: LIBRARY OF- CONGRESS. 
 
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 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2010 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/grassescloversfiOOshaw 
 
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 WRITTEN BY 
 
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 Of the University of Minnesota. 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
 
 MOFPETT, THURSTON & PLANK PTG. CO. 
 
 1895. 
 
Entered according to act of Congress 
 in the year 1895 by the 
 
 NORTHRUP, BRAS LAN, GOODWIN CO., 
 
 In the office of the 
 Libra.rian of Congress at Washington. 
 
 n"^ 
 
^ 
 
 PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 
 
 Every season we are in receipt of a great many letters asking in- 
 . formation on tiie subjects which are discussed in this booi<. In our 
 desire to answer these questions correctly and in a manner that would 
 be useful to our correspondents, it became apparent to us, as it has no 
 doubt been clear to nearly everyone who operates a farm, that there 
 was no book in existence that handled these important subjects in a 
 really clear and practical manner. We determined to have such a 
 book. The next question with us was, whom should we get to write 
 it. There are some writers who know a good deal, but cannot tell it. 
 There are others who write a good deal but do not know it. What 
 we were after was a man who knew and could tell it in a way that 
 would be readily understood by everyone who could read. We finally 
 fixed on such a man, Professor Thomas Shaw, a thorough student, a 
 practical farmer, and one who possesses in a rare degree the gift of 
 imparting information in such a manner as to interest and instruct 
 every one who reads. We said to Professor Shaw, "We want a book 
 that will enable the farmer who consults it to decide : 
 
 First— What is best for his land and purpose. 
 
 Second— How to prepare his ground. 
 
 Third— How to sow the seed. 
 
 Fourth— How to take care of the crop. 
 
 Fifth— How to harvest it. 
 
 Sixth-How to feed it." 
 We will leave it to the reader to judge as to how well Professor 
 Shaw and ourselves have succeeded in the work as it stands. 
 
 This book should prove interesting and instructive to farmers 
 everywhere, but it will be found of especial value throughout the 
 Northwest. We have faith in the future of the Northwest. We 
 believe that out of the conditions that have prevailed during the 
 last few years, it will arise stronger than ever before. The low price 
 of wheat will compel attention to other crops. Great changes have 
 
already taken place. In our experience in the seed business in Minne- 
 sota, covering a period of something over ten years, we can see already 
 a great advancement. Ten years ago it was not thought possible to 
 raise any good variety of corn in Minnesota, outside of the southern 
 tier of counties. The variety in common use in the immediate vicinity 
 of Minneapolis was a small-eared, shallow corn called the "Michigan 
 Row Dent," which was in fact nearly a flint. At the present time this 
 variety has been altogether discarded, having given place to such well- 
 known sorts as the Minnesota King, Pride of the North, Dakota Dent, 
 etc., and it will not be more than a year or two when these will be 
 superseded by even better varieties which have been brought from the 
 South gradually by us so as to acclimate them to this climate. In less 
 than five years' time, the state of Minnesota will be growing as good 
 corn, as large corn, and as many bushels to the acre as are now pro- 
 duced in the states of Iowa, Illinois and Nebraska. A few years ago, 
 the only variety of corn that was known, or that was thought possible 
 to be produced in North Dakota was the Squaw Corn. In its place we 
 now have varieties like the Minnesota King, Mercer, Pride of Dakota, 
 etc., which not only give a large yield of ears but an abundance of 
 fodder. We take considerable satisfaction in the thought that we have 
 been instrumental in acclimating and introducing most of these varie- 
 ties into the Northwest. Not many years ago it was thought impos- 
 sible that timothy and clover could thrive in Minnesota. To-day 
 Minnesota grown seed of these varieties commands the highest price 
 amongst seed buyers, all over the United States. It is such facts as 
 these that lead us to look confidently to more rapid developments even* 
 owing to the pressure necessity exerts. 
 
 We should be pleased to hear from all those who read this book, 
 as to how well it meets their views and needs. 
 
 Very truly, 
 NORTHRUP, BRASLAN, GOODWIN CO. 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn., January 1, 1895. 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 This book was written for the publishers at their request and 
 with the sanction and approval of the Agricultural Committee of the 
 Board of Regents of the State of Minnesota. It is intended to sup- 
 ply in some degree the great dearth of practical literature on the 
 subjects of which it treats. When writing it, the Author's aim was 
 to render it helpful to the farmers of this Republic, and more espe- 
 cially to those located in the newer sections thereof, where experi- 
 ence in growing many valuable farm products is as yet very limited, 
 and in some instances entirely wanting. 
 
 THOMAS SHAW. 
 University Experiment Station, [ 
 ST. Anthony Park, Minn., Dec.,'94. j 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Great importance Relatively of Grass, Forage, 
 fodder and root crops. 
 
 The grass crop of the world is the most important crop by far that 
 mother earth produces. No other crop is so necessary to the suste- 
 nance of the various forms of animal life, nor is there any which 
 covers so large an area. Even in rich, arable sections distinguished 
 for growing cereals there is usually a larger area devoted to grass than 
 to any other variety of crop. And here it may be mentioned that the 
 term grass is meant to include all the varieties of clover. 
 
 In no other way can soil fertility and soil moisture be so easily 
 maintained as by growing grass in one or the other of its various 
 forms, and in no other way can the comparative density of the soil be 
 kept so perfectly in equilibrium. It follows, therefore, that more atten- 
 tion should be given relatively to the growing of grasses than to the 
 growing of other crops. 
 
 ' But there are special reasons why the grass crop should receive 
 most careful attention at the hands of the farmers in that section of 
 the United States and Canada, usually spoken of as the Northwest. 
 These grow out of the comparative dryness of the climate in that re- 
 gion, the relatively small yields furnished by the upland native prairie, 
 the dry and woody character of the grasses which grow upon it during 
 the whole of the autumn, the much larger yields that will be obtained 
 from certain varieties of the cultivated grasses, and the greater power 
 which some of these possess to crowd out nearly all forms of noxious 
 weed life. 
 
 While it is well to recognize the fact that some kinds of grass will 
 always grow more shyly and less luxuriantly in the Northwest than in 
 
8 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants . 
 
 a more humid climate, it sliould be remembered that many kinds of 
 grass can be introduced with great advantage in addition to those now 
 grown. These varieties will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter. 
 In the meantime every farmer should be testing them for himself to 
 ascertain which kinds will best suit his soil and climate. He should 
 introduce them at first with a prudent caution until he has satisfied 
 himself that they have staying qualities. This once assured, they 
 may be grown to any extent desired. 
 
 The term forage crops includes such crops as are grown for pas- 
 ture or for summer feeding in addition to the grasses proper, as for in- 
 stance rye eaten off fall and spring, rape eaten off when desired, and 
 mixed grains grown and cut and fed while yet green. There is a pe- 
 culiar propriety in growing these crops in the Northwest owing to the 
 dryness of the climate and to the lack of succulence in the grasses in 
 consequence at certain seasons of the year. In the judgment of the 
 writer the successful growing of forage crops to supplement the pas- 
 tures when these are dry is the most important consideration that can 
 engage the attention of the producer of live stock. Every one thus en- 
 gaged is deeply interested in this problem and should at once set to work 
 in solving it for himself and more or less on the lines laid down in 
 Chapter IV of this book. 
 
 To secure a vigorous germination at certain seasons of the year is 
 the one real difficulty to be overcome in the growing of these forage 
 crops. But many of them may be planted or sown while there is yet 
 sufficient moisture in the ground to attain this end. The amount of 
 food which may thus be grown per acre where a due regard is had to 
 adaptation is in many instances very great. And the forage crops men- 
 tioned in the chapter referred to, have nutritive and succulent proper- 
 ties admirably adapted to the needs of various classes of live stock. 
 
 Fodder crops are those crops which are grown for winter foods, 
 exclusive of the grain taken out of the ear, and field roots, as mangels, 
 turnips and potatoes. They include such crops as corn, millet and 
 cereals cut at a stage which precludes the necessity for threshing them. 
 These crops will be still more in demand in the Northwest as the land 
 becomes occupied, and the areas for producing wild hay decrease in 
 consequence. They usually produce more food per acre than hay, and 
 in some seasons they can be grown so as to supplement a light grass 
 crop. 
 
Relative Importance of Grasses and Root Crops. 9 
 
 Field roots include such crops as mangels, turnips and carrots. 
 One variety or another of these can be grown in every section of the 
 Northwest, and indeed in all the Northern and Middle States and in 
 the Dominion of Canada from sea to sea. On suitable soils and when 
 properly grown they produce an enormous amount of food per acre. 
 And when fed as a part of the ration, more especially in the winter sea- 
 son, no other food adjunct is equal to them for keeping live stock in a 
 healthy condition, or promoting their rapid development. 
 
10 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Cultivated Grasses and Clovers 
 
 Grasses. 
 
 In this chapter only those varieties are discussed in detail which 
 have been found suitable to the conditions of the Northwest, or in ref- 
 erence to which there is a strong lil<elihood that they will be found 
 suitable to those conditions. It is more than probable that other vari- 
 eties may yet be found adapted to this country, but the discussion of 
 these at present would be foreign to the aim of this bool<. 
 
 Notwithstanding the important part that cultivated grasses anu 
 clovers will yet play in the agriculture of the Northwest, they should 
 be discussed in the meantime with a prudent caution. But little is 
 l<nown positively regarding the adaptability of some of the different 
 varieties, as several of them have not been sufficiently tested as yet; 
 and where tests have been made in many instances the conditions 
 were such that the conclusions reached have either possessed but little 
 value or have been positively misleading. In a country so large, one 
 variety for instance, may fail in one locality and prove a success in 
 another where the conditions of soil and climate are different, and the 
 opposite of this may also prove true. And in situationsfar apart where 
 the soil conditions are exactly the same, very dissimilar results may be 
 obtained in growing the same plants owing to a difference in climate. 
 
 Timothy. — Timothy [Phleiim p7'atense) is so well known that it 
 is not necessary to describe it. At present it stands crowned king of 
 all the grasses. It is probably adapted to a wider range of conditions 
 than any other variety of grass. No other variety is perhaps equal to 
 it in average yields, nor does any other variety excel it in all round 
 feeding value. It is best suited to rich, damp loam soils abounding in 
 vegetable matter. On these soils the best crops can be grown when 
 they lie upon a subsoil of average density. Clay loams are preferable 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 
 
 to sandy loams. Sandy soils produce light crops of timothy, and the 
 lighter the sand the less adapted is it to the growth of timothy. Fair 
 crops may be grown in some seasons on stiff clays. 
 
 Timothy may be sown alone in the early autumn or along with a 
 crop of rye, or it may be sown early in the spring. In the autumn it 
 should be sown in September alone or along with rye. When sown 
 late in the spring it is much more liable to be destroyed by the dry 
 weather of summer. The depth of the covering will depend on the 
 nature of the soil, the humidity of the climate and the time of sowing. 
 The lighter and more spongy the soil the deeper the covering required, 
 and the more humid the climate, and the earlier in the spring that the 
 seed is sown, the lighter will be the covering needed. When the 
 weather is moist it is not necessary to cover the seed on heavy soils. 
 On soils that do not shift with the wind the roller may provide a suffic- 
 ient covering for seed sown in the spring, but for seed sown in the au- 
 tumn it should never be thus used. On very spongy soils such as we 
 sometimes find on the prairie, the seed may be buried to the depth of 
 one inch or more. 
 
 Timothy can be sown by hand, with an attachment to the grain 
 drill, or with seeders made for the purpose. The amount of seed re- 
 quired will vary with the soil conditions and with the extent to which 
 it is grown in conjunction with other grasses. The richer the soil and 
 the finer the tilth, the less the quantity of seed required. If sown 
 alone, from 6 to 12 pounds of seed may be used. When sown with 
 clover the amount of timothy seed required will vary with the relative 
 proportion of each that may be sought, but from 4 to 6 pounds of tim- 
 othy and from 6 to 8 pounds of clover are usually deemed sufficient. 
 
 Timothy is more commonly grown for hay than for pasture, but is 
 very extensively raised for both uses. When grown for hay it may be 
 grown alone or along with other grasses and clovers. On average 
 soils it is frequently sown along with common red or mammoth clover 
 and on low soils containing much vegetable matter with alsike clover. 
 When timothy has reached full bloom it is ready to be cut for hay. It 
 cures easily and if allowed to ripen its seeds the crop is cut with the 
 binder. It is threshed with an ordinary threshing machine. 
 
 Timothy has proved itself well adapted to the Northwest. On 
 prairie soils it seldom fails to make a "stand" when sown early in the 
 season, under suitable conditions. But after it has been cut once or 
 
12 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 twice it frequently becomes so tliick in the bottom that it fails to give 
 a large return in hay. When this takes place it should be ploughed 
 under ; in other words, on prairie soils timothy meadows should be of 
 short duration. 
 
 Unlike clover, timothy does not enrich the Jand but on prairie soils 
 it accomplishes much good in another way. When a timothy mead- 
 ow is broken up it brings much moisture to the soil which is of great 
 benefit to the crop that comes after it. For this reason if for no other 
 timothy should come frequently in the rotation on prairie soils. 
 
 Blue Grass. — Blue grass {Poa pratensis) is a perennial with creep- 
 ing rootstocks. It is sometimes known as June grass, probably from 
 the fact that in the northern hemisphere it matures its seeds in the 
 month of June. It is also frequently called Kentucky blue grass. It 
 seems to grow singularly well in Kentucky, hence probably the origin 
 of the name. Indeed the term blue grass is a misnomer, as it properly 
 belongs to a variety {Poa compressa) not nearly so widely distributed 
 as June grass. The real blue grass, {Poa coinpressa) has a flat stem of 
 a blue color and the leaves also have a blueish tinge. It does not 
 mature its seeds for nearly a month after the other variety has been 
 ripe, and moreover it weighs very heavily when made into hay, 
 whereas the other variety {Poa pratensis) does not weigh so heavily, 
 nor is it of so good feeding quality. 
 
 Blue grass {Poa pratensis) is very widely distributed. It seems to 
 be a native of Europe, Asia and America. Over large portions of the 
 North American continent it does not require to be sown it is so well 
 established. Where forests have been cut away it will soon take pos- 
 session of the soil without having been sown, and there is probably 
 no grass in the northern part of the continent which can hold its own 
 against blue grass, unless it be couch grass, which is usually looked 
 upon as a weed. 
 
 Blue grass is gradually working westward and with occupancy of 
 the lands, it puts in an appearance, although it does not come so read- 
 ily in the open prairie as in those sections of the west naturally capa- 
 ble of growing timber. Nor does it grow so vigorously when it has 
 been established. Nevertheless it is doubtless destined to overrun 
 very much of the west in time, so that after land has been once culti- 
 vated and then allowed to run wild again, blue grass will be the vari- 
 ety which will take possession of such soils. Its advent in the North- 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 13 
 
 west should be encouraged, for, though it has some weak points, it is 
 much superior to the native prairie as a pasture. 
 
 Blue grass springs up early in the season. It is at its best for pro- 
 viding pasture in all the Northern States early in June, and in those 
 further to the southward in May. Then it remains dormant in summer 
 and springs into life again in the autumn with the arrival of the au- 
 tumnal rains. In Kentucky and other states in latitudes where the 
 winters are mild, this grass furnishes much food at that season. The 
 chief exception taken to blue grass in the Northwest is the long period 
 during which it lies dormant in the summer. This can in part be rem- 
 edied by refraining from pasturing too closely. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be apparent that this grass will 
 grow in almost any kind of soil, that under reasonable conditions no 
 difficulty will be found in sustaining it, and that once in the soil it is 
 likely to spring up again after the land has been cultivated. Moreover, 
 owing to the many root stocks which it produces, blue grass serves an 
 excellent purpose in putting vegetable matter in the soil which will 
 bring moisture to it when other crops have been made to follow it. Its 
 appearance therefore should be countenanced by sowing it freely where 
 it has not yet been grown. 
 
 Blue grass is grown more for pasture than for hay, and when grown 
 alone it furnishe'* the most common form of permanent pasture found in 
 America. It is seldom sown to produce hay. On old cultivated lands 
 it will come into a permanent pasture composed of mixed grasses as it 
 were spontaneously in two or three years, but its advent is hastened 
 by sowing some of the seed when the permanent pasture is laid down. 
 
 The seed is commonly sown by hand and covered with the harrow. 
 It may be put in with a nurse crop the same as other grasses. Two 
 bushels of seed are recommended per acre when blue grass is the only 
 grass sown. The seed weighs 14 lbs. per bushel. When this grass 
 has once become established it will stand any amount of cropping. 
 The cold of winter seems to have no power to kill it, and it seems 
 virtually able to endure the most prolonged drought of summer. 
 
 Blue grass must be very promptly cut when it is to be cured for 
 hay. If allowed to get too far advanced before it is cut it will be almost 
 valueless for fodder, and the same is true when it is allowed to dry too 
 much in the sun while being cured, Blue grass is ready for cutting 
 when once fully out in head. 
 
1 4 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, 
 
 Orchard Grass.— Orchard grass {Dactylis glojnerata),{stt Fig. 1) 
 is a perennial which grows vigorously on suitable soils. It is thought 
 to be a native of Europe, but is now found in North Africa, India and 
 North America. Noted for its persistent growth, it furnishes good 
 pasture in the spring and also in the autumn, ordinarily growing from 
 two to two and a half feet in height when matured. The leaves are 
 numerous, large and somewhat coarse. The heads are branched rather 
 than single. 
 
 This grass is possessed of wonderful adaptation to various soils 
 and climates, and to different modes of treatment. As the name im- 
 plies, it is well suited to shady places, such as orchards and groves, 
 where the foliage is not too dense. It grows particularly well in the 
 climate of New England. In some of the Central States it has also 
 proved a decided success. But in the West the accounts regarding it 
 are not quite so hopeful, and in the Northwest experience with ref- 
 erence to growing it is as yet comparatively limited. Some of those 
 who have tried it are well pleased with the results. On the slopes of 
 the Pacific, where the rainfall is abundant, orchard grass should do 
 very well. 
 
 This grass is grown both as a pasture and for hay, but more espec- 
 ially to provide pasture. In congenial situations no other grass prob- 
 ably will equal it in furnishing pasture, in orchards and open groves, but 
 it will not grow in a thicket or amid underwood. It is much given to 
 growing in tufts, particularly as it becomes older. This may be par- 
 tially prevented by sowing the seed thickly. When raised for hay 
 under favorable conditions, more than one crop per year is sometimes 
 obtained. And when but one crop is cut in the season the aftermath is 
 usually luxuriant. 
 
 Orchard grass is more suitable for pasture than for meadow, for the 
 reason, first, that the leaves are abundant in proportion to the stems; 
 second, it commences to grow very early in the spring, fully two weeks 
 sooner than almost any other variety of cultivated grass, and it con- 
 tinues to flourish where the moisture is sufficient until frosts come in 
 the autumn; third, it is less affected by the drought of summer than 
 many other varieties of grass, and fourth, where the conditions are 
 favorable its durability is marked. This grass has been grown on the 
 same land for from thirty to forty years. 
 
 Orchard grass is best adapted to good, strong, deep loam soils, free 
 
^CoPffitcHTeo S> — 
 
 ~\ /fo/^7,f/fiifi BtAii^N Qoa/>yv/f^ to 
 
 ' Fig. 1. Orchard Grass. 
 
16 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots^ Forage a7id Fodder Platits. 
 
 in texture and fairly porous in character. The subsoil should be med- 
 ium both as regards texture and moisture. It will not thrive on poor, 
 light soils, on gravels or on lands naturally wet or undrained. It will 
 grow fairly well on clays but not nearly so freely as on rich loams. 
 The practice is more common of sowing orchard grass in the spring 
 than at any other season, and where the winters are severe it cannot be 
 sown later with safety, but in moist regions with mild winters it can be 
 sown early in August. It may be seeded by itself or along with a crop 
 of grain. When sown by itself the seed may be scattered broadcast or 
 put in with the grain drill. If sown with the grain drill no further cov- 
 ering would be required, but when scattered broadcast it should be cov. 
 ered to a fair depth in prairie soils, and to a less depth in soils more 
 stiff in texture. It has been claimed that as many as twenty-eight 
 pounds of seed or two bushels per acre are necessary if orchard grass is 
 grown by itself. When sown as a part of a mixture for meadow or for 
 permanent pasture, only a few pounds of seed per acre are required. In 
 a meadow this grass should accompany the common red clover, as they 
 are ready for harvesting about the same time. But orchard grass is not 
 very well suited for being grown in a meadow, owing to the tendency 
 which it seems to possess to crowd out other grasses. 
 
 In localities where orchard grass will grow freely along with blue 
 grass and white clover, the three make an excellent and durable perma- 
 nent pasture. The quantity of seed to be sown would depend largely 
 on the proportions of the other varieties wanted. But as both blue 
 grass and white clover seem able eventually to occupy the ground to 
 the virtual exclusion of the orchard grass a liberal seeding of the latter 
 should be used. 
 
 When grown for hay, orchard grass should be cut when in early bloom. 
 If allowed to pass this stage it soon becomes woody and unpalatable. 
 It is easily cured, and care should be taken to rake it as soon as ready. 
 When it gets too dry it becomes woody and is not relished by live stock. 
 If a crop of seed is wanted, the plan is sometimes adopted of cutting the 
 orchard grass with the binder. The machine is set to cut the grass high 
 to avoid gathering the mass of foliage which covers the ground for 
 some distance above the surface. 
 
 This grass is well worthy of a trial in the Northwest. But it should 
 be sown here in small areas until more has been learned of its adapt- 
 ability. Two methods of trying it may be outlined. First, it may be 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers, 17 
 
 sown thinly in groves free from underwood, in the very early spring, 
 and second, it may be sown by itself at the same season, on a well pre- 
 pared plot of ground somewhat limited in extent. 
 
 Meadow Fescue. — Meadow fescue {Festiica pratefisis) is a peren- 
 nial and like nearly all the members of the fescue family, it is hardy 
 and well able to retain its hold upon the soil. Sometimes it is called 
 Randall grass, and it is not infrequently mistaken for tall meadow fes- 
 cue, to which it bears no little resemblance. It does not grow quite so 
 tall as timothy, but it stools out well, and furnishes pasture or fodder 
 fine in character, rather than coarse. 
 
 Although probably a native of Europe, this grass grows well in all 
 the Middle States, and in those to the north so far as it has been tried, 
 but its value for the Northwest has not yet been fully ascertained. In 
 Ontario it grows very well, and also in the Province of Quebec. 
 
 Meadow fescue is a very hardy plant, a most persistent grower, 
 produces a fair amount of aftermath and is long lived. Its long fibrous 
 roots enable it to withstand drought well. Properly speaking it may 
 be termed a midsummer grass, but it ripens quite as soon as timothy. 
 It is much relished by live stock whether used as a pasture or as hay. 
 Meadow fescue is very well suited to a wide range of soils, for instance 
 loams, clays and gravels, not too open in texture. It is proving itself 
 one of the best adapted to American conditions of any member of the 
 fescue family, if not indeed the best. In strong, deep, low lying soils 
 it grows very freely^ but on average, araole. upland soils it also seems 
 to do well. 
 
 It is not usual to grow this grass by itself unless to procure seed 
 from it. It may be grown in meadows, but only in those which are to 
 be cut for hay for a number of years successively, since it takes meadow 
 fescue some considerable time to establish itself. It does not therefore 
 reach the highest stage of growth until a year or more after it has been 
 sown. If sown in meadows it should be grown along with timothy. 
 This grass is useful in permanent pastures, and is more commonly 
 grown in them than in any other way. The seed weighs 15 pounds 
 per bushel and when sown to produce seed probably not less than 30 
 pounds or two bushels would be required per acre. In appearance the 
 seed bears a close resemblance to that of perennial rye grass. 
 
 When permanent pastures are laid down in the Northwest, meadow 
 fescue should be one of the grasses of which these should be composed* 
 
 2 
 
p!i;^ a niDie spfcJ_\- \va\- n\ pro\-iriLj; it-- adapt. ibiiitv wiiiiLl l^;' t" >'rA- it 
 i \ il-clt on a pint (,t Weil pivpareJ Snil. 
 
 Tall Oat (jrass. Tali cat crass i./rv;/-; ■.■///>/■! is also knMwn ;)s 
 
 ■1-1 - 
 
 III J cwr.Liicen ,u; 
 
 It 
 
 ii'.Jiizcihuis tn Euiiipe. but lia:> ImhikI a ninre cniiL^^Tiial Iv'aic in some 
 [^nrtimi^ 'it tlu-- I'nitr'J States. ii^Tf especiallx' in tlic^e ^ta;-, s tc tiu- wt'St 
 and south. It ^"aii also be .^rowa in .l^ooJ tr-riii in tl-e New Eiiu'lariJ 
 <tates and Ontario, hence it i< po-^ible tliat the di>tribution ot tliis 
 crass will >et v;r\er nearl\- all parts n\ tlie K'ep'ablic. 
 
 Tall oat ct;*^^ ;'^ the name indicates crows up hicli. siunetime-^ is 
 hich as six tt-et, but oidinaril\' it does not rea.h bait tiiat iieiciit. 1" 
 is a hard\- perennial. leat\- in its habit of growth, and when out in hcA.\ 
 bears considerable reseiiiblarue to the common oat. Ir, climates tiiat 
 are mea-u.rabl\- moivt. it is ik^ difticult to establi-h ti<is ctass when 
 sown on concenial soils, as its crowth is boihi rapid and Mrcnc. It 
 makes a \'icorous earl\' cro'A'th, and also comes ^:,n acain later in tlie 
 season, but it d'les ndt turnisli nearl_\- so mucli autumn t^race as or- 
 chard c'ass. It produces a lar.ce crop ot hay. but its teedinc \-ah.ie is 
 not considered so co'id as that of tiniothx . 
 
 Tal! oat crass will •j^row on a crc-at \'ariet\- of soils, as it i> a c^"^^ 
 h/eder. Tile r<Mits strike both downward and lateran\ . It nuil;es ltmoJ 
 procress on medium soils. ( )n cla\s c-xen and on s.ijls owr-drx. it -Aid 
 m.ike a more xicorous crowth than man\" other kuiuls nt ^r.iss. pmir. 
 thin lands, or ^hose which .are wet .ire not suitable tor crowJnc tall oat 
 
 This cr.iss m:iN- be sowai .alone, as a part of a mixture for meadow, 
 and .IS one t.i^tor in toiniinc a permanent jxisture. but it is perliaj^s bt 1. 
 ter ad.ipted for ha\- than for p.isture. W hen sona-u b_\- its.Mt fA o PLishei- 
 of seed are receimmended for an acre, bourteen pounds ot the srrd iii 
 the cliaft make a bu.shel. The seed is sown broadcast, whate\er tb.e 
 end max be for x\diich it is soxxai. and it requires cox'erinc xxdtli t!ie har- 
 row. Wliere the se.isons are lone a crop ot ha\- is sometimes obtained 
 tile first season. Wdien ci''"''^'n in a meadox\- it ma\' accompanx' red 
 clox'er. .as the tx\-o ripen at the same time. It must be cut promptix- tor 
 either hax- or for tiie seed. Wdien beinc cured for liax' it is xerx e.isilv 
 injured b\' ox'ermuch sunlicht or b\- rain. 1 he seed shells quite re.adily 
 x\-hen ripe. The binder can be utilized with much adx'antace in reap- 
 ing this crop tor the seed. 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 19 
 
 Information is very scant with regard to the growth of tall oat grass 
 in the Northwest. It could be more readily tried at first as the sole crop 
 grown on the ground for the season. Good, clean, moist land should 
 be chosen. It merits a careful trial at the hands of those interested. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail. — Meadow foxtail {Alopeeurus pratenszs) is a 
 perennial of erect habit of growth. It reaches very nearly the ordinary 
 height of timothy when fully matured. It also bears resemblance to 
 timothy but has a smaller and softer head, is more leafy in character, 
 and springs up quickly when pastured or mown. Although indigenous 
 to Europe it is now found in North Africa, Western Asia and America. 
 
 This grass produces a large quantity of leafy herbage in proportion 
 to the stalk, hence it is much relished by live stock. It is among the 
 earliest of the cultivated grasses and ripens its seeds nearly if not quite 
 a month earlier than timothy. Like orchard grass it will thrive well 
 under trees and in shady places, but it will also grow when exposed 
 under suitable conditions. It is said to be even more hardy than 
 timothy. 
 
 Meadow foxtail is better adapted relatively for permanent pastures 
 than for meadows. When sown in meadows, other grasses which 
 mature more quickly are apt to crowd meadow foxtail which does not 
 reach its best until three or four years after it has been sown. The 
 seed is not produced so freely as that of some other kinds of grass, and 
 in consequence less of it is sown than would be probably under other 
 conditions. 
 
