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 MANUAL OF 
 
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 Flax Culture. 
 
 COMPRISING FULL INFOEMATION 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CULTIVATION, 
 MANAGEMENT, 
 
 AND 
 
 MARKETING 
 
 OF THE 
 
 CROP. 
 
 v_^ 
 
 TOGETHEE WITH A COMPLETE GLOSSARY AND INDEX. 
 
 By Practical Flax Growers in the United States, Ireland, and Gefmaii^ 
 
 .0 
 
 A '-^84 
 
 ^'^ Olr <<~<^' ^ 
 
 •/vAsm'.5-» 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMF^ANY, 
 
 751 Broadway. 
 1 884. 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress In the j'ear 1883, by the Obange Judd Company, in the Office of the Librarian 
 
 of Congreas, at Washington. ^xi 
 
 gfr^3^_ 
 
 -*^==e:^^ 
 
Gardening for Young and Old. 
 
 -THE- 
 
 CULTIYATION OF UARllEN yE&ETABLES in lie FARM GARDEN 
 
 By JOSEPH HARRIS, M.S., 
 
 Author of ""Walks and Talks on the Farm," " Harris on the Pig," " Talks on Manures," etc. 
 
 The object of this work is to show how garden crops may be grown in field culture, and the 
 teachings of Mr. Harris are mainly from his own experience, presented in that familiar style so well 
 known to those who have read his other writings. We are sure that the work will be welcomed by 
 a large class who are concerned over the problem, " How to make the farm pay." If his work is 
 properly studied and its teachings followed, it cannot fail to be of great service, especially to the 
 coming generation of young farmers, and may have much to do in " keeping boys on the farm." A 
 small share of the work is devoted to the easily grown ilowers. which will add to its value in the 
 estimation of the mothers and sisters as well as of the boys. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 Introduction.— An Old and a New Garden.— Gardening for Boys.— How to Begin.— Preparing 
 the Soil.— Killing the Weeds.— About High Farming.- Competition in Crops.— Tho Manure Ques- 
 tion.— The Implements Needed.— Starting Plants in the House or in the Hot-bed.— The Window- 
 box.— Making the Hot-bed.— Cold Frames.— Insects.— The Use of Poisons.— The Care of Poisons.— 
 The Cultivation of Vegetables in the Farm-Garden.— The Cultivation of Flowers. 
 
 I LLUSTR ATED. 
 
 Cloth, I2mo. Price, Post-paid, $1.25. 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 
 
 CJ^^ 751 Broadway, New- York. 
 
FLAX CULTURE. 
 
 FLAX AND FLAX MACHINEKY. 
 
 No country can be regarded as really inde- 
 pendent of other countries unless it produces 
 not only all the food, but all the clothing ma- 
 terial it consumes. So far as cotton and wool 
 are concerned, we produce an abundance, but 
 for flax and the fabrics made from it we are 
 largely dependent upon others. Three agri- 
 cultural products seem to make very slow pro- 
 gress in this country: sugar from beets, oils, 
 such as rape, colza, etc., and flax and similar 
 fibres. One reason why these liave not become 
 important products of our agriculture is, be- 
 cause the farmer cannot convert the raw mate- 
 rial into a salable product, as tliis either re- 
 quires expensive machinery and skilled labor 
 
 to use it, or the 
 processes by hand 
 are slow, and, of 
 course, costly. If 
 the farmer is to 
 be expected to 
 produce the raw 
 material only, he 
 must be assured 
 of a market be- 
 fore he wiU un- 
 dertake its cul- 
 ture. Capitalists 
 are not ready to 
 establishfactories 
 until sure of a 
 supply of raw 
 material, and it takes a long time to estab- 
 lish the proper relations between the two — the 
 farmer and the manufacturer. In the case of 
 sugar, good progress has been made within a 
 few years, and it looks as though wc might, 
 within a short time, cease to import sugar. In 
 the matter of oils, our wonderful stores of 
 ■■letroleum, and the improvements in utilizing 
 the heretofore almost wasted cotton-seeds, make 
 it little necessary fur us to seek any other 
 sources of oils ior burning, soap-making, etc. 
 The native country of flax is unknown, 
 
 (1) 
 
 FLOWER OF FLAX. 
 
 though there are good reasons for supposing it 
 to be in the Caucasus. The ancient use of the 
 fibres is shown by the facts that the Egyptian 
 mummies are enveloped in linen fabrics, and 
 that paintings of the plant are found in Egyp- 
 tian catacombs. The botanical name is Linum 
 
 Fig. 2.— FLOWER CUT OPEN. 
 
 usitatissimum. The generic name, Linum, is 
 the Latin name of the plant, which in Greek is 
 Linon, in German Lein, in Fi'ench Lin, and in 
 Celtic, Llin. From these are derived our word 
 linen, as well as liut, linseed and line. The 
 specific name, usitatissimum, means most use- 
 ful, and was given to it in 
 reference to the service the 
 fibre has rendered in furnish- 
 ing clothing to the human 
 family in all ages. Flax is 
 aUuded to in Genesis, XLI, 
 43, where it is stated that: 
 ' ' Pharoah took off his ring 
 from his hand and put it upon 
 Joseph's hand and arrayed 
 him in vestures of fine linen," 
 and frequent reference is made 
 to both flax and linen in other 
 portions of the Scriptures. 
 
 Flax is an annual, growing, 
 eighteen inches high, though in good soil it be- 
 comes much taller. The stem branches more 
 or loss, according to the degree to which it is 
 crowded by the other plants, as is illustrated in 
 the first essay. Tlie leaves are alternate, 
 
 Fig. 3.— STAMENS 
 
 "and pistil. 
 when wild. 
 
FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 linear-lanceolate, and with the stem, smooth. 
 The flowers, arranged in a loose panicle, are 
 about an inch in diameter. The parts of the 
 flower are very regular and are all in fives. 
 Fig. 1, shows a flower of the natural size and 
 the same flower cut lengthwise through the 
 centre is represented in fig. 2. The calyx con- 
 sists of five green sepals; the petals are large, 
 
 of a fine pvirplish 
 blue color, and 
 fall very soon 
 after the flower 
 opens. Within the 
 petals are five 
 stamens which 
 surround the pis- 
 til, which consists 
 of an ovary and 
 five separate 
 styles. Figure 3 
 shows the pistil 
 suiTounded bv the 
 stamens, and fig. 
 4 gives the pistn 
 by itself with a 
 Fig. 4— PISTIL wiTU STAMEN, stamon by its side, 
 the figures being 
 in both cases much enlarged. The ovary, or 
 lower part of the pistil in ripening becomes the 
 seed vessel, or boll. As it matures, the styles 
 fall away, leaving their remains as a little point 
 at the top of the boll, as in the left-hand engra- 
 ving of fig. 5, where a seed vessel is shown 
 with the remains of the calyx attached. When 
 the young ovary is cut through at flowering 
 time it only shows five cells or divisions, with 
 two ovules in each; as the ovules mature to 
 become seeds, a partition is formed through 
 each of these cells or divisions, so that the ripe 
 boll when cut open appears ten-celled, with a 
 seed in each cell, as seen in the right-hand of 
 fig. 5. The seed is too well known to re- 
 quire a description. Its skin is smooth and 
 polished, being covered with a kind of muci- 
 lage which is readily soluble in hot water. 
 This mucilage, dissolved in hot water, is popu- 
 larly used under the name of "flax seed tea" 
 as a bland and soothing drink in various in- 
 flammatory diseases. Tlie seeds contain a 
 large amount of oil. and the plant is often cul- 
 tivated for this product alone. By cold ex- 
 
 pression they yield 18 to 20 percent., and by 
 the aid of heat, 23 to 27 per cent of oil is ob- 
 tained. <rhe seeds are usually roasted before 
 they are pressed, as the yield of oil is greater 
 and it is much freer from mucilage than that 
 obtained by pressing the seeds without heat. 
 The most powerful hydraulic presses are used in 
 expressing the oil from flax seed; and the pro- 
 duct, linseed oil, is largely employed in paint- 
 ing. When exposed to the air it gradually 
 thickens and finally dries into hard transparent 
 varnish. This drying property, which adapts 
 it to its use in painting, is due to the absorp- 
 tion of oxygen from the air, and its tendency 
 to do this is much increased by boiling it with 
 litharge and other substances. The oil, just as 
 it comes from the press, is known in commerce 
 as "raw oil," while the other is called "boiled 
 oil." The cake left in the press after the oil 
 has been extracted is known as oil cake, and is 
 much used as a food for cattle. 
 
 It is however the fibre which gives the flax 
 plant its greatest value. A stem of the plant 
 being cut across, we find the centre occupied 
 by pith, outside of this is a layer of ordinary 
 woody fibres, then the liber or inner bark, 
 
 Fig. 5.— BOLLS OF FLAX. 
 
 which consists of very long and remarkably 
 tough fibres, and outside of all an outer bark 
 covered by a skin or epidermis. The object of 
 all the processes of rotting, breaking, scutch- 
 ing, etc., is to separate the fibres of the liber, 
 or inner bark, from all the other portions. The 
 fibre of the flax is very tough, and has suffi- 
 cient inequality of surface to adapt it to spin- 
 ning. Being a good conductor of heat, com- 
 pared with cotton, wool and silk, Unen clothing 
 is proverbially cool. 
 
IMPROVEMENTS IN FL.\:X BREAKING. 
 
 IMPROVEMENTS IN FLAX BREAKING. 
 
 With flax and other fibres, one great obstacle 
 to their profitable culture has been the slow 
 processes of bringing them into marketable 
 condition, which, at our prices of labor, made 
 the raw material too costly. Every invention 
 that tends to diminish this labor is of the 
 greatest importance to the agriculture of the 
 country. The engraving shows the general ap- 
 pearance of an improved flax machine, which 
 is very compact, taking up no more room than 
 aji ordinary grain fanning mill. The bunch of 
 flax being spread upon the table in front of the 
 machine, the stalks are caught in a set of 
 grooved rollers; these by their peculiar motion 
 cause the breaking, when the flax passes on 
 to the scutchers, placed in the elevated part of 
 the machine; after being subjected to their ac- 
 tion for a short time, depending upon its 
 condition, the flax comes back, is turned, and 
 
 FLAX MACHINE. 
 
 the other end is submitted to the same oper- 
 ation. All of this takes but a very little time, 
 and at the last motion the workman has the 
 flax in hand, beautifully clean and shining, 
 with not a fibre tangled or displaced. The op- 
 eration is as thorough as it is rapid, a carefvil 
 examination failing to discover any appreciable 
 amount of boon remaining to be removed by 
 the hackle. One of these machines in each 
 flax-growing township would make a vast dif- 
 ference to the profits of the farmers. To those 
 who now raise flax for the seed, the machine 
 win be of the greatest value, as by proper care 
 in handling they may get a crop of fibre as 
 well as one of seed. If seed is to be saved, the 
 flax is harvested when the stem has lost its 
 green color for two-thirds of its length; it is 
 naade into small bundles, and the few inches of 
 
 the seed-bearing portion of the tops cut off" 
 with a hay or straw cutter having a single 
 lever-knife; the stalks are then ready for rot- 
 ting in the usual manner. We so thoroughly 
 beUeve in a diversified agriculture that we 
 gladly w^elcome any improvement that will 
 aUow our farmers to add another to the crops 
 which they may grow with profit, and think 
 it will be well for those who have land suited 
 to flax, to consider whether they might not 
 find it to theii' interest to undertake its cvdtui'e. 
 The reaping machine was not complete until 
 it was supplemented by an automatic binder, 
 and this in turn increased the consumption of 
 wire for binding the sheaves. But farmers 
 have discovered that while wire answers to 
 bind the grain, its use*is undesirable for various 
 reasons, mainly because it is dangerous. The 
 unavoidable scattering of bits of wire about 
 the farm, and the almost inevitable 
 mingling of fragments of wire with the 
 straw from the thrashing-machine, have 
 already caused so many deaths of ani- 
 mals even while comparatively few bind- 
 ers are in use, that the fear of this 
 threatens to stand in the way of the 
 rapid introduction of these important 
 adjuncts to the reaper. The general de- 
 mand is now for an automatic binder 
 that uses twine. The farmer has look- 
 ed to the inventors for such a binder, 
 and the demand has been met. They 
 have supplied the binder, but who will 
 supply the material for binding? Here 
 the inventor turns again to the farmer, 
 and says in effect — " We have given you 
 what you have asked for — we cannot 
 make vegetable fibres, those are in your 
 line — you must grow the flax or hemp.'' Other 
 materials wUl make a serviceable binding cord. 
 Cotton cord may be ilsed, but it is too expen- 
 sive ; Manilla or Sisal Hemp will answer, but 
 they are mainly imported; they might be grown 
 in the extreme Southern States, but, being new 
 cultures, almost, it would take a long time to 
 establish them. Hemp is a good material for 
 cordage, but its production is very limited. So, 
 upon a full survey of all the sources of fibre 
 suitable for making binding-cord, the makers 
 of the machines look to flax, not only as the 
 best material, but one the culture of which 
 presents no special difficulties, or requirements 
 of chmate, but which almost any farm in good 
 tillage can supplj". For this purpose the land 
 and method of culture need not be such as are 
 demanded to produce the finest fibre, such as 
 
FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 is required for thread and linen, as a coarse 
 material wiU answer for binding-twine. It 
 would appear that this new demand for flax, 
 by the binding machines, is likely to influence 
 and give a new impetus to its cultivation. 
 
 Flax grown for seed does not need the high 
 culture required by that for choice fibre ; any 
 good grain land, or a turned sod, will give a 
 fair crop. There are no special diflaculties at- 
 tending the culture. If the fibre is to be saved 
 as well as the seed, the flax is harvested when 
 the stem has lost its green color for two-thirds 
 of its lenjith, and made into smaU bundles. 
 The top, or seed-bearing portion, is cut off with 
 a hay-cutter having a single lever knife, to re- 
 move that portion at a clip, and the stalks 
 rotted in the usual manner — either by steeping 
 or by dew-rotting. Up to this point all is done 
 by the farmer without any unusual machinery 
 or appliances. The next step is the separation 
 of the fibre for sale, and in this day of dear 
 labor, hand-breaking and scutching will not be 
 thought of. 
 
 Just here is where the farmer who would 
 raise flax, meets with his first obstacle. He 
 must have a machine, and it is beyond his 
 means. What Cfoi he do with his flax ? If sev- 
 
 eral farmers, especially if one has water-power, 
 or steam-power, can club together and purchase 
 a brake, or if they can induce some manufac- 
 turer in the vicinity to establish one, and break 
 at a fair price, the difficulty can be removed. 
 
 The cordage makers will not buy the flax un- 
 broken, nor would it pay to transport such a 
 bulky article to a great distance. The case is 
 one that calls for a co-operation of producer 
 and manufacturer. Those farmers who are 
 able to become manufacturers so far as to pre- 
 pare their own and their neighbors' flax for 
 market, will be likely to find it profitable. 
 
 The makers of reaping machines, with bind- 
 ers, feel, very properly, that the success of 
 their machines depends upon the abihty of 
 those who use them to readfly procure a suffi- 
 cient quantity of suitable cord at fair prices. 
 One company has the matter so much at heart 
 that it has sent out a circular to show just what 
 kind of cord is needed, and how it should be 
 balled and packed. The cord should be 
 3-ply or 4-ply ; should not run less than 600 
 nor more than 700 feet to the pound, and be 
 able to withstand a strain of 80 pounds ; one 
 meeting this description will answer for use in 
 any of the successful binders now made. 
 
 FIRST PRIZE ESSAY.*-BY S. EDWARDS TODD, 
 
 OF AUBURN, N. Y. — (NOW OF NEW-YORK CITY.) 
 
 The subject of flax culture may be properly 
 considered under three parts: 1st, The prepara- 
 tion of the soil ; 3nd, The seed, the growth and 
 culture of the plant and harvesting; 3d, The 
 rotting and dressing for market. The first two 
 belong particularly to the tiller of the soil ; while 
 the third is more properly a process of manufac- 
 ture. Though very distinct from each other, the 
 three processes are frequently performed by the 
 farmer. Flax is grown sometimes for the seed 
 only, and sometimes for both seed and lint. Tiie 
 seed yields a drying oil of the best quality for 
 painters' purposes— the residue being oil cake, 
 used for feeding stock; and the straw yields lint 
 of two qualities, called flax and tow. Flax is 
 the long, straight fibre, and tow consists of the 
 short and tangled fibre, which separates in dress- 
 ing the long lint. Sometimes, however, the entire 
 fibre is prepared as tow. The lint that is sepa- 
 rated from the long fibre, when the flax is dressed, 
 is called in market, "fine tow"; it is manu- 
 factured into tow-cloth, or into small ropes and 
 cords. The flax is made into linen thread, and 
 
 linen cloth. " Coarse tow" consists of the entire 
 fibre of flax, the shives having been simply re- 
 moved. This is pressed into bales, weighing 300 
 to 400 pounds each, and is sold in most of our 
 large cities, at 3 to 6 or more cents per pound, ac- 
 cording to the locality and the demand, for stuff- 
 ing the cushions and backs of carnages, and 
 household furniture, for making ropes, coarse 
 cloth, etc. There is always a good demand for 
 flax fibre, whether it is in the long-line commonly 
 called "flax," or fine tow, or coarse tow. Conse- 
 quently, a farmer can always dispose of his crop 
 of lint with a little labor, at low prices; or l-e 
 can bestow much labor in preparing it for market, 
 and receive a proportionately larger compensa- 
 tion. This is one of the excellences of the flax 
 crop, and for this reason there is no other crop 
 that may be raised in our grain-growing regions — 
 where a three, four, or five-years rotation of crops 
 has been adopted — with more profit to the far- 
 mer, and more advantage to the soil. If a farmer 
 desires to raise it for seed only and get quick re- 
 turns, it can be done with a Hmited amount ol 
 
 * Written in response to Prizes offered by the American Agriciilturiat . 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 labor; but if be desires to bave work for bis 
 laborers at tbose seasons of tbe year wben notb- 
 ing can be done in tbe field, be will always find 
 it profitable, if be is a good manager, to grow 
 a crop, and prepare tbe fibre for market. 
 
 Characteristics op the Plant— Flax bas 
 one very important cbaracterlstic, an understand- 
 ing of wbicb is of great practical advantage. 
 Wben a flax stem is growing alone, it will tbrow 
 out numerous brandies, many of wbicb will be 
 as large as tbe main stem ; as sbown by tbe ac- 
 companying engraving, (fig. 6;) and eacb of tbese 
 will produce otber brancbes, all of wbicb will 
 yield seed. On tbe contrary, wben sown tbick- 
 ly, eacb plant will produce only a straigbt 
 stem, witbout any brancbes, and mature but 
 little seed. Tbe practical point is, to decide 
 before tbe seed is sowed, wbetber tbe purpose be 
 to raise flax for tbe seed cbiefly, witb coarse tow 
 in connection, or principally for tbe fibre. See 
 paragrapb upon tbick and tbin seeding. 
 
 Soils. — Flax will flourisb well on any soil tbat 
 will yield good crops of cereal grain, and some 
 soils tbat do not produce abundant crops of cer- 
 tain kinds of grain, will produce an excellent 
 crop of flax. Flax likes a deep, fertile, and mel- 
 low loam, and on sucb a soil a beavy crop of botb 
 seed and lint may be produced, provided tbere 
 be not an excess of water in tbe soil. Tbose 
 river bottoms, and uplands, wbere tbe predomi- 
 nating characteristic of tbe soil is black muck, if 
 fertile enougb to produce beavy grass, will yield 
 a good crop of flax fibre, and a small crop of 
 seed. But, if tbe soil is in a good state of fer- 
 tility for jielding potatoes, oats, Indian corn, or 
 rye, tbe yield of botb seed and fibre will be large. 
 Flax will not flourisb on wet soils of any kind, 
 and the crop will be ligbt on beavy, slippery clay 
 soils, unless tborougbly underdrained, well pul- 
 verized, and enricbed with fertilizing materials. 
 A good crop of flax can not be produced on a 
 poor, wet, and balf-pulverized soil, any more tban 
 can a good crop of wbeat. 
 
 Preparing the Soil.— Tbere is no kind of 
 grain — wbeat not excepted — for wbicb tbe soil 
 needs as mucb preparation as is required for a 
 good crop of flax, and tbere is no crop tbat far- 
 mers are accustomed to raise, tbat will pay better 
 for fertilizing and pulverizing tbe soil. Not only 
 Wiil tbe seed be better, but tbe fibre also, wben 
 tbe flax is grown on soil tbat is very fertile, and 
 lias been kept clean by tborougb cultivation. 
 Weeds and grass are not only a nuisance wben 
 tbe fibre comes to be rotted and dressed, but will 
 seriously injure its growth, and if tbe dressed 
 lint, the tow, or tbe flax, have grass, straw, or 
 weeds in it, tbe value will be greatly reduced. 
 My own practice in getting the soil ready for a 
 crop of flax has been, to commence its prepara- 
 
 tion at least three years before, with especial 
 reference to flax. I have always raised it in 
 rotation, witb Indian corn, barley, oats, winter or 
 spring wbeat, and red clover. A clover sod. 
 
 FLAX PLANT GROWrNG ALONB. 
 
 well manured, is first plowed for Indian corn. If 
 the soil is a heavy, slippery clay, or a gravelly, 
 calcareous clay, it is plowed in the fall. If there 
 
6 
 
 FLAX CULTURK, ETC. 
 
 are any wet places in the field, they at least 
 should always be underdraiued. The corn is 
 kept clean, and no weeds allowed to go to seed. 
 The next year a crop of barley is raised, and as 
 soon as the barley is harvested, the soil is well 
 harrowed with a heavy harrow, or cultivated 
 with a wheel cultivator, for the purpose of cover- 
 ing the seeds of all noxious weeds, so that they 
 may vegetate and die before winter. In October, 
 or November, the soil is well plowed ; and if 
 deep, we use a double team, and a Michigan 
 double plow. The dead furrows are cleaned out, 
 so as to carry off the surface water. If the soil 
 were light and porous, and not disposed to bake 
 in the summer, we would never plow it in 
 autumn. Where black muck predominates in 
 the soil, or wliere it is a very porous, sandy, or 
 gravelly loam, or a light alluvial deposit, it should 
 not be plowed in late autumn, but rather in 
 August or September. Then, if any weeds come 
 up before winter, use the harrow, or the cultiva- 
 t(n- to destroy them. In the following spring, as 
 soon as the ground has settled and become sufl3- 
 ciently dry, plow it, cutting narrow furrow slices, 
 as deep as it has previously been plowed ; and 
 always take especial pains not to have any balks 
 or holes between the furrows. After the ground 
 is plowed, we harrow it twice, and then roll 
 previous to sowing the seed. The great object in 
 liarrowing and rolling before sowing the seed, is 
 to have the surface of the ground as smooth and 
 uniform as it can be made, so that the flax may 
 get an even start, and grow more uniformly, and 
 the surface of the ground be better to work on 
 when the flax is pulled. If the seed is sown on 
 an uneven surface, where there are lumps, sods, 
 and little furrows and holes, much of it will be 
 buried too deep, and consequently, the growth of 
 tlie straw (and fibre) will not be uniform, and the 
 seed will not mature alike. If there are no 
 kmips, the roller should not be used, but the soil 
 should be gone over with a harrow having nu- 
 merous small teeth. Where the soil has been 
 cultivated as it should be, while a crop of Indian 
 corn, or barley, or potatoes was growing, the 
 surface of it will be as free from lumps as a neatly 
 prepared carrot bed. On such soils, flax will 
 often grow from three to four feet long ; the seed 
 will be of a superior quality, and the lint will be 
 heavy and of great length. Where the soil is 
 well adapted to raising potatoes and other roots, 
 if it is well manured about two years beforehand, 
 and the weeds thoroughly eradicated, the pro- 
 prietor may be sure of a heavy crop of both lint 
 and seed. Thoroughly rotted manure is quite as 
 essential for flax, as it is for wheat ; but, coarse 
 unfermented manure produces a rank growth of 
 straw, not much seed, and the flax is very liable 
 to rust. When there are many stones in the soil, 
 
 the larger ones should be removed, and the 
 smallePones pressed down with a heavy roller 
 before the seed is sowed, for the purpose of mak- 
 ing a smooth surface to work upon at harvest 
 time. In some portions of the country, a black 
 muck soil rests directly on a stratum of rich, 
 clayey loam. Now, by using a double team and 
 a Michigan sod plow, or any other plow turning 
 a deep furrow well, and by turning up two or 
 three inches in depth of this fertile subsoil in late 
 autumn or winter, so that the rains and frosts 
 will thoroughly pulverize it before the next 
 spring, then plowing nnd harrowing as just di- 
 rected, a very heavj^ crop of lint, and a fair crop 
 of seed may be raised. But it must be kept in 
 mind, that a large crop of seed can not be raised 
 on an inferior soil, without good manure of some 
 kind. Clean culture, a deep soil thoroughly pul- 
 verized, and in a good state of fertility, will 
 always produce a good crop of both lint and seed, 
 if the season is at aW favorable for other crops. 
 Flax will do as well as oats, barley, or wheat, 
 when sowed on sod ground. 
 
 Eradicating Small Weeds Before Sow- 
 ing. — After the soil has been well prepared for 
 the seed, let it remain about ten days, when 
 nearly all the seeds of noxious weeds will have 
 vegetated. Now, on the day that the seed is to 
 be sowed, give it a thorough harrowing, for the 
 purpose of destroying tlie little weeds tiiat have 
 appeared in the "seed-leaf" If many lumps of 
 earth, or small stones are harrowed up, the sur- 
 face must be rolled. And while the surface is 
 fresh, let the seed be put in as speedily as possi- 
 ble, because flax seed, or any other seed, will 
 germinate much sooner thus, than if put into soil 
 that has not been disturbed for a number of days. 
 
