail 
 
 Borneo 
 
 Brazil 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Burmah, Bi-itish Mail 
 
 Canada 
 
 Canary Islands 
 
 Canton 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Carthagena 
 
 Cevlon 
 
 Chili, British Mail 
 
 China, via San Francisco 
 
 Cochin China 
 
 Colombia, U. S. of 
 
 Costa Rica, Western Ports 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Curacoa 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Egypt 
 
 England 
 
 Faroe Island s 
 
 Fiji Islands, direct, \\b, San Fran- 
 cisco 
 
 Finland 
 
 France 
 
 French Colonies 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Gibralta 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Greecf 
 
 Greenland 
 
 Greytown, British Mail 
 
 Guadaloupe 
 
 Guatemala, direct Mail 
 
 Guiana, British, French, and 
 Dutch 
 
 Havana 
 
 Hawaiian Kingdom 
 
 Hayti, by direct steamers 
 
 Hiudostan 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Iceland 
 
 India. British Mail 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 .Tam;ik;a 
 
 J:ipan ■ ■ ■■ 
 
 Let- News- 
 ters. papers. 
 
 Cts. 
 
 Cts. 
 2 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Java 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Macao 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Madeira 
 
 Malta 
 
 Manila 
 
 Mai-tinique 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Molda'V'la 
 
 Monaco 
 
 Montenegro.. 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Morocco, except Spanish West 
 
 Coast 
 
 Nassau, N. P 
 
 Natal 
 
 Nethei-lands 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 New Foundland 
 
 New Grenada, direct mail 
 
 New South Wales, direct mail 
 
 New Zealand, direct mail 
 
 Nicaragua, direct 
 
 Norway 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Panama, direct mail 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Persia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Poland. 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 Queensland 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 St. Croix 
 
 St. Domingo 
 
 St. Helena, British Mail 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 Salvador 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Serv^ia 
 
 Shanghai 
 
 Siam, direct from San Francisco. 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sumatra 
 
 Surinam 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Tangier 
 
 Tripoli, Italian Mail 
 
 Tunis, Italian Mail 
 
 Turkey 
 
 jTurk's Island, British Mail 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Vancouver's Island 
 
 Van Dieman's Land 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Wallachia 
 
 AVest Indies, direct 
 
 I Zanzibar 
 
 Let- 
 ters. 
 
 Cts. 
 *5 
 *5 
 
 23 
 
 News- 
 papers. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 INTEREST LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 COMPILED FROM THE LATEST STATE AND TERRITORIAL STATUTES. 
 
 799 
 
 Laws of each State and Terntory regarding Rates of Interest arid Penalties forUsurj-, with 
 the Law or Custom as to Days of Grace on Notes and Drafts. 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arizona , 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia. . 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michig-an 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregron 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 TTtah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington Territory 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 M'isconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Legal 
 Rate ot 
 Interest. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 10 
 (i 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 7 
 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 6 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 
 Rate 
 Allow'd by 
 Contract. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 8 
 Any rate. 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 Any rate. 
 10 
 13 
 10 
 10 
 Any rate. 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 Anj' rate. 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 Penalties for Usury. 
 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 
 None. 
 Forft. of principal and interest. 
 
 None. 
 None, except of excess. 
 Forfeiture of excess. 
 Forfeiture of interest. 
 Forfeiture of principal. 
 Forfeiture of entire interests 
 
 None. 
 ■ None. 
 Fine of $100 or imprisonment. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 Foi-feituro of excess of interest. 
 Forfeit, of 10 per cent, on amount. 
 FoHciturc of excess of interest. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 
 None. 
 Forseiture of excess of interest. 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 Forfeiture of excess of 13 per ct. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 
 None. 
 Forfeiture of interest and cost. 
 
 None. 
 Forfeiture of thrice the excess. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 Forft. of principal and interest. 
 Forfeitvu-e of entire interest. 
 Forft. of excess above 6 per cent. 
 Forf't. of principal and interest. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 Forfeiture of cxc. int. & $100 fine. 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 Forft. of excess over 6 per cent. 
 
 None. 
 Forfeiture of excess of interest. 
 Forfeiture of entire interest. 
 
 None. 
 
 Grace 
 
 f)r 
 
 No Grace, 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 No statute 
 No Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 No statute 
 
 Grace. 
 No Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 No Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 No statute 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 
 Grace. 
 Grace. 
 Grace. 
 
800 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 CENSUS STATISTICS. 
 
 POPULATION or THE UNITED STATES 
 From the Official Census of the United States, 1870 and 1880. 
 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 1790. 
 
 1800. 
 
 1810. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1830. 
 
 
 The United { 
 States ) 
 
 3,929,214 
 
 5,308,483 
 
 7,239,881 
 
 8,633,822 
 
 12,866,020 
 
 
 The States 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,929,214 
 
 5,294,390 
 
 7,315,858 
 
 9,600,783 
 
 12,820,868 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 25 
 
 127,901 
 14,255 
 
 15 
 
 37 
 
 309,527 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30,388 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 16 
 
 237,946 
 59,096 
 
 8 
 17 
 
 251,002 
 64,273 
 
 9 
 19 
 
 261,942 
 72,674 
 
 14 
 23 
 
 375,i48 
 
 72,749 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 25 
 10 
 20 
 13 
 
 297,675 
 
 76,748 
 
 
 
 34,730 
 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 •J3 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 
 
 13 
 
 82,548 
 
 12 
 
 162,686 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 21 
 
 252,433 
 
 12,283 
 24,520 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 18 
 
 340,985 
 55,162 
 
 147,178 
 
 516,823 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 5,641 
 
 343,031 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 73,677 
 
 9 
 
 220,955 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 406,.511 
 76,556 
 228,705 
 380,546 
 472,040 
 4,762 
 
 6 
 17 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 26 
 
 564,135 
 152,923 
 298,369 
 407,350 
 523,159 
 8,795 
 
 6 
 19 
 12 
 11 
 
 8 
 26 
 
 687,917 
 
 
 315,739 
 
 
 11 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 96,540 
 319,728 
 
 378,787 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 151,719 
 341,548 
 
 422,845 
 
 399,455 
 
 
 447,040 
 
 
 610,408 
 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 • 1 
 
 
 31,639 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 8,850 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 40,352 
 20,845 
 
 21 
 23 
 
 75,448 
 66,557 
 
 32 
 21 
 
 135,621 
 
 
 
 
 140,455 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 10 
 9 
 5 
 3 
 
 141,885 
 184,130 
 340.120 
 393,751 
 
 11 
 10 
 3 
 
 4 
 18 
 
 183,858 
 211,149 
 588,051 
 478,103 
 45,365 
 
 16 
 12 
 2 
 4 
 13 
 
 214,460 
 245,562 
 959,049 
 555,500 
 230,760 
 
 15 
 13 
 
 1 
 4 
 5 
 
 344,032 
 277,426 
 1,372,111 
 638,829 
 581,295 
 
 18 
 14 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 
 269,328 
 
 
 820,823 
 
 26 
 
 
 1,918,608 
 
 
 737,987 
 
 ''S 
 
 Ohio 
 
 937,903 
 
 Of) 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 
 3 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 434,373 
 68,825 
 
 249,073 
 35,691 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 6 
 15 
 
 602,365 
 
 69,122 
 
 345,591 
 
 105,603 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 810,091 
 
 76,931 
 
 415,115 
 
 261,728 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 8 
 9 
 
 1,047,507 
 
 83,015 
 
 503,741 
 
 453,771 
 
 2 
 23 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 1,348,233 
 
 
 97,199 
 
 32 
 
 3'-? 
 
 
 581,185 
 
 
 681,904 
 
 34 
 
 3n 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 85,425 
 747,610 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 154,465 
 880,200 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 217,895 
 974,600 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 335,966 
 1,065,116 
 
 17 
 3 
 
 280,653 
 
 36 
 
 
 1,311,405 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The States 
 
 3,929,214 
 
 5,924,390 
 
 7,215,858 
 
 9,600,783 
 
 12,820,868 
 
 
 A rizona 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t) 
 
 Dakota 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 District Columbia 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 14,093 
 
 1 
 
 24,023 
 
 i 
 
 39,039 
 
 1 
 
 39,834 
 
 /f 
 
 Idaho 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Montana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 q 
 
 Wj'oming' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ::::::::: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14,093 
 
 24,023 
 
 33,039 
 
 39,834 
 
 
 Total population 
 
 
 
 
 3,929,214 
 
 5,308,483 
 
 7,339,881 
 
 9,634,822 
 
 12,866,020 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ] 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 ncrease 
 
 er cent. 
 
 790-1800, 
 
 35.10. 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1801-1810, 
 
 36.38. 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1810-1820, 
 
 3:j.06. 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1820-30. 
 
 32.51, 
 
 Note.— The narrow column under each census shows the order of the 
 The fig-ures of population for 1880 are in some cases 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 801 
 
 CENSUS STATISTICS— 1790 TO 1880, CONTINUED. 
 
 From the Official Census of the United States, 1870 and 1880. 
 
 States and 
 Terkitories. 
 
 The United ( 
 States ( 
 
 The States. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas — 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Oonnecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts. . . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina.. . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island.. .. 
 South Carolina . . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia.. . 
 Wisconsin 
 
 The States. 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Dakota 
 
 District Columbia. 
 
 Idaho 
 
 M ontana 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 
 
 Wyoming' 
 
 The Territories . . 
 Total population. 
 
 1840. 
 
 17,069,4.53 
 
 17,019,641 
 
 590,766 
 97,574 
 
 309,978 
 
 78,085 
 
 54,477 
 
 691,392 
 
 476,18;: 
 
 685,806 
 
 43,11:; 
 
 29 
 
 779,838 
 353,411 
 501,793 
 470,019 
 737,699 
 213,367 
 
 ' 375,6.5i 
 383,702 
 
 284,674 23 
 
 1850. 1860. 
 
 23,191,876 31,443,321 
 
 771,633 
 
 209,897 
 
 92,597 
 
 373,306 
 2,438,921 
 
 753,419 
 1,519,467 
 
 1,724,633 
 108,830 
 594,398 
 829,210 
 
 291,948 
 1,239,797 
 
 30,945 
 
 17,019,641 
 
 43,712 
 
 43,713 
 
 17,069,453 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1830-40, 
 
 33.52. 
 
 370,792 
 91, .533 
 87,445 
 906,185 
 851,470 
 988,410 
 192,214 
 
 23,067,363 31,183,744 38,115,641 
 
 983,405 9 
 517,763 17! 
 .58:3,169 23! 
 583,034 19' 
 994,514 7 
 397,654 16: 
 6,077 30' 
 606,536 14 
 683,044 8 
 
 317,976 
 489,555 
 
 3,097,394 
 869,039 
 
 1,980,329 
 13,394 
 
 3,311,786 
 147,545 
 668,507 
 
 1,003,717 
 313,593 
 314,130 
 
 1,431,661 
 
 305,.391 15i 775,881 
 
 33,067,263 31,183,744 38,115,641 
 
 51,687 3 
 
 . . 61,.54' 
 . . 11,380 
 
 124,614 
 33,191,876 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1840-.50, 
 
 35.83. 
 
 4,83' 
 75,080 
 
 93,516 
 40,373 
 11, .594 
 
 259,577 
 
 31,443,321 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1850-60, 
 
 35.11. 
 
 1880. 
 
 50,152,866 
 
 906,096 
 
 4,383,759 
 
 1,071,361 
 
 2,665,260 
 
 90,923 
 
 3,531,951 
 
 217,:353 
 
 705,606 
 
 1,258,530 
 
 818,.579 
 
 330,,551 
 
 1,225,163 
 
 442,014 
 
 1,054,670 
 
 9,6.58 
 14,181 
 131,700 
 14,999 
 20,595 
 91,874 
 86,786 
 23,955 
 
 Increase 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1860-70, 
 
 22.65. 
 
 996,992 
 484,471 
 560,247 
 39,864 
 537,454 
 125,015 
 187,748 
 1,184,109 
 3,.5;39,89] 
 1,680,637 
 1,194,030 
 364,399 
 1,331,011 
 736,915 
 636,915 37 
 780,894 33 
 1,457,351 " 
 1,184,059 
 439,706 26 
 827,933 18 
 1,731,395 5 
 122,993 30 
 42,491 38 
 318,300 31 
 19 
 1 
 
 15 
 3 
 36 
 2 
 33 
 30 
 13 
 11 
 33 
 14 
 29 
 161 
 
 49,369,595 
 
 1,363,794 
 
 803,564 
 
 864,686 
 
 194,649 
 
 633,683 
 
 146,6,54 
 
 267,3.51 
 
 1,539,048 
 
 3,078,769 
 
 1,978,363 
 
 1,634,620 
 
 995,96(5 
 
 1,648,708 
 
 940,103 
 
 648,945 
 
 934,633 
 
 1,783,013 
 
 1,636,331 
 
 780,806 
 
 1,131,.593 
 
 3,168,804 
 
 453,433 
 
 63,365 
 
 346,984 
 
 1,130,893 
 
 5,083,810 
 
 1,400,047 
 
 3,198,339 
 
 174,767 
 
 4,383,786 
 
 376,538 
 
 995,633 
 
 1,542,463 
 
 1,593,574 
 
 333,386 
 
 1,513,806 
 
 618,443 
 
 1,315,480 
 
 Percent, 
 increase, 
 1870 to 'hO. 
 
 30.06 
 
 49,369,595 
 
 40,441 
 135,180 
 177,638 
 33,611 
 39,157 
 118,430 
 143,906 
 75,130 
 30,788 
 
 783,271 
 
 50,153,866 
 
 Increase 
 per cent. 
 
 1870-80, 
 33.06. 
 
 39.53 
 
 36.66 
 65.65 
 54.34 
 388.38 
 15.85 
 17.30 
 43.39 
 29.97 
 31.31 
 17.70 
 36.06 
 173.14 
 34.80 
 39.32 
 3.. 51 
 19.68 
 33.34 
 38.19 
 77.57 
 36.67 
 25.99 
 367.83 
 46.53 
 9.01 
 34.80 
 15.99 
 30.67 
 19.99 
 93.31 
 31.60 
 37.32 
 40.95 
 33.56 
 94.55 
 .53 
 33.42 
 39.91 
 24.73 
 
 29.53 
 
 318.73 
 853.34 
 34.88 
 117.42 
 90.13 
 28.90 
 65.81 
 313.58 
 127.98 
 
 76.91 
 
 30.06 
 
 States and Territories when arranged according to magnitude of population, 
 subject to final coi-rection at the Census Office. 
 
•802 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 STATE DEBTS, VALUATION AND TAXES. 
 
 The foUowing statistics of the finances of the thirty-eight states in the Union have been de- 
 rived in most cases from the officers of the States themselves. Compiled by Librarian of 
 Congress. 
 
 States. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 ■California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut .. . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 niinoiP. 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 3Iaine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi — 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey.. . 
 
 New York 
 
 N. Carolina . . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Rhode Island . 
 
 S. Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Sept. 
 Sept. 
 July 
 
 Dec. 
 Jan. 
 Jan. 
 Oct. 
 Oct, 
 Nov. 
 Oct. 
 July 
 
 Oct. 
 
 West Virginia 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Date of 
 Statement. 
 
 1880 
 1880 
 1880 
 
 Nov. 30, 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1879 
 
 18' 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1, 
 1, 
 1, 
 1, 
 1, 
 1. 
 30. 
 
 i: 
 
 10, 1879 
 
 Jan. 1, 1880 
 Jan. 1, 1880 
 
 Oct. 1, 
 
 Jan. 1, 
 
 Oct. 1, 
 
 Nov. 30, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Nov. 30, 
 Jan. 1, 
 
 June 1, 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 
 1880 
 1880 
 1880 
 1880 
 1879 
 
 ]8-;o 
 
 1880 
 1879 
 
 Nov. 1. 
 Oct. 1, 
 Sept. 30, 
 Nov. 15, i8SU 
 
 Sept. 1, 1880 
 
 Dec. 1, 1879 
 
 Nov. 1, 1880 
 Nov. 23, 1880 
 Dec. 1, 1880 
 Jan. 1, 1879 
 Oct. 1, 1880 
 Dec. 1, 1879 
 J Creation of 
 1 by 
 Nov. 29, 1880 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 Amount of State 
 Debt. 
 
 Funded. Unf'nd'd 
 
 9,009,000 
 
 3,813,500 
 
 3,396,500 
 
 No fund 
 
 ed debt. 
 
 4,967,60( 
 
 953,000 
 
 1,284,700 
 
 9,951,500 
 
 No debt. 
 
 4,998,178 
 
 545,435 
 
 1,181,975 
 
 1,858,008 
 
 11,781,761 
 
 5,848,500 
 
 11,277,111 
 
 33,020,464 
 
 905,149 
 
 2,-565,000 
 
 3,090,155 
 
 16,508,000 
 
 449.267 
 
 557,017 
 
 3,50 ,100 
 
 1,896,300 
 
 9,114,054 
 
 16,960,045 
 
 6,476,805 
 
 356,508 
 
 21,389,950 
 
 2,534,500 
 5,967.450 
 20,206,300 
 5,034,109 
 No debt 
 29,189,523 
 
 2,523,252 
 2,232,905 
 6 None 
 
 162,887 
 
 None 
 
 10,905 
 None, 
 
 4,550,732 
 2,521,657 
 
 122,002 
 
 250,000 
 
 88,625 
 60,100 
 
 10,160,183 
 
 4,165 
 
 154,868 
 
 88,719 
 
 None. 
 
 671,^21 
 6,636,550 
 
 52,674 
 
 2,037.560 
 
 Amount 
 raised 
 by Tax- 
 ation 
 last 
 year. 
 
 StatedebtProhibite(3 1 
 
 Constitu-ition. f 
 
 2,252,057 f 
 
 S 
 
 76:3,735 
 
 613,957 
 
 3,153,022 
 
 155,506 
 
 1,466,263 
 
 134,400 
 
 250,473 
 
 1,092,822 
 
 3;300,000 
 
 1,070,292 
 
 843,964 
 
 883,139 
 
 1,430,957 
 
 2,432,188 
 
 900,000 
 
 938,463 
 
 4,950,000 
 
 1,153,096 
 
 380,f06 
 444,327 
 2,129,.518 
 907,468 
 252,404 
 
 400,000 
 
 820,000 
 6,690,416 
 
 533,635 
 4,411,725 
 
 324,959 
 
 5.392,361 
 
 388,552 
 715,982 
 626,529 
 
 ,396,170 
 292 228 
 
 ,087^678 
 
 515,241 
 
 557,003 
 
 251 ,840 921 1 32.329,5051 56,379,679 
 
 Amount of Taxable 
 Property as Assessed. 
 
 Real. 
 
 83,000,000 
 
 54,606,057 
 
 329,213,192 
 
 25,804,345 
 
 228,487,700 
 7 
 
 Personal. 
 
 State 
 
 Tax 
 
 on 
 
 SlOO 
 
 37,000,000 
 32,286,484 
 140,431,866 
 
 17,268,303 
 
 95,901,223 
 
 10,521,067 
 
 99,276,876 
 
 166,573,526 
 
 192',B82,202 
 
 102,159,899 
 
 .52,469,639 
 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 18,850,160 
 139,657.250 
 620,042,868 
 525,413,900 
 303,381,498 
 108.101,122 
 
 345,037,875 
 Real and Personal. 
 
 149,635,805 
 Real and Personal. 
 
 224,579,569 | 
 
 Real and Personal. j 
 
 4.59,187.408 | 
 
 Real and Personal. )' 
 
 1,111,160,072 I 473,-596,730 
 
 630.000,000 I 
 
 Real and I'ersonal. i 
 
 203,473,6371 -54,-581,906 
 
 76,139,102 30,0.59,568 
 
 381.555,000 147.661,000 
 
 43,694,355 46,805,263 
 
 16,820,3841 12,744,289 
 
 206,959,017 I 
 
 Real and Pere^nal. T 
 
 445,918,2211 160,497,340 
 
 2,333,669,813 352,469,-320 
 
 91,679.918 51,238,268 
 
 1,102,049,9311 456,136,034 
 
 46,4-22,817 I 
 
 Real and Personal. ( 
 
 No tax ) 
 
 on Real V 
 
 Estate. ) 
 
 243.658,190 
 
 76,883,366 
 
 196,16-5,644 
 
 186,297,495 
 
 71,017,001 
 
 248,455,933 
 
 95,079,808 
 344,788,771 
 
 128,490,420 
 
 84,872,369 
 43,967,758 
 16,9.52,036 
 114,227,912 
 1-5,37-5,-533 
 70,937,626 
 
 33,480,119 
 
 94,183,030 
 
 15,101,534,830 
 
 Cts. 
 65 
 65 
 621/2 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 to' 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 30 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 60 
 40 
 
 3/2 
 13/2 
 
 20 
 35 
 40 
 40 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 65 
 
 29 
 70 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 45 
 10 
 50 
 40 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 10 3-10 
 
 1. The State of Marvland held $4,235,713 in interest-pajing securities of corporations, be- 
 sides $2.3,360,682 in unproductive securities. , ,„„„ 
 
 2. Massachusetts held §12,235,248 in sinking fund, January 1, 1880. ^^^ ,,^ v i, ■ .^ 
 
 3. Mississippi's debt was due the school fund to the amount of §1,818,145, on which mterest 
 oniv is payable, leaving net debt, less cash in treasury, $386,253. 
 
 4.' New York held in sinking fund, October 1, 1880, $2,0-54,480. , „ . 
 
 5 Pennsylvania held, December 1, 1879, $1,202,373 in sinking fund; in stocks of mcorporated 
 •companies, interest paving, $7,300,000; net debt, $13,794,328. 
 
 6 California holds in trust for her own school and university funds, $2,790,000 of her bonded 
 debt, on which interest only is payable, reducing the net debt to $606,-500. ^ ^ v.i 
 
 7. Delaware has no State tax on property, and therefore no State valuation of taxable 
 property. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 808 
 
 XUMBEB, TONNAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SHIPPING OP THE UNITED STATES, JUNE 
 
 30, 1S80. 
 
 States and Territories In 
 WHICH Documented. 
 
 1 Alabama 
 
 3 Alaska 
 
 3 Arizona 
 
 4 California 
 
 5 Connecticut 
 
 6 Delaware 
 
 7 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 SFlorida 
 
 9 Georgia 
 
 10 Illinois 
 
 11 Indiana 
 
 12 Iowa 
 
 13 Kentucky 
 
 14 Louisiana 
 
 15 Maine 
 
 16 Maryland 
 
 17 Massachusetts 
 
 18 Michigan 
 
 19 Minnesota 
 
 20 Mississippi 
 
 31 Missouri 
 
 23 Nebraska 
 
 23 New Hampshire 
 
 24 New Jersey 
 
 25 New York 
 
 26 North Carolina 
 
 27iOhio 
 
 28 Oregon 
 
 29;Pennsylvania 
 
 30 Rhode Island 
 
 31 South Carolina 
 
 32 Tennessee 
 
 33 Texas 
 
 34:Vermont 
 
 35 Virginia 
 
 36 %Vashington Territory. 
 
 37jWest Virginia 
 
 38j Wisconsin 
 
 Total. 
 
 Summary. 
 Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. 
 
 Pacific Coast 
 
 Northern Lakes 
 
 Western Rivers 
 
 Total United States. 
 
 Sailing 
 Vessels. 
 
 No. 
 73 
 10 
 
 653 
 641 
 159 
 
 .58 
 333 
 
 86 
 375 
 
 447 
 2,.556 
 1,645 
 3,136 
 
 470 
 1 
 
 119 
 
 69 
 
 906 
 
 2,984 
 
 389 
 
 196 
 
 38 
 655 
 341 
 173 
 
 330 
 
 17 
 
 1,061 
 
 03 
 
 258 
 
 Tons. 
 7,937 
 125 
 
 117,971 
 44,299 
 12,138 
 
 1,938 
 25,333 
 
 9,354 
 66,538 
 
 Steam 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 31,758 
 
 491,348 
 
 81,8.56 
 
 378,3a3 
 
 63,105 
 
 .50 
 
 3,970 
 
 9,483 
 
 58,133 
 
 633,681 
 
 9,1.58 
 
 8,133 
 
 7,041 
 
 137,200 
 
 16,588 
 
 5,017 
 
 7,713 
 938 
 
 36,638 
 33,389 
 
 .50,800 
 
 No. 
 