 Meadow foxtail is partial to deep, rich soils, but it also flourishes 
 in moist climates on stiff loams and clays. It cannot live in a water- 
 logged soil and yet it is well suited to land subject to irrigation. It is 
 but ill-adapted to light, dry soils lacking in plant food and in power to 
 retain moisture. 
 
 When meadow foxtail is sown alone from two to three bushels of 
 seed would be necessary. The seed is sown in the chaff. It only 
 weighs about five pounds per bushel. It is common to sow it by hand 
 and to cover it with the harrow. When sown in permanent pastures 
 it is mixed v/ith the other coarse seeds and sown along with them. 
 
 Experience as regards the growing of this grass in the Northwest, 
 is limited, hence but little can be said as to its adaptability. But we 
 know in reference to it that it is hardy and that it grows early in the 
 season, therefore it is worthy of a trial. 
 
20 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 Red Top. — Red top {Agrostis vulgaris) is of many varieties. It 
 is also known by otlier names more or less local in their application. 
 This grass is found in one or the other of its many forms in nearly all 
 parts of the continent capable of producing low land grasses. Although 
 it is well adapted to the conditions in all states in which the climate is 
 mild, as for instance Georgia and Tennessee, it also has an important 
 mission before it in the Northwest, where it has given the most encour- 
 aging results. 
 
 Red top is of a somewhat slender habit of growth. It has rather 
 fine foliage and throws out a slender open and spreading head. A red 
 top meadow when matured or when it is approaching maturity, has a 
 tinge that may be defined as reddish brown, hence probably the origin 
 of the name. The root stocks push through the soil and form fresh 
 plants so that when there is only a thin seeding of the plants at first, 
 they soon spread and take possession of the soil, unless when growing 
 along with some variety of grass that is peculiarly aggressive. This 
 grass grows more slowly than some other grasses. It will furnish pas- 
 ture or hay as maybe desired. In feeding value it takes a place cer- 
 tainly not less than medium. 
 
 Red top thrives naturally on a moist soil, too moist tor growing up- 
 land grasses upon it successfully. It will not grow well upon high, dry 
 soils. This grass will usually grow however on lands that will produce 
 timothy, but timothy may be destroyed by water on soils where red 
 top will continue to live and flourish. 
 
 When sown alone it has been recommended that from two to three 
 bushels of seed, that is to say twenty-four to thirty-s'.x pounds should 
 be used per acre. It may be sown by itself or with some nurse crop 
 adapted to moist soils, such as barley for instance. It may frequently 
 be sown with timothy, as they ripen about the same time. And it is 
 often used in the mixture when permanent pastures are being laid down. 
 Red top stands pasturing well, but runs out in a few years if allowed 
 to ripen its seeds from year to year. It may be sown in sloughs and 
 wet places not yet dry enough for the plow. In such places only a few 
 pounds of seed per acre are needed and the seed should be sown as 
 soon as the work can be easily done. When purchasing seed prefer- 
 ence should be given to what is termed the "fancy or solid," that is to 
 say, the clean seed rather than seed in the chaff as it is impossible to 
 determine really the amount of pure seed which the latter contains. 
 
Fig. 2. Austrian Bbomb Grass. (Bromus Inermus., 
 
22 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 Wild Timothy. — ^Wdi'CwciQi^^y^Miihlenbergia glo?nerata^ is also 
 called drop seed grass. This grass which bears no little resemblance 
 to timothy is indigenous to the Northwest. It is one of the limited 
 number of the wild varieties of the region named, which gives promise 
 of profitable returns from cultivation. The heads rather resemble those 
 of orchard grass than timothy. 
 
 This grass has been very successfully grown for the past five years 
 at the Experimental Farm at Brandon, Manitoba. During the past four 
 years nearly two tons of hay per acre have been harvested each year. 
 The manager of the farm, Mr. S. A. Bedford, speaks of it favorably. It 
 makes good hay though its properties for pasture do not seem to have 
 been determined as yet. This grass is adapted to average prairie soils, 
 but it will not do so well on those dry and hungry. It yields seed 
 freely. The seed weighs about twenty pounds per bushel, and from 
 five to ten pounds of the seed are used per acre. But the heavier seed- 
 ing is rather preferred. 
 
 In preparing the soil it has been customary to summer fallow it 
 and then to sow the seed from August 1st to August 15th, when a crop 
 of the grass may be obtained the following year. It may also be sown 
 early in the spring along with a nurse crop thinly seeded. This grass 
 should be tried in all parts of this country. 
 
 Austrian Brome Grass.— Austrian brome grass {Bromiis iner- 
 imis) (see Fig. 2) is a native of Europe, and one of the most promising 
 cultivated grasses that has yet been tried on the prairies of the west. 
 It is very hardy, enduring very low temperatures in winter, and pos- 
 sessing great power to grow in dry climates, under adverse conditions. 
 It is well adapted to produce either hay or pasture. This grass comes 
 up quickly in the spring and makes a rapid growth, and when it has 
 been cut for hay the aftermath is also abundant unless the weather 
 should be abnormally dry. It sends numerous root stocks through the 
 soil to form fresh plants, hence it will probably require to be ploughed 
 up after having been mowed or pastured for a limited term of years. 
 The foliage is abundant on Austrian brome grass, and it produces seed 
 profusely. Mr. A. MacKay, Superintendent of the Experimental Farm., 
 at Indian Head, Assiniboia, obtained one hundred and fifty pounds of 
 seed from one-fourth of an acre in 1893. The seed weighs 14 pounds 
 per bushel. More than- two tons per acre have been harvested during 
 each of the past three years at the aforementioned farm. 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 23 
 
 Austrian brome grass seems well suited to the soils usually found 
 on the prairie. In moist climates it may be too aggressive to grow with 
 other grasses, and this property also may exclude it from permanent 
 pastures. But for growing on dry soils it seems to have few equals. 
 The ground is prepared for this grass in the same way as for wild 
 timothy previously discussed. Fifteen pounds of seed per acre are 
 sufficient. Austrian brome grass should be tried by every farmer in the 
 Northwest. A plant with properties so valuable cannot be obtained too 
 
 soon. 
 
 Clovers. 
 
 The clovers are of inestimable value to tne agriculturist wherever 
 they can be successfully grown. They furnish excellent pasture during 
 a large portion of the year, and they yield, a healthful, nutritious and 
 valuable fodder which may be advantageously fed to any class of live 
 stock. The roots of the different varieties of clover go more or less 
 deeply into the subsoil, whence they obtain moisture to sustain growth 
 in dry weather. They also bring up plant food which may be utilized 
 in growing crops unable to gather food from far below the surface of 
 the soil. And when the roots decay they furnish channels through 
 which the super-abundant moisture may escape downwards. The 
 roots and rootlets bring much vegetable matter to the soil. These bind 
 light lands together and thus make them less porous, and they render 
 stiff clays more open and friatle. All kinds of clover are peculiarly 
 helpful not only in sustaining the fertility of the soil, but in still further 
 increasing the same, owing to the wonderful power which they have 
 of absorbing nitrogen from the air, and also to the great extent to which 
 they store the same in the soil. 
 
 The most valuable varieties of clover as yet grown upon this con- 
 tinent include the common red, mammoth, alsike, lucerne, white, crim- 
 son and yellow varieties. 
 
 • Common or Medium Clover. — The common red clover {Tri- 
 foliuin pratense) is so well known that a detailed description of it is 
 not necessary. It is unquestionably one of the most useful plants ever 
 given to mankind by a beneficient Creator. Ordinarily it yields two 
 good crops of hay during the second season of its growth, or one crop 
 of hay and one crop of seed, or one crop of hay followed by several 
 months of pasturage. It will furnish pasture through the whole of the 
 second season where the same may be required, but usually dies at the 
 
24 Grasses^ Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 end of the second year as it is a biennial, although sometimes under 
 very favorable conditions it may live longer when not allowed to pro- 
 duce seed. 
 
 Clover will do well in almost any kind of soil, but better results 
 relatively are obtained when it is grown on clay loams with a subsoij 
 of clay not too dense. It will grow satisfactorily on stiff clays, but on 
 these in dry seasons there is difficulty in getting a "catch" of the seed. 
 In such seasons it will also pine and die on porous sands after the 
 plants have made a start. 
 
 A bare fallow, a corn crop or a root crop make an excellent prepa- 
 ration for clover seed to be sown the following spring on spongy prairie 
 soils, for then the land is clean, dense and better able lo retain mois- 
 ture. But in such instances it should not be ploughed in the spring. 
 
 Clover may be sown by the same methods as timothy, and the 
 conditions which govern the amount of seed to be used are very similar. 
 When grown by itself from eight to twelve pounds of seed per acre are 
 commonly used, but if it is sown as a green manure even a larger quan- 
 tity may be utilized with advantage. It may be sown alone, but more 
 generally it is put into the soil along with some other kind of crop, such 
 as wheat, rye, barley and oats. The object should be to sow it in the 
 early spring and as soon as possible alter the winter season is over. It 
 should never be sown in the autumn in northern latitudes as it is then 
 almost certain to be killed by the cold. When the ground is in a honey- 
 combed state as is sometimes the case in the early spring or just after a 
 light shower has fallen, the conditions for sowing clover are very favor- 
 able. In the Northwest the best results will probably be obtained from 
 sowing the seed on a crop of rye as soon as the ground is dry enough 
 in the spring, and then harrowing it with a light harrow. In moist 
 climates and on spring sown cereals it will probably suftke to cover the 
 seed with the roller, but in the Northwest it should ordinarily be cov- 
 ered by allowing the seed to fall before the drill tubes when sowing 
 grain or by using a light harrow when the seed has been sown on the 
 surface. 
 
 The common red clover is often grown for the seed, and it may be 
 remarked in passing that Minnesota grown clover seed takes high rank 
 in the various seed markets. When so grown it is common to cut the 
 first crop for hay when it has reached early full bloom. The second 
 crop is then cut for seed. Sometimes the clover is pastured until that 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clo'-i>ers. 25 
 
 season arrives when, had it not been so pastured, the heads would form. 
 The pasturing then ceases and a crop of seed is grown. By managing 
 thus the clover midge may be baffled. The seed is ready for harvest- 
 ing when two-thirds of the heads are ripe. A machine is used in cut- 
 ting the crop which leaves the clover in bunches where it lies until 
 ready for being stacked or threshed. From two to three bushels per 
 acre is an average yield but sometimes much more than the quantity 
 named is produced. The seed is threshed by a machine termed a 
 "huller."' Where such machines are not available the farmer can beat 
 out tiie seed with a flail and sow in the chaff, bu^ of course such seed 
 would not be of any use for marketing. 
 
 The common red clover is now most successfully grown in many 
 parts of the Northwest, where at one time it was supposed it could not 
 be raised. It may be mentioned here without hazard and without paus- 
 ing to give the reasons that clover will yet be grown with favorable re- 
 sults much further to the north and west than at present, and that it 
 will be grown with increased success as the soil becomes older where 
 a judicious system of farming is pursued. Drought at that season of 
 the year when the young plants have not yet made much growth and 
 while their tap roots have not yet gone down beyond the influences of 
 surface evaporation is the great obstacle in the way of getting a good 
 "stand" of clover, hence the importance of early sowing and of prepar- 
 ing the soil by previous cultivation to resist the influences of drought. 
 
 Mammoth Clover.— Mammoth clover {Trifoliuvi pj-atense or 
 medium) bears a somewhat close resemblance to the common red variety 
 in the shape of the leaves and stalks, and in the shape and color of the 
 head. It is of much stronger growth however than the latter, has a 
 larger stem in proportion, grows considerably taller, possesses larger 
 heads and furnishes a much greater quantity of fodder. This clover 
 also ripens some two or three weeks later, and produces but little after- 
 math, whether it is grown for the seed or for hay. It also sends its 
 roots down more deeply into the soil. 
 
 Mammoth clover is therefore more valuable than the common red 
 variety, first, when used as a green manure, owing to the dense mass 
 of vegetable matter which it furnishes both in the tops and in the roots; 
 second, on prairie soils which do not produce a strong growth of the 
 small variety, and third, on stiff clays which do not grow the mam- 
 moth variety so luxuriantly as to make the fodder coarse. It is less 
 
26 Grasses^ Clovers^ Field Roots ^ Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 valuable, first, in moist climates where the aftermath is needed for pas- 
 ture; second, where both a crop of hay and a yield of seed are sought 
 the same season, for the mammoth clover will only stand one cutting 
 in the year, and third, on strong soils on which the large variety would 
 grow too coarse to make good fodder. 
 
 Mammoth clover is therefore adapted to the same kinds of soil as 
 the common red variety, with the difference that preference should be 
 given to the large variety wherever the small kind is deficient in bulk 
 of forage or fodder. It is also suited to the same climates and its place 
 in the rotation is the .same. The preparation of the ground is similar 
 and the same modes of sowing may be adopted. The amounts of 
 seed will also be nearly the same, but a little more of the mammoth 
 variety may be used. Mammoth clover and timothy ripen about 
 the same time, hence they may be profitably grown together for hay, 
 wh?n the clover is not so thick and strong as to overshadow the tim- 
 othy. 
 
 When mammoth clover is grown for seed it should be sown alone; 
 that is to say, no other kind of clover or grass should be sown along 
 with it. It IS ready for cutting when two-thirds of the heads are ripe. 
 It is harvested and threshed in the same way as the small variety. In 
 sections where the growth will probably be rank, it may be well to 
 pasture the clover for two or three weeks in the early spring. Another 
 plan would be to run the mower over it when it is a few inches high. 
 The portion of the crop which is then cut will furnish a good mulch 
 in dry weather. An average crop of seed is from two to three bushels 
 per acre. 
 
 Alsike Clover. — Alsike clover {Trifolium hybridum) is of 
 European origin. It is a perennial, and is one of the most hardy and 
 vigorous of all the varieties of clover as yet introduced into America. 
 It usually grows to the height of from twelve to eighteen inches, but in 
 congenial soils and under favorable climatic conditions it attains a 
 height considerably greater. It is fine in its habits of growth, and has 
 a large proportion of leaves, hence its excellence as a food for live stock 
 when used as fodder, more especially for sheep and lambs. The heads 
 are numerous but small, and the blossoms are a beautiful delicate 
 crimson. 
 
 Alsike clover is rapidly gaining in favor all over the northern half 
 of this continent. It seems singularly well adapted to the conditions of 
 
Fig. ii. Alsike or Swedish Clover. 
 
28 Grasses, Clovers^ Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 growth in some of the New England States, in Ontario, Canada, and 
 in some of the Provinces lying further to the east. But it will also 
 grow in fine form in congenial situations westward from the States and 
 Provinces named to the Pacific. Although very hardy it does not seem 
 well able to withstand the winters of Manitoba and Assiniboia, but in 
 all the Noithern and Northwestern states of the Union, alsike clover 
 will prove a valuable crop, and also in the adjoining states to the 
 southward. 
 
 This clover prefers damp, moist, loam soils, but it will also grow 
 fairly well in stiff clays. In the Northwestern States the best results 
 are obtained from sowing alsike clover on damp, moist bottom lands, 
 but in the states of the Union and in the Provinces of Canada lying to 
 the east from Michigan, where the annual rainfall is greater, it will 
 grow well on average arable soils, particularly on those underlaid with 
 a moderately porous subsoil. When raised for the seed, the lower 
 lands are not so suitable as those somev/hat higher, as they produce an 
 excess of growth in the stalk and leaf. This plant develops feebly on 
 light, sandy and gravelly soils, so much so that it is unwise to grow it 
 upon these. 
 
 The preparation of the soil for alsike clover is the same virtually 
 as for common red clover. And the conditions which govern the sow- 
 ing are also very similar. It may be sown with much advantage along 
 with timothy, for making hay, for the reason first, that both of these 
 crops are well adapted to moist soils, and second, that they also mature 
 about the same time. If grown for seed it should be grown alone as it 
 is impossible to separate alsike clover seed from timothy seed, they are 
 so nearly alike in size. 
 
 The time for sowing this crop is the same as for common red clover, 
 that is, the early spring. When grown for hay, along with timothy, 
 about three pounds of the clover and six pounds of the timothy per acre 
 will be found suflficient. If grown for the seed from five to six pounds 
 may be named as an average quantity. The seed is sown with a nurse 
 crop, and barley will probably be found the most suitable, as it is 
 adapted to the same kinds of soil as the clover. The sowing of the 
 seed may be done by hand, with a hand sower, or best of all with the 
 grass seed sowing attachment to the grain drill. In the Northwest if 
 the seed is allowed to fall before the grain tubes, it will be sufficiently 
 covered, otherwise it would require a light covering with the harrow. 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 29 
 
 In states with a moist climate, rolling the ground after the seed is 
 sown would provide a sufficient covering. 
 
 Alsike clover is ready to be cut for hay as soon as it is in full 
 bloom. It can be cured more easily than other kinds of clover pos- 
 sessed of more stem. If harvested for seed the cutting should take 
 place when two-thirds of the heads are ripe. The one-third of the 
 heads unmatured would not produce a large quantity relatively of 
 seed, and if the cutting of the crop were to be delayed until the late 
 heads were matured, the early or first ripe heads would break off 
 before the crop was harvested. 
 
 When alsike clover is to be reaped for seed, it would repay the 
 grower to go over the field and cut off the heads of all the weeds likely 
 to mature before the reaping of the crop. The mode of reaping is the 
 same as for a crop of red clover. As the heads of alsike clover break 
 off very easily when ripe, much care should be exercised in handling 
 it. Some farmers prefer to cut it only in the evening and on into the 
 night when the moonlight is sufficient, and they also refrain from 
 drawing and housing it during the hot portion of the day. 
 
 An average crop of alsike yields from two to four bushels of seed 
 per acre, hence in localities well adapted to growing seed it is consid- 
 ered a good paying crop. Where it is only wanted for hay, timothy 
 seed and alsike clover seed may be obtained from a crop of the two 
 grown together, as they ripen at the same time, but it would not be 
 readily saleable seed, as it would be mixed. 
 
 Alsike clover furnishes a good pasture until the season for harvest- 
 ing. It does not grow much at any time subsequent to that period. 
 The aftermath is of but little account for pasture. When grown along 
 with timothy or other grasses for pasture it has much power to retain 
 its hold upon the land, more especially if the pasturing has not been 
 so close as to prevent it from maturing some seeds. It is also one of 
 the best honey producing plants that can be grown. 
 
 Owing to the many excellent qualities of alsike clover, to the 
 varied uses to which it can be put, and to its marked adaptability to 
 the Northwest, it should unquestionably be sown to a greater or lesser 
 extent by all farmers whose soils are suitable. 
 
 Lucerne. — Lucerne {Medicago sativa) (see Fig. 4) is a plant which 
 grows freely when once it has been established. It possesses the 
 power of retaining its hold upon the land for several years. The roots 
 
30 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 go down deeply in suitable soils, hence lucerne is better able to with- 
 stand the influences of dry weather than the other varieties of clover. 
 Despite its vigor when established, it is a delicate plant when young, 
 and therefore more liable to perish the first season than other kinds of 
 clover. It is rather grown for soiling and fodder uses than for pasture, 
 although under certain conditions it furnishes excellent pasture. Lu- 
 cerne is better adapted to mild than to cold climates, hence it is exten- 
 sively grown in southern Europe and the warmer and dryer portions of 
 the United States westward from the Mississippi River. It will thrive 
 fairly well in New England, in the Middle States and in Ontario, Can- 
 ada, but in countries where red clover will grow rapidly the latter is 
 commonly considered a more profitable plant than lucerne, as it is 
 much better adapted to a short rotation. The precise value of lucerne 
 in the Northwest has not yet been determined, but in some states, as 
 for instance Montana, it grows well. This clover should be carefully 
 tried in all parts of the Northwest where the soils are at all suitable, 
 as, owing to its ability to grow in dry weather, it will prove valuable 
 in the areas named wherever it can be grown. In some countries 
 lucerne is more commonly known by the name of alfalfa. 
 
 Lucerne is admirably adapted for soiling uses, as it will furnish 
 two cuttings a year, and in some instances as many as four. On irri- 
 gated soils even a larger number of crops have been obtained in one 
 season. It does not stand close cropping so well as red clover. It is 
 rich in protein and hence is excellent for producing milk and muscle if 
 pastured or fed as hay. In countries where the climate is moist it may 
 produce bloating when the live stock feed very freely upon it, particu- 
 larly when it is damp. Because of this it may be well to wilt it some- 
 what before feeding it when it is to be used as a soiling food. Lucerne 
 is also valuable as a source of fertility, since it has much power to 
 absorb nitrogen from the air and from the subsoil. 
 
 Lucerne is best adapted to sandy and loam soils, with a deep, 
 porous, calcareous subsoil, and in those parts of Minnesota where good 
 results have not been obtained, it has probably been owing very largely 
 to the lack of lime in the subsoil. When once established it will grow 
 fairly well on clays, providing the subsoil is of the proper character. 
 The nature of the surface soil is of less consequence than that of the 
 subsoil, and yet lucerne will not grow well on some soils. It does not 
 seem well suited to black loams, more especially those deficient in 
 
Fig 4. Ai^falfa or Luceri^e Clover. 
 
32 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Fo7'agc and Fodder Plants. 
 
 clay. Nor can it be made to flourish under any condition when the 
 subsoil holds water for a prolonged period at any season of the year. 
 
 This clover is sown early in the spring. It may be sown alone or 
 along with another crop. The preparation of the soil for lucerne is 
 much the same as for red clover. When it is sown alone the mower 
 should be run over the ground once or more frequently in the season, 
 to prevent weeds from maturing their seeds, but the mower knife 
 should be made to cut as high as possible above the ground. The seed 
 may be scattered by hand or with a hand machine. It should be care- 
 fully covered with the harrow, and somewhat deeply on prairie soils, 
 but not to so great a depth on those more dense in character. When 
 sown with a grain crop rye and barley have been found more suitable 
 than other cereals. One bushel per acre of the nurse crop, that is, of 
 the barley or of the rye, will suffice. The lucerne may be sown at the 
 same time as the grain. If the seed can be made to fall before the 
 grain tubes it will be sufficiently covered without being harrowed. 
 From twelve to twenty pounds of seed are required per acre. 
 
 In some countries lucerne is sown in rows eight inches or more 
 apart, and is hoed or cultivated from two to four or five times during 
 the first season. When thus cultivated the plants make a strong 
 growth the first season, hence they are better able to withstand the 
 vicissitudes of adverse weather. This method will answer when only 
 small quantities are desired, but for large areas it is impracticable where 
 labor IS costly. And it may be well to mention here that it would 
 doubtless be a good plan to grow a small quantity of lucerne near the 
 stable for soiling uses when it would not be wise to grow it as a prin- 
 cipal crop. 
 
 Much care is necessary in harvesting lucerne. When allowed to 
 pass the early stage of bloom before being cut it becomes woody, and 
 in consequence its feeding value is much impaired. Care should be 
 taken to put it up in cocks or coils as soon as it has become dry 
 enough to be drawn together with the horse rake. When allowed to 
 lie long on the ground, exposed to the influences of the hot sun, the 
 leaves break off when it is being handled, hence the loss from this 
 source is very extensive. In climates subject to unsteady weather in 
 harvest time lucerne, like red clover, is very difficult to cure when 
 showers fall frequently. The seed from lucerne is commonly taken 
 from the second cutting for the season. 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 33 
 
 When a field of lucerne is to be ploughed the task may prove an 
 arduous one if undertaken with the ordinary plough, owing to the dif- 
 ficulty of cutting off the strong roots of the lucerne. The process of 
 ploughing will be much facilitated by having the plough-share laid 
 with a plate of steel, the edges of which are serrated. This gives the 
 share a cutting power which it does not ordinarily possess, and in con- 
 sequence enables it to cut off the strong roots of the lucerne which 
 would otherwise probably turn the plough out of its course. 
 
 White Clover. — White clover {Trifoliuni repens) is more gener- 
 ally distributed than any other variety. It is claimed that it is indi- 
 geneous to both Europe and America. It is sometimes called Dutch 
 clover, and will grow readily in all the northern areas of the United 
 States where it has been tried, although it seems better adapted to 
 those states with a fair amount of rainfall during the season of growth, 
 and in which the soil possesses a goodly portion of the clay element. 
 
 White clover is the most aggressive of all the clovers. In regard 
 to aggressiveness it bears about the same relation to the other varieties 
 of clover as blue grass does to the other varieties of grass. It would 
 seem to travel westward in the wake of colonization and settlement. 
 It follows man with its beneficent mission, and when once established 
 in the soil it springs up again, while at the same time it does not hin- 
 der cultivation or interfere in any adverse way with the rotation of 
 crops. 
 
 This valuable little plant is of a low, spreading, recumbent habit 
 of growth. It throws out tendrils which possess the power of becom- 
 ing rooted at intervals in the soil, hence the explanation of the extent 
 to which it covers the soil. The blossoms are pure white or tinged 
 with crimson. The heads seldom reach the height of one foot above 
 the surface of the ground. The blossoms appear in June in the North- 
 ern states, and where the climate is moist the season of bloom is 
 prolonged. 
 
 White clover is seldom sown for hay, although when it is desir- 
 able to have hay of a fine quality, to feed sheep for instance, it may 
 be profitable to sow it as one part of a mixture. It grows singularly 
 well along with blue grass, hence wherever a blue grass pasture has 
 become well established, in time we find white clover growing along 
 with it. Wherever the two grow together the one seems to aid rather 
 than to retard the growth of the other. The blue grass furnishes a 
 
 3 
 
34 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 grateful shade to the clover, favorable to its development, and the 
 clover in turn feeds the blue grass; as, being a legume, it has the 
 power of absorbing nitrogen from the atmosphere. Like blue grass it 
 will come into a permanent pasture as it were spontaneously, on all 
 soils where it grew previously. But when these lands are laid down 
 to permanent pasture, it will hasten the advent of the clover if some of 
 the seed be sown along with the other grasses of the mixture, 
 
 Although white clover will grow on a great variety of soils, it is 
 better adapted to those which are moist and which are not too light in 
 texture. On loam soils it grows much more luxuriantly than on grav- 
 els, for instance. It is not so well suited to the humus soils of the 
 prairie as to those of firmer texture, yet it will do fairly well on these. 
 Its growth should be everywhere encouraged in the prairies, since it 
 brings fertility to the land, furnishes valuable pasture, and also adds 
 to the moisture of the soil. 
 
 In preparing the soil for white clover fine pulverization is essen- 
 tial, as the seed of this plant is very small and the growth of the plant 
 is delicate at first. The soil should also be in a clean condition, lest 
 weeds injure the clover by their growth while it is still young. The 
 seed may be sown in a manner similar to that of other clover seeds. 
 When sown alone from three to four pounds of seed will be found 
 ample for one acre. If sown along with a nurse crop the latter should 
 be thin rather than dense. 
 
 White clover should be encouraged to grow over all the North- 
 west. The seed should be strewn over waste places and in all parts 
 where the land is not soon to be cultivated, unless where the shade or 
 the excess of moisture are likely to retard successful growth. Why 
 not have a good thing speedily, when we can obtain it by putting forth 
 an effort, rather than wait long years for its arrival.? It is one of the 
 best plants for yielding honey in America. 
 
 Crimson Clover. — Crimson clover {Trifoliuin incarnatu?n) {stt 
 Fig. 5) is a native of Central and Southern Europe. It has not been 
 extensively grown in America until within a comparatively recent 
 period. There are at least five varieties, of which four have scarlet 
 blossoms and the fifth a white one. It grows from one to two feet 
 high, has strong upright stems, and large, cone shaped heads of a beau- 
 tiful crimson hue. The roots go down deeply into the soil, hence this 
 plant has been found of much value in fertilizing light and worn lands. 
 
Fig. 5. Scarlet or Crimson Clover. 
 
36 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, 
 
 Crimson clover is better adapted to mild latitudes than to those in 
 which the climate is severe. It is an annual, making the principal por- 
 tion of its growth in the autumn and in the spring. It finds much favor 
 in the middle and lower Atlantic states, and in those bordering on the 
 Gulf of Mexico. In the Central states the yields are not quite so satis- 
 factory. In the states which border on the Mississippi from Minnesota 
 southward, this clover should prove valuable. In the New England, 
 Northern and Northwestern states, it seems to be too delicate to endure 
 the severity of the winter. But it will probably be found that when 
 sown in the early spring it will give a good yield of hay the same sea- 
 
 son on rich, damp 
 soils, and in many sec- 
 tions of the localities 
 named. And to ascer- 
 tain if such be the case, 
 it is well worthy of ex- 
 tended trial. 
 
 Crimson clover is 
 best adapted to light, 
 warm, free - working 
 soils, but it will grow 
 on any kind of soil 
 open in texture and yet 
 not so light as to be 
 unable to retain moist- 
 ure well. It is not 
 well suited to stiff, cold 
 clays, as in these it 
 grows too slowly. In 
 the light fruit lands of 
 the middle and lower 
 
 Fig. 6. Head of Crim- 
 son Clover. Nat- 
 ural Size. 
 