 Proper Selection op Seed. — Most farmers 
 appear to think that flax seed is all of one 
 quality, so far as its productiveness is concerned. 
 There is just as much diff'erence in the productive 
 quality of flax seed as thei'e is in Indian corn ; 
 and a large proportion of that which is sold in 
 market is no moi'e fit for seed, and no more pro- 
 ductive than Indian corn would be, were all the 
 half-ripe ears siielled with the good ones for seed. 
 No good farmer would ever think of planting 
 such corn, because, although it might vegetate, 
 it would not and could not produce a good yield 
 of grain. So half-matured flax seed can not 
 produce a good crop of either lint or seed. But 
 unless farmers raise their own seed they will be 
 obliged to take up with such as they are able to 
 find in the market, whether good or poor. M}' 
 own practice has been to obtain the plumpest 
 and brightest seed to be found. Then run it 
 through the fanning mill twice ; and blow out all 
 the light seed, by a heavy blast. Then, at harvest 
 time, select those stocks of flax that grew on the 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 best ground and tliat ripened first, and keep them 
 separate from the rest. Thresh off only about 
 half of the seed, and save it for sowing the next 
 season. Continue this practice for a few j'ears, 
 and even on the same soil, M-ith the same cultiva- 
 tion, botli the quality and quantity of the seed 
 Avill be greatly improved, and the length and ex- 
 cellence of the fibre very much increased. The 
 seed first matured — which will be the plumpest, 
 fairest and most productive — will be shelled out 
 first. Every intelligent farmer will readily per- 
 ceive the importance of growing his own flax 
 seed when it can be done with so little trouble 
 and expense. 
 
 Thick and Thin Seeding. — Flax may be 
 sowed too thick as well as too thin. The correct 
 quantity depends upon the object for which the 
 flax is raised. If we desire to obtain the largest 
 yield of lint, we must sow the seed very evenl}% 
 and as thinly on the ground as it will grow and 
 not throw out branches; as shown in fig. 6, but 
 have the branchless habit exhibited in fig. 7. 
 If the object is simply to raise seed and coarse 
 tow, it may be sowed very thin — say from half 
 a bushel to one bushel per acre. The old rule is, 
 half a bushel per acre, but in my experience 
 lialf a bushel is not enough, because, when 
 it stands so thin on the ground new branches and 
 new bolls will continue to grow, and when much 
 of the seed is ripe, many bolls will be only half 
 rijie. And besides this, the fibi'e of such large 
 branched flax will not make as good lint as the 
 longer less branched stalks. It may be worked 
 into coarse tow; but it is not so good for dressed 
 lint as the straight stalks. There is also a differ- 
 ence in the lint of the single stalks. If the flax 
 seed be sowed at the rate of three or four bushels 
 per acre, the stalks will be very small, and the 
 fibre fine and thin, and very soft. But if only 
 one bushel and-a-half be sowed per acre — if it be 
 sowed as evenly as it should be — all the stems 
 will be of a very uniform quality; the bolls will 
 grow for the most part near the very top of 
 ihe stalks; and consequently the seed will ripen 
 more evenly, and the crop will be better in eveiy 
 respect than if thicker or thinner. The habit of 
 flax is such that it will accommodate it:-elf to the 
 fertility of the soil better than most other plants, 
 when the quantity of seed per acre is too small. 
 ]f the soil is in a veiy good state of fertility, and 
 cne bushel of seed be sowed evenly on an acre, 
 almost every stem of flax will throw out only 
 two or three branches close to the ground. When 
 flax forms branches we have the assurance that 
 the seed ought to have been sowed a little thicker 
 in those places. But when no branches are 
 formed near the roots, it is a sign that there was 
 as much seed sowed per acre as could grow pro- 
 fitably; and if the stalks appear small and slen- 
 
 der, we need no betii^r evidence that the seed wns 
 sowed too thickl}'. My own practice has been to 
 sow about IJ bushels of seed per acre, whether 
 the chief object was 
 seed or lint. I have 
 always found that 
 this amount of seed 
 would give a bet- 
 ter yield of seed and 
 lint than any oth- 
 ei- quantity per acre. 
 Testing the Seed. 
 — Many dealers in 
 flax seed will con- 
 tend that, as flax 
 seed contains so 
 much oil, it will not 
 loose its vitality in 
 many 5'ears. But my 
 long experience jus- 
 tifies me in stating 
 that it will some- 
 times loose its vital- 
 ity in only a few 
 years. Several years 
 ago, I procured a 
 two bushel sack of 
 Russian flax seed, at 
 a large price, and 
 not a single seed ger- 
 minated, although 
 the soil was well 
 prepared before it 
 was sowed, and the 
 seed was put in 
 when the surface 
 was fresh and mel- 
 low, and the seed 
 possessed all the ex- 
 ternal appearances 
 of the best. It was 
 of a lively, brownish 
 oolor, ver}'' plump, 
 and heavy, but its 
 vitality was gone. 
 To test seed, select 
 a few grains and 
 sprinkle them be- 
 tween 2 thin pieces 
 of sod laid earth 
 sides together, and 
 put them on a shelf 
 in the kitchen where 
 they must be kept 
 warm and not allowed to dry. In a few days 
 every seed that has not lost its vitality, will ger- 
 minate. TJien by counting them, wc readily as- 
 certain about what proportion of them is good. 
 When to Sow.— Almost all writers recom- 
 
 Figr. 7. — THICK SEEOrNG. 
 
FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 mend putting in the seed as early in the season 
 as practicable. But my experience and extensive 
 observation warrant me in saying that flax seed 
 is almost always sowed too early. A certain sea- 
 son of the year that would be considered early in 
 one locality, might be very late, one or two hun- 
 dred miles distant in either direction. Therefore, 
 to fix a definite peiiod for every locality, I would 
 say: Sow when the soil has settled, and is 
 warmed by the influence of the sun, and weeds 
 and grass have begun to spring up, and the leaves 
 of trees begin to unfold. If sowed too early in 
 tlie season, much of it is liable to be stunted ; late 
 frosts are very apt to injure it, more or less ; and 
 noxious weeds are sure to get the start of it, 
 unless extra pains have been taken to destroy 
 tliem. The soil should not be at all adl)esive or 
 sticky when the seed is sown. The very best time, 
 with reference to the condition of the soil, is, soon 
 after a shower, when the small lumps will crum- 
 ble at a very slight touch, and the entire surface 
 is friable and "lively." Tlien it will germinate 
 in a few days, get the start of weeds, and keep the 
 ascendency through the season. By this means 
 much weeding will be saved, the fibre be more 
 abundant, the seed better, and the yield greater. 
 How TO Sow Flax.— Every practical man 
 knows that flax seed is very slippery grain to sow 
 by hand. Consequently, unless a man take great 
 care, the seed will be sowed very unevenly. As 
 it is so very slippery, it is not practicable to sow 
 it with a grain drill, nor with any kind of broad- 
 cast seed sower, that we have ever met with. 
 The details of my own practice, which I have 
 never before put on paper, are as follows: After 
 I he soil has been harrowed as directed above, 
 mark out the ground two ways, in lands about 18 
 feet wide. This breadth is wide enough to sow 
 at one round, or two casts. Let the seed be 
 soaked in warm water, about two or three hours, 
 and then rolled in plaster or gypsum. Then 
 make calculation to sow the required quantity of 
 seed on each land, each way. Take as much seed 
 as you can hold conveniently with one thumb and 
 three fingers. If you are liable to take too much 
 seed, hold a small round stone in the hand while 
 sowing. The object of rolling the seed in gypsum 
 IS, to render it less slippery. I can always scatter 
 the seed much more evenly by sowing a few rods 
 wide all one way, instead of going directly back 
 and forth. This I do, by going around a land 
 about five or six rods in width, as in plowing. 
 The best way to mark out flax ground is, to drag 
 a log chain behind you across the field, from one 
 stake to another. It will pay well to carry out 
 all these practical details in full. As fiax seed is 
 much more diflScult to sow than most other kinds 
 nf seed, it is very important that none but an ex- 
 perienced sower— one able to move with a very 
 
 steady and utnform gait, and U\ cast every hand- 
 ful with the accuracy of machinery — should be 
 employed to sow flax seed. If the ground be 
 marked out, the sower can always see where his 
 seed falls. But, when he sows by means of 
 stakes, a deviation of only a few inches, to the 
 right or left, will drop the seed too thin in some 
 places, and too thick in others. The sower 
 should always set a small stake where he com- 
 mences to sow, at both ends of the plot, so that 
 he will be sure that no strip will anywhere be 
 sowed too thick or too thin. 
 
 How TO Cover the Seed. — I never Avould 
 allow a team of any kind to pass over the field, 
 after the seed has been sowed, for the following 
 reasons: If the soil is at all light and porous, a 
 team will, with their feet, bury much of the seed 
 so deeply that it will be several days behind, and 
 never be able to attain an equal growth with the 
 rest of the field. Another reason is, when the 
 seed is buried so deep, the flax will pull much 
 harder. Flax seed requires but little earth to 
 cover it deep enough to vegetate in a short time, 
 and by depositing it all on a smooth surface, 
 where several seeds will not be gathered into de- 
 pressions in the soil, it will all vegetate alike, will 
 stand evenly on the ground, and pull easily, may 
 be cut with scythes, cradles, or horse mowers, close 
 to the ground, and the straw and lint will be of a 
 uniform length, and quality. My practice has 
 been to '-bush in" the seed by drawing a brush- 
 
 Fj^ 8— bklsu harrow 
 
 harrow by hand. With a suitable brush, one man 
 can bush in four or five acres per day, and do the 
 work well. Such a harrow covers a strip about 
 five feet wide, and an active man or a strong boy 
 can cover the seed nearly as fast as he coul 1 do 
 it with a team, and much better. 
 
 To Make a Hand Brush-Harrow. — (Fig. 8.) 
 Procure a piece of hard-wood scantling, or a 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 
 
 round stick, about five feet long, and three by 
 four inches square, for the brusli head ; put two 
 thills into it, and bore two sets of tliree-quarter 
 inch holes through it, for receiving the but-ends 
 of brush which are fastened in the holes with 
 nails. Brush about two feet long should be se- 
 lected, and after the holes are filled with them, 
 another course may be nailed on each side of the 
 brush-head, if necessary. This will be found a 
 most complete implement for covering flax seed. 
 The effectiveness of such a brush-hari'ow may be 
 increased at pleasure, by lasliing billets of wood 
 to the upper side of it. Tiie lengtli of the head 
 may be greater or less, according to the evenness, 
 or the unevenness, of the surface of the soil. If 
 it should be somewhat uneven, it would be better 
 to make two such harrows, four feet long, for two 
 men to use, than one harrow, eight feet long, to 
 be drawn by two men, because a short one would 
 adapt itself to the inequalities of the surface, 
 and cover the seed much better than a long one. 
 
 The accompanying illustration (fig. 9) repre- 
 sents five young plants of flax, three of wliich 
 are about three or four inches high, the seed of 
 which was covered about half an inch deep. The 
 seed of the one at the left hand was buried nearly 
 two inches deep : and the one just in the seed- 
 leaf was buried still deeper. The illustration is 
 designed to show the importance of covering all 
 the seed of a uniform depth, in order to have all 
 the stalks as nearly of a uniform length as prac- 
 ticable. When some of tlie seed is buried too 
 deeply, those plants that spring from such seed as 
 may be covered only half an inch deep, will get 
 the start of the other by several days' growth, 
 wliich will produce stalks of various lengths. 
 This ought to be carefully guarded against in put- 
 ting in the seed. Moreover, when a flax seed 
 germinates, the kernel is carried on the end of 
 tlie stem to the surface of the ground, where it 
 forms two leaves, as shown by the smallest plant. 
 When seed vegetates in this manner, it is lon- 
 ger coming up than when only a spear is sent up, 
 like Indian corn, wheat or oats. Tlie diflBculty is 
 greater on heavy than on a light soil. And if flax 
 seed be covered deep on a heavy soil, and the 
 weather be somewhat dry, it will be impossible 
 for it to come up, while oats or wheat would 
 come up with no difficulty. 
 
 Weeding Flax. — If the soil has been pre- 
 pared, and the seed put in at the time and in the 
 manner directed in foregoing paragraphs, very 
 little weeding will be required; but if Canada 
 thistles, dock, wild mustard or other noxious 
 weeds should show their heads, let a careful man, 
 shod with two or three pairs of old woolen socks, 
 remove them when the flax is eight or ten inches 
 high. A lot of boys, or heedless men should 
 never be alloM'ed to go among flax, unless when 
 
 it is very young; because if it is trodden down 
 after it has grown a foot or more in height, most 
 of it will never recover its erect position. Tho 
 
 Fig 9. — EFFECT OF DEEP AND SHALLOW SOWING. 
 
 object of covering the feet with something soft is, 
 that the plants may be injured as little as possible. 
 Hard boots and shoes will crush the stems so 
 badly tliat even if they should straighten up 
 again, there would be a bad spot in the fibre. 
 The weeds should be cut off close to the surface 
 of the ground, gathered in the arms, and carried 
 to a pile — not thrown down. If pulled up, much 
 of the flax will be rooted up with them. In some 
 parts of the Old World, men, women, girls and 
 boys do the weeding, when the flax is only a few 
 inches high ; they sit flat on the young flax, hitch 
 along, and weed on each side of them as far as 
 they can reach. It is better to destroy the weeds 
 before the seed is sowed, and keep every thing off 
 the young flax. 
 
 When to Pull (or Cut). — As the time of 
 ripening approaches, the observing farmer will 
 appreciate more than at any previous period, the 
 importance of the details heretofore given. When 
 the seed has been liarrowed in and buried deep 
 by the feet of teams, the flax will ripen very un- 
 
10 
 
 FLAX CI LTURE, ETC. 
 
 evenly; and a portion of it will be very green, 
 while the remainder will appear fully ripe. Un- 
 der such circumstances it will be necessary to es- 
 timate what proportion of the heads are fully 
 ripe, and how large a proportion are still too 
 green to be pulled. When the bolls have assumed 
 a brown color, and the leaves have died for one- 
 fourth the length of the stems at the lower ends, 
 and the stems themselves have changed from a 
 dark green to a light yellowish color, then the 
 fla.x is fit to pull or to cut. At this stage of 
 growth, it will yield more and better fibre than 
 if cut at any other period. If it is too green 
 when pulled, there will be a great loss both in 
 
 Fig. 10.— STOOK OF FLAX. 
 
 quantity and quality. If the seed be put in as di- 
 rected, almost all the bolls and stems will ripen 
 uniformly; and it will be very easy to decide a« 
 to the best time for pulling or cutting without in- 
 curring any loss. When a man has a number of 
 acres of flax to be pulled, he should not wait 
 until it is all ready before he commences, lest 
 much of it become too ripe. Should the soil be 
 variable in its character, the flax will ripen un- 
 evenly, and the ripest portions may be pulled 
 first. When flax is allowed to stand until it is 
 dead ripe, the seed will be of superior quality, but 
 the fibre will not be so heavy, strong, or soft. 
 
 PuLLEStG Flax — When flax is pulled by hand, 
 each laborer takes a strip about four feet wide, 
 and either spreads it in a swath behind him, or 
 throws it down in gavels, or binds it himself, as 
 fast as he pulls it. The flax is grasped just below 
 the bolls, with both hands, and pulled up with a 
 sudden jerk. If it be pulled slowly, a much 
 larger quantity of earth will adhere. As soon as 
 one handful is pulled, it is set on the ground close 
 to the standing flax, and held with one hand, 
 while the other gathers as much as can be held 
 conveniently : then both hands grasp the whole 
 and pull. When enough has been pulled to make 
 a gavel as large as the puller can grasp with both 
 hands, which will make a bundle about five 
 inches in diameter, it is " butted" once or twice 
 on the ground, to even it. Any scattering stalks 
 standing or lying on the ground, are gathered for 
 bands, and the gavels are bound at once. This 
 mode is usually adopted in preference to spread- 
 ing in swaths. If the weather be wet and 
 
 lowery, it will be better, at any rate, to bind the 
 flax as fast as pulled, and to set the gavels in long 
 stocks, as Shown in fig. 10. These should always 
 be set up north and south, so that the sun may 
 shine on both sides of the stook in the course of 
 the day. Before the gavel leaves the hands of the 
 puller, he should strike it once or twice on the 
 ground, or on his foot, to knock off" the dirt. If 
 the weather is pleasant, it is always better to 
 spread out each gavel, as it is pulled, about one 
 inch thick, for the purpose of sunning it. After 
 it has lain in the sun from half a day to a day, it 
 ought to be turned over, to sun both sides. An 
 expert puller will throw every gavel down in 
 such a manner, that they may be readily gathered 
 when cured enough to be bound up. As flax 
 will hang together, if in a continuous swath, it is 
 better to leave a space of two or three inches be- 
 tween the si)read gavels, and sometimes they are 
 laid alternately heads and buts. This is important, 
 so that they may each be turned over readil)', or 
 taken up and bound, without tangling. When it 
 is bound as soon as pulled, and set in stooks, it will 
 require from one to two weeks to cure, before it 
 will be fit to stack or mow. When it is bound 
 as fast as it is pulled, the outside of the flax will, 
 in a very few days, all appear sufficiently cui'ed 
 to be stacked, while much of the middle of the 
 bundles will be too green. It is quite as important 
 to cure all the stalks and seed bolls thorough 
 ]y, before stacking, as to cure hay, or any kind o 
 grain. The question is frequently asked, why 
 it is not as well to cut flax as to pull it? Tlie 
 fibres of flax diminish in size, tapering from a ftw 
 inches above the root until they run entirely 
 out at the root of the plant. It will therefore 
 run much smoother when spun, and will form a 
 cleaner and smoother thread if pulled than if the 
 fibre is cut in two. If the stalks can be cut within 
 an inch of the root, nearly the entire length of 
 the fibre will be secured, as well as a part of the 
 advantage of this tapering of the fibre. In some 
 parts of our country, dealers make a diff'erence 
 in the price between " reaper-cut" and pulled flax. 
 Pulling with Machines. — Several different 
 machines have been invented for pulling flax, 
 which have done tolerably good work, when the 
 ground was smooth, level, and so dry that but 
 little earth adhered to the roots. Most of them 
 injured the fibre more or less, and some could not 
 be adjusted to pull short and long flax equally 
 well, nor would they always deliver it evenly; 
 and when much earth adhered to the roots, it 
 would either obstruct the machinery, or too 
 much hand labor is required to remove the dirt 
 before it became dry. In some instances where 
 the soil was prepared with much care and the 
 seed put in as previously directed, the writer has 
 seen flax pulled in a neat manner at the rate of 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 11 
 
 three to four acres per day, with two hands and 
 two horses. But flax-pulling machines have onlj- 
 been introduced to a very limited extent as yet. 
 
 Cradling and Mowing Flax.— When the soil 
 has been prepared, as previously directed, and 
 the surface n)ade very smooth, if the flax stands 
 up well, an exjiert cradler will cut it very close 
 to the ground, and lay it evenly in a swath. But 
 I have always found that I could cut it closer 
 with a scythe than Avith a cradle, do it with less 
 fatigue, and at the same time lay it in a swath 
 quite as evenly as it could be done with a cradle. 
 The scythe must be placed flat on the ground, 
 and both heel and point kept well down, not only 
 when it is set in, but in pointing out. I was 
 always accustomed to cut a swath about 7^ or 8 
 feet wide, and when pointing out to jerk the 
 point of the scythe towards me, as soon as the 
 last stalks were cut off. This motion of the 
 scythe tended to straighten the under side of the 
 swath, and by bringing the heel around just so 
 far every time, and giving the scythe just a cer- 
 tain motion, I could always lay the flax as straight 
 as if it had been pulled, and, if the ground was 
 smooth, could shave it within an inch of the sur- 
 face. The small amount of fibre that remained 
 in the stubble would not be !in equivalent for the 
 greater expense incurred by pulling. When any 
 of the flax has grown so lai'ge that it falls down, 
 it can be cut with a scythe much better than with 
 a cradle. If it is very long and heavy, when it 
 is down it will be better to pull such plots, than 
 to mow them. Let the swaths be turned over 
 after they have been sunned sufficiently. In 
 turning thrust a pole under the SM'ath, and turn 
 only enough at a time to make one bundle, keep- 
 ing the divisions distinct. Whether the flax is 
 pulled, cradled, or mowed, it is important to k..op 
 the buts as even as practicable before binding 
 the gavels. 
 
 Assorting Flax. — When flax of various 
 lengths is bound togetlier, a large portion of the 
 fibre of the short stalks will be separated from 
 the long fibre, in the dressine:, and be wasted in 
 the tow. Furthermore, when the seed is threshed 
 off", if the short stalks be bound up with long 
 ones, many bolls will not be threshed, and all 
 their seed will be lost. For these reasons, it is 
 important that the long flax should not be bound 
 in the same bundle with short flax. If pulled by 
 hand, it will be very easily assorted, by pulling a 
 handful of the long, and then one of the short, 
 putting each in separate gavels. When it is 
 mowed, or cradled, by taking a little pains, the 
 sliort stalks may be laid, for the most part, in a 
 swath bj' themselves, and the long ones in 
 another swath. Long bundles and short ones 
 need not be kept separate. It is only necessary 
 to keep the long stalks and the short ones in 
 
 separate gavels, in order to dress those of the 
 same length together. 
 
 Manner of Stacking. — It is not always con- 
 venient to ])ut flax in a barn, and it is important 
 to keep it where hay seed, chaff', and straw will not 
 be mingled with it, and where mice and rats will 
 not work. The best way of stacking is, to make 
 a long stack-bottom, by placing three poles, sticks 
 of timber, or plank, side by side, from two to 
 three feet apart, according to the length of the 
 haulm, and one foot above the ground ; and then 
 lay two courses of sheaves, with the tops to- 
 gether, and with one course above another, as 
 represented in fig. 11. As flax haulm will hang 
 together so well, the ends of the stack may 
 be carried up square, without any posts or 
 stakes. In order to give the sheaves a good 
 pitch, the heads of a few of the top coui-ses 
 may be laid on each other. Then cover it with 
 
 Fig. 11.— STACK OF FLAX. 
 
 canvass, or with boards, as represented in fig. 11. 
 If barn room can be had, let all chaff" and hay 
 seed be swept away before the flax is hauled in. 
 Tangled Flax.— When flax is mowed by 
 hand, or with a mower, and the stalks are not 
 kept straight, it is called tangled flax. My own 
 practice, which coincides with that of other far- 
 mers accustomed to raise flax, has been to cut it 
 as close to the ground as possible, and cure it, 
 rake it, cock it, and stack it, or put it in a mow, 
 just as if it were hay. When it is mowed witii 
 scythes, let it remain about one day in the swath, 
 and then turn it over. As soon as it appears suf- 
 ficiently cured, rake it into bunches with hand or 
 horse rakes. If the weather 's favorable, let it 
 remain in bunches about as laige as a man can 
 pitch at one forkful. When flax is managed in 
 this way, we prefer to put it in the barn, in pre- 
 ference to stacking it. When it is stacked, how- 
 ever, the top of the stack should be built sloping, 
 instead of pointed like a roof, and covered with 
 sound boards, or with canvass, as a stack of tan- 
 gled flax will not turn rain so well as hay. When 
 the flax is to be cut with a reaper, and it is de- 
 
13 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC 
 
 Birable to keep the stalks straight, we put on the 
 platform as for reaping grain, fork off the flax in 
 gavels, and let them be set on the but-ends, as 
 soon as cut, as illustrated 
 by fig. 12, which repre- 
 sents a gavel of flax plac- 
 ed on the end. Some- 
 times the flax is so long 
 and heavy that it will not 
 be practicable to rake, or 
 fork it off, while the reaper 
 is in motion. In such a 
 case, as soon as enough 
 for a gavel has been cut, ^'g- 13.~gavel . 
 stop the machine, remove it with the hand, set it 
 on the buts, and let another hand straighten it up. 
 A little longer time will be required, if the reaper 
 is stopped for every gavel, but the work will be 
 done enough better to compensate for the extra 
 care, and time will be gained in the end. 
 
 Threshing Flax. — When flax is bound in 
 small sheaves, we sometimes take a bundle in both 
 hands and strike the heads on a large stone, or 
 on a plow turned upside down on the barn floor. 
 Sometimes the seed is threshed off with flails. If 
 the sheaves are not too large, the best way is to 
 whip it out on a large boulder. Strips of canvas, 
 or blankets, should be hung up on three sides, to 
 keep the seed from flying beyond the floor. When 
 the seed is whipped out on a stone, all the loose 
 seed will of necessity be separated from the 
 haulm; but when it is threshed with flails, the 
 sheaves require much shaking to separate the 
 shelled seed. Moreover, flails will break the 
 stalks, more or less, which works an injury to the 
 fibre during the rotting process. When the 
 seed is whipped out on a stone, the stalks will 
 not be broken, and a man can thus whip out 
 more seed than he can thresh with a flail. 
 Another way is, to thresh with a common thresh- 
 ing machine. If the cylinder is what is called 
 an " over-shot," raise the concave so that the ends 
 of the spikes in the concave and in the cylinder 
 will just meet, but not pass between each other. 
 If the concave is beneath the cylinder, and can 
 not be lowered, adjust the feeding table so that a 
 bundle of flax may be thrust directly against the 
 middle of the cylinder. This done, thrust the 
 top of each bundle against the cylinder in mo- 
 tion, and be careful not to let it be snatched out 
 of your hands. The bundles should not be held 
 to the cylinder, after the bolls are removed, as the 
 spikes would lacerate the fibre. Thrust the bun- 
 dle against the cylinder, and withdraw it, turning 
 It partly over, and give it another thrust, until all 
 the bolls are lemoved. We never unbind our 
 bundles of flax to thresh them with a machine. 
 
 Tangled flax is sometimes tlireshed with horses 
 by treading it out, and sometimes it is run through 
 
 a threshing machine, as oats and wheat are 
 threshed. But the concave must be raised, or 
 lowered, from the cylinder, as the case may be, 
 so as to make as much space as possible between 
 them, and still thresh clean. When the concave 
 is not adjustable, some threshers take out half or 
 two-thirds of the spikes in the cylinder. As flax 
 seed will thresh very easily, it is not necessary to 
 set the concave as close to the cylinder as to 
 thresh cereal grain, and, furthermore, when it is 
 set close to the cylinder the machine will not 
 thresh one-half as fast. If the flax is long and 
 damp, the machine must be fed with care, or it 
 will wind up on the cjdinder, and choke the ma- 
 chine, or damage the fibre. 
 
 Rippling — Rippling and threshing are fre- 
 quently used in America, as synonymous terms. 
 In the Old World, the bolls are usually separated 
 by rippling, which is done as soon as practicable 
 after the flax is pulled, and before it has been al- 
 lowed to cure. The flax is pulled while a por- 
 tion of the seed is yet in the dough state, and the 
 tops are drawn through a ripper, a coarse 
 hatchel, or comb, with long, sharp-pointed iron 
 teeth, which tear off all the bolls and chaff, 
 whether green or matured, and the flax is hurried 
 away to be rotted as soon as practicable, before 
 it has been allowed to cure. The bolls, seed, and 
 chaff are all spread out on a floor and dried, and 
 mingled with oats or barley, and ground into 
 meal for feed. This constitutes the difference be- 
 tween rippling and threshing. Both green and 
 dry bolls may be separated from the haulm by 
 rippling, but green ones can not be threshed. 
 