 44, 
 
 I 
 
 4' 
 
 171 
 
 108 
 31 
 .33 
 73 
 313 
 
 162 
 66 
 60 
 .53 
 
 215 
 85 
 
 139 
 
 1.53 
 
 393 
 54 
 43 
 
 162 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 113 
 
 1,048 
 
 41 
 
 233 
 91 
 
 460 
 59 
 49 
 93 
 33 
 7 
 86 
 42 
 
 14S 
 
 128 
 
 Tons 
 
 7,005 
 
 46 
 
 8:34 
 
 75,965 
 
 30,046 
 
 4,043 
 
 6,851 
 
 8,439 
 
 11,764 
 
 16,541 
 
 5,709 
 
 6,111 
 
 17,750 
 
 58,980 
 
 16,975 
 
 38,743 
 
 48,687 
 
 70,426 
 
 6,038 
 
 3,971 
 
 56,669 
 
 5,887 
 
 306 
 
 17,743 
 
 357,806 
 
 3,.511 
 
 69,405 
 
 38,808 
 
 130,037 
 
 34,518 
 
 6,414 
 
 14,401 
 
 4,439 
 
 1,.513 
 
 6,717 
 
 5,641 
 
 16,713 
 
 33,183 
 
 Canal 
 Boats. 
 
 No. I Tons. 
 
 135 
 
 Barges. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 4 349 
 
 554 
 8,178 
 8,396 
 
 117 
 
 3, .565 
 695 
 
 31,407 
 78,9.51 
 
 5,888 
 
 209 
 
 16,830 3,366,258 4,717 1,311,558 1,335106,590 1,930383,639 24,712 4068,034 
 
 800 
 
 406 
 
 433 
 
 3,162 
 
 29,664 
 
 2,269 
 
 1,653 
 
 82,276 
 
 68 11,690 
 444 89,784 
 
 67 
 
 6 
 
 539 
 
 13,829 
 3,808 
 94,366 
 
 587 
 
 390 
 
 199 
 
 36,707 
 101 
 
 Total. 
 
 No. 
 
 131 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 884 
 
 833 
 
 182 
 
 91 
 
 395 
 
 119 
 
 450 
 
 67 
 
 60 
 
 53 
 
 670 
 
 3,643 
 
 1,788 
 
 3,299 
 
 979 
 
 87 
 
 181 
 
 319 
 
 29 
 
 74 
 
 1,303 
 
 .5,447 
 
 330 
 
 405 
 
 135 
 
 1,698 
 
 300 
 
 223 
 
 92 
 
 264 
 
 27 
 
 1,150 
 
 105 
 
 432 
 
 388 
 
 Tons. 
 
 15,290 
 
 171 
 
 1,389 
 
 202,144 
 
 82,876 
 
 16,387 
 
 8,771 
 
 33.761 
 
 21,118 
 
 86,634 
 
 6,404 
 
 6,111 
 
 17,750 
 
 91,739 
 
 508,739 
 
 131,021 
 
 530,183 
 
 162,196 
 
 8,34(i 
 
 8,594 
 
 141,975 
 
 5,887 
 
 9,688 
 
 108,963 
 
 11.50,333 
 
 12,669 
 
 139,.509 
 
 39,658 
 
 367,491 
 
 41,106 
 
 11,482 
 
 14,401 
 
 13,739 
 
 3,678 
 
 33,554 
 
 39,030 
 
 43,419 
 
 74,083 
 
 14,609 
 
 763 
 
 1,459 
 
 1,913,800 
 148,536 
 304,833 
 
 3,2.51 
 310 
 931 
 
 1,325 
 
 16,830 2,360,358!4,717 
 
 633,303 
 111,395 
 212,045 
 256,916 
 
 6631 59,430 
 572 "47,160 
 
 624 
 
 71 
 
 165 
 
 1,070 
 
 1,211,558 1,2:35 106,.590 1,930 383,629 34,712 4068,034 
 
 113,247 
 13,541 
 40,965 
 
 316,876 
 
 18,147 
 1,143 
 3,137 
 2,395 
 
 3716,779 
 273,361 
 605,103 
 473.7!« 
 
 Nnniber, Class, and Tonnago of Vessels Buill in the United States During the Year 1880. 
 
 Grand Division. 
 
 Sailing 
 Vessels. 
 
 Steam 
 Vessels. 
 
 Canal 
 Boats. 
 
 Barges. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Atlantic and Gulf States 
 
 No. 
 337 
 15 
 
 48 
 
 Tons. 
 53,673 
 937 
 5,447 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 141 33,974 
 
 35 7,643 
 
 65 14,306 
 
 117 23,931 
 
 No. 
 1 
 
 Tons. 
 97 
 
 No. 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 Tons. 
 
 7,033 
 
 363 
 
 1,:356 
 
 8,860 
 
 No. 
 589 
 .41 
 137 
 135 
 
 Tons. 
 
 93,777 
 8,943 
 
 
 16 
 
 1,790 
 
 33,S9'.t 
 
 Western Rivers 
 
 33.791 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 460 
 
 59,057 
 
 348 
 
 78,854 
 
 17 
 
 1,887 
 
 77 
 
 17,613 
 
 903 
 
 157,410 
 
 
 
 
 
 
804 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Population of the Principal Cities and Towns of the United States in 1870 and 
 18 SO; to which is added the Debt of each City as far as ascertained. 
 
 From the Unpublished Returns of the Tenth Census. 
 
 Note.— The population given for 1880 is in some cases subject to correction. The " net 
 debt" of Cities is the aggregate funded and floating indebtedness, less amounts in sinking 
 funds. 
 
 Alabama— 
 
 Huntsville 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Montgomery . . . . 
 
 Selma 
 
 Arkansas— 
 
 Little Rook 
 
 California- 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Oakland 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 San Francisco. .. 
 
 San Jose 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Colorado— 
 
 Denver 
 
 Lead\ille 
 
 Connecticut— 
 
 Bridgeport 
 
 Danbury 
 
 Derby 
 
 Greenvrich 
 
 Hartford 
 
 Meriden 
 
 Middletown 
 
 New Britain 
 
 New Haven 
 
 New London 
 
 Norwalk 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Stamford 
 
 Waterbury 
 
 Windham 
 
 Delaware— 
 
 Wilmington 
 
 DiST. Columbia— 
 
 Georgetown 
 
 Washington .... 
 
 Fl^ORIDA— 
 
 Jacksonville 
 
 Key West 
 
 Georgia— 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Athens 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Macon 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Illinois— 
 
 Alton 
 
 Aurora 
 
 Belleville 
 
 Bloomington . . . 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Decatur 
 
 East St. Louis.. 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Freeport 
 
 Galena 
 
 Galesburg 
 
 Hyde Park 
 
 Jackson\'ille . . . 
 
 Population. 
 
 1870. 
 
 4,907 
 32,034 
 10,588 
 
 6,484 
 
 12,380 
 
 5,721 
 
 10,.500 
 
 16,283 
 
 149,473 
 
 9,089 
 
 10,066 
 
 4,759 
 
 1880. 
 
 18,969 
 6,542 
 8,020 
 7.644 
 
 37,180 
 
 10,495 
 6,923 
 9,480 
 
 50.840 
 9,576 
 
 12,199 
 
 16,653 
 9,714 
 
 13,106 
 5,412 
 
 30,841 
 
 11,384 
 109,199 
 
 6,912 
 5,016 
 
 21,789 
 4,251 
 
 15,389 
 7,401 
 
 10,810 
 
 28,235 
 
 8,665 
 
 11,162 
 
 8,146 
 
 14,590 
 
 6,26' 
 
 298,977 
 
 7,161 
 
 5,644 
 
 5,441 
 
 7,889 
 
 7,019 
 
 10,158 
 
 3,644 
 
 9,203 
 
 4,977 
 31,205 
 16,714 
 
 7,529 
 
 13,185 
 
 11,311 
 
 34,556 
 
 21,420 
 
 233,956 
 
 12,,56' 
 
 10,28' 
 
 35,630 
 14,820 
 
 29,148 
 
 11,' 
 
 11,649 
 
 7,892 
 42,553 
 18,340 
 11,731 
 13,978 
 62,882 
 10,.529 
 13,956 
 21,141 
 11,298 
 20,269 
 
 8,265 
 
 42,499 
 
 12,578 
 147,307 
 
 9,890 
 
 37,421 
 6,099 
 
 23,023 
 6,152 
 
 12,748 
 30,681 
 
 9,851 
 
 11,825 
 
 10,682 
 
 17,184 
 
 9,012 
 
 503,304 
 
 9,548 
 
 9,185 
 
 8.789 
 
 8,516 
 
 6,453 
 
 11,446 
 
 15,716 
 
 10,92 
 
 Net Debt. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 46,800 
 
 3,671,100 
 
 567,900 
 
 323,600 
 
 335,243 
 
 310,177 
 669,126 
 861,000 
 
 3,059,285 
 
 None. 
 385,615 
 
 20,000 
 
 831,000 
 255,415 
 80,243 
 183,307 
 3,689,855 
 788,317 
 
 494,843 
 
 1,359,619 
 
 496,611 
 
 522,495 
 
 1,191,256 
 
 165,000 
 
 561,508 
 
 44,193 
 
 1,372,450 
 
 23,310,146 
 
 270,916 
 10,000 
 
 2,180,000 
 107,950 
 
 1,961,319 
 540,800 
 743,000 
 
 3,425,000 
 
 110,491 
 
 25,506 
 
 217,712 
 
 221, ~" 
 
 270,000 
 
 12,794,271 
 
 80,075 
 
 272,800 
 
 34,3S6 
 
 69,220 
 
 147,076 
 
 53,250 
 
 273,336! 
 
 Illinois— Cont'd. 
 
 Joliet 
 
 Moline 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 Peoria 
 
 Quincy 
 
 Rockford 
 
 Rock Island 
 
 Springfield 
 
 Indiana — 
 
 Evansville 
 
 Fort Wayne 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 Jeffersonville 
 
 La Fayette 
 
 Logansport 
 
 Madison 
 
 New Albany 
 
 Richmond 
 
 South Bend 
 
 Terre Haute 
 
 Vincennes 
 
 Iowa— 
 
 Burlington 
 
 Cedar Kapids 
 
 Council Bluffs 
 
 Davenport 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 Dubuque 
 
 Iowa City 
 
 Keokuk 
 
 Muscatine 
 
 Ottumwa 
 
 Waterloo 
 
 Kansas— 
 
 Atchison 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Leavenworth 
 
 Topeka 
 
 Kentucky- 
 Co vington 
 
 Lexington 
 
 Louisville 
 
 Newport 
 
 Owensborough . . 
 
 Paducah 
 
 Louisiana— 
 
 New Orleans 
 
 Shreveport 
 
 Maine — 
 
 Bangor 
 
 Biddeford 
 
 Lewiston 
 
 Portland 
 
 Makyland— 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Frederick 
 
 Mass.achusetts— 
 
 Abington 
 
 Attleborough.... 
 Beverly 
 
 Population. 
 
 1870. 1880. 
 
 7,263 
 5,754 
 7,736 
 22,849 
 24,052 
 11,049 
 7,890 
 17,364 
 
 31,830 
 17,718 
 48,244 
 
 7,254 
 13,506 
 
 8,950 
 10,709 
 15,396 
 
 9,445 
 
 7,206 
 16,103 
 
 5,440 
 
 14,930 
 
 5,940 
 
 10,020 
 
 20,038 
 
 12,035 
 
 18,434 
 
 5,914 
 
 12,766 
 
 6,718 
 
 5,214 
 
 4,337 
 
 7,054 
 
 8,3i0 
 
 17,873 
 
 5, 
 
 24,.505 
 
 14,801 
 
 100,753 
 
 15,087 
 
 3,437 
 
 6,866 
 
 191,418 
 4,611 
 
 18,289 
 10,282 
 13,600 
 31,413 
 
 267,354 
 8,056 
 8,526 
 
 9,308 
 6,769 
 6,507 
 
 16,145 
 
 7,805 
 7,598 
 39,315 
 37,275 
 13,126 
 11,660 
 19,746 
 
 39,380 
 26,881 
 75,074 
 10,422 
 14,860 
 11,198 
 8,945 
 16,422 
 12,743 
 13,279 
 26,049 
 
 19,450 
 10,104 
 
 18,059 
 
 21,834 
 
 22,408 
 
 22,254 
 
 7,123 
 
 12,117 
 
 8,294 
 
 9,004 
 
 5,630 
 
 15,106 
 8,511 
 16,550 
 15,451 
 
 39,730 
 
 16,6.56 
 
 123,645 
 
 20,43:3 
 
 5,516 
 
 316,140 
 11,01 
 
 16,857 
 12,652 
 19,083 
 33,810 
 
 332,190 
 10,666 
 
 Net Debt. 
 Dollars. 
 
 3,697 
 11,111 
 
 8,445 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 805 
 
 Population and Debts of Cities, 1870 to 1880.— Continued. 
 
 Mass.— Cont'd. 
 
 Boston 
 
 Brockton ' 
 
 Brookline 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Chelsea 
 
 Chicopee 
 
 Clinton 
 
 Fall River.... 
 
 Fitchburg 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Haverhill 
 
 Holyoke 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 Lowell 
 
 Lynn 
 
 Maiden 
 
 Marlborough . 
 
 Medford 
 
 Milford 
 
 Natiek 
 
 New Bedford. 
 
 Ncwburyport. 
 
 Newton 
 
 North Adams. 
 
 Northampton. 
 
 Peabody 
 
 Pittsfield 
 
 Quincy 
 
 Salem 
 
 Somcrville 
 
 Springfield . . . 
 
 Taunton 
 
 Waltham 
 
 Westtield 
 
 Weymouth . . . 
 
 Woburn 
 
 Worcester 
 
 Michigan— 
 
 Adrian 
 
 Ann Arbor 
 
 Bay City , 
 
 Detroit 
 
 East Saginaw. 
 
 Grand Rapids 
 
 .Tarkson 
 
 Kalamazoo . . . 
 
 Lansing 
 
 Mui?kegon 
 
 Port Huron. . . 
 
 Saginaw City. 
 Minnesota— 
 
 Minneapolis... 
 
 Red Wing... . 
 
 Stillwater .... 
 
 Saint Paul.... 
 
 Winona 
 
 Mississippi- 
 
 Natchez 
 
 Vick.sburg 
 
 MiSSOUKI— 
 
 Campbell 
 
 Central 
 
 Hannibal 
 
 Kansas City.. 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 Sedalia 
 
 Population. 
 
 1870. 
 
 2,50, .536 
 
 8,007 
 
 fi,650 
 
 39,63-1 
 
 18,.547 
 
 9,607 
 
 5,439 
 
 2(J,766 
 
 11,360 
 
 15,389 
 
 13,093 
 
 10,733 
 
 28,931 
 
 40,928 
 
 28,3;« 
 
 7,367 
 
 8,474 
 
 5,717 
 
 9,890 
 
 6,404 
 
 31,330 
 
 13,.595 
 
 13,825 
 
 13,090 
 
 10,160 
 
 7,343 
 
 11,112 
 
 7,443 
 
 24,117 
 
 14,685 
 
 26,703 
 
 18,639 
 
 9,065 
 
 6,.519 
 
 9,010 
 
 8,.560 
 
 41,105 
 
 7,363 
 
 7,064 
 
 79,577 
 
 11,350 
 
 16,.507 
 
 11,447 
 
 9,181 
 
 5,341 
 
 6,003 
 
 5,973 
 
 7,460 
 
 13,066 
 4,260 
 4,134 
 
 20,030 
 7,192 
 
 9,0.57 
 12,443 
 
 1880. 
 
 8,694 
 
 8,93;^ 
 
 10,135 
 
 32.260 
 
 19,.565 
 
 310,864 
 
 4,560 
 
 362,535 
 13,608 
 8,0.53 
 52,740 
 21,785 
 11,325 
 8,030 
 49,006 
 12,405 
 19,329 
 18,4' 
 21,851 
 39,178 
 .59,485 
 38,284 
 12,017 
 10,126 
 7,573 
 9,310 
 8,480 
 26,875 
 13,.537 
 16,995 
 10,193 
 13,172 
 9,028 
 13,367 
 10,.529 
 27,.598 
 24,985 
 33,340 
 21,213 
 11,711 
 7,.587 
 10,.571 
 10,198 
 58,295 
 
 7,849 
 
 8,061 
 20,693 
 116,342 
 19,016 
 32,015 
 16,105 
 11,937 
 
 8,319 
 11,363 
 
 8,883 
 10,535 
 
 46,887 
 
 5,876 
 
 9,0.54 
 
 41,498 
 
 10,208 
 
 7,058 
 11,814 
 
 Net Debt, 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 7,485 
 
 11,074 
 
 55,813 
 
 33,484 
 
 3.50,.533 
 
 9,561 
 
 28,344,017 
 
 71,200 
 
 1,476,3,50 
 
 3,403,723 
 
 1,554,496 
 
 100,0.50 
 
 99,.500 
 
 3,169,765 
 
 770,778 
 
 193,370 
 
 393,428 
 
 878,454 
 
 1,712,000 
 
 1 ,5.54 275 
 
 2,072,815 
 
 483,-523 
 
 151,951 
 
 463,726 
 
 194,,5o0 
 
 303,303 
 
 1,086,000 
 
 428,706 
 
 993,.591 
 
 267,894 
 
 537,,500 
 
 289,300 
 
 385,841 
 
 65,980 
 
 1,162,487 
 
 1,-596,974 
 
 1,928,000 
 
 449,7.35 
 
 477,000 
 
 404,780 
 
 64,392 
 
 626,602 
 
 2,447,543 
 
 59.400 
 16,000 
 433,100 
 1,282,773 
 611,0.55 
 471,000 
 183,-5(10 
 25,000 
 105,400 
 180,000 
 349,000 
 202,800 
 
 1,137,467 
 
 45,445 
 
 82,400 
 
 1,536,715 
 
 183 000 
 
 21,734 
 373,218 
 
 144,037 
 1,339,634 
 3,445,600 
 22,847,761 
 
 Nebraska— 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Omaha 
 
 Nevada— 
 
 Carson City 
 
 Virginia City 
 
 New Hampshire- 
 
 Concord 
 
 Dover 
 
 Manchester 
 
 Nashua 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 New Jersey— 
 
 Bayonne 
 
 Bridgeton 
 
 Camden 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Hackensack 
 
 Hoboken 
 
 Jei-sey City 
 
 Millville 
 
 Newark 
 
 New Brunswick. . . 
 
 Orange 
 
 Paterson 
 
 Plainfield 
 
 Trenton 
 
 New York— 
 
 Albany 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Auburn 
 
 Bitighamton 
 
 Brookhaven 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Cohoes 
 
 Elmira 
 
 FishkiU 
 
 Flushing 
 
 Greenburgh 
 
 Hempstead 
 
 Hornellsville 
 
 Hudson 
 
 Huntington. 
 
 Ithaca 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Johnstown 
 
 Kingston. 
 
 Lenox 
 
 Lockport 
 
 Long Island City.. 
 
 Middletown 2 
 
 Morrisania' 
 
 New Lots 
 
 New York 
 
 Newburgh 
 
 Ogdensburgh 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Owego 
 
 Oyster Bay 
 
 Palmyra 
 
 Poughkeepsie 
 
 Port Jei'vis 
 
 Rochester 
 
 Rome 
 
 Saratoga Springs. . 
 
 Saugerties 
 
 Schenectady 
 
 Population. 
 
 1870. 1880. 
 
 276 
 16,083 
 
 3,043 
 
 7,048 
 
 12,241 
 
 9,294 
 23,-536 
 10,543 
 
 9,211 
 
 3,8,34 
 
 6,8;i0 
 20,045 
 20,832 
 
 8,0;38 
 20,29' 
 82,-546 
 
 6,101 
 105,059 
 15,0.58 
 
 e,348 
 a3,579 
 
 5,095 
 22,874 
 
 69,422 
 7,706 
 17,225 
 12,603 
 10,1-59 
 -396,099 
 
 117,714 
 
 15,3-57 
 15,863 
 11,7-53 
 14,6.50 
 10,790 
 13,999 
 
 5,837 
 
 8,615 
 10,704 
 10,107 
 
 7,745 
 13,373 
 21,943 
 
 9,816 
 12,426 
 
 13,004 
 30,518 
 
 4,337 
 13,705 
 
 13,8.36 
 11,687 
 33,630 
 13,397 
 9,690 
 
 9,372 
 
 8,739 
 41,658 
 28,229 
 
 Net Debt. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 199,615 
 
 227,578 
 
 7,589 
 19,609 
 
 9,800 
 
 942,393 
 
 17,014 
 
 10,076 
 
 20,910 
 
 9,44:- 
 icsg-"-) 
 
 20,180 
 6,377 
 
 62,386 
 
 11,000 
 8,537 
 
 10,45". 
 
 ll,a-'6 
 
 30,999 
 120,723 
 
 7,660 
 136,400 
 17,167 
 13,206 
 50,887 
 
 8,126 
 29,910 
 
 90,903 
 
 11,711 
 
 21,934 
 
 17,-315 
 
 11,-544 
 
 566,689 
 
 1.5,5,137 
 
 19,417 
 
 20,541 
 
 10,732 
 
 15,919 
 
 9,861 
 
 18,160 
 
 8,195 
 
 8,669 
 
 8,098 
 
 9,105 
 
 10,089 
 
 16,626 
 
 18,342 
 
 10,249 
 
 13,522 
 
 17,117 
 
 13,681 
 ,206,,590 
 18,050 
 10„340 
 21,117 
 
 9,8a3 
 11,923 
 21,493 
 20,207 
 
 4,834 
 89,363 
 12,045 
 10,823 
 10,375 
 13,675 
 
 112,000 
 
 61,5„500 
 458,8;i0 
 929,000 
 458,661 
 448,400 
 
 6.50,275 
 
 74,000 
 
 l,164,r'fr() 
 
 5,,512,6;{8 
 
 1,099,3-50 
 
 15,-598,4;i5 
 
 37,000 
 
 9,070,033 
 
 1,618,946 
 
 2-53,.s33 
 
 1,359,-500 
 
 45,500 
 
 1,664,501 
 
 3,138,500 
 
 .530,000 
 299,500 
 
 38,040,000 
 
 8,211,934 
 
 141.214 
 
 270,400 
 
 54,400 
 321,2-50 
 
 66,300 
 
 644,883 
 
 108,667 
 950,000 
 
 1109,425,414 
 313,400 
 1,35,000 
 1,364,334 
 
 1.939,198 
 
 None. 
 
 .5,7(11.686 
 160,000 
 397,600 
 
 118,666 
 
 1 Brockton was North Brida-ewater in l.'<70. 
 
 •i Middletown included in Walkill Township in 1880. 
 
 sMorrisania has been incorporated in New York City. 
 
806 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 Population and Debts of Cities.— Continued. 
 
 New Yorli— Cont'd. 
 
 Seneca 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Troy 
 
 Utica 
 
 WaJlkill 
 
 Watertown 
 
 Watervliet 
 
 West Troy 
 
 Yonkers 
 
 North Carouna- 
 
 New Berne 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 Wilmington 
 
 Ohio— 
 
 Akron 
 
 Bellaire 
 
 Canton 
 
 Chillicothe 
 
 Ci ncinnati 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Dayton 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Fremont 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Ironton 
 
 Mansfield 
 
 Newark 
 
 Piqua 
 
 Pomeroy 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Sandusky 
 
 Springfield 
 
 Steuben\-ille 
 
 Tiffin 
 
 Toledo 
 
 TJrbana 
 
 Xenia 
 
 Youngstown 
 
 Zanosville 
 
 Oregon— 
 
 Pui-tland 
 
 Pennsylvania— 
 
 Alleirhany 
 
 Allentown 
 
 Altooua 
 
 Bethlehem 
 
 Carboudaie 
 
 Cfirlisle 
 
 Chester 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Cornplanter 
 
 Danville 
 
 Easton 
 
 Erie 
 
 Harrisburg 
 
 Hickory 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Lebanon 
 
 Lock Haven 
 
 Mahanoy 
 
 Meadville 
 
 New Castle 
 
 Norristown 
 
 Oil City 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 Pottsville , 
 
 Population. 
 