 Atlantic States, it has 
 rendered excellent ser- 
 vice, not only in pro- 
 ducing fodder but also 
 in furnishing a cheap 
 means of renovating 
 these. 
 
 The preparation of 
 the soil for this crop 
 involves clean tillage, 
 and a fine seed bed. 
 When wanted for pas- 
 ture, soiling, hay or 
 green manuring in the 
 early part of the s-ea- 
 son, it would need to 
 be sown from July to 
 September, according 
 to the locality and con- 
 ditions. It is a com- 
 mon practice to sow it 
 
 in the standing corn at the time when the last cultivation is given the 
 corn. But it can be sown alone very well on land from which some 
 crop has been reaped after the same has been ploughed. It does not 
 answer well to sow with winter rye as a nurse crop, for the clover 
 grows so vigorously that it hinders the growth of the rye. When 
 sown in the spring to be cut the same season, it would need to be put 
 into the ground early, and it would also require to occupy the ground 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 
 
 37 
 
 alone. The mode of sowing would be the same as with common red 
 clover. 
 
 Crimson clover sown in the summer and autumn months is ready 
 for harvesting toward the close of the spring or the advent of summer. 
 It is cut for hay at the same stage as common red clover. Difficulty is 
 sometimes found in harvesting the crop at the season named. 
 
 Good crops of crimson clover produce large yields of seed, but the 
 harvesting of the same requires prompt attention as soon as the crop is 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Crimson Clover Leaf. Natural Size. 
 
 ripe, owing to the ease with which the matured seeds are shed. The 
 heads are large, hence when soaked with rain, they dry out so slowly 
 that trouble frequently arises from the sprouting of the seed. 
 
 Where crimson clover will stand the winter well it will be found 
 specially useful for the following purposes: First, it will provide pas- 
 ture and excellent soiling food early in the season. Second, it will pro- 
 
38 Grasses^ C levers^ Field Roots ^ Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 duce green manures to be plowed under in time to grow another crop 
 the same season. Third it may be used in renovating orchards with 
 but little outlay and in furnishing a soft, clean bed in them on which 
 fruit may fall. And fourth, it will in a degree bind drift soils and pre- 
 vent washing on hill sides. 
 
 Yellow Clover.— Yellow clover {Medicago lupulina) sometimes 
 called trefoil, is a somewhat diminutive variety, of a creeping or re- 
 cumbent rather, than an upright habit of growth. It is of European 
 origin but in some parts of this continent it seems to grow admirably. 
 In England it grows so freely on some limestone soils that it is trouble- 
 some to the crops which come later. In the United States it will grow 
 vigorously on the soils of New England and of some states further to 
 the west, and in Ontario, Canada, it also seems to be at home. But 
 in the Central and Northwestern States it appears to have received 
 very little attention, more particularly in the latter where experience 
 in growing it would seem to be almost entirely lacking. 
 
 Yellow clover begins to grow quite early in the season. In the 
 Northern states it blooms in June, and matures its seeds about the end 
 of that month, although where pastured closely it continues to produce 
 new flowers for a period considerably later. It has a pretty yellow 
 blossom, from which the name was doubtless derived. 
 
 Although yellow clover may be grown in a meadow, it is not well 
 adapted for being thus grown, as other grasses crowd and shade it too 
 much. But when sown as part of a mixture to form a permanent pas- 
 ture, it seems to possess much power of retaining its hold upon the 
 soil. It produces fine food tor sheep and other kinds of live stock, but 
 does not grow so well late in the season as white clover. It yields 
 seed abundantly, hence when it once gets into the soil it will after- 
 wards spring up in a pasture of its own accord. 
 
 As already intimated, yellow clover will grow vigorously in lime- 
 stone soils. It is not well adapted to light soils. Like other varieties 
 of clover it seems to make good use of the potash brought to it in the 
 clay found in many loams. Nor is it well suited to low and very moist 
 soils, such as favor the growth of alsike clover. 
 
 Yellow clover may be sown the same as other varieties. When 
 sown alone from four to six pounds of seed per acre would be required. 
 A nurse crop would also be in order for this plant. When sown along 
 with other grasses for meadow which is afterwards to be turned into a 
 
Cultivated Grasses and Clovers. 39 
 
 pasture, it will not be necessary to use more than two pounds of seed, 
 and even a less quantity may suffice. This clover should be given a 
 trial in the Northwest. The seed is not costly and it belongs to a 
 family of plants of good reputation, hence it may be found of consider- 
 able value to the agriculture of the area named. 
 
40 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PERMANENT PASTURES. 
 
 Permanent pastures are those which occupy the same soils for a 
 long term of years to the exclusion of all other crops. They may in- 
 clude but one variety of grass or they may be composed of a number of 
 varieties. Manyof the pastures of the east for instance, contain blue 
 grass only and it would not be incorrect to designate the unbroken 
 prairie a permanent pasture so long as it remains unbroken. But the 
 term permanent pasture as it is ordinarily understood, may be defined 
 as a pasture comprising a number of grasses, native and foreign, which 
 have been sown together on a piece of land that is to be pastured for a 
 term of years. 
 
 Permanent pastures are more valuable relatively in countries of 
 mild temperatures and moist climates. Where the winters are severe 
 only the hardier varieties can be grown. A large number of varieties 
 therefore, some of which are possessed of great feeding value cannot 
 be grown in these localities. In regions of dry summers, some useful 
 grasses do not make any growth, during the hot and dry portion of the 
 season, and other kinds make but a feeble growth. No variety has 
 yet been discovered which will grow so successfully as when there is 
 an abundant rainfall in the summer. And if in addition to dry, hot 
 weather during a considerable portion of the summer, the whole season 
 of growth is short rather than long, the relative value of permanent 
 pastures is still further lessened. 
 
 It follows therefore, first, that permanent pastures will not be so 
 easily maintained, nor will they be so valuable relatively on this con- 
 tinent, as in Great Biitain for instance, where the summers are moist 
 and where there is a long season of growth. Second, that they will be 
 less easily obtained and of less feeding value in the Northwest than in 
 
Permanent Pastures. 41 
 
 New England, for example, with its moister climate. And third, that 
 the slopes of the Pacific where moisture abounds should provide a very 
 suitable home for permanent pastures. The absence of these however 
 in the Northwest is amply compensated for by the ease with which 
 forage and fodder crops may be grown. 
 
 But it would be a mistake to conclude that there is not a very im- 
 portant place for permanent pastures in this western country. That 
 they may be grown in form very much superior to the grasses of the 
 native prairie should not for a moment be questioned. Although it 
 would be somewhat hazardous in the present state of our knowledge 
 to name with absolute certainly the varieties of which they shall be 
 composed, experience has demonstrated that certain grasses and clovers 
 may be successfully raised, when grown singly, and from what is 
 known concerning the habits of growth common to these it would be 
 safe to assume that they can also be grown with favorable results in 
 combination. 
 
 Those grasses and clovers whi^h should certainly grow well in 
 combination in the Northwest under almost any conditions include 
 blue grass, white Dutch or common white clover and timothy. Those 
 which may be relied upon to grow with much certainty in favorable 
 localities comprise common red clover, mammoth clover, alsike clover, 
 red top, Austrian brome grass {Bromus inermus\ and wild timothy 
 {Muhlenbergia). The varieties which may be expected to grow with 
 a fair measure of certainty under favorable conditions include lucerne, 
 orchard grass, tall oat grass, meadow fescue and meadow foxtail. And 
 those found not well adapted to permanent pastures will probably 
 embrace nearly all of the fescues and rye grasses. It may, however, 
 be found profitable in some instances to sow some of the rye grasses 
 for the crop they will bring the same season that they are sown. The 
 rye grasses do not as a rule endure the cold of the winters in this lati- 
 tude, and the fescues grow too slowly, though some native variety or 
 varieties of fescue may yet be found serviceable. As common red 
 clover and mammoth clover are biennials it is not usual to sow them 
 in large quantities in a permanent pasture, since at the end of two 
 years they will in a great measure disappear. 
 
 Laying Down Permanent Pastures.— In laying down perma- 
 nent pastures the adaptation of the grasses to the soils is very import- 
 ant. A permanent pasture of blue grass and white clover may be made 
 
42 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 on almost any kind of soil. Such a pasture especially on upland soils 
 is much superior to the native prairie. Arable lands are usually con- 
 sidered too valuable to be thus used. The aim is rather to transform 
 rugged lands into pastures of this nature. Such a transformation may 
 be made by sowing the seed on these early in the spring just after the 
 frost has left the ground, but a short distance below the surface. A 
 few pounds only per acre of the seed will be required, but more of the 
 blue grass will be needed than of the clover. A stroke or two of the 
 harrow at such a time would cover the seed, but on rugged soils this 
 may not be practicable. If the live stock of the farm were allowed to 
 tread upon it some of the seed would be buried. On stiff soils such a 
 course would seriously injure the land by poaching or trampling and 
 thus impacting it. These pastures should not be eaten too closely the first 
 and second seasons after the tame grasses have been sown in them to 
 give opportunity for some of the seeds of the latter to mature for further 
 reproduction. When these rugged lands are low-lying alsike clover 
 and red top may also be sown. It is not necessary to sow more than a 
 few pounds of the entire mixture. It would be quite impossible to 
 name quantities that would be equally applicable to all conditions. 
 In seeding down such lands the object should be to get the grasses 
 started on a limited scale at first and then to give them a chance to 
 increase, by allowing some of the seed to m.ature as intimated above, 
 rather than to transform the pasture quickly by sowing large quan- 
 tities of seed. As the seed when thus sown may possibly fail to 
 grow, this plan would diminish the risk arising from sowing it in 
 a wholesale way. If the season should prove more than ordinarily 
 dry failure would ensue. But in such instances the husbandman 
 should not be discouraged in repeating the process, for pastures thus 
 transformed are certainly more valuable than those of the unmolested 
 upland prairie. In moist regions excellent permanent pastures may be 
 made by sowing blue grass and orchard grass in shady places, as for 
 instance groves in which underwood is absent and in which the shade 
 is not too dense. In the drier park regions of the west, blue grass may 
 also be sown thus and possibly orchard grass as well, but as stated in 
 Chapter II, the value of orchard grass in such places has yet to be 
 proved. These grasses would require to be sown in the very early 
 spring and where they can be harrowed the results will be much more 
 satisfactory. 
 
Permanent Pastures. 43 
 
 Pastures of more or less permanency may be established on arable 
 lands in the Northwest, by using a limited number of grasses. These 
 lands should possess at least a fair amount of moisture. The grasses 
 may include such varieties as blue grass, timothy, common red or mam- 
 moth clover, alsike clover, white or Dutch clover, lucerne, and yellow 
 clover. The following quantities of seed can be used, but there may be 
 good reasons for varying these in certain instances: 
 
 Blue Grass 3 pounds. 
 
 Timothy 4 pounds. 
 
 Red Clover 2 pounds. 
 
 Alsike Clover 3 pounds. 
 
 Lucerne 2 pounds. 
 
 White Clover 2 pounds. 
 
 Yellow Clover 1 pound. 
 
 Total, 17 pounds. 
 Such a pasture may be used for a limited term of years, after which 
 the land may be again made to form a part of the regular rotation. In 
 preparing the soil thorough and careful cultivation will be necessary. 
 The seeds will of course be sown along with some kind of grain crop 
 and covered with the harrow. They should, whenever practicable, be 
 sown upon land ploughed the previous autumn. 
 
 A permanent pasture with a yet more limited number of varieties 
 can be laid down on lands that are quite low and moist. The varieties 
 used with the respective amounts of seed per acre are the following: 
 
 Timothy 6 pounds. 
 
 Blue Grass 3 pounds. 
 
 Alsike Clover 4 pounds. 
 
 White Clover 1 pound. 
 
 Total, 14 pounds. 
 
 In preparing the land for these grasses when the soil is spongy and 
 possesses an excess of vegetable matter, it may be necessary first to 
 grow upon it for a year or two such nitrogen consuming crops as flax. 
 The seed may be best sown with a crop of barley, as barley will grow 
 well on such soils. 
 
 But permanent pastures may also be laid down upon the European 
 plan, namely the plan which includes a large number of varieties of 
 grasses and clovers, intended to be kept as pastures for a long time. 
 
44 Grasses^ Clovers^ Field Roots ^ Forage a7id Fodder Plants. 
 
 When these pastures are thus laid down in America, whether in the 
 west or in the east, good, rich, moist soils should be chosen. They 
 should rest on a clay subsoil of only moderate texture, that is to say 
 neither too porous nor too retentive. If the subsoil were too open the 
 pastures would suffer in consequence in dry weather, if it were too close 
 or too retentive they would suffer overmuch in wet weather, in the latter 
 instance the soil would require to be thoroughly underdrained before it 
 was laid down to permanent pasture. Sharp, sandy and gravelly soils 
 are not suitable to the: maintenance of permanent pastures. They are 
 so deficient in moisture that they do not sustain a vigorous growth of 
 grasses except for a short season in the early spring. 
 
 When lands are to be laid down to permanent pasture, it is greatly 
 important that they should be entirely freed from noxious weed 
 growth, so far as this can be accomplished without excessive labor. 
 These pastures should then follow the bare fallow, or should come 
 after a hoed or cultivated crop. A crop of mangels, turnips or beans 
 would be more suitable to precede permanent pastures than corn, as 
 the roots of the corn would be seriously in the way or the cultivation 
 when preparing the ground for the seeds. 
 
 It is important that such lands should contain an abundance of 
 plant food in order that the grasses may be well sustained the first 
 season. When they enter the first winter in a vigorous and well-rooted 
 state they do not readily succumb to vicissitudes of weather. It the 
 lands are not rich they should be made so, either by applying farm- 
 yard manure or artificial fertilizers. When the former is applied it 
 should be put on in the autumn or winter preceding the sowing of the 
 grasses and incorpoiated with the surface soil before the seed is sown. 
 But when thus applied the manure would require to be well decom- 
 posed. If applied fresh it would be good policy to put it on freely when 
 preparing the ground for the preceding crop. The residuum of it then 
 left in the soil will be in a fine condition for sustaining a quick growth. 
 When artificial fertilizers are used they may be applied in the spring 
 while the land is being prepared for the grass seeds. A mixed fertilizer 
 would be suitable, that is one possessed of nitrogen, phosphoric acid 
 and potash. The object should be to so apply the fertilizer that it would 
 be incorporated with the surface soil, and yet not be far from the surface* 
 The nitrogeneous portion when applied by itself would be better strewn 
 upon the surface just after the plants appear above the ground. 
 
Permanent Pastures, 45 
 
 When permanent pastures come after field roots the ground does 
 not require any cultivation after the roots have been removed, further 
 than that necessary to secure a fine surface pulverization the following 
 spring. It will only be needful therefore to cultivate it as soon as the 
 ground is dry in the spring, and to follow the cultivation with the har- 
 row. In some instances it maybe necessary to use the harrow only, 
 more especially in soils a little spongy in texture. Ploughing the land 
 in the spring would do harm, in bringing up weed seeds from the lower 
 section of the soil which would prove troublesome afterwards, and it 
 would so loosen the soil that the growth of the grasses would be injur- 
 iously affected, if a dry season were to follow. But the pulverization of 
 the soil must be fine, for unless J:here is a minute division in the particles 
 of the surface soil the quick growth of the young plants will be seriously 
 retarded, more particularly those which possess least vigor when they 
 first spring into life. 
 
 The varieties which compose the mixtures of grasses suitable for 
 permanent pastures in the Northwest, will differ somewhat from those 
 suitable for the same in countries to the eastward. If will therefore be 
 necessary to mention in separate lists the grasses which may compose 
 the mixtures to be sown in the Northwest and also those which may 
 compose the mixtures to be sown in the East. 
 
 In the Northwest the following varieties, with the respective quan- 
 tities mentioned of each, will be found suitable for sowing per acre: 
 
 Timothy 4 pounds. 
 
 Blue Grass 3 pounds. 
 
 Red Top 2 pounds. 
 
 Orchard Grass 2 pounds. 
 
 Meadow Fescue 1 pound. 
 
 Tall Oat Grass 1 pound. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail 1 pound. 
 
 Alsike Clover 3 pounds. 
 
 White Clover 2 pounds. 
 
 Lucerne.. 2 pounds. 
 
 Yellow Clover 1 pound. 
 
 Total, 22 pounds. 
 When the grower does not wish to hazard the kinds that are in a 
 sense untried, as for instance, orchard grass, meadow fescue, tall oat 
 
46 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 grass and meadow foxtail, these maybe omitted from the mixture, and 
 the quantities of timothy, blue grass, red top and alsike clover ii.- 
 creased. 
 
 For states to the eastward of Michigan and for the Provinces of 
 Canada eastward of Lake Huron the mixture may with advantage in- 
 clude the varieties named in the list submitted below, which also con- 
 tains the respective amounts of seed required per acre: 
 
 Orchard Grass 4 pounds. 
 
 Meadow Fescue 3 pounds. 
 
 Tall Oat Grass 2 pounds. 
 
 Timothy 2 pounds. 
 
 Meadow Foxtail 2 pounds. 
 
 Lucerne 5 pounds. 
 
 Alsike Clover 3 pounds. 
 
 White Clover 2 pounds. 
 
 Yellow Clover 1 pound. 
 
 Total, 24 pounds. 
 
 These quantities are submitted as approximately suitable for aver- 
 age conditions. But it may be advantageous to vary them on soils 
 which differ in quality. For instance, on those with a very moist sub- 
 soil, lucerne would have to be omitted altogether. The omission 
 would then be made good by a corresponding relative increase in the 
 quantities of alsike and white clover. 
 
 The seed should be sown in the early spring as soon as the ground 
 is dry. if sown later there is great danger that the young plants will 
 perish when the warm, dry weather of summer sets in. It may be 
 sown alone or with a nurse crop. The value of a nurse crop consists in 
 providing shade for the young plants and in some instances in yielding 
 some return for the ground that same season. Barley and spring rye 
 would probably prove more suitable as nurse crops than other cereals, 
 as the shade which they provide is less dense, and consequently more 
 favorable to the growth of the young grasses. If nurse crops are used 
 one bushel of seed per acre will be found ample. 
 
 When the grass seeds are sown alone they may be all mixed to- 
 gether and then scattered broadcast over the ground. Care should be 
 taken to stir the mixture occasionally, lest the small seeds fall to the 
 bottom of the sowing box and be scattered unequally. Another way 
 
Peri?iancnt Pastures. 47 
 
 would be to sow the smaller and finer seeds after they had been mixed, 
 with some kind of hand machine, and then to mix the larger varieties 
 and sow them also. When the seeds are sown with a nurse crop, the 
 latter may be sown with a grain drill and the smaller seeds can be 
 mixed and sown at the same time when the drill has an attachment 
 for sowing grass seeds. These small seeds should fall behind the drill 
 tubes rather than in front of them. The larger seeds which the at- 
 tachment may not be able to sow could then be mixed and sown by 
 hand. Another plan would be to sow the small seeds with the seeder 
 attachment to the grain drill, and then to mix the larger ones with the 
 nurse crop and sow them along with the latter. But this method of 
 sowing the larger grass seeds would not answer so well for the stiffer. 
 soils of the east as it would bury the seeds too deeply. 
 
 On the soils of the Northwest the seeds would require to be covered 
 with the harrow. A smoothing harrow or one with many short teeth 
 would well serve the purpose. On the soils of the eastern states and 
 the eastern Provinces of Canada the seed should also get a slight cov- 
 ering with the harrow, but in some instances they would be sufficiently 
 covered by running the roller over the field before rain fell in any con- 
 siderable quantity. When the roller is thus used the covering will be 
 more complete if it is driven across rather than along the drill marks 
 
 If the grasses are sown alone, the mower may require to be run 
 over the field once or twice during the season, to prevent the weeds 
 which may have come up in the grass from seeding. When sown 
 with a nurse crop the grain also should be reaped high rather than low. 
 They should not be pastured the same season in which they are sown 
 as pasturing would tend to pull out some of the feeble plants and to de- 
 stroy others by trampling them. Audit would render them less able 
 to pass through the winter safely. 
 
 The management of permanent pastures after they have become 
 established, is not difficult. It includes the prevention of weeds from 
 maturing their seeds, an occasional harrowing, and it may also include 
 renovating them. Weed seeds may be prevented from ripening by 
 r jnning the mower over the pastures once a year or oftener, but usu- 
 ally once a year will be sufficient. A thorough harrowing once or 
 twice a year, more especially in conjunction with the application of fer- 
 tilizers has a beneficial influence upon them. It would need to be giv- 
 en in the autumn or the early spring. But the question of renovating 
 permanent pastures will be further discussed under a separate heading. 
 
48 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roofs, Forage and Fodder Plants, 
 
 The Renovation of Permanent Pastures. — The renovation of 
 permanent pastures may be of two kinds. First, it may relate to the 
 fostering of a more abundant growth of the grasses which compose 
 them. Or second, it may refer to the re-introduction of some varieties, 
 which, from some cause or causes have partially or wholly disappeared 
 from them. Experience in the renovation of permanent pastures even 
 in the Atlantic States is limited and it is still more rare to the west- 
 ward. As permanent pastures in this country, of what may be termed 
 artificial origin, are as yet few and far between, experience in renovat- 
 ing them in anv sense is almost entirely lacking. What is said on 
 this question therefore may seem somewhat problematical but it will 
 only be so, in so far as the statements based on general principles may 
 lack support, when applied to specific instances from local causes 
 which can only be brought to light by experience. 
 
 A more vigorous growth in permanent pastures may be secured in 
 any country by any one of the following methods or by all of them 
 combined: 
 
 First, it can be secured by what may be termed light pasturing. 
 And the drier the climate the more important is it that the pasturing 
 shall not be severe. The portions of a pasture not eaten closely act as a 
 mulch for the grass roots to shield them from the evaporating influences 
 of the sun and passing winds. Much more moisture is thus retained 
 in the soil, and in consequence the growth of the grass is a great deal 
 more vigorous than it would otherwise be. A covering of uneaten 
 grass in autumn shelters the roots from the frosts of winter. Where 
 such protection exists there is always an earlier and a more rapid 
 growth of grass in the spring than where it is lacking. And the same 
 is true in summer when rain moistens the ground which has been 
 parched. There is also more vigor in the plant and therefore greater 
 power to grow, let it be grass or grain which is not deprived of its 
 leaves during the period of active growth. It is a mistake therefore 
 under any condition to crop grasses off quite down to the ground, when 
 there is any way of preventing this. Herein lies one reason for the 
 great necessity of growing soiling crops to supplement the pastures. 
 
 Second, it may be secured by top dressing with farm-yard manures. 
 These in addition to the fertility which they bring to pastures, act as a 
 mulch and the benefit thus derived is probably as .great in some in- 
 stances as that arising from the enrichment of the land. When the 
 
Permanent Pastures. 49 
 
 manures are spread over the pastures while fresh, greater benefits will 
 result than if they are applied at a later stage. Farm-yard manures 
 may be applied to grass lands at any season, but not with equal ad- 
 vantage. If put on when the pastures are fresh the taint from the 
 manure will render the grass distasteful for a time. If applied when 
 the weather is dry the benefits by way of enrichment are not at once 
 bestowed. There is probably no season of the year at which manures 
 may be utilized with so much advantage to grass lands as in the win- 
 ter and more particularly the early winter, for when applied early they 
 act as a mulch in protecting the grass from frost. But they may be 
 spread over the ground with benefit any time during the winter even 
 when the snow is deep. When the snows melt and the spring rains 
 fall, the soluble parts of the manure are washed into the ground and 
 at once start a vigorous growth, while the bulky portions act as a 
 mulch. An extraordinary growth of grass may thus be secured early 
 in the season. In no other way probably can farm-yard manures be 
 utilized to better advantage than in the top dressing of pastures in the 
 manner indicated. When the conditions of the pasture in many sec- 
 tions of the Northwest is tai<en into consideration, and when in those 
 sections manure is burned or carted away into ravines language cannot 
 well express the regret felt by those who know its value, in conse- 
 quence of the loss involved. 
 
 Third, it may be secured by the application of artificial fertilizers. 
 In the states to the eastward these will be required more than in the 
 richer prairie lands of the west, and in the former better results rela- 
 tively may be expected from their application, owing to the greater 
 moisture which they possess. These fertilizers will be variously com- 
 pounded with reference to the end in view. Nitrogenous fertilizers, for 
 Instance tankage, tend more especially to push forward grasses. Phos- 
 phatic fertilizers tend more equally to foster the growth of grasses and 
 clovers, and potassic fertilizers have a tendency to promote the growth 
 of the clovers, while wood ashes seem to form an especial food for white 
 clover. These fertilizers may be applied in the autumn or the spring, 
 except those that are nitrogenous which should only be utilized in the 
 spring, as if applied in the autumn they might leech away before they 
 are taken up by the plants. When phosphoric or potassic fertilizers are 
 used the ground should be carefully harrowed after they have been 
 sown. The harrowing incorporates them in the surface soil where they 
 4 
 
50 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage a7id Fodder Plants. 
 
 at once begin to do their work, and it is also beneficial to the grasses. 
 Nitrogenous fertilizers may be left on the surface except where it is 
 more convenient to sow them in the spring as a part of the fertilizer 
 mixture. 
 
 And fourth, it may be secured with some kinds of grasses by 
 ploughing the ground and then harrowing it. Pastures composed of 
 blue grass or blue grass and white clover may be renovated thus. The 
 ploughing should be done in the autumn when the ground is moist, as 
 the grass will then begin to grow at once in the early spring. The fur- 
 rows should be turned at as great an angle as possible and the harrow 
 should follow closely after the plough. The cultivation tears asunder 
 the matted grass roots and loosens the soil so that a more vigorous 
 growth is thereby ensured during the years immediately following. 
 
 The re-introduction into permanent pastures of varieties of grasses 
 and clovers is less difficult in moist than in dry climates. It cannot be 
 easily done except when the surface soil is torn up more or less by some 
 implement of tillage, for instance the harrow. The seeds of the variety 
 or varieties to be re-introduced should be sown before the ground is 
 harrowed. 
 
 The duration of permanent pastures is dependent in a greater or 
 less degree upon climate, soil, the closeness of the pasturing or the 
 opposite, and the extent to which renovation is attempted. Moistness 
 of climate lengthens their duration as does also richness of soil. Severe 
 pasturing tends to shorten the period of their duration. But none of 
 these influences affects their continuity so much as the adoption of ju- 
 dicious measures for renovating them. Permanent pastures on the 
 European plan are not likely to maintain themselves for so long a period 
 in the Northwest as in locations where moisture is more abundant. 
 
Forage Crops. 51 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FORAGE CROPS. 
 
 No one crop probably, can be found equal to common red clover as 
 an all round forage crop. After clover, it would perhaps not be incor- 
 rect to name blue grass. But neither of these is a forage crop in the 
 sense in which the term is used in this chapter. All grasse«J are, strictly 
 speaking, forage crops. But these will not be considered, since the ob- 
 ject aimed at is to treat only of such forage crops as are sown for the 
 express purpose of furnishing food at a season of the year when succu- 
 lent grasses are not abundant. 
 
 As forage crops are not often needed while succulent grasses 
 abound, unless where a more or less complete system of soiling is fol- 
 lowed, there is usually no demand for them before the first of July, and 
 in moist seasons they may not be required until a period considerably 
 later. The one exception is the early spring when the grasses are just 
 beginning to waken into life, and the only forage crop that can render 
 service at such a time is winter rye. 
 
 Winter Rye.—Both winter and summer rye are frequently sown 
 as forage crops, but the former is decidedly the superior of the two for 
 the use indicated, in all sections of the Northwest, and in all the north- 
 ern portions of the United States. It is superior for the reason first, 
 that it may be sown in the autumn when the press of farm work is not 
 so great; second, that in moist seasons it will furnish pasture in both 
 autumn and spring and also a crop of grain when such a crop is wanted; 
 and third, it may be followed by another crop the same season after it 
 has been pastured both in the autumn and in the spring. When a 
 cultivated crop comes after a crop of rye, there is but little chance for 
 weed life to make any headway or indeed to survive. Summer rye can 
 only be made to produce forage at a time when some other foods may 
 be better utilized for the same purpose. 
 