 Rotting or Retting. — After the seed has been 
 separated, the stalks are passed into the hands of 
 the manufacturer, whose business it is to prepare 
 the fibre for market by rotting and dressing it. 
 If the producer desires to perform a portion of 
 this labor himself, he should understand what to 
 do and hov/ to do the work. The stalk straw or 
 haulm of flax consists of two parts — the fibre or 
 inner bark, and the shives or woody interior por- 
 tion, and which is also frequently called shoove, 
 shove, boon, and hurl. The fibre adheres firmly 
 to the stalk by means of a glutinous substance, 
 and the object of rotting the stalks is to dissolve 
 and decompose the mucilage which holds the 
 fibre and the woody parts so firmly together; and 
 when properly rotted, the shives will separate 
 from the fibre as readily as bark will peel from a 
 young willow sprout in earl}^ summer. There 
 are two ways of rotting flax, preparatory to 
 dressing it. One is called aerial rotting, and the 
 other water rotting or steeping. 
 
 Aerial or Dew Rotting, — This is accomplish- 
 ed by spreading the flax on a smooth grass 
 plot, in long straight swaths, about half an inch 
 thick. A lad goes before the man who spreads 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 13 
 
 the flax and divides the bundles into handfuls, 
 throwing them down where the swatli is to be 
 made. The spreader either bends his body for- 
 ward, or squats down with tlie tops of the stallis 
 toward him; and with a quick motion spreads 
 tiie liandfuls as fast as tliey can be thrown to him. 
 There are only two things to be observed when 
 spreading flax, which are, to keep the buts even, 
 and to spread it of a uniform thickness. Some 
 spread the swaths so closely that they toucli eacli 
 other, but I always prefer to leave a space of a 
 few inches between, to prevent the tops of one 
 being tangled with another. After it has lain a 
 week or ten days, it should all be turned upside 
 down, by running a long slim twenty-foot pole 
 beneath the swath, near the top ends of the flax, 
 and let a man and a boy turn over a section of 
 about twent}^ feet at once. I have always found 
 that two would perform this part of the work 
 better than one could do it with a short pole, be- 
 cause every time a portion of a swath is raised, 
 unless some one stands on the swath where the 
 separation is to be made, it will be more or less 
 tangled. The length of time required for rotting 
 will depend entirely on the state of the weather. 
 If alternate rains and sunshine prevail, two, 
 tiiree, or four weeks will be sufficient. The 
 length of time that flax has been spread must 
 never be relied on as a correct guide for deter- 
 mining whether or not it is rotted enough. There 
 are certain rules which all experienced flax grow- 
 ers understand, which will enable a beginner to 
 determine when it is sufficiently rotted. The 
 most reliable rule is, the stalks, if bent with 
 the fingers, when drj% will snap like pieces of 
 glass, and the shives separate freely from the 
 fibre. Beginners should watch their flax every 
 day and apply this test, lest it be rotted too much, 
 causing a great waste of good fibre. When rot- 
 ted too much, the fibre will separate from the 
 shives at the junction of the main stem and 
 branches, and sometimes the fibre of the main 
 stems will separate from the shive; and portions 
 of the stem will be seen in the form of an Indian's 
 bow, when adjusted for the arrow. It needs a 
 little experience to determine the point at whicli 
 flax is sufficiently rotted. 
 
 Steeping or Water Rotting. — The true way of rot- 
 ting flax is to steep it in water. In dew rotting, 
 if the Aveather be ever so favorable, a good pro- 
 portion of it will be rotted too much if it be kept 
 on the ground until all the stalks are rotted 
 enough. But when steeped or water-rotted, thei'c 
 is greater uniformity in the process. If it is kept 
 in the water just long enough, it will be all rotted 
 alike, and. be done very much better than it can 
 possibly be by dew rotting. Moreover, flax can 
 be rotted much sooner by steeping, than by dew 
 rotting, the object being simply to dissolve the 
 
 mucilage that holds the fibre and woody parts to- 
 gether, so tliat they will separate readily as soon 
 as the flax has been dried. Prepare a pond of 
 water in the same way as a null pond, with a 
 waste gate to let the water off" at pleasure. A 
 suitable place can be prepared on almost every 
 farm at a trifling expense. The bundles are held 
 in an erect position, a few inches from the 
 ground, so that the water may pass both beneath 
 and above them. For this purpose a platform 
 may be made of rails or boards, and fastened 
 down with stones or stakes. Then set up the 
 bundles and drive down stakes, and nail strips of 
 boards from one to the other, over the tops of the 
 bundles, to keep them from rising out of the 
 water, which covers the flax a few inches. Then 
 shut the waste gate and let the pond fill. Some- 
 times a crate is made, and launched on a mill 
 pond and the bundles secured in it, when it is 
 floated into deep water and sunk sufficiently with 
 stones placed on the crate. Soft rain water is 
 superior to spring water for rotting. While it is 
 in the water a partial fermentation commences, 
 which must be arrested at the proper time, or the 
 fibre will be damaged in proportion to the 
 degree of fermentation beyond the proper state. 
 
 When to REMO^rE from the Steep. — As the 
 process of fermentation will progress very slowly 
 in cool weather, and rapidly in warm, it is impos- 
 sible to state any definite period of time for keep- 
 ing it in the water. If the water be of the cor- 
 rect temperature, the process of rotting will be 
 completed in six or seven days. The cooler 
 the water the longer the flax will be in rotting. 
 After it has been steeping about five days, it 
 should be examined carefully every day, for the 
 purpose of ascertaining when it is rotted just 
 enough. Pull a few stalks from diff'erent bundles 
 in several places, break them into pieces a few 
 inches long, and pull out the shives. If they 
 separate very freely fi-om the fibre, the water 
 
 Fig. 13. — HAND-BUAKE. 
 
 should be let off" wiliiout delay, and the flax 
 spread out on clean grass to dry ; when dry enough, 
 it should be boiuid in large bundles and housed. 
 
14 
 
 FLAX CULTURE. ETC. 
 
 Breaking. — The Eand-Brake. — Fig. 13 is a cheap 
 hand-brake. The lower part consists of three 
 slats of hard wood, 4 feet lonir, 5 inches wide, 14 
 inches thick, at one end 
 fastened firmly into the 
 post of a building, and 
 the other ends mortised 
 into a frame. The upper 
 edges of each slat sliould 
 be dressed to an edge. 
 Two blades of the same 
 form and size are bolted 
 in long mortises in the 
 post, as shown in fig. 13, 
 and tlte outer ends of 
 these slats are fixed in a 
 block. Set the two up- 
 per slats opposite the spaces between the low- 
 er; and the edges of all, when, shut together, 
 should be on the same level. A wooden pin in 
 
 14 — GAVEL HOLDER. 
 
 Fii;-. 15. — POWER BRAKE. 
 
 the head above the blades serves for a handle. 
 The slats in brakes of this form are sometimes 
 made to shut between one anotlier, as a knife 
 blade into its handle. This is a wrong construc- 
 tion, because when the edges of the slats pass be- 
 tween each other, they stretch and tear much of 
 the filire, and bieak out the shives no better. In 
 using such a brake, crush a handful of straw be- 
 tween the slats, working the upper part up and 
 down, moving the handful along, and turning it, 
 until the shives are well broken from end to end. 
 
 For convenience in holding a handful during 
 the process of breaking, make two sticks, (fig. 
 14,) about a foot long, and three-fourths of an 
 inch diameter, and tie them together, about 15 
 inches apart, with a small cord. The cord is 
 passed around the handful of flax, as shown by 
 the dark line, and the two sticks are grasped with 
 one hand. By tiiis means one can hold the flax 
 firmly, keeping it evener than with the hand alone. 
 
 The Power Brake.— F\g. 15 shows a cheap re- 
 volving brake, whicli is driven by horse, or water 
 power. It consists of two fluted, or corrugated 
 
 rollers between which the bunches of flax arc 
 passed repeatedly, until the stalks are broken so 
 finely that the shives may be readily separated 
 by shaking, and with the scutcher. The rollers 
 are about two feet long, and six inches in diame- 
 
 Fig. 16. SWINGLE. Fig. 17. — scotching board. 
 
 ter. The lower roller is stationary, and the bear- 
 ings of the upper one plaj'^ up and down in slots 
 three inches long. This roller is held down to the 
 other by iron rods, or strips of band iron, whicii 
 pass over the gudgeons and support a stick, wliich 
 holds a tub filled with stones. This weight can 
 be increased at pleasure. A large driving pulley 
 on the journal of the lower roller, gives a velocity 
 of about one hundred revolutions per minute. 
 The rollers may be made of cast iron, or of wood 
 covered with iron ridges screwed firmly to its 
 surface, as shown at B, fig. 15. A handful of flax 
 is placed on the inclined feeding table, and a man 
 catches it as the rollers bring it through toward 
 him. He then places it again on the feeding 
 table, and continues to run it through until it is 
 thoroughly broken. After the flax is broken, 
 tiie loose shives are shaken out, and the rest is 
 worked out by scutching. 
 
 Scutching. — Figure 16 i-epresents a hand 
 scutcher, or swingling knife. It is of hard wood, 
 2 feet long, with 
 two edges. The 
 hand scutching 
 board is about 
 tliree feet long, 
 and one foot wide, 
 with a notch as 
 shown in the cut, 
 and fastened se- 
 curely to a heavy 
 block as shown in 
 fig. 17. The length 
 of the scutching 
 board is regulated 
 by the stature of 
 the man who uses 
 it. A handful of 
 flax is grasped one Fig. 18.— power scutcher. 
 side of the middle in one hand, and is held in the 
 notch of the scutching board. The knife is then 
 struck on it as if it were to be cut off on a line 
 
PRIZE ESSA\3. 
 
 15 
 
 with the surface of the board. The handfuls 
 are turned, and both ends scutched until the 
 shives are removed. A Bevolving Power Scutcher is 
 shown in fig. 18. This consists of a wooden 
 shaft, with a system of scutching knives set in it, 
 lilce the spokes of a wheel. These knives have 
 but one edge ; and they must revolve as true as a 
 mill stone. The shaft should make from 150 to 
 200 revolutions per minute close to a scutching 
 board. If desired this shaft may be made long, 
 with sets of scutching knives every four feet. 
 
 Hatcheling. — After the bunches have been 
 well scutched, they are hatcheled. The teeth of 
 a fine hatchel are about six inches long, one 
 eighth of an inch in diameter at the large end, 
 and taper to a sharp point. About 10 of these 
 
 are set say 4 inch apart, in a hard b( ard, and 
 the fibre is drawn through them until it, is suffi- 
 ciently lacerated and combed. The handfuls are 
 then twisted a little, and packed in a clean box 
 for market. In some markets, however, hatcheled 
 fibre will command no larger price than the un- 
 hatcheled, because the process of hatcheling is 
 the business of the spinner, and requires skilled 
 labor to do it properly. An inexperienced hatcli- 
 eler will waste a large per centage of good fibre. 
 For this reason, flax growers should aim simply 
 to remove the shives or " boon," and leave the 
 fibre as whole and long as possible, and let the 
 spinner perform the hatcheling, unless dealers 
 make a great difference in the price between the 
 hatcheled and unhatcheled fibre. 
 
 SECOND PRIZE ESSAY. -BY JAMES CAIRNS, 
 
 BALLYDUKANE, CLONOKITTY, COUNTY CORK, IRELAND. 
 
 An essay of so circumscribed limits as this, and 
 yet on a subject embracing so many diff"erent pro- 
 cesses as the flax crop must pass through, while 
 in the hands of the farmer, each requiring the 
 most minute description in detail, does not admit 
 of many introductory remarks. I shall, therefore, 
 not attempt any in the present instance, but, re- 
 serving the limited amount of space allotted to 
 me, for absolutely necessary matter, address my- 
 self to my subject at once, and first, as to 
 
 Soil. — Flax is not, as some suppose, confined 
 to a narrow range of soil. On the contrary, good 
 crops may be grown on almost any soil that is 
 new to it. The soil which by common consent is 
 voted to be the best adapted to flax culture is a 
 sound, dry, deep, friable loam ; a soil of the great- 
 est possible variety of ingredients. But while this 
 is universally admitted to be the best, I have al- 
 ways found, in practice, that no soil whatever is 
 capable of producing a better crop of flax, both 
 as regards yield and quality, than a sharp 
 gravelly clay, provided it is deep and dry. Tak- 
 ing the loam above described, however, as the 
 standard soil, we may extend, on the one hand so 
 far as midway between it and a heavy, retentive 
 clay; and on the other hand, so far as midway 
 between it and a light sandy soil, with every cer- 
 tainty of success so far as soil is concerned. These 
 limits embrace a very wide range, and great va- 
 riety of soils, all capable of producing, under 
 proper treatment, superior crops of flax. Good 
 crops may also be expected a considerable dis- 
 tance beyond these points, but as we approach 
 very heavy retentive clay, or very light sand, our 
 chances of success become less ; and on the latter, 
 flax culture should never be attempted. It will 
 be easy for any man to say whether the particular 
 Boil which he has to deal with is suitable to the 
 
 growth of flax or not. But whatever the soil may 
 be, it should be borne in mind that it must eithei 
 be naturally dry, or rendered so by thorough 
 draining and subsoiling. These operations, where 
 necessary, ought to take place at least two years 
 previous to the introduction of a flax crop. 
 
 Rotation and Situation. — The place in the 
 rotation which I consider most suitable for the 
 flax crop is on oat stuble after rich old lea. I do 
 not mean rich in applied manures, but in dead 
 vegetable matter. I have also frequently grown 
 it, very successfully, as a first crop on such lea ; 
 but when it is desirable that oats should occupy 
 any place in the rotation at all, I much prefer pre- 
 cceding the flax by oats, as by so doing the rich old 
 lea sod — the very best manure for flax — has suffi 
 cient time to become completely decomposed, and 
 its elements made available as food for the flax, and 
 by the repeated plowings, etc., it must necessari- 
 ly undergo, be thoroughly blended with the soil. 
 In this way a much evencr, better yielding, finer 
 quality of flax, can be obtained than it is pos- 
 sible to produce under any other circumstances, 
 or in any other place in the rotation, except by 
 mere chance. The next best place is on wheat or 
 barley stubble after green manuring ; very good 
 crops are sometimes grown in this place in the 
 rotation, but the result is not so certain, and 
 never so satisfactory ; the crop being less uniform 
 in length, coarser in quality, and rather more 
 wasteful in cleaning. Flax should never be 
 grown as a first crop after green manuring. My 
 objection to this is the impossibility of mixing 
 the manure applied to the prececding crop, so 
 thoroughly with the soil as the nature of the flax 
 plant requires. The roots of the flax do not 
 spread far in a latAal direction, but sink perpen- 
 dicularly ; the result is that plants sending their 
 
16 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 roots down through lumps of undivided manure, 
 get a start, and monopolizing the air and light, 
 branch out and spread over their less fortunate 
 neighbors. To a casual observer the crop may 
 appear very good, as it generally has a very 
 luxuriant appearance, but a man of experience 
 will look to the great waste that is certain to ensue 
 in the mill; for, as the scutcher holds the " streek" 
 nearer to one end than the middle, a great deal of 
 the shorter flax escapes his grasp, and finds its 
 place among the tow. But if even this were not 
 the case, the sample would be of unequal quali- 
 ty — some very coarse, and some fine, therefore, of 
 less value to the spinner, and consequently to the 
 grower. The same objections apply, witli still 
 greater force, to the application of farm-yard ma- 
 nure directly to the flax crop. The application of 
 lime is also objectionable. When light poor soils, 
 however, are the subject of treatment, a slight 
 dressing of finely pulverised commercial manure, 
 such as phosphatic or Peruvian guano, super- 
 phosphate of lime, etc., may be beneficially ap- 
 plied, if well harrowed in and incorporated with 
 tlie finely pulverised soil. Keeping the foregoing 
 ()!)servations in view, it is of little consequence 
 what the other crops in the rotation may be ; but 
 us the flax plant delights in change of soil, I 
 would not reccommend it to be grown oftener 
 than once in a five-course rotation on the best 
 soils ; and according as we depart from the stand- 
 ard soil, before indicated, the intervals between the 
 occurrence of flax crops, in the same land, should 
 extend to six, eight, or ten years, according to 
 gradation of soil. As to situation, the only places 
 we have to guard against are high, bare, exposed 
 situations, and the shade of trees. In the latter 
 case the crop is apt to lodge or become rusty be- 
 fore it has put on fibre. The aspect does not mat- 
 ter much, but a southern, or south-eastern aspect 
 is to be preferred, chiefly as it gives an opportu- 
 nity of sowing earlier, and consequently of hav- 
 ing the crop watered before the cold nights in 
 autumn. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil. — This operation 
 should, for the most part, take place in the 
 autumn, shortly after the removal of the previous 
 crop. If a proper system of farming, and deep 
 clean cultiyation has been followed, the prepara- 
 tion of the soil for flax becomes as easy as for any 
 other crop, in fact, land fitly prepared for a green 
 crop is also fit for flax. In the case of oat stub- 
 1)le after lea, (which I greatly prefer) it should 
 receive its first plowing in a diagonal direction 
 across the former furrows; the object being to 
 break up, as completely as possible, the old sod, 
 and afterwards be grubbed, harrowed, and cleanly 
 picked of all root and surface weeds. It is un- 
 necessary to say how often these operations are 
 to be repeated, that, of course, will depenc' on 
 
 the state of the land. Tl.e object to be attained is 
 to get the latid, by repeated plowings, grubbings, 
 harrowings, pickings, etc., into the deepest, finest, 
 and cleanest state possible. After this a heavy 
 roller should be passed over i*^ and the autumn 
 preparation finished, by plowing, with a tolera- 
 bly deep furrow, in the direction of the greatest 
 slope, in which state it remains undisturbed until 
 seed-time. The object of rolling is to consolidate 
 the soil so that the furrow slices may remain 
 more entire, and a greater surface be presented to 
 the ameliorating influence of the frost and atmos- 
 phere during the winter. In case of wheat, oat, 
 or barley stubble after green manuring, the course 
 of preparation is the same as that just described; 
 only that the first plowing need not necessarily 
 be either diagonally or across the former ridges ; 
 nor does it require so much work to get it into a 
 deep, clean, finely pulverised state. 
 
 Wlien it is intended to grow flax as a first crop 
 on rich sward ground, only one plowing is nec- 
 essary, but this must be performed with the great- 
 est care, and by a good plowman, followed, if 
 possible, by the land presser; the depth of furrow 
 should not be less than seven inches, and the 
 slices narrow, so that the greatest amount of su]*- 
 face may be exposed during winter. All that is 
 necessary in the spring to render this fit for the 
 seed is a heavy harrowing, first lengthwise, and 
 then in all directions. In the former two cases, 
 in which it is supposed the soil has been made 
 perfectly fine in the autumn, a light plowing or 
 grubbing across is necessary, and should take 
 place about a fortnight before sowing the seed, so 
 that any seed weeds the land may contain, may 
 have time to vegetate, that they may be destroyed 
 in seed-leaf, by the after harrowings. This 
 plowing should not be more than 3 or 4 inches 
 deep, so as to preserve the winter surface only as a 
 bed for the seed ; and this important fact should 
 be always kept in view, that flax requires an ex- 
 tremely fine surface, but a firm, solid bottom. 
 From the smallness of the seed and th<^ tender- 
 ness of the young plant, this desire for a firm un- 
 dersoil, may, to a person unacquainted with the 
 crop, appear strange, but so fidly am I convinced 
 of it, from long experience, and close observa- 
 tion of its habits, that it is as much on this ac- 
 count, as that of the benefit derived from expos- 
 ure to the frost, that I so strongly recommend 
 autumn preparation of the soil, so that it may 
 acquire solidity during the winter, and that 
 no part may be required to be disturbed in the 
 spring but what is merely necessary to form a 
 surface bed for reception of the seed ; for the 
 same reason, where the land is at all inclined to 
 be light, it can scarcely receive too much rolling, 
 in order to consolidate it underneatli, always 
 loosening up the surface with the harrows. There 
 
PRIZE ESSA.Y3. 
 
 17 
 
 is auotlier thing I wish specially to direct 
 attention to, that is, that none of the spring ope- 
 i-ations of plowing, harrowing, rolling or sow- 
 ing, should ever take place ivhile the land is at all 
 u'tt, or during rain, better wait for one, two, or 
 three weeks, than stir land in preparation for flax, 
 ill a wet state. All that remains now to be done 
 is to get the surface, to the depth of 3 or 4 
 inches, into a finely pulverised state by repeated 
 harroAvings in all directions, pick off all stones of 
 an injurious size, roll with a heavy roller, after 
 which, give a turn of the sod-harrows up and 
 iltnvn to loosen the surface. The land, now pre- 
 senting an even surfoce, with little or no appear- 
 ance of ridges or furrows, it becomes necessary, 
 as a guide to the sower, to mark it out in beds of 
 equal Avidths, which may be done by running a 
 light one-horse plow on the surface, guided by the 
 plowing poles set up by an attendant. 
 
 Selection of the Seed. — The selection of 
 the seed, like every thing else connected with 
 llax management, requires considerable care and 
 attention. The proper time to do it, however, is 
 not in the same order in which we describe it — 
 after the ground has been prepared for it — but as 
 early as it is known that the new arrivals from 
 abroad have been received. Riga is the kind best 
 adapted to the generality of soils, and is to be 
 preferred as giving the heaviest crop, but where 
 tlie soil is inclined to be rather heavy and clayey ; 
 Dutch does remarkably well, and is generally 
 finer in fibre, if not quite so heavy in produce as 
 the Riga; but whatever the kind, it should be 
 heavy, plump, and of a shining appearance, not 
 too dark. It is always safest to purchase from a 
 respectable merchant, if not quite so cheap as 
 others, as there is considerable fraud practiced in 
 the lower branches of the flax-seed trade, such 
 as mixing old with new, badly home-saved with 
 foreign, and packing inferior samples in Riga bar- 
 rels and wrappers of the best brands, etc., eto. 
 Some samples of flax seed contain seeds of for- 
 eign weeds, these should always be rejected, as 
 some of those weeds are very troublesome. The 
 flax dodder, a parasitic weed with greyish seed, 
 which twists itself around and actually feeds on 
 the sap of the flax, is one of the most pernicious 
 of these, as it is impossible to weed it out without 
 pulling or cutting down all the flax infested with 
 it. The well knoAvn hemp seed, so plentiful in 
 some samples of Riga, is also very injurious, as, 
 from its taller and more robust growth, it over- 
 tops and chokes the flax. 
 
 I procure samples from several merchants, and 
 make a selection of two or three of the best of 
 them, so far as appearances can guide me. I take 
 as many balls of well moistened earth, break each 
 in two, and having counted a certain number of 
 seeds from each sample, say 50 or 100, and spread 
 
 each kind on the broken face of one of the balls, 
 I put them together again, and lay them in a 
 warm place, duly labeled with the merchant's 
 name, and kept moistened with wet moss. In 
 about 48 hours all the good seeds will have vege- 
 tated. I then take them down and count the 
 number of sprouted seeds in each ball, and in- 
 variably give my orders to the merchant whoso 
 sample gave the largest percentage of sprouted 
 seeds. No matter how free of weed-seeds it may 
 appear, I take the further precaution of passing 
 it through a Avire sieve of about 12 holes to the 
 inch. By these means I seldom or never have 
 bad, old or dirty seed. The sample producing 
 the largest proportion of sprouted grains will also 
 be found to have vegetated soonest, shoAving the 
 ncAvness and freshness of the seed. If the seed 
 is old it Avill be slow in shooting ; and if a mix- 
 ture of old and ncAV, A'egetation will make un- 
 equal ad\-ances in a given time, and if badly 
 saved, some seeds will be altogether dead. 
 
 SoAviNG THE Seed. — The proper time for sow- 
 ing sometimes differs considerably in different 
 countries, of the same latitude, and also in differ- 
 ent localities in the same country, according to 
 soil, situation, aspect, and elevation above sea- 
 level, so I shall give one or two general rules that 
 the intelligent farmer can easily apply to his 
 own particular case. SoAving should never take 
 place until there appears good reason to suppose 
 that the pinching frosty nights have ceased ; as, 
 not only would many of the tender plants, as 
 thej'' come up, be killed by such frost, but those 
 that would escape with life would be so retarded 
 in their growth, by its chilling effects, that should 
 the land contain charlock or other weed-seeds, 
 these, being of a hardier nature, would get a start 
 of the flax, causing immense trouble and expense 
 in hand weeding ; Avhereas, if no hard frosts occur, 
 and the weather genial and warm, the flax 
 comes up and groAvs very rapidly and the hardier 
 but slower groAving weeds are not able to make 
 their appearance. I would say then, sow as early 
 as the apparent cessation of frost, the dryness of 
 the land, and a fine settled state of the Aveather 
 will admit. Sowing should never take place dur- 
 ing rain, or Avhen the soil is so wet that it will 
 adhere to any implement. The proper quantity 
 of seed is 2] bushels or 18 imperial gallons to the 
 English statute acre. Some sow more and some 
 less, but this is the quantity which I have found 
 to give the most profitable results on the gener- 
 ality of soils. It is safer, hoAvever, to err on the 
 thick, than on the thin side ; as thick sown flax 
 grows straight and uniform in length, producing 
 only two or three bolls or seed- vessels at the very 
 top, and its fibre is always very much superior in 
 fineness and strength to thin soAvn flax,Avhich al- 
 ways grows coarse and uneven, branching out be- 
 
18 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 fore it attains a sufficient higlit, and seeming to 
 put forth all its energy in the production of an 
 abundant crop of seed, instead of the formation 
 of libre. I would, therefore, sow a little more 
 than I have stated above — say up to 3^ bushels, 
 on light poor soils, while I would in no case sow 
 less than 3 bushels to the English acre on the 
 be^t loams. I may here state that a Riga barrel 
 contains 3 3 bushels, and a Dutch hogshead two 
 Riga barrels, or seven bushels. Having ascer- 
 tained, then, the quantity of seed necessary for 
 the extent of land to be sown, and the land hav- 
 ing been marked out into about 13 feet wide beds, 
 as previously described, the total quantity of 
 seed in quarts, must be divided by the number of 
 beds to be sown, so as to ascertain the number of 
 quarts there are for each bed. The sower, who 
 must be a very careful person, and accustomed to 
 sow grain well, should take the number of quarts 
 thus obtained, into his seed basket or sowing 
 sheet, and proceed to sow, going with a steady 
 measured step, taking small tight handfuls, and 
 throwing pretty high, strong and fearlessly, let- 
 ting each cast slightly overlap the other, and 
 taking great care, as the seed is exceeding slip- 
 pery, and apt to glide from the hand impercepti- 
 bly, that too much does not escape from him in the 
 backward swing of the hand; and so proceed 
 with bed after bed, giving each its proper number 
 of quarts of seed, until all is finished. Should 
 (he furrows formed by the previous plowings, 
 not be sufficiently obliterated, the harrowing by 
 which the seed is covered must take place in the 
 direction of these fuiTOws, lest too much seed be 
 drawn into the hollows indicating the same ; but 
 should no such indications exist, then, go over 
 with the seed-harrows across the direction in 
 which the seed was sown, then cross-harrow, and 
 lastly roll. If the soil is one of those charac- 
 terised as "light," leave it presenting the rolled 
 surface, but if heavy clay, it is better to break 
 this surface again by the harrows. 
 