 1870. 1880, 
 
 9,188 
 43,031 
 46,465 
 28,804 
 9.47 
 9,336 
 22,609 
 10,693 
 18,357 
 
 5,849 
 
 7,790 
 
 13,446 
 
 10,006 
 
 4,033 
 
 8,660 
 
 8,920 
 
 216.289 
 
 92,829 
 
 31,274 
 
 30,473 
 
 6,861 
 
 5,455 
 
 11,081 
 
 5,686 
 
 8,029 
 
 6,698 
 
 5,967 
 
 5,824 
 
 10.592 
 
 13,000 
 
 12,652 
 
 8,107 
 
 5,648 
 
 31.584 
 
 4,276 
 
 6,377 
 
 8,075 
 
 10,011 
 
 8,293 
 
 53,180 
 
 13,884 
 
 10,610 
 
 4,512 
 
 6,393 
 
 6,650 
 
 9,485 
 
 6,461 
 
 8,436 
 
 9,863 
 
 10 987 
 
 19,646 
 
 23,104 
 
 7,700 
 
 20.233 
 
 6,729 
 
 6,986 
 
 9,400 
 
 7.103 
 
 6,164 
 
 10,753 
 
 2,276 
 
 674,022 
 
 86,076 
 
 12,384 
 
 2,877 
 51,791 
 56,747 
 33,913 
 11,483 
 10,697 
 22 220 
 
 ii;532 
 
 18,892 
 
 6,443 
 14,110 
 17,361 
 
 16,512 
 
 8,025 
 
 12,258 
 
 10,938 
 
 255,708 
 
 100,142 
 
 51.665 
 
 38,677 
 
 6,894 
 
 8,451 
 
 12,121 
 
 8,857 
 
 9,859 
 
 9,602 
 
 6,033 
 
 5,560 
 
 11,314 
 
 15,838 
 
 20,729 
 
 12,093 
 
 7,879 
 
 50,143 
 
 6,252 
 
 7,026 
 
 15,431 
 
 18,120 
 
 17,598 
 
 78,681 
 18,068 
 19,716 
 5,193 
 7,714 
 6,209 
 14,996 
 8,312 
 
 11.924 
 27,730 
 30,762 
 
 25,769 
 
 8,778 
 
 5,845 
 
 7.181 
 
 8,860 
 
 8,416 
 
 13,064 
 
 7,315 
 
 846,984 
 
 136,381 
 
 13,253 
 
 Net Debt, 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,361,500 
 958,296 
 766,000 
 
 407,500 
 
 Nothing. 
 1,388,000 
 
 3,237 
 138,357 
 539,845 
 
 17,619 
 
 106,000 
 
 180,657 
 
 None. 
 
 31.992..500 
 
 4,076,946 
 
 1,259,162 
 
 1,101,520 
 
 77,300 
 
 44,000 
 
 48,067 
 
 243,758 
 
 195,737 
 
 55,402 
 
 294,219 
 
 151.000, 
 
 317,809' 
 
 381,213! 
 
 38,627 
 
 30,190 
 
 55,500 
 
 3,232,660 
 
 32,903 
 
 66,187 
 
 193,406 
 
 529,097 
 
 76,500 
 
 1,596,420 
 430,443 
 
 368.8-30' 
 140,700 
 9,369 
 139,100 
 367,084 
 
 219,949 
 1,201.229 
 1,065,300 
 
 464,142 
 308,700 
 208.743 
 
 77,699 
 
 72,624! 
 
 81.200| 
 
 122.400' 
 
 16,231,696' 
 
 14,134,296 
 
 Penn.— Cont'd. 
 
 Reading 
 
 Scranton 
 
 Shamokin 
 
 Titusville 
 
 Wilkesbarre 
 
 Williamsport 
 
 York 
 
 Rhode Isl.\nd — 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Newport 
 
 N. Pro^-^dence 
 
 Pawtucket 
 
 Providence 
 
 Warwick 
 
 Woonsocket 
 
 South Carolina— 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Columbia 
 
 St. James, 
 
 Goose Creek. 
 
 St. John's, 
 
 Berkeley. .. 
 
 St. John's, 
 
 Colleton .. 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Chattanooga 
 
 Knoxrille 
 
 Memphis 
 
 Nashville 
 
 Tex,a.s— 
 
 Austin 
 
 Brenham 
 
 Dallas 
 
 Galveston 
 
 Houston 
 
 San Antonio 
 
 Sherman 
 
 Waco 
 
 Utah— 
 
 OgdenCity 
 
 Salt Lake City.... 
 Vermomt 
 
 Burlington 
 
 Rutland 
 
 Virginia — 
 
 .Alexandria 
 
 Dan River 
 
 Lynchburg 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Richmond 
 
 West Virginia— 
 
 Parkersburg 
 
 Wheeling 
 
 Wisconsin — 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 Fond du Lac 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 Janes^^lle 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 Madison 
 
 Milwaukee 
 
 Oshkosh 
 
 Racine 
 
 Sheboygan 
 
 Watertown 
 
 Population. 
 
 1870. 1880, 
 
 33,930 
 35,092 
 4,320 
 8,639 
 10,174 
 16,030 
 11,003 
 
 12,321 
 20,493 
 6,619 
 68,904 
 10,433 
 11,527 
 
 48,956 
 9,298 
 
 7,795 
 
 8,604 
 
 6,093 
 
 8,682 
 40,226 
 23,865 
 
 4,428 
 9,716 
 
 13,818 
 
 8,382 
 
 12,256 
 
 6,348 
 
 3,008 
 
 3,127 
 12,854 
 
 14,387 
 9,834 
 
 13,570 
 10,306 
 6,825 
 19,229 
 18,950 
 10,492 
 51,038 
 
 5,546 
 19,280 
 
 8,313 
 12,764 
 4,666 
 8,789 
 7,785 
 9,1 
 
 71,440 
 
 12,663 
 
 9,880 
 
 5,310 
 
 43,280 
 45,850 
 8,184 
 9,046 
 23,339 
 18,934 
 13,940 
 
 13,765 
 15,693 
 1,46' 
 19,030 
 104,850 
 12,163 
 16,053 
 
 46,999 
 10,040 
 
 10,615 
 
 9,586 
 
 10,388 
 
 12,892 
 
 9,690 
 
 53,.593 
 
 43,461 
 
 10,960 
 4,114 
 10,358 
 22,253 
 18,646 
 20,361 
 9,24« 
 7,296 
 
 20,768 
 
 11,364 
 12,149 
 
 13,658 
 8,382 
 15,959 
 21,966 
 21,6.56 
 11,388 
 63,803 
 
 6,582 
 .31,266 
 
 10,118 
 
 13,091 
 
 7,735 
 
 9,018 
 
 14,505 
 
 10,325 
 
 115,378 
 
 13,749 
 
 16,031 
 
 7,314 
 
 7,883 
 
 Net Debt. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 999,000 
 323,202 
 
 37,680 
 328,267 
 
 95,096 
 651,278 
 
 33,000 
 
 50,000 
 116,408 
 
 39,800 
 
 935,000 
 
 9,373,026 
 
 57,500 
 230,000 
 
 4,129,103 
 900,000 
 
 71,566 
 212,288 
 None. 
 1,606,200 
 
 106,744 
 
 304,356 
 1,023.249 
 1,501,591 
 155,266 
 129,000 
 100,000 
 
 3,333 
 
 67.000 
 
 383,427 
 202,460 
 
 1,037,088 
 
 794,837 
 2,187,371 
 1.136.100 
 
 283,014 
 4,399,021 
 
 531,883 
 
 101.000 
 163,000 
 147,140 
 34,000 
 133,000 
 136,768 
 2,160,28? 
 130,500 
 218,513 
 230,000 
 229,400 
 
 Total 8,880,446 11,876,146 
 
 Agregate Debt of 399 Cities and Towns 549,904,97t 
 
THE HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 807 
 
 Titlmated Annual Production of the Precloos Metals Throughont the World, A. D. 187^ 
 
 [Prepared by David M. Balfour, of Boston.] 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 British Co- 
 lumbia.. 
 
 U. States 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central 
 
 America.. 
 Columbia . . . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 Chili 
 
 $ 
 3,000,000 
 36,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 47,oob',o66 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 
 $ 
 
 3,000,000 
 83,000,000; 
 16,000,000 
 
 n. 000,000 
 ii,()0;),ooo 
 
 5,(i0lJ,00!l 
 6,000,000: 
 
 5,000,000; 
 
 Buenos 
 
 Ayres.. 
 Argentine 
 Republic. 
 
 Other 
 countries . . 
 
 Total 
 
 $ 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 $ 
 1,000,000 
 1,090,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 70,000,000 
 
 76,000,000 
 
 146,000,000 
 
 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Prussia 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 17,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,. 500,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 $ 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 s 
 
 18,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 3,500,0 )0 
 2,000,000 
 
 Other 
 countries . . 
 
 Total.... 
 
 $ 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 23,500,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 30,500,000 
 
 ASIA, Etc. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Japan 
 
 Borneo 
 
 China. 
 
 $ 
 1,.500,000 
 5,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 5,01)0,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 11,000,000. 
 
 20,500,000 
 
 Australia 
 
 New Zeal- 
 land 
 
 Africa 
 
 Oceanica 
 
 Grand Total. 
 
 $ 
 18,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 140,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 s 
 
 30,000,000 
 9,000,000 
 
 Archipelag-o. 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 Total .... 
 
 14,500,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 94,000,000 
 
 234,000,000 
 
 The following- statement will exhibit the amount of the precious metals estimated to have 
 "been obtained from the surface and mines of the earth from the earliest times to the close of 
 1879: 
 
 [Estimate based, in part, upon a work on " Gold and Silver,"by the Russian Councillor Otresch- 
 
 koff, published in 1856.] 
 
 Period. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 A. C. . 
 
 $1,415,000,000 
 3,842,374,000 
 2,726,000,000 
 907,000,000 
 2,220,000,000 
 2,958,000,000 
 
 $3,913,000,000 
 .531,000,000 
 
 5,800,000,000 
 450,000,000 
 560,000,000 
 
 1,071,000,000 
 
 $4,338,000,000 
 
 A. D. to 1492 
 
 4,363,37.5,000 
 
 1493 to 1842 
 
 8,.536,000,000 
 
 1843 to 1852 
 
 1,;357,000,000 
 
 18.53 to 1862 
 
 2,780,000,000 
 
 1863 to 1879 
 
 4,029,000,000 
 
 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 $14,068,374,000 
 
 $11,315,000,000 
 
 $25,38;}.374,000 
 
 
 
 Note.— Regardino- this and all other estimates of the aggregate amount of the precious 
 metals existing in the world at any period, it is only candid to state that they cannot rise 
 above the domain of con.iecture. Statistical science, even now in its infancy, was not bora 
 before the present century; and where no census even of the numbers of mankind existed, 
 nothing could possibly be known regarding the amount of the precious metals.— A. R. Spob^ 
 
 FORD. 
 
808 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 Chkistians, viz. 
 
 •■■\ 
 
 RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 [Estimate from Schem's Statistics of the World.] 
 
 Roman Catholic 201,050,000 , 
 
 "06,000,000' 
 
 81,000,000 ' 
 
 ■ • '/ 
 Protestants .106,000,000 V 
 
 Eastera Churches 81,000,000 1 
 
 Buddhists 340,000,000 | Followers of Confucius . 
 
 Mohammedans 201,000,000 Sinto Religion 
 
 Brahmanism 175,000,000 | Judaism 
 
 388,050,000 
 
 .80,000,000 
 .15,000,000 
 ,. 7,000,000 
 
 
 Whole 
 Population. 
 
 Roman 
 Catholic. 
 
 Protestants. 
 
 Eastern 
 Churches. 
 
 
 84,500,000 
 
 301,600,000 
 
 798,000,000 
 
 203,300,000 
 
 4,400,000 
 
 47,200,000' 
 
 147,300,000 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 71,000,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 
 
 69,350,000 
 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,392,000,000 
 
 201,200,000 
 
 106,300,000 
 
 81,050,000 
 
 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 POPULATION, CAPITALS, AND AREA OF PRINCIPAL NATIONS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Argentine Republic Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Brussels 
 
 La Paz 
 
 Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 Santiago 
 
 Pekin 
 
 Bogota 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Copenhagen . . . 
 
 Quito 
 
 Paris 
 
 Berlin 
 
 London 
 
 Athens 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Canada, Dominion of 
 
 Chili 
 
 Chinese Empire 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 Greece 
 
 India, Biltish 
 
 Italy iRome 
 
 Japan Yeddo 
 
 Mtxico Mexico 
 
 Morocco Morocco . . . 
 
 Netherlands Amsterdam 
 
 Norway iChristiania. 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Pei-sia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Portvigal 
 
 Russian Empire. 
 
 Ruumania 
 
 Servia 
 
 Siam 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 S^vitzerland 
 
 Ti;rkey , 
 
 Uiugiiay 
 
 Uiiit<-d States 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Assumption 
 
 Teheran 
 
 Lima 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 Bucharest 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 Bangkok 
 
 Madrid , 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 Berne 
 
 Constantinople 
 Montevideo . . . 
 
 Washington 
 
 Caracas 
 
 Last 
 Cen- 
 sus. 
 
 1875 
 1869 
 1876 
 1861 
 1872 
 1871 
 1875 
 Est. 
 1870 
 Est. 
 1870 
 1875 
 1876 
 1875 
 1871 
 1870 
 1871 
 1871 
 1874 
 1871 
 Est. 
 1869 
 1875 
 1873 
 Est. 
 1876 
 1875 
 1876 
 Est. 
 1874 
 Est. 
 1870 
 1876 
 1S70 
 Est. 
 1876 
 1880 
 1873 
 
 Population. 
 
 l,71"^681 
 
 35,904,435 
 
 5,336,185 
 
 1,742,353 
 
 10,108,391 
 
 3.602,321 
 
 2,075,971 
 
 433,500.000 
 
 2,951,311 
 
 5,252,000 
 
 1,980,675 
 
 866,137 
 
 36,905,788 
 
 43.727,360 
 
 31,628,338 
 
 1,^57,894 
 
 190,663,623 
 
 26,801.151 
 
 33,633,319 
 
 9,276,079 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 3,579,529 
 
 1,8(!6,900 
 
 221,079 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 2.699,945 
 
 4,441,037 
 
 86.952,347 
 
 5,376,000 
 
 1,720,270 
 
 6,300,000 
 
 16,322,814 
 
 4,429,713 
 
 2,759,854 
 
 31,669,147 
 
 445,000 
 
 50,153,866 
 
 1,784,197 
 
 Area 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Inhabi- 
 tants to 
 
 the 
 Square 
 Mile. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 809 
 
 HEADS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD IN 1881. 
 
 G overnments. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Bolg-ium 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 C()l< )mbia 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Baden 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Lippe 
 
 Lubf ck 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Pi-ussia 
 
 Reuss-Greiz 
 
 Reuss-Schleiz 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg 
 
 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 
 
 Saxe-Meiningen 
 
 Saxe-Weimar Eisenach 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Schaumburg-Lippe 
 
 Schwarzburg-Hudolstadt 
 
 Schwarzburg- Sondershausen 
 
 Waldeck 
 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 Groat Britain and Ireland 
 
 Greece 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Haiti 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Italy 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Persia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 Salvador 
 
 Santo Domingo 
 
 Servia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Egypt 
 
 United States 
 
 XTrnguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Rulers. 
 
 Julio A. Roca 
 
 Franz Joseph I 
 
 Leopold II 
 
 Nici )his Campero 
 
 Pedro II. Alcantara 
 
 Anibal Pinto 
 
 Kwong Shu 
 
 K. Nunez 
 
 Tomas Guardia 
 
 Christian IX 
 
 Jose de Vintimilla 
 
 Francois P. Jules GrJvy 
 
 Wilhelml 
 
 F. M. Baron Manteuffel . 
 
 Friedrich 
 
 Friedrich I 
 
 Ludwig II 
 
 Wilhelm L 
 
 Ludwig IV 
 
 G. F. Waldemar. 
 
 Friedrich Franz II. . . 
 Friedrich Wilhelm.. . 
 
 Peter 
 
 Wilhelm I 
 
 Heinrich XXII 
 
 HeinrichXIV 
 
 Ernst 
 
 Ernst II 
 
 Georg II 
 
 Karl Alexander 
 
 Albert 
 
 Adolf 
 
 Georg 
 
 Guntherlll 
 
 Georg Victor 
 
 Karl I 
 
 Victoria I 
 
 Georgios I 
 
 J. Rufino Barrios.. . . 
 
 Gen. Salomon 
 
 Kalakaua I 
 
 M. A. Soto 
 
 'Tumbert I 
 
 Mutsu Hito 
 
 Manuel Gonzalez 
 
 Muk'v Hassan 
 
 Wilhelm III 
 
 Joaquin Zavala 
 
 Condido Bareiro , 
 
 Nnssr-ed-deen 
 
 Nicola Pierola 
 
 Luis I 
 
 Karl I. Domnu 
 
 Alexander III 
 
 Rafael Zaldi var 
 
 F. A. de Morefio 
 
 Milan IV. Obrenovic . 
 
 Alfonso XII 
 
 Oscar II 
 
 Numa Droz 
 
 Abdul-Hamid-Khan... 
 
 Tewfik Pacha 
 
 Chester A. Arthur 
 
 F. A. Vidal 
 
 Guzman Blanco 
 
 Title. 
 
 1830 
 18.35 
 
 1825 
 
 1871 
 
 1818 
 
 1813 
 1797 
 
 1831 
 1826 
 
 1845 
 
 1806 
 
 181^4 
 1824 
 
 President 
 
 Emperor 
 
 King 
 
 President 
 
 Emperor 
 
 President 
 
 Emperor 
 
 President 
 
 President 
 
 King 
 
 President 
 
 President 
 
 Emperor 
 
 Oberprasid't . . . 
 
 Duke 
 
 Grand Duke . . . 
 
 King 
 
 Burgomasters.. 
 
 Duke 
 
 Burgomasters.. 
 Grand Duke.... 
 
 Prince 
 
 Burgomasters.. 
 
 Grand Duke 
 
 Grand Duke 
 
 Grand Duke 
 
 King 
 
 Prince 
 
 Prince 
 
 Duke 
 
 Duke 
 
 Duke 
 
 Grand Duke.... 
 
 King 
 
 Prince.. 
 
 Prince 
 
 Prince 
 
 Prince 
 
 King 
 
 Queen &E. of I. 
 
 King 
 
 President 
 
 President 
 
 King 
 
 President 
 
 King 
 
 Mikado 
 
 President 
 
 Sultan 
 
 King 
 
 President 
 
 President 
 
 Shah 
 
 President 
 
 King 
 
 Prince 
 
 Emperor 
 
 President . 
 President . 
 
 Prince 
 
 King 
 
 King 
 
 President . 
 
 Sultan 
 
 Khedive... 
 
 President I 1831 
 
 President 
 
 President I 
 
 m 
 
 Date of 
 Accession. 
 
 1823 
 1819 
 
 1827 
 17f7 
 1846 
 18.33 
 1826 
 1818 
 1826 
 1818 
 1828 
 1817 
 1838 
 1830 
 18.31 
 1823 
 1819 
 1845 
 
 1836 
 
 1844 
 
 1852 
 
 18''1 
 1817 
 
 1829 
 
 1838 
 18,39 
 1818 
 
 18.55 
 1 857 
 1829 
 
 1842 
 
 June — 1880 
 Dec. 2, 1848 
 Dec. 10, 1865 
 June 1, 1880 
 April 7, 1831 
 Sept. 18, 1876 
 Jan. 12, 1875 
 April 1, 1880 
 Provisional. 
 Nov. 15, 1863 
 Sept. 8. 1876 
 Jan. 30, 1879 
 Jan. 18, 1871 
 
 , 1880 
 
 Mav 22, 1871 
 April 24, 1853 
 Mar. 10, 1864 
 
 April 20, 1831 
 
 June 13, 1877 
 Dec. 8, 1875 
 
 Mar. 7, 
 Sept, 6, 
 Feb. 27, 
 Jan. 2, 
 Nov. 8, 
 July 10, 
 Aug. 3, 
 Jan. 29, 
 Sept. 20, 
 July 8, 
 Oct. 29, 
 Nov. 21, 
 Nov. 26, 
 July 17, 
 May 14, 
 June 2.5, 
 June 20, 
 •Tune 6, 
 May 7, 
 Nov. 25, 
 Feb. 12, 
 May 2P, 
 Jan. 9, 
 Feb. i;:, 
 Dec. 1 , 
 Se'pt. 25, 
 Mar. 17, 
 Mar. I, 
 April 12, 
 Sept. 10, 
 Dec. 23, 
 Nov. 11, 
 Mav 10, 
 Feb. 
 April 30, 
 July 23, 
 July 2, 
 Dec. 30, 
 Sept. 18, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Aug. 31, 
 June 25, 
 Mar. 4, 
 Mar. 17, 
 Feb. 26, 
 
 1842 
 1860 
 18-3 
 1861 
 
 18.59 
 1867 
 1853 
 1844 
 186(5 
 18.53 
 1873 
 1860 
 1809 
 1880 
 1845 
 1864 
 1837 
 1803 
 1873 
 1879 
 1874 
 1877 
 1878 
 1867 
 1880 
 1873 
 1849 
 1879 
 1878 
 1848 
 1879 
 1861 
 1866 
 1881 
 1876 
 1880 
 1868 
 1874 
 1872 
 1881 
 1876 
 1879 
 1881 
 1880 
 1879 
 
810 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBTS, EXPENDITURE, AND COMMERCE, PER CAPITA. 
 
 Computed from the oflacial census and finance statements of each country. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Austria proper 
 
 Hungary proper 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Canada 
 
 Chili 
 
 Colombi a 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Egypt 
 
 France 
 
 Garman Empire 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 Grf^ece 
 
 India, British 
 
 Italy 
 
 >1pxico 
 
 Nethf'rlands 
 
 Norway 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Peru 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 Servia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey 
 
 United States 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Debt per 
 head. 
 
 Dollars. 
 39.07 
 
 5.73 
 65.26 
 17.68 
 48.08 
 10.04 
 36.43 
 31.16 
 24.49 
 
 5.22 
 
 27.19 
 
 20.20 
 
 85.82 
 
 127.23 
 
 .70 
 
 10.55 
 
 114.62 
 
 27.50 
 
 3.01 
 
 71.94 
 
 42.63 
 
 101.21 
 
 7.48 
 54.72 
 79.82 
 96.84 
 11.82 
 26.33 
 
 3.61 
 142.71 
 
 8.86 
 
 2.25 
 31.70 
 52..56 
 98.00 
 35.11 
 
 Annual 
 
 expenditure 
 
 per head. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 12.04 
 1.63 
 9.29 
 7.53 
 
 10.13 
 2.58 
 6.70 
 6.69 
 
 10.66 
 
 .94 
 
 6.83 
 
 24.36 
 
 10.42 
 
 14.07 
 3.15 
 6.33 
 
 12.a5 
 5.35 
 1.42 
 
 10.12 
 2.68 
 
 11.37 
 5.91 
 3.39 
 
 12.62 
 6.70 
 3.85 
 4.83 
 1.43 
 7.83 
 4.93 
 3.08 
 4.38 
 6.13 
 
 15.28 
 2.04 
 
 Annual Annual 
 
 imports I exports 
 
 per head. I per head- 
 
 Dollars 
 
 20.31 
 
 7.19 
 
 53.41 
 
 3.30 
 
 8.71 
 
 25.87 
 
 18.21 
 
 2.a5 
 
 26.31 
 
 8.77 
 
 5.52 
 
 24.17 
 
 21.54 
 
 59.11 
 
 16.40 
 
 .93 
 
 9.67 
 
 3.13 
 
 71.27 
 
 28.77 
 
 2.55 
 
 8.60 
 3.19 
 4.22 
 4!,58 
 3.96 
 19.39 
 
 2.23 
 13.64 
 49.25 
 
 6.72 
 
 Dollars. 
 25.66 
 5.70 
 
 46.06 
 
 3.0S 
 
 10.31 
 
 24.94 
 
 17.95 
 
 3.38 
 
 17.95 
 
 4.51 
 
 12.94 
 
 26.0* 
 
 14.31 
 
 40.59 
 
 10.;30 
 
 1.48 
 
 6.85 
 
 3.41 
 
 67.70 
 
 18.77 
 
 2.74 
 
 14.03 
 
 5.97 
 
 5.60 
 
 3.23 
 
 4.06 
 
 4.48 
 
 14.11 
 
 1..59 
 15.93 
 38.09 
 
 AGGREGATE ISSUES OF PAPER MONEY IN WAR TIMES. 
 