52 
 
 Grasses, Clcvers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 Winter rye may be made to furnish excellent pasture for sheep and 
 
 lambs both in the autumn 
 and in the spring, but 
 especially in the early 
 spring. At that season it 
 grows more rapidly than 
 grass, and consequently 
 furnishes forage some- 
 what earlier. And when 
 rye is then accessible for 
 pasturage, the stock may 
 be kept off the grass pas- 
 tures until the latter have 
 made a good start. When 
 sheep are pastured upon 
 it in the spring, it may be 
 found profitable to divide 
 the field into two or three 
 sections and to pasture 
 the sheep successively on 
 each in a regular alterna- 
 tion. The rye is then given 
 a chance to grow up fresh 
 and tender during the ces- 
 sations of the periods of 
 pasturage. It will furnish 
 an excellent pasture for 
 milch cows and other cat- 
 tle, more particularly in 
 the spring. But if pastured 
 by this class of stock, it 
 is more advantageous to 
 have a grass pasture as 
 well, upon which the cat- 
 tle may graze in periods 
 alternating with those dur- 
 inpf which they are allowed 
 
 This crop will also furnish 
 a most excellent pasture 
 for swine, both in autumn 
 and spring, but more es- 
 pecially in the spring. 
 Care should be taken not 
 to crop the rye too closely 
 in the autumn, lest it be 
 injured by the severity 
 of the winter following. 
 When rye is being pas- 
 tured, it should not be al- 
 lowed to grow tall before 
 it is eaten, or it will not be 
 relished by the stock. 
 
 In case a crop of ma- 
 tured grain is wanted the 
 pasturing must not con- 
 tinue too long. The time 
 at which it should cease 
 will vary with climate, lo- 
 cality and soil, but in the 
 Northwest it should sel- 
 dom be continued longer 
 than the middle of May, 
 and on light and poor 
 soils it should cease at a 
 period considerably ear- 
 lier. Some of the crops 
 that may follow rye dur- 
 ing the same season in 
 which it has been pas- 
 tured, are as follows — 
 corn, sorghum, rape, man- 
 gels and turnips. 
 
 Rye as a forage crop 
 
 to graze upon the rye. ambertvintebRte. may be grown on almost 
 
Forage Crops. 53 
 
 any kind of soil. It will grow in magnificent condition as a pasture 
 on soil so ricli that it would not mature in best form a good crop of 
 grain. But it is more common to sow it upon poor soils for forage, 
 since when pastured, it tends to improve rather than to impoverish 
 them. Kye is peculiarly the grain crop for light, sandy soils, as it has 
 much power to search for and take up plant food from the earth. The 
 varieties of winter rye are not so numerous as those of the other cereals. 
 The newer kinds have not yet been able to drive the old and well tried 
 ones out of the field. 
 
 The ground may be prepared for rye by simply plowing after some 
 grain crop has been removed from it. In the east it may be plowed 
 deeply with advantage, but in the west and more especially in prairie 
 soils, it should be plowed lightly, because of different soil and climatic 
 conditions. 
 
 The time for sowing will depend to a considerable extent on the 
 moisture in the soil. While it is well to have the ground ready as soon 
 as possible after the harvest season, it will not avail to sow the rye so 
 long as there is not enough moisture in the soil to cause germination. 
 The lack of moisture would probably cause the seed to spoil, at least 
 in some instances. After the land has been made ready the rye cannot 
 be sown too early when there is sufficient moisture in the soil to 
 germinate the seed. It must be kept from jointing the same season, 
 however, by pasturing it when necessary, or it would be useless for 
 any purpose the following spring. Rye should not be sown so late 
 that the plants have not time to get a firm hold on the soil, or the win- 
 ter may kill them. 
 
 The seed should be liberally applied. While one and one-half 
 bushels per acre sown with the drill may be an abundant seeding for a 
 grain crop, two and one-half bushels will not be excessive when sown 
 as a forage crop. The reasons are so apparent as to render explanation 
 unnecessary. The seed should be sown with the grain drill when 
 practicable. 
 
 There does not seem to be any good reason why rye should not be 
 sown to a greater or less extent on every farm in the Northwest on 
 which live stock is numerously kept. It will doubtless come into 
 great favor as a forage crop in the near future. 
 
 Nearly all winter rye shows, when harvested, quite a percentage 
 of withered or shrunken kernels, causing considerable loss when 
 
54 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 3 ■ • ■ 
 
 milled or marketed. The Northrup, Braslan, Goodwin Co. have lately 
 introduced a variety called the "Amber Winter Rye" which seems to 
 be almost entirely free from this objection, the grain being uniformly 
 sound and handsome. 
 
 Rape.— Rape is one of the most useful forage plants that can be 
 grown. As it is comparatively a new plant in nearly all sections of the 
 United States, a description of it may be necessary. In appearance it 
 resembles closely the Swedish or rutabaga varieties of the turnip. But 
 this resemblance applies only to the tops. The roots are fusiform and 
 without bulbs. They are numerous, ramify in all directions, and go 
 down deeply into the soil in search of food. On rich soils and in fa- 
 vorable seasons, the tops reach the height of from two and a half to 
 three feet, and they form a solid mass as it were of foliage from side to 
 side of the field, but more commonly the plants do not grow higher 
 than one and a half feet. Some varieties rather resemble fall than 
 Swedish turnips, but these are not as yet in favor with growers in this 
 country. 
 
 Rape is better adapted to moist than to dry climates, and to those 
 of moderate rather than warm temperature, it is particularly well 
 adapted to the climate of the New England states and Canada from 
 Lake Huron eastward, but is scarcely so well adapted to that of the 
 west and Northwest, although magnificent crops can be grown in these 
 states under certain conditions. It will probably be less well adapted 
 to the states further to the south, although there does not seem to be 
 any good reason why rape should not furnish excellent forage for win- 
 ter use in mild latitudes to the southward. It seems to produce excellent 
 results in the moist latitudes between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Pacific. Outside of Canada, experience in growing rape on this con- 
 tinent is not extensive, but there is good reason to expect that hundreds 
 of thousands of acres of this plant will be grown in the Northern states 
 of the Union in the near future. 
 
 Rape furnishes fine forage for sheep and lambs, and in great 
 abundance when a good "stand" is obtained. A good, medium crop 
 should yield from 10 to 12 tons per acre. And its fattening properties 
 are probably twice as good as those of clover. The sheep may be 
 turned in upon it when it is fully grown, that is to say from eight to 
 ten weeks after it has been sown. They should not be put into it 
 when hungry, or they may eat too much at first. It is safer to turn 
 
Forage Crops. 
 
 55 
 
 them in upon it in the morning after the dew has lifted, and when 
 once turned upon it they may be allowed to remain until the field is 
 eaten of¥. Or, they may be accustomed to it by degrees, putting them on 
 it but a short time at first and then gradually extending the tfme from 
 day to day, until finally they are allowed to remain upon it all the time. 
 
 Dwarf Essex Rape. (Brassica campestris.) 
 
 The second method is the safer, but in dry weather it will not be neces- 
 sary probably to take so much trouble. The practice of having an old, 
 grass pasture at hand is a good one. The sheep will eat some of the 
 grass, hence the rape is not so liable to produce undue laxness of the 
 
56 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 bowels. An acre of rape should furnish forage for from ten to fifteen 
 sheep for two months. At the end of that time the sheep should be fat 
 enough for ordinary marketing. They do not need any additional grain 
 ration when on the rape, nor do they require water, but they must 
 have access to salt at all times. 
 
 Rape will also furnish excellent pasture for cattle, but they waste 
 more than sheep by trampling it under foot. There is some danger of 
 injury from bloating, with cattle as well as with sheep, when they are 
 put upon it while the leaves are moist from the influence of dew or 
 rain, and the same precautions are necessary with the former as with 
 the latter when they are first turned in upon it. Many persons prefer 
 to pasture cattle upon rape during a portion of the day only. During 
 the other portion they graze them upon a grass pasture or feed them 
 dry food in the yard or stable. 
 
 And rape also provides a very suitable pasture for swine. The 
 swine may be put in upon it at anytime after it is far enough advanced 
 in growth, and they may be left in upon it, or allowed access to it at 
 will, as may be desired. Som.e meal or grain fed in addition will no 
 doubt prove profitable. No danger of injury from excessive eating 
 may be feared with swine, as with cattle and sheep. Rape may also 
 be cut and fed with much advantage as a soiling crop, that is, a crop 
 cut and fed while yet green and succulent, to live stock, it is particu- 
 larly serviceable when thus fed as a food factor to sheep that are being 
 made ready for the show ring, as a food adjunct for swine, more es- 
 pecially when they are confined to the pens, and also as a food adjunct 
 for milch cows. When fed to milch cows it is safer to feed the rape 
 after rather than before the milking, to avoid the risk of tainting the 
 milk. Rape is an excellent food for producing an abundant flow of milk. 
 
 There are several varieties of rape, some of which are grown ex- 
 tensively in Europe for their seed. But the only variety hitherto found 
 highly useful as a forage plant is the Dwarf Essex {Brassica campes- 
 tris), sometimes spoken of as English rape. It does not blossom the 
 same season that it is sown, but bears seed the second season in lati- 
 tudes where the severity of the winter does not kill it. The Dwarf or 
 Essex rape will not, as a rule, survive the winters of the Northern 
 states or of Canada. Those kinds which produce seed the same season 
 they are sown have not been found profitable as forage crops. 
 
 Rape is adapted to all soils suitable for growing a good crop of tur- 
 
Forage Crof)s. 57 
 
 nips, that is to say, it will grow well on good, moist loams of free tex- 
 ture. But it will also yield abundant crops on some soils not well 
 suited to the growth of turnips, as for instance the muck soils found in 
 swamps. It requires soils rich in vegetable matter. Rape will grow 
 well on all prairie soils that are rich naturally or made so. But it will 
 not produce good crops on light sands until they are first enriched, nor 
 will it give good crops ordinarily on stiff clays. 
 
 The preparation of the soil for rape, the time of sowing the seed, 
 the amount of seed required and the cultivation needed, will depend to 
 some extent on the object for which it is grown, and also to a consid- 
 erable degree on the place given to it in the rotation. But the place 
 assigned it in the rotation is also modified by the object for which it is 
 grown. When rape is grown as a cleaning crop, as well as to produce 
 forage, it should be sown in raised drills in the east, but in rows on the 
 level in the west, so that it may be cultivated. Where it is the only 
 crop grown upon the land during the same season, the preparation of 
 the soil and the mode of sowing the seed will be essentially the same 
 as in growing a crop of turnips, described in Chapter VI., in treating of 
 field roots, but a less amount of rape seed will suffice. When all the soil 
 conditions are right it is not necessary to sow more than from one to two 
 pounds of rape seed per acre with drill culture. The cultivation may 
 also be the same as for turnips, with the difference that the rape does 
 not of necessity require to be thinned like turnips when a reasonable 
 amount of seed has been used. A long period is thus secured for re- 
 moving noxious weeds and weed seeds from the upper section of the 
 soil. Owing to the late season at which the rape is sown, the ground 
 may be made measurably clean before the crop is put into the soil, 
 
 When thus grown the seed may be best sown in the east from 
 about the middle of June until the middle of July, but in some in- 
 stances it may be sown later than the date mentioned. In the west 
 and Northwest a somewhat later period would seem to be preferable, 
 when there is sufficient moisture in the soil to start the rape growing. 
 When rape is sown early in the spring a rapid growth may be secured 
 for a time, but as the hot weather of early summer comes on it loses its 
 bloom. The color fades to a pale green or a yellow, and some of the 
 leaves become crisp and dead. It has been claimed that when rape 
 sown thus early is eaten off before arrested development is noticeable, 
 the crop will grow freely again, and the claim may be just, but experi- 
 
S8 Grassi's, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 ence on this point is as yet too limited in the Northwest to follow it as 
 a safe guide. 
 
 When rape comes after a crop of rye which has been pastured, it 
 may be grown as a cleaning crop and to produce forage, or simply for 
 the latter purpose. If sown as a cleaning crop it should be grown in 
 drills, or when the land is not rich the same mode of culture should be 
 adopted to stimulate growth. But where the soil is rich and the one 
 object is to grow forage, it is then sown broadcast and covered with a 
 light harrow. When rape is thus grown, from three to six pounds of 
 seed per acre are used. 
 
 Where rape is grown as a catch crop and for forage uses, it is sown 
 variously, sometimes along with cereal grains in the spring. When 
 thus sown, about two pounds of seed per acre are used. In some in- 
 stances it will not grow to give any profitable return. In other instances 
 it will grow, but not so as to hinder development in the grain crop, and 
 after the latter has been cut, it will come on and furnish a goodly 
 amount of forage. And in yet other instances it will grow so rapidly 
 as to damage the grain crop which has nursed it, so that discrimination 
 must be used as to the soils on which it should be sown when the at- 
 tempt is made to grow it by this method. 
 
 Oftentimes it is sown broadcast on the bare fallow. This is a 
 grand way to grow rape wherever the bare fallow system is practiced. 
 The cleaning of the land for the fallow may commence the previous 
 autumn. By the time that the rape should be sown the fallow will be 
 measurably clean, and it ought to grow a fine crop of rape. The pas- 
 turing of the rape will make the land firm, so that a good crop of grain 
 is likely to be grown upon it the following season. The land should 
 not be ploughed again before the grain is sown. This method has 
 succeeded well in Manitoba, and in all the Northwest it should bring 
 with it the opportunity to grow thousands and thousands of acres of rape. 
 
 At other times rape may be sown broadcast after some cereal or 
 hay crop has matured and been harvested. It may follow wheat, rye, 
 barley, oats, peas or meadow. When it comes after any one of the 
 cereal crops named the land will simply require stirring with some 
 form of cultivator, if not weedy, but if infested with weeds it will need 
 ploughing. When there is a lack of moisture no good result will follow 
 the sowing of the seed, but if showers come a good crop may be ob- 
 tained unless on hungry soils. 
 
Foras^c Crops. 59 
 
 And at yet other times rape is sown in a crop of standing corn, just 
 before tlie last cultivating given to the corn. Experience in growing 
 rape by this mode also is limited, and so tar as it has gone the results 
 have been fairly encouraging. But further experiments in thus grow- 
 ing rape may prove more satisfactory. 
 
 Corn. — Corn more properly comes under the head of fodder crops. 
 Hence the growing of corn is described at length in Chapter V, which 
 treats of this class of crops. But there is a strong probability that thou- 
 sands of acies of corn will yet be grown in the Northwest to furnish 
 forage for sheep. It would not answer so well, perhaps, to provide 
 pasture for cattle, since they would probably destroy much of the corn 
 while it was being pastured. 
 
 When corn is grown to provide forage for sheep, it may be sown 
 on any kind of land suitable for an ordinary crop of corn grown for 
 other uses, as for instance either grain or fodder. It may be grown 
 very suitably in conjunction with rye and rape, that is to say, the corn 
 could be mad'e to follow the rye, and could in turn be followed by rape 
 after the corn had been pastured, providing, first, that the corn was 
 eaten off sufficiently early to admit of this, and second, that there was 
 enough moisture in the soil to secure germination of the rape seed. 
 
 When corn is grown for this purpose, it may be advantageous to 
 divide the field or plot into two or three sections. The first section 
 would be sown as early in the season as the corn could be put into the 
 ground with safety, the second at an interval of two or three weeks, 
 and the third at a corresponding interval after the planting of the sec- 
 ond plot. The season of pasturing would then be prolonged for a 
 period of two or three months. 
 
 The corn could be sown with the grain drill. From one to two 
 bushels of seed would be used. Preference should be given to such of 
 the strong growing varieties as come under the head of sweet corn. 
 When the corn appears above the surface of the soil, it may be har- 
 rowed with a light harrow, and the work of thus harrowing the corn 
 may be repeated a second time to keep the weeds in check and to en- 
 courage the growth of the corn. 
 
 The most suitable stage in the growth of the corn at which to turn 
 in the sheep is yet problematical, but it should not be deferred until 
 the corn gets so high and woody that the sheep will not eat it off read- 
 ily. The corn would probably require to get as high as the backs of 
 
60 
 
 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage ajid Fodder rianfs. 
 
 the sheep before pasturing begins. A crop of corn thus depastured 
 would furnish many tons of green food per acre. 
 
 Experience in using corn as a forage crop is almost entirely lack- 
 ing. With the exception of his own experience, extending over but 
 one season, the writer is unable to furnish that of any other. The data 
 upon which to base any positive conclusion is therefore insufficient. 
 But there is no good reason apparent why corn should not be thus 
 used with great advantage in providing succulent forage for sheep at a 
 season of the year when it is much needed. 
 
 And here it may be well to add, even at the risk of digressing, that 
 in the judgment of the writer wide areas in the Northwest are admir- 
 ably adapted to the growing of sheep. The winters are all that could 
 be desired for this purpose in a country of low temperatures. The only 
 serious difficulty to be confronted arising from conditions which relate 
 to soil and climate is the lack of succulent fodder during the late sum- 
 mer and the autumn months. It is highly important, therefore, that 
 
Forage Crops. 
 
 61 
 
 much attention should be given to the growth of forage crops to carry 
 the sheep on into the winter in a good condition of thrift. There seems 
 to be no good reason why sheep should not be grown in greatly in- 
 creased numbers and of the finest quality. It would, of course, be nec- 
 essary to improve the breeding of the sheep as well as to improve the 
 autumn forage. 
 
 Kaffir Corn. 
 Kaffir Corn.— There does not appear to be any good reason why 
 Kaffir corn should not b& successfully grown as a forage crop. 
 
 It is of 
 
62 
 
 Grasses, C/oTurs, Field Roofs, Forai^e a)id Fodder Pla)its. 
 
 a leafy habit of growth and also bulky, hence it provides a large 
 amount of excellent food, it seems best adapted to warm latitudes and 
 has the power of holding out against the influences of drought in a 
 marked degree, it is becoming quite popular as a soiling and fodder 
 plant in Kansas and other places, but experience in pasturing it seems 
 to be wanting. When grown as a forage crop it may be sown and 
 managed in about the same manner as corn that is grown for a similar 
 use. The mode of growing corn as forage has already been given in 
 the present chapter. When grown for soiling or fodder uses it should 
 be put in drills and cultivated in the same wav as corn grown for the 
 silo or for todder. See Chapter V., where it treats of corn. 
 
 J KlllISAI.lOM COKN 
 
 Jerusalem Corn.— Jerusalem corn, like Kaffir corn, described 
 above, is growing in favor. It may be termed a sort of dwarfish sor- 
 
Forage Crops. 63 
 
 ghum, as it does not usually reach the height of more than three or four 
 feet. But it does not possess the saccharine qualities of sorghum. It 
 is branching in its habit of growth, and each branch bears a head 
 which in due time matures seed. Like Kaffir corn it is a good plant to 
 withstand drought. Experience seems to be wanting in growing it for 
 forage, but it is at least well worthy of trial for such a use. The method 
 of growing Jerusalem corn for forage uses would be about the same as 
 that of growing Indian corn. See Corn, in a preceding paragraph of 
 the present chapter. 
 
 Jerusalem corn is becoming more and more valued as a fodder 
 plant. When used as fodder it may be grown as an ordinary corn 
 crop. See Corn, in Chapter V. The abundance of the grain which it 
 produces greatly adds to its feeding value. Both Kaffir corn and Jeru- 
 salem corn furnish very excellent soiling food during the late summer 
 and autumn months. 
 
 Sorghum.— Sorghum is chiefly grown for the syrup which is ex- 
 tracted from it, but it is also raised to some extent for fodder, and there 
 does not seem to be any reason why it cannot be grown with manifest 
 advantage to provide forage for sheep. It possesses the power in a 
 marked degree of sprouting up again after it has been eaten off, hence 
 it should provide forage for a much longer period than corn. As it 
 possesses more sugar than corn, it should be much relished by sheep 
 and its fattening properties are of a high order. But the animals must 
 not be put upon a sorghum pasture when hungry, lest they eat too 
 freely and harmful results follow. They should rather be accustomed 
 to it gradually. And this remark will hold true when any kind of 
 succulent pasture is being eaten. 
 
 Sorghum may be grown for forage in much the same way as corn, 
 the culture of which has been described in a preceding section of the 
 present chapter. As with corn it would probably be wise to sow the 
 seed at intervals to prolong the season of pasturage. The amount of 
 seed required per acre should not be less than from one-half bushel to 
 three-fourths of a bushel, and in some instances an amount consider- 
 ably larger could be used with great advantage. 
 
 The most suitable stage at which to begin the depasturing of 
 sorghum is yet problematical, and indeed the same thing may be said 
 of the whole question of producing corn as a forage crop. Experience 
 thus far with reference to it seems to be entirely wanting. But, reas- 
 
64 
 
 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 oning from general principles, there seems to be sufficient cause to ex- 
 pect that large areas of sorghum will yet be grown to provide forage for 
 sheep. It would be well probably to turn the sheep in on the sorghum 
 after it had reached the height of from one to tvvo feet above the sur- 
 face of the ground. 
 
 Early MiNNESOTi Sugar Cane or Sorghum. 
 
 It is somewhat surprising that sorghum has not been more largely 
 grown in the Northwest for forage, soiling and fodder purposes, when 
 
Parage Crops. 65 
 
 its excellence for these uses is considered. It 1^ true that its value in 
 furnishing pasture is somewhat problematical, since experience is 
 almost entirely wanting on this point. But substantial reasons maybe 
 given for the belief that it will yet be very extensively grown as pas- 
 ture for sheep and probably also for cattle. First, it is a quick growing 
 plant after it has once made a good start. Second, it is a deep and a 
 firm rooted plant, and hence not easily displaced in the soil. Third, it 
 has the power of growing in dry weather in a marked degree; and, 
 fourth, it is pre-eminently //z<? forage plant for growing up quickly again 
 after it has been eaten off. But it is also probable that much care 
 would have to be exercised when pasturing it, lest the animals should 
 suffer more or less from bloating. 
 
 As to the value of sorghum as a soiling crop, there need not be any 
 doubt. The readiness with which it springs up when cut off pre- 
 eminently adapts it to soiling uses. In some latitudes two or three 
 cuttings may be obtained. It would assuredly furnish a large yield on 
 a given acreage of productive soil. 
 
 And its value as a fodder crop has also been proved, though prob- 
 ably not to any great extent in the Northwest. When thus used it may 
 be sown with a grain drill, as for forage. It should be allowed to reach 
 an advanced stage of growth before it is cut where the frost does not 
 come too early. If frozen before it has been cut its feeding value is 
 seriously injured. When cut it should be allowed to lie on the ground 
 in the hot sun for several days, until it is at least partially cured. 
 Should rain fall on it when thus strewn over the ground, it will not 
 take serious harm, as would corn under like circumstances. It may 
 then be thrown into heaps, larger or smaller according as the sorghum 
 is more or less succulent. On the arrival of cool weather it does not 
 spoil when in heaps or coils, as would corn. It is drawn from the 
 heaps and fed as wanted. Immense areas of sorghum will doubtless 
 be thus grown for fodder in the Northwest in the near future. 
 
 Sweet Corn.— Sweet corn may be profitably grown as a forage 
 crop for swine. The mode of preparing the ground, the time of plant- 
 ing the seed and the cultivation suitable for the crop are similar to the 
 method given of raising corn chiefly for the grain which it produces. 
 See Chapter V., under head of Corn. 
 
 This crop is ready to be fed to swine as soon as the corn in the ear 
 has reached the milk stage, or even at a period somewhat earlier, and 
 
66 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 feeding it may be continued until it is so far matured that the swine 
 will no longer consume any considerable proportion of the stalk. If 
 the corn is planted at intervals the season for feeding may be made to 
 extend over several weeks. 
 
 When sweet corn is thus fed to swine it is commonly carted to 
 them and fed only as a portion of the ration. To turn them in upon 
 the crop is considered wasteful. It furnishes an excellent food adjunct 
 when given along with grain. If any of the crop remains after it has 
 become too far matured to be fed as indicated, it may be cut and cured 
 for winter fodder. 
 
 Mangels. — Mangels may be made to provide an excellent forage 
 crop for swine, and also for sheep. The method of growing them 
 would be the same as described in Chapter VI, under the head which 
 treats of mangels. There would not be the same necessity for thinning 
 them with so much care as when grown for winter use, hence the 
 labor of producing the crop would be materially lessened. A large 
 quantity of food per acre could thus be furnished. When the pastures 
 were dried and possibly bare, it would be a grand thing for a flock of 
 sheep to have access to a crop of mangels. The economical plan would 
 be to allow them to feed upon one portion of the crop until it was eaten 
 clean, and then to give them access to another portion, and again to 
 another, until the whole crop was consumed. And it would be well to 
 so arrange that all the mangels should be eaten before the season of 
 frost becomes sufficiently severe to bring serious harm to the mangels. 
 
 Swine also should be allowed access to the mangels, and much after 
 the same plan as suggested above for pasturing with sheep. But they 
 would require some grain or meal in addition to the mangels, more 
 especially it they were soon to be fattened for the market. But with 
 swine it would probably be the better plan where small lots only are kept, 
 to cart the mangels to them and feed them along with other food in 
 suitable quantities, large or small, as occasion may require. 
 
 By sowing the seed early, a portion of the crop should be ready for 
 depasturing not later than the middle or end of August, hence the crop 
 might be made to render good service in the manner indicated, for a 
 period of at least two months. 
 
 Fall Turnips.— Fall turnips, in an even greater degree than man- 
 gels, can be made to serve an excellent purpose in providing forage foi 
 sheep, and at a less outlay for labor than mangels. But on the othet 
 
Forage Crops, 67 
 
 hand, this advantage is offset in some degree by the greater certainty 
 with which a crop of mangels may be grown. When the season comes 
 for sowing the turnips, the dry weather oftentimes hinders the seed 
 from sprouting. 
 
 Turnips to provide forage may be sown upon the bare fallow or 
 upon new land after it has been broken with the plough. When raised 
 upon the bare fallow, the land could be managed previous to the sow- 
 ing of the turnips, in much the same manner as though it were to be 
 sown to rape, as described in dealing with the methods of growing 
 rape. When raised upon "breaking," the land would need to be har- 
 rowed before and after sowing the seed. The seed would be scattered 
 broadcast, and at the rate of from three to six pounds to the acre. The 
 time of sowing would extend from about July 1st until the middle of 
 August. 
 
 No further labor is necessary after the crop has been sown, until it 
 is ready for being depastured. The sheep may be put upon the turnips in, 
 say two months from the time of sowing the crop, when the conditions 
 have been favorable for a good growth. The sheep should have access 
 at the same time to some other kind of food, as a grass pasture for in- 
 stance, which has not been eaten too bare. More is said with reference 
 to this crop in Chapter VI. 
 
 Squashes.— Squashes can be grown with much advantage as a late 
 summer or autumn food for live stock, in nearly all parts of the North- 
 west. This crop may be more properly termed a soiling than a fodder 
 crop, since it is not consumed in the field where it grew. And it is not 
 strictly speaking a soiling crop, since it is allowed to reach maturity 
 before the squashes are fed. When this crop is grown upon suitable 
 soils, from five to seven tons per acre may be secured with ordinary good 
 management and in a normal season. 
 
 Many varieties of squashes may be grown, but those which have 
 a moderately soft rind and thick flesh, and which grow to a good size 
 are preferable. The Boston Favorite is among the more suitable varie- 
 ties. 
 
 Field squashes, and indeed any kind of squashes, grow best in 
 friable loam soils of sandy texture. But they will also grow admirably 
 on muck soils when free from a superabundance of water, owing to the 
 large amount of humus or vegetable matter which they contain. 
 Squashes will grow well on what may be termed good, rich "corn' 
 
68 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 soils. It is useless to plant them on poor soils with the expectation at 
 the same time of getting a good crop. 
 
 The preparation of the soil for a crop of field squashes is essentially 
 the same as for a crop of corn, see Chapter V. But there is this dif- 
 ference. On soils that are not leechy the ground should be marked off 
 both ways in the autumn by drawing lines over it with some kind of 
 marker at intervals of eight feet. At the points of intersection two or 
 three shovelfuls of earth are taken out and laid aside. A good large 
 forkful or more of well fermented farmyard manure is put into the 
 cavity made, and the earth which was removed is put back in place. 
 To preserve the exact spot where the lines intersect, it may be well to 
 use small pegs or stakes placed upright in the ground. On leechy 
 soils, the marking out of the ground and the application of the manure 
 had better be delayed until the spring. The ground should be har- 
 rowed occasionally in the spring until the squash seeds are planted. 
 
 Boston Favorite Squash. 
 
 The planting of the seed should be deferred until the soil is warm 
 and all danger from spring frosts is past. The time of planting, 
 therefore, may commence during the latter part of May, and can be ex- 
 tended well on into the month of June. 
 
 The seeds may be put into the soil with the hand corn planter, 
 and care should be taken to cluster them around the spot enriched with 
 the manure. In other words the hills should be in straight lines which 
 do not extend widely, for the sake of convenience in the after cultiva- 
 tion. From six to eight or ten plants may be put into a hill, to make 
 gure that there will be no blanks, but before the plants crowd each 
 
Forage Crops. 69 
 
 other in the hill, they should all be removed but three or four of the 
 strongest ones. From three to four pounds of seed per acre will be 
 sufficient. 
 
 Cultivation should begin soon after the seed has been planted, to 
 keep down all weed growth. It should be shallow and frequent until 
 it is hindered by the vines running over the soil. Some hand hoeing 
 will probably be needed around the hills. 
 