 Weeding. — If the autumn cleaning of the land 
 lias been properly executed, the weeding of the 
 crop will neither be very tedious nor expensive, 
 and where the land has been undergoing a course 
 -)f deep clean tillage during the previous part of 
 the rotation, it very often happens that the opera- 
 tion can be dispensed with altogether; but should 
 weeds, unfortunately, make their appearance, as 
 is too oflen the case, they must be got rid of be- 
 fore the crop exceeds six inches in hight. This 
 work is best performed by women, girls, or boys, 
 without shoes, as the tender plants bruised be- 
 tween shoes and small stones seldom recov- 
 er, whereas treading with bare feet, or the knees, 
 does not do the crop, at this stage of its growth, 
 (he slightest injury, care being taken to lay it all 
 in the same direction. The weeders should work 
 
 facing yie wind, so that the breezt* may assist the 
 down-trodden crop to regain its upright position ; 
 and be provided with knives, to cut all large 
 weeds, such as thistles, docks, etc., a little under 
 the surface, the pulling of which would be apt to 
 uproot a good many of the adjoining flax 
 plants. Moist weather should be chosen for the 
 operation of weeding, in preference to verj^ dry 
 weather, as it is easier for nature to repair any 
 damage that may be done in the way of bruising 
 of plants, or exposing of roots, when assisted by 
 weather favorable to vegetation. If new dams 
 have to be made, as soon as the weeding is fin- 
 ished is the proper time to make them, so that 
 they may be filled with water, and their banks well 
 saturated, some time before the flax is ready for 
 
 Pulling. — The proper time for pulling is a 
 very nice point to determine, and one upon which 
 even experienced flax growers do not quite agree. 
 Some advocating early pulling, on account of the 
 superior fineness of the quality gained thereby; 
 whilst others say that by letting it become rather on 
 the ripe side, the increased weight of clean fibre far 
 more than compensates for the want of quality. 
 I believe both are correct according to the mar- 
 ket, and perhaps it is necessary for the develop- 
 ment of the various shades and the degrees of 
 fineness in our flaxen textile fobrics, that this dif- 
 ference of opinion should exist. There is no 
 doubt but that the extraordinary fineness of 
 quality of some samples of flax produced in cer- 
 tain parts of France and Belgium, and worth as 
 much as £300 sterling ($1000) per ton, (of 3340 lbs.) 
 is chiefly obtained by pulling the crop in rather a 
 green state ; but it is equally certain that this re- 
 sult is obtained at a great sacrifice in tlie amount 
 of fibre. Experience shows that the medium be- 
 tween the rather green, and the rather ripe state 
 is that which produces the greatest possible 
 amount of fibre, compatible with a marketable 
 Equality; and therefore, the most profitable state 
 to pull in. This medium point is determined, 
 first, by observing that the bolls begin to turn 
 from a green to a light brown color; and, sec- 
 ondly, by examination of the stalk, the leaves on 
 which should have become yellow for two-thirds 
 of its length from the ground, and also the lower 
 half, either divested of its leaves altogether, or 
 have them quite withered and ready to fall. This 
 examination of the stalk is even more to be de- 
 pended on than the coloring of the bolls, which, 
 in very dry weather, sometimes commences be- 
 fore the stalk presents these appearances. The 
 field, moreover, when viewed at a little distance, 
 should have begun to assume'a uniform yellowish 
 tinge. A combination of all tliese a])pcarance9 
 will indicate the proper period. Sometime pre- 
 vious to this, bands should be provided for tying 
 the beets as they are rippled. Rushes dried in the 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 19 
 
 Fiff. 19. 
 
 i?nn make the best bands, the next best are short 
 thumb-ropes of hay, which are, however, much 
 inferior to rushes; but in no case should the flax 
 be tied with itself About eight women or men 
 will pull an acre in a day. They should gather 
 with the right hand, catching it near the middle, 
 and witli a flrm grasp, not gathering too much at 
 each pull, so as to be able to keep it pe''-fe.dly even 
 at tlie mot ends. Great attention should be paid to 
 this keeping of the roots even, in its passage 
 through this, and every subsequent process; as 
 its brush-like evenness in the root end greatly en- 
 hances its value to the spinner. If the weather is 
 wet, the flax should receive a stroke across the left; 
 thigh, to free it from any earth that may adhere to 
 the roots ; dry weather, however, is very much to 
 be preferred, both as aSbrding greater facility in 
 drying the bolls, and less liability to mildew in the 
 heart of the beets before steeping. The pullers, as 
 they proceed, should lay down the handfuls cross- 
 ing each other thus, fig. 19, and in little 
 heaps of eight or ten, or tied in " beets," 
 so that they will lift, for rippling, with- 
 out tangling. Should there be some 
 parts of the crop, short, and some long, 
 either from having been grown after a green ma- 
 nure crop, or on imperfectly drained, or wet land, 
 the different lengths should be pulled and kept 
 separately, through this and every after operation, 
 for reasons before mentioned. 
 
 Rippling. — This operation should take place 
 in the same field, and simultaneously with that of 
 pulling. In many of the best and most success- 
 ful flax growing districts in the north of Ireland, 
 there exists a sort of prejudice against rippling, 
 or any other method of utilizing the seed, and it 
 is therefore almost altogether neglected. This is 
 a great mistake, as it is throwing away a large 
 amount of really valuable feeding stuff. Some 
 insist — judging I suppose from its returning but 
 little to the land — that flax is an exhausting crop ; 
 an opinion which I do not entertain ; but if it is 
 so, we have all the more need to preserve care- 
 fully the only portion of the crop which may be 
 returned to the soil, and the production of which 
 is, at the same time, most exhausting. When 
 growing flax for its fibre, I do not advise the 
 saving the seed for other than feeding purposes, 
 as it is impossible to have both fibre and seed in 
 perfection at the same time ; but half ripe flax- 
 bolls, when properly saved and ground into meal 
 make a most wholesome and nutritious food, 
 when made into mucilage, and either given to 
 calves, or sprinkled over chaffed straw or hay, etc., 
 for older stock. The rippling comb, (fig. 20), a 
 very simple implement, is generally made of half- 
 inch square rods of iron, with the angles towards 
 each other, 3-16 of an inch asunder at bottom, 
 and half an inch at top, fixed in a block of elm. 
 
 Fig. 20.— COMB. 
 
 They should begin to taper 3 inches from the top 
 and be about 18 inches long, so as to spring witli 
 each pull, and thus save much breaking of flax. 
 I prefer round iron as not being so liable to peel 
 or injure the fibre. The comb should be screwed 
 on to the middle of a short 
 plank, fastened across a cart 
 box, with the wheels taken 
 off, a winnowing sheet being 
 spread underneath, to re- 
 ceive whatever bolls may 
 not fall within the cart. Two 
 ripplei's work at each comb, standing at opposit^t; 
 sides of it, fiiciug each other, and, keeping firm hold 
 of the handfuls, strike, or rather draw them through 
 the comb ; letting it take a light hold at first, imfil 
 some of the bolls are off. A handy rippler can 
 finisli a handful at two strokes. Great care should 
 be taken not to draw the handfuls farther through 
 the comb than is necessary for taking ofl" tlie 
 bolls. A boy or girl lays down the beets, untied, 
 at the right hand of the rippler, who lays do'uii 
 the rippled handfuls at his left, crossing them 
 diagonally as in figure 19, (the advantage of 
 which precaution will appear in the operation of 
 spreading), to be tied up and removed by the same 
 attendant. The beets should not exceed G or 7 
 inches in diameter, so as to be easily handled 
 when wet, and tied moderately tight, to prevent 
 dragging of stalks, in the after handling. If the 
 weather permits it, the bolls had much better be 
 dried in the field, spread out on winnowing 
 sheets, and kept constantly turned; in wet 
 weather they must be carted to the farm-yard at 
 once, and spread out in sheds, barn floors, or lofts, 
 all doors and windows being left open to promote 
 a free circulation of air, and prevent heating, 
 which, from their oily nature, thej^ are exceeding- 
 ly apt to do, and which would materially injure 
 their feeding qualities. Their drying is greatly 
 facilitated by passing them through a winnowing 
 machine, with a coarse riddle, thereby removing 
 leaves and straw. When nearly dry, they should 
 be taken to a corn kiln, and their drjing com- 
 pleted, very slowly, and then ground into meal, 
 husks and seed together. If oat tailings or mill 
 seeds be mixed with them, it will counteract the 
 tendency of the oil to clog the millstones. The 
 rippled flax should be put up into long, two-row 
 stooks of 12 beets each, where it may remain for 
 2 or 3 days, if the rippling cannot be finished 
 sooner. Some recommend great haste in com- 
 mitting it to the water, if not the same day it ia 
 pulled, at farthest the day after ; but in my prac- 
 tice I have never been able to find out the great 
 virtue in this precipitation. It is alwaj^s attended 
 with great inconvenience, especially if the quan- 
 tity is large, without compensating advantages. If 
 the proper time for pull"r?^ has been nicely hit, 
 
20 
 
 FLAX CTTLTURE, ETC. 
 
 the flax will receive no injury by remaining out 
 of the water until the third day, which will afford 
 lime for the rippling to have been completed, and 
 for the sap to become uniformly disseminated be- 
 fore steeping. It is of great importance that all 
 the lot should be ready to go into the water at 
 the same time, so that it all will be fit to take out 
 together, and that the taking out of one part of it 
 may not disturb the fermentation in the other. 
 
 Watering or Retting. — This has very justly 
 been termed the most important process the flax, 
 while in the hands of the grower, has to pass 
 through; for, no matter how suitable the soil, 
 liow well it has been prepared, or what amount 
 of care and skill may have been brought to bear 
 on the operations of sowing, pulling, etc. No 
 matter, in fact, what train of fortuitous circum- 
 stances may have conspired to render the crop 
 one of the best that possibly could be grown ; a 
 single day, nay a few hours, under or over water- 
 ing, may reduce it 30, 40 or 50 per cent in value. 
 More than this it is unnecessary to say, in order 
 to bespeak the entire attention of the new and 
 inexperienced flax grower to a description of the 
 method, rules, and indications which practice and 
 experience have proved necessary to the bringing 
 of the crop safely, and in the most profitable 
 st:ite, through this critical process. 
 
 Tiie "dams," as I have remarked elsewhere, 
 should be made some weeks or months previous 
 to the pulling of the crop, and where an unfail- 
 ing supply of water can be depended on in the 
 driest season. They are generally made oj to 4 
 feet deep; and single dams, or those accessible 
 only on one side, 8 to 10 feet wide, whilst a width 
 of 16 or 18 feet is found convenient for double 
 dams, or those accessible on both sides. The sides 
 should be cut with a definite slope, as in fig. 21, to 
 guard against the falling in of banks, when sa- 
 turated by the water. 
 
 The choice of position of the dam is, of course, 
 limited to a great extent by the water supply; 
 
 Fi'j;. 21. — DOUBLE DAM — CROSS SECTION 
 
 hut as for as this limitation will admit, a warm 
 situation, as the south side of a fence, should be 
 c'losen in preference to the north side; and the 
 soil should be sufficiently retentive to prevent 
 much loss of water by leakage, and the conse- 
 quent cooling of the dam, by the necessity of 
 keeping up too great a feed stream, to supply this 
 loss; water must stand at an equal depth all over 
 the dam. If circumstances admit of it, it is also 
 very desirable that the position of the dam should 
 be such as to command some gently sloping 
 ground on a lower level, with a view to running 
 
 oft', and utilizing the flax water, as a top-dressing 
 or irrigation for grass land. This water contains 
 very considerable manurial qualities, and should 
 always be made use of when practicable ; and it 
 is desirable that gravitation should be jircssed 
 into our service, for the purpose of distributing it 
 over the land. Soft water is the best for retting flax. 
 River water, or that which has ran a considera- 
 ble distance, exposed to the sun and air, should 
 always be preferred ; while spring-water, and 
 that impregnated with lime, iron, or other min- 
 eral substances should be avoided as much as 
 possible, as the former is always quicker and 
 more certain in its action, and mineral waters are 
 apt to discolor the flax more or less permanently. 
 Beginners are generally apt to think that, to be 
 successful, thej' must produce flax of a very white 
 color. This is quite a mistake, as flax of a nice 
 silvery blay is quite as marketable, if not more 
 so, than the very white. Any discoloration, of 
 vegetable origin, such as that caused by weeds in 
 the flax, or from the banks and bottoms of old 
 dams being covered with vegetation, or any which 
 takes place in soft water, is no blemish whatever, 
 as it is easily got rid of in the bleaching process 
 which the fabrics made of it must all undergo ; 
 and it often occurs that blay flax is found to pos- 
 sess the fine, soft, silky quality, to a larger extent 
 than the purely white. There are certain miner- 
 als, however, which, if they exist largely in solu- 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 tion in the water in which flax is steeped, im- 
 part to it a dull leaden color more difficult to get 
 rid of in the bleach — it is only this latter case, 
 then, that is to be guarded against. In the case 
 of river water it need not be let into the dam (un- 
 less for the purpose of proving the latter) until 
 after the flax is placed in ; but when spring water 
 has to be used, the dams should be filled with 
 it some weeks before the flax is ready for pulling, 
 so that it may have time to become somewhat 
 softened, and warmed by exposure to the air and 
 sun. Having got all ready ; and the flax alongside, 
 it must be placed in very carefully — in case of a 
 dry dam, by a man standing in the bottom, and in 
 case of a dam previousl}^ filled with water, by a 
 man standing first at the end, and then a short 
 plank or board placed on top of the flax. A per- 
 son on the bank hands the beets to the man in the 
 dam, who, commencing at one end, places them 
 in regular rows across it, root end down, and 
 standing at an angle of about 75 degrees, (fig. 22.) 
 and so proceed till all is in. By observing this 
 angle and posil on, the dam will be full enough 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 21 
 
 witliout a second row, which somt put in, but 
 which is objectionable; another advantai^e that 
 tliis position of the beets has over the tlat position 
 adopted by some, is, that the coarser and more 
 easily " watered" root ends occnpy the cooler and 
 more slowly retting part of the dam, while the 
 finer, and more slowly affected top ends occupy 
 the warmest part of the dam ; and thus the ret- 
 ting iirocess is kept up equally along the wdiole 
 length of the flax. When the flax is in, it sliould 
 Ije all covered over, to the depth of about an inch, 
 with rag-weeds, or, in case they cannot be got, 
 then, with other weeds, grass, ferns, or vegetable 
 subtance of some sort; and in case of new dams, 
 the bottoms and sides should be lined with some- 
 thing of the kind. Rag-weed, Ambronia artemis- 
 iafolia, is preferable, on account of the quan- 
 tity of potash it contains. Some keep down 
 tlie flax by covering it all over with sods, but 
 although fermentation goes on wa-11 under them, 
 they are, nevertheless, objectionable, on account 
 of their dirtying the flax, and the trouble and ex- 
 pense of replacing them every year, by fresh 
 ones; flat stones are, therefore, to be preferred, 
 as being cleanlier, more convenient, and inex- 
 pensive, for, wdien once collected they can be 
 piled up beside the dam and used year after year 
 for any length of time. The weight of stones 
 put on should be such as to keep the flax barely 
 resting on the bottom, half suspended in mid- 
 water, but sufficient to keep it from rising higher 
 than within six inches of the surface. 
 
 In about three days it will rise a little, show- 
 ing that fermentation has commenced; a few 
 stones should now he put on, here and there, to 
 counteract this bouyant tendency. In about four 
 days more it will begin to sink again, when the 
 extra stones must be removed to enable it to re- 
 gain its former position. From this time constant 
 attention, and frequent examinations are necessa- 
 ry, as, if all is going on right, it may be expect- 
 3d to be sufiiciently watered any time from the 
 Sth to the 14tli day. In the case of spring water, 
 iiowever, it sometimes takes three weeks, and if 
 later in the season, even longer, it is always safest, 
 however, to examine it afler the 7th day, by get- 
 ting into the centre of the dam, taking up a stone, 
 and thrusting down the hand into the heart of 
 a beet, if it feels hard and wiry to tlie grip, the ex- 
 amination may terminate here for the present, 
 to be repeated the next day, and from day to 
 day, until it is found, when pressing it in the 
 hand, to be a shade softer; then the examinations 
 should take place every 13 hours, and when de- 
 tidedly softer to the grip, a beet should be taken 
 on top the centre of the dam., opened, and a little 
 lock, of about twenty stalks, from the heart of the 
 beet, bent across the fore finger in several places, 
 if the shove or woody part of the stem only 
 
 bends, and docs not break, or if only few of them 
 break, and there is no appearance of loose fibre 
 becoming detached from the stem, then it must 
 be replace^l, and examined in the same way, and 
 in several parts of the dam, every six hours, until 
 most of the stalks break freely when bent across 
 the finger, and start out, clean from the fibre. 
 When this is found to be the case it is either 
 ready or on the point of being so ; but a further 
 and last test has to be applied. Having opened a 
 beet take from the centre of it a medium sized 
 stalk, not the finest nor the coarsest; break the 
 shove quite through, in two places near the mid- 
 dle, about six inches apart, and having freed the 
 lower end of this broken bit of wood, carefully 
 fi'om the fibre, catch it with the finger and thumb 
 and pull it out doicmcards ; repeat this on several 
 stalks, and if all or most of them pull out freely, 
 without breaking, tearing the fibre, or having any 
 of it adhering to them ; then the proper time has 
 arrived for taking it out. At the same time that 
 this latter test applies ; on looking over the open 
 beet, it will be observed that in a great many 
 stalks, the fibre shows a tendency to loosen, and 
 detach itself from the w^oody part, of its own ac- 
 cord ; no time should now be lost in taking it out, 
 which should be done carefully, at i by the hands, 
 instead of forks, taking care not to break or dou- 
 ble the flax. If taken out at the time indicated 
 by the above tests and appearances, after drain- 
 ing for an hour or two on the bank, it may be 
 drawm to the spread-field, and dropped in separate 
 beets as the carts pass along, so that the spread- 
 ers may find them as required. Although this 
 process of retting, is, from the quickness of its 
 action, in some cases, the most critical that tlie 
 flax has to pass through, yet, with a little experi- 
 ence, it becomes a very easy matter to conduct it 
 safely throiigli, and indeed, the tests are so sim- 
 ple, practical, and easy of application ; and the 
 appearances which indicate the pi-oper state, so 
 easily determined, that even the beginner need 
 have no fear or hesitation, in undertaking it. 
 
 In every new flax district, we generally find 
 ten times more flax spoil tlirough under, than 
 over watering. Tiie inexperienced farmer, in his 
 first or second attempt at flax growing; knowing 
 that it is so easily injured in the water, becomes 
 oppressed with an overload of fear, and intend- 
 ing to be very cautious, says to himself. "I have 
 a fine crop so far, if any misfortune should hap- 
 pen to it now, I will be broke. I will therefore, 
 take care, and not give it too much of the water, 
 and whatever it wants of being well enough wa- 
 tered, I can make up for it on the grass," and 
 thus gets involved in the very evil he was so much 
 on his guard to avert. No exposure on the 
 grass can ever wholly make up for defective wa- 
 tering. The action of alternate dews, or showers 
 
23 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 and sunshine will bleach and soften it. no doubt; 
 but, unlike that of fermentation, it will weaken 
 and make towy tiie fibre before dissolving the 
 gum wliich binds it to the woody stem. Far bet- 
 ter is it, should an inordinate fear of over-water- 
 ing have caused one to take out flax a day, or a 
 few hours, to soon, to let it remain in rotlieap on 
 the bank for a night, or a few hours longer. When 
 flax is over watered tliere will be a great waste 
 in scutching, a great deal of the fibre breaking and 
 forming tow, but what will remain, will be of a 
 very fine silky quality. When under watered, tlie 
 same waste takes place in the mill, the increased 
 amount of power which must necessarily be em- 
 ployed to free it from the shove, breaking a great 
 deal of the fibre and dragging it among the tow, 
 with this additional evil, that what remains is 
 liarsh and coarse in quality. Care should be 
 taken that a slender stream be admitted to the 
 flax dam, during the process of retting; just suf- 
 ficient to supply any loss that may take place 
 from eyaporation and unavoidable leakage. Pro- 
 vision should also be made against the possibility 
 of flood-water breaking into the dam, as the pro- 
 cess of retting never goes on so satisfactorily 
 again, after having been interrupted by any 
 means; and lastly, a second batch of flax should 
 never be steeped in the same water. This is a 
 point almost universally overlooked by theoreti- 
 cal flax instructors, and one on which the inex- 
 perienced are very often led to commit very seri- 
 ous mistakes. Such persons are apt to arrive, too 
 hastily, and without due consideration, at the 
 conclusion, that, as a matter of course, fermenta- 
 tion av ill take pi ice more quickly in sour water 
 than in fresh ; but practice shows that the reverse 
 is the fact with respect to flax and old flax-water, 
 as the former is always sure to "sit" in the dam. 
 Spreading.— Clean thick open pasture ground, 
 free from the shade of trees, should be selected 
 as a spread-field, should there be any weeds on 
 it, they should be mown even with the sward, 
 and removed as soon as the flax has been put in 
 the dam. The spreading, which is performed 
 chiefly by women and girls, but sometimes also 
 by men, should commence at the same time that 
 the carts commence tc drop the beets all over the 
 field, as, if allowed to dry in the beet, the flax does 
 not separate freely. Each spreader— standing 
 with her back to the wind, if there is any ; but if 
 calm, towards that point whence the prevailing 
 winds come— takes an open beet on her left arm, 
 from which she takes a handful, lays it down on 
 the grass, root end next herself, and spreads it 
 with the right hand, very evenly, and so thin that 
 the grass can be seen all through it, and in a per- 
 fectly straight row, running from right to left of 
 the field, keeping each row a few paces in ad- 
 vance of the other as in fig. 23, and the tops of 
 
 each row overlapping the roots of the preceeding 
 one atjout two inches; this slight overlap is a 
 great protection against wind, and as there is no 
 fibre on the roots it is of no injury to the flax. 
 Should any little locks be left unseparated, they 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 may not dry evenly, or if they do, the flax, when 
 dressed, will present a streaky unevenness in 
 color, from unequal bleaching, hence the necessi- 
 ty of even spreading. If the directions under the 
 head of Rippling have been attended to, the 
 spreaders will find no diflSculty in separating the 
 handfuls, without any tangling or dragging of 
 stalks. Some recommend turning the flax after 
 lying a few days on the grass, which is done by 
 running ash wands under it, and turning it right 
 over its root end, but if spread sufficiently thin 
 and evenly, this operation may be dispensed with 
 altogether, and indeed with advantage sometimes, 
 in case of wind, for if once moved on the grass, 
 the flax never lies so close again and is very apt 
 to catch the wind and be blown about. Turning is 
 never practiced in the best flax districts in Ireland. 
 The bands, as they are taken off the beets, are 
 thrown on the grass, under the flax, so that they 
 may be found where they are wanted when 
 
 Lifting. — If flax has been properly hit in the 
 watering, it should be fit to lift, at whatever time it 
 is found perfectly dry, between the fourth and 
 the eighth day, and these are the appearances it 
 should then present: The "shoves" should clean 
 out very freely, when a little lock is rubbed be- 
 tween the hands; and upon looking over it, as it 
 lies on the grass, a great many stalks will be 
 found to liave formed bows and strings, by the 
 contracting of the fibre, and consequent bending 
 of the stalk. When these appearances take place 
 within the above time, it is a pretty sure sign 
 that the watering has been rightly managed. It 
 should never be necessary to leave it on the 
 grass longer than the eighth day, but in no case 
 should it be allowed to lie until the grass begins 
 to appear through it, for then it is diflScult to get 
 It perfectly dry, and besides, it is almost cer- 
 tain to mildew, which weakens the fibre very 
 rapidly, and spots it all over. Lifting should not 
 commence until the dew is quite gone. The 
 lifters commence at the side of the field whe-e 
 the spreaders left off"; each one standing at the root 
 end of the flax she is lifting, takes a row from 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 23 
 
 right to left of the fiekl, lifting or gathering the 
 flax witli tlie right liand, and letting the left lie 
 on the bundle as it is gatliered. Those accus- 
 tomed to the work can canter along, and get 
 through it ver_y quickly, but great care must be 
 taken to keep the flax perfectly even at the root 
 ends. The flax is bound into beets of about 
 eight inches in diameter, with the bands that are 
 uncovered as the lifting proceeds, and should be 
 carted under cover of barns or sheds, or built 
 into stacks, before the dew falls in the evening. 
 If wet weather prevent the lifting taking place at 
 the proper time, and there is danger of the flax 
 becoming too soft, it should be taken 
 up, even wet as it is, and set up in 
 conical heaps, like an extinguisher, or 
 the thatch of a beehive, (fig. 24) with a 
 band loosely tied around the top: in 
 this way it receives very little injury from the wet, 
 as the air, passing freely through it dries it very 
 quickly, even in showery weather ; it should be 
 attended to between showers, and bound up and 
 secured as soon as it is found dr}'. 
 