 The following table exhibits the amount per capita issued of the Continental money, the 
 French assignats, the Confederate currency, and the legal-tender greenbacks and national 
 bank-not3S of the United States. 
 
 Continental money 
 
 French assignats 
 
 Confederate currency 
 
 Greenbacks and national 
 bank-notes 
 
 Population. 
 
 3.000,009 in 1780. 
 
 26,.500,000 (France in 1790) 
 
 9,103,a33 (11 Confederate 
 
 States, 1860.) 
 
 31,443,331 (United States in 
 1860.) 
 
 Amount Issued. 
 
 Dollars. 
 .359,.546,825 
 9.115,600.000 
 654,465,963 
 
 Highest amount in 
 
 circulation Jan. '66, 
 
 750,830,328 
 
 AmouTit 
 per head. 
 
 Doli'irs. 
 
 119 84 
 
 343 98 
 
 71 89 
 
 23 87 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 811 
 
 DEBTS, REVENUES, EXPENDITURES, AND COMMERCE OF NATIONS. 
 
 Compiled from the Almanach de Gotha, the Statistical Abstracts of the United Kingdom 
 and from Official Doeunumts. The figures are for the latest attainable years as to each coun- 
 try. Compiled by the Librarian of Congress. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Australia 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Austria proper 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Canada 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Denmark .' 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Egypt 
 
 France 
 
 Germany (all the States).... 
 Great Britain and Ireland. . 
 
 Greece 
 
 Guiana 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Hungary proper 
 
 India, British 
 
 Italy 
 
 Japan 
 
 Luxembourg 
 
 Mexico 
 
 N^ 'therlauds 
 
 Norway 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Persia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Koumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 Servia 
 
 Siam 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey 
 
 United States 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Total debts $26,478,082,837 
 
 Public Debt. 
 
 54,371,:«5 
 
 389,480.915 
 
 205,999,961 
 
 1,. 577,922,013 
 
 231,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 407,500.000 
 
 158,745,.581 
 
 54,833,325 
 
 3,200,000 
 
 19,842,9^5 
 
 52,000,000 
 
 19,270,000 
 
 372,198,400 
 
 5,291,860,700 
 
 1,100,000,000 
 
 3,890,969,680 
 
 98,012,000 
 
 460,000 
 
 444,800 
 
 331,202,401 
 
 233,423,8.50 
 
 2,042,000,000 
 
 363,327,974 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 119.2,32,270 
 
 410,000,000 
 
 26,240,000 
 
 12,098.417 
 
 No debt. 
 
 213,482,680 
 
 446,445,000 
 
 326,661,048 
 
 111,100,560 
 
 2,488,579,449 
 
 7,130,000 
 
 2,151,836,200 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 2,225,000 
 
 1,212,773,200 
 
 1,840,.598,8]1 
 
 47, 61,042 
 
 67,354,260 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 $ 20,961,893 
 
 79,637,440 
 
 58,961,242 
 
 194,139,142 
 
 54,048,972 
 
 2,929,574 
 
 ,55,372,840 
 
 23,468,585 
 
 20,443,977 
 
 124,000,000 
 
 4,910,000 
 
 11,900,000 
 
 1,704,830 
 
 37,165,000 
 
 592,799,560 
 
 a30,240,000 
 
 406,-325,275 
 
 8,180,075 
 
 580,000 
 
 275,856 
 
 116,267,410 
 
 272,649,885 
 
 294,846,505 
 
 59,93:3,507 
 
 1,438,660 
 
 17,811.125 
 
 44,1.51,676 
 
 14,.364,230 
 
 216„599 
 
 8,240,000 
 
 29,801,195 
 
 33,309,140 
 
 128,.520,680 
 
 19,578,885 
 
 537,500,000 
 
 3,982.1001 
 
 4,000,000; 
 
 162,493,760 
 
 22,.563, 01 1 
 
 9,100,000' 
 
 98,764,0.50! 
 
 33;3,.526,611 
 
 8,9.36,7141 
 
 4,680,000 
 
 Expendi- 
 tures. 
 
 $ 23,000,000 
 83,098,760 
 58,014,843 
 213,775,300 
 54,695,(;60 
 4,.505,.504 
 75.746,147 
 25,161,713 
 21,375,728 
 
 6,266,930 
 11,900,000 
 
 1,520,000 
 ,53,545,000 
 589,334,162 
 
 412,017,4.75 
 
 10,720,;«0 
 
 580.000 
 
 .5.55;2.36 
 
 144,.590,048 
 
 292,-503,145 
 
 312,-561,940 
 
 59,304,609 
 
 1,409,344 
 
 33,138,218, 
 
 44,270,-530 
 
 10,736,-500 
 
 370 031 
 
 8,7-50,000 
 
 33,7-55.375 
 
 38,838,716 
 
 199,341,2.50 
 
 19,578,885 
 
 490,-557,403 
 
 3,869,018 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 166,158.290 
 
 21,873,139 
 
 9,162,000 
 
 140,000,000 
 
 267,642,9-58 
 
 4,614,649 
 
 4,448,000 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $ 44,867,000 
 2.36,895,915 
 268,-500,0li0 
 
 476,760,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 111,211,338 
 
 96,960,195 
 
 29,279,113 
 
 105,000,000 
 
 10,787,654 
 
 57,341,-360 
 
 7,596,264 
 
 25,665,000 
 
 918,967,400 
 
 930,675,000 
 
 1,814,999,475 
 
 29,101,400 
 
 1,811,770 
 
 3,046,000 
 
 224,288,-565 
 
 2,&30,285 
 
 32,508,367 
 
 29,062,407 
 15,416,000 
 36,-500,000 
 -565,595 
 .5,625,000 
 24,179,094 
 38,131,-530 
 
 Exports. 
 
 $ 47,765/100 
 1-56,384,^80 
 352,700,000 
 
 401,940,000 
 
 5,647,000 
 
 89,110,116 
 
 82,628,820 
 
 29,784,195 
 
 101,252,000 
 
 13,711,-511 
 
 45,966,600 
 
 8,6;$4,-3;il 
 
 68,918,000 
 
 632,618,000 
 
 729,100,000 
 
 1,243,916,820 
 
 17,992,000 
 
 2,241,040 
 
 4,548,0 
 
 324,-595,-525 
 
 221,38:3,8,55 
 28,363,000 
 
 31,6-59,1-51 
 
 226,720,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 607,6-53 
 
 2,81-3,000 
 
 57,-500,000 
 
 26,448,600 
 
 50.896,-536 
 
 365,426,400 
 
 6,197,001) 
 
 7,100,000 
 
 66,670,000 
 
 85,906,800 
 
 Not given. 
 
 72,4:10,000 
 
 760,989,056 
 
 1.5,928,000 
 
 14,800,002 
 
 47,730,;»1 
 
 286,484,000 
 
 5,-500.000 
 
 8,-300,000 
 
 75,-564,000 
 
 62,-5:52,960 
 
 Not given. 
 
 51,0(K),000 
 
 8.52,781, .577 
 
 17,442,000 
 
 11,300,000 
 
812 
 
 THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME. 
 
 PRECIOUS METALS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 WHERE OUR GOLD AND SILVER COME FROM. 
 
 Gold and Silver Domestic Production Deposited at the mints and Assay Offices from their 
 
 Organization to the Close of the Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1880. 
 
 From the Annual Report of the Director of the Mint, December, 1880. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Alaska 
 
 A rizona 
 
 California 
 
 C' lorado 
 
 Daliota. 
 
 Gf'org-ia 
 
 Idiho 
 
 M-iryland 
 
 >'''tssachusetts 
 
 M chigan (Lake Superior). 
 
 M ontana 
 
 >f3vada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Oregon 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vfrmnnt 
 
 "^'irginia 
 
 Washington Territory 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Rr-finpd Bullion 
 
 Ported from Silver. 
 C' ntn^'n^d in Silver. 
 P'n-ted from Gold. . . 
 r^ ntained in Gold. . 
 Other Sources 
 
 Totnl 
 
 703, 
 
 35, 
 
 7, 
 
 7, 
 
 24, 
 
 219,873 
 
 ,356'743 
 ,058,970 
 ,417,517 
 ,335,113 
 ,698,083 
 ,137,417 
 403 
 
 123 
 ,689,006 
 ,433,333 
 
 11,020 
 ,569,470 
 ,613.351 
 ,414,509 
 ,401,845 
 
 84,366 
 445,133 
 
 10,981 
 ,673,667 
 208,9.59 
 716,966 
 
 201,055,915 26 
 13,974,774 89 
 9,333,268 97 
 
 10,243,731 33 
 
 1,108,930,405 93 
 
 2,116,717 64 
 
 1,677,!5.50 45 
 
 20,183,889 56 
 
 21,121 54 
 
 458 30 
 
 727,295 50 
 
 917 56 
 
 3,433,674 78 
 
 4,371,384 13 
 
 72,107,030 69 
 
 2,331,484 63 
 
 45,581 33 
 
 4,406 38 
 
 30 44 
 
 9,036,967 01 
 
 11,793 86 
 43,790,013 87 
 
 6,813,478 84 
 
 520,623 81 
 
 31,337,203 76 
 
 197,421,615 97 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 319,872 95 
 
 29 972 47 
 
 4,373,459 70 
 
 703,736,530 80 
 
 55,601,407 10 
 
 7,2,56,234 43 
 
 7,698,540 23 
 
 24,864,713 61 
 
 403 13 
 
 917 56 
 
 3,433,798 77 
 
 53,060,390 31 
 
 86,539,353 24 
 
 11,020 55 
 
 3,790,956 77 
 
 10,658,933 43 
 
 15,418,915 95 
 
 1,401,875 74 
 
 84 266 25 
 
 9,482,a90 62 
 
 10,981 27 
 
 1,672,667 70 
 
 208,959 37 
 
 738,760 33 
 
 243,845,938 13 
 
 13,974,774 89 
 
 9,323,268 97 
 
 6,813,478 84 
 
 .530,633 81 
 
 41,579,935 09 
 
 Sl,306,342,018 90 
 
 Gold and Silver Production of the United States During the Fiscal Tear 1880. 
 Approximate Estimate from the Best Attainable Sources. 
 
 States and Terbitorles. 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Daliota 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 
 
 Other Sources.. 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,700,000 
 
 Amount of Specie in the Ciiited States. 
 The Director of the Mint estimates the Gold and Silver Currency in the United States as 
 follows: 
 June 30, 1879.-Gold, $386,490,698; Silver, 8112,0.50,985; Total, $398,.541,683. 
 November 1, 1879.-Gold, $355,681,533; Silver, £136,009, ,537; Total, $481,691,069. 
 November 1, I880.-Gold, $444,012,030; Silver, $158,271,327; Total, $602,283,357. 
 
THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 813 
 
 ESTIMATE OF THE AGGREGATE PRODUCTION OF THE PRECIOUS METALS IN ALL COUN- 
 TRIES FROM 1493 TO 1875. 
 
 [From A. Soetbeera "EdelmetaU-Produktion seits der Eatdeckung Amerikas bis zur Gegen- 
 
 wart." Gotha, 1879.] 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Various European Countries. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Africa 
 
 Mexico 
 
 New Granada 
 
 Peru 
 
 Potosi (Bolivia) 
 
 Chili 
 
 Brazil 
 
 United States 
 
 Austria 
 
 Various Countries 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Kilogram's. 
 
 7,904,910 
 7,770,135 
 7,383,000 
 3,438,940 
 
 76,325,400 
 
 31,223,100 
 
 37,717,600 
 3,609,000 
 
 5,371,500 
 2,000,666 
 
 180,511,485 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Kilogram's. 
 466,650 
 
 1,0;33,655 
 
 731,600 
 
 365,040 
 
 1,314,500 
 
 163,550 
 
 294,000 
 
 363,600 
 
 1,037.0.50 
 
 3,026,100 
 
 1,813,000 
 
 151,600 
 
 9,453,345 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Dollars 
 
 369,731,339 
 
 264,961,603 
 
 251,889,604 
 
 83,880,291 
 
 3,600,280,659 
 
 1,065,357,084 
 
 1,286,999,947 
 
 89,024,298 
 
 ' 179,874,133 
 
 68,344,660 
 
 6,1.59,341,948 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 226,248,347 
 
 507,749,6.53 
 3.59,335,;i40 
 130,174,396 
 596,501,675 
 
 80,327,-582 
 144,398,100 
 129,467,140 
 509,347,107 
 99,5,126,015 
 889,963,800 
 
 74,458,:340 
 
 Total. 
 
 Dollars. 
 269,731,339 
 491,209,8.50 
 251,888,604 
 590,629,944 
 359,-325,340 
 
 2,730.455,0.55 
 596,.501,675 
 
 1,145,684,666 
 
 1,431,298,047 
 218,491,4;J8 
 .509,347,107 
 
 1,175,000, i:J8 
 889,963,800 
 142,702,340 
 
 4,643,087,39510,802,329,343 
 
 ESTIMATE OF GOLD AND SILVER PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1845 TO 
 
 1879, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 [From official Reports by the Director of the Mint of the United States.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 From 1849 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1845.... 
 
 1,008,337 
 
 to 1858. 
 
 1,008,337 
 
 1864.... 
 
 46,100,000 
 
 11,000,(00 
 
 .57,100.000 
 
 1846.... 
 
 1,239,357 
 
 
 1,139,3.57 
 
 1865.... 
 
 53,325,000 
 
 11,350,000 
 
 64,475,000 
 
 1847.... 
 
 889,085 
 
 Estimated 
 
 889,085 
 
 1866 ... 
 
 53.,500,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 63,.500,000 
 
 1848.... 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 product, 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 1867. . . . 
 
 51,725,000 
 
 13,.500,000 
 
 65,225,000 
 
 1849.... 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 i?50.000 per 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 1868.... 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 12,000.000 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 18.50.... 
 
 .50,000,000 
 
 annum. 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 1869 ... 
 
 49„500,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 61„500,000 
 
 1851.... 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 
 .55,000,000 
 
 1870.... 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 66,000,000 
 
 1853 ... 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 (The silver 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 1871. .. 
 
 43,500,000 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 66,,500,000 
 
 18.53.... 
 
 05,000,000 
 
 mines of 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 1872 ... 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 28,750,000 
 
 64,750,000 
 
 1854.... 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 the U. S. 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 1873. .. 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 35,7.50,000 
 
 71,750,000 
 
 18.55.... 
 
 .55,000,000 
 
 were dis- 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 1874.... 
 
 33,490.902 
 
 37,324,.594 
 
 70,81.5,496 
 
 1856. . . . 
 
 ,55,000,000 
 
 covered in 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 1875 ... 
 
 33,467,8.56 
 
 31,727„560 
 
 65,195,416 
 
 1857.... 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 18.59.) 
 
 55,000,000 
 
 1876.... 
 
 39,9.29,166 
 
 38,783,016 
 
 78,712,183 
 
 1858.... 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 $500,000 
 
 50,500,000 
 
 1877.... 
 
 46,897,390 
 
 39,793,573 
 
 86,690,963 
 
 1859.... 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 .50,100,000 
 
 1878.. . 
 
 51,206,360 
 
 45,281,385 
 
 96,487,745 
 
 I860.... 
 1861 .... 
 
 46,000,000 
 43,000,000 
 
 1.50,000 
 2,000.000 
 
 46,1.50,000 
 45,000,000 
 
 1879.... 
 
 38,899,858 
 
 40,812,132 
 
 79,71 l,9!i0 
 
 
 
 
 
 1863. .. 
 
 39,000,000 
 
 4,500.000 
 
 43,700,000 
 
 Total, 
 
 
 
 
 1863.... 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 48,.'j00,000 
 
 35 yrs. 
 
 1,487,678,301 
 
 422,722,260 
 
 1,910,400,561 
 
 COINAGE OF THE U. S. MINTS DURING FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1879. 
 
 Gold Coinage $56,157,735 00 
 
 Silver Coinage :— Silver Dollars ^'' „' ''J^ Vx 
 
 Halves, Quarters and Dimes ocr> r -J ^ 
 
 Minor Coinage :— Fi ve, Three, Two, and One Cent pieces ^b.t,9ii 50 
 
 Total Coinage:— Value * 84,370,144 00 
 
SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 BY JTJDG-E J. O. I>OT\^EIl 
 
 OF THE FIRST DISTRICT OF IOWA. 
 
 XjEC3-.a-I-i ^o:ri^^. 
 
 FORM OF WILL. 
 
 In the name of God, Amen. 
 
 I, (give name of testator) of (residence), being of sound mind 
 and memory, do hereby make, publish, and declare this to be my 
 last Will and Testament, hereby revoking and making void all 
 former Wills by me at any time heretofore made. 
 
 First — I order and direct my Executors, as soon after my 
 decease as practicable, to pay off and discharge all the debts, 
 dues, and liabilities that may exist against me at the time of my 
 decease. 
 
 Second — I give and bequeath unto my wife (name). (Here 
 state property bequeathed.) 
 
 Third — I give and bequeath unto my son (name). (Here state 
 property bequeathed.) 
 
 Same form for each legacy. 
 
 Fourth — I hereby nominate and appoint. (Here give name of 
 person or persons selected as Executors.) 
 
 In Witness Whereof I have hereunto subscribed my name this 
 
 day of A. D. 
 
 Name. 
 
 The above and foregoing instrument was at the date thereof 
 
 (814) 
 
LEGAL FORMS. 815 
 
 signed, sealed, published and declared, by the said (name of tes- 
 tator), as and for his last Will and Testament, in presence of us, 
 who, at his request, and in his presence, and in the presence of 
 each other, have subscribed our names as witnesses. 
 
 Name Residence. 
 
 Name Residence. 
 
 Note. — Must be signed by the testator before acknowledged by 
 him to be his will — and must be signed by testator in presence 
 of witnesses — or acknowledged by him in presence of witnesses. 
 Two witnesses are necessary. 
 
 ARTICLES OF CO-PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 This agreement, made and entered into this day 
 
 of , 188 — , by and between of 
 
 , and , of 
 
 Witnesseth: that the said parties hereby agree to become 
 
 partners in the business of at for the 
 
 term of years from the date hereof, under the firm name 
 
 of ^ . 
 
 Said parties have each contributed the sum of dol- 
 lars as the capital stock of said firm. 
 
 Both parties are to devote their entire time and skill for the 
 common benefit. 
 
 All expenses of the business and all losses are to be borne in 
 common, and the profits are to be equally divided. 
 
 Books of account are to be kept, in which shall be entered all 
 money received or paid, all purchases and sales of goods, and all 
 matters of account relating to the business of the firm, which 
 shall at all times be accessible to both. 
 
 No money or other property shall be withdrawn by either 
 partner, or applied to his own use, except with the written con- 
 sent of the other partner; and in every such case the same shall 
 be charged, and his share of the profits shall be reduced in pro- 
 portion to the amount withdrawn. 
 
 Once in each year a correct account shall be taken and stated 
 on the ledger of all stock property and assets of the firm, and of 
 all debts and liabilities. 
 
 At the close of the partnership a like account shall be taken 
 and stated, and the stock and property, and the debts, shall be 
 equally divided after payment of the liabilities of the firm. 
 
816 LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 No debt or claim of the firm shall be released or settled with- 
 out payment in full, unless by consent of both partners. 
 
 Neither partner shall have power to bind the firm as surety in 
 any case ; and neither partner shall become surety for another 
 without the written consent of the other partner. 
 
 Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above 
 written. 
 
 Name [seal.] 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 AGREEMENT TO CONTINUE A CO-PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 As the partnership existing between the undersigned will 
 
 expire on the day of , 187 — , it is hereby 
 
 agreed that said co-partnership shall continue upon the same 
 terms and conditions as provided in the original articles of 
 
 co-partnership for the further term of from the 
 
 date of the expiration of said co-partnership as fixed by the said 
 articles. 
 
 Witness our hands (as in articles5 giving date). 
 
 AGREEMENT FOR DISSOLUTION OF CO-PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 The undersigned hereby agree that the co-partnership existing 
 between them, as is witnessed by the Articles of Co-partnership 
 signed by us, be, and the same is hereby, dissolved, except for 
 the purpose of final settlement of the business thereof, which 
 
 m_ay be settled by . And upon such settlement, then 
 
 said co-partnership shall be wholly dissolved. 
 
 Witness, etc. (as above). 
 
 POWER OF ATTORNEY. 
 
 Know all men by these presents, that I- 
 
 of , hereby make, constitute, and appoint 
 
 of , my true and lawful Attorney, for me, and in my 
 
 name, place, and stead, to (here state duty of Attorney) granting 
 unto my said Attorney full power and authority to do and per- 
 
LEGAL FORMS. 817 
 
 form each and every thing necessary and proper to be done in 
 the performance of his duty, as fully as I might or could do if 
 personally present, hereby ratifying and confirming all the law- 
 ful acts of my said Attorney, done under and by virtue hereof. 
 
 Witness my hand and seal this day of 
 
 A. D. 188—. 
 
 ITame [seal. ] 
 
 Note.— To be signed and acknowledged as a deed for the con- 
 veyance of real estate. 
 
 FORM OF SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION. 
 
 Know all men by these presents, that whereas a controversy 
 is now existing between (name) of (residence), and (name), of 
 (residence), touching (here state nature of controversy): 
 
 Now, therefore, we, the said (here give names of parties), do 
 hereby submit said controversy to the decision and arbitration 
 of (here give names of three persons selected as arbitrators), of 
 (here state residences), and do covenant each with the other that 
 we will faithfully keep and abide by the decision and award 
 that they, or any two of them, may make in writing — said 
 award to be made and signed on or before (here give date). 
 
 And it is agreed by the parties hereto, that the party that 
 shall fail to abide by and observe said award, made in accord- 
 ance with the foregoing submission, shall forfeit and pay to the 
 other the sum of (here insert amount). 
 
 Witness our hands this day of ■■ A. D. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Name. 
 
 AWARD OF ARBITRATORS. 
 
 The undersigned to whose arbritration was submitted the mat- 
 ters in controversy between (here give names of parties) as more 
 fully appears by their written submission hereto attached, Re- 
 port that on the day of A. D. 18—, after having been 
 
 duly sworn according to law, and having given both parties 
 
 day's notice in writing of the time and place of oui- meeting to 
 consider said matter, we proceeded to the discharge of our duty; 
 said (name of party) appearing in person (if by Att'y also so 
 state,) and said (name of party) appearing in person (if by Att'y 
 also so state.) And having heard the allegations and proofs of 
 
;8i8 LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 said parties, and the witnesses introduced by them, and having 
 examined the matter in controversy submitted by them, do make 
 and declare this as and for our award. 
 Here state findings of Arbitrators. 
 
 Witness our hands this day of A. D. . 
 
 '. Name. 
 
 , Name. 
 
 .Name. 
 
 GENERAL FORM FOR AGREEMENT. 
 
 This Agreement made this day of 187 — , 
 
 "by and between of and 
 
 of , Witnesseth : That the said for 
 
 the consideration of (here state nature of consideration) to be 
 (if money paid,) (if work or labor or delivery of property) to be 
 performed or delivered as hereafter provided, hereby agrees that 
 (state agreement of this part fully.) 
 
 And for the consideration above mentioned the said 
 
 liereby agrees, that (state agreement of this part fully.) 
 
 In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix 
 our seal this day and date first above written. 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 AGREEMENT FOR SALE OF PERSONAL PROPERTY. 
 
 This Agreement, made this day of 188 — , 
 
 between of and of 
 
 Witnesseth : That the said in consideration of the 
 
 agreements on the part of hereafter named, agrees 
 
 to and with the said that on or before the 
 
 day of , 188 — , he will deliver to the said 
 
 at (state place of delivery,) the following property (state kind of 
 property). 
 
 And the said in consideration of the aforesaid 
 
 agreements and promises on the part of the said , 
 
 hereby promises and agrees to and with the said 
 
LEGAL FORMS. 819 
 
 that he will pay to him (state price to be paid) said payments to 
 
 be made as follows (state how and when.) 
 
 In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix 
 
 our seals this the day and year first above written. 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF REAL ESTATE. 
 