 When ready for feeding the squashes are carted to the feeding 
 place. Although excellent for milch cows, it is more common to feed 
 them to swine. They are at once a nutritious and palatable food. When 
 fed to swine that are being fattened, they should only form a moderate 
 proportion of the whole ration. They are especially valuable when fed 
 to pigs confined to a forcing ration of corn, because of the favorable in- 
 fluence which they exert upon digestion. 
 
 Field squashes may also be grown along with a crop of corn. 
 When thus grown, planting them in the corn is usually deferred until 
 the corn has been harrowed, which should take place soon after it ap- 
 pears above ground. If planted as early as the corn, the squash vines 
 would probably interfere with the cultivation of the corn. A crop of 
 squashes grown In this way is therefore later than when it is the sole 
 crop on the ground, and the squashes are of a smaller size. 
 
 Pumpkins.— Pumpkins may be grown after the same manner as 
 squashes, and they may be devoted to the same uses, but pumpkins 
 are more in favor as a food for milch cows than for swine. It is more 
 common also to grow the pumpkins along with corn, or even with 
 potatoes. But the frequent harrowings now recommended for both corn 
 and potatoes will certainly tend to discourage the effort to grow them 
 along with either of these crops. 
 
 When an orchard has reached that stage in which it is thought 
 prudent to cease growing cereals upon it, and at the same time it is con- 
 sidered advisable to stir the soil in the sametoagreateror lesser extent 
 during the spring and early summer, a crop of pumpkins or squashes 
 may be grown with manifest advantage. The shade of the orchard is 
 probably helpful to the crops named, and these in turn protect the soil 
 so as to keep it more moist than it would otherwise be. 
 
 Peas. — Field peas may be grown as a forage crop, particularly for 
 swine. If pastured by other kinds of live stock much of the crop 
 would be wasted. It would be trodden down and soiled, hence the 
 
70 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roofs, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 soiled portions would be left uneaten by sheep and cattle; but with 
 swine the waste of food will not be nearly so great. 
 
 This crop is peculiarly adapted to temperate climates, humid rather 
 than dry in character, and cool rather than very hot in the summer. It 
 will grow readily in nearly all parts of the Northwest, but in the south- 
 ern portion of the Northwestern states lying along the Canadian boun- 
 dary, average yields may not be looked for, equal to those in the 
 northern portion of the same states, or on the Canadian side of the 
 line, although in some seasons good crops may be secured further 
 south than the northern tier of states. Hot winds are very hurtful to 
 the yield of grain from peas, if they pass over the crop when it is in 
 blossom. The pea crop therefore may in some instances be made 
 more profitable as a soiling crop or fodder crop than when grown for 
 the grain. 
 
 Of this crop there are many varieties. When grown as forage for 
 swine, those kinds which give good yields of grain should be pre- 
 ferred. When they are grown as a soiling crop or for fodder uses, 
 choice should be made of those kinds which produce large quan- 
 tities of straw, but not of too coarse a character. 
 
 Peas will grow on nearly all classes of land free from stagnant 
 water, but not equally well. They flourish on lands essentially clay 
 in texture, as such soils usually have a plentiful supply of available 
 potash. On light sands they do not produce straw plentifully, and on 
 humus soils, with an excess of plant food, they grov/ an abundance of 
 straw, with a corresponding deficiency in the yield of grain. This crop, 
 like clover, has the power of taking nitrogen from the air, hence it is 
 not an exhaustive crop on the land. 
 
 To produce forage, peas may be sown early or late, and indeed for 
 any purpose they may be thus sown, but, notwithstanding, it would 
 be easily possible to delay the sowing season so long that only re- 
 duced yields could be looked for. It would perhaps not be prudent 
 ordinarily to defer the sowing of peas longer thanthe middle of May. 
 When sown as a food for swine the season of depasturing may be pro- 
 longed by planting the peas at intervals, that is, by sowing one part of 
 the crop early, a second portion about two weeks later, and a third por- 
 tion about two weeks later than the second. 
 
 The method of preparing the ground for a crop of peas is the same 
 as for other cereals. The seed should be sown with the grain drill, 
 
Forage Crops, 
 
 71 
 
 and it should go down deeply into the soil. When a grain drill is not 
 available, the peas may be sown broadcast over the land and then 
 ploughed in to the depth of four inches. The land should then be 
 smoothed with a light harrow. If again harrowed a few days after the 
 
 N., B., G. Co.'s Chancellor Field Pea. 
 
 peas have been sown, and while the sprouts are yet some distance be- 
 low the surface of the ground, the growth of the weeds will be checked 
 and that of the peas will be strengthened. 
 
 The amount of seed required will be the same as though the peas 
 
72 Grasses, Clovers^ Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 were to be raised for the grain. It will vary with the variety sown and 
 also with the character of the soil. When the small varieties are used, 
 two bushels of seed per acre will suffice, but with the largest sorts 
 three bushels and even a greater quantity may be used. Less produc- 
 tive soils require more seed than those more fertile. 
 
 Peas are ready for being pastured when they have reached that 
 stage which renders them fit for table use. It is considered best not to 
 allow the swine access to the whole of the crop at once, but rather to 
 restrict them to one portion until that is eaten, and then give them 
 access to another part. When the peas are matured, the gleaning of 
 the swine may continue until all the crop has been gathered, although 
 some persons are opposed to the further gleaning of the swine after the 
 peas have matured, as then this mode of harvesting them is wasteful 
 of the straw. The season during which peas may be thus used as a 
 forage crop is not a very long one. 
 
 Barley and Oats.— Barley and oats, grown together, furnish ex- 
 cellent pasture for swine at a season of the year when blue grass has 
 passed the succulent stage. The mixed crop of these two varieties of 
 grain will grow on any soil suitable for producing one or the other of 
 them. The preparation of the soil is the same as though they were 
 grown for the matured grain, that is to say, the ground should be 
 ploughed in the autumn when practicable. The seed is first mixed 
 before being sown. The proportion of three parts barley to one part 
 of oats will be found suitable. From nine to twelve pecks of the mix- 
 ture may be sown. The aim should be to put in the seed with the 
 drill. 
 
 The crop is ready for pasturing when it is sufficiently grown to 
 almost hide the ground. It should be cropped off before any indica- 
 tions of earing manifest themselves. If allowed to reach the earing 
 stage the forage would be less relished by the swine and further growth 
 from the root would practically cease. When a part of the crop Is sown 
 early and another part at a later stage, the season of depasturing is 
 prolonged. Barley and oats thus grown together make an excellent 
 substitute for clover where the latter has failed to grow or where it can 
 not be depended upon to produce a successful crop, as in latitudes north 
 of the clover belt. 
 
 Mixed Grains. — The different cereals may be mixed and sown 
 together to provide food for live stock. When thus grown they may 
 
Forage Cro^s. 73 
 
 be mixed in various ways to suit the capabilities of the soil and the 
 needs of the live stock kept. More food can be obtained, as a rule, 
 from grain grown in mixtures than from the kinds used in the mixtures 
 had they been sown separately. And there is the further advantage 
 that variety in the foods provided for live stock proves more whole- 
 some than sameness of diet. Those kinds of grain should be made 
 prominent in the mixture which produce most successful results in the 
 locality, and next to this consideration, prominence should be assigned 
 those which are more particularly suited to the needs of the live stock 
 to which they are to be fed. 
 
 The mode of preparing the soil for these mixtures of grain is much 
 the same as it would be for growing them singly. In the heavier soils 
 of the New England states and Canada deep ploughing in the autumn 
 would be in order. In the Central states, which lie to the north, as 
 Ohio for instance, the ploughing would have to be delayed until spring 
 lest the land should become impacted by heavy rains. The soils of the 
 Northwest should also be ploughed in the autumn like those of New 
 England, but as a rule they should be ploughed shallow rather than 
 deep. Farm-yard manure may be used with much freedom when rais- 
 ing these crops, for soiling. They are cut before the grain is matured, 
 hence an excessive growth of straw is not so hurtful to the crop as 
 though it were grown for the grain which it would yield. 
 
 These crops are also helpful in cleaning the soil. They may be 
 made to grow so thickly as to keep weeds in check to some extent- 
 And as they are commonly cut and fed whilegreen, there is time enough 
 to follow with another crop the same season. 
 
 Peas and Oats. — Of the various mixtures grown for soiling uses, 
 none are in such general demand as a mixture of peas and oats. The 
 amount of this mixture to be sown per acre will vary, but one bushel of 
 peas and one and a half bushels of oats will probably prove satisfactory 
 in nearly all instances. The peas may be sown first and deeply buried; 
 then the oats, which should not be buried so deeply. But when these 
 grains are first mixed and then sown together with the grain drill, the 
 germination will usually prove satisfactory when they are well covered. 
 The covering may be less on stiff soils than on the lighter soils of the 
 prairie. 
 
 And here it may be mentioned that in the judgment of the writer 
 greatly increased attention should be given to growing peas, whether 
 
74 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roofs, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 they are grown for grain, for soiling uses or for fodder. Like clover 
 they have the power of enriching soils by depositing in them nitrogen 
 which has been obtained from the air. And in sowing them for any 
 purpose, it should be remembered that the larger the grain the greater 
 the quantity of seed required. While two bushels of seed of some 
 varieties may be ample to sow per acre when the grain is the chief ob- 
 ject sought, more than three bushels per acre of some of the large vari- 
 eties would not be too much to sow. 
 
 But the scarcity of seed and the lack of harvesting facilities are 
 serious obstacles to the extension of the growth of the pea crop in the 
 Northwest. The remedy for the first is in the hands of the farmers. 
 When they set about growing more of this excellent crop the seed will 
 be more plentiful. And the remedy for the second has already been 
 solved by the inventor. Pea harvesters are now being introduced in 
 sections where peas are grown largely as a grain crop. They will cut 
 the peas as quickly as a mower will cut meadow, and they are not 
 costly. 
 
 When soiling crops are sown at intervals rather than all at once, 
 the season during which they may be fed is prolonged. But experi- 
 ence has demonstrated that it is better to grow a succession of various 
 soiling crops adapted to the different seasons, than to try to prolong 
 unduly the period for using any one crop. For instance it would be 
 better to grow peas and oats followed by corn, than to try to so lengthen 
 the period of growing either of those crops, that the growth of the other 
 would not be necessary. All crops will grow better at a certain season 
 of the year than at any other time, and the aim should be to grow each 
 in its proper season. Peas and oats should be sown quite early, and 
 then again at an interval of two or three weeks. 
 
 The feeding of this crop may begin when the oats are well out in 
 head or when the peas are in full bloom, and it may continue until the 
 grain is nearly matured. When the grain has reached what might be 
 termed the dough stage, the crop has then attained its maximum feed- 
 ing value. It can be cut with a scythe, a mower, or with a reaper as 
 occasion requires, and where large quantities were in demand it would 
 need to be carted to the place for feeding. It furnishes excellent food 
 for milch cows, and may also be fed with advantage to other kinds of 
 live stock. 
 
 Oats and vetches or tares make an excellent soiling food for sheep 
 
Forage Crops. 75 
 
 and lambs, and they may also be used with advantage in feeding swine. 
 In nearly all parts of the New England states and Canada this crop can 
 be grown with much success, but in some sections of the west and 
 Northwest the warm winds that occasionally visit those regions are 
 hurtful to the vetches. In other seasons they will grow very well. 
 One peck of oats and from two to three pecks of vetches per acre will 
 furnish an abundant seeding. The seed may be sown with the grain 
 drill as soon as the weather has become settled in the spring, and again 
 at an interval of two or three weeks. The oats are wanted rather to 
 sustain the vetches from falling to the earth than to provide food for 
 the sheep, but they will be eaten in part by the sheep, although these 
 animals show a decided preference for the vetches. As soon as the 
 vetches reach the blossoming stage the feeding may commence. 
 
 Oats and wheat, or oats, peas and wheat, make an excellent soil- 
 ing crop. The cost of the seed should be considered in determining 
 the relative amounts of each to use in the mixture. From two and a 
 half to three bushels per acre may be sown of the wiiole mixture. 
 When it consists of oats and wheat equal proportions of each can be 
 used. When it consists of the three cereals named, equal proportions 
 of oats and wheat may be used, and half the quantity of peas. In 
 other words, the oats, wheat and vetches would be mixed in the pro- 
 portion of two, two and one. These grains are mixed before being 
 sown, and should be put into the ground to a fair depth to keep the 
 peas from being uncovered by the washing of rains which may follow. 
 Like the mixtures for soiling previously mentioned, they should be 
 sown early, and again at an interval of two or three weeks where pro- 
 longed feeding is wanted. The feeding of the crop should commence 
 as soon as the heads of the oats and wheat begin to appear. 
 
76 Glasses, Clovers^ Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, 
 
 CHAPTER V, 
 
 Fodder Crops. 
 
 The production of fodder crops will no doubt form an important 
 factor in the farming of the Northwest, in the near future. The need 
 for this class of crops is not yet so apparent as it will be in the days 
 that are at hand, owing to the abundant supply of wild hay available 
 in all the more newly settled portions of the country. When the lands 
 which yield wild hay come to be cultivated, a substitute for the crop 
 which now grows upon them will be required. This substitute will be 
 found in part in cultivated hay, but more probably in fodder crops, 
 owing to the marked adaptability of the conditions of growth in all 
 this western country to the production of these crops. In growing fod- 
 der crops there is not the same liability to occasional failure in the 
 germination of the seed, as in growing crops of hay. Some of them, 
 for instance corn, when once firmly rooted in the soil, possess great 
 power to withstand the vicissitudes arising from dry weather. 
 
 Corn. — Sometime in the future, possibly at an early date, the corn 
 crop will doubtless stand first in importance among all the fodder crops 
 then grown in the Northwest, hay even not excepted. In some sections 
 of the area named corn may not as yet prove a reliable crop when 
 raised mainly for the grain which it produces. But when grown purely 
 as a fodder crop there are but few sections capable of tillage which may 
 not be made to produce it in good form. At one time it was thought 
 impossible to grow corn with safety further north than Minneapolis. 
 Now good crops are regularly grown a hundred miles further north and 
 the northern limit fixed upon for its production is constantly receding 
 from the equator. Excellent corn of the Mercer variety was harvested 
 the present year at Buxton, Traill County, North Dakota, situated 
 
Fodder Crops. 77 
 
 about half way between the forty-seventh and forty-eighth parallels of 
 latitude, and at numerous other points in that state. When a crop of 
 matured corn can even now be obtained thus far north, we have reason 
 to hope that varieties will yet be procured, which under a proper sys- 
 tem of cultivation will mature the crop with considerable certainty 
 throughout the regions along the southern boundary of Manitoba and 
 Assiniboia. And as corn can be grown for fodder, and more particu- 
 larly for soiling, much further to the north than for grain, we can con- 
 fidently anticipate that for these purposes it will become a regular 
 product of the Canadian Northwest. 
 
 Benefits other than the food product obtained would be derived 
 from the general growth of corn. In the first place if properly cared for 
 it would greatly assist in the cleaning of the land. But on the other 
 hand if the cultivation were neglected it would prove a most effective 
 medium for the multiplication of weed seeds. Therefore when it can 
 not be properly cared for the attempt should not be made to raise corn. 
 And this remark will apply to the growth of all kinds of crops. In the 
 second place it will furnish an excellent seed bed for grass seeds. And 
 in the third place corn culture brings the land into good form for pro- 
 ducing more abundant cereal crops than if corn were excluded from the 
 rotation. 
 
 Corn is of many varieties, and the number of these is probably not 
 less than four hundred. The varieties may be roughly grouped into 
 four classes, viz: first, the flint varieties, so named from the hard con- 
 dition of the grain when ripe. The earliest maturing sorts generally 
 belong to this class. Second, the dent varieties, so called from the 
 depression on the outer end of the kernel. The best yielding sorts are 
 commonly found in this class. Third, the horse-tooth varieties, so 
 named from the resemblance which the kernel bears to the tooth of a 
 horse. These varieties are also included in some one of the afore- 
 mentioned classes, but frequently in the second or the last named. 
 Fourth, the sweet varieties, so called from the saccharine nature of the 
 corn and also of the stalk. Nearly all the kinds grown in the garden 
 belong to this class, but it includes some sorts suitable only for field 
 culture. 
 
 The varieties of corn best adapted to the Northwest when grain 
 only is wanted, or even when grain and fodder combined are sought, 
 include the Squaw, Mercer, Smut Nose, Minnesota King, Dakota Dent, 
 
78 
 
 Grasses, doners. Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 Pride of the North, Huron, Rustler and Mastadon. The Squaw co-n, 
 a white tlint variety, which stands first in point of earliness, and hence 
 is grown further to the north than any other, is dwarf- 
 ish in character, and therefore not a satisfactory kind 
 of corn to cultivate where more productive sorts will 
 mature. The Mercer, a yellow flint variety, is not only 
 early but a prolific producer as well. The ear is a good 
 size, the cob small, and the corn on the same is firm. 
 The Smut Nose is a yellow flint corn, but the grain is 
 tinged with a reddish cast near the 
 tips of the ear. It is also highly pro- 
 ductive. The Minnesota King, a yel- 
 low half-dent corn, seems to possess 
 the power of resisting drought in a 
 marked degree, better it has been 
 claimed than any other sort. It was 
 introduced into Minnesota by the 
 Northrup, Braslan, Goodwin Co., in 
 1889. The Dakota Dent is sail to 
 be the earliest of the pure yellow 
 dent varieties. It originated through 
 a careful and persistent selection of uakgt v dent 
 
 *fes 
 
 Merceb Cokn. 
 
 Section of ear N., B., G. Co.'s Miunesota King Corn. 
 
Fodder Crops. 79 
 
 the first matured ears from the Pride of the North, and hence it may 
 be grown further northward than that variety. The Pride of the North, 
 a pure yellow dent corn, has long been popular in latitudes east, south 
 and west of Minneapolis. The Huron is a yellow dent which furnishes 
 an abundant yield. It is as early as the Dakota Dent, and both stalk 
 and ear are of good size. A white dent corn known as the Rustler 
 originated in Dakota. The ears are of compact form, and it is also an 
 early maturing sort. The Mastadon, as indicated by the name, pro- 
 duces a large ear and one possessed of great weight, owing to the 
 many rows of deep kernels which cover the cob. It is a yellow dent 
 variety, and by no means a late one, hence will answer well for grow- 
 ing south of Minnesota. 
 
 Among the standard late varieties may be mentioned the Golden 
 Beauty, the Improved Leaming and the Champion Pearl, all excellent 
 sorts to raise where they can be matured. Of those grown only for 
 fodder purposes the Giant, Red Cob, Elephant and Evergreen Sweet 
 are prominent. 
 
 Corn may come anywhere in the rotation, but the object should be 
 to grow it so that as far as practicable it may be made a cleaning crop, 
 hence those fields may be chosen for a corn crop, which in the absence 
 of a cultivated crop would require to be summer fallowed. It may be 
 put upon overturned sod with much advantage to the corn. But when 
 thus grown the aim should be to plough the land the preceding autumn. 
 The decaying vegetable matters in such soils furnish a very suitable 
 food for the corn, they too enable the ground to better retain the moist- 
 ure which it possesses. And it should almost invariably be followed 
 by a cereal crop sown with grass seeds. The cleaning of the ground 
 by the cultivation of the corn is so far an excellent preparation for these 
 crops. The cultivation also renders the soil more dense, providing it 
 is stirred only on the surface in preparing for them, after the removal 
 of the corn. The ploughing of the land at any time after the removal 
 of the corn and prior to the sowing of the grain crop which follows, 
 would so loosen it that the surface evaporation would be greatly in- 
 creased. Inert plant food, that is plant food lying in the soil in a con- 
 dition inaccessible to plants, is liberated by the cultivation given to the 
 soil, in conjunction with atmospheric and other influences. When 
 thus liberated the grain which comes after the corn takes up this food 
 readily, providing it is left near the surface. But when it is buried by 
 
80 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Foras^e and Fodder Plants, 
 
 ploughing the ground, and more especially by ploughing it in the 
 spring, the roots of the grain crop which follows are just so far hindered 
 from reaching the food thus liberated until a later period. 
 
 Corn is grown, first, for the grain which it produces, or for the 
 grain and straw used separately; second, to furnish dry or cured fodder; 
 and third, to provide what may be termed succulent fodder in the form 
 of ensilage. Where the corn may be expected to mature safely, the 
 same method of cultivation can be adopted in growing it for these re- 
 spective uses. But even in such localities there may be sufficient 
 reasons for raising it somewhat differently for the first named use, as 
 it may be necessary under some conditions to plant it more thinly than 
 when it is grown for fodder. 
 
 Corn will flourish on what may be described as a deep, rich, warm, 
 mellow soil. It luxuriates in rich loams, preferably those somewhat 
 sandy in texture. It grows vigorously on humus soils, but on these it 
 is a little later in maturing. Corn is not so well adapted to stiff clays, 
 but fair average crops may be grown on clay if a vigorous, timely 
 germination can be secured. It will not yield good crops on light, poor 
 sands until they have first been enriched, nor are soils underlaid with 
 gravelly subsoils, which come near the surface, well adapted to the 
 growth of corn, more especially in the Northwest, as they fail to sus- 
 tain the supply of ground moisture in a dry season. A very large pro- 
 portion of the soils in the Northwest are pre-eminently adapted to the 
 culture of corn, owing to their free working character and to their rich- 
 ness in plant food. 
 
 The preparation of the soil will depend in some measure upon the 
 place assigned the corn crop in the rotatiouc When it is to come after 
 a grain crop the ground should be ploughed as soon after harvest as 
 the work can be done. The ploughing should be fairly deep, as corn is 
 in its habits of growth a deep feeding plant. When ploughed early the 
 soil recovers to some extent its former density, hence surface evapora- 
 tion is reduced. When the stirring of the soil subsequent to the plough- 
 ing of the land and before the arrival of winter will tend to remove 
 weeds from the soil, an effort should be made in order to accomplish 
 the desired end. In the spring an occasional stirring of the soil before 
 the corn is planted will still further aid in removing the weeds from 
 the same. And it will render the land more moist unless when the 
 weather is showery. Weeds can be more easily destroyed before than 
 
Fodder Crops. 81 
 
 after the planting of the corn. When a clover sod is turned under the 
 work may be done in the autumn or in the spring. If deferred until 
 
 N., B., Go Oo.'s Giant Fodder Corn, 
 the spring the clover should be allowed to make a good start before the 
 
82 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 land is ploughed. The decay of vegetable matter In the soil will then 
 be more rapid. 
 
 When farmyard manure may be obtained no more suitable fertil- 
 izer can be applied to a corn crop. The amount of this fertilizer to ap- 
 ply will depend on the character of the land. Some soils rich in vege- 
 table matter may not need any. Some require only a moderate dressing. 
 Others, more especially leechy sands, may be benefitted by an appli- 
 cation as heavy as from 15 to 20 tons, that is to say from 15 to 20 or- 
 dinary loads, per acre. In the Northwest the aim should be to plough 
 under the manure in the autumn that it may have a chance to decay. 
 In the East where autumn and spring rains are frequent and abundant 
 it would be better to apply the manure on the surface in leechy soils, 
 otherwise much of its valuable constituents would be washed down 
 through the soil into the subsoil, whence they would escape in the 
 drainage water. If farmyard manures are applied in the winter to land 
 intended for corn, they ought to be turned under quite early in the 
 spring to induce fermentationo Artificial fertilizers do not seem to be 
 much needed as yet by the average soils of this country, but in the 
 east they render substantial service. When the manurial resources of 
 the Northwest now available have first been carefully utilized, it will 
 then be necessary to give attention to artificial fertilizers. But even 
 now, on light and poor soils, more especially on those which are near 
 good markets, such fertilizers may be applied with profit. The nature 
 of the fertilizer to be used would depend upon many conditions, though 
 ordinarily what is known as a "complete" fertilizer would prove suit- 
 able for a corn crop. A complete fertilizer is one which contains all 
 three of the most requisite elements of plant growth, viz: nitrogen, 
 phosphoric acid and potash. 
 
 The time for planting corn will vary with the climate, locality, 
 soil, and in some few instances with the variety of the corn. It can 
 serve no good purpose to plant corn in any climate until the ground 
 has become warmed to the temperature of from 52° to 54° Fahrenheit. 
 The exact temperature of the soil may be ascertained by burying a 
 thermometer in it as deeply as the corn is to be planted, and leaving it 
 there for several hours. Some soils, as for instance light sands, warm 
 more rapidly than others. But even though the soil should be warm, it 
 js unsafe to plant corn until the season has become so far advanced that 
 the young plants are not liable to be cut down by frosts. When thus cut 
 
Fodder Cro^s. 83 
 
 down they will come up again, but the results are not litcely to prove 
 so satisfactory in the end, as with corn planted late enough to escape 
 spring frosts. In the Northern states east of Michigan, and Canada 
 east of Lake Huron the normal season for planting corn ranges from 
 May 10th to June 5th. In Southern Wisconsin, Southern Minnesota, 
 and South Dakota, the same dates would probably cover the most 
 favorable season for planting. But for some uses, soiling for in- 
 stance, corn may be planted later than the dates named. In Northern 
 Wisconsin, Northern Minnesota, North Dakota and Manitoba, the 
 normal season for planting will be found near the end of May. The 
 germinative power of corn is easily injured, even after it has been put 
 into the soil, hence, when seed of the first quality has been planted 
 before the ground has become sufficiently warm, the germinating power 
 of the seed is liable to be much impaired, if indeed not wholly des- 
 troyed. And where the injury to the seed is only partial, the growth 
 of the young plants will be feeble and delicate. Similar results will 
 ensue when corn is planted on soils sulificiently warm, if the seed 
 time is followed by a long period of cold, raw weather. It is more ju- 
 dicious, therefore, to delay planting corn for uses other than selling in 
 the early market, until there is a strong probability that it will come 
 up quickly after it has been planted, and make rapid progress. 
 
 Seed corn should be tested by the seedsman, and also by the 
 grower, before it is planted. And it is not enough to be assured that 
 the corn will grow. The character of the germination is quite as im- 
 portant as the power to germinate. When seed has been carelessly 
 selected and improperly kept, every kernel may be possessed of the 
 power to germinate, and yet the germination will be so delicate that 
 the young plants cannot make vigorous growth until the time arrives 
 when they are wholly dependent upon the soil for sustenance. The 
 ultimate full development of the corn may thus be seriously hindered. 
 It should always be tested by -the grower, even though previously 
 tested by the seedsman, as it may in some instances be injured in 
 transit, and there is perhaps no better method of testing it than by 
 planting a few kernels in a box of earth, and placing the box in a 
 warm room where there is plenty of sunshine. It should of course be 
 kept sufficiently moist. 
 
 Corn may be planted by hand, with the planter used by hand, or 
 with that drawn by horses, or it may be sown with the ordinary grain 
 
84 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, 
 
 drill. In the absence of machinery, the first method will have to be 
 adopted. Hand planting in either of its forms is more commonly re- 
 stricted to the planting of corn grown on small areas, and in instances 
 where grain production is sought rather than fodder. But in the ab- 
 sence of machinery for planting, corn may be sown by hand, for soil- 
 ing and fodder uses. When it is thus sown, shallow drills are first 
 opened with the plough, and the corn is strung along these by the 
 hand in a string like row. A harrow driven across the dril-ls may be 
 used in covering the corn. 
 
 When corn is grown chiefly for grain, it has been usual to plant it 
 in hills equally distant from one another in the line of the row, and 
 also between the rows. Where hand planting is a necessity, the 
 ground is first marked off into squares. The hills are placed at the 
 angles of the squares. The proper distance between the hills is de- 
 termined by the strength of the soil, the nature of the climate and the 
 variety of the corn. The stronger the soil, the more prolonged the 
 season of growth, and the larger the variety, the further apart should 
 the hills be placed, and vice versa. They are more commonly placed 
 about 42 inches apart, when the varieties used are of medium develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Should corn be reared for soiling uses, for winter fodder or for the 
 silo, it is more comm.only sown in rows, and the grain drill is used in 
 planting it. This method is sometimes adopted when it is grown prin- 
 cipally for the grain. In planting the corn, the tubes of the drill are 
 all closed, except those required to deposit the corn. The distance be- 
 tween the rows will vary even more than when the corn is grown in 
 hills and chiefly for the grain which it produces, for the following rea- 
 sons:— First, the objects aimed at in growing the corn are more varied, 
 hence it is not only permissible, but positively necessary to grow more 
 kinds, and this necessitates greater variation in the distance of the 
 plants from one another. Second, the fodder portion of the crop is rel- 
 atively more important, hence to obtain a greater bulk of this propor- 
 tion, some sorts may be grown more closely than would be admissible if 
 the grain were the principal object sought. Third, in northern latitudes 
 where the grain cannot be matured, preference should be given to early 
 varieties, and these being smaller than many of the late ones can be 
 planted more closely. Fourth, when corn is to be fed as a soiling crop, 
 it may be grown more compactly even than when raised for winter 
 
Fodder Crops. 85 
 
 fodder or for the silo. But in localities where corn can be relied upon 
 to mature, it may be true that the food value of a crop grown as widely 
 as would be necessary to secure a full crop of grain, would be equal to 
 that of the same variety of corn when grown closely. If corn is de- 
 sired for the silo the aim should be to secure that degree of maturity 
 which will bring the grain to the roasting stage. 
 