 Breaking. — The operations of bi-eaking and 
 scutching are best performed by mills fitted with 
 the proper machinery for the purpose, and where 
 they exist, of course, farmers will avail them- 
 selves of them to a great extent; but as the culti- 
 vation of the crop generally preceeds such ma- 
 chinery in districts where it has not been pre- 
 viously grown, and then manual labor has to be 
 resorted to, for the puipose of cleaning it, be- 
 fore the introduction of machinery. Moreover, 
 as breaking and scutching are vevy extensively 
 performed by hand, in districts supplied witli the 
 best mills, through economic motives, where the 
 farmer may have plenty of help, and little to do 
 in the winter, I describe, briefly, a few of the 
 methods usually resorted to in such cases. The 
 most primitive of these is simply pounding the 
 flax straw with the common beetle on any hard 
 smooth surface, such as a stone, or block of 
 wood, preparatory to scutching. A speedier and 
 less laborious method of 
 breaking, is by a lever 
 flax brake, constructed 
 precisely the same as the 
 lever turnip cutter, on- 
 ly with blunt knives. 
 Another flax brake of 
 about equal merit is the 
 "crig," (fig. 25), a block of beech or sycamore, 
 about the size and form of a plane stock, with a 
 beat handle mortised into it. The flax is spread 
 out about 6 inches deep, on a hard flat surface, 
 sometimes a barn floor, sometimes the public 
 road : two men facing each other, and moving 
 backward and forward over the flax, beat it al- 
 ternately, with these crigs, swinging them round 
 
 their heads, and changii g them from right to left, 
 each alternate blow, until it is quite crushed and 
 soft. There is a plan of flax breaking much su- 
 perior to any of these, which is used extensively 
 in the north of Ireland. The following is from a 
 letter of my own, desci-iptive of it, in the Irish 
 Farmers Oazette. "I think it is better adapted 
 to new flax districts than any of those you de- 
 scribed — first, because there is no skill required in 
 the operators beyond ordinary intelligence; and 
 secondl}', because there is no machinery, what- 
 ever, needed, except what we must presume is 
 already in the possession of every flax grower — 
 namely, horses and carts. I believe there is more 
 flax broken in the North by Jiorses and carls, on 
 the public roads, than by the millstone. It is a 
 very speedy and effectual plan of breaking and 
 does not tangle or toss the flax. A hard, level 
 road is selected ; the beets of flax opened and 
 spread out in rows, about 6 inches deep ; the 
 carts are loaded with stones, and drawn along the 
 rows, a wheel on each row, the horses walking 
 between, and the drivers sitting on the carts. As 
 the work proceeds, the rows of flax are shifted 
 out and in under the wheels, by little boys and 
 girls, with rakes, and turned once or twice. The 
 quantity laid down at a time may only be limited 
 by the help at command, as it is desirable to fin- 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 ish off" each day's work in itself; but the largest 
 farmer generally has as much help gathered as 
 finishes off" all his flax in one day. The farmers 
 of a townland or district very often join, and 
 spread down their flax in a line, one after the 
 other, leaving two or three yards between each 
 lot, all the carts going from one end of the line to 
 the other before turning. There is considerable 
 economy in this, as there is much less time lost in 
 turning, it can only be attempted, however, in 
 fine weather. This plan is adopted not only when 
 hand-scutching is resorted to, or in preparation 
 for mills having no breaking machinery, but very 
 frequently also in preparation for mills supi lied 
 with the best fluted rollers, as the farmer thereby 
 effects a considerable saving, flax millers charginc 
 half-a-crowu less per cwt. for scutching flax tha' 
 has been broken previous to coming to the mill." 
 
24 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 But tlie best of all the home methods of break- 
 ing, is by the millstone, (fig. 26) ; this machine is 
 simply a millstone (M), supported vertical by a hori- 
 zontal pole (P) about 30 feet long, attached to and 
 movable on, an upright post (O), occupying the 
 centre of a well hardened ring (R), round which 
 the stone travels on edge, drawn by a horse, over 
 he flax, which is spread out six or eight inches 
 deep, and turned occasionally; the pole can be 
 moved out and in on the centre pivot, to cause 
 the stone to traverse all parts of the ring of flax. 
 Scutching. — Flax broken by any of the above 
 methods is fit for scutching either by hand or 
 mill; but first of all, it mu.st be 
 streeked; that is made into hand- 
 fuls, each handful or " streek" crush- 
 Fig. a7. (,([ i^ t;iie middle, between the hands ; 
 so as to bend over the scutching stock, twisted a 
 little so that they will separate freely again, and 
 tied into beets with two bauds (fig. 27) ready for 
 the scutcher. The implements generally used in 
 scutching are very simple, consisting merely 
 of a scutching stock (fig. 28), which is 
 board about 5 feet long, with a 
 notch in it to admit the streek, 
 and fastened to a square block 
 of wood, to keep it upright ; and 
 the scutching handle (shown 
 leaning against the stock) which 
 is a very thin board of sycamore, 
 about 2 feet long, with a handle 
 at one end to hold it by. The 
 streek of flax is placed and 
 held firmly by the left hand, 
 in the notch on the stock, while it is beat with 
 the sharp edge of the scutching handle, held 
 in the right hand, by a succession of blows, 
 slightly curved, tangent to the face of the stock. 
 The streek is turned and opened out occasionally, 
 and the scutching repeated until the shoves are 
 all cleaned out. Where the quantity is not very 
 large, and where there is plenty of help that must 
 be maintained on the farm in the winter, this is a 
 very economical way of preparing flax, as it gen- 
 erally yields one eighth more than the mill ; it is, 
 
 deal 
 
 howevep^a tedious metL jd, and, tlierefore, where 
 large quantities of flax have to be got through, 
 machinery must be employed if within reach. 
 Various scutching machines, more or less porta- 
 ble, each claiming some superiority over the 
 other, and all doing their work well, have been 
 invented of late j'ears. I have seen most of these 
 machines at work, and admire the ingenuity dis- 
 played in some of tlicm, but I have not yet seen 
 the machine I would prefer to the old stationary 
 mill, with the "handles" or "wipers." The 
 mills are nearly all now supplied with the patent 
 fluted American Rollers, for breaking, which per- 
 form their work in a most efficient manner. 
 Where a choice of mills can be made, that one 
 should be patronised which is fitted with the best 
 machinery, and which has the most careful 
 scutchers, and where these are paid by the day 
 and not by the cwt. When scutched, and made 
 up into full length beets and tied with three 
 bands, the flax is ready for market ; but if kept 
 under a heavy weight, in some cool dry place, for 
 about two months, it will sell to much greater ad- 
 vantage, as it acquires a soft silky appearance, 
 and also increases in weight. 
 
 Hitherto, I have considered flax as grown for 
 its fibre; the appropriation of the half ripe bolls, 
 to feeding purposes, being a subsidiary use; but 
 as some flax must always be grown for its seed, 
 as a primary object, the fibre of which though use- 
 less in the finer branches of the trade, is still of 
 considerable value in the manufocture of canvass, 
 sacking, and other coarser materials, it may be as 
 \ye\\ to state that the proper way to treat the 
 flax straw, when the seed is taken off', is to stack 
 it up and keep it dry till the warmest time in the 
 following summer, then steep it and treat it as 
 if had been grown for the fibre alone. 
 
 Although undoubtedly a critical crop to man- 
 age, requiring the greatest carefulness of mani- 
 pulation, in all its many stages, j^et it is to lie 
 hoped that by strict attention to the foregoing 
 plain instructions — whicli may be rehed on as the 
 result of long and extensive practical experience — 
 few can fail of success in, and none need fear to 
 undertake, the cultivation of flax. 
 
I'KIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 THIRD-PRIZE ESSAYS- No. 5. -BY WM. H. WHITE, 
 
 SOUTH WINDSOR, HARTFOlft) CO., CO.N.\. 
 
 Flax is partial to no particular climate or coun- 
 try: having been grown in the Northern part of 
 Russia and in the countries of the Torrid zone, 
 from the remotest ages of which we have any 
 liistory. "We read of it in the Sacred Volume, as 
 raised in connection with barley in the days of 
 the Israelites in the land of Egypt, and by them 
 made into fine linen fabrics. 
 
 Soils. — Flax will grow on nearly every kind of 
 soil by attention and good culture; but some soils 
 are better adapted to it than others. A rich mellow 
 deep loam free from wet is the best. If the soil 
 or subsoil be retentive of water, it should be well 
 drained. Dry, sandy soils as well as wet bottom 
 lands are unsuitable, and will cause failure, from 
 mildew. To produce the best returns a thorough 
 system of rotation should be followed. The soil 
 should be in good heart and freed from weeds, by 
 previous clean culture, as they are the bane of 
 the crop. A clover sod, an old rich pasture, or 
 land under a hoed crop the previous year, is 
 usually the best for a good crop of flax. Such 
 lands should be thoroughly plowed in the f;ill, 
 not less than eight inches deep ; (better subsoiled,) 
 that it may be ameliorated by the frosts during 
 winter. Deep mellow soil gives the roots a 
 chance to penetrate to a good depth. In the 
 Spring, as soon as the ground is dry, it should be 
 plowed again three or four inches deep, and if in 
 good heart from previousmanuring, no additional 
 fertilizers will be necessary. Should it be neces- 
 sary to apply manure, a mixture of equal parts 
 of plaster, salt, and ashes, form an excellent fer- 
 tilizer, applied at the rate of four to six bushels 
 per acre, after the land is plowed and harrowed 
 in the Spring. Fresh manures, or those contain- 
 ing much nitrogenous matter, or any containing 
 weed-seeds, are utterably unsuitable to apply for 
 this crop. The finer the soil is made, the better 
 the crop, the more even the growth, and the finer 
 the fibre produced. 
 
 Seed. — Flax having been raised more for the 
 seed than for fibre in general in this country for 
 years past, and as such seed produces a poorer 
 quality of fibre and more branchy short straw, it 
 is unsuitable for i^roducing good flax, where fibre 
 is the objed. Where seed only is the object, it is 
 sown thin, and l)ranches low, produces several 
 heads ; and the fibre is short and knotty, as well 
 as coarse. Riga seed, which may be procured of 
 reliable seedmen, is the best for fibre ; yet this 
 often contains weed-seeds and should be screened 
 
 through a wire sieve, of 12 holes to the inch, and 
 winnowed. Where Riga or Dutch cannot be ob- 
 tained, select from the best in a place where flax 
 has been raised for fibre in our own countrj-. 
 Select none but clean, bright, shiney, heavy seed. 
 It is best changed from a distance occasionally, 
 as if grown in one soil continually it degenei'- 
 ates; this is seen in branching low, and produc- 
 ing several heads, and when this occurs it is time 
 the seed was changed. 
 
 Sowing. — The land having been prepared by 
 plowing, harrowing, fertilizing, roll to complete 
 the pulverizing, and sow the seed broadcast, at 
 the rate of two bushels per acre. Too little seed 
 is used generally here to produce good filire, and 
 still more seed will produce a better article. Di- 
 vide the land into beds of about ten feet each 
 way, to facilitate the sowing, and evenning of the 
 seed. Sow one half of the seed lengthwise of 
 the field, and the balance across. Great care 
 should be used in sowing, as the seed is slippery, 
 and is liable to fall unevenly. The seed having 
 been spread as evenly as possible, take a light 
 seed harrow and go both up and down, and cross- 
 ways of the field to spread the seed even, and 
 prevent it falling into rows made by the harrow 
 teeth as lialjle wdien harrowed but one way. A 
 very light harrow should be used to prevent cov- 
 ering the seed to a greater depth than one inch. 
 After the harrowing, to leave the surface in the 
 best possible condition, to prevent weeds from 
 growing, and facilitate harvesting by pulling or 
 otherwise, it should be again gone over witli 
 the roller, if the soil will not adhere to the 
 roller. Remember, the object is to obtain the 
 best, and most even fibre, and the greatest amount 
 from a given area ; and to do this the land need 
 be in the best heart, and the soil evenly commi- 
 nuted, as near to good garden mould as possible. 
 If none but clean seed is used, and the foregoing 
 directions strictly followed, very little fear need 
 be felt of weeds injuring the crop. The sowing 
 should be done as early in the spring as the 
 ground is sufficiently dry to be properly worked, 
 and fears of hard frosts are past. Labor being so 
 high, and laborers scarce, it is out of the question 
 to thinking of weeding the crop as is done in 
 foreign countries ; and indeed little is gained if 
 the requirements heretofore mentioned are car- 
 ried out. The crop is either pulled or cut. 
 
 Pulling, for the small grower, is the best 
 and most economical, as it gives a greater qudnti 
 
26 
 
 F1.AX CULTURE. ETC. 
 
 ly of better fibre. To determine the time when 
 to pull, calls into exercise the best judgement 
 of the cultivator ; if pulled a little too soon, or a 
 little too late, a waste in tow, or loss in quality of 
 fibre, causes a depreciation in the product. When 
 the seed bolls are about half turned brown, or 
 upon opening the bolls, the seed is beginning to 
 turn from a green to a light brown, the leaves 
 fall, and the stalk turns yellow two-thirds of its 
 length or rather more, is the proper time to pull 
 to produce the best fibre. Should any of the 
 crop have fallen down and be suffering from wet, 
 it should be pulled, if not ripe, and kept by itself, 
 as it will rot and become a total loss if left. 
 Should the crop from any cause grow uneven 
 either in length or coarseness of stalk, such 
 as is alike, should be kept assorted and by itself, 
 not only in pulling, but in the rotting process. It 
 is easier assorted in pulling than afterwards. 
 The puller should clasp the flax just underneath 
 the bolls, which will leave the undergrowth, and 
 weeds standing ; no more stalks should be grasped 
 than will come up without breaking or otherwise 
 iuj uring the flax ; as soon as a good handful is 
 pulled, it should be laid with the roots all in one 
 direction, and even as a brush. It is best kept 
 even by taking time and eveuning each handful 
 before spreading. It is spread thinly and evenly 
 in swarths similar to grain as left from the cra- 
 dle. When dry, it is gathered into bundles about 
 the size of a man's thigh by a hand rake, great 
 care being used to keep the root ends even and 
 the straw straight. After lying an hour or two in 
 mid-day to dry, it is bound, by taking a few straws 
 of flax in the right hand, near the roots, then reach- 
 ing over the gavel, run the left hand under, raising 
 the gavel a few inches, grasp the root end held 
 by the right hand, and draw the band around, let- 
 ting it slip through the right till about in the cen- 
 tre on top, draw tight, then give one and a half 
 turns with the top end of the straw with the 
 right hand around the root end held by the left, 
 tuck the top end under, and between the band 
 and bundle, and it is bound. Set the bundle 
 up firmly on the roots and pass to the next, and 
 proceed in like manner till the whole is bound. 
 The foregoing presupposes that you will have 
 fiiir, pleasant weather in pulling and taking up 
 the flax ; wet or foul weather will cause more or 
 less damage to the crop. In good weather the 
 bundles can stand in the field one or two days, 
 and dry sufficiently to be carried to the barn or 
 to the stack ; the former is preferable when con- 
 venient. Where a large quantity is raised and 
 help is deficient, resort in gathering must be had 
 to the cradle or machine reaper, but it is a waste- 
 ful way, giving stumpy ends to the fibre as well as 
 a loss in the quantity, I do not recommend this 
 mode. Far better raise a less area, only what 
 
 fan be puHcd with the help at command. Pulling 
 Has been, and now is, the custom among all ua 
 lions, and practised by all successful producers. 
 
 Hot SING. — It can be carried on a common hay 
 wagon, care being used in loading, and handling, 
 not to break the straw, which is apt to waste 
 fibre. If laid up in the barn, it should be on 'fen 
 scafl"olds, where the air may circulate around it 
 The floor of the scaff'old may be rails, or poles 
 laid a little open to admit of a better circu'-ition; 
 the looser the bundles are packed the better. If 
 the flax has been well dried previous to being 
 taken from the field, there is no danger of its 
 getting harm in the barn. Should you have room 
 in stables or sheds where there is free circulation 
 of air, the flax can be got in before drying thor- 
 oughly, and the danger from rain thus lessened. 
 Should it be necessary to stack it out, a founda- 
 tion of poles should be laid a foot or more from 
 the ground ; a " stack-pole" consisting of three 
 poles set a little apart at the bottom and fastened 
 together at the top, is placed in the centre about 
 which the stack is built. These poles may be a 
 httle shorter than youi' stack to admit of a thatch 
 covering. Commence at the bottom, and set the 
 bundles slanting at an angle of about thirty de- 
 grees, around the stack pole ; outside of this place 
 another layer, letting the roots rest on the founda- 
 tion, enlarge in like manner to the size you wish 
 your stack. On to this build the next laytr or 
 course, observing to keep the stack true and even, 
 build the sides perpendicular, or swell a little in 
 the centre, drawing in at the top to fin sh off, 
 similar to a stack of wheat. Give a good thatch 
 covering, and festen on by straw ropes passing 
 over it, and tucking the ends into the stack to se- 
 cure them. 
 
 THREsniNG. — In the month of September is a 
 good time usually, the weather being dry, the 
 seed may be removed in a variety of ways, two 
 only of which I shall describe. First, by the 
 threshing machine. Open the concave so that 
 the teeth will just come together; then with one 
 to open and pass the bundles, another takes them 
 by the root end, spread in fan shape, and applies 
 the seed end to the machine, holding the straw 
 firmly in the hands, and withdrawing it as soon 
 as the seed is torn oft", he passes it to the third 
 who gives it a whip to shake out loose seed, bindfi 
 it again and lays it aside. Other ways are to 
 pass the seed bolls between rolls and cr ish them ; 
 and to whip the seed out over a stone block, or 
 head of a barrel. Take a stout barrel with long 
 chines; set it on one end on a tight floor and take 
 a bundle of flax and whip the heads over the 
 chines and head of the barrel, and the seed is soon 
 shelled out if the flax and weather be dry. The 
 flax should be laid convenient for handling before 
 commencing. The seed may be whipped out in 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 27 
 
 this -way from the product of an acre by one hand 
 in two days, or less if he be expert. The seed is 
 cleaned by the fanning mill, or may be run 
 through a sieve in a draft of wind. Seed needed 
 for future use is better loft in the straw till want- 
 ed for sowing ; it perfects itself and keeps better. 
 Rotting. — The next step after clearing of the 
 seed is rotting. Two ways are practised in rot- 
 ting; by steeping in water, called " water rotting," 
 and what is termed " dew rotting." The former 
 is the more expeditious and by some thought the 
 best; the latter the way most practised in this 
 country, it being the less inconvenient and least 
 offensive in handling, etc., during the rotting pro- 
 cess. Water containing iron or other mineral 
 substance, or hard water, that will not bear soap, 
 are unsuitable, and should never be used. A 
 sluggish stream, where there is a constant change 
 of water may be employed ; but it is safer to dig 
 a pit near the bank of some stream, or where the 
 water of a spring may be conveyed into it ; it 
 sliould have also an outlet where the water may 
 run off as fast as it is supplied ; such pit should 
 be of a size proportioned to the quantity of flax 
 to be rotted, and from 31 to 4 feet deep. This 
 pool should be in a position to receive the full 
 heat of the sun ; and if to be filled from a spring, 
 it should b:.' let in several days before putting in 
 tiie flax, to give the water time to soften a little; 
 river water may be let on the same day, or the 
 day before. Place the bundles of flax in the pool 
 m an inclined position, loosely, with the roots 
 down, in regular rows, the roots underneath the 
 tic of each row of sheaves to reach the roots of 
 the previous one; fill the pool, or put in what 
 you may wish. Cover the flax with some straw, 
 weeds, or boughs of trees, and place weights on 
 top to keep the bundles of flax just underneath 
 water; it should not be sunk on the bottom, or al- 
 lowed to rise out of water ; consequently the 
 weights may need to be varied in the difterent 
 stagts of watering and ferhientation. No exact 
 time for the flax to remain in the water can be 
 given as an infallible guide. The time varies from 
 six to fifteen days, depending upon the weather and 
 water; the warmer the weather and water the 
 sooner the process is completed, and vice-versa. 
 The only infallible guide is to test the flax by 
 taking from the centre of a bundle an average 
 sized straw, and break from near the centre a 
 piece of the woody part, about six or eight inches, 
 and draw it out downwards ; if sufficiently water- 
 ed the fibre will slip out without breaking, and 
 it is immediately removed to the grassing ground. 
 It is better a little imder than over rotted, as it 
 can be remedied in the grassing. Over rotting 
 weakens tke fibre and makes it worthless, or 
 nearh^ so. It should be taken from the water 
 carefully, so as to avoid breaking or otherwise in- 
 
 juring it. The best way is, for one to stand in 
 the water and carefully lift the bundles out to an 
 attendant, who receives them and places them od 
 the root ends, where they may remain to drair- 
 a day, or perhaps a little more. They should not 
 be placed too compactly, or too many together, 
 without some intervening space to give air to 
 prevent heating. 
 
 Gmssing. — A clean thick sward, usually short 
 fed pasturing, clean from weeds, etc., is the most 
 suitable for this. Lay the flax in swaths, roots 
 all one way and even, spread thin and even, 
 leaving a space of about a foot between each 
 sv^^ath or row. In three or four days, if the wea- 
 ther be humid, and warm, or longer if dry and 
 cool, it will be best to turn it over to complete 
 the^rottmg. This is done by taking a smooth 
 pole about ten feet in length, and running one 
 end under the flax near the top end, and turning 
 it over, letting it rest on the ground, taking care 
 to keep tliem even. 
 
 Lifting. — This is done when the flax is rotted, 
 so that the woody part of the straw will readily 
 part from the fibre upon being crushed in the 
 hand or brake, without tearing or breaking the 
 fibre. Fine, and coarse stra^y, will rot unequally, 
 and should be kept separate. The middle of the 
 day in clear, dry weather, is the best time to tako 
 it up. It is then raked into bundles somewhat 
 larger than at first and bound as before, recollect- 
 ing to keep the roots even as a brush. Set the 
 bundles up on the root ends, and allow them to 
 stand and dry a few hours. In good drying wea- 
 ther it will do to cart direct to the barn and be 
 stored as before directed, or stacked. If the wea- 
 ther is " catching," (likely to shower), the straw 
 may be set up with the roots spread and the tops 
 together, in this way it will dry sooner, and may 
 be sooner secured. 
 
 Dew Rotting. — Is the way generally practised 
 in this country, and the least unpleasant in the 
 operation. About the first of October, the straw 
 is taken to a moist meadow where the grass is 
 short and thick, with no weeds, rushes or other 
 growth. The straw is spread thin and even as 
 directed for "grassing" under "water rotting." 
 As the weather may be either warm, and damp, 
 or cool and dry, the time of rotting varies ac- 
 cordingly; a longer time being required in the 
 latter, tlian the former case, varying from three 
 to five weeks or more. After lying about half 
 the time necessary to rot, depending on the wea- 
 tlier, it should be turned as before directed. Tlie 
 same tests are also applied as directed under 
 water rotting, to know that the rotting is com- 
 pleted. When the straw is gathered, bound, 
 boused or stacked as before described. 
 
 Breaking, etc.— This is usually done during 
 dry weather in winter, or spring. Not having 
 
28 
 
 FLAX CDlTURE, etc. 
 
 imd experience vvitli any of the improved or late 
 patented brakes, I can not give instructions in 
 tiieir nse; but give the primitive way of dressing, 
 practised by many of the small producers, and 
 wliich is -within the means of the humblest pio- 
 neer settler; remarking here, tliat in a community 
 wliere flax is raised to any considerable extent, it 
 would pay for tlie producers to unite and pro(;ure 
 one of the best of the late improved brakes (if no 
 single individual is able or willing;) and use it in 
 common. The cost varies according to tlie size 
 and capacity of the machine. The old brake re- 
 quires but little ingenuity, and can be made by 
 any carpenter in a few hours after tlie materials, 
 which are seasoned hard wood, are together. In 
 addition to the brake, a Swingle Board and 
 Blade, and a coarse Hatchel are necessaiy. 7^he 
 Bi'ake consists of two end posts, seven blades, 
 and a head ; the rear post is twenty-eight inches 
 long, tapering from the bottom up, 6x20 inches 
 at the bottom, 6x12 at the top; into the top of 
 this four blades are framed Ij inches apart, and 
 made fast so that the top edge of the blades are 
 three inches below the top of the post, three 
 other mortises are cut in from the top for the 
 three blades to hang on a pin or bolt, and to work 
 up and down; into these mortises the three upper 
 blades are put, and a pin of i or 4-inch iron is 
 passed through the post and iilndcs, the three 
 upper blades are framed into a head 13 inches 
 long, 6 X 13 square, one inch apart. The lower 
 edge of the blades drop one inch lower than the 
 head. Into the front post, which is 6 x 12 and 24 
 inches long, the four under blades are framed 
 fast, one inch apart, the upper edges rising one 
 inch above the top of the post. Tlie whole brake 
 is four feet long; the blades are made of one inch 
 stuff, and are put one and one half inches apart 
 in the rear post; the under blades are four inches 
 wide; the upper ones 4^ inclies; the blades are 
 bevelled to a rounding edge one side ,and shut 
 into each other ; when shut they lap about one 
 inch. A Ij-inch wooden pin put into the back 
 of the head for a handle to lift and shut the 
 brake, completes the same, except a brace from 
 one post to the other, near the bottom, to keep 
 them firm and steady. The swingle board con- 
 sists of a hard-wood board 3 feet long, 12 inclies 
 wide, and one inch thick; this is bevelled to a 
 wedge shnpe at the top, and fastened at the bot- 
 tom to a block two feet long, 4x13 inches, and 
 stands upright. The Swingle Blade is a stick 
 about two feet long, two edged, somewhat thick- 
 er in the middle, with one end rounded for a 
 handle. The Hatchel is made by setting sharp 
 pointed iron pins, about six inches long, made 
 ♦of *li6-inch iron rods, into a hard-wood board. 
 Then teeth are set 4 of an inch apart in a square 
 of six to eight inches wide. 
 
 To brealj^ the flax, take in the left hand aa 
 much straw as can be held, near the roots; with 
 the right take hold of the handle of the brake 
 and raise the head, introduce the straw between 
 the blades, to about the middle of its length, and 
 work the brake up and down, shifting the straw 
 along. Turn the straw, taking hold of the broken 
 end, after whipping and shaking out the loose 
 shives, and break the root end. Repeat the ope- 
 ration, and when well broke and the shives 
 whipped out, it is ready for swingling, etc. It is 
 better while one breaks to have another swing- 
 ling to receive it as fast as broken, in that Avay 
 two expert men may dress fifty pounds or more 
 of dressed flax in a da3^ Should but one work 
 at a time, after the flax straw is broken it is laid 
 one side carefully, kept straight in handfuls, till 
 a quantity is broken, and then swingled. To 
 swingle, take what is readily clasped between 
 the thumb and fore-finger a little one side of the 
 middle, throw the longest half over the swingle 
 board, which should have a rounding end edge. 
 With the swingle blade a few strokes are given 
 it to brush out and loosen the shives; it is also 
 drawn through the hatchel which tears off" more, 
 again it is whipped up and down with the swin- 
 gle, over the swingling board, and alternately 
 hatcheled till free of shives, after which the 
 other end is turned, and the operation repeated. 
 It is next drawn through the hatchel to straighten 
 it. Then take it by the ends, one in either hand, 
 hold one end fast, with the other twist a few 
 turns bj' moving the hands in a circle, giving a 
 twist at each time; after a few turns bring the 
 ends together, doubling in the middle, give the 
 "hand" of flax a turn or two, and twist the ends 
 together, and tuck them into the hand to fasten 
 and lay it aside; proceed in like manner till the 
 whole is done. 
 