 This Agreement, made this day of 188 — , 
 
 by and between of and of 
 
 , Witnesseth : That for and in consideration of 
 
 the sum of dollars, to be paid by the said 
 
 to the said as follows (state manner of payment), the 
 
 said hereby promises and agrees to convey by (state 
 
 nature of conveyance, whether warranty or quit claim), the 
 
 following described real estate situate in county, State 
 
 of . (Give description of land.) And the said 
 
 hereby promises to pay said the sum of 
 
 dollars as above provided. 
 
 And upon the payment in full of said amount, then said con- 
 veyance is to be executed and delivered. 
 
 In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and 
 affix our seals this the day and date above written. 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Note. — To be executed and acknowled as a deed for real estate. 
 
 FORM OF LEASE. 
 
 Agreement of Lease, made this day of , 
 
 between of and of , Wit- 
 nesseth : That the said agrees to pay to , 
 
 dollars per for the rent of the house and prem- 
 ises on (description of land.) 
 
 The said agrees to use said premises for no other 
 
 purpose than , and not underlet the same without the 
 
 written consent of . This lease to commence on the 
 
 day of 188 — , and continue until the 
 
820 LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 day of 188 — . The rent to be paid {state how) to the 
 
 said at . A failure to pay the rent as 
 
 agreed, or to comply with any of the stipulations of their lease 
 
 by J shall authorize the said to consider the 
 
 same forfeited ; and he may take possession of the premises 
 without notice and without process of law, or he may bring his 
 action as allowed by law to recover possession. 
 
 In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and 
 affix our seals this the day and date first above written. 
 
 Name [seal. J 
 
 Name [seal.] 
 
 FORM OF DEED. 
 
 This Deed, made this day of 188—, Wit- 
 
 nesseth : That for the consideration of dollars, we 
 
 of county. State of , hereby 
 
 sell and convey unto of county, State of 
 
 , all the following describe^ real estate, situate in 
 
 -county, State of . (Here give a description 
 
 of the land) together with all the estate, title, and interest, 
 dower, and right of dower of the said grantors, or either of 
 them. 
 
 And we hereby warrant the title to said permises against all 
 persons whomsoever (or if quit claim say), and we hereby quit 
 claim all our right, title and interest in and to said premises to 
 the grantees herein. 
 
 Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above 
 
 written. 
 
 The State of- 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 -County. 
 
 ss. 
 
 Be it remembered, That on this day of 
 
 188 — , before me a within and for said county and 
 
 State, personally appeared , who is personally known to 
 
 me to be the identical person whose name affixed to the fore- 
 going deed as grantor, and she acknowledged the same to be her 
 
 voluntary act and deed, and the said , having been 
 
 made acquainted with the contents hereof, and the nature of the 
 
LEGAL FORMS. 821 
 
 above instrument having been fully explained to her and having 
 been examined by me separate and apart from her husband, 
 acknowledged that she signed and executed the said deed freely 
 and voluntarily, and without compulsion, and that she does not 
 desire to retract the same. 
 
 In witness whereof, I hereto set my hand and seal this 
 
 the day and date last above written. 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Note. — It is better in all cases to have two witnesses to the 
 signatures, as the fact that such signatures are witnessed will 
 never invalidate the conveyance; and in some States the instru- 
 ment is void without such witnesses. 
 
 MORTGAGE DEED. 
 
 This Deed, made this day of , 188—, Wit- 
 
 nesseth : That for the consideration of dollars, we 
 
 of county, State of , hereby sell and 
 
 convey unto *f all the following described real 
 
 estate, situate in county, State of to- wit: 
 
 (Here describe real estate.) 
 
 And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all 
 persons whomsoever. 
 
 This deed to be void, however, on condition- — pay. (State 
 nature of indebtedness, time and manner of payment.) 
 
 (If homestead say), and the property conveyed being our 
 homestead, we hereby expressly waive all benefit of the home- 
 stead and exemption laws, and consent that said property shall 
 be liable for the payment of said indebtedness. Otherwise of 
 force and virtue. 
 
 Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above 
 written. 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 Name [seal. ] 
 
 NEGOTIABLE NOTE. 
 
 Chicago, 111., May 1st, 1881. 
 One year after date, I promise to pay to the order of Felix 
 
832 LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 Weltry, two hundred dollars, with ten per cent, interest from 
 date, for value received. Name 
 
 NON-NEGOTIABLE NOTE. 
 
 $200 Chicago, 111., May 1st, 1873. 
 
 One year after date, I promise to pay Felix Weltry, two hun- 
 dred dollars, with ten per cent, interest from date, for value 
 received. Name 
 
 NOTE TRANSFERABLE BY DELIVERY. 
 
 Chicago, May 1st, 1881. 
 
 One year after date, I promise to pay Felix Weltry or bearer, 
 two hundred dollars, with ten per cent, interest from date, for 
 value received. 
 
 Note. — If joint note say ''we." If joint and several say "we 
 or either of us." Name—— 
 
 DUE BILL. 
 
 Due Felix Weltry, two hundred dollars, value received. 
 May 1st, 1881. Name — 
 
 RECEIPT. 
 
 Chicago, 111., May 1st, 1873. 
 Received of Willis Moran one hundred dollars, in full of all 
 claims or demands, of each and every kind held by me against 
 him. Name 
 
 Note, — If in satisfaction or payment of any particular claim, 
 so state. 
 
ii<riDE2C.. 
 
 Abercrombie, British General in the French 
 War, 153. 
 
 Abraham, the Patriarch, 97. Defeats Chal- 
 deans, 46. 
 
 Accounts, Bureaus at Washington devoted 
 to, 273. Thorough cxaminatiou of, 274. 
 
 Achaian League, Greek Confederacy seelt- 
 ing to maintain independence, 83. Sup- 
 pressed by Romans, 87. 
 
 Acadia, Nova Scotia so named by French, 
 151. Cruel expulsion of French inhabi- 
 tants, 152. 
 
 Academy, Military at West Point, 334. Ca- 
 dets in, 335. Naval, at Annapolis, 349. Mid- 
 shipmen in, 350. 
 
 Adams, John, Signs Dec. of Ind. 1776, 166. 
 Commissioner for making Peace, 186. 
 Elected Vice President, 666. Elected 
 second President, 671. His death, 693. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, becomes sixth Presi- 
 dent, 692. His death, 706. 
 
 Adams, Charles Francis, candidate for Vice 
 President, 708. U. S. Minister to England, 
 his resigcation, 749. 
 
 Adjutant-General, his rank and assistants, 
 326. Duties of his Bureau, 327. Of U. S. 
 Navy, 349. 
 
 Admiral, origin of term, 504. Of U. S. Navy, 
 349. Admiralty Courts, 505. 
 
 Administrations, Presidential, Washington's, 
 6CG; John Adams', 671; Jefferson's, 674; 
 Madison's, C7S; Monroe's, 688; J. Q. Adams', 
 692; Jackson's, 694; Van Buren's, 698; Har- 
 rison's, 700; Tyler's, 701; Polk's, 702; Tay- 
 lor's, 70S; Fillmore's, 709; Pierce's, 710; 
 Buchanan's, 712; Lincoln's, 715; Johnson's, 
 746; Grant's, 751; Hayes', 764; Garfield's, 
 770; Arthur's, 772. 
 
 Adriatic Sea, between Italy and Greece, 83. 
 
 Adrian, or Hadrian, a Roman Emperor, 108. 
 
 Aeschylus, a Greek tragic poet, 77. 
 
 Agriculture, a leading interest of the U. 
 S., Geological preparation of the coun- 
 try for, 439. Commissioner of, 441. Value 
 of products in U. S., 573. Exports of, 763-67. 
 
 Agricultural Department, law founding and 
 purpose of, 440. Organization of Bureaus 
 
 (S;, 
 
 in, 441-3. Agricultural College Scrip, 83T, 
 
 Agricultural lands, .383. 
 Agrigentum, an ancient city in Sicily, 82. 
 Agrippina, a Roman Empress, 107. 
 Alcibiades, a Greek, nephew of Pericles, 78. 
 Alexander, the Great, King of Macedon, 
 
 birth and succession to the throne, 79. 
 
 His conquest of the Persian Empire, 80. 
 
 His successors 81. His services to mankind, 
 
 103. 
 
 Alaric, Kiug of the Goths, 11.3. 
 
 Alexander Scverus, a Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Alexandria, a city in Egypt at the mouth 
 of the Nile, founded by Alexander the 
 Great, 80. A center of ancient learning, 
 55. Burning of its library by Cgesar, 91. 
 
 Alabama, the State, its settlement, resources, 
 area, etc., 617. 
 
 Alabama, the celebrated Confederate cruiser 
 sunk, 739. 
 
 Alabama, claims of U. S. against England 
 
 arbitrated, 754. 
 Algonquins, general name of many Indian 
 
 tribes in Canada and the United States, 140. 
 Alps, crossed by Hannibal, the Carthaginian, 
 
 to attack Rome, 83. Crossed by Asdrubal, 
 
 84. 
 
 Ambassadors, their rank as National Repre- 
 sentatives, 248. 
 Amerigo Vespucci, 136. 
 
 America, Its relation to Europe and ancient 
 civilization, 96. Discovered by Northmen 
 and forgotten, 134. Discovered by Colum- 
 bus, 135. Origin of name, 135. Spanish dis- 
 covery and settlement in, 136. French and 
 English discovery, 137. Settlements during 
 the t'ovcntecnth Century, 140. Contest of 
 Colonics during Eighteenth Century, 146. 
 
 American Independence, conceived after 
 British left Boston, 160. Doctrines of Dec- 
 larations of, 161. Text of Declaration, 163. 
 Signers of Declaration, 166. War of Inde- 
 pendence, 178. Discouraging campaign of 
 1776, 179. Success of 1777, 180. Campaign of 
 1778 in the Jerseys, 182. British successes 
 In the Carolinas in 1780, 183. American suc- 
 cess in 1781 secures Independence, 185. First 
 
824 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Century of Independence, 563. Centennial 
 of in 1876, 761. The effect of American suc- 
 cess in maintaining popular government, 
 763. 
 
 Andre, Major, his capture and execution as a 
 spy, 183. 
 
 Anglo-Americans, changes developed in the 
 English in America, 131. A New England 
 built up in America, 133, 519. How all 
 America was dedicated to freedom, 133,145. 
 Anglo-American spirit shown in 1775, 159, 
 188, The kind of government they pro- 
 vided, 313. Statesmen and people charac- 
 terized by vigor and originality, 230. The 
 progressive embodiment of the funda- 
 mental theory of the Republic, 762. Success 
 of the General Government due to thorough 
 local self government, 520. 
 
 Antiquities, Geological and other, 30. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, invade Britain, 113, 127. Char- 
 actor of, 128. Their early institutions, 132, 
 511. 
 
 Anchorites, Hermits, origin of, 110. 
 
 Antonius Pius, a Roman Emperor, 1C9. 
 
 Antiochus, the Great, a Greek King of Syria, 
 defeated by Scipio at Magnesia, 86. 
 
 Antony, a Roman General, avenged the death 
 of Ctesar, defeated by Augustus at Aetium, 
 93. 
 
 Antipater, Governor of Greece appointed by 
 Alexander the Great, 80. 
 
 Apollo, one of the principal gods of the 
 Greeks, 66. 
 
 ApcUes, a renowned Greek painter, 77. 
 
 Argonautic Expedition, famed in Greek 
 story, 61. 
 
 Arbitration, Geneva. See Alabama. 
 
 Aristides, an Athenian general and states- 
 man, 77. 
 
 Aristotle, a celebrated Greek philosopher, 79. 
 
 Army, of the IT. S. in the Revolution, 186. Its 
 disbandment, 663. President Commander- 
 in-Chief, o34. Cost of in the Civil War, 325. 
 Chaplains in, 331. Strength of, 333. Troops, 
 P~ederal and Confederate, in the Civil War, 
 744. 
 
 Arizona, general facts concerning, 653. 
 
 Archimedes, a Greek mathematician and in- 
 ventor of Syracuse, 84. 
 
 Arkansas, the State, 633. 
 
 Aristocracy, in England, 449. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, a valiant general of the 
 Revolution who became a traitor to his 
 country, 183. 
 
 Articles of Confederation of 1777, cause of 
 delay in preparing them, 168. Full text of, 
 169. Convention to revise, 191. History of 
 U. S. under, 663. 
 
 Arcadius, a Greek Emperor, 113. 
 Articles of War, their severity and object, 329. 
 Articles of the Navy, their summary charac- 
 ter, 351. 
 
 Arthur, Chester A., elected Vice President, 
 770. Assumes the duties of President of 
 the United States, 773. 
 
 Artaxerxes, King of Persia, brother to Cyrus 
 the rebel, 78. 
 
 Arsenals, Gov't manufacture of weapons of 
 war, 339. Arsenal at Harper's Ferrj', 733. 
 
 Aryans, the best of the three primary great 
 races of Asia, 31. Mental and physical en- 
 dowment S-, 33. Their migrations, 34. The 
 family among them, 39. Their picturesque 
 primitive languages, 58. 
 
 Asdrubal, a Carthaginian General, 84. 
 
 Assassination, of President Lincoln, 743. Atr 
 tempted of Sec. Seward, 743. Of President 
 Garfield, 773. 
 
 Asia, at the opening of written history, 37. 
 Five great Monarchies in, 44. Development 
 of Western Asia in David's time, 48. 
 
 Astronomers, Egyptian and Chaldean, 67. 
 
 Astronomy, uses of, 95-343. 
 
 Assyrians, their origin and early migrations, 
 46. Character and growth, 47. Great con- 
 quests and the result, 48. The fall of 
 Nineveh, 50. 
 
 Asylums, Government, 355. 
 
 Athens, a celebrated Greek city. Capital of 
 Its State, 64. Destroyed and rebuilt, 76. 
 The ''Golden Age" of Greece, 77. Con- 
 quered by Sparta, 78. Protected by the 
 Romans, 85. 
 
 Attila, King of the Huns, 113. 
 
 Atlantic Slope, between the ocean and sum- 
 mit of the Aileghanies, 559. Geology and 
 soil, 584. 
 
 Atlantic Cable, the first message and failure, 
 714. The second cable, 748. Connecting 
 U. S. and Brazil, 757. 
 
 Attorney-General, 333. Head of Department 
 of Justice, 445. His duties and assistants, 
 446. Before Supreme Court, 499. Assist- 
 ant for Post Office Department, 437. 
 
 Attorneys, in Pension Applications, 417; for 
 U. S. Judicial Districts, their duties, 508. 
 
 Attorneys and Attorneys-General in the 
 States, 535. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 825 
 
 • Auditors, five of Treasury Department, 373. 
 Their duties, 273. Auditor for Post Office 
 Department, 437. Auditors of State Gov- 
 ernments and their duties, 525. 
 
 Aurelian, Roman Emperor, 111. 
 
 Baalbec, an ancient city in Syiia, 57. 
 
 Babylon, founding of, 47. Subjection to 
 Assyria, 48. Splendor under later Kings, 
 48. Taken by Cyrus, 51. 
 
 Bahamas, West India Islands first discovered 
 by Columbus, 135. 
 
 Bank of United States, 1790 to 1836, 303, 318. 
 State Banks, 303, 319, 322. National Banks, 
 process of organization, 319. Duties of 
 Comptroller of the Currency, 320. Success 
 and statistics of National Banking System, 
 323. 
 
 Battles, famous, of the Greeks, Marathon, 
 Thermopylae, Salamis, Platea, 76. Aegos- 
 potamos, Cunaxa, 78. Leuctra, Mantinea, 
 Chaeronea, 79. Granicus, Issus, Arbela, 80. 
 
 Battles, some famous of Romans, Lipara, 82. 
 Ticinus, Trebia, Thrasymcne, Cnnn-.T?, 83. 
 Zama, 84. CynocephaUr, 85. Magnesia, 
 Pydna,86. Pharsalia, 91. Philippi, Actium, 
 93. Chalons, 113. Soissons, 114. Tours, 115. 
 
 Battles, decisive in America, Braddock's De- 
 feat, 153. Quebec, 153. Lexington, Bunker 
 
 • Hill, 159. Long Island, 178. Brandywine, 
 Gcrmantown, Bennington, Stillwater, Sar- 
 atoga, 180. Morristown, 183. Camden, 
 King's Mountain, 183. Cowpens, Guilford 
 Court House, 184. Thames, Tallaschatchie, 
 Talladega, 683. Great Horse Shoe Bend, 
 Plattsburg, 685. Fort Erie, Bladensburg, 
 Chippewa, Fort McHenry, New Orleans, 
 680. 
 
 Battles, decisive in Mexican War, San Ja- 
 cinto, Okeechobee, 699. Palo Alto, Resaca 
 de la Palma, Monterey, Tobasco, Tampico, 
 Bracito, Vera tiruz, 705. Cerro Gordo, Con- 
 treras, Cherubusco, Molinos del Rey, Casa 
 Mata,Chapultepec,Huamantla,Attixco,706. 
 
 Battles, Naval, "President" and "Little 
 Belt," 680. "Constitution" and "Guer- 
 riere," "Essex" and "Alert," "United 
 States" and "Macedonian," "Vixen" and 
 "Southhampton," 681. "Constitution" and 
 "Java," "Hornet" and "Peacock," 683. 
 "Chesapeake" and "Shannon," "Argus" 
 and "Pelican," "Enterprise" and "Boxer," 
 Capture of British fleets on Lakes Erie and 
 Ontario, 68;?. "Frolic" and "Orpheus," 
 "Peacock" and "Epervier," "Rattlesnake" 
 and "Syren," "Wasp" and "Reindeer," 
 
 : 685. "Wasp" and "Avon," 686. Capture 
 of U. S. frigate "President," "Constitu- 
 
 tion" and "Cyane" and "Levant," "Hor- 
 net" and " Penguin," 687. "Peacock" and 
 " Nautilus," 688. Cape Hatteras, 726. "In- 
 dianola" captured, conquests of "Ala- 
 bama," 7*4. "Alabama" and "Morning 
 Star," " Kcarsarge" and "Alabama," Mo- 
 bile Bay, 739. 
 Battles, of Civil War in America, Philippi, 
 Romney, 723. Booneville, Cole Camp, Mar 
 tinsburg, Carthage, Rich Mountain, Car- 
 rick's Ford, Bull Run, Dug Spring, Wil- 
 son's C^reek, 724. Carnifex Ferry, Cheat 
 Mountain, Lexington, Missouri., Chap- 
 manville, Grecnbriar. Chicamacomico, Pi- 
 lot Knob, Ball's Bluff, Romney, Camp 
 Wildcat, Gauley, Belmont, 725. Warsaw, Sa^ 
 Icra.Milford, Camp Alleghany, Port Royal, 
 Island, Silver Creek, Mill Spring, 726. Fort 
 McHenry, Ky., Fort Donelson, Pittsburg 
 Landing or Shiloh, Winchester, Island No. 
 Ten, Fort Pulaski, 728. New Orleans, Wil- 
 liamsburg, Natchez, Front Royal, Chicka- 
 hominy. Hanover, Corinth, Fair Oaks, 
 Memphis, Cross Keys, James Island, Me- 
 cbanicsville. Peach Orchard, Savage's Sta- 
 tion, White Oak Swamp, Malvern Hill, 729. 
 Murfreesboro, Cynthiana, Baton Rouge, 
 Cedar Mountain, Haymarket, CenterviUe, 
 Groveton, Weldon, Britton's Lane, Jackson, 
 Coldwater, 730. Elk River, Harper's Ferry, 
 South Mountain, Antictam, luka, Mun- 
 fordsville, Perryville, Fayetteville, Kings- 
 ton, 731. Fredericksburg, Holly Springs, 
 732. Fort McAllister, Stone River, Arkan- 
 sas Post, Fort Hindman, 733. Springfi:"ld, 
 Franklin, Unionville, Port Hudson, Milton, 
 Beverly, Weber Fall.s, McMinnville, 7:34. 
 Port Gibson, Monticello, Chanccllorsville, 
 La Grange, Grand Gulf, Farnden's Creek, 
 Rajmond, Baker's Creek, Triune, Gettys- 
 bui-g, Vicksburg, Helena, Port Hudson, 735. 
 Knoxville, Jackson, Manassas, Fort Smith, 
 Cumberland Gap, 736. Fort Wagner, Fort 
 Gregg, Chickamauga, Chattanooga, Look- 
 out Mountain, 737. Paducah, Fort Pillow, 
 AViUlerness, Spottsylvania, 738. Bi'aver 
 Dam, Resaca, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, 
 Atlanta, 739. Moorfield, Jonesboro, Oque- 
 quan, Fisher's Hill, Altoona, Cedar C'reek, 
 Johnson^^lle, 740. Morristown, Nashville, 
 741. Hatcher's Run, 742. Kingston, Five 
 Forks, 743. 
 
 Beauregard, Gen., takes command of Con- 
 federate army at Charleston, 720. 
 
 Bel, see Nimrod. 
 
 Bcssus, an ofiBccr of Darius and his aasassin, 
 80. 
 
 Berlin, Congress of, 476. 
 
826 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bias of Priene, one of the Seven Wise Men 
 of Greece, 68. 
 
 Bills in Congress, 465. In English House of 
 Commons and Congress, 470. How they be- 
 come laws, 471. 
 
 Board of Trade, Department of English Gov- 
 ernment managing the Colonies, 518. 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, treaty with, 675. Milan 
 Decree of, 078. 
 
 Bonds, the object and use of, 311. Conversion 
 of short time obligations into, 312. De- 
 scription of all issued and amount, 313. 
 
 Bonded Warehouses, of the Revenue System, 
 293. 
 
 Booth, J. Wilkes, assassinates President Lin- 
 coln, 743. His capture and death, 744. 
 
 Boston, British troops sent to, 157. " Boston 
 Port Bill," 158. British besieged in, 159. 
 
 Botanical Garden, maintained by Congress, 
 480. 
 
 Braddoek, Gen., defeat of, 152. 
 
 British, term used for English, 187. Army in 
 Boston, 159. Fleet, 178, 183, 185. Army in 
 New York, 180, 181. Forces in Carolinas, 
 182, 185. Government attempts to treat for 
 peace, 179, 182. "Orders in CouncU," 678, 
 680. British in war of 1813, 681 to 687. 
 
 Breckenridge, J. C, Vice President, 713. 
 General in Confederate army, 730. 
 
 Brothers, claim for pension when dependent 
 minors, 415. 
 
 Brutus, Roman patriot, 93. Death of, 104. 
 
 Buchanan, President, his Administration, 
 713. Action as to commencing Civil War, 718. 
 
 Bunker Hill, Monument completed, 701. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, Vice President, 674. Killed 
 Hamilton in duel, 676. Tried for treason, 
 678. Death of, 698. 
 
 Cabinet, ad-sisers of the President, 223. Dif- 
 ference between and those under Parlia- 
 mentary Government, 225. Influence of 
 members of, 227, 236. AH " Secretaries of 
 State," 240. Of all the Presidents— Wash- 
 ington, 667. Adams, 671. Jefferson, 674. 
 Madison, 678. Monroe, 689. J. Q. Adams, 
 692. Jackson, 694. Van Buren, 698. Har- 
 rison, 700. Pierce, 710. Buchanan, 713. 
 Lincoln, 715. Jcjhnson, 746. Grant, 751. 
 Hayes, 765. Gai-fleld, 771. 
 
 Cabot, John, discovery of North America, 
 
 136. 
 Cabot, Sebastian, discoveries for the English, 
 
 136. 
 
 Caesar, Julius, birth of, 89. Career of, 90. 
 Assassination of, 92. 
 
 Caesar, Augustus, avenges and succeeds Jul- 
 ius, 92. Successful rule, 93. Death of, 107. 
 
 Csesar, Tiberius, successor of Augustus, 107. 
 
 California, Discovery of, 633. Acquisition hj 
 U. S., 634, 705. Becomes a State, 636. 
 
 Calendars, in Parliamentary work, 465, 470, 
 480. 
 
 Calhoun, John C, Vice President, 693, 694. 
 