 In planting corn, much attention should be given to the distance 
 between the rows, and between the plants in the line of the row. 
 Various experiments have gone to show that as much food in weight 
 can be obtained from a small variety as from a large one, by simply 
 varying distances between the rows in planting the seed, and varying 
 the amounts of seeds used- This fact \s possessed of much significance 
 when applied to those latitudes in which the seasons are too short to 
 mature the larger and later varieties, and are yet quite long enough to 
 ripen perfectly some of the smaller and earlier varieties. 
 
 The amount of seed to be used will depend upon different condi- 
 tions, as for instance the variety of the corn, the character of the soil 
 and the end for which the crop is grown. When planted in hills from 
 two to five kernels are placed in each hill. On good soils three good 
 stalks in a hill are considered sufficient. One peck of seed per acre 
 would be more than sufficient to produce three stalks in each hill unless 
 the kernels of the seed planted were unusually large. When the seed 
 is sown with the grain drill, from one peck to one-half bushel of seed 
 is used. Twelve quarts probably may be named as an average 
 amount. But if the corn is desired for soiling purposes a larger quan- 
 tity should be sown. 
 
 The depth to which seed corn should be planted will depend upon 
 the character and condition of the soil, and on the climate. The colder, 
 molster and heavier the soil, the shallower should be the covering of 
 the seed, and vice versa. Two inches may be termed an average 
 depth, but on prairie soils the seed may commonly be buried to a greater 
 depth with manifest advantage. 
 
 Soon after the seed has been planted the ground can be harrowed, 
 even before the corn has appeared, if there is any likelihood of the 
 weeds getting ahead of the corn. It may not be necessary in all in- 
 stances to use the harrow before the corn has come through the ground. 
 But in any case this implement ought to be used from two to four times 
 after the corn has appeared, and before it has become more than say 
 
86 Grasses^ Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 from five to six inches in height. The harrow should be light of 
 draught, possessing a large number of short teeth, with a backward 
 rather than a forward slant, and it should be so constructed as to cover 
 a wide space of ground. The free use of the harrow not only tends to 
 destroy the innumerable weeds, but it enables the soil to retain ground 
 moisture which would otherwise escape, hence it materially promotes 
 rapid growth in the corn. 
 
 Cultivation should begin immediately when the plants have be- 
 come too far advanced to longer admit of the use of the harrow upon 
 them. The corn will receive benefit from being cultivated as often as 
 once a week, and in some instances more frequently. The cultivation 
 may be moderately deep at first, but deeper in stiff than in light soils. 
 In every instance it should come as near as possible to the line of the 
 row without disturbing the plants, and as the season advances shouM 
 be less wide and more shallow. Ordinarily it may be continued until 
 the corn is beginning to tassel freely, but in very dry seasons the crop 
 may receive much benefit by extending the period of shallow cultiva- 
 tion considerably longer. The benefit will be apparent not only in the 
 marked increase in the yield of grain, but in the prolonged greenness 
 and fuller development of the stalk. Level cultivation will be found 
 most advantageous. The practice all too common of ridging the corn 
 when the last cultivation is given to it affords a good opportunity for 
 numerous weed seeds to spring into life, leads to rapid surface evapo 
 ration from atmospheric influences, and is hurtful to the crop in other 
 ways. Where due attention has been paid to the growth and manage- 
 ment of corn as regards careful cultivation but little hand hoeing may 
 be necessary, and in some instances none may be required. But it 
 should be an inviolable rule with the good farmer not to permit weed 
 seeds to mature in any cultivated crop. 
 
 The stage at which the corn can be harvested will depend upon 
 the use to be made of the crop. When it is to be fed as a soiling 
 crop to sheep the feeding may commence before the tasseling season, 
 if it is to be fed as a soiling crop to cattle, the feeding had better be de- 
 ferred until the corn is in tassel, and it may then be continued until the 
 crop is matured. When the corn is to be fed as a soiling crop to swine 
 it is common to allow it to reach the milk stage on the ear before com- 
 mencing to feed it, but it may be utilized with advantage at an earlier 
 period where the necessity arises tor so doing. When the crop is in- 
 
Fodder Crops. 87 
 
 tended for winter fodder the corn in the ear should be matured before 
 the cutting takes place. It would be preferable to harvest the corn 
 when not quite ripe rather than when too mature, as then the stalks 
 would be relished much better by the stock. If corn is to be placed in 
 the silo it should be cut when the ears have reached the roasting stage. 
 When cut short of this period the ensilage will not be so sweet nor will 
 its feeding value be as great. When cut after the period indicated 
 some difficulty may be found in keeping ensilage free from dry mould. 
 Where the crop is to be husked it should be fully matured before being 
 harvested. When the season of full maturity is passed the loss in 
 feeding value of the fodder begins at once. In case the corn has been 
 seriously injured by frost further maturing will be arrested, hence no 
 good can come from delay in cutting the crop. Providing frosted corn 
 is cut at once and put into the silo, it is thought that it receives bwt 
 little injury from having been frozen. 
 
 Various methods of harvesting corn have been adopted. Some- 
 times it is cut by hand with the corn hook. This method of cutting 
 has been more commonly resorted to than any other. Oftentimes it is 
 cut with a sled with adjustable knives attached to the sides of the 
 same and drawn by a horse. Two men stand upon it and catch the 
 corn while it is falling and lay it off in sheaves. One or two rows can 
 be cut at a time, as desired. In other instances corn is harvested with 
 a binder, but the machines thus utilized have not yet been so perfected 
 as to do uniformly good work. 
 
 Should the corn be wanted for the grain or the winter fodder, it is 
 put into shocks or stooks as soon as cut. Sometimes it is first bound 
 into sheaves. These may be tied with twine, with rye straw or with 
 the stalks of corn. But more Commonly the corn is stood up with the 
 aid of a " horse," that is to say. with the aid of a pole about twelve 
 feet long, with legs so placed under one end as to raise it up about one* 
 half the height of the corn, or not quite so high. A small rod, such as 
 a broom handle, for instance, runs through the pole not far from the 
 elevated end. The corn is stood in the four corners or four angles thus 
 formed, with an inclination of the tops to one another. These cone-like 
 shocks are then bound near the tips once or twice with twine, rye or 
 corn. The dryer the climate and the more mature the corn the larger 
 may these shocks be made. When the corn is husked in the field 
 the straw of two or more of these shocks is put together in one, for 
 
88 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 better protection against adverse weather, be it over dry or over wet. 
 
 Tlie practice has been common heretofore, in corn-growing sections 
 of the west and Northwest, to snap off the ears from the stalk and 
 throw them into the box of a wagon, systematically driven through 
 the field, and then to ieave the fodder or stover In the field, to be 
 ploughed under after it has been eaten in part by the cattle, This plan, 
 though economical of labor, is wasteful of fodder, and in time will 
 probably be abandoned. That recent invention known as a shredding 
 machine will likely soon be made to husk much of the corn raised in 
 the near future, and it is more than probable that it will be also much 
 used when preparing the stover for feeding. In the meantime, how- 
 ever, the good old-fashioned way of husking the corn in the field from 
 the stooks and then tying the stover in sheaves is likely to be con- 
 tinued for some time to come, when but small quantities are grown. 
 
 No better place can be found for storini^ the corn itself than a corn 
 crib; that is to say, a building the walls of which have small spaces or 
 openings between the boards which form the walls, and even the floor 
 of the same. There is then opportunity for a sufficient current of air to 
 pass through the corn all the time to prevent it from moulding, even 
 when put into the crib in a fresh state. If corn be piled up on a floor, 
 or deposited in a deep bin in the autumn, it is sure to mould in a 
 greater or less degree. 
 
 The question of the value of storing corn in the silo, as compared 
 with curing it in the field, has been much discussed. Entire agree- 
 ment of opinion need not be looked for, since it is largely a question of 
 conditions. In climates where rains are frequent in the autumn or 
 winter, and in which deep snows or storms are not uncommon, it 
 should be the aim to cure corn in the silo. Under all conditions it is 
 probably the most economical method of curing corn when fed in a 
 large way. But the necessity for silos is not so much felt in regions of 
 light precipitation at that season when the cut corn fodder is exposed. 
 It is very convenient to feed corn from the silo, and no mode of storing 
 it under cover is so economical of room. Sflos will doubtless become 
 much more common in the Northwest than they are at present. 
 
 No method of keeping corn fodder'fi'om the time of harvesting until 
 required for feeding purposes, is superior, all things considered, to that 
 of leaving it in the field until desired for use, and then drawing it to 
 the feeding place. The mode of conveyance will vary with the dis- 
 
Fodder Crops. 89 
 
 tance wh-ich it will have to be drawn, and tlie way in which it will 
 require to be fed. The sled, the stone boat, the chain and the wagon 
 will all render excellent service in conveying corn under certain condi- 
 tions. 
 
 When corn is put in the silo, it is common to run it through a cut- 
 ting box, driven by steam or horse power. If the corn has reached the 
 roasting stage, it may be put into the silo at once. Where not so far 
 advanced, it may be allowed to wilt before putting it into the silo, and 
 the degree of the wilting should be in proportion to the greenness of 
 the corn. When the corn can be drawn to the silo with low trucks 
 and a platform cover or rack, the labor of loading it is much lessened. 
 The corn is spread evenly in the silo, and is trampled by the person 
 who spreads it, particularly around the sides, and most of all in the 
 corners. To cover the whole ground relating to corn and the silo 
 would require a large volume on this subject alone. 
 
 Millet. — Millet, like corn, is a child of the sun, hence when it 
 once gets a good start, it can stand drought and heat fairly well. It 
 seems peculiarly adapted to prairie countries, and yields large crops of 
 palatable and nutritious food. It may be sown in a sense as a catch 
 crop, and at a season of the year when labor is not so pressing on the 
 farm as at some other times. The time therefore, is not likely to come 
 when millet will cease to be a prominent fodder crop in Minnesota. 
 
 Millet furnishes an excellent food for feeding in the green state; 
 that is, on the soiling principle. It makes excellent winter fodder for 
 horses, milch cows and other cattle, also for sheep, if cut and fed at 
 the right stage, and when at the same time it is properly cured. But if 
 allowed to become over-ripe, it soon gets woody and consequently un- 
 palatable, and when dried too much in the sun while being cured, its 
 feeding value is greatly impaired. The seed furnishes good food for all 
 kinds of livestock if judiciously fed, but when the crop is allowed to 
 ripen, the feeding value of the straw or fodder portion is very much 
 lessened. The idea has gained currency, that if millet be fed freely 
 and continuously for a long period, impaired digestion may arise in 
 consequence, and that there is danger of the urinary organs being 
 affected adversely. But these results are not likely to follow when the 
 millet has been properly harvested, and when at the same time it is 
 only fed as one factor of the food ration. 
 
 It is of several varieties, and prominent among those suitable for 
 
90 Grasses^ Clovers^ Field Roots ^ Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 the Northwest are the Missouri or Common millet, German millet, 
 Hungarian grass, Golden Wonder millet, and Broom Corn millet. 
 The Common millet grows much seed, but does not yield so much 
 fodder, nor so valuable as some of the other varieties. The German 
 millet grows strongly and is of a leafy habit of growth, hence it pro- 
 vides most excellent fodder. And it maybe mentioned here in pass- 
 ing, that where the seed sown is of southern growth, the best yields of 
 fodder may be expected. Hungarian grass, much akin to the German 
 millet in its habits of growth, has seeds of a dark shade. 
 
 The Golden Wonder millet is very productive of seed. The heads 
 are uncommonly long and heavy. Because of the large yields of seed 
 that may De obtained from this variety, it is becoming a favorite when 
 seed is the chief object sought. And since it will ripen further to the 
 north than corn, it may in some respects be used as a substitute for 
 that king of fodder plants. 
 
 Broom Corn millet, or Hog millet, for it is known by both names, 
 has also been found an excellent substitute for corn in sections where 
 the latter will not ripen. But it may also be grown profitably in many 
 corn growing sections. It bears a close resemblance to broom corn 
 while it is growing, hence probably the origin of the name. It is raised 
 more for the seed than some of the other varieties of millet, but some- 
 times it is raised for fodder only. When grown for the seed it should be 
 harvested with the binder. The seed stands in high favor as a food 
 for swine in those sections of the west where it has been tried. 
 
 Millet requires a soil rich in vegetable matter and of free texture. 
 Loams, whether of a clay or sandy character, will produce millet 
 abundantly. Dark prairie soils grow it admirably, and muck soils 
 capable of proper cultivation at the right season will yield very heavy 
 crops. Clays and sands grow it shyly, the former because of their ad- 
 hesiveness and the latter because of their porous character. Millet may 
 be sown in the Northwest any time after the corn-planting season has 
 arrived. If sown inlhe early spring while the ground is cold and the 
 season is also cold, it will not do so well as when sown later. 
 
 The season for sowing millet may be prolonged until well on into 
 the summer, so long as the soil contains enougli moisture to sustain 
 growth. At least from sixty to seventy-five days are required to bring 
 millet to that stage when it will make a full crop of fodder. It is very 
 easily injured by autumn frosts. 
 
CrEBJIAN MlLI^BT 
 
 3?UN(3AIIJAN. 
 
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94 ' Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 grain and then grinding it before feeding it to live stock is certainly to 
 be questioned when even better results may be looked for from feeding 
 it in the straw. It is at least probable that in the near future much of 
 the grain grown as food for live stock will be thus fed. Some farmers 
 who have learned from their experience that in many instances greater 
 yields may be obtained from growing grains in combination rather than 
 singly have abandoned the practice, because they have found it diffi- 
 cult to separate the varieties after they were threshed. But why desire 
 to separate them if they can be fed to live stock? When the grain is 
 wanted without admixture cereals should never be grown in com- 
 bination. 
 
 All varieties of cereals are not equally adapted to the production of 
 fodder. The best kinds to choose are those distinguished by a vigor- 
 ous growth, which produce straw of a fine rather than coarse character 
 and which are amply possessed of the stooling quality. Happily 
 those varieties found best adapted to the production of grain are also 
 those generally found most suitable for growth as fodder. Some of the 
 cereals which have been found best suited to the conditions of the 
 Northwest will now be given. 
 
 The leading kinds of spring wheat include the Saskatchewan Fife, 
 the Velvet Chaff Blue Stem and the Pillsbury. The first mentioned 
 variety is too welT known to require further description. The second 
 is a bald wheat with white chaff, distinguished by a blue shade below 
 the head before it ripens, hence the origin of the name. This variety 
 is hardy, rugged and considerably more productive than the Fife. 
 Originally it was from five to six days later than the latter in ripening. 
 But through long continued and careful selection, some strains of this 
 variety have been obtained possessed of all the good qualities of the 
 Fife, and which ripen quite as early and yield much more abundantly. 
 The third is a selection from the Fife and is the best type of the Hard 
 Fife wheat. 
 
 Among the leading varieties of oats are the Lincoln, the Negro 
 Wonder, the White Russian, the Early Archangel and the Golden 
 Giant Side oats. The Lincoln oat was introduced to the Northwest- 
 ern public by the Northrup, Braslan, Goodwin Co., in 1893. The 
 yields obtained have been very large and in some instances extra- 
 ordinarily so. It ripens early, stands up well, has a thin hull and is 
 said to be rust proof. The Negro Wonder is a gray oat, characterized 
 
Fodder Crops. 95 
 
 by early maturity, stiffness of straw and good stooling qualities. The 
 White Russian, though an old variety, is still popular where the seed 
 can be obtained in its purity. The Early Archangel, introduced from 
 Russia, is a very early kind and is better adapted to light soils than 
 some of the other sorts. The Golden Giant is a side oat, which pro- 
 duces a long head and yields abundantly, but is somewhat late in 
 ripening. 
 
 The leading varieties of peas comprise the Chancellor, Golden 
 Vine, Crown, Prussian Blue, White Marrowfat and the Black Eyed 
 Marrowfat. The Chancellor is an early and productive variety, well 
 adapted for the Northwest. The Golden Vine and the Crown are well 
 tried varieties which have given satisfaction to the growers. The 
 Prussian Blue grows vigorously and yields an abundant crop. The 
 White and the Black Eyed Marrowfats are very large and hardy vari- 
 eties, the straws of which are strong and coarse. 
 
 The kinds of barley which stand high in favor include the Man- 
 sury or Mensury, the Highland Chief and the Improved Black. The 
 Mansury, a six rowed barley, is one of the most vigorous and largest 
 yielding varieties now grown, and was originally imported from Asia. 
 The Highland Chief is a two rowed sort. The kernel of the grain is 
 unusually plump and large- and it is claimed that it does not discolor 
 so easily as some other kinds. The Improved Black barley is one of 
 the most useful kinds that can be grown for feeding purposes, and 
 it weighs as heavily as wheat. 
 
 Whether cereals are grown for the grain or for fodder uses, the 
 mode of preparing the soil will be essentially the same. The object 
 aimed at in either case should be to adopt a rotation that will keep the 
 ground as free from weeds as possible, to plough it in the autumn 
 rather than in the spring, to plough shallow rather than deep and to 
 sow with the grain drill rather than broadcast. 
 
 Oats. — The oat crop may be grown with much success as a fodder 
 crop throughout all the Northwest. In dry sections where a "stand" 
 of grass cannot be readily obtained it has been thought preferable by 
 some farmers to grow oats instead, and to feed them in the straw either 
 in the cut or uncut form. If raised for the use indicated it is important 
 that they should be harvested at that stage which will secure the 
 maximum feeding value in both straw and grain, and in order to ac- 
 complish this, it will be necessary to cut the crop when a little under- 
 
96 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 ripe. The crop may be cut with the mower and cured in the same way 
 as hay, or it may be harvested with the binder and cured in the shocl<. 
 When oats are cured thus, they furnish excellent fodder for horses, 
 milch cows and other cattle, and also for sheep. Those varieties will 
 be found the most suitable which do not lodge readily, which are pos- 
 sessed of good stooling properties, and which also yield a fair amount 
 of straw, fine rather than coarse in quality. Two bushels of seed per 
 acre may be required when the drill is used, and in some instances a 
 larger quantity. 
 
 Oats and Wheat.— Oats and wheat grown together furnish an 
 excellent winter fodder for cattle. When used as a food for live stock 
 there is probably no other way in which it can be grown more cheaply 
 or fed with so much profit. The Northwest is proverbially a wheat 
 raising country, hence there is much propriety in making wheat one 
 factor of a fodder crop. Wheat and oats may be grown together with 
 great success and considerably larger yields can be obtained from the 
 combined crop, than from either grown separately. This crop can be 
 conveniently harvested with the binder. Two bushels of seed may De 
 used in sowing with the drill. The proportions may be varied in order 
 to secure the result desired by the grower. 
 
 Oats and Peas. — Oats and peas when sown together furnish an 
 excellent winter food, more especially for cattle that are being fattened, 
 for milch cows and for sheep. The directions given in Chapter IV in 
 growing peas and oats as a soiling crop will also be found equally ap- 
 plicable in growing them for winter fodder. But if desired for the lat- 
 ter use the crop is not ready for harvesting at so early a stage. The 
 best time for cutting is when the grain reaches the dough state. The 
 feeding value of the crop has then nearly attained its maximum, the 
 straw is palatable and there is but little loss from shelling. The binder 
 can be used advantageously when harvesting this crop but it can also 
 be harvested in the same manner as native hay. 
 
 Oats, Peas and Wheat.— This crop provides an admirable fod- 
 der for live stock. The variety not only adds to the yield obtained, 
 but it also gives an additional feeding value to the crop. It may be 
 harvested with the binder. When the seed is sown with the drill, 
 about two and a half bushels may be used per acre. The proportions 
 of the seed in the mixture may be two parts each of oats and wheat 
 and one part of peas. 
 
Fodder Crops, 
 
 97 
 
 The Everlasting ^Q2i.—{Lathyrus Sylvestris Wagneri) is also 
 known as the Flat pea and it has been but recently introduced into 
 North America. It is rapidly gaining favor in Europe, particularly in 
 Germany where Professor V/agner has given much attention to its 
 improvement during late years. It is commonly mentioned as a forage 
 plant, but it is probable that in the dry climate of the Northwest it will 
 
 Everlasting Pea. (L.othy) us SylveUr it.) 
 prove more satisfactory when grown to furnish fodder rather than for- 
 age. Close cropping by live stock in the early part of the season may 
 certainly be expected to hinder its growth in the area referred to. But 
 in the more moist sections of the continent it will doubtless serve for 
 either forage or fodder uses. Experience in growing it in America is as 
 
 7 
 
98 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Phuits. 
 
 yet limited, hence it is fitting tliat all references bearing upon its food 
 producing value on this continent, be made with caution. 
 
 As shown in the illustration the everlasting pea produces an im- 
 mense crop of foliage. Some have claimed that it will yield at least 
 two good cuttings a year, but in the limited experience of the writer in 
 growing this plant in Ontario, Canada, it produced but one cutting the 
 second year after it was sown. This one crop however, weighed at 
 the rate of 15 tons per acre when newly cut, and results very similar 
 have been obtained at the State Experiment Station in Michigan. The 
 roots go down deeply into the soil, hence the plants possess great power 
 to resist the influence of drought. The claim has also been made that 
 they will live to a great age. The plants endure low temperatures in 
 winter, and the foliage is not easily injured by frost. It retains its 
 greenness until winter is at hand. As this promising plant is a legume, 
 it possesses the power of enriching soils by means of the nitrogen 
 which it absorbs and conveys from the atmosphere to them and as the 
 tubercles formed on the roots are numerous, it would seem to have this 
 power in an unusual degree. Its feeding value has been estimated 
 equal to about twice that of red clover, ton for ton, and live stock are 
 fond of it, whether in the green or the cured state. The hardihood of 
 the everlasting pea as regards endurance of both drought and cold, and 
 the readiness with which it retains its hold upon the soil are strong 
 recommendations in its favor. But the difficulty of obtaining plentiful 
 supplies of seed may hinder its rapid introduction, as it does not seem 
 to bear seed abundantly. 
 
 The everlasting pea will grow on almost any free working soil with 
 a moderately porous subsoil, and is best adapted to sandy soils. It can 
 be made to luxuriate on light sands even, after it has been once estab- 
 lished upon them. The sowing may take place early in the spring; it 
 has been usual hitherto to plant the seeds in drills from twenty-four to 
 thirty inches distant from one another, six inches apart in the drill and 
 fully three inches deep in prairie soils. As the seed is slow of germina- 
 tion, that of some plant which springs up more quickly may be sown 
 in the same drills, which will serve so to mark the line of the rows, 
 that the cultivation may begin at an earlier period. It would seem 
 necessary to give the everlasing pea most careful culture during the 
 first season, after which it would doubtless be able to take care of itself. 
 It should not be eaten off the first year. And probably more fodder 
 
Fodder Crops. 
 
 99 
 
 will be obtained from it If not cropped off or cut too closely in the au- 
 tumn in sections of country where the winters are severe. The proper 
 time for cutting and curing the plants is apparently when they are in 
 full bloom. 
 
 Sacaline {Polygonuin sachalinense). — This new fodder plant is 
 receiving no little attention, both in Europe and North America, at the 
 present time. Good authorities, several of whom have had some ex- 
 
 Sacaline. 
 
 perience in growing it, speak hopefully with reference to its future in 
 the United States, and more especially in those sections where the rain- 
 fall is insufficient. It is said to have been discovered by the Russian 
 
100 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 explorer, Maximowicz, in the island of Saghalin or Sakhalin, situated 
 in the Sea of Okhotsk, between Japan and Siberia. . 
 
 This plant is leafy in its habit of growth. It pushes rapidly onward 
 during the season of vegetation, and when not checked by cutting it 
 off, is capable of attaining the height of several feet in a single sum- 
 mer. Its roots radiate from a centre and extend so quickly that in a 
 single year it is said they will occupy the soil over a radius of three 
 feet. The root-stocks are possessed of numerous buds, which throw 
 up fresh stems as they extend. It is claimed that a single young plant 
 will produce enough root-stocks in one season to furnish a hundred 
 cuttings. 
 
 The analysis of sacaline shows it to be possessed of high nutritive 
 qualities. Several cuttings are said to be produced yearly, and it is 
 claimed that live stock are fond of it. 
 
 It is further claimed that sacaline will grow in soils stony, rocky, 
 sandy or gravelly— in a word, in a great variety of soils. It is propa- 
 gated by the seed and also by cuttings obtained from the root-stocks. 
 When cuttings are used they are simply buried in previously prepared 
 soil to the depth of about six inches and they are planted three feet 
 apart each way. 
 
 Sacaline should certainly be tried, but with a prudent caution at 
 first, as experience in growing it in the Northwest is almost entirely 
 wanting. 
 
 The Sunflower. — The sunflower is capable of producing a large 
 quantity of food that can be utilized in various ways upon the farm. 
 The seed provides an excellent diet for many kinds of fowls. It may 
 also be used with advantage and profit in feeding other live stock, 
 though but little attention has been given hitherto to raising this plant 
 in America. The growth of the sunflower is now recommended for en- 
 silage. When raised for this purpose the heads are removed from the 
 stalks and run through a cutting box, so that they can be mixed with 
 the corn which is also being placed in the silo. When thus stored the 
 ensilage is specially recommended as food for cows giving milk, and 
 at the same time is said to be a good food for other kinds of live stock. 
 
 Although the sunflower will thrive in nearly all parts of the conti- 
 tinent, it is admirably adapted to the conditions of the Northwest. 
 Possessed of great power to withstand drought, this plant luxuriates in 
 prairie soils, grows rapidly, and will mature in latitudes north of the 
 
Fodder Crops. 
 
 101 
 
 forty-ninth parallel. When grown in strips in sections where the soil 
 is liable to blow, it may be made to render excellent service in check- 
 ing the sweep of the winds. And it has been claimed that a ring of 
 sunflowers around a farm, when the plants in it stand closely together, 
 will form an effective barrier against invasion from the Russian thistle, 
 as it goes tumbling over the prairie. 
 
 The usual time of planting the sunflower in the Northwest is during 
 the latter part of May, but the seed can be sown even some weeks later, 
 when there is enough moisture in the soil to develop growth. The seed 
 may be sown with the grain drill and the rows made from thirty to 
 
 Mammoth Eussian Sunflower. 
 
 forty-two inches apart to suit the attendant conditions. The distance 
 of the plants in the line of the row may also be varied. The average 
 distance will probably be found somewhere between six and twelve 
 inches. Cultivation between the rows should commence as soon as 
 the young plants clearly mark the line of the row. When the cultiva- 
 tion given is frequent and prolonged, the yield of the crop will be 
 greatly improved. No hand hoeing is required, other than to remove 
 the weeds which, if left, would mature. 
 
 Although the high feeding value of the sunflower is unquestioned, 
 and although it is now certain that very large yields may be reaped 
 
1 02 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roofs, Forage and Fodder Planfs. 
 
 pei' acre, there is still much to be learned regardini^ the best modes of 
 harvesting the crop and also of feeding it. 
 
 Harvesting Hay. — The loss arising from the unseasonable and 
 improper harvesting of hay is in the aggregate very great. And this 
 loss is even greater possibly in the Northwest than in some other por- 
 tions of the United States; for the reason, first, that in many sections 
 the wild hay crop is still very abundant, and second, the fine weather 
 which prevails under normal conditions in the hay-making season, has 
 a tendency to foster carelessness in the curing and handling of the hay. 
 
 The best time to harvest hay will depend on the nature and kinds 
 of the grasses of which it is composed, on the state of the weather, and 
 on the use for which it is intended. With regard to the proper time 
 at which grasses and clovers should be cut, it would be impossible to 
 give a general rule that would apply equally to all the varieties. Some 
 kinds ought to reach a more advanced stage than others before they are 
 cut, and for certain uses the same varieties need to be cut at different 
 periods of maturity. The best general rule to follow is to mow the hay 
 when the prevailing grasses of which it is composed are in full bloom. 
 There may be good reasons why cutting the grass should be deferred 
 until a period somewhat too advanced for making it into hay of the 
 best quality, for over-ripe hay well cured is certainly more valuable 
 than hay cut at the proper season and then spoiled or partially spoiled 
 because of adverse weather while being cured. Nevertheless the aim 
 should be at all times to secure to the greatest possible extent the high- 
 est feeding value in the hay. 
 