 Preparation for Market. — To prepare it 
 for market several of these hands are put to- 
 gether and tied. A press is best for this part; it 
 may be made with a stout bottom, with end 
 pieces well braced, one end is no higher than the 
 thickness you wish your bundle; the other may 
 be fitted for a lever to press the bundle before 
 tieing. Place two cords a few inches from where 
 the ends of the flax hands come in the press, and 
 lay the hands, in layers, the large ends alternately 
 either way, till you have twenty-five or thirty, 
 then press with your lever, and tie. It is then 
 bagged or baled, similar to wool, if to be sent a 
 distance; if marketed near this is unnecessary ; it 
 may be carried in the bundles using care in hand- 
 ling. In conclusion I would say, flax should not 
 be raised on the same land oftener than once in 
 five years, and better seven years ; a system of I'o- 
 tation should be piu'sued where it is intended to 
 raise it regularly ; that system must be left to the 
 
PRIZE ESSA^ {!. 
 
 29 
 
 .^ood judgement of the producer, remarking that 
 when it is raised on old plowed ground it should 
 follow a hoed crop, where the gi'ound has been 
 kept clear from weeds ; sucli Ave usuall}^ find to 
 be tobacco, corn, potatoes, and carrots. Success 
 in the culture of flax consists mainl}'^ in good 
 plump clean seed ; good soil clear from weeds, 
 well pulverized, and rich ; perfect rotting, and 
 
 dressing without having it rotten. In the fore- 
 going essay I l)ave endeavored to give, in a con- 
 cise manner, full details for raising and preparing 
 flax for market, in a primitive waj^ All the 
 labor and trouble of clean and thorough culture, 
 as well as the rotting, either by water or dew, is 
 as necessary with the impi-oved methods as with 
 the old, for on these the quality depends. 
 
 THIRD-PHIZE ESSAYS.- No. 17. -BY G. S. KUESTER, 
 
 NEW CASTLE, LAWRENCE CO., PA. 
 
 Soil. — The soil should be of the best quality 
 and in the finest order. With us the best soils 
 are rich loose loams, good corn ground or rich 
 silicious soils m good tilth. Any location will do 
 except cold, wet low-lands, or river bottoms. 
 They cause mildew. Ground which brings a fine 
 crop of corn will also give a like return in flax, 
 provided the culture be good. One thing must be 
 remembered primarily in the culture of flax, the 
 ground must be clean, free from those pestilent 
 weeds which infbst so many farms. It is useless 
 to think of raising flax where weeds have been 
 the principal crop. The ground should be pre- 
 l)arcd by a preceding hoed crop. Never select 
 a light sandy or weedy soil for flax, but let the 
 soil be fine and clean. 
 
 Preceding Crop. — The crop that should precede 
 flax, is potatoes, as it leaves the ground in the 
 best possible condition by keeping it clean, and 
 then leaving it open in the fall, after digging, for 
 the frost to act upon. Corn comes next in the 
 list, turnips is also a good preceding crop. Oats 
 and wheat are sometimes employed, but they do 
 not do so well, as weeds will struggle up, and the 
 ground must be plowed in the fall, which makes 
 more extra work than is necessary, especially 
 where a farmer raises a potato or corn crop. 
 Never use beans or peas as a preceding crop. 
 Flax should always be raised in a rotation, of 
 which I give two examples, viz. : First, rotation 
 of G or 7 years ; 1st Grass, 2nd Oats, 3rd Wheat, 
 4th Potatoes, 5th Flax, 6th Clover ; second, a ro- 
 tation of 5 or 6 years ; 1st Grass, 2nd Potatoes 
 or Corn, 3rd Flax, 4th Oats, 5th Grass. 
 
 Cultivation and Manuring. — Tlie mechani- 
 cal condition of the soil is perhaps the most im- 
 portant point in this connection. Because when 
 finely pulverized it does not part with the mois- 
 ture readily, and is perfectly free from stagnant 
 water. Thorough tillage is the secret of successful 
 flax raising. Care in preparation is the rule, 
 which if carefully adhered to, and the season is 
 at all favorable, it is almost impossible to fail. 
 While all crops are benefitted, especially on dry 
 lands, by the ground being broken up in the fall 
 
 and thrown in ridges, that the frosts of winter 
 may mellow it for the future use of the crop, no 
 crop probably feels it so sensibly as llax, and for 
 the trouble it gives ample return. 
 
 Use manure which is thoroughly rotted, and to 
 benefit the immediate crop let it be put on in the 
 fall, then the difl'erent ingredients will become 
 diff'used in the soil. But be careful, — you may 
 make your soil too strong for flax. If it would 
 get a good crop of oats, you may expect a good 
 yield of flax. When too strong it yields a long, 
 coarse and inferior article. Flax that is grown 
 upon poor land will not give satisfaction, even if 
 manured in the fall and plowed, because it re- 
 quires the power derived from old manure re- 
 maining in the ground ; however, this difficulty 
 might be obviated by using a liquid manure which 
 takes immediate elTect, but that kind of manure 
 is not always on the farm, unless arrangements 
 have been made for the same. 
 
 Flax is the most exhausting crop you can raise, 
 unless it lie tobacco. Its demands are great, and 
 no doubt if the proper course were taken it could 
 be made to be equally remunerative as a manure. 
 " The simple rotting of flax for three years in 
 succession on grass land is equal to one good top- 
 dressing of barn-yard manure." Ashes are" an 
 excellent manure, wood ashes are preferable to 
 coal. The manure, however, made from linseed 
 cake should never be used on flax ground, as it 
 is deemed injurious — why it is I cannot tell, un- 
 less it is too powerful. 
 
 Seed and Seed-Tenie. — In this section we have 
 two varieties of seed from which good fibre is 
 obtained : — " Little-seed" and " Sapling." The 
 Little-seed (the only name I have ever heard for 
 it) brings far the best flax ; in fineness it is superior, 
 and for strength is equal to the Saphng; the 
 length is not quite so long, but the quality makes 
 it up. It is bright dark brown, plump and full, 
 gives a fibre of 1 to 1 2 yard in length. The Sap- 
 ling seed is yellowish brown, my neighbors say 
 it has a greenish tint, but I could never see that 
 color in it. I consider this variety as the most 
 valuable for market, both as regards the seed and 
 
30 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 fibre; the fibre often times being a yard and a ha.f 
 in length, and as a general thing when sown for 
 that purpose, it is very prolific in seed. The Sap- 
 ling is a variety best calculated for canvass and 
 cordage, the fibre being much coarser than that 
 raised from the Little Seed, the latter being fine 
 and smooth. In selecting seed to plant be sure it 
 is plump, heavy and the color bright. Good seed 
 is of great importance. It is necessary to change 
 seed occasionally, this may be done by bringing 
 that raised on an inferior, poorer soil, to sow 
 upon a richer and more powerful one. 
 
 When shall I sow ?— is the question asked by 
 the new beginner. As early as you can— the 
 earlier the better. The old German time is 
 " Good Friday" in the morning— it may be said, 
 sow last of March, till middle of April. It is most 
 generally soAvn about the first of May, but early 
 sowed flax gives the largest yield ; is of a more 
 uniform and finer fibre; is stiffer and less liable 
 to foil ; does not suffer from drouth, and grows 
 more thriftily with the increasing warmth of sum- 
 mer. The early sown flax, though it grows slowly 
 at the start, obtains a strong durable fibre, while 
 that of the late, from its rapid growth, is soft and 
 weak in fibre and is much lighter when prepared 
 than the former. 
 
 It is necessary to sow evenly if you wish a 
 uniform crop. You can sow it in the same man- 
 ner you do wheat or other cereals. If a coarse 
 fibre is wanted, or the seed only, sow thin, from 
 three pecks to a bushel. For fine fibre sow from 
 one and a half bushels to two and a half, or three 
 bushels. Flax that is sown too thin will have 
 thick stalks, while that which is too thick will be 
 short and unsatisliictory. There are several 
 ways to cover the seed after it is sown, viz., by 
 the thorn or crab bush, by the harrow, the roller, 
 and by letting the rain do it. The first, the one 
 which I consider the best, as it covers the seed 
 about the right depth, is donebytaldng a thorn 
 or crab bough and sweeping the ground over. 
 The second does middling well, but covers too 
 deep; it is the easiest way, and suits the lazy 
 man. The third makes heavy soil too compact, 
 hard, and the plant seems to struggle hard to get 
 along and looks sickly ; it may do very well in an 
 extra loose soil. The last is one of nature's plans 
 of planting and does well, but it cannot always 
 be relied on. The first is the most reliable and 
 seems to be the nearest the wants of the plant, 
 and for that reason may be considered the best. 
 
 Enemies. — The cut worm is the only enemy 
 I know or ever heard of— when it attacks the 
 young plants they never do anything afterwards, 
 for they never throw out new shoots or sprouts. 
 This alone is a very great objection to planting 
 on sod, as some of our farmers do — it should 
 never be done. Flax is not attacked by birds of 
 
 any kind to my knowledge, it may be on account 
 of the hardness of the seed-bolls and the liglit- 
 ness of the haulm. The plant is sometimes in- 
 jured by rust which destroys its value for fibre; 
 in this case it is only valuable for its seed. 
 
 Weeding. — This is something that need never 
 be done if the culture of the preceding crop 
 has been thorough, unless it should be in new 
 ground, and then, with proper care in raising pre- 
 vious crops, it would be unnecessary. It may 
 however be well enough to state how to do the 
 weeding, if a novice should have occasion for 
 that ever to be detested job. If the flax is weedy, 
 when about six to nine inches high, you should 
 pass through it with your bare feet, so that you 
 will not destroy the young plants, and pass in a 
 straight line across it, weeding clean as you go 
 and continue thus until the job is done. 
 
 Signs of Ripeness — Gathering and Dry- 
 ing. — The signs of ripeness with flax are as per- 
 ceptible as that of wheat, rye, or other grain. 
 The haulms or stalks of flax become clean, the 
 lower leaves falling off half way up, and its color 
 turns from greenish to yellow, the seed l)olls 
 turn a little yellow and hard. When wanted for 
 seed it should be allowed to become fully ripe. 
 
 Pulling must always be considered the best 
 plan of harvesting flax, on account of the fibre, 
 which is taken from the root, it being equal if 
 not better than fibre taken from other parts of 
 the plant. You should make each handful a 
 sheaf, and it should be shocked like wheat, with as 
 many sheaves as you please in the shock, but with- 
 out any headers, and left to cure from six to 
 eight days ; in rainy unfavorable weather, several 
 weeks. By this course, the flax is kept straight, 
 and nicer than by any other course, with less trou- 
 ble. Some harvest flax by cutting with the cradle, 
 this is very injurious to the fibre as much of the 
 fibre is lost in the root, and the part left on the 
 field ; if the seed only is wanted, then it is proper. 
 In gathering you should be careful to assort it, as 
 in the same field you will always find flax of dif- 
 ferent lengths — put the short by itself and the 
 long in like manner, that of an inferior quality 
 being placed along with the short. This care at 
 first will save much trouble subsequently. After 
 it is dried or cured in the fiel*-!, it should be taken 
 in and placed away in the shed or barn like 
 wheat or other grain, to remain imtil tlireshed. 
 
 Beating off and Preserving the Seed. — 
 When the flax has become perfectly dry the seed 
 is immediately beaten off — (unless it is not in- 
 tended to rot until the following year.) The flax is 
 often laid down like grain, two dozen bundles at a 
 time, and threshed with flail. This method I do not 
 approve of, on account of the injury it does to the 
 fibre, although it is the quickest way to get a.ong 
 with it. The better plan is to take a barrel, then 
 
I'RIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 31 
 
 take a shoaf at a time and beat off the sccd-cap- 
 snles over the edge of the barrel, which Mill 
 thresh it clean, and in the end may be about as 
 quick as any plan. If a barrel is not at hand, just 
 turn a plow upside down and beat it out over the 
 mould board; or fix up a rail and beat it over 
 that, which will answer the same purpose. These 
 latter modes are the best, as the fibre is not so 
 much broken, and they can be done with very 
 great ease. Threshing should always be done in 
 the barn, on a smooth floor, where you can use a 
 fanning mill. 
 
 You can put the seed away in barrels, after 
 cleaning, until wanted for use or market, if in bar- 
 rels it should be occasionally removed from one 
 to the other, this will keep it from becoming com- 
 pressed and assist in evaporation ; like wheat dur- 
 ing the summer, moving it does it good. It is 
 said that the seed-capsules, soaked in hot water, 
 are good for cattle — I have never tried it ; but the 
 seed itself, fed in small quantities to animals of 
 any kind, is good. 
 
 Rotting. — The time for rotting flax is from 
 last of August till the middle of September. It 
 is spread out in straight rows in the meadow, 
 there to remain for some four weeks, if there is no 
 rain, in rainy weatiier three weeks will be suffi- 
 cient. Turn it about once a week. To tell when it 
 is rotted enough the following rules are a guide. 
 
 1. When the flax splits at the forks or joints on 
 which the seed bolls are. 
 
 2. "When the woody stock has become brittle, 
 so that it breaks like glass, with a peculiar sound, 
 if it bends and you can wrap the stock around your 
 finger without breaking it is not rotted enough. 
 
 3. If you take a stalk when damp, and wrap it 
 in a little round ball, and throw it into the water 
 and it sinks, then the flax is rotted. 
 
 After it is rotted it is then bound up in sheaves 
 (similar to those made at first) ready for 
 
 Breaking. — This is a branch in the culture of 
 flax that can be done away with in a great mea- 
 sure when you are near to market, or within 
 reach of flax-drtssers — as they will buy it in straw, 
 and in many instances prefer to do so. In this 
 section they give for straw, when it is rotted, $15 
 to $18 per ton for cut, and $28 to $45 per ton for 
 pulled. At these figures the farmers will be re- 
 munerated, and much tedious labor saved, unless 
 they have labor saving machinery on the farm 
 for that purpose. However, when it is the inten- 
 tion to break the flax at home, it may be done in 
 
 the following way. Take a handful in the left 
 hand, and with the right hand take hold of the 
 handle of the breaker and raise it up, and place; 
 the flax across the lower knives, and then bring 
 the upper knives down upon it, with right hand, 
 continuing the operation until the flax is broke 
 one half its length, then turn it, wrapping the 
 flax that is broke around the fingers of the left 
 hand, repeating the same operation till broke, 
 when you take it out and give it a switch or two 
 in the air for the purpose of taking out the shoves, 
 (or pieces of straw,) after which it is twisted to 
 keep it from tangling. 
 
 If your flax is not sufficiently rotted you should 
 " fire" it, that it may break easier. This is done 
 by digging a place at the side of a hill, so as to 
 give you a kind of back wall, and then, placing 
 a rack over the same, about four feet high, and 
 spreading the flax thinly over the top, it becomes 
 well dried or fired as it is called. Another mode 
 is to dig an underground flue about fifteen feet 
 long — it is not used with us — it works well and 
 is less liable to burn the flax. In firmg be careful 
 that you don't make the fire too big. Some farm- 
 ers fire all their flax, but it is unnecessary, and 
 need only be done when the flax is in the condi- 
 tion spoken of above. Labor-saving machinery 
 is becoming so plenty that the hard labor of the 
 past in flax culture can readily be done away 
 with. Several flax breaking machines have been 
 patented, and are, I believe, within the reach of 
 many. These supply a long-felt want, and 
 will prove advantageous. Tl^ese machines are 
 made of diff'erent sizes to suit small as well as 
 large operators. It is hoped this machine may 
 do for flax and hemp, what the gin has for cotton. 
 
 Scutching. — Is done by having a board placed 
 perpendicular in the ground, the top of which is 
 square, it being about 6 to 10 inches wide, and in 
 connection with the same, a wooden scutching- 
 knife. Take knife in your right hand, and~a 
 handful of broken flax in the left hand, which lay 
 across the board, commence to scutch, by striking 
 the flax close to the board with the knife in your 
 right hand, and so continue till all the scutching 
 tow and shoves are out. If the crop or seed 
 bolls are thick in the lint, and will not break off, 
 you should use the hackel. The tow which re- 
 mains among the long fibre is taken out with the 
 hackel. Another mode of scutching is with a 
 scutching mill, but it does not do the work as thor- 
 ough!}' as it should l)e done. It may be dressed on 
 it first and finished in the manner spoken of above. 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 THIRD-PRIZE ESSAYS.-No. 18.-BY HUGH McKEE, 
 
 NOKTVlCnVILLE, CANADA WEST. (ExtiaCtS.) 
 
 Soil and Rotation. — By careful cultivation, 
 almost all of our soils will produce good flax, 
 but some are particularly adapted to it. Tlie 
 best is a naturally dry, or properly drained, deep 
 clay loam with a clay subsoil. It is very impor- 
 tant that tlie land be drained and subsoiled, as, 
 when it is saturated with either surface or under- 
 ground water, good flax cannot be expected. Tlie 
 land should be in the finest, deepest and cleanest 
 state, as the roots of the flax will often penetrate to 
 a depth in the ground equal to half its higlit 
 above it. Flax prefers a rich soil, but any soil 
 that will produce good corn or oats, will produce 
 good flax, and it may follow either of them, or it 
 may be sown on a clover sod. Flax should not 
 be grown on the same ground more frequentlj^ 
 than once in 5 or 7 years. In Ireland, where 
 more flax is grown than in almost any other 
 countiy, once in 10 years is common practice. 
 The land for flax should not be manured 
 tlie j'ear the flax is grown; if it needs manure it 
 should be applied to the previous crop, so as to 
 get thoroughly rotted and mixed with the soil. 
 Manure applied directly to the flax produces a 
 rank and uneven grov,'tli. Thorough cleansing 
 the land from weeds, and a thorough preparing 
 of the ground is most impoi'tant. If sown on 
 stubble land, the field should be harrowed soon 
 after harvest, so as to cover all seeds of weeds 
 that may be on the land, so as to make them 
 sprout; all land that is intended for flax should 
 be plowed late in the fall and left in as rough a 
 state as possible, for the action of the frost, by 
 which it is crumbled down finely. In the spring it 
 is better to cultivate with a gang plow or two 
 wheeled cultivator than to plow, in order to 
 avoid the turning under the fine surface mould, 
 which is so necessary for the flax seed. This cul- 
 tivation should be done as soon as the land can 
 be worked in the spring, so as to cause weed- 
 seeds to germinate, and it should lie a few days 
 before sowing. When ready to sow, drag with a 
 heavy harrow, so as to pulverize the soil, and 
 kill any Aveeds that may have started; then roll 
 with a heavy roller; then sow, and harrow in 
 the seed. In harrowing in the seed use only a 
 light harrow so as not to cover the seed too deep, 
 for if covered more than half an inch, two 
 chances to one it does not come up. The land 
 should be then rolled again so as to leave the 
 surface smooth and level. Care should be taken 
 not to roll when the ground is so wet as to adhere 
 to the roller; nor, indeed, to work the soil at all. 
 
 Seed and Sowing. — Tiie best seed for sowinig 
 when the flax is grown for the fibre is Riga, but 
 as that is expensive and difficult to get, good 
 American seed should be used, that of good 
 quality is very oily when broken, smooth and 
 slippery, and will sink in water. The quantity 
 sown will depend on the object of the grower, 
 and the condition and quality of the land. If 
 grown for the seed three peck.^ is sufficient. Thin 
 sowing causes the plant to branch out, and bear 
 abundance of seed, but the flax is very coarse 
 and of an inferior quality ; the richer the land the 
 less seed is required, as it will branch more. But 
 if fibre is required, from two to three bushels 
 should be sown (on rich soils, three bushels, on 
 poor, two). It is better to sow too thick than too 
 thin, for if sown thick, the stems grow straight 
 and tall, and produce but 2 or 3 seed bolls, and 
 the fibre is superior in length and fineness, to that 
 produced by thin sowing, which grows coarse, 
 branches out, and produces an inferior quality of 
 fibre. Great care should be taken to get clean 
 seed. In the old country, the crop is w'eeded by 
 hand, but that would be too expensive in this 
 country, where the price of labor is high, there- 
 fore the cleanest land and cleanest seed should be 
 selected. If any rank weeds start tliey should 
 be carefully pulled. The time of sowing will 
 vary with different localities, the favorite time in 
 Canada is the latter end of April and the first 
 week in May. It should be sown as early in 
 April as the weather Avill permit, but not before 
 the soil is diy and warm. The seed is sown broad- 
 cast, and care is necessary to sow it evenly, some 
 recommend to go over the ground twice, sowing 
 half the quantity each time. For fine fibre early 
 sowing is indespensable, vegetation is very rapid 
 in the later part of the season, and there is noth- 
 inglike steady growth for securing good quality 
 in the crop. After sowing, which requires much 
 skill, as the seed is very slippery and very apt to 
 be sown unevenl}', cover it with a light seed har- 
 row, going once lengthwise of the land, and then 
 across, as it will then get more evenly spread, and 
 tlie small drills left by the teeth if harrowed but 
 one way, will be avoided. The ridges should be 
 little, if anj^, raised in the centre, when the seed 
 is sown, or the flax will not ripen evenly. There 
 should be no ridges when the land is tliorougly 
 drained. The most critical time in growth of the 
 flax, is before it is up sufficiently to cover the 
 ground ; a heavy frost or scalding sun might then 
 cause great damage. The plant flowers about the 
 
FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 33 
 
 middle of June; and tlie field with its light blue 
 tlovvers, at that time, is a very beautiful sight. 
 
 PuLLrNG. — If the flax is grown entirely for the 
 seed, it should be allowed to get ripe, but not ripe 
 enough to shell ; it can then be cut with a scythe, 
 or reaping machine the same as any other grain 
 crop. If grown for the fibre, experience has 
 shown that it should be pulled before fully ripe, 
 and it is a nice point to determine the right time. 
 If pulled too soon, the fibre is finer, but loses too 
 much in weight ; if it gets too ripe, the fibre loses 
 in quality. The best time is when the seeds be- 
 gin to change from a green to a pale brown, and 
 the stalks change to a yellow for about two thirds 
 of their length above the ground. If any of the 
 flax is lying down fi'om any cause, and suff'ering 
 from wet, it should be pulled as soon as possible, 
 and kept by itself. 
 
 When the flax is in tl>e right state for pulling, 
 it should be pulled as rapidly as possible, which 
 is done by the puller taking hold of a small quan- 
 tity near the top as it stands, and carefully pulling 
 it up and keeping the root ends even; when pull- 
 ing, all weeds should be thrown out. If the 
 ground is not underdrained, and not level when 
 it is sown, the flax will be found of various 
 lengths. In such cases pull the different lengths 
 each by itself, and keep them separate, in all fu- 
 ture operations. This can be effected by grasping 
 the flax immediately under the bolls, this allows 
 the under, or shorter stalks to remain, which can 
 be got by a second pulling ; if the latter be few, it 
 would be better to let them remain, as the loss 
 from mixture and discoloration of the weeds which 
 will be pulled with it, would make the profit very 
 small. If the land has been drained, and leveled, 
 the flax -will be nearly all of a length. It is very 
 necessarj'^ to keep the flax even, like a brush, at 
 the root ends. This increases the value to the 
 manufacturer, and of course to the grower, who 
 will be amply repaid by a higher price for all his 
 additional lime or trouble. The handfuls of flax, 
 as they are pulled, should be laid on the ground 
 by themselves, or two or three across each other, 
 taking care to keep the but ends even. 
 
 Three methods may now be adopted for its 
 future management, viz.: 1st, Rippling imme- 
 diately after pulling, and steeping at once. This 
 is the general way in Ireland. 2nd, It may be 
 dried in stooks of a peculiar structure, the seeds 
 taken off" at leisure, and either steeped, or dew^ 
 rotted when convenient, this is the pyin generally 
 adopted in this country. 3rd, The flax may be 
 sold in the field, or after it is pulled. 
 
 1st Method.— The flax should be rippled as 
 soon as pulled, and this should be done in the 
 same field with the pulling. The rippling comb 
 consists of a row of iron teeth, screwed into a 
 block of wood. The best have half inch square 
 
 pointed teeth of iron, set with the edges approach- 
 ing, '|i6 of an inch apart at the bottom, and half 
 an inch at the lop. They are 18 inches long, to 
 give sufficient spring to prevent breaking the flax. 
 The points begin to taper three inches from the 
 top. It should be taken to the field and screwed 
 upon a plank, 9 feet long, and placed on two 
 stools. The ripplers may either sit astride or 
 stand on opposite sides of the plank. A winnow- 
 ing sheet must be placed under them to catch the 
 bolls as they are rippled off. The flax can often 
 be rippled by drawing but once thi'ough the comb. 
 The sheaves of flax are laid at the right hand of 
 the rippler; he takes up one handful at a time, 
 and spreads out the tops, so as to give a wide 
 surface to the teeth, and draws it through. If the 
 bolls are thick, two drawings may be required. 
 Four men with two ripples will ripple more than 
 an acre a day. The rippler lays down the hand- 
 ful at his left side, which should be then bound 
 up in sheaves, called "beets." The bolls should 
 be winnowed, to blow all the chaff and long straw 
 that may be in them, and then thoroughly dried, 
 either on the barn floor, or on the winnowing 
 sheets out doors, the}^ should be turned twice a 
 day until dry. When they may either be sold to 
 to the Oil Mill, or kept for feed. Flax treated in 
 this first method should be rippled as soon as 
 pulled, and carried to the Avater as soon as possi- 
 ble; it should not be allowed to stand in the 
 field, if avoidable, even the second day, that the 
 straw may not harden. Although this method 
 of treatment will produce a better quality of 
 fibre than any other, it will hardly be adopted, 
 as it makes considerable labor in the season when 
 labor is high and scarce. 
 