 Resignation of, 696. Death of, 709. 
 Caligula, Roman Emperor, 107. 
 Campaigns, of Civil War, 721, 736, 732, 737, 742. 
 Canada, Settlement of by Champlain, 14a- 
 
 Troubles of the Colony, 143. Overcome 
 
 them, 146. Population of, 143, 148, 15a 
 
 Conquest of by English, 153. Invaded by 
 
 Americans, 681 to 686. 
 Capitol, of the U. S. located, 673. Cost of, 648. 
 CaracaUa, Roman Emperor, 109. 
 Carus, Carinus, Roman Emperors, 111. 
 Carthage, Tyrian colony, founded, 66. Wars 
 
 with Rome, 82. Conquered, by Rome, 84» 
 
 Destruction of, 87. Rebuilt, 91. 
 Cartier, Jacques, discovers Canada, 138. 
 Casco, Maine, Massacre of, 146. 
 Cassius, conspires with Brutus to kUl Cffisar 
 
 93. 
 
 CataUne, a corrupt Roman, conspiracy of, 90*. 
 
 Cato, a Roman statesman, suicide of, 91. 
 
 Caucuses, 468, 692. 
 
 Census, the first taken, 667. 
 
 Census Bureau, 335. Organization in 1880, 356. 
 
 Cemeteries, National, 339. 
 
 Charlemagne, Kling of Franks, 115. Con- 
 quests of, 116. Aims of, 118. 
 
 Chivalry, rise and character of, 119. 
 
 Champlain, founder of Canada, 140. Plans 
 of, 143. 
 
 Chancery, Courts of. 529. 
 
 Chaldea, 46, 47. First Chaldean Monarchy, 
 44. Second Monarchy, 46. Splendor of 
 third, 50. Astronomy in, 67. 
 
 Chedor-Laomer, a King of Elam or the second 
 Chaldean Monarchy, 46. 
 
 China, its early settlement, 30. Peculiar lan- 
 guage and character of Chinese, 35. 
 
 Chaplains, in Army and Nai-y, 331, 332. 
 
 Chile, one of the Seven AVise Men of Greece, 
 68. 
 
 Christ, the perfect man, his historical im- 
 portance, 105. Simplicity and clearness of 
 his teachings, 97. The Roman Empire at 
 his appearance, 106. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 827 
 
 Christianity, its connection with the Jews, 97. 
 Character of the system, 98. Why it was 
 persecuted and finally triumphed, 99, 100, 
 106. 
 
 Christian Era, 106. 
 
 Charg^ d' Affaires, a diplomatic oflBcer, 248, 
 811. 
 
 Chemistry, etc., effect of discoveries in, 95. 
 
 Cicero, Koman Orator and Statesman, birth 
 of, 89. Consulship of, 90. Death of, 93. 
 
 Cimhri, barbarians conquered by Marius, 89. 
 
 Circuit Court, organization and jurisdiction, 
 600. Circuits, 501. 
 
 Circuit Courts of States, 528. 
 
 Cincinnatus, a Roman Dictator, 77. 
 
 Civil Service, of Executive Government, 228. 
 Merits and defects of, 229. 
 
 Cities, incorporation and government, 545. 
 Officials and management of, 546. In Eng- 
 land, 547, 528. In France, 550. Population 
 • and debts of in U. S., 823 to 825. 
 
 Clay, Henry, American Statesman, 692. Com- 
 promise Bills of, 696, 709. Speaker of U. S. 
 House of Rep., 795. 
 
 Clinton, Gen., British commander in the 
 Revolution, 182. 
 
 Clinton, Geo., Vice President, 674, 678. 
 
 Cleobulus, one of the Seven Wise Men of 
 Greece, 69. 
 
 Clerks, of Congress, 459. Of Supreme Court, 
 499. Of Circuit and District Courts, 510. 
 
 Cleopatra, a famous Queen of Egypt, 92. 
 
 Claudius, name of two Roman Emperors, 
 107, 111. 
 
 Clovis, King of the Franks, 114. 
 
 Clemens, a Christian martyr cousin of Domi- 
 tian, 108. 
 
 Clearance, of vessels from Custom House, 
 287. 
 
 Coast Survey, its object, 278. Officers of, 279. 
 
 Colonies, Grecian, 68. Tyrian, 57. Spanish 
 In America, 136, 139. French in North 
 America, 140, 143, 144, 148. Thirteen Eng- 
 lish established, 141, 143, Population of, 
 142, 143, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154. Local Govern- 
 ment in, 517, 519. Charters of, 531. Form 
 of Government in, 522. 
 
 Columbia, District of, 647. Virginia part re- 
 ceded, 705. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, 135, 136. 
 
 Coins, made at U. S. Mints, 397. 
 
 Commissioners, Diplomatic, 248. Legal, ap- 
 pointed by Judges of Courts, 510. Of Land 
 
 Office, 357. Of Pensions, 359. Of Patents* 
 363. Of Customs and Internal Revenue, 
 385. Of Agriculture, 439. 
 Commissaries, in the Army, 338. 
 Commerce, Us ancient origin and usefulness, 
 44. In time of Columbus, 135. Relation of 
 consuls to, 351. Commercial treaties, 354. 
 Questions relating to produced the U. S. 
 Constitution, 665. Interference with Amer- 
 ican by the French, 673, 679. By the 
 English, 677, 680. 
 Commodus, a Roman Emperor, 129. 
 Commons, House of, formation and growth, 
 139. During the Revolutionary War, 155. 
 Relations of a Ministry to, 336. 
 Communes, of France, 120, 550. Of Holland, 
 
 551. 
 Comptrollers, two of Treasury, 373. Of Cur- 
 rency, 276. Of States, 525. 
 Committees, in Congress, 461. Reference of 
 
 Bills to, 461. Of Conference, 471. 
 Confederacy, Achaian, 83. Of States, 169. 
 
 Southern, 719. Dissolution of, 744. 
 Confederate States, adopt Constitution, 720. 
 Commissioners, 735. War with U. S., 721 
 to 744. 
 Congress, Continental, 158, 159, 179. History 
 of under Articles of Confederation, 663. 
 Dissolution, 666. Presidents of, 212. 
 Congress, under the Constitution, Powers of, 
 195, 198, 213, 450. Branches of, 450. The 
 First, 451. Election of Members, 453. Or- 
 ganization of, 453. Officers of , 459. Extra 
 Session of, 463. Parliamentary Rules of, 
 465, 773. Workings of, 469. Speeches in, 
 472. Library of, 710. International, 430, 
 476. Postal, 431. Of Engineers, 768. 
 Congressmen, and the People, 469. 
 Congressional, Printer, 480. Districts, 452. 
 Conkling, Roscoe, resigned seat in Senate, 
 
 771. 
 Copyrights, Law of, 485. Direction for secur- 
 ing, 485. 
 Colorado, the State, 646. The River, 249. 
 Constautine, first Christian Roman Emperor, 
 
 99, 111. 
 Constantius, son and successor of Constau- 
 tine and two others. 111, 113. 
 Constitution, the Roman, 71, 77. 78. The 
 English, 129, 155, 478, 518. Of the Anglo- 
 American Colonies, 531. Of United States, 
 full text of, 195. Success of, 194, 313, 317, 
 515. Adoption of the, 193, 666. Of States, 
 534. Governments under, 313, 535. 
 
■B2S 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Connecticut, State of, 582. 
 
 Consuls, Roman, 73, 83, 89, 90. Of U. S. Gov- 
 ernment, 251. General, 792. 
 
 Cortez, Spanish conqueror of Mexico, 136. 
 
 Corinth, a celebrated Greek city, 67. 
 
 Cornwallis, Lord, British Gen. in Revolution, 
 180, 184, 185. 
 
 Court, Congress as a, 490. The Supreme, 493. 
 The Circuit, 500. The District, 502. Of 
 Claims, 506. OflBcers of, 508. Of States, 538. 
 
 Corsica, island in Mediteri-anean Sea, 83. 
 
 Counties, origin and application of name, 
 537. Ofilcers and organization of, 539, 542. 
 
 Crcesus, king of Lydia, 69, 70. 
 
 Crusades, origin and influence of, 119, 122 
 
 Cyrus, King of Persia, 50, 51, 69, 70. 
 
 Cyrus, brother of Artaxerxes, King of Per- 
 sia, 285. 
 
 Customs Duties, 280. OflBcers collecting, 285. 
 
 Dakota, the Territory of, 651. 
 
 Danube, River in Europe, 108. 
 
 Darius, Hystaspes, King of Persia, 71, 75. 
 Last Medo-Persian King, conquered by 
 Alexander, 80. 
 
 David, Psalms of, 48. 
 
 Davis, President Jefferson, resigned from U. 
 S. Senate, 719. Elected President of Con 
 federate States, 720. Collapse of Govern- 
 ment of, 743. Capture by U. S. troops, 744. 
 Admitted to bail by U, S. Government, 749. 
 
 Dead Letter Office, 436. 
 
 Debt, Public, of England, 302. Of U. S. pre- 
 vious to Civil War, 302, 303, 308. Manage- 
 ment of, 308. Statement of for each year, 
 314. Refunding of, 315 
 
 Decemvirate, appointed to compile a code of 
 Roman Law, 77. 
 
 Decius, Roman Emperor, 110. 
 
 Declaration of Independence, discussed, 161. 
 Text, 163. 
 
 Deerfield, Massacre of, 146. 
 
 De Grasse, French Admiral, 185. 
 
 D'lberville, French founder of Mobile, 148. 
 
 De la Roche, attempts settlement in Nova 
 Scotia, 138. 
 
 Delaware, Lord, 141. State of, 59. 
 
 De Monts, Settles Canada, 140. 
 
 Delphi, sacred city of Greece, 66, 79. 
 
 Demand Notes, 304, 311. 
 
 Demosthenes, Grecian Orator, 79, 80. 
 
 Departments, Executive, 222. Of State, 240. 
 
 Of Treasury, 269. Of War, 324. Of Navy, 
 340. Of Interior, 353. Of Post Office, icS. 
 Of Agriculture, 441. Of Justice, 444. Leg- 
 islative. 448. Judicial, 492. 
 
 De Soto, Spanish Explorer, 138. 
 
 Desert, Lands, 383. Great American, 657. 
 
 Didius, Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Diocletian, Roman Emperor, 111. 
 
 Diplomacy, as influenced by Americans, 349. 
 
 Domitian, infamous Roman Emperor, 108. 
 
 Dred Scott Case, 713, 714. 
 
 Dutch, settlement of New York 141, 576. 
 
 Education, Bureau of, 364. Its objects, 365. 
 
 Egypt, Country and people of, 53. Religion 
 and Sculptui'e, 54. Wisdom of priesthood, 
 55. Dynasties of Kings, 56, 97. Conquered by 
 Cyrus, 70. 
 
 Elam, Bible name of Second Chaldean Em- 
 pire, 46. 
 
 Election, to Congress, 451, 555. In the States, 
 537. Presidential, First, 676. Second, 668. 
 Third, 671. Fourth, 674. Fifth, 676. Sixth, 
 678. Seventh, 681. Eighth, 689. Ninth, 
 690. Tenth, 691. Eleventh. 695. Twelfth, 
 696. Thirteenth, 698. Fourteenth, 700. Fif- 
 teenth, 702. Sixteenth, 708. Seventeenth, 
 710. Eighteenth, 712, Nineteenth, 714. Twen- 
 tieth, 745. Twenty-flrst, 751. Twenty-sec- 
 ond., 7-54. Twentj'-third 764. Twenty-fourth, 
 770. 
 
 Electoral Commission, 1877, 763. 
 
 Elective, Principle, 542. Franchise in the U. 
 S., 552. Under State control, 555. 
 
 Electricity, influence of, 563. 
 
 Elizabeth, Virgin Queen of England, 138. ■ 
 
 Empire, The march of westward, 77. Ro- 
 man, 90. Was a relief from war, 93. Succes- 
 sor of Roman, 124. 
 
 Engineers, Bureau of, 328. 
 
 England, invaded by German tribes, 113. Old 
 England and new, 133. Wars of, 155, 303. 
 Finance of, 102, 103. Aristocracy of, 449. 
 Arrogance during war with Bonaparte, 677, 
 678, 679. War with U. S. of 1812, 680 to 687. 
 Local Government in, 542. Municipal Gov- 
 ernment in, 548. Elective Franchise in, 549. 
 
 Envoys Extraordinary, 248, 792, 793. 
 
 Entry of Public Lands, 387. 
 
 Epaminondas, a Greek General, 78, 79. 
 
 Epirus, a country bordering Greece, 81. 
 
 Equity, Courts of in States, 539. 
 
 Equipment and Recruiting, Bureau of, 349, 
 
 Etruscans, a cultivated people of Italy, 79. 
 
IND EX. 
 
 829 
 
 Ethiopa, a country in Africa, 56, 68. 
 Euphrates, Itiver in Western Asia, (now 
 
 Turkey) 45,50,108, 
 Euripides, Greek Poet, 77. 
 Evidence required in Pension Claims, 412. 
 Extradition, See Treaties. 
 Executive Mansion, (White House), 236. 
 
 Fabius Maximus, Roman Dictator, Policy 
 of in War, 84. 
 
 Family, The Aryan, 40. 
 
 Feudal System, origin and character of, 116. 
 Influence of, 118, 1 19. Fall of the, 131. 
 
 Ferdinand, King of Spain, 135. 
 
 Finances, of U. S. at close of Revolution, 188, 
 299. Relation of to Government, 301. Man- 
 agement of in Civil War, 303. Of Cities, 546. 
 
 Financiers, English, 303. American, 333. 
 
 Fillmore, Millard, Vice-President and Presi- 
 dent, 709. 
 
 Florida, 138, 149. State of, 626. 
 
 Foreign Mails, Sup't of, 436. 
 
 Foreign Affairs, their management 346 to 
 256, 667, 691. 
 
 Fort Dearborn, Chicago, 681. George, 683, 
 Mims, 673. Niagara, 684. Sumter 731, 
 722. Duquesne, 152. Moultrie, 160. 
 
 Franks, a German tribe giving name to 
 France, 113, 134. 
 
 France, aided Americans in Revolution, 183. 
 Wealth of, 316. Local Government in, 
 550. 
 
 Franchise, Elective, 553. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 186, 190, 664. 
 
 French, discoveries of in America, 138. 
 
 Colonies of, 139, 143. English wars with, 146, 
 
 684. Troops and Fleet of, 183, 185. 
 Free Trade and Protection, 385, Free Ships, 
 
 289. 
 Fremont, Gen. J. C. 242, 725. 
 Fundy, Bay of, 140. 
 Gage, Gen., British commander at beginning 
 
 of Revolution, 159. 
 Galba, Emperor of Rome, 107. 
 Gallus and Gallienus, Roman Emperors, 110. 
 GaleriuP, 111. 
 Garfield, Gen. James A. President of U. S. 
 
 770. Assassination and Death of 772. 
 Gates, Gen., received surrender of Burgoyne, 
 
 180. Defeated in North Carolina, 183. 
 Gaul, old name of France, 89, 90, 113. 
 Genoa, Italian city, 135. 
 
 Geneva, Principal city of Switzerland, 476, 
 Genscric, King of the Vandals, 113. 
 Geography, value of discoveries in, 95. 
 Geology, 95, 439, 564. 
 
 George III., King of England at the Revolu- 
 tion, 155, 156, 158, 186. 
 Georgia, State of, 146, 578. 
 Germans, 107, 108, 117, 127. 
 Gerry, Elbridge, Vice-President of TJ. S. 678. 
 Ghibc'llines, enemies of the Popes, 120. 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 138. 
 Gladiators, Roman, war of the, 90. 
 Gordian. Roman Emperor, 110. 
 
 Govcrimient, Central under the Constitution, 
 213. Local, 515. Colonial, 521. State, 533. 
 Municipal, .544. Printing Office, 480. Of 
 England, 130; American, influence on, 314. 
 American System of, 317. Excellence (ft 
 American, 230. Popular and Parliamentary 
 compared, 236. Connection of various 
 Branches of, 235. Respect of for religion, 
 331. Asylums, 3.55. 
 
 Governors, Royal, of Colonies, 518. Of States, 
 524. Lieutenant, 525. 
 
 Grant, Gen. U. S., Early success of, 738. 
 Captures Vicksburg, 735. Gains Battle of 
 Chattanooga, 736. Made Lieut. Gen. 738. 
 Administration of as President, 651. 
 
 Gracchi, The, Patriotic Romans, 88. 
 
 Gratian, Greek Emperor, 113. 
 
 Great Britain. See England. 
 
 Greenbacks, Legal Tender Demand Notes, 
 304, 306. Issues of, 311. 
 
 Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, a successful com- 
 mander in the Revolution, 184. 
 
 Greece, Mythology and Legends of, 33,36, 58. 
 Olympian Games in, 37, 65. Extent of, 60. 
 Invasion of by Persians, 75. Golden Age 
 of, 75, 77. 
 
 Greeks, Character of, .58, 71, 81. History of, 
 60, 75. Religious habits of, 63. Philosophy 
 of, 58. Defects of Freedom of, 62. Con- 
 quered by Macedonians, 79. By Romans, 
 84. 
 
 Guelphs, supporters of the Pope in 10th cen- 
 tury, 120. 
 
 Habitans, descendants of French colonists in 
 
 Canada, 144. 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia, Settlement of, 151. 
 
 Hamites, named from son of Noah, founded 
 Egypt, 33. 
 
«30 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, an excellent Revolu- 
 tionary Statesman, 190, 317. Death of, 671. 
 
 Hamlin, Hannibal, Vice-President of U. S. 
 715. 
 
 Hannibal, the Carthaginian, one of the great- 
 est generals of any time, 83, 84, 103. 
 
 Harrison, "STm. H., President of U. S. 683, 700, 
 701. 
 
 Hayes, R. B., President, 765. 
 
 Health, National Board of, 291. 
 
 Helots, slaves of Sparta, Greece, 64. 
 
 Hellens, a name of the true Greeks, 58, 103. 
 
 Heliogabalus, a Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Herculaneum, Italian city, destruction of, 
 108. 
 
 Hercules, a mythic Greek hero, 61. 
 
 Heroes, Mythical of Greece. 59. 
 
 Herodotus, 53, 77, 102, first historian. 
 
 Hesiod, a Greek writer, 33, 101. 
 
 Hindoos, Character and language of, 35. 
 
 Homestead, privilege, 388. Laws, 389, 399. 
 
 Homer, a Greek poet, 33, 101. 
 
 Honorius, Greek Emperor, 113. 
 
 Hospitals, Marine, 391. 
 
 Howe, Lord, British General in the Revolu- 
 tion, 178, 179; 181. 
 
 Hudson, Henry, discovered New York, 141, 
 
 576. 
 Huguenot, French Protestants, 143, 143, 163. 
 Huns, invade Roman Empire, 112, 113. 
 Huron Indians, 140. 
 Iberia, ancient name of Spain, 77. 
 lllyria, east of Adriatic Sea, 83. 
 Illinois, Indians and State, 616. 
 Impeachments, 196, 235, 490, 749, 761. 
 India, peopled, 31. Likeness of people to 
 
 Egyptians, 44. Invaded by Alexander, 80. 
 
 England in, 155. 
 
 Indiana, State of, 613. 
 
 Incas of Peru, 137. 
 
 Indian Policy, 369 to 373. 
 
 Interior, Establishment of Department of, 
 
 354. Bureaus of, 355, 357, 359, 361, 363, 364. 
 
 Secretary of, 354, 366. 
 Inspection, of Steam Vessels, 290. Division 
 
 of in Post OflBce Dept., 435. 
 Ionia, Greek part of Asia Minor, 66, 68. 
 Iowa, State of, 627. 
 Iroquois, confederated Indians of New Tork, 
 
 140, 144, 145. 
 
 Isabella, Queen of Spain, 135. 
 
 Israel, Ten tribes of, 68. 
 
 Iva-Lush, see Ninus. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, in war of 1812, 683, 685, 68T- 
 
 President, Administration of, 694 to 698. 
 James I., King of England, 141, 516. 
 
 James II., King of England, 516, 576. De- 
 throned, 129. 
 
 Jamestown, Va., Settlement of, 141, 574. 
 Janus, the Roman god of War, Temple of, 
 83,93. 
 
 Jay, John, Commissioner for making Peace 
 with England 1782 -3, 186. Chief Justice of 
 U. S., 794. Character and death, 695. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, author of Dec. of lud.. 
 Minister to France, 664. Secretary of State, 
 222, 667. Vice-President, 671. Administra- 
 tion as President, 674, 246. Death of, 693. 
 
 Jesuits, French in Canada, 143, 145, 637. 
 
 Jesus Christ, see Christ. 
 
 Jerusalem, destroyed, 50, 70, 108. Dedication 
 of Second Temple, 71. 
 
 Jews, captivity of, 50. Influence in Chaldea, 
 51. Christianity and the, 96, 97, 98, 107. 
 
 Jonah and Nineveh, 47. 
 
 John, King of England, 129. 
 
 Johnson, Richard M., Vice-President, 698. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, Senator, 723. Vice-Presi- 
 dent and President, Administration of, 746. 
 
 Joseph, in Egypt, 41. 
 
 Joshua, a leader of Israelites, 41. 
 
 Jovian. Greek Emperor, 112. 
 
 Judges of Israelites, 41. 
 
 Judge Advocate, in Courts Martial, 329, 331. 
 
 Judiciary, of U. S., Powers of, 203, 213, 314, 
 492. Independence and character of, 493. 
 Conflicting views concerLiing, 494. Of States, 
 528. Of Cities, 546. 
 
 Judicial Department, 492. 
 
 Judges, of Supreme Court, 496, 794. Of Cir- 
 cuit Courts, 500. Of District Courts, 500, 
 502. 
 
 Jugurtha, King of Numidia, 89. 
 
 Julian, Greek Emperor, 112. 
 
 Juries, Origin and development of, 511. 
 Grand, 512. Petit ,513. 
 
 Jurisdiction of Courts, 497, 500, 502, 504, 506. 
 
 Justices, of Supreme Court, see Judges. Of 
 the Peace, 529. In England, 541. 
 
 Justice, Department of, 223. Bureau of 
 Military, 339. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 831 
 
 Justinian, Greek Emperor, 114. 
 
 Jutes, German tribe settled in England, 127. 
 See Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Kansas, State of, 640. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 
 711. Conflict in Territory, 713, 714. 
 
 Kennebec River, settlement on, 141. 
 
 Kentucky, Indian war and settlement in, 664, 
 665. State of, 602. 
 
 King, Wm. K., elected Vice-President, 710. 
 
 Kings, their early origin, 41. Chaldean, 45. 
 
 Kudur-Lagamer, see Chedor-Laomer. 
 
 Labrador, explored by Cabot, 136. 
 
 Lacedasmonia, the country of the Spartans 
 in Greece, 72. 
 
 Lafayette, Marquis de, 181, 184. Visits U. S., 
 601. 
 
 Land Warrants, 387. 
 
 Land Oflice, of Int. Dept., 357. List of all 
 offices in States and TeiTitories, 386. Offi- 
 cers of General, 357. 
 
 Lands, Public, acquisition of, 374. Their ex- 
 tent, 375. Survey of, 358, 376. Agricul- 
 tural, 383. Desert and Saline, 383. Mineral, 
 384. Town sites, Stone and Timber, 385. 
 Not liable to Pre-emption or Homestead 
 entry, 391. 
 
 La Salle, Plans of, 144, 148. 
 
 Laurens, Henry, President of Cont. Cong., 
 212. Peace Commissioner 1782, 186. 
 
 Laws, of Congress, 199, 213, 474. Organic, 213, 
 474, Of Nations, 475 to 477. Treaties, 475, 
 477. Unwritten, 478. Patent, 361. Timber 
 Culture, 392. Pre-emption and Homestead, 
 388 to 401. Pension, 402. Process of mak- 
 ing, 463. Copyright, 485. 
 
 Law Library of Congress, 484. 
 
 League, Amphictyonic, National of Greek 
 States, 66. 
 
 Lee, Gen. R. E., an eminent Confederate 
 Commander, 723. Invasion of Pennsyl- 
 vania, 733, 735. Contest with Grant in the 
 wilderness, 738, 739. His surrender to over- 
 powering force, 743. Death of, 753. 
 
 Legislators, Great of Greece, 101. In Eng- 
 land and America, 466 to 468. Of States, 
 527, 533. 
 
 Legislatures, of Colonies, 523. Of States, 526. 
 Amendments to Constitution adopted by, 
 205. 
 
 Leonidas, a King of Sparta, 76. 
 
 Letters, Registered, 426. Dead, 436. 
 
 Leuctra, battle gained by Thebans over Spar- 
 tans, 79. 
 
 Library of Congress, 483. 
 