 The advantages which result from cutting hay at an early rather 
 than a late stage of growth include the following: — First, the differ- 
 ence in the avidity with which live stock eat hay cut at the proper 
 stage, and the same variety left uncut until it becomes woody, is simi- 
 lar to the difference between eating with a keen relish and eating be- 
 cause compelled to by hunger. Second, when grass is thus harvested 
 and fed to milch cows it furnishes milk more freely than if it were riper. 
 And here a question of much importance arises, not simply because of 
 the bearing it has upon the profits of the dairy, but because of the in- 
 timate bearing which it has upon the development of all kinds of 
 young stock. Third, it prepares clover for being fed to horses, not 
 only without injury but with great advantage. It is when clover has 
 been cut over-ripe or has been imperfectly cured that it becomes trans- 
 
Fodder Crops. 103 
 
 formed into a ration which is hurtful to the horse. Fourth, there is no 
 loss from the shedding of leaves or seeds or from the heads break- 
 ing off. Strip clover and lucerne of the leaves and heads, and 
 they are shorn of their great strength. Fifth, with some varieties of 
 clover it enables an extra cutting to be obtained. For some kinds of 
 feeding the second crop of clover for the season is nearly as valuable 
 as the first. A delay of one week in the cutting of the first crop may, 
 in some seasons, make the difference between success and failure in 
 the second crop. And these remarks apply equally when the second 
 crop is allowed to mature seed. Sixth, it gives opportunity for an in- 
 creased growth of the aftermath. A strong aftermath is valuable 
 whether to furnish food, to mulch the ground as a protection against 
 drought, or to shield the roots of the grass from the frosts of winter. 
 
 The object in curing hay should be to prevent exposure to dew and 
 rain, and also to shield it from the unnecessary injury which follows 
 when left lying too long beneath the burning rays of the sun. Rain 
 falling upon hay while it is being made discolors it, and the extent of 
 the discoloration is in proportion to the advancement of the stage of 
 curing. Rain also washes out a part of the starch and other soluble 
 matters, including a considerable proportion of the ash ingredients, so 
 that it is rendered intrinsically less valuable for feeding purposes, apart 
 from the loss of palatability occasioned by the absence of the aroma 
 when hay is wet during the process of curing. Dews and fogs act sim- 
 ilarly, but less in degree. Undue exposure to sunlight fades the hay 
 and causes many of the leaves to become so crisp that they break off 
 There is probably greater loss from allowing hay to become overdry 
 through undue exposure to sunlight than from the combined influences 
 of rain, dew and fog. 
 
 Whether hay should be cured in the cock or coil, as it is some- 
 times called, depends upon the grasses which compose it, the degree 
 of the ripeness of these grasses and the state of the weather. The va- 
 rious kinds of clover, when grown alone and cut in early bloom, can- 
 not properly be cured with ease without having first been put up into 
 those coils, or, as they may be termed, miniature stacks. But for har- 
 vesting in dry weather clover can be cured in winrows, and this can 
 be done more particularly in the climate of the Northwest, which is 
 proverbial for its excellent harvest weather. The grasses proper can 
 be readily cured in good weather without putting them up into coils. 
 
104 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 Numerous methods of making hay have been adopted. In fact 
 variation in method is an absohite necessity to suit varying conditions. 
 Of these the following are the chief: First, mow the hay in the morn- 
 ing, run the tedder over it near mid-day, rake into winrows before the 
 dew falls, and store it away the next day. This method will answer 
 for several varieties of grass, but not equally well for varieties of clover. 
 Second, mow in the morning, use the tedder on the mown hay once or 
 twice, rake and house the same evening. This method is adapted to 
 the harvesting of grass cut when rather beyond the proper stage of 
 maturity, and more especially in weather which is not to be relied 
 upon. Third, mow at any time, use the tedder once or more frequently, 
 rake when sufficiently dry and cure in coils. Hay is dry enough for 
 being raked as soon as the labor of raking can be done without diffi- 
 culty. This method is particularly suited to the harvesting of clover. 
 In some instances clover cannot be cured in a less time than from three 
 to six days. Before the coils are drawn away it may be necessary to 
 open them out for an hour or two to expose them to the influence of the 
 sunlight. The tedder is of great service in curing hay where the crop 
 is good. When tossed into the air by the tedder the grass falls down 
 loosely, hence the wind, an admirable agent in curing hay, has a good 
 chance to blow through it. The hay loader is of much value when the 
 hay can be lifted from the winrow. The hay sweep and the stacker 
 also fill an important place, more especially in prairie countries. 
 
 The advantages arising from putting hay up in coils include the 
 following: The fine natural color of the grass is in a great measure 
 preserved and the aroma as well. The hurtful influences of rain and 
 dew are either prevented in whole or in part. These influences cannot 
 be wholly prevented unless where hay caps are used to cover the coils. 
 These are much more essential in the east than in the west. And the 
 hay in the coils undergoes a mild fermentation, which lessens the 
 danger from over-fermentation when the hay is stored. The disadvan- 
 tages from placing hay in coils include, first, the increased cost of the 
 labor, and, second, the impossibility of using the hay loadei when the 
 hay is being stored. 
 
 When hay is stored at the proper stage it undergoes a slight fer- 
 mentation. If stored too soon, that is, before it has been sufficiently 
 cured, the fermentation becomes excessive and induces mould, which 
 is very hurtful to live stock. When there are just apprehensions that 
 
Fodder Crops. 105 
 
 mould maybe formed to some extent, the sprinklin.;^ of salt over the 
 mass as each successive load is deposited will tend to obviate the 
 danger. One peck of salt to each load of hay is a liberal quantity to 
 make use of. If hay will not settle down upon itself when stored it is 
 over-dry. An experienced haymaker can easily tell when hay is ready 
 for storing by the way in which it handles when being pitched with 
 the fork. It should be borne in mind, however, that as various kinds 
 of hay differ much in weight, no little experience is required to make 
 certain by this method that hay is ready for being stored. Another 
 plan is therefore submitted which is simpler. It consists in taking a 
 small quantity of the hay in one hand and twisting it around a number 
 of times with the other. If no indications of moisture appear the hay 
 may be regarded as ready for storing. But if the hay thus twisted is 
 easily broken asunder, it is then over-dry. 
 
 The plan of cutting hay down and allowing it to lie where it fell, 
 exposed to the sunlight until faded and crisp, cannot be too severely 
 condemned. Hay cut in this fashion is little better than good straw, 
 even though super-excellent in quality when it was cut. 
 
106 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots ^ Forui^e and Fodder Plants. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FIELD Roots. 
 
 Field roots furnish an admirable food adjunct for all kinds of live 
 «?tock, more especially in the winter season. Their relative feeding 
 value is certainly greater than is shown by chemical analysis. The 
 explanation will be found probably in the influence which they exer- 
 cise on digestion when fed as a part of a ration. For maintaining ani- 
 mals in a condition of thrift they are thought to be superior to corn en- 
 silage. With a goodly supply of field roots and good straw, store 
 animals may be wintered cheaply and in fine form. They are greatly 
 helpful in promoting muscular development, and they furnish a safe 
 food adjunct for live stock which are being fattened, more especially 
 cattle and sheep. 
 
 The free growing of field roots will be found very helpful in securing 
 a clean condition of the land and also in maintaining the same. The 
 aim should be therefore to grow them on foul rather than on clean soils. 
 When well cared for these crops will secure to the land all the advan- 
 tages of the bare fallow. Generally speaking therefore they should 
 come after some cereal crop, such as oats or wheat, and should be fol- 
 lowed by a crop of grain with grass seeds sown upon it. 
 
 It is somewhat surprising that in a country so admirably adapted 
 to growing field roots, more especially mangels, sugar beets and carrots, 
 so little attention relatively has been paid to it. The argument which 
 claims that the relative feeding value per acre of corn and roots respec- 
 tively, as given by chemical analysis, is in favor of corn, is not a suffi- 
 cient explanation, for the chemist has never yet been able to give us 
 the whole feeding value of field roots, any more than he has been able 
 to give us the whole feeding value of oil cake. 
 
 The lack of facilities for winter storage has undoubtedly stood in 
 the way. But, as winter fattening of live stock comes to be more prac- 
 ticed, room for storing roots may be provided in the basement of the 
 
Field Roots. 107 
 
 buildings erected to slielter tlie stoci<. Where the temperature gets 
 low, and when the roots are protected simply by a stone wall laid in 
 mortar, provision should be made for an air space between the roots 
 and the wall. When the wall of one side of the basement is built 
 against a bank of earth, the roots may be stored in an excavation made 
 in the bank, but not far distant from the place where they are to be fed. 
 They may also be stored by digging an oblong trench in the ground, 
 where the natural drainage is good, and piling the roots in the same so 
 as to rise above the surface of the ground like the ridge of the roof. 
 They are then covered plentifully with straw. A light covering of 
 earth is put on at first, more is added later when the weather becomes 
 colder, and still later fresh manure is put over the earth. The chief 
 objections to this mode of storage arise from the additional labor in 
 handling which it necessitates and the diificulty in using the roots in 
 cold weather. 
 
 Mangels.— Mangels furnish an excellent food for nearly all kinds 
 of live stock, such as cattle, sheep, swine and fowls, but they are es- 
 pecially valued as a food for milch cows, as they may be freely fed to 
 them without the danger of giving a taint to the milk. 
 
 Mangels are of several varieties. These are distinguished by their 
 color, as red, orange and yellow, and by their shape, as oblong and 
 globular, and by variations intermediate between these. They are 
 usually referred to as being of the long, intermediate or globe varieties. 
 The former generally give the largest yields, but the latter as a rule 
 are of a higher feeding value. 
 
 The principal varieties of mangels grown in the Northwest are the 
 Mammoth Long Red and the Golden Tankard. The former yields 
 heavily. The latter, an intermediate variety, will probably equal the 
 former in weight of produce, and in quality it is superior. It is tankard 
 in shape, the outer flesh is of a beautiful yellow color and it is remark- 
 ably clean and smooth. When cut open it shows alternate yellow and 
 white rings. The Mammoth Golden Giant, also an intermediate vari- 
 ety, is of great promise. It is larger in size than any of the other yel. 
 low mangels, and is easily lifted from the ground. The red and yellow 
 globe shaped varieties are also sold in considerable quantities. 
 
 They are admirably adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of 
 large areas in the Northwest. They will grow luxuriantly on all deep 
 soils rich in organic matter. Clay loams, strong sandy loams and dark 
 
108 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 prairie soils are specially adapted to the growth of mangels, while stiff 
 clays and light sands have less of adaptability. 
 
 in preparing 
 the soil for man- 
 gels it should be 
 ploughed deeply 
 in the autumn 
 and as early as 
 possible after 
 harvest. In damp 
 seasons itshould 
 then be harrow- 
 ed occasionally 
 until the advent 
 of winter, to get 
 the weed seeds 
 out of the upper 
 section of the soil 
 so far as this 
 may be practica- 
 ble. In dry sea- 
 allow it to remain 
 
 GoiiDEN Tankard Mangel,. 
 
 sons the use of 
 the harrow 
 would not ac- 
 complish the de- 
 sired end. In the 
 NorthwestjWhen 
 farm yard ma- 
 nure isapplied, it 
 should be spread 
 upon the land 
 before it has 
 been plowed, but 
 in the east it 
 will probably be 
 found safer to 
 spread the ma- 
 nure on the sur- 
 face of light, por- 
 ous soils, and to 
 
 there undisturbed until the winter is past. In the 
 
Field Roots. 109 
 
 spring the ground thus plowed the previous season will only require 
 surface cultivation until the mangels are sown. When mangels are 
 sown late in the season the manure may be spread over the ground in 
 the winter and then turned under in the spring, but the labor of clean- 
 ing the crop will be much greater than when they are grown by liie 
 former method. Where artificial fertilizers are wanted, salt and su- 
 perphosphate may be used, at the rate per acre of 200 pounds and 
 upwards of the former, and 100 pounds and upwards of the latter. 
 
 In the east it has been found advantageous to grow mangels and 
 other field roots in raised drills formed by using a double mold-board 
 plow with a marker attached to it. A greater depth of soil is ^.hus se- 
 cured, and the labor of keeping the crop clean is also facilitated. But 
 in the deeper and less moist soils of the west and Northwest it will 
 probably be found more advantageous to sow them in rows on the level. 
 
 When the seed is sown in raised drills a machine is used, made for 
 the purpose, which is drawn by one horse. It sows two drills at a 
 time. A light roller is attached which presses the soil upon the seeds 
 and so lessens surface evaporation. A machine adapted to the quick 
 sowing of all kinds of field roots in rows and on the level is an inven- 
 tion much needed. Some grain drills may even now be thus used, but 
 they are not as yet all that is required for sowing field roots in the very 
 best manner. After the ground has been first marked off, some kind 
 of hand machine is more commonly used at present, but as these ma- 
 chines only sow one r^w at a time, too much time is occupied when 
 they are used for sowing large areas. 
 
 When mangels are sown in the spring, as soon as the ground is 
 dry enough to allow the work to be done in good form, they generally 
 grow to a much larger size than when sown later. But when safe 
 germination can be ensured, good crops can frequently be obtained in 
 the Northwestern states from seed sown as late as the beginning of 
 June or even later. But it should always be the aim to sow the seed 
 early rather than late. In some seasons mangels may be sown so 
 early as to be injured by frost, but such instances are exceptional. 
 
 From four to six pounds may be named as the average quantity of 
 seed to sow, but sometimes, as when the seed bed is cloddy or dry, it 
 may be prudent to sow a larger quantity. If the seed is soaked from 
 twenty-four to forty-eight hours before sowing, and is then dried quick- 
 ly by the aid of ashes, sand or powdered charcoal and sunshine, it will 
 
110 Grasses, Clovers, Fie/d Roots, Forage and Fodder Plajiis. 
 
 germinate more quickly. But when the ground is laci^ing in moisture 
 such a course would be hazardous. 
 
 The distance between the rows in a crop of mangels, and also be- 
 tween the plants in the line of the rows will vary with the condition 
 of the variety, the condition of the land, and the time of sowing. 
 The larger the variety, the richer the land, and the earlier the seed 
 time, the wider apart should be the rows and also the plants in the row, 
 and vice versa. The distance between the rows varies all the way 
 from twenty to thirty-two inches. From twenty-six to twenty-eight 
 inches is a favorite distance. 
 
 The cultivation should commence soon after the plants have got 
 well above the surface of the ground. At first it may be deep, and 
 should come as near as possible to the plants, but not so near as to 
 disturb them. As the season advances the cultivation should be shal- 
 lower and more distant from the plants. It should also be frequent 
 and should be continued until the leaves of the mangels extend so far 
 laterally that further cultivation would break some of them off. It 
 must then cease. 
 
 The thinning of the crop should commence soon after the mangels 
 have reached the rough leaf stage of growth, that is to say when 
 they are but little more than two or three inches high. And it is 
 highly important that the work should be all done within a short 
 period, or the labor of thinning will be greatly increased, and the 
 growth of the plants not yet thinned will be much hindered. When 
 the season is not far advanced, and when there is also a prospect of 
 an abundant growth, the plants may be thinned to a distance of fifteen 
 inches, and in exceptional instances to even a greater distance. Under 
 some conditions they need not be thinned to a greater distance than 
 four inches. From ten to twelve inches may be mentioned as an 
 average distance. Much of the work of thinning is done by the aid of 
 the hoe, but some hand work is required, and the workman should 
 stir all the soil unbroken by the cultivator to prevent the rapid growth 
 of weeds, and to hinder the escape of ground moisture. A second thin- 
 ning is necessary a few weeks later to remove all plants which may 
 be growing in clusters, save one in each, and to remove weeds found 
 in the line of the row. In thinning all kinds of roots the aim should 
 be to leave the strongest plants. It is simply folly to allow any weeds 
 to ripen in a root crop. When it is thus managed the land is in a 
 
Field Roots, 111 
 
 splendid condition for growing a grain crop, and without any further 
 plowing. 
 
 Mangels are ready for harvesting when the leaves cease to make 
 further growth and when a considerable proportion of the lower ones 
 fade and become crisp and dry or fall off. But they should in any case 
 be harvested before the frosts become severe enough to stiffen any 
 part of the soil, or they will harm that portion of the mangels above 
 ground, to the extent of injuring their keeping qualities. They are 
 commonly pulled by hand and laid in heaps conveniently distant. 
 Each heap has two rows. The mangels in these heaps are laid in reg- 
 ular order, tops outward, for convenience in handling when removing 
 the tops. These heaps contain the mangels from an even number of 
 rows, as four, six or eight. If they should pull hard, a plow furrow 
 turned away from one side of the row will overcome the difficulty. 
 The tops may be removed by the use of a heavy knife with a long 
 blade, or by simply wringing them off with the hands. The latter 
 mode is preferable when it can be done, since it does not injure the 
 keeping qualities of the mangels. They are thrown in heaps in which 
 they are allowed to remain for a few days, as, if drawn at once to the 
 place of storage the fermentation would be considerable, enough prob- 
 ably, when stored in large quantities, to injure to some extent the keep- 
 ing qualities of the roots. While they remain in the field they should 
 be carefully covered with the tops to protect them from the frosts, and to 
 preserve what may be termed a freshness of bloom in their appearance. 
 
 Although mangels may be fed to live stock at any time after they 
 have been harvested, and even before that period, their feeding value 
 increases for some time after they have been removed from the earth, 
 owing to certain chemical changes which go on for a time within the 
 substance of which the roots are composed. 
 
 Sugar Beets.— Sugar beets make an excellent food for live stock. 
 Owing to the higher percentage of sugar which they contain, they 
 make a better food for animals that are being fattened than other kinds 
 of field roots. They would be more in favor as a food for live stock 
 were it not that they require more labor to grow them, acre for acre, 
 than either mangels or turnips, owing to the smaller size relatively of 
 the roots and the greater number of rootlets on the same. These pecu- 
 liarities of growth increase the labor of thinning, of harvesting and of 
 storing. 
 
112 Grasses, Cloi'ers, Field Roots ^ Forage aiid Fodder Plants. 
 
 When sugar beets are grown as a food for live stock, preference is 
 given to the larger varieties. When they are grown to furnish sugar 
 for household uses, those varieties are chosen which are rich in sugar 
 producing qualities. When grown for the former use, the mode of pro- 
 duction is essentially the same as in growing mangels, with the differ- 
 ence that the beets are grown more closely together than the mangels. 
 With the exception instanced, therefore, all that has been previously 
 said with reference to growing mangels will apply equally to the grow- 
 ing of sugar beets for the purpose indicated. The soils even that are 
 suitable for one will in the main be found suitable for the other. It 
 will, therefore, only be further necessary to name the varieties which 
 stand highest in favor with the growers. These are the Champion 
 Sugar Beet and the White Silesian. The first mentioned is an im- 
 proved variety from France and affords a high percentage of sugar. 
 Because of its productiveness and high sugar-making qualities, it will 
 answer well to be grown for stock feeding or the sugar factory. When 
 grown to furnish sugar, some important variations arise in soil condi- 
 tions and in the treatment of the soil and the crop. These variations 
 will now be noticed. But before treating of them it may be mentioned, 
 first, that the varieties which stand highest in favor for sugar produc- 
 tion include, in addition to those named above, Lane's Imperial and 
 Vilmorin's Irnproved. These are standard sorts, the excellence of 
 which has been well proved; and, second, what will now be said with 
 reference to sugar beets will apply only to growing them for the pro- 
 duction of sugar. 
 
 Sugar beets may be successfully grown on loams, mild sands or 
 clays, alluvial soils and dark soils of the prairie, providing they are 
 fairly rich and are underlaid with sub-soils only moderately porous. 
 Mild, moist, sandy loams are the most suitable, more especially when 
 organic matters, clay and silica are suitably blended in them. Stiff 
 clays, leechy sands and virgin soils are the least suitable, more es- 
 pecially when the latter are rich in organic matter or contain alkaline 
 salts in any considerable degree. Any soil that will produce a good 
 crop of corn, wheat or potatoes should, with suitable cultivation, be 
 made to produce a good crop of sugar beets. 
 
 Generally speaking the mode of preparing the soil for mangels will 
 be the moda to follow when preparing it for sugar beets. The varia- 
 tions relate rather to fertilizers than to tillage. Sometimes barnyard 
 
Field Roots. 
 
 113 
 
 manures are applied alone. Sometimes, and more especially in the 
 east, only artificial fertilizers are used, and sometimes both are used in 
 conjunction. Manure from horses is good, that from cattle is medium, 
 but manure from sheep is not good. When farm-yard manure is used 
 it should be well fermented and should be applied in the autumn pre- 
 viously. It would be safer even to use the manure with the previous 
 crop. For instance, when barley precedes the beet crop the manure 
 should be ap- 
 plied before sow- 
 ing the barley. ' 
 It then has time 
 to become well 
 mixed with the 
 soil and is less 
 liable to produce a 
 growth of the beets, which 
 would result in a decreased 
 percentage of sugar in the 
 crop. Artificial fertilizers are 
 applied in the form of nitro- 
 gen, phosphoric acid and pot- 
 ash, and sometimes, but less 
 frequently, as magnesia and 
 lime. While it is important 
 that there should be enough 
 of nitrogen in the soil to pro- 
 duce a maximum crop, it is 
 even more important that ]sf., b., g. Co.'s 
 there should be a plentiful Champion 
 supply of phosphoric acid and ^^^^' ^''*' 
 be unwise to sow the seed late in the season, for, even though a 
 maximum crop in weight should be obtained, there would not be 
 time for the crop to ripen properly, hence it would be markedly defi- 
 cient in saccharine properties. 
 
 Where sugar beets are grown on a large scale, as for sugar factories^ 
 the seed is sown with machines made for the purpose. They plant 
 several rows at a time. The rows are on the level, and there is no need for 
 having them wider apart than from fifteen to eighteen inches. Not less 
 
 8 
 
 potash because 
 of the influence 
 which they ex- 
 ert upon the 
 quality of the 
 beets. Phospho- 
 ric acid may be 
 conveniently applied as su- 
 perphosphate or basic slag, 
 and at the rate of one hun- 
 dred pounds and upwards per 
 acre. Potash may be conven- 
 iently applied in the form of 
 Kainite and in similar quan- 
 tities. 
 
 The seed should be sown 
 as soon as the ground is dry 
 in the spring, but, as with 
 mangels, it would be possi- 
 ble, in exceptional instances, 
 to sow it so early that the 
 young plants would be in- 
 jured by the frost. It would 
 
1 1 4 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 than eight pounds of seed are used per acre, and in some instances even 
 a larger quantity is sown. The seed requires to be covered to a depth 
 varying from one-half an inch to four or five times that distance, owing 
 to a difference in soils, in soil conditions and conditions of climate. 
 And the same is true in degree of all kinds of the seeds of field roots. 
 As a rule they may be more deeply buried in the west and Northwest 
 than in the eastern part of the continent, and also in prairie and sandy 
 soils than in stiff clays. 
 
 Cultivation with the horse hoe, or, as it is more commonly termed, 
 the cultivator, should begin as soon as the young plants distinctly 
 mark the line of the row. As with mangels it should be deep at first 
 and shallower and narrower as the season advances, and should be as 
 frequent as once a week for from six to eight weeks from the time that it 
 began. If it were to be continued longer the beets would be encouraged 
 to continue to grow, hence what is termed saccharification or sugar- 
 forming in the roots would be hindered. This process is active in the 
 later stages of the growth of the root. Slow development and com- 
 pleted development are favorable to it, hence dry and moderately warm 
 weather is desirable during what may be termed the ripening period of 
 the beets. Particular care should be taken during the cultivation not 
 to injure the beets or their tops. 
 
 The thinning may begin as soon as the plants have acquired four 
 leaves. They may be thinned from seven to ten inches according as 
 the rows are near to each other or more distant. It is important to save 
 strong plants at the risk of varying the distances somewhat. The 
 hand hoe should of course be used in the line of the row in conjunction 
 with the thinning, and the aim should be to keep the whole of the root 
 covered throughout the season, as any portion exposed above ground 
 is practically valueless for sugar-making uses. It is not desirable to 
 have the roots weigh more than from one to one-and-a-half pounds each, 
 hence the advantage in having them planted closely and in having no 
 blanks so far as this may be prevented. 
 
 The beets are ready for being harvested as soon as a considerable 
 proportion of the leaves die, while those which remain turn to a yel- 
 lowish-green and some of them show indications of drooping. Har- 
 vesting should be deferred as long as possible without unduly hazard- 
 ing them to injury from frosts. 
 
 When grown for the sugar factory they are first loosened by an 
 
Field Roots. ' 115 
 
 implement drawn by horse labor which runs underneath them and so 
 loosens them. They are then raised by hand and topped with a large 
 knife which removes the portion of the beet to which the stems adhere. 
 This part though valuable for live stock is of no value for making 
 sugar. The roots are thrown into piles and covered with the tops until 
 they are drawn away. 
 
 The siloing or pitting is usually done by the factory, but it may 
 also be done by the farmer as now described. An oblong trench is dug 
 in the soil to the depth of from one to two feet. A spot should be 
 chosen where the drainage is good. The trench is then filled with 
 roots and the beets are then stored upward above the leve^ of the 
 trench in the form of a ridge roof. In the ridge portion of the heap 
 the heads of the beets are turned outward to prevent the soil from pen 
 etrating into the mass of roots when it is put over them. They are 
 then covered lightly with earth. A small space at the ridge is left 
 without earth upon it for a time, to secure ventilation. It is covered by 
 two boards nailed together so as to make an inverted V to keep out 
 the rain. No straw is used as it would give trouble when the beets 
 are being manufactured. More earth is added later and as winter 
 draws near a covering of manure is applied. 
 
 Turnips.— The Swedish varieties of turnips are more commonly 
 known in this country as rutabagas. The term turnips has, however, 
 been advisedly chosen to introduce this crop, as it is the more compre- 
 hensive of the two. Turnips are of two classes, viz: those of Swedish 
 origin, commonly called Swedes, and Fall turnips. The former have 
 flesh of firmer texture and are in consequence possessed of better keep- 
 ing qualities. They may be known by the color of the top of the bulb 
 which is more commonly purple, but sometimes green or purplish green, 
 and by the leaves which are of a darker color than the fall varieties. 
 The latter vary much in the comparative strength of the tops, and in 
 the size, color, shape and texture of the bulbs. 
 
 Turnips furnish an excellent food for live stock, more especially in 
 those portions of the year when succulent food is not to be had. When, 
 however, they are fed freely to inilch cows, and more especially in con- 
 junction with rich foods, they give an unpleasant odor to the milk and 
 offensive taint to the butter. But those evils are lessened when the 
 turnip portion of the ration is withheld until after the milk has been 
 withdrawn from the .cow, morning and evening. Caution should also 
 
116 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage ami Fodder Plants. 
 
 be exercised in feeding turnips to pregnant ewes in winter. Although 
 opinions differ on this question, it is probably true, that while a light 
 ration as one or two pounds per day may prove highly beneficial to the 
 class of stock named, a heavy ration would be harmful to the well- 
 being ot the lambs. But turnips, like all the other classes of field roots, 
 are most excellent for producing a large flow of milk, and like these 
 also are very helpful in keeping the system in tone 
 
 The climates best adapted to turnips are those of a moist and cool 
 character. They do not so well withstand the heat of summer as other 
 varieties of field roots. Usually the principal growth made by turnips 
 is in the autumn, when the weather is moist and cool. Hot winds are 
 seriously hurtful to them. While turnips grow admirably in the New 
 England states and moderately v. ell in the northern states further to 
 the west, there is some doubt as to whether equally certain results may 
 be looked for from this crop in the Northwestern states. This doubt is 
 strengthened by the fact that the weather is oftentimes so dry at the 
 proper season for sowing turnips that germination of the seed cannot 
 be secured. It does not follow, however, that excellent crops may not 
 be raised over all the Northwest on suitable soils and in favorable sea- 
 sons. But the same absolute dependence cannotbe placed in the turnip 
 crop as in mangels, sugar beets and carrots. Those portions of the 
 Northwest which get the largest amount of rainfall in summer will 
 grow the best crops of turnips. 
 
 The soils best suited to the growth of turnips are those of a free- 
 working, loamy character. They should be deep, free from stagnant 
 water and susceptible to minute division. Turnip soils, therefore, re- 
 quire a fair proportion of sand in them, and yet not so much as will 
 render them poor. Good crops of turnips may be grown on stiff clay 
 soils, in favorable seasons, but at an undue expenditure of labor. Muck 
 soils and those even which have an excess of vegetable matter are not 
 favorable to the growth of turnips, as they produce an excessive growth 
 in the tops, with a corresponding deficiency of growth in the bulb por- 
 tion of the root. 
 