 2nd MetJiod. — The flax as pulled, should be 
 bound near the tops, in loose bundles, about one 
 half larger than a man can hold in one hand, say 
 about 4 inches in diameter, and gathered into 
 shocks, with the root ends spread well out, tliat 
 it may become thoroughly dry, which w-ill take 
 from 6 to 8 days. If it is not thoroughly dried, . 
 it will be apt to mould and spoil. When it is 
 dry, it may either be stacked so that the rain will 
 not penetrate, or taken to the barn, and allowed 
 to remain until after harvest, when the sjeed is 
 taken off, and it is either dew or water-rotted dur- 
 ing the fall. The seed may be taken off during 
 the winter, and the rotting lake place the follow- 
 ing spring or summei". It may remain 2 or 3 
 years, if kept dry, and free from mice. Various 
 means are employed to remove the seed; some 
 using the rippler already described ; some, what 
 is called a beetle, which is a block of wood about 
 10 inches long, and 3 or 4 square, into which a 
 handle is inserted, though frequently the handle 
 is a prolongation at an angle of the head, made 
 small enouch for the hands to grasp, by such an 
 
34 
 
 FI.AX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 instrument the seed can be beaten out. A more 
 expeditious way is, to pass the seed ends through 
 
 rollers, driven by 
 horse or other 
 power, as describ- 
 ed on page 76 of 
 the America7i Ag- 
 ricultxtrist, for 
 1863, and illustrat- 
 ed by figr. 29. Seed 
 taken off in this 
 way, after the 
 
 29.— ROLLEU FLAX-THKESHER. 
 
 straw has been thoroughly dried, does not require 
 to be spread out to dry, but simply to be winnow- 
 ed like any other grain, to remove the chaff. 
 
 ord Method. — It is beginning to be the custom 
 where flax-mills are erected, for the proprietor 
 of the mill to purchase the flax standing on the 
 ground when in flower, or after it is pulled and 
 stacked, either before or after the seed-bolls 
 are taken off"; this I think will be found to 
 pay both parties the best, as the manufacturer 
 will then have skilled persons to take charge 
 of it, and can produce a more uniform and 
 better quality of fibre, than each farmer can by 
 rotting his own. 
 
 A system something like this is carried on in 
 Belgium, which involves a division of labor, and 
 ho doubt contributes, in a great measure, to the 
 excellence of the flax produced in that country. 
 The farmer has thus but to produce the crop in the 
 utmost perfection that good culture, soil and sea- 
 son will admit of. The flax-dresser's attention is 
 then exclusively devoted to its after-management, 
 and the laborers employed by him soon become 
 expert, each in his particular branch of business. 
 
 Rotting. — The rotting process is the same for 
 flax, treated either in the 1st or 2nd methods. If 
 a stem of flax be examined, it will be found to 
 consist of three parts, 1st, a woody, central, hol- 
 low stem in tlie center, called the " shove " or 
 "boon"; 2nd, a tubular sheath surrounding the 
 shove, composed of long and firm cells, this is 
 the fibre, and 8rd, a delicate covering of skin or 
 bark. To separate the fibre from the worthless 
 parts connected with it. is the next step. 
 
 Dew Rotting. — As soon after harvest as possi- 
 ble, the rippled straw is taken to a smooth mea- 
 dow, or clean pasture field, and Spread out care- 
 fully in swaths, about lialf an inch thick. The 
 swaths should be several inches apart so as not to 
 gtt tangled in turning, and be careful to keep the 
 straw straight and even. The length of time it 
 will have to remain, will depend upon the state 
 of the weather : if warm and showery, it will not 
 take so long as it will if the weather is dry or 
 cold ; the period may be shortened by turning it ; 
 the turning is easily and quickly performed with 
 a smooth pole about 10 feet long, as in figure 
 3 
 
 30. From 4 to 6 weeks will be required for 
 rotting it, and it should be turned 2 to 4 times: 
 though some recommend to let it lie until one 
 side is done, and it will then require but one 
 turning ; but I think several turnings better. 
 When the flax takes on a silver gray color, and 
 the fibre be<rins to separate from the woody 
 part, especially at the ends ; or when on breaking 
 a handful of the straws, or on twisting them, 
 the woody part comes freely out, and leaves the 
 lint or fibre clear, it is ready to be taken up. In 
 taking it up, keep the straw straight and even. 
 
 Fig. 30. — TURNING THE SWATHS. 
 
 and bind in moderate-sized sheaves. If not 
 thoroughly dry, set them on their ends until they 
 are so. It is now ready for the brake and scutch 
 mill, or it may be stored under thatched stacks, 
 or under cover until otherwise disposed of. 
 
 Watering or Steeping. — This is a process by 
 which the vegetable matter connecting the stem 
 and fibre is decomposed by fermentation under 
 water. The value of the fibre depends very much 
 on the care l)estowed on this process. The stepp- 
 ing pond should be made about 4 or 6 yards long, 
 2 to 4 broad, and from 3 to 4 feet deep. River 
 water is the best ; a small stream of water allowed 
 to run through the pond will very much improve 
 the fibre in color. Care should be taken to avoid 
 using water containing minerals, as it will dis- 
 color the fibre. The flax, after rippling, is brought 
 to the pool, in which it is placed in rows, one beet 
 or sheaf deep, at an angle of 45 degrees, the bands 
 of each succeeding row reaching between the 
 root ends and bands of the last ; straw is then 
 spread over it, to protect it from the sun, and 
 boards laid on, and weights are placed on them 
 80 as to sink the flax from 4 to 6 inches under the 
 surface of the water. It should be kept from the 
 time it is put in until it is taken out at that depth, 
 but great care should be taken not to sink the 
 flax so as to touch the bottom, which should not 
 occur. Additional weights are required when 
 fermentation commences, to be taken off when it 
 subsides. When the fermentation subsides, it 
 should be carefully watched to ascertain when 
 it is fit for removal. This is one of the most 
 critical stages, and on it the profit or loss may 
 turn. It will require on an average from 5 to 15 
 days to get sufficiently steeped, this will depend 
 very much on the heat of the weather and 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 35 
 
 the nature of the water. Tlie best test that I 
 know of to tell when it sliould be taken out is, to 
 try some stalks of an average thickness, b}' break- 
 ing the stem in tw) places, about 6 or 8 inches 
 apart, at the midille of the stem; catch the 
 broken bit of wood or shove, and if it will freely 
 pull out downward, for that length, without 
 breaking or tearing the fibre, and with none of 
 the fibre adhering to it, it is ready to take out. 
 Make this trial every 6 or 8 hr)urs after fermenta- 
 tion subsides, for sometimes the change is very 
 rapid. It is, however, more frequently under, 
 than over watered. Every grower should learn 
 to know when the flax has had enough of the 
 water, as a few hours too much may injure it. 
 If it is found, after taking it out of the pond, that 
 it, has not remained long enough, the error mav 
 in a great measure be rectified, by alloAving it tn 
 remain longer on the grass. 
 
 Never lift the flax roughly from the pool, -with 
 a fork, it should be done by men standing in the 
 water, who hand it to others, ready to receive it, 
 on the bank. The steep water can either be used 
 as liquid manure for meadows, or kept in the 
 pool till the next flood, — it should not be run off" 
 into the river or creek when the water is low, as 
 tlie odor is very unpleasant, and the water thus 
 impregnated, is poisonous to fish. (It is contrary 
 to law in Canada). It is much nicer handling if 
 the flax bundles are placed on their root ends, to 
 di-ain for 12 hours or more, before they are re- 
 moved for spreading, it should not be piled in 
 heaps, as it is very apt to heat and spoil. 
 
 Spreading. — Select when possible, clean, short, 
 pasture ground, or a newly mown meadow, lay 
 the flax evenly on the grass, and spread thin and 
 very equally. If it has been properly rippled, 
 the handful will come readily asunder, without 
 entangling. From 4 to 8 days, if the weather 
 is damp, or from 8 to 12 if it is dry, should be 
 sufficient time for it to lie on the grass. A good 
 test of its being ready to lift, is to rub a few stalks 
 from top to bottom, and it is ready to lift if the 
 woody part breaks easil)% and comes from the 
 fibre, leaving it sound. Also when a large portion 
 of the stalks are found to form a bow and string, 
 the fibre contracting and separating from the 
 woody stalk. But the most certain way is to try 
 a small quantity in a flax mill. Some recommend 
 turning it while on the grass, (as described in dew 
 rotting) but it will not require it if it is evenly 
 and thinly spread. 
 
 Lifting. — When lifting, keep the flax even at 
 the ends, so as to avoid loss in scutching. Dur- 
 ing all these operations the different qualities and 
 lengths should be kept separate, as a mixture 
 would lessen its value. It should not be lifted 
 when the straw is damp. When it is lifted it 
 should be bound up in bundles, and set on their 
 
 root ends for a few hours to thoroughly dry. 
 It is now ready to be sent to the scutch miil, 
 though it would be much improved by being 
 put up in small stacks, loosely built, and 
 set up on capped posts, to pi-event injury from 
 rats or mice, and to allow free circulation of air. 
 
 Some objections may be made to the steeping, 
 on account of its tainting the water, and the 
 air, and possibly, those unacquainted with it may 
 think that the smell, which is disagreeable, may 
 be unhealthv, but it has never been found so, 
 either in France, Belgium, or Ireland, and no 
 healthier women can be seen than those employ- 
 ed during the whole flax season in pulling, spread- 
 ing and lifting it. 
 
 The trouble which flax entails in the various 
 processes which it has to be put through, before it 
 is ready for the market, is often objected to. 
 This will not be considered of weight, by the 
 careful and enterprising, when it is found that the 
 profits increase in proportion to the care and skill 
 used in the diff'erent stages of its management. 
 
 Dressing. — Among the many new methods 
 brought forward in the Old Country, for the prep- 
 aration of flax, that of Mr. Watt, is perhaps the 
 most prominent. Since its first introduction, it 
 has made rapid progress, though perhaps ita 
 merits have not yet been sufficiently tested. The 
 steeping of the flax is eff'ected by the agency of 
 steam, which disunites its cementing materials, 
 thus dispensing with fermentation. 
 
 It may be briefly described as follows: The flax 
 straw is delivered at the works, in a dry state, 
 either with the seed on or off", if the seed is on, it 
 is taken off" by metal rollers. The straw is then 
 placed in close chambers, having two doors, 
 which is for taking in and discharging the flax, 
 the top is of cast iron, and serves the double pur- 
 pose of a top and steam condenser, the straw is 
 then laid upon a false bottom of perforated iron, 
 the doors are closed, and made tight by screws. 
 Steam is driven in by a pipe round the chamber, 
 and under the bottom, and penetrating the mass 
 at first removes certain volatile o\Js, contained in 
 the plant, and then is condensed on the bottom of 
 the iron cover, and descending in a continuous 
 shower of condensed water, saturates the straw, 
 forming a decoction of the extractive matters 
 which connect the fibrous and non-fibrous por- 
 tions of the plant. The liquid is drawn oS" from 
 time to time, and the more concentrated portions 
 used with the chaff", (and light seed) for feeding 
 cattle and pigs The process is shortened by 
 using a pump, or some arrangement, that will re- 
 peatedly Avash the mass, with the water allowed 
 to accumulate. In from 8 to 12 hours, varying 
 with the nature of the straw, it is removed from 
 the chamber, and having been deprived of all its 
 extractive matter, witliout decomposition, it is 
 
36 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 passed through large iron rollers, for the purpose 
 of removing the epidermis, or outer skin of the 
 plant, and for the purpose of discharging the 
 greater part of the water contained in the satu- 
 rated straw, and while in the wet state splitting 
 it up longitudinally. The straw being free of al 1 
 products of decomposition, is then easily dried, 
 and is in a few hours ready for scutching. Tiie 
 invention of Mr. Watt has a two fold object, 
 first, to obviate the objectionable process of rot- 
 ting, and secondly, to work up the bolls and re- 
 fuse of the plant into cattle food. Of the pro- 
 cess of steeping in water, spreading on grass, 
 lifting and drying, we need say but little to those 
 engaged in it, it being from the first to the last 
 disagreeable, at every stage of the process. The 
 manual labor is filthy in the extreme, while if the 
 steep ponds are allowed to run into rivers or 
 creeks, these will be so polluted, as not only to 
 destroy fish, but to be unfit to be used by cattle. 
 
 Flax, after drying, is improved by stacking, 
 technically speaking, it " comes." Temporary 
 sheds answer every purpose, if the roofs be tight. 
 Dressing is tlie next operation in order. It 
 is by manual labor that nearly all the flax in 
 Belgium, Holland, etc., is dressed, formerly in 
 Ireland, it also was the case, but now improved 
 machinery is used. It is evident that to make 
 flax pay in this country, machinery must be used 
 in the preparation of the fibre for market. Flax 
 will not pay to be dressed by hand in America. 
 There are improved machines made now, which 
 can be got at a very reasonable price, for scutch- 
 ing straw. Tlie one most in use in Canada, is one 
 patented by Mr. Rowan, of Belfixst, Ireland. It 
 can be used by any person, and I believe comes 
 nearer to the requirements of the flax grower 
 than almost any other ; any person, altliougli he 
 may never have handled flax before, will find no 
 diflicult}'' in using this one. A single machine, 
 requiring the attendance of one person, and a 
 dovible machine, "worked by two persons, 
 which do not occupy a space of more than 
 3 by 5 feet on the ground, and which may 
 be attached to any horse power in common use, 
 have proved profitable. This machine will de- 
 liver twenty pounds of scutched flax per hour, 
 for each hand. The yi Id of clean fibre is 
 greater than if hand scutched. Another ma- 
 chine which I have not seen, but one that is 
 highly recommended, is manufactured and sold 
 by a prominent house in New York. 
 
 It consists of a series of fluted iron rollers, be- 
 tween which the flax is drawn from the feeding 
 board, a peculiar motion is given to the rollers 
 by the gearing, which causes the flax to pass re- 
 peatedly back and forth between the rollers, and 
 it comes out with the boon or shove so thoroughly 
 
 broken, that a large part of it can be shaken out 
 of the fibre, without any farther dressing. Thia 
 machine, as well as the one first described, is por- 
 table, and can be driven by any common horse 
 power. Any person wlio can run a threshing ma- 
 cliine or fanning mill, can run either of these ma- 
 chines. Tlie saving of fibre in both of these ma- 
 chines are about the same. 
 
 Other machines are in use in some flax districts, 
 but they require more power, with experienced 
 workmen to drive them, they leave a greater per- 
 centage of shove in the fibre, and there is con- 
 siderable danger in working them. 
 
 The most common kind of a hard brake, con- 
 sists of two sparred frames. * * * [Descrip- 
 tion omitted. See 1st prize essay, Ed.] * * * 
 The flax is shifted until all the stems are broken, 
 and then it must be scutched to remove tlie shove 
 or broken woody parts from the fibre. Hand 
 scutching is still a common practice in some parts 
 of the country, but it is tedious, and the time it 
 takes makes it expensive. [Description omitted.] 
 
 In the scutching mill, several wheels are fixed 
 on a sliaft, distant from each other 3 feet or more. 
 The scutcliing blades of liard wood or metal are 
 attached to, on the rim of these wheels, upright 
 pieces of metal, called stocks, and so placed, that 
 the blades as they revolve, pass near their sur- 
 faces, the tops of tliese being on a level with the 
 shaft. The blades are from 6 to 7 eighths of an 
 incii from tlie stock at the striking point, and 4 to 
 5 eighths at the heel. The wheels are 3 feet 6 
 inches in diameter, and make from 200 to 250 
 revolutions per minute, and are covered to pre- 
 vent dust or accident. 
 
 After flax is broken, it is " stricked," that is, 
 made into "stricks," for the scutchers, a stride is 
 as much flax as one can grasp in one hand, evenly 
 arianged and slightly twisted. A large percent- 
 age of tow is made in scutching. Flax when 
 scutched, should be sorted into qualities, each de- 
 termined by the judgement of the workmen. It 
 is commonly made up into bundles of 14 pounds 
 eacli, tlie sorter laying tlie stricks lengthwise ovei 
 3 bands, witli which tlie bundle is bound. 
 
 Another method is to give the stride a twist and 
 double it together, and then to pass a band round 
 their twisted ends, making tliem ready for bag- 
 ging. The bales generally weigh 200 lbs., being 
 16 bundles of 14 pounds each. Flax lias now 
 been brought to that state in which it is ready for 
 spinning or tlie market. It should be stored in a 
 dark, cool place ; if kept too dry, it loses in 
 weight and quality. It is much improved by 
 being stored a few weeks. A ground floor is 
 more suitable than a dry or airy loft, but it should 
 not be allowed to get damp 
 
 The manufacture of flax cotton is a subject 
 of great importance. It consists in prcducing 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 37 
 
 from the coarse kind of flax and the roughest 
 kind of tow, a material resembling cotton, fit 
 for spinning or using as batting. Flax intended 
 for this use can be cut with a scythe or mow- 
 ing machine, and treated in all respects the 
 same as hay. Flax that is grown for the seed 
 can also be used for this purpose. The straw 
 may be threshed in an ordinary threshing ma- 
 chine. The tedious rotting process is not re- 
 quired in making flax cotton. 
 
 In Belgium, "stricked" flax is made from 
 the best Riga seed, sown five bushels to the 
 acre, on land most carefully cultivated and en- 
 riched. Forked stakes are driven into the 
 
 ground, forming squares, poles are laid on 
 these 8 or 10 inches above the ground, and 
 upon these a netting, well secured, is stretched. 
 The flax grows high and slender, and is sup- 
 ported by the poles until it matures. As soon 
 as the seed begins to form, it is pulled, set on 
 ends in circles, and dried without much ex- 
 posure. Great care and attention are paid in 
 watering and scutching it. Flax treated in 
 this manner is worth, in its green state, from 
 $300 to $350 per acre, and when scutched, from 
 $1,200 to $1,500 per ton, and its value is greatly 
 increased when manufactured into the finest 
 Brussels lace. 
 
 THIRD-PRIZE ESSAYS.-No. 19.-BY JAMES BAKER, 
 
 HOOSICK FALLS, RENSSELAER CO., N. Y. 
 
 Kind of Soil. — Nearly all moderately fertile 
 soils will produce flax, but a clay loam, tlie loam 
 predominating, is the very best soil, as that gives 
 tiie largest quantity, and the best quality of fibre 
 or " lint," as it is generally called. A sandy loam 
 and clear loam are the next best, sand and gravel 
 being the poorest soils, although in very cool 
 moist seasons, good crops may be raised on such 
 soils. A moderately rich clay loam is very sure 
 in any season, whereas on dry soils it is often a 
 failure in dry times. Slaty soils produce an ex- 
 cellent quality of flax in moist, cool seasons. As 
 a general thing, any soil that will produce good 
 barley, will give good flax, except on very low 
 land, where it is liable to rust, which injures both 
 lint and seed. Although poor or worn out soils 
 will not produce flax, still it is not advisable to 
 sow it on land that has been made exceedingly 
 fertile by recent application of manure, as it is 
 liable to fall down and rot, causing great loss and 
 sometinies a total loss of the whole crop, and for 
 this reason, always take off some other crop after 
 making an application of manure, before sowing 
 to flax. Applying manure to flax also causes 
 weeds to grow up in the flax, choking the crop, 
 and making bad pulling. Land should be as free 
 from weeds as possible, consequently, flax should 
 be sown on land devoted to some hoed crop the 
 jirevious year, or it may be sown on pea stubble, 
 as that is generally clear from weeds. Good 
 crops may be raised on wheat stubble, if the 
 land is moderately rich. Never sow flax on 
 land infested with Canada thistles, as it costs 
 more to pull it, than the crops are worth, if the 
 thistles are plenty. A weed called spurry or 
 joint weed should also be avoided, as it causes 
 great wi*ste, one stalk sometimes spoiling a foot 
 square. Flax requires a cool, moist soil, or a 
 oool wet season to bring it to the greatest perfec- 
 tion, tlierefore, on farms, much affected by 
 
 drouth, it should be sown on the most moist part, 
 and on lands not badly affected by dry weather, 
 it may be sown on the dryer portions if desira- 
 ble. It should not be sown on the same piece of 
 land oftener than once in five years; neither on 
 sward land, as the yield and quality is generally 
 very poor, and the same land without any ma- 
 nure, will raise better flax after taking off a crop 
 of corn or potatoes, than if sown on the sward. 
 Land for flax should be plowed very fine, the plow- 
 man being careful to cut it all up, and pulverize 
 it as much as possible. As soon as plowed, level 
 down with the harrow, and it is ready for sowing. 
 The Time op Sowing varies in different 
 latitudes, and in different places in the same lati- 
 tude, consequently no definite directions can be 
 given, but every one must be governed by the 
 circumstances by which he is surrounded. "When 
 just coming out of the ground it is quite easily 
 killed by frost, and should not be sown until there 
 is a probability that all danger is past, and the 
 sooner after that the better, as like some other 
 crops, the earliest sown produces the heaviest 
 fields of both lint and seed. In Rensselaer and 
 Washington Counties, the two greatest flax-raising 
 counties in New- York, the usual time of sowing 
 is from the 25th of April to the 10th of May. 
 according to the season. 
 
 The Quantity of Seed. — Depends upon the 
 object in view. If raised expressly for the seed, 
 24 to 28 quarts is sufficient, and if wholly for the 
 lint, 5 to 6 pecks should be sown, but if lint and 
 seed are both desired, one bushel is considered the 
 best quantity. Very rich soils require less seed 
 than lighter land, therefore, on light soils, from 
 34 quarts to 5 pecks should be sown. If a very 
 fine, nice lint is desired, sow very thick. If both 
 seed and lint, sow about one bushel, varying a 
 little according to the soil. 
 I Sowing the Seed. — The sowing is best done 
 
38 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 with the broadcast seed sower, but as every fanner 
 does not have one, such must sow by hand. In 
 sowing by hand, it is better to sow the land twice 
 over, which gives a more uniform seeding, than 
 can possibly be obtained with once sowing. Take 
 half the quantity of seed and sow once over, sowing 
 the same as hay seed, then cross sow with the 
 remainder. The last time over will generally 
 cover all places, not sown the first time over. 
 Any one familiar with sowing hay seed can sow 
 flax seed. After sowing, harrow thoroughly once 
 over, and roll down. More harrowing injures 
 the crop. In case the weather should become 
 wet after sowing and before harrowing, and 
 should continue until the seed had sprouted, the 
 ground should not be disturbed at all. Excel- 
 lent crops have been raised that were not har- 
 rowed in, but it is better to harrow. "When the 
 flax is about an inch high sow one bushel each 
 of ashes and plaster to the acre, or if the land is 
 wormy, double the quantity of ashes without the 
 plaster. Should there be any mustard, yellow 
 seed, or Canada thistles, pull them out as soon as 
 they show themselves aV)ove the flax, which is all 
 that is necessary to be done until 
 
 Pulling. — This is the most laborious part of 
 flax raising, the more so, as no mechanical ap- 
 paratus has as yet been invented to perform that 
 part of the work in a satisfactory manner. Three 
 different machines have been invented, with 
 which to pull flax, but as all were failures from 
 one cause or another, it is useless to describe 
 them here. The only method of pulling flax, 
 and keeping it in suitable shape for dressing, is 
 by hand, and the more care there is used in hand- 
 ling, the greater will be the profits. Much, also 
 depends upon the state of the flax when pulled. 
 It is conceded by all flax raisers, that the yield is 
 greatest if pulled just as the bolls have turned a 
 brown color, the lint and seed both being heavier 
 then, than at any other time, but as pulling is a 
 slow operation, it follows that it must be comV 
 menced before it arrives at that state, as loss may 
 ensue. The time of commencing must be deter- 
 mined by circumstances. A farmer having but 
 little flax and plenty of' help may defer pulling 
 until it is in the best state for pulling, whereas, 
 one having a large quantity must commence ear- 
 lier. The rule among old people used to be, 
 when the leaves had fallen from the stem half 
 way up from the bottom, but where large quanti- 
 ties are sowed, it must be commenced sooner, 
 otherwise, there will be loss before it can all be 
 pulled. There is less loss of fibre sustained in 
 pulling it green, than by leaving it until dead 
 ripe. When allowed to get very ripe, the bolls 
 fall off" in pulling, and the lint becomes brittle, 
 causing it to whip away in dressing. Every day 
 that flax stands after ripening, diminishes its 
 
 valye five per cent. ; but it may be pulled as soon 
 as the bolls have turned from green to yellow, 
 with but little loss, if properly taken care uf after 
 pulling. When pulled green, it should be tied in 
 small handfuls, say three or four inches in diame- 
 ter, lest it mould in the center of the bundle. 
 Neitlier should it be pulled when wet ; but after 
 the flax has ripened it may be kept in a little 
 larger bundles, and may be pulled at anytime, wet 
 or dry, as it will dry out if kept set up. In order 
 to make flax a profitable crop, three rules must 
 be observed in pulling, viz., to pull it clean, to 
 keep the straw straight in the bundles, and to 
 keep the roots even. In pulling, stand with the 
 back down the hill, so as to avoid stooping as 
 much as possible, and turn the right side to the 
 flax, and with the right hand strike around what 
 flax there is on four or five inches square, at the 
 same time taking hold of it with the left, and 
 drawing it quickly from the ground with both 
 hands, move it quickly to the side of the standing 
 flax. Still holding it with the left hand and keep- 
 ing the buts on the ground, with the right hand 
 gather another handful, bring that and the one 
 previously pulled together, and pull as before. 
 So continue to do until enough has been pulled 
 to make a bundle. Then it should be taken 
 loosely in both hands, and shocked on the ground, 
 two or three times to even the buts. Then hold 
 it with the left hand, and with the right pass 
 around the middle of the bundle about a dozen 
 stems of flax, holding the ends together and 
 whirling the bundle until the band is twisted suf- 
 ficiently to hold. As it is pulled, throw into 
 bunches of six or eight bundles to facilitate set- 
 ting up, which should be done every night. 
 Make what are called long shocks, that is, bundles 
 set two and two ; as it dries much quicker and 
 nicer, than when setup in round shocks. This is 
 done by setting the buts about two feet asunder, 
 and pressing the tops together as compactly as 
 possible, then two more on each end, leaning 
 them a little towards the two first set up, never 
 setting more than eight in a shock. Should any 
 of them get blown or ftiU down, they should be 
 set up immediately, as flax moulds very soon if 
 left lying on the ground when wet. 
 
 As soon as the bolls have all turned a brown 
 color, and the stem has become dry, it should be 
 drawn in. The best way of handling, is to bind 
 each shock into a bundle, either with rye straw 
 or flax, as it is then more expeditious handling, 
 and wastes less seed than if handled without 
 binding. As soon as one load is dry, it should 
 be taken in, as rains injure it very much after it 
 is cured, making it rot unevenly, and causiug 
 also a waste of seed. 
 