 Liberties, of the People, 120. Early stages. 
 121. Sheltered under feudal forms, 123, 
 Origin of English, 128, 139, 132, 516. Eng- 
 lish claimed and maintained by Americans, 
 132, 157, 517. 
 
 Lieutenant Governors of States, 625. 
 
 Licinus, an Emperor opposed to Constantine, 
 112. 
 
 Life Saving Service, 291. 
 
 Light-House Board, how organized and man- 
 aged, 290. 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, President, 715. Admin- 
 istration of, 715 to 746. Emancipation proc- 
 lamation, 727, 731, 732. Assassination of, 
 743. 
 
 Lipara Island, in the Mediterranean, 82. 
 
 Local Government, among the Greeks, 63, 64, 
 73. Among the Romans, 67, 74. In the 
 Middle Ages, 118, 131. Among Anglo-Sax- 
 ons, 132, 139, 517. Among Anglo-Ameri- 
 cans, 131, 141, 519, 523. Town, County, and 
 Compromise Systems of, 539. In France, 
 549. In Belgium and Germany, 581. 
 
 Local Sovereignty, advantages of, 549, 533. 
 
 Lombards, Barbarians settled in northern 
 Italy, 114. 
 
 London Company, for establishing colonies, 
 141. 
 
 Lords, English House of, 129, 455. 
 
 Louisburg, French Foi'tress on island of Cape 
 Breton, 151. 
 
 Louisiana, Territory purchased, 675. Organ- 
 ized, 679. The State, 608. 
 
 Lycurgus, King and lawgiver of Sparta, 101. 
 
 Lydia, an ancient Kingdom in Asia Minor, 
 68, 69. 
 
 Lysander, King of Sparta, 78. 
 
 Macedon, a Kingdom north of Greece, 75. 
 
 Macrinus, a Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Madison, James, Secretary of State, 674. Ad- 
 ministration as President, 678. Death of* 
 697. 
 
 Magellan, first circumnavigator of the world 
 136. 
 
 Magna Charta, th(! base of the English Con- 
 stitution, 121, 129. 
 
 Mahomet, Arabian Prophet, 115. 
 
 Maine, attempted scttl ment of, 141. State 
 
 of, 614. 
 Mails, domestic, 433, 435. Foreign, 436. Sup't 
 
 of, 430. 
 
832 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Man, Primitive, 38. Early progress of, 39 to 44. 
 
 Manifest, of ship's cargo, 286. 
 
 Marshalls, United States, 509. 
 
 Maritime Jurisdiction, control of transac- 
 tions on the sea, 504, 505. 
 
 Maryland, State of, 584. 
 
 Martel, Charles, founder of a French line of 
 Kings, 115. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius, a wise Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Marius, a Roman Consul, 89. 
 
 Marines, soldiers employed in the Navy, 351. 
 
 Mariner's Compass, advantages of, 135. 
 
 Marine Hospitals, 291. 
 
 Marque and Reprisal, Letters of, 332. Offered 
 by President Da^is, 722. 
 
 Mason's and Dixon's Line, 561. 
 
 Massachusetts, Bay, Colony of, 142. Leads 
 in the Revolution, 157. The character of, 
 582. .State of, 578. 
 
 Massacre, of Casco, Schenectady and Deer- 
 field, 146. Cherry V' alley, "Wyoming, 182. 
 Ft. William Henry, 153. Chicago, 681. 
 Frenchtown, 682. Ft. Mims, 683. Minne- 
 sota, 636. Ft. Kearney, 748. 
 
 Marathon, near Athens, Greece, 76. 
 
 Maximin, Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Magians, a religious Sect of Persia, 110. 
 
 Mayor, of American cities, 545. Appointment 
 of in England, 547. In French cities, 550. 
 In Belgium, HoUand and Germany, 551. 
 
 McClellan, Gen. in "West "^'irginia, 723. Be- 
 comes Commander-in-Chief, 725. Advance 
 on Richmond, 727. Command restricted, 
 
 . 728. Ba'ttles on the Peninsula, 729. Evacuates 
 Peninsula, 730. Commands at South Moun- 
 tain and Antietam, 731. 
 
 Medes, allied with Persians under Cyrus, 49, 
 
 68, 69. 
 Medo-Persian Empire, 51. 
 Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of, 345. 
 Menes, first King of Egj-pt, 53. 
 Meridians, Principal, used in Surveying, 377 
 
 to 381. 
 
 Messene, a Greek city, 67. 
 Message, President's, 203, 464. 
 Mexico, conquered by Cortez, 136, 138. "War 
 with, 303, 703 to 707. Independence of, 629. 
 Michigan, State of, 621. 
 
 Milan, Edict of, Constantine's, 111. Decree of, 
 
 Bonaparte's, 678. 
 Miletus, Greek city in Asia, 68. 
 
 Miltiades, an Athenian General 7P. 
 Military, Justice, Bureau of, 329. Code or 
 
 Law, 329. Academy, 334. 
 Ministers, of Governments, 246. Diplomatic, 
 
 Plenipotentiary and Resident, 247, 792. 
 
 Foreign, 249, 793. 
 
 Mint, of U. S. 294 to 298. Coins of, 297, 813. 
 Mining, Placer, 384. 
 
 Minor brothers and sisters. Pension Claims, 
 415. 
 
 Minnesota, State of, 637. 
 
 Mississippi, The State of, 614. 
 
 Mississippi, Valley, Spanish in, 138. 
 French in, 144, 147, 148. Americans 
 in, 558. Agricultural value of, 559, 503, 534. 
 Mineral and Commercial advantages of, 
 585. 
 
 Missouri, " Compromise," 689, 690. State of, 
 621. 
 
 Mitylene, a Greek city, 68, 75. 
 
 Mithridates, King of Pontus, 89. 
 
 Mahomet, or Mohammed, 632. 
 
 Mohammedanism, 96. 
 
 Money, Continental, 187. "What is used as, 
 294, 300. Paper and Specie, 295, 296. Gov- 
 ernment connection with, 301. Fiat, 295, 
 305, 306. 
 
 Money-Order System, 426. Superintendent of, 
 436. 
 
 Monarchies, five ancient in Asia, 44. 
 
 Monarchy, first and second Chaldean, 45, 46, 
 Assyrian, 46 to 49. Babylonian 50. Medo- 
 Persian, 51. Egyptian, 52 to 56. 
 
 Montreal, Canada, settlement of, 145. Taken 
 by English, 153. 
 
 Montcalm, Marquis de, French General in 
 Canada, 152, 153. 
 
 Monroe, James, Secretary of State, 679. Pres- 
 ident, Administration of, 688. 
 Morton, Hon. O. P., Death of, 766. 
 Moses, Je^vish Lawgiver, education of 54, 57, 
 
 97. 
 Mottoes and Names of States, 650. 
 Mothers, in Pension Claims, 414. 
 Municipal, origin of term, 544. Government, 
 
 545 to 551. 
 Mythology, Grecian, 58, 59. 
 Nabopolassar, treacherous Assyrian General, 
 
 49. Founder of third Chaldean Empire at 
 
 Babylon, 50. 
 Nations, Rise of Modern, 113, Laws of, 475, 
 
 Congress of, 477, 
 National Banking, connection with Treasury, 
 
 268. System of, 318 to 323. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 833 
 
 National Sovereignty, 213, 224, 531, 535. 
 Naturalization, Congress to make laws for, 
 
 198. Laws , 555, 556. 
 Natural Philosophy, Uses of, 95. 
 Navy Yards and Docks, Bureau of, 341. 
 Naval Observatory, 344. 
 Navy of U. S., History and present condition 
 
 of, 670, 347, 348. Officers of, 349. 
 
 Gosport, destroyed, 733. Secretary of, 340. 
 Bureaus of Department of the, 341. Ar- 
 ticles for the Government of the, 351. 
 
 Navigation, Bureau of, 343. 
 
 Nabonassur, King of Babylon, 67. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, son and successor of Na- 
 bopolassur. King of Babylon,^ 50. Con- 
 quests of, 56, 70. 
 
 Nemesis, Grecian goddess of, 76. 
 
 Nero, Roman Emperor, 98, 107. 
 
 Nerva, a Roman Emperor, 108. 
 
 Neutral Governments, 476. 
 
 New Amsterdam, 145. 
 
 New York, discovery of, 141. First Colonial 
 Congress in, 157. Captured by British, 179. 
 British evacuate, 663. State of, 576. 
 
 New Hampshire, State of, 580. 
 
 New Jersey, settlement of, 145. State of, 588. 
 
 New England, ancient Glacier in, 564. An 
 improvement on Old England, 133, 517, 519. 
 British failure in, 185. Ohio settled from, 
 606. Washington's tour through, 667. Dis- 
 content of with War of 1813, 681, 684, 686. 
 
 New Orleans, settled, 148. Jackson's victoi-y 
 at, 681, 687. Captured by Federals, 729. 
 Riot in, 748. Its future, 609. 
 
 Newfoundland, discovery of by Cabot, 136. 
 By Verrazzani, 138. 
 
 Nile, river in Egypt, settlement in valley of, 
 41. Mystery of to Egyptians, 53. 
 
 Nimrod, founder of Chaldean Monarchy, 45. 
 
 Ninus, or Iva-Lush IV., King of Babylon, 47. 
 
 Nineveh, Capital of Assyria, building and 
 size of, 47. Influence of culture of, 49. 
 Destruction of, 50. 
 
 Northmen, Invasions of England by, 128. Dis- 
 covery of America in 10th century by, 134. 
 
 North Carolina, Sir Walter Raleigh's at- 
 tempted settlt'ment in, 133. State of, 592. 
 
 Normans, Germans settled in France, 128. 
 Conquest of England, 129. 
 
 Normandy, country of Normans in France, 
 131. 
 
 Numidians, people of Numidia in north of 
 Africa, 84, 89. 
 
 Numerianus, Roman Emperor, 111. 
 
 Numa, second King of Rome. 69. 
 
 Odoacer, a German, King of Italy, 113. De- 
 posed by Ostrogoths, 114. 
 
 Odenatus, King of Palmyra, 110. 
 
 Olympiad, year of Games at 01ympia,Greece, 
 63, 65. 
 
 Ohio, river, French military posts on, 144. 
 
 Valley of purchased by colonies, 150. State 
 
 of, 606. Settlement of, 665. 
 Ordinance Bureau, of Army, 329. Of Navy, 
 
 342. 
 Ordinance, of 1787, 665. Nullification of South 
 
 Carolina, 696. Of Secession, 718, 719, 720, 
 
 723 733. 
 Oregon, Boundary, 703. State of, 637. 
 Orders in Council, British, 676, 678, 680. 
 Ostrogoths, Germans, or Teutons, Invaded 
 
 Italy, 114. 
 Otho, Roman Emperor, 107. 
 Ottawa Indians, on Ottawa Rivei-, 140. 
 Pacific, Ocean, discovery of, 136. Future 
 
 commerce of, 654, 566. Slope, Coast, 559, 
 
 560, 565, 566. 
 Panama, City of, founded by Balboa, 136. 
 
 Parliament, English, its organization, 129. 
 Resisted by American Colonies, 147, 157, 158. 
 Its corruption at the Revolutionary period, 
 155, 516, 517, 518. Town meetings a Pai^ 
 liament in Miniature, 538. King and the, 
 229, 229. 
 
 Parliamentary Government, in England, es- 
 tablished in 1688, 145, 219. In France and 
 Europe generally, 215, 316. Character of 
 European,236, 327. Contrast of American 
 and European, 225, 466. 
 
 Parliamentary Rules,.465, 773 to 791. 
 
 Pardons, what they are, 525. Clerk, 242. The 
 effect of the pardoning power vested in the 
 President, 233. 
 
 Parthians, a roving people of Central Asia 
 conquered by Trajan, 108. 
 
 Passports, their use, 253. Secretary of State 
 manages system, 253. 
 
 Passport Clerk, 243. 
 
 Patent Office, 361. Law, 361. 
 
 Patents, Commissioner of, 362. 
 
 Patrons of Husbandry, organized, 749. Pro- 
 gress of order, 755, 756, 757, 758. 
 
-«34 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 rPausanias, a King of Sparta, conquered the 
 Persians, 76. 
 
 Paymastei>General, Bureau of, 337. 
 
 Pelasgi, ancient inhabitants of Greece, 58. 
 
 Pelopenesus, a peninsula in Greece, 61. 
 
 Pension Bureau, 359. 
 
 Pensions, Commissioner of, 360. Amounts 
 paid by the U. S. Government in, 3tK), 402. 
 Arrears of, 403, 403. Persons entitled to, 
 403, 403. Special by Law, Revised Statutes, 
 403 to 408. Regulations of Pension Office as 
 to claimants, 409. Of invalids, 410. For 
 increase or renewal of, 411. Of widows 
 and children, proofs required, 413. Proof 
 of claims of minor children, 413. Proof of 
 claims of dependent relatives, 414. Mothers, 
 fathers, brothers and sisters, 415. Magis- 
 trates and witnesses of claimants for, 415 
 to 417. Attorneys employed by claimants 
 for, 417. For service in War of 1813, 418 to 
 423. 
 
 Pensacola, Spanish occupation of, 149. Jack- 
 son takes from Spaniards, 687. In civil 
 war, 719. 
 
 Penn, William, proprietor of Pennsylvania, 
 145. Worthy measures of, 596. 
 
 Pennsylvania, State of, 596, 597. 
 
 Pericles, a representative Greek, 73, 77, 101. 
 
 Death of, 78. 
 ■Periander, one of the Seven Wise Men of 
 Gi-eece, 69. 
 
 Pertinax, Roman Emperor three months, 109. 
 
 Perses, King of Macedon .dethroned by 
 
 Romans, 36. 
 . Peru, conquest of by Pizarro. 
 
 Persians, lc>cation of subjected to disturb- 
 ance, 36, 60. United with Modes, 50. Em- 
 pire of, 51. Sovereigns of Empire, 53, 70, 
 71, 76, 78, 80. Armies of in Greece, 75, 76, 
 Fleet of, 75, 76. Philip of Macedon proposes 
 to attack, 79. Conquest by Alexander, 80. 
 
 Pharnaces, King of Pontus, 91. 
 
 Philip, King of Macedon, overthrows liberties 
 of Greece, 79. Circumvented by Romans, 
 84. 
 
 Philip, a Roman Emperor, 110. 
 
 Philosophy, of Greece.founded by Thales, 68. 
 
 Epicureans, doctrine of, 95. Imperfections 
 of, 95, 96. Spread of in Asia, 81. 
 
 'Philosophers, of Egypt, 54. Socrates and 
 Plato, 101, Aristotle, 103. 
 
 Philopoemen, a Grecian patriot, 86. 
 Philip II., King of Macedon, 85. 
 
 Philology, the science of languages, value In 
 
 tracing races of'men, 30. 
 
 Phidias, a Greek sculptor of great skUl, 76, 
 77. 
 
 Phenicians, of Semitic race, on the Mediteiv 
 ranean Sea, 36. Cities of, 56. Intelligence 
 and commerce of, 57. Colonies of in Africa 
 and Greece, 57, 60. 
 
 Physicians, in pension applications, 417. 
 
 Pizarro, Spanish conqueror of Peru, 137. 
 
 Picts, wild tribe of North Britain, 113. 
 
 Pierce, Franklin, administration as Presi- 
 dent, 710 to 713. 
 
 Pilgrims, English Pvuitans of the Mayflower, 
 141, 571. 
 
 Pincknej', Charles, candidate for President 
 in 1804, 676. 
 
 Pitt, William, Lord Chatham, Prime Minister 
 of George III., favorable to Colonial liber- 
 ties, 153, 158. 
 
 Pitticus, one of the Seven Wise Men of 
 Greece, 68. 
 
 Plato, a learned Greek philosopher, 77, 78. 
 
 Platea, a Greek Republic, city and battlefield, 
 76. 
 
 Piatt, Thomas C, a N. Y. Senator, resigned, 
 771. 
 
 Plebs,or Plebeians,common citizens of Rome 
 74. Obtain the Dictatorship, 79. Share in 
 the priestly office, 81. Lose their share of 
 control, 87. FaU into distress resulting in 
 ci^al war, 88. Marius, the Plebeian Consul, 
 89. C^sar a champion of, 91. Support the 
 Emperors, 107. 
 
 Pliny, a learned Roman, death of, 108. 
 
 Plymouth, Company, patented by James L, 
 141. Colony, 143. 
 
 Poets, of Greece, first historians and theolo- 
 gians, 59, 63. Tragic, 77. Homer and Hesiod, 
 101. 
 
 Policy, of Assyrian Kings, 49. Spanish Colo- 
 nial, 137. Faults of the French, 140, 143L 
 English Colonial, 516, 141, 145. Indian, of U. 
 S., 368. Foreign of U. S. Government, 249 
 
 Pontiac, a gifted Indian Chief, 153. 
 
 Pontiac's War, in the West in 1763, 150, 15i. 
 
 Pilate, Roman Governor of Judea, 89. 
 
 Pontus, a Greek Kingdom in Asia Minor, 89. 
 
 Pompeii, Italian city destroyed by eruption 
 of Vesuvius, 108. 
 
 Pompey, Roman General and Statesman, 
 
 rival of Caesar, 90, 91. 
 Popes, of Rome, origin of political power of, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 835 
 
 114, 116. Adrian I. and Stephen II., 115. 
 German Emperors and, 120. 
 
 Population, early increase of leads to po- 
 litical organization, 40. Mixed character of 
 promotes kingly power, 41. Of Colonies in 
 America, 143, 146, 148. Of Acadia (Nova 
 Scotia), 151. English in 1765, 154. Census 
 of, 195, 355, 801. Of cities, 804, 805, 806. Cen- 
 ter of in U. S., 454. Conclusions from 
 Statistics of, 568. 
 
 Port Royal, first French settlement in Aca- 
 dia (Nova Scotia), 140. 
 
 Postal System, an index of modem progress, 
 421, 423. In the Thirteen Colonies, 422. 
 Progress of, 423 to 425. Cards, 425. Cars a 
 travelling Post Office, 425. International 
 Union, 428, 430. Laws, 433. Working of, 
 438. 
 
 Post Office Department, 433. Bureaus of, 434 
 to 437. Finances of, 429. Universal, by 
 Convention of Paris, 431. 
 
 Postmastei--General, 223. Duties of, 433. First 
 Assistant, 434. Second and Third Assist- 
 ant, 435. 
 
 Postmasters, local, 425. Small amount of 
 money lost by from 1877 to 1880, 429. 
 
 Post Offices, 422. Number and increase by 
 decades, 423. 
 
 Post Roads, what are and length, 430. 
 
 Portuguese, discover route to India, 122. 
 Settled Brazil, 138. 
 
 Precedents, English, 129. Make up the 
 linglish Constitution, 219, 478. In American 
 Government, 236, 477 to 480. 
 
 Preemption, nature of, 388,389. Laws, 389 to 
 392. 
 
 President, of United States, his powers, 201 
 to 203, 215, 224, 225, 228, 232 to 236. In I' oreign 
 Affairs, 202, 246, 247, 249, 254, 255. Relations 
 of to Congress, 198, 202, 203, 213, 232, 235, 246, 
 256, 463. Message of, 203, 464. Relations of 
 to the Treasury, 346, 249. Relations of to 
 the Army, 202, 324, 331. Relations of to the 
 Navy, 202, 340. Relations of to the Terri- 
 tories, 355; to the Postofflce Department, 
 433. Relations of to Attorney General, 444. 
 Relations of to Supreme Judiciary, 202. 233, 
 492. Salary and residence of, ;236. Qualifica- 
 tions of, 237. Elections of, 201, 309, 666, 669, 
 671, 674, 676, 678, 683, 689, 690, 693. 694, 696, 698, 
 700, 703, 708, 710, 713, 715, 746, 751, 755, 764, 770. 
 Of Senate, 196, 338, 459. 
 
 Presidents of Continental Congress, 212. 
 
 Pretorian Guard, of Roman Emperors, 111. 
 
 ^'Previous Question," The, 466. See Parlia- 
 mentary Rules. 
 
 Printing, influence of invention of, 121. Gov- 
 ernment Office, 481-3. 
 
 Printer, Congressional or Public, 481. 
 
 Priesthood, early establishment of, 43. Assyx^ 
 ian, 47. Of Egypt, 54. Services of Egyp- 
 tian, 55, Chaldean, 67, 71. Roman, 81. 
 
 Private Entrj-, of lands, 387. 
 
 Protection, Policy of, 381 to 284. 
 
 Probate C(Mn-ts, of States, 529. 
 
 Probus, a Roman Emperor, 111. 
 
 Progress, early, 60. Of Greeks, 61. Difficul- 
 ties of with the ancients, 96. Of the people, 
 123, 133. Modem, 124, 762. Anglo-Saxong 
 pioneers of, 126. 
 
 Proofs in pension claims, 410 to 420. 
 
 Psammeticus, an Egyptian King, 69. 
 
 Ptolemies of last Egyptian Dynasty, 56, 81. 
 
 Public Lands, of U. S., extent of, 358, 373, 375. 
 Survey of, 375. Sales of Agricultural, 383. 
 Government donations of, 383. Lands other 
 than farming, 385 to 385. Offices for dis- 
 posal of, 386. How to secure, 387 to 401. 
 
 Public Credit, the want of during the Revo- 
 lution, 190, 265. Distress for want of after 
 the Peace, 664. Provisions to sustain by 
 Constitution, 198, 265, 266. Dependence of 
 b'lsiness on, 268, 300, 301. Success of Eng- 
 lish Statesman in sustaining, 302. Means 
 for sustaining defective in U. S. before Civil 
 War, 303. Success of Amei'ican financiers 
 in creating, 303 to 307, 316. National Banks 
 aided, 319, 322. 
 
 Public Debt, The Finances and, 299. At the 
 close of the Revolution, 362. Fluctuations 
 in, 303, 308. Management of the in Eng- 
 land, 302; in United States, 309 to 315. In 
 each year since 1790, 314. In 1881, 773. 
 
 Public Works, conducted by various Depart- 
 ments, 356. 
 
 Public Opinion, its influence under a Pai^ 
 liamentary Government, 337. Exercised 
 in America through party organizations, 
 338. Expressed at the polls, 335. Power of 
 American, 231. 
 
 Punic Wars, those of Rome with Carthage so 
 
 called, 83. 
 Pydna, an ancient city in Macedonia, 86. 
 
 Pyrenees, Mountains between Spain and 
 France, 8;5, 115. 
 
 Quebec, visited by Jacques Cartier, 138. 
 Founded by French, 140. Taken by Eng- 
 lish, 1.53. Attacked by Americans, 160. 
 
 Quartermaster-General, Bureau of, 327. 
 
 Railroads, surveys for Pacific made, 711. 
 
836 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cnion Pacific chartered by Congress, 729. 
 Completion of Union Pacific, 752, 357, 559. 
 Southern Pacific. 656. Noithern Pacific, 659. 
 Accounts, Bureau of. 359. 
 
 Railway System,development of U. S by., 271, 
 429, 559, 568. In postal service, 436. Postal 
 cars of, 437. Extent of, 572. 
 
 Ealeigh, Sir Walter, 138. Capital of Xorth 
 Carolina, 593. 
 
 Ratio of Representation, from the adoption 
 of the Constitution, 195, 453. In 1881, 454. 
 
 Ravenna, Exarch of, 114. 
 
 Refunding, of U. S. Bonds, its nature, 314. 
 Commencement and progress of, 315,768. 
 
 Reforms, slow gro-svth of, 125. Need of in 
 English Parliament before Revolution, 155. 
 In England influenced by America, 133, 221. 
 Progress of in England, 450. Of U. S. Ci\-il 
 Service depend on the people, 229. 
 
 Registry System, in Post Oifice, when be- 
 gun, 426. Mode of operating, 427. Sers-ice 
 performed by, 428. 
 
 Regulus, a Roman General, 82. 
 
 Religion, beginnings of,42,43. Systems of ma- 
 tured by intermingling of races, 36. Of 
 Greeks, 63. Of Romans, 74. Origin and in- 
 fluence of the Christian, 97, 100, 105. Treat- 
 ment of by U. S. Government 331. 
 
 Remus, twin brother of Romulus, first King 
 of Rome, 66. 
 
 Republic, The Roman, 82. Decay of, 87. 
 
 Republics, in Greece, 65, 68. Commercial of 
 Italy, and German Free Cities, 121. 
 