 Turnips are distinguished by differences in their habits of growth, 
 as for instance variations in shape, size and color. Commonly taey 
 are in shape what may be termed a globular oblong, and this is true 
 more particularly of the Swedish varieties. Some of the Fall varieties 
 are of a peculiarly flatfish shape. They are further distinguished by 
 
Field RootSs 
 
 17 
 
 earliness and lateness in maturing and also by their chemical compo- 
 sition. The number of varieties is now very great and it is continually 
 increasing, 
 
 N., B., G. Co.'s Prize Winner Euta Baga. 
 
 In the Northwest the Swedish, that is to say, the rutabaga varie- 
 ties, are at present by far the most popular, and in all probability they 
 will remain so. Of these the kinds most in favor are the Purple Top, 
 
118 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage a?id Fodder Plants. 
 
 Yellow Fleshed Rounded varieties, of which there are many strains. 
 They are nearly identical in form, in color and in other qualities. The 
 N., B., G. Co.'s Prize Winner is an excellent form of this type. Car- 
 ter's Hardy Swede and Skirving's Swede, similar in shape and color 
 are both good. The Monarch Swede, Elephant or Tankard, as it is 
 
 known by each 
 of those names, 
 has been recent- 
 ly introduced 
 from England, 
 and is gaining 
 favor wherever 
 grown. It usu- 
 ally attains a 
 larger size than 
 any of the varie- 
 ties previously 
 named, and it is 
 thought will 
 yield more to the 
 acre. The Sweet 
 German, a well 
 known and pop- 
 u 1 a r sort, has 
 flesh remarka- 
 bly sweet and 
 tender. Among 
 the leading fall 
 varieties may be 
 named the Jer- 
 sey Navet, the 
 PurpleTop Strap 
 Leaf,WhiteFlat 
 Dutch ' Strap 
 
 Leaf, Red Globe 
 Norfolk and 
 White Norfolk. 
 The prepara- 
 tionofthesoilre- 
 quired for a crop 
 of turnips is vir- 
 tually the same 
 as for a crop of 
 mangels, with 
 the difference, 
 however, that 
 the application 
 of the manure 
 may be deferred 
 until the winter 
 season in all in- 
 stances where it 
 is so desired. 
 When the ma- 
 nure is thus ap- 
 plied, however, 
 the ground 
 would require 
 plowing again 
 in the spring. 
 The aim both in 
 the autumn and 
 in the spring 
 
 Monarch Kuta Baga. 
 should be to clean the land from noxious weeds and weed seeds, so fai 
 as this maybe possible, and it is best accomplished by stirring the land 
 frequently more or less deeply as occasion may require. The propel 
 preparation of the land for a turnip crop will be found peculiarl^i 
 
Field Roots. 
 
 19 
 
 helpful in freeing the land from weeds. The cultivation in the 
 autumn goes far toward freeing the section of the soil that is then 
 uppermost from the presence of these noxious intruders. And the 
 cultivation in the spring before sowing the crop will go far toward se- 
 curing a similar result with the section of the soil which was under- 
 neath in the fall, but which was placed uppermost by the plowing in 
 the spring. The spring plough- 
 ing should take place early to fa- 
 cilitate the decay of the manure, 
 and to lengthen the period for 
 occasional shallow surface culti- 
 vation in the spring. Such cul- 
 tivation will facilitate the reten- 
 tion of ground moisture, hence 
 there is less difficulty in securing 
 germination in such soils when 
 the weather is dry. ^^p^« ^°p s*^^p ^^^ T'^'^^p- 
 
 Superphosphate and salt stand high in favor among commercial 
 fertilizers for applying to the turnip crop. These manures may be used 
 at the rate of two hundred pounds of each and upward per acre. They 
 may be sown on the land just before it is harrowed for the last time pre- 
 vious to sowing the seed. 
 In conjunction with mod- 
 erate dressings of farm 
 yard manure they usually 
 prove satisfactory. 
 The time for sowing the 
 seed is somewhat depend- 
 ent on the location and 
 climate. In the Northern 
 states, from Michigan 
 WMteFiat Dutch Turnip. eastward, and in Canada, 
 
 from Lake Huron to the Atlantic, the favorite time for sowing Swed- 
 ish turnips is from June 10th to June 25th, and for sowing Fall 
 turnips from July 1st until well on in August, according to the use 
 for which they may be desired. In the Northern states west from 
 Michigan a somewhat later period would probably be safer than an 
 earlier one, but the season of sowing would probably have to vary more 
 
120 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 in the west than in the east in order to obtain periods of sufficient mois- 
 ture to secure germination of the seed. In states lying further to the 
 south than those named, it would be well probably to still further post, 
 pone the time of sowing, as turnips will not flourish in temperatures 
 where the air is hot and lacking in moisture. 
 
 As with other kinds of field roots turnips should be sown in rows 
 and on the level. The distance between the rows and between the 
 plants in the row, as with mangels, will vary with soils, soil conditions, 
 the time of sowing the seed and the variety of the turnip. The rows, 
 as with mangels, may vary in distance from twenty to thirty-two inches, 
 but from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches is the distance more com 
 monly fixed upon. When there are indications of an abundant yield, 
 the plants are frequently thinned to a distance of from twelve to fifteen 
 inches in the row and to even a greater distance. But on the other 
 hand there may be instances where a larger yield would be obtained 
 by leaving a plant every four inches in the row. From ten to twelve 
 inches may be named as applicable to a majority of instances. 
 
 The seed may be sown in the same way as that of other field roots 
 It may be that some grain drills will do the work with sufficient accuracy. 
 With others not so well adapted to the work, the seed may be first 
 mixed with some more bulky substance, as coarse, dry earth. From 
 two to four pounds of seed per acre are used; when all the conditions 
 are favorable a less quantity of seed than two pounds will suffice. 
 
 Cultivation with the horse hoe should begin as soon as the young 
 plants are well on into the rough leaf. As with other field roots it 
 should be deep and wide at first but more shallow and narrow as the 
 season advances. It should be frequent and continued until it can be 
 no longer done without injury to the plants. 
 
 The plants may be thinned with less labor probably when they 
 are not more than three inches high. In all instances the cultivation 
 of the plants should commence earlier than the thinning. Great pro- 
 ficiency maybe developed in this work by care and practice, insomuch 
 that an expert can go from one end of the row to the other in a long 
 field without stopping to pull a weed or a turnip. The work of thin- 
 ning is done by using a hoe with a wide and short blade. The person 
 using it strikes first by drawing it toward him, and then by pushing it 
 from him on the other side of the drill. With each stroke the turnip 
 in the drill next to the disturbed earth falls along the drill where the 
 
Field Roots, 121 
 
 earth has been removed, and the next stroke removes the earth, weeds 
 and the turnips not wanted from the other side of the prostrate plant, 
 which soon rises again. The crop should be gone over a second time 
 with the hoe to secure the "singling" of all the plants and to remove 
 any stray weeds. 
 
 Turnips do not require to be harvested until winter is not far dis- 
 tant, but the aim should be to have them stored before the weather be- 
 comes so unpleasant that the work of harvesting them will prove disa- 
 greeable and irksome. Sometimes the tops are cutoff with a sharp hoe 
 and the roots are turned out of the ground by driving a heavy harrow 
 over them. They are then drawn at once to the place of storage. This 
 method is speedy, but the objections to it are that it tears the roots to 
 some extent and soils the tops so that their feeding value is lessened. 
 And when the roots thus lifted are stored they have more earth mixed 
 with them, hence they do not keep quite so well. At other times they 
 are pulled and topped at once and are left lying in a string-like row 
 from end to end of the field. Four rows of the unpulled turnips may 
 thus be conveniently made to form but one row of those pulled. This 
 method does the work neatly and in fine form, but is considered slow. 
 And yet again, they are pulled and laid in heaps, after the manner pur- 
 sued in pulling mangels, which has already been described. When 
 stored properly the Swedish varieties will keep for a long time. Undue 
 warmth will soon injure them in various ways, as by sprouting and 
 causing a mould to gather on them. 
 
 There is another mode, however, of growing turnips, viz., by sow- 
 ing them broadcast and on new lands, whereon the more offensive, 
 noxious weeds have not yet entrenched themselves. This mode is 
 probably the only one commonly followed by the farmers of the North- 
 west. It has already been alluded to in Chapter IV., when dealing 
 with the growing of turnips for forage uses. But in time it will proba- 
 bly give place to drill or row culture in growing crops for winter stor- 
 age, since it requires new and rich land to make it successful. On 
 poor land the turnips will not attain sufficient size to make the crop 
 profitable in the absence of horse hoeing, which could not be attempted 
 in a crop thus grown; and on old soils the weeds would be likely to 
 overshadow the turnips. Moreover there would be an undue propor- 
 tion of small turnips from lack of thinning, and this would greatly in- 
 crease the labor of handling when harvesting and storing the roots. 
 
122 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage ami Fodder Plants. 
 
 While, therefore, it may be well in the meantime to grow turnips thus, 
 even for winter storage, so long as new lands are to be had, this mode 
 of raising them is peculiarly adapted to their growth for forage uses. It 
 is probable, therefore, that the Fall varieties will be found ultimately to 
 answer this purpose better than the Swedish varieties, since they grow 
 more rapidly. 
 
 Carrots.— No root crop can be grown with so much certainty of 
 success throughout all the Northwest as field carrots. Nor is there any 
 root crop so free from the attacks of disease and insect pests. Carrots 
 are much relished by all kinds of farm stock, and are excellent for 
 them when fed as a part of the ration. They are particularly beneficial 
 to horses at that season of the year when they are deprived of succu- 
 lent food, and may also be fed with the utmost freedom to milch cows 
 without any danger of giving an unpleasant odor to the milk, or taint 
 to the butter made from it. A carrot crop when grown on average soils 
 will not take injury from the frosts of sprang or autumn, and has much 
 power to resist the influences of the drought of summer, so that when 
 it has been well started early in the season a fair return may be looked 
 for with almost unfailing certainty. In view of these facts it does seem 
 unfortunate that any farmer who keeps live stock, in the east, north, 
 west or center of this Republic should permit a single season to pass 
 without growing a plot of cairots, be it large or small, for the use of 
 his stock. But it may be that the labor of handling has been a serious 
 barrier. 
 
 Carrots are adapted to a wide range of soils. Almost any kind of 
 soil with a fair amount of plant food in it will give a crop of carrots. 
 Nevertheless the favorite soils for this crop are those of a deep, sandy 
 and loamy character, or such as are composed largely of vegetable 
 mould and capable of retaining moisture in a fair degree. But some 
 varieties are at least measurably adapted to shallower and heavier 
 soils. Owing to its deep habit of growth the carrot requires soils with- 
 out excess of moisture in the subsoils. When the soil is cloddy or 
 stony or shallow there is a tendency to produce prongs in the roots 
 grown upon it. 
 
 There are many varieties of the carrot in cultivation. They are 
 distinguished by their shape, as long, medium and short, and by their 
 color, as red, orange and white. The long varieties are somewhat 
 losing favor owing to the difficulty found in harvesting them, and for 
 
N , B., G. Co.'s Mastadon Carrot. N., B., G. Co.'s Victoria Carrot. 
 
124 Grasses^ Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 the further reason that they do not now yield such large crops as some of 
 the other varieties. Among varieties which have become prominent in 
 the Northwest, none stands higher in favor than N., B., G. Co.'s Mas- 
 tadon. It is of the short class, and gives the greatest yield per acre of 
 any carrot now grown. The roots are short and heavy at the shoulder, 
 hence they are easily harvested. Nor are they liable to break when 
 being pulled or stored. The roots often measure from fifteen to twenty 
 inches in circumference, and a crop of from eighteen to twenty-five tons 
 per acre has frequently been grown. The quality is also good, as the 
 flesh is white, crisp, solid and of sweet flavor. It is a great improve- 
 ment on the white and green fleshed Belgian kinds which have been 
 the standard varieties in the past. It is not only more productive, but 
 is much more easily handled. Northrup, Braslan, Goodwin Co.'s Vic- 
 toria Carrot is considered the largest and heaviest cropping yellow 
 variety. It is thought by many to be the largest, best formed and 
 most nutritious of the orange or yellow varieties of carrots now grown. 
 Although it is not quite so easily harvested as the Mastadon, some 
 growers prefer it on account of its color. Danver's Half Long Carrot, a 
 short variety, is properly speaking a garden carrot, but owing to its 
 fine and sweet quality, the firm character of its flesh and the ease with 
 which it is harvested, it is sometimes preferred to the larger sorts. It 
 grows smoothly and handsomely, and is of a dark orange color. 
 
 In preparing the soil for carrots nearly the whole of the work should 
 be done the previous autumn. The handling of the soil in the autumn 
 may be the same as described in preparing it for a crop of mangels. 
 In the spring the soil will only want to be stirred with a cultivator or 
 harrow, or probably with these implements in succession, prior to the 
 sowing of the seed. It is specially important to remove the weeds 
 and weed seeds from the upper section of the soil the previous autumn, 
 as there is no opportunity for doing it in the spring before the crop 
 is sown. 
 
 Carrot seed should be sown as early as possible in the spring. 
 This root requires the whole of the growing season to perfect its growth. 
 There is no danger that it will receive injury from spring frosts. Good 
 crops may sometimes be secured when the seed is sown at an advanced 
 period of the spring, but they are by no means so certain as when the 
 crop has been sown early. 
 
 The seed maybe sown with a hand machine when small areas are 
 
Field Roots. 125 
 
 grown. When sown in raised drills the same machine will sow carrots 
 as is used for sowing other kinds of field roots. When large areas are 
 sown a grain drill may be used. With some grain drills it may be nec- 
 essary first to mix the seed with some dry substance, such as earth or 
 ashes. But when a grain drill is used in sowing any kind of field roots, 
 great care must be taken to make the rows as straight as possible, or 
 the labor of cleaning the crop will be greatly increased. 
 
 Carrot seed is slow of germination, and therefore its growth may 
 be hastened by soaking the seed before it is sown. It may be soaked 
 after the method already given as suitable for soaking mangel seed. 
 But the soaking of the seed of any kind of field roots should be avoided 
 when the ground is not moist. To treat it thus at such a time would 
 be almost certain to ensure its destruction. 
 
 Carrot seed is not only a long time in coming through the ground, 
 more especially in the early spring, when it should be sown, but it 
 grows slowly for some time after it has appeared, hence there is great 
 danger that the weeds will get ahead of the carrots. To avoid this 
 danger the plan has been adopted of sowing some turnip seed along 
 with the carrot seed. The turnips come up more quickly and mark the 
 line of the row, so that the fight with the weeds may commence at an 
 earlier period than would otherwise be practicable. From two to four 
 pounds of seed are used pei^acre. When all the conditions are favor- 
 able the first-mentioned quantity will be enough. 
 
 The distance between the rows is varied much by those who grow 
 carrots. From fifteen to eighteen inches will suffice for the needs of 
 the crop, but they are more frequently grown with twenty-four inches 
 between the rows, because then it is easier to get a cultivator sufficiently 
 narrow to use in keeping them clean. Where but a few rows are 
 grown alongside of other field roots, it may be found convenient to 
 have the same distance between the carrot rows as between the rows 
 of the other crop. 
 
 The cultivation of the crop should commence as soon as the carrots 
 in the line of the row can be traced. The plan of cultivation recom- 
 mended for the other kinds of root crops which have been previously 
 discussed will be suitable tor the carrot as well. And it may be pru- 
 dent, also, to stir the soil with a hand hoe along both sides of the row 
 and close up to the line of the carrots. The only weeds that are thus 
 allowed to escape for the time being are those in th^ 4irect line q! the 
 
126 Grasses, Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants. 
 
 row. The work of thinning at a somewhat later period is thus ren- 
 dered easier. 
 
 Much diversity of opinion exists as to the extent to which carrots 
 should be thinned. The amount of thinning will depend on such con- 
 siderations as the character of the soil, the distance between the drills 
 and the use which is to be made of the carrots. The plan is sometimes 
 adopted of growing crops without any thinning. Good crops, that is to 
 say, good yielding crops, have been grown thus. One would naturally 
 imagine that a crop of carrots grown without being thinned would be 
 destitute of large ones, but such is not the fact. Yet along with the 
 large ones there will be many small ones, hence when the crop is to be 
 stored for winter feeding the labor of removing the tops and of hand- 
 ling the carrots is very much increased. The large roots only may be 
 selected, however, for storing, and the small ones, along with the tops, 
 can be fed during the late autumn. 
 
 An average distance when carrots are being thinned would leave 
 the plants from four to six inches apart, although the distance varies 
 from two to efght inches. Larger yields will probably be obtained 
 from carrots thinned to only two inches apart than from those thinned 
 to a greater distance in the line of the row, but the crop then requires 
 more time to harvest and store it than when it has been thinned more 
 severely. 
 
 Carrots do not need of necessity to be harvested until winter is ap- 
 proaching, as the crop is very hardy, but they should be safely stored 
 away before bad weather arrives, to avoid the disagreeable task of try- 
 ing to harvest them at such a time. In lifting them a plough furrow of 
 sufficient depth may be turned away from each row. The carrots are 
 then lifted by hand and placed in heaps, as indicated when describing 
 the lifting of mangels. The tops are removed in the same way and 
 the carrots may also be similarly stored. They possess fine keeping 
 qualities, hence, when properly stored, they may be kept fresh and fit 
 for use until the end of spring and even into summer. 
 
 Artichokes, — The opinions even of practical men differ much as 
 to the value of artichokes in the economy ©f feeding, but it is more 
 than probable that this difference of opinion is the outcome of the diffi- 
 culty which some have experienced in getting the soil entirely free 
 from them where they may have been grown. That trouble has arisen 
 from the source mentioned is certainly true, but if the ground on which 
 
Field Roots. 
 
 127 
 
 the artichokes have grown can be turned into a hog pasture for a time 
 the artichol<es will soon disappear. A summer fallow, properly man- 
 aged, will also remove them. 
 
 There is undoubtedly a place for artichokes on many farms, and it 
 
 is even proba^ble 
 that they will yet 
 be grown over wide 
 areas of the North- 
 west, more especial- 
 ly in those subject 
 to long periods of 
 dry weather. They 
 will grow in nearly 
 all classes of soil, 
 from stiff clays to 
 light sands, but, of 
 course, not equally 
 well. Several hun- 
 dred bushels per 
 acre may be obtain- 
 ed from a single 
 crop, even on me- 
 dium soils, when 
 they have been 
 properly grown. 
 They are generally 
 grown to provide 
 food for swine, but 
 may also be fed with 
 advantage to other 
 kinds of farm stock. 
 Chemical analysis 
 gives them a feed- 
 ing value nearly 
 equal to that of po- 
 
 tatoes and field 
 roots, as turnips and 
 mangels, and as 
 freezing and thaw- 
 ing out again do not 
 apparently injure 
 their f.:eding quali- 
 ties, they may be 
 harvested by the 
 hogs in the field. 
 The exercise which 
 the hogs get while 
 thus engaged is pe- 
 culiarly beneficial to 
 such of them as are 
 kept for breeding. 
 
 There are a num- 
 ber of varieties of 
 artichokes and sev- 
 eral of them have 
 merit. The variety 
 known as the Im- 
 proved White 
 French is one of the 
 best. 
 
 Various methods 
 of planting have 
 been adopted, but 
 the following is one 
 of the best:— 
 
 Plow the ground 
 level surface is ob- 
 
 Large White French Artichoke. 
 
 to a good depth and then harrow until a fairly 
 
 tained. Make shallow furrows varying from two to four inches in 
 
 depth according to conditions, and about three and a half feet apart. 
 
128 Grassi's, CIo7'C7's, Field Roots^ Fo?'a!^e a)id Fodder Plants, 
 
 Cut the tubers into small pieces or sets before planting them. Drop 
 them into the furrows that have been opened and about eighteen 
 inches apart. Cover as soon as possible with the plough or harrow. 
 1-rom six to eight bushels of seed will plant an acre. 
 
 The cultivation is much the same as that required for corn as de- 
 scribed in Chapter V. Care must be taken not to cultivate deeply as 
 the roots extend. In some instances two or three successive crops are 
 grown upon the same land without planting the seed more than once. 
 When not harvested too closely the plants will come up quite thickly 
 enough to furnish a crop. But to obtain these crops in good form the 
 ground should be ploughed and harrowed every spring. The artichokes 
 will come up all over the soil. When a few inches high they should 
 be harrowed with a light harrow. The cultivator should then be run 
 through the ground both ways so as to leave the artichokes in hills 
 like corn. 
 
 The crop is ready for being harvested two or three weeks after the 
 blossoms fall. It may be harvested either fall or spring as may be de- 
 sired. If the ho-^s are unable to finish the harvesting in the autumn, 
 they may complete the same in the spring. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Alsike Clover, 
 
 Artichokes, .... 
 
 Austrian Brome Grass 
 
 Barley and Oats for Forage or Soiling, 
 
 Barley, Varieties, . 
 
 Blue Grass, 
 
 Carrots, How to grow, 
 
 Carrots, Varieties, 
 
 Cereals for Fodder, 
 
 Clovers, Discussion of 
 
 Common or Medium Clover, 
 
 Corn for Forage, 
 
 Corn for Fodder, 
 
 Corn, Varieties, 
 
 Crimson Clover, 
 
 Fall Turnips, 
 
 Field Roots Defined, 
 
 Field Roots, Discussion of 
 
 Forage Crops Defined, 
 
 Forage Crops, Discussion of, 
 
 Fodder Crops Defined, 
 
 Fodder Crops, Discussion of. 
 
 Grasses, Discussion of, 
 
 Harvesting Hay, 
 
 Jerusalem Corn, 
 
 Kaffir Corn, 
 
 Lucerne, 
 
 Mammoth Clover, 
 
 Mangels, How to Grow, 
 
 Mangels, Varieties, 
 
 Mangels for Forage, 
 
 Meadov/ Fescue, 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, . 
 
 Millet, How to Grow, 
 
INDEX— Continvied. 
 
 Millet, Varieties, 
 
 Mixed Grains, for Forage or Soiling, 
 
 Mixtures suitable for Permanent Pastures 
 
 Mixtures suitable for Permanent Pastures 
 
 Oats, Varieties, 
 
 Oats for Fodder, 
 
 Oats and Wheat for Fodder, 
 
 Oats and Peas for Fodder 
 
 Oats, Peas and Wheat for Fodder, 
 
 Orchard Grass, 
 
 Peas, Varieties, 
 
 Peas for Forage, 
 
 Peas and Oats, for Forage or Soiling 
 
 Permanent Pastures, How to grow, 
 
 Permanent Pastures, Laying down, 
 
 Permanent Pastures, the Renovation of 
 
 Pumpkins, 
 
 Rape, .... 
 
 Red-top, .... 
 
 Sacaline, 
 
 Sorghum, as a Forage Crop, 
 
 Spring Wheat, Varieties, 
 
 Squashes, .... 
 
 Sugar Beets, How to grow, 
 
 Sugar Beets, Varieties, 
 
 Sweet Corn for Forage, 
 
 Tall Oat Grass, 
 
 The Everlasting Pea, . 
 
 The Sunflower, 
 
 The Importance of the Grass Crop, 
 
 Timothy, .... 
 
 Turnips, How to Grow, 
 
 Turnips, Varieties, 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 Wild Timothy, 
 
 Winter Rye for Forage, 
 
 Yellow Clover, 
 
 n the 
 n the 
 
 orthwest, 
 East, 
 
NORTHRUP, BRASLAN, GOODWIN GO. 
 
 Were 11 years ago the SMALLEST are now the 
 LARGEST firm of 
 
 GROWERS AND DEALERS IN SEEDS 
 
 IN THE WEST. 
 ^_ ♦♦♦♦ • 
 
 OUR RE-CLEANED GRASS AND CLOVER SEEDS, 
 
 NORTHERN GROWN FARM SEEDS, 
 
 SELECTED VEGETABLE AND FLOWER SEEDS. 
 
 ARE THE BEST OF THEIR CLASS. 
 ♦♦♦♦ 
 
 Our Catalogue issued January 1st, of each year correctly describes and 
 illustrates all the leading varieties and is sent FRE]£ on application. 
 
 WritP Us ** ^^^ time for prices or anything required in the line of seeds. 
 
 NORTHRUP, BRASLAN, GOOOWIN CO. 
 
 SEED GROWERS AND DEALERS, 
 
 24, 26, 28 and 30 Hennepin Ave. 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
 
The Jewell Nursery Co, 
 
 LAKE CITY, MINN 
 
 Hardy Varieties of Fruit are Our Specialties. 
 
 OKABENA.— A seedling of the Duchess orii^7nati;i^<^- \n Minne- 
 sota. Tile parent tree is now 26 years old. and is in bcttci- condition 
 to-day than any other seedling tree bearing standard apples, in the 
 State of Minnesota, without any exception. The Okabena is hardier, 
 and a better grower, than the Duchess, and it has borne more fruit, 
 and better fruit, than any other variety of seedling apple grown. It is 
 in all respects the best apple-tree for Wisconsin, Minnesota and the 
 Northwest. We will match it against any seedling apple-tree in the 
 world for this climate. 
 
 NOKTH STAR CURKANT.-The best Red Currant ever 
 grown. We have exclusive control of all the above. Stock sent out 
 by us 'cui// l)car a metal tao- and our trade mark as proof of its bciiig 
 o-enuine. The North Star Currant is recommended for general plant- 
 ing by the Minnesota State Horticultural Society. Every plant guar- 
 anteed. Try them. 
 
 In addition to the above, we grow a general line of nursery stock, 
 consisting of Hardy, Iron Cltid Apple, Plum and Cherry 
 Trees, Shade, Ornamental and Weepinjjr Trees, Grape 
 Vines, Currants, Gooseberries, fluneberries, Raspber- 
 ries, Blackberries, Dewberries, Strawberrii's, Orna- 
 mental Shrubs, Vines, Roses and Greenhouse Plants 
 in variety. 
 
 When buying, always order NORTHERN GROWN trees, 
 plants, etc., that are acclimated and adapted to this severe cold cli- 
 mate. We guarantee all goods shipped by us to be strictly first-class 
 and in perfect condition to grow. 
 
 Write for catalogue and send us your orders. 
 
 THE JEWELL NURSERY CO. 
 
 LAKE CITY, MINNESOTA. 
 
THE VICTORY SEPARATOR 
 
 H 
 
 AS NO EQUAL FOR RAPID THRESHING, SEPARATING 
 and cleaningall kinds of Grain, Flax and Timothy. Seven sizes, 
 from 28-inch cylinder and 42-inch rear to 40-inch cylinder and 62-inch 
 rear. Both Minnesota and North Dakota State Universities after 
 thorough trials, have purchased Victory Separators for use on their ex- 
 perimental farms— because of their superior separating and cleaning 
 capacity. 
 
 THE MINNEAPOLIS TRACTION ENGINE 
 
 Will draw a heavier load, 
 steam easier, use less fuel, 
 
 than any other engine in 
 America. Sizes: 10-12-14- 
 16-18 horse-power: Wood 
 and Coal or Straw-burn- 
 ers, as desired. We also 
 manufacture Victory Self- 
 feeders, Reliance Horse 
 Powers, Weighers. Bag- 
 ger Attachments, Etc. 
 
 Write for new cata- 
 logue. 
 
 THE MINNEAPOLIS THRESHING MACHINE CO. 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA. 
 
 ONLY MEDAL AWARDED FOR A COMPLETE THRESHING OUTFIT AT THE 
 WORLD'S COLUHBIAN EXHIBITION, 1893. 
 
RE-GLEANED GRASS AND GLOVER SEEDS 
 
 Our facilities for clenning these seeds are so complete that we 
 feel justified in sayinjr that our slocks are unsurpassed for purity, 
 and freedom from objectionable seeds. 
 
 We carry large stocks, and sell at lowest market prices. 
 
 Timothy, Clovers, Red Top, Blue Grass, Orchard Grass, Millets, Bromus 
 Inermis, and all of the Standard and Fancy Grasses. 
 
 Our Permanent Pasture and Hay Hixtures are proportioned so as to give 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 IMPROVED FARM SEEDS. 
 
 We devote more attention and a greater acreage 
 of land to the growing of perfected strains of 
 
 Oats, Rye, Rutabagas, Sorghum, 
 
 Barley, Corn, Carrots, Peas, 
 
 Wheat, Mangels, Rape, Potatoes, etc. 
 
 than any other seed establishment. 
 
 Vegetable and Flower Seeds. 
 
 We carry large stocks of all the best varieties. They are care- 
 fully grown and tested and will satisfy the most critical. 
 
 Our Prices are always Reasonable. 
 
 Garden Tools, Lawn Mowers, Fertilizers, Lawn Grass, Insecti' 
 
 cides, Hand Weeders, Cultivators, Meeker Smoothing 
 
 Harrows, etc. 
 
 Write for price on anything wanted for 
 THE GARDEN, FIELD AND LAWN. 
 
 NORTHRUP. BRASLAN, GOODWIN CO , 
 
 24, 26, 28 & 30 HENNEPIN AVENUE, 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 QDDm345EDb •