 Reprieve, definition of, 525. 
 
 Representative Government, in England, 129, 
 155, 516. In the Colonies, 142, 157. In the 
 States, 526. 
 
 Representatives, House of, election and term 
 of members of, 195, 197, 450, 451, 452. Num- 
 ber of from each State, 196, 454. Organiza- 
 tion of, 196, 469, 460. Standing Committees 
 of, 461. Compensation of determined by 
 law, 197. Special powers of, 198, 454. Quali- 
 fications of, 195, 453. 
 
 Resumption, of specie payment, 305, 306. Ef- 
 fect of, 315, 768. 
 
 Responsible Ministry, or Parliamentary Gov- 
 ernment, established in England, 129, 145, 
 215. Establishment in other countries, 216, 
 221. Contrasted with American system, 225, 
 226, 466. Advantages of, 227, 466. 
 
 Resolutions, of Congress, 473. Joint, 471. 
 
 Returns Ofiice, of Interior Department, 263. 
 
 Revised Statutes of Congress, 475. Laws of 
 cited, 397, 403, 418, 556. 
 
 Revenue, of U. S. Government, authorized 
 198, 265. How originated, 266, 465, 470. Man- 
 aged by Sec. of Treasury, 272. Useful pro\is- 
 ion of the Constitution, 280. How raised, 
 280. Service, how constituted and con- 
 ducted, 285. Officers and collection of cus- 
 toms, 285 to 289. Cutters, how employed, 
 289, 290. Internal Service, conduct of, 293, 
 293. 
 
 Revolutionary War, origin of illegal taxa- 
 tion, 156. Resistance of Colonies and obsti- 
 nacy of Home Government, 156. Repeal of 
 ta.xes ^vith insistence on the principle, 157. 
 Resistance met with force, 159. Success of 
 resistance, 160, 178. Conciliation too late, 
 179. Campaigns of 1776 Lo 1781, 178 to 185. 
 
 Rhode Island, State of, 586. 
 
 Rhodes, island in MediteiTanean Sea, 69. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, French attempted settlement of, 
 138. 
 
 Riots, in New Orleans, 748. In Georgia, 750 
 
 In New York, 753. 
 Rochambeau, Count, commander of French 
 
 in assisting Americans in Revolution, 183, 
 
 185. 
 
 Rome, founded B. C. 753, 66. Institutions and 
 organization, 67. Kings of, 69, 73. Republic 
 of, 71. Spirit of people of, 74. Wars and 
 Laws of, 77, 81. Taken by Gauls, 79. Con- 
 stitution of completed, 81. Carthage and, 
 82 to 83. Conquests of Greeks by, 86, 87. 
 Corrupted by conquest and spoil, 87. Mur- 
 der of the Gracchi, 88. Consulship of 
 Marius, 89. Sylla and first "Trum%irate," 
 90. Triumph and death of Caesar, 91. Sec- 
 ond "Trium^irate" and Empire, 93. Em- 
 pire under Augustus, 93, 106. Causes of 
 the fall of the Republic and Empire, 94 to 
 97, 98. Character and succession of the 
 Emperors of, 107 to 113. 
 
 Romulus, twin founder and first King of 
 Rome, 66, 67. 
 
 Royal Governors, of American Colonies, 147, 
 518, 521. 
 
 Rubicon, a river of Italy, boundary of Csesar's 
 province, 91. 
 
 Rutilius, Roman Dictator, the first Plebeian 
 
 79. 
 Sabines, an early Italian tribe joined with 
 
 Romans, 67. 
 Sagas, mythic histories and doctrines of 
 
 Skandina-\-ia, 33. 
 Saguntum, a city of ancient Spain, 83. 
 St. Louis, Mo., Settlement of, 148. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 837 
 
 St. Lawrence Gulf and River, discovered, 138. 
 English invaded Canada by, 153. 
 
 Salamis, a navel battle of Themistocles, 76. 
 
 Saline Lands, containing the salts of different 
 minerals, 383. 
 
 Sapor, a Persian King of the time of the 
 Roman Empire, 110. 
 
 Sardinia, an island in the Mediterranean, 83. 
 
 Sardis, Capital of ancient Lydia, 75. 
 
 Saracens, Mohammedans of Asia, Northern 
 Africa and Spain, 115. 
 
 Saxons, a German tribe, 113, 137. See Anglo- 
 Saxons. 
 
 Scalds, poets of the ancient Teutons, 34. 
 
 Schenectady, massacre of, 146. 
 
 School Districts, in politics, 540. 
 
 Scipio, Africanus, conqueror of Carthage, 84, 
 86. The younger, 86. 
 
 Scots, a wild tribe in North Britain, 113. 
 
 Scythians, wandering Turanians of Asia, 45. 
 Invade Assyria, 49. 
 
 Sea Kings, naval leaders of Northmen, 134. 
 
 Seal, Great, of the U. S., 244. 
 
 Secretary of State, of the U.S., duties as such, 
 340 to 243. Assistants and organization of 
 Department of, 242. Duties as Foreign 
 Minister, 240, 246, 247, 251, 256; as to pass- 
 ports, 2.53. Of the States, 535. 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury, properly Minister 
 of Finance, 369, 270. Controlled by the 
 President, 240. Influence of Secretaries on 
 American history, 270, 271. ;General duties 
 of, 272, 373. Organization of his department, 
 273 to 277. 
 
 Secretary of War, relation of to the President 
 and the army, 324. Duties of. 325. Organi- 
 zation of Department of, 326 to 329. 
 
 Secretary of the Navy, relations of to the 
 President and the Navy, 341. Organization 
 of his Department, 341 to 346. 
 
 Secretary of the Interior, why one was not 
 provided before 1849, 353. Is Secretary of 
 State for Home Affairs, 3.54. Duties of, as 
 to Territories, 354, 355; to Government 
 Asylums in District of Columbia, 355. Or- 
 ganization of Bureaus in his Department, 
 355 to 306. Great extent of his duties,3(>6, 369. 
 
 Secession of Southern States, inducement to, 
 711, 714, 710 to 721. Ordinances of, 718, 719, 
 730, 723, 733. 
 
 Sections of the U. S., before the Civil War, 
 558. How growth abolished them, ,558. The 
 new Sectiims taking their places, 559. 
 Unity of, 559. Diversity of, 560. Advan- 
 
 tages of the new, 559, 560. The value of a 
 Federal Union in respect to, 561. Economic 
 results to flow from relations and resources 
 of, 563 to 564. Geological forces In prepara- 
 tion of for agricultiu-e, .564, .565. Local re- 
 sources of each of the, 565, 566. 
 
 Secretary of Senate of U. S., Duties of, 459. 
 Seleucus, ruler of part of conquests of Alex- 
 ander, 81. 
 
 Seleucidiie, dynasty of Seleucus, 81. 
 Semites, second of the three great races of 
 
 Asia, 31. Early and present location of, 33. 
 
 Nations springing from, 40, 50. 
 
 Semiramis, Queen of Babylon, 48. 
 
 Senate, of Rome, its authority, 73, 74. Un- 
 friendly to Cicsar, 91. 
 
 Senate of U. S., establishment of the, 195. 
 Special powers of the in impeachments, 
 195, 451, 491. In connection with appoint- 
 ments to office, 303, 338, 457. In the making 
 of treaties, 202, 233, 346, 457. Number of 
 members of, 176, 455. Superiority of to Up- 
 per Houses in other Govei-nments, 455, 4.57. 
 Represents the Federal side of the Ameri- 
 can Union, 4.56. The good fortune and 
 sagacity shown in structure of, 4,56, 4,57. 
 Success of French in partially imitating, 
 457. Organization of the, 196, 459 to 463. 
 Presiding Officer of the, 196, 33S, 459. 
 
 Senates of the States, 527. 
 
 Senators of all the States to 1881 : Virginia, 
 575; New Vork, 577; Massachusetts, 579; 
 New Hampshire, 581; Connecticut, 583; 
 Maryland, ,585; Rhode Island, 587: New 
 Jersey, .589; Delaware, .591 ; North Carolina, 
 593; South Carolina, 595; Pennsylvania, .597; 
 Georgia, 600; Vermont, 601; Kentucky, 603; 
 Tennessee, 005; Ohio, 007; Louisiana, 610; 
 Indiana, 613; Mississippi, 614; Illinois, 616; 
 Alabama, 618; Maine, 619; Missouri, 631; 
 Michigan, 033; Arkansas, 034; Florida, 026; 
 Iowa, 630; Texas, 631; Wisconsin, 6;B; Cali- 
 fornia, 635; Minnesota, 637; Oregon, 039; 
 Kansas, 641; West Virginia, 643; Nevada, 
 644; Nebraska, 640; Colorado, 047. Of the 
 Forty-Seventh Congress, 797. 
 
 Septimus Severus, Roman Emperor, 109. 
 
 Sergeant-at-Arms, executive officer in Con- 
 gress, 459. 
 
 Seward, Wm. H., Secretary of State, 715. Atr 
 tempted assassination of, 743. Death of, 754. 
 Shahnaneser I., King of Assyria, 47. II., 48, 68. 
 Shays Rebellion, in Mass., 064. 
 Sicily, a large island near Italy, 67. 
 Sidon, a city of Phcnicia, 56. 
 
838 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Signal Service, Bureau of, 33. Object and 
 
 history of, 337. 
 Sisters in Pension Claims, 415. 
 Sites, Town, Public land for reserved, 385. 
 Smithsonian Institution, History of ,487. Ends 
 
 sought by, 488. Oi'ganization and ofiScers 
 
 of, 489. 
 Socrates, an eminent Greek philosopher, 77. 
 
 Death of, 79, 101. 
 Solon, Athenian Lawgiver, 68, 101. 
 Solomon, King of Israel, 48. 
 
 Soldiers and Sailors Homesteads, 398 to 401. 
 
 Soldiers Homes, Military Asj^lums, Support 
 of, 338. Management of, 339. 
 
 Sophocles, a Greek poet, 77. 
 
 South Carolina, \isited by Verrazzani, 138; by 
 French Huguenots, 138. The State of, 594. 
 State constitution of adopted, 523. 
 
 Sovereignty, Central or IS ational, extent of, 
 531, 533. Denial of, 534. Rests on Local, 535. 
 State, 530. Limited by grant to Central 
 Government, 832. States share in National, 
 .533. States Supreme in local questions, 535. 
 Of the people, 537, 543. Advantages of 
 Local, 542, 549. Defects of local in England, 
 542, 543, 548. In France, 550. In Belgium, 
 Holland and Germany, 551. 
 
 Sparta, a countiy and city of Greece, 64. 
 
 Spain, a country in Europe, in the time of 
 Columbus, 135. Discoveries of in America, 
 136. Character of Colonists and conquests 
 of in America, 137, 139. Settlement of 
 Florida by, 149. Became an ally of America 
 in the Revolution, 183. Intrigues of in 
 Mississippi Valley, 190, 675. Purchase of 
 Florida from proposed, 677. Purchase of 
 Florida from effected by U. S., 690. 
 
 Specie, as money of the world, 294, 295. Re- 
 sumption of payments by U. S. Govern- 
 ment, meaning of, 295. Cannot soon be 
 laid aside as ballast of a currency, 296. 
 Coinage of by U. S. Mints, 296, 297. Amount 
 in U. S. in 1880, 812. 
 
 Specie Circular, of 1837, 698. 
 
 Stone Lands, special regulations concerning, 
 385. 
 
 States, the original thirteen, their wisdom 
 and success, 521. Gradual growth of free 
 government in colonies forming, 521 to 523.. 
 Constitution adopted by, 193. Transfer of 
 sovei-eignty from, 193, 531. Powers for- 
 bidden to, 200, 5.32. Revision of their Con- 
 stitutions after Dec. of Ind., 523. Admis- 
 sions of new into the Union, 305. See 
 individual States. 
 
 Statesmen, American, their ability not de» 
 
 dining, 472. 
 
 Statutes of U. S., 474. Revised, 475. 
 "Star" Routes, of Postal System, why so 
 called, 430. 
 
 Steam, as applied a centralizing power, 563. 
 Stephens, Alexander H., Vice-President of 
 
 Confederate States, 220. 
 Suffrage, manhood the basis of, 553. See 
 
 Franchise. 
 
 Sullivan, Gen., of the Revolution, 182. 
 
 Sumter, a daring partisan of the Revolution 
 183. 
 
 Surgery and Medicine, Bureau of, 345. 
 Surgeon-General, Bureau of the, 328. 
 Superintendent of, Public Documents,362. Of 
 Money Order System, 436. 
 
 Survey, Coast, history and management of, 
 
 278. 
 
 Surveying, system employed by U. S., 358 
 375 to 381. 
 
 Surveys, Chief Clerk of, 357. 
 
 Supreme Court, power of, 493. Respect for,. 
 444. Organization, 496. Sessions, 496. Busi- 
 ness of, 497. Jurisdiction of, 498. Officers- 
 of, 499. Of States, 528. 
 
 SyUa, a bloody Roman Consul, 90. 
 
 Syracuse, a Greek city in Sicily, 67, 84. 
 
 Tacitus, a Roman Emperor, 111. 
 
 Tariff, of Customs Duties, for revenue, 280. A 
 high, desirable to pay Public Debt, 283. To 
 encourage manufactures, 282. Incidenta, 
 "protection" of a, 281. Objections to a Pro- 
 tective, 283, 283. Future of th^, 284. 
 
 Tarleton, Col., a British officer of the Revolu- 
 tion, defeated Sumter, 183. Beaten at Cow- 
 pens, 184, 
 
 Taylor, Gen , in Seminole War, 699. In Mexi- 
 can War, 703, 704, 705. Becomes President, 
 707. Administration of, 708. Death of, 709. 
 
 Teutons, mythology of, 33. Invade Western 
 Europe, 83. 
 
 Territories, Government of the, 355. 
 
 Territory, Organization of Northwest, 665. 
 War in Northwest, 668. Dakota, 651. Ai-izona, 
 652. Idaho, 654. Montana, 654.New Mexico, 
 655. Utah, 656. Washington, 658. Alaska, 
 659. Wyoming, 660. Indian, 661. 
 
 Temple, of Janus, 83, 93. Of Jerusalem, 71. 
 
 Texas, secures independence, 704. Seeks ad- 
 mission into the Union, 702. Admission of» 
 703. State of, 629. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 839 
 
 Thales, an early Greek Philosopher, 68. 
 Thebes, the ancient Capital of Egypt, 54. A 
 
 city republic in Greece, 78. 
 Themistocles, Greek General in the Persian 
 
 War, 76. Death of, 77. 
 Thermopylie, a city and mountain pass in 
 
 Greece, 66, 76. 
 Thrace, a country in Europe northeast of 
 
 Greece, 75. 
 Theodosius, a Roman-Greek Einperoi-, 119. 
 Theodoric, King of Ostrogoths, lU. 
 Theology, of early nations, 34. 
 Thessaly, a country in Europe near Greece, 
 
 91. 
 
 Thucydides, a Greek writer, 103. 
 Tiberius, a Roman Emperor, 107. 
 Tiberius Gracchus, 88. 
 Tiglath-Pileser, King of Assyria, 47. 
 Tigris, a branch of the Euphrates, river, 43, 
 
 45. Center of live monarchies, 53. 
 Timber, Lands,;385. Culture Laws, 393. Culture 
 
 Claims, 397. 
 Titus, a Roman Emperor, 107. 
 Tonnage, Duties on, 387. Foreign, 388. 
 Tompkins, D. D., Vice-President, 689. 
 Town, Sites of on Public Lands, 385. A 
 
 division of the County, .537. Popular action 
 
 in the, 538. The English, 539. American 
 
 System, .539, .540. 
 Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome, 69. 
 Turanians, tlrst of the three great races of 
 
 Asia, 31, 33, 45. 
 Tuscaroras. Indians of North Carolina, 147. 
 Traditions, of primitive nations, 39, 43. Of 
 
 Semiramis, 48. Of the Greeks, religious, 
 
 .58, 59, 63. Heroic, 60, 61. 
 Trade, English Board of, .518. Restrictions of 
 
 colonial, 145, 149. Free, 383, 384. Marks, 363. 
 
 Treaties relating to, 190, 354, 360. Relation 
 
 of Secretary of State to, 342. Of consuls to, 
 
 251 to 2.53. 
 
 Trajan, Roman Emperor, 108. 
 
 Treasury, The, of the U. S. 265. Embarrass- 
 ments for waiit of under the Confederation, 
 181,188, 265, 663, 664. Relief on the creation of 
 the, 266, 668. History of the, 366, 367, 368. 
 Secretary of the, 269; relations to the, 273. 
 Comptrollers of the, 273. Accounts of the, 
 273. WaiTants, 273. Guards of the, 374. 
 Register of the, 275. The principal at Wash- 
 ington, 275. Sub-Treasuries, 275. Sub- 
 Treasury Bill passed, 699; repealed, 701. 
 
 Department, 376, 377. Notes, Demand 
 Notes, 682, 687, 311, 304. Depreciation of De 
 mand Notes, 304 to 306. Amount of issues 
 of Notes during Ci%il War, 311, 313. Fimd- 
 ing of Notes, 313, 315. 
 
 Treaty, of Peace after the Revolution, 186. 
 After war of 1813, 687. Of 1830 with Spain 
 for Florida, 690. With Turkey, ()9.5. With 
 Japan, 711. Boundary, 3.56 to 361, 701. Ex- 
 tradition with Mexico, 261 to 364. With 
 Russia, 749. With China, etc., 771. With 
 Iroquois, or Si.x Nations, 664. With Tripoli, 
 678. 
 
 Treaty-making powers, 303, 354, 457, 477. 
 Treaties, Commercial, 664, 670, 690. Indian, 
 
 369, 370, 371, 664, 671. Extradition, 355, 771. 
 Trials, of Impeachments, 196, 491. 
 Tribes, Ten of Israel, 68. Of Teutonic race, 
 
 136. Became Kingdoms in England, 138. 
 
 Hengist and Horsa Chiefs of, 136. Of 
 
 Greeks, 61. 
 
 Ti'ibunes of the People, of Rome, 75, 91. 
 Tripoli, War with, 675. Peace with, 678. 
 Triumvirate, division of the rule of the 
 
 Roman world among three Consuls, First,90. 
 
 Second, 93. 
 
 Troy, in Asia Minor, Traditions of, 61. 
 
 Tyler, John, President, administration of, 701. 
 
 Tyrants, of Greek cities, 65. Thirty of 
 Athens, 78. Thirty, of Roman Empire, 
 so-called, 110. 
 
 Tyre, chief city of Phenicia, 50, 56, 66, 80. 
 
 United States, name of, selected at the Declar- 
 ation of Indopendence,166; repeated in Con- 
 stitution,195. Wealth of,316. Bank of,318,668, 
 688. Armyof, a33. Navy of, 347. Statutes 
 of, 474, 475. Congress of, 195, 448. Presi- 
 dent of, 301, 232. Vice-President of, 238. 
 Judiciary of, 303, 493. Thi-ee great sections 
 of, 559. Surface geology of, .564. Soil of, 
 .565. Population of, 568, 801. Great Seal of, 
 344, 245. Flag of, 690, 289, 354. Centennial 
 of, 261, 262. Government of, 213, 793. The 
 two bases of, 561. 
 
 Utrecht, Peace of, 149. 
 
 Valley Forge, Washington's winter quarters 
 in winter of 1777-8, 181. 
 
 Valens, a Roman Emperor, 113. 
 
 Valerian, a Roman Empei'or, 110. 
 
 Valentinian, a Roman Emperor, 113. 
 
 Van Buren, Martin, Vice-President, 694. Ad- 
 ministration of as President, 698. 
 
 Vandals, invade Roman Empire, 113. 
 
c 
 
 840 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, receives thanks of 
 Congi-ess, 737. 
 
 Varus, a Koman General defeated by Ger- 
 mans, 107. 
 
 Vasco Nufiez de Balboa, discovers Pacific 
 Ocean, 136. 
 
 Vedas, sacred literature of India, 33. 
 
 "Veil, city of ancient Italy, 79. 
 
 Vermont, State of, 601. 
 
 Verrazzani, discoverer for French, 137. 
 
 Vesuvius, volcano in Italy, 108. 
 
 Vessels, Inspector of steam,291. Of the Na^T ^ 
 374. Of U. S. in 1880, 797. ' 
 
 Vespasian, Roman Emperor, 108. 
 
 Villegagnon, early French settler in South 
 America, 138. 
 
 V inland, discovered and named by North 
 men, 131. 
 
 Virgil, Roman poet, 33. 
 
 Virginia, settlement of, 141. Growth of, 143 
 State of, 573. 
 
 Vitellius, Roman Emperor, 107. 
 
 Visigoths, invade Roman Empire, 113, 114. 
 
 Vice-President of U. S., position and duties 
 of, 202, 238. Qualifications of, 239. Election 
 of— First, 666. Second, 669. Third, 671." 
 Fourth, 674. Fifth, 676. Sixth, 678. Sev- 
 enth, 682. Eighth, 689. Ninth, 690. Tenth, 
 694. Eleventh, 694. Twelfth, 696. Thir- 
 teenth, 698. Fourteenth, 700. Fifteenth, 
 702. Sixteenth, 708. Seventeenth, 710, 
 Eighteenth, 713. Nineteenth, 715. Twen. 
 tieth, 746. Twenty-first, 751. Twenty-sec- 
 ond, 755. Twenty-third, 764. Twenty-fourth- 
 770. 
 
 War, early civilization promoted by, 44. Mild 
 policy of Assyrians in conquests by, 49. 
 Ultimate disadvantage of, 58. EfEect of 
 among the early Greeks, 36, 58. The 
 Trojan, 61. Training to in Sparta, 64. The 
 Messenian, 67. Of Persia on Greece, 75, 76_ 
 The Peloponnesian, 78. Of Greeks on Per- 
 sians, 80. The Punic, 82. Of Hannibal in 
 Italy, 83. Roman State formed for, 84. Of 
 Romans in the East, 86, 87. Ci\il in Rome, 
 88 to 93. Of barbarians on Roman Empire, 
 110 to 114. Success of Carlovingian in pro- 
 moting modern ciAihzation, 115. Feudal 
 
 mode of making, 118. The religious of the 
 Crusades, 119, 120. Of Anglo-Saxons in 
 England, 126, 137, 136. Of Iroquois on 
 French Canada, 144. Between French and 
 English Colonies, 146 to 153. Pontiac's, 150. 
 Revolutionary, 149, 160, 178 to 186. Depart- 
 ment and Secretary of, 222, 324. Articles 
 of, 329. ■ 
 
 Wars of U. S., Revolutionary, 178. Naval with 
 France, 673. With Tripoli, 675. Of 1812 with 
 England, 680. With Algiers, 683. Semin- 
 ole, 690. Black Hawk, 695 With Mexico, 
 703. The Civil, 716, 
 
 Washington, George, in the "Old French 
 War," 1.52. In the Revolution, 160, 178 to 186. 
 Resigns his commission, 663. In the Con- 
 stitutional Convention, 190, 217, ==65. Trus 
 of the people in, 316, 669. Administration 
 of as President, 663. Death of, 673. 
 
 Washington, Lawrence, brother of Genera 
 George, 151. 
 
 Washington, Capital of the U. S., 236, 607, 673 
 678. 
 
 Wayne, Gen. Anthony, in the Revolution, 183 
 
 Wolfe, British General in the "Old Frenc- 
 War," 153. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, the great American Const! 
 tutional Statesman, Death of, 710. 
 
 West Virginia, separation from Virginia 
 733, 724, 733. State of, 641. 
 
 Wheeler. William A., Vice-President of TJ. S. 
 765. 
 
 Widows, in pension claims, 413. 
 
 William III., King of England, 139. 
 
 Wisconsin,. State of, 631. 
 
 Wise Men, Seven of Greece, 68. 
 
 Witanagemot, or Wittenagemot, Legislativ 
 Assembly, or Parliament, of early Anglo, 
 Saxons, 127, 128,129, 538.] 
 
 Xerxes, King of Persia, 76, 77. 
 
 Xenophon, Greek General and historian, 78 
 103. 
 
 Yemassees Indians of South Carolina, 147. 
 
 Zama, Battle of, final defeat of Hannibal, 84. 
 
 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 110. 
 
 Zoroaster, Persian religious reformer, 600 B. 
 C, 51.