 Flax seed may be threshed by hand or by 
 rollers moved by power of some kind. Thresh- 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 39 
 
 ins: 13}' liaiul or " whipping," is a simple, but 
 laborious operiition. A large flat stone is placed 
 on the barn floor, at an angle of about forty-five 
 degrees, and the operator standing behind it, 
 grasps the bundle near the root end, striking the 
 heads upon the stone, turning the bundle in his 
 hands while whipping. Four to six blows are 
 usually sufficient if the flax is dry. If set out in 
 the sun a few hours, the labor is diminished. As 
 fixst as it is whipped it sht)uld be bound up into 
 large bundles again for convenience in drawing 
 to the field for spreading. The same bands with 
 which it was bound before will do for this pur- 
 pose. The power machine (see fig. 39) consists of 
 four cast iron rollers, fourteen to eighteen inches 
 long, and about nine in diameter, fastened one on 
 each end of two iron shafts, about four feet in 
 length, and set in cast iron boxes, in a strong 
 wooden frame. One shaft has a driving pulley in 
 the centre for the belt or rope, and the other is 
 placed in movable boxes against which half of a 
 common steel wagon-spring presses. This spring 
 is pretty strong, and the middle of it bears against 
 one of the cross pieces of the frame. The rollers 
 when not in use are close together, the spring 
 keeping them in that position, but allowing them 
 to separate when anything comes between them. 
 They may be driven by horse or water power, 
 two horses being sufficient. 
 
 Five or six men are necessary to work well, 
 one at each end of the rollers, to feed, and two to 
 hand the bundles, and one to rebind and throw 
 them out of the barn. Tlie feeders stand at the 
 ends of the rolls, taking hold of the buts of the 
 bundles, and drop the heads of the bundles down 
 between the rollers, taking care not to put them 
 in any fJirther than is necessary to mash all the 
 bolls. Passing four or five times through, more 
 or less, will usually mash ofF all the bolls. A full 
 set of hands will thresh twelve hundred shocks, 
 of eight bundles each, in a day. After a quan- 
 tity has been threshed, it should be drawn upon 
 a smooth piece of meadow for 
 
 Spreading. — In spreading, begin at the higliest 
 part of the field, and drop the handfuls about 
 three feet apart, tiie buts from j'ou, and up the 
 hill. When a row is dr«i»ped across, commence 
 and spread back, taking care to keep the bnts 
 even. Take a common jack-knife in the right 
 hand, to cut the bands; then take a bundle in the 
 left hand, cut the baud, and, with both hands, 
 spread the flax out evenly over the space between 
 the two bundles, and the rest in the same man- 
 ner. One quarter of an inch is as thick as it 
 should be spread. Care should be taken to 
 spread it as evenly as possible, so that it may 
 rot uniformly. Wlien one swath is spread, an- 
 other may be dropped. When it has become 
 thoroughly weathered, which will require from 
 
 two to four weeks, according to the weather, it 
 should be turned over. This is done by taking a 
 light, smooth pole, about fifteen feet in length, 
 and, beginning at one end of the swath, run it 
 under the flax, near the top, and turning it bot- 
 tom side up. The pole should be pressed down 
 on it after turning, to prevent the wind from dis- 
 turbing it. When a wisp of it, as large as a man's 
 finger, can be taken in the hands, and a portion 
 of it, bent backwards and forwards a few tinie«, 
 will break the shove so that it will separate from 
 the fibre readily, it is rotted sufficiently, and 
 should be taken up. The best manner of doing 
 this, is to pick it up with the hands, taking up as 
 much as can be clasped at once, and laying it on 
 tlie swath ; then taking under the swath, and that 
 also, moving it as before, until enough for a 
 bundle is gathered, when it should be set up on 
 end for a few hours before binding. This is 
 much better than raking it, as it is not tangled 
 at all, and each handful separates easily. After 
 it has dried a few hours, it may be bound and 
 placed in the barn, or taken to the mill for dress- 
 ing. This ends the labor for the farmer, as the 
 dressing is a separate business; but as some may 
 wish to set up machines for dressing, I give a 
 description of the necessar}' machineiy, etc. 
 
 Dressing.— First, a water power and wheel 
 are necessary, and then all that is required is the 
 brake and swingling machine. The brakes 
 consist of fluted cast-iron rollers, from six to ten 
 inches in diameter, and about three feet long, 
 placed in a frame, with a heavy spring applied, 
 to press them together on the flax. There are 
 various kinds of brakes, and any one building a 
 mill must be guided by his means and his judge- 
 ment in making a selection. They vary in price 
 very greatly. The common mills have but 
 two rollers, and the flax is passed through them 
 from four to eight times, or until the fibre and 
 shives can be easily separated. Some of the 
 more expensive kinds will break it suflSciently 
 in one passing thi-ough. Tlie apparatus for dress- 
 ing (scutching) consists of two sets of knives, 
 eacli set containing five knives, wliich are fast- 
 ened to a pulley, each knife projecting about 
 eighteen inches from the pulley. The pulleys 
 are both attached to tiie same shaft, making 
 about 140 revolutions per minute. At each set 
 of knives is an upright swingling board, about 
 eighteen inches wide, with a notch, nine inches 
 deep, on a level with the shaft. Tiiese boards are 
 placed so the revolving knives pass within an 
 inch of the first one, and half an inch of the 
 other, and tlie tops so fixed that they may fall 
 back away from the knives one-and-a-half inches. 
 The flax is passed from the brakes to the first set 
 of knives, where it is rough-dressed, by holding 
 it in the notch in the board and allowing the 
 
40 
 
 FLA.Y CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 knives to whip tlic sliives out. When tlie greater 
 part of the shives are out, it is passed to the 
 finislier, who subjects it to the scutching of the 
 other knives, until it is entirely cleared of the 
 shives. Tiien it is tied up in bundles of 50 to 
 100 pounds, and is i-eady for market. One set of 
 brakes will answer for two sets of scutching 
 knives, making employment for five hands. For 
 those not wishing to do a large business, these 
 are the best kind of mills, as they are the least 
 expensive of any in use, the cost of them vary- 
 ing according to locality, price of labor, lum- 
 ber, etc. The tow that is obtained from the first 
 dressing is called Coarse Tow, and, after the 
 shives are shaken out, is baled and sent to market. 
 That from the other knife, is called Pine Tow, 
 and is disposed of in the same manner. Those 
 wishing to do a large business can find a superior 
 
 brake in. New York, manufactured by a leading 
 agricultural house. They make several kinds, 
 having four to twelve cylinders, and adapted to 
 all kinds of straw, tangled or straight, and vary- 
 ing in price very considerably. One man will 
 dress 50 to 100 pounds per day, in the common 
 machine. One man will pull from one-fifth to one- 
 thiid of an acre per day, and will whip out the 
 seed grown on an acre in one-and-a-half to two- 
 and-a-half days. One-and-a-half acres is a good 
 day's work for spreading. A good yield is 300 
 pounds of dressed flax, 100 pounds of coarse 
 Tow, 30 pounds of fine Tow, and 10 bushels of 
 seed. The market price on the 1st of January, 
 1865, was $3.35 to $3.56 per bushel for seed ; 30 
 cents to 33 cents per pound for flax; 10 cents for 
 fine, and 2 cents for coarse Tow. 
 
 THIRD-PRIZE ESSAYS.-JTo. 20. -BY JOHN E. STEWART, 
 
 REDDING RIDGE, FAIRFIELD CO., CONN. 
 
 Flax lias not been very extensively raised in 
 liiis section for the past thirty years, but the higii 
 price of cotton goods has induced many farmers 
 to turn their attention to the production of the 
 raw material, from which can be manufactured a 
 cheaper fabric for clothing purposes. Conse- 
 quentl}', patches of flax begin to show themselves 
 on many of the farms about here, and, setting 
 aside its utility, it is as profilai)le a crop as can 
 be raised, with us, countimr the cost of produc- 
 tion and preparation for market. 
 
 The usual modes of cultivation, rotting, etc., 
 are those pursued by our ancestors, generations 
 hack of generations, and are very defective; in 
 fact, I believe it impossible to produce a good 
 article of flax by those modes. 
 
 I have adopted, for the past three yeai's, differ- 
 ent practices, chiefly in the particulars of sowing 
 and rotting, and have been amply repaid for my 
 trouble, in having better crops of seed, and a 
 longer, finer, and heavier yield of fibre. I will 
 endeavor to describe the common methods of 
 growing and treating the crop, as well as those 
 which I have adopted instead, as improvements. 
 
 Flax is raised for the seed, which grows in 
 little bolls on the top, and for its fibre. It does 
 not exhaust the soil, but should not be sown upon 
 the same land oftener than once in five years, nor 
 should it be sown immediately after upon land 
 where flax has been spread to rot, because flax 
 leaves an ingredient in tlie soil which unfits it for 
 another cro|) of flax, but it is not injurious to any 
 of the grains or grasses, or vegetables. If sown 
 upon the same land oftener than once in five 
 years, a good crop need not be expected. One 
 
 experiment will satisfy any farmer of this f-ict. 
 Soil. — Flax requires a melloAV, rich condition 
 of the soil, but it will grow upon almost any land 
 if it be not very wet, nor dry. As a general thing, 
 land that will bring good coi-n will bring good 
 flax, but it will not do to apply barn yard manure 
 to flax ground at sowing time, as it is impossible 
 to mix It thoroughly with the soil, and the flax 
 grows and ripens unevenly. Common wood 
 ashes, sown at the time of sowing the seed, nt 
 the rate of twenty bushels to the acre, is an ex- 
 cellent niannre for flax on poor soil. I have also 
 used swamp muck with good results. The muck 
 nuist be got out upon dry ground in the f;ill, and 
 exposed to a winter's freezing. It is best to 
 draw it on to the land designed for flax, dumping 
 a cartload in a place, thirty loads to the acre. 
 Spread and plow it in in the spring. But the 
 best soil is that which is rich enough without any 
 manure, as is the case in most of the AVestern 
 States, or that which is made rich by previous 
 manuring. My practice is to sow upon land 
 planted the previous year with corn, provided it 
 was well manured for the corn crop. As soon in 
 the spring as the ground is dry enough to be 
 worked, remove all the cornstalks, weeds, and 
 rubbish from the field to the barn yard, where 
 they will make manure. That the surface may 
 be clean, bi'eak up the cornhills, or ridges, by 
 plowing twice through each, and harrow the 
 ground down as level as possible with an iron- 
 toothed harrow. Then plow clean, cutting the 
 furrow deep and narrow (one plowing is sufficient, 
 if well done), and go over the whole with the 
 harrow, until all lumps are broken and pulverized, 
 
PRIZE ESSAVS. 
 
 41 
 
 and the surface presents a fine, level appearance. 
 It is now ready to sow. 
 
 Sowing. — The seed must be new, raised the 
 preceding year, for old seed will not always 
 vegetate. The quantity generally used is too 
 small, varying from half a bushel to five pecks to 
 the acre. The consequence is, the plants grow 
 broad and short, and throw out a great many side 
 brandies, which bear seed, but are almost useless 
 for fibre. Thin sowing also gives the weeds a 
 fine chance to grow. I prefer sowing from two 
 to two and a half bushels to the acre, which, being 
 tliick, causes it to grow fine and tall, with no 
 branches except two or three to each plant, near 
 the top, while the weeds are elTectually choked 
 down. The yield of seed is much greater, and 
 tiie fibre more than doubled, and of superior 
 quality. The ground being ready, sow as evenly 
 as possible, that it may grow evenly throughout 
 the field, and all ripen at the same time. Harrow 
 in the seed with a tooth-harrow, crossing the last 
 harrowing, and go twice over the whole to be 
 sure that the seed is well covered. 
 
 It i.s best to finish with the roller, and the roll- 
 ing is indispensable if the flax is to be harvested 
 with the cradle, as otherwise it cannot be cut 
 close to the ground. It may now be left to itself 
 and nature, until it is ripe and fit to pull, which 
 period comes on in this latitude (41°) about tiie 
 time of the oat harvest— from tlie 10th to 20tli 
 August. [Compare Covering^ in First Prize Essay.] 
 Harvesting. — When the little seed bolls upon 
 the top begin to turn yellow, and the leaves upon 
 the stalk begin to drop, and the stalk itself is 
 yellow two-thirds up from the ground, the plant 
 is ripe, and should be harvested as soon as 
 possible, for if it gets over ripe the fibre is harsh 
 and rough. There are two methods of harvesting, 
 pulling and cutting. By the former method, as 
 many plants as can be surrounded by both hands 
 are seized a few inches below the bolls, and with 
 a littte jerk are easily lifted from the ground, and 
 laid on the ground, each handful by itself, spread 
 a little, with the root ends towards the laborer. 
 Care must be taken to keep the roots perfectly 
 even, as it saves much trouble and time in the 
 after process. It is thus pulled and laid in 
 straight lines, or swaths, across the field, the root 
 ends all one way. The cutting is performed with 
 the common grain cradle, and the flax laid in 
 swaths, the same as grain. By this method, the 
 fibre on the lower part of tlie stalk, and the roots, 
 is lost, while the square ends, occasioned by the 
 cutting, are not liked so well by the spinner as 
 when it is stripjied the whole length of stalks 
 and roots. Cutting is the most expeditious, and 
 will probably be followed where help is scarce, 
 and the breadth of flax extensive ; one man wlio 
 is able to lay down .three acres per day with the 
 
 cradle can hardly pull a half acre in the same 
 time. Yet pulled flax will bring a much l)etter 
 price, and pay well for the extra laboi-. But, 
 whether cut or pulled, the after managument of 
 the crop is the same. 
 
 By the old method, it is left upon the grountJ 
 until it is cured or dry enough to thresh, whicli 
 requires sometimes a week or ten days, when, on 
 a clear day, it is raked up, or gathered with the 
 hands, and bound into tight bundles, eight to ten 
 inches in diameter, and carted to the barn, whert; 
 the seed is threshed out immediately, or it is 
 stowed away, like grain, for a more convenient 
 time. If it is unbound, to be threshed, the straw 
 gets out of its even order, and becomes entangled, 
 which causes a great deal of trouble and loss. 
 It should, therefore, be threshed in the bundle, 
 and the seed cleaned by running through a fan- 
 ning-mill. The chaff", light seed, etc., which blows 
 out, is valuable for feeding stock, and the plump, 
 heavy seed is saved for sowing, or sold, and brings 
 good prices, finding a ready market. The straw 
 is generally laid aside for awhile, or until the 
 warm weather has mostly passed, and the au- 
 tumnal rains commence, when it is spread out on 
 the grass to rot. The hot rays of the sun are 
 considered very injurious to flax while it is rot- 
 ting, for which reason this operation is delayed 
 until cool weather comes on — about the last of 
 September. 
 
 I believe the above method of drying and 
 threshing very injurious to the fibre, and have 
 adopted a different plan, but those who wish to 
 dew-rot their flax ma\' as well pursue that as any 
 other mode. It will be perceived that the flax 
 remains on the ground, after pulling, some eight 
 or ten days, exposed to the sun, wind, dews and 
 rain, and in its green state it is burned and 
 dried, so that no subsequent process can separate 
 the fibre from the straw without damaging its- 
 quality. By the plan which I have successfully 
 adopted, the flax is not suff'ered to lie on the 
 ground but two days, or just long enough for the 
 seed to " plump out," as it is not entirely ripe 
 when pulled. Gather it together in handfuls, 
 about as large as can be encompassed with both 
 hands, and bind them together in slieaves a foot 
 in diameter, the little bunches being laid top of 
 each other, roots and heads alternate, so that it 
 may not become entangled. It is carted to the 
 barn and the seed taken olf with an iron comb, 
 or ripple. * * * [Description of ripple omit- 
 ted. See previous Essays.] * * * The lai'ge 
 bundles are unbound, and the smaller ones, which 
 will come readilj' a|)art., are, one at a time, divested 
 of seed, by drawing the seed end llirough the 
 comb, which is quickly done at one or two draw- 
 ing strokes. The small bunches are again bound 
 into large ones, root ends all one way; and tiie 
 
42 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 seed is spread upon the barn floc^r. Many of the 
 seed bolls will probably come ofl' whole, and re- 
 quire some threshing with a flail before it is run 
 through the fanning-mill. The seed will not be 
 entirely dry, and may be allowed to remain, 
 spread thin for a few days before it is threshed. 
 Tlie straw must be immediately subjected to the 
 rotting process. 
 
 Dew Rotting. — Tliere are two ways, " dew 
 rotting" and " water rotting." I have abandoned 
 the former, although it is simple, and much the 
 easiest. Those that dew rot also dry their flax in 
 tlie field before it is threshed, and wait until cool 
 weather begins before it is spread out to rot. At 
 the right time, it is taken to a smooth piece of 
 pasture ground, or meadow, and spread out tliinly, 
 in straiglit lines, the root ends even, and all one 
 way. After lying about two weeks, it is turned 
 over, a long pole being thrust under it, and a 
 space of several feet turned at a time. It does 
 not need to be exposed quite as long after turning 
 as before, and it is determined by trial when the 
 rotting has gone far enough. Grasp a small 
 liandful tightly in botli hands, three inches apart; 
 give them an alternate backward and forward 
 motion, a few times, so as to break the stalks, and 
 bring them together two or three times, suddenly 
 jerking them apart. If the wood breaks easil}^, 
 and flies out, leaving nothing but the fibre, it has 
 been exposed long enough, and must be bound 
 into sheaves, and put in a dry, sheltered place, 
 where, for further operations, it will await the 
 farmer's convenience. Care must be taken that 
 it does not get too rotten, and the fibre weakened, 
 if not spoiled, as is often the case. Flax which 
 has been rotted in this manner, has a dirty brown 
 color, is hai'sh and coarse to the touch, and often 
 weak and tender. It is worked into rope bag- 
 ging and coarse articles of cloth. To manufac- 
 ture it into fine linen is out of the question. 
 
 Water Rotting. — Wlien it is designed to 
 water rot, holes must be dug 85 feet in depth, and 
 in other dimensions according to the quantity to 
 be rotted. A hole 12 feet broad and 18 feet long 
 will hold the produce of a half acre. Prepare 
 the hole near a river, when convenient, in such a 
 situation that it can be kept full of water. Spring 
 water will answer very well, in which case the 
 water must be let into the pool three or four 
 weeks previous to its being wanted for use, that 
 it may get warmed and tempered by the sun. 
 Place the bundles in the hole, somewhat sloping, 
 with the root ends underneath. They should be 
 close together, and in regular courses, the second 
 course lapping upon the first one half its length, 
 tlie third lapping upon the second, and so on. 
 
 A light covering of straw or bog hay should be 
 pat on to exclude ihe light, and rails or stones 
 laid on to keep the flax under water. Fermenta- 
 
 tion will con.mence the second or third day, and 
 continde until the flax is sufliciently rotted. 
 Under favorable circumstances, eight days is 
 long enough for it to remain in the water, and 
 sometimes fourteen days is not too long. If the 
 weather be sultry, it should be examined about 
 the sixth, and each day afterward until it has had 
 enough of the water, which may be known by 
 taking a few stalks and breaking them. If the 
 inside, woody part, comes out clean, with none 
 of the bark sticking to it, the flax is ready to 
 come out. Wash the bundles clean of the filth 
 and sediment which may adhere to them, as they 
 are taken out, and set them on the root ends, six 
 or eight together, to drain for twent3'^-four hours. 
 Its color, now, is a dark green, and it must be 
 thinly spread on smooth grass ground to improve 
 its color and complete the rotting. In six to ten 
 days it will change from green to a beaulifid 
 white, the woody part will be brittle and easily 
 separated from the fibre, and, when dry, it must 
 be bound into bundles and stored in the barn. 
 
 Dressing. — The operations by which the fibre 
 is separated from the rest of the plant are termed 
 " dressing," and the implements in common use 
 for that pui-pose are simple and of easy con- 
 struction. Tliey consist of the brake, sometimes 
 called crackle, the flax-mill, and hatchel. By the 
 brake the woody part is broken into small pieces, 
 which mostly fall out during the operation, while 
 the flax-mill cleans out the remainder and knocks 
 ofl" the outside covering of the fibre. The hatchel 
 is used to straighten the fllaments and draw 
 out the knotty fibres, which occur wherever the 
 branches unite with the main stem. 
 
 Breaking. — [Description of the bi'ake omit- 
 ted.] * * * The operator stands near the 
 front end of tlie brake, with a handful of flax in 
 his left hand, laid upon the lower jaw, while with 
 the other he brings the upper one forcibly down 
 upon it, repeating the blows, moving the flax in 
 and out, turning it over, and changing ends, until 
 the woody stems are all broken. Give it a shake 
 and a flirt, now and then, during the breaking, to 
 expose tlie unbroken parts. 
 
 Scutcldng. — The next im|)lenicnt is the "flax- 
 mill," which cleans out the "shives" — as the bits 
 of broken wood are called. This is a simple 
 wheel, about two feet in diameter, with four 
 wooden blades, eighteen inches long, projecting 
 from its i)eriphery, and equidistant. Revolution 
 is given the wheel by the foot, hence the wlieel 
 should be quite lieavj', so as to be continued in 
 motion without much exertion. * * * [De- 
 scription omitted.] * * * The wheel is set in 
 motion, and a broken handful of flax held flrmly 
 with both hands, near one end, is let gradually 
 over the board, and subjected to the beating of 
 the blade. It is turned over and drawn out occa- 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS 
 
 43 
 
 sionally, until it is free from shlves, when the 
 other end is served in the sume manner. This 
 process is called scutchinsj. 
 
 Hatcheling. — The liatchel consists of a num- 
 ber of round iron teeth, set in a board, close 
 together, in the form of a circle, six inclies in 
 diameter, with the centre thicivly filled up with 
 tlie same. Tiie teeth sliould be one-eighth of an 
 inch in diameter, six inclies in length, and should 
 taper to a sharp point. The flax should be drawn 
 through the hatchel a few times, to straighten the 
 filaments and draw out all knotlj'^ portions of the 
 fibre. Each little bunch of flax should be tied 
 around with a few threads of the same, just suf- 
 ficient to keep it straight, and then bound into 
 larger bundles, eight or ten inches in diameter. 
 These can be pressed into boxes, or bales, ready 
 for market. Care should be taken in all these 
 operations that the flax be kept even at tlie ends, 
 as when it was pulled, and tiie fibre straight, for 
 
 if it becomes uneven autl tangled, much loss will 
 occur in the scutching and hatcheling. 
 
 Remakks. — The principal conditions, it will be 
 seen, on wliich depends a good crop of flax, are 
 rich soil, tliick sowing, pulling, rippling, and 
 water rotting. These diff'er materially from the 
 old methods usually pursued in this section of 
 country and involve more labor, but the value of 
 the flax is more than double, pound for pound, 
 while the yield is nearly double. The writer's 
 experience warrants him in giving, as the produce 
 of an acre, twenty bushels of seed and five 
 hundred pounds of dressed flax. The seed is 
 worth nearly $4 per bushel at present, and the 
 fibre should be worth $1 per pound. The dress- 
 ing, which is the most tedious part of the work, 
 may be performed any time during the winter, 
 when the farmer has little else to do. Many crops, 
 at this time, are paying better, but cost double 
 for their production, both in hurry and worry. 
 
 [Note.— The foregoing five Third-Prize Essay.*; arearianged, not in order of merit, but in order of the numbers they 
 chanced to receive at the time of their reception. They are presented, as nearly as passible, in the language of the 
 authors. The following are portions of some of the remaining Essays, selected and condensed, with the view of bring- 
 ing out important points, in wliich they eiUier differ from or corroborate the statements in the Prize Essays.— Ed.] 
 
 ESSAY BY JOHN D. RENGSTORFF, 
 
 AFTON, WASHINGTON CO., MINN. — (TBANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 Soil. — If a porous, ricli, sandy loam, on which 
 flax does best, is not at hand, take any good loam 
 on which a lioed crop, such as potatoes, cabbages, 
 etc., has been raised the previous year. Land, on 
 which corn has been raised the previous season, 
 will produce good flax, if it is free from weeds, 
 and that wliich was manured the year before is 
 l)referable to that which has just been manured. 
 Hog and sheep dung are best for flax; horse 
 manure should not be used, because it will make 
 the flax rust. The soil should be prepared in the 
 fall, as soon as the crops of that season are re- 
 moved. The land should be plowed at intervals, 
 several times, and made perfectly fine. After the 
 last plowing, leave it unharrowed in the furrow 
 over winter. If the land is binding, and has be- 
 come too compact by the wet winter, it should 
 be plowed as shallow as possible shortly before 
 sowing time. I prefer a single-horse corn plow, 
 and make narrow furrows. Newly broken up 
 land needs only thorough harrowing to form 
 a good seed bed. 
 
 Seed and Sowing. — In Germany, two kinds 
 of flax are raised — the "short" and "long." 
 The seed of the first was called " sun-flax," be- 
 cause the seed bolls opened in the sunshine, as 
 soon as ripe. It produces a fine and soft flax, but 
 
 does not yield nearly so much as the long, because 
 the fibre is too short. The seed I have seen in 
 America is the long variety, and is like the seed 
 from Riga, which we got from Bremen. The 
 time of sowing depends on the diff"erent climates. 
 The common rule is to sow in spring, when the 
 soil is dry, and no more night frosts are to be 
 feared. But when flax is grown in larger quan- 
 tities, and other grain crops are raised, flax ought 
 to be sowed a little later, so that the crops will 
 not be read}' to harvest at the same time. Flax 
 will ripen 10 or 11 weeks after sowing. Before 
 sowing, harrow the land. Should there be any 
 lumps, they should be broken down fine. 125 
 pounds of seed are used for an acre. Sow twice, 
 the second time crosswise. Do not fear to sow 
 too much, as the closer the flax stands the finer 
 the fibre will be, and the more weeds will be kept 
 down. Then harrow the land until all the seed 
 is covered, the last time with horses on a trot. 
 If a roller is at hand, the land should be rolled 
 after harrowing. Should there be heavy rains 
 before the seed is sprouted, and a crust cover 
 the seed, so as to prevent the young sprouta 
 coming up, then the crust must be broken by 
 driving a flock of sheep over the flax land. Or it 
 should be rolled with a light roller made of a log 
 
44 
 
 FLAX CULTUKE, El C. 
 
 8 to 10 indies in diameter, drawn by two men. 
 After the laud is rolled, the young flax will soon 
 make its appearance. 
 
 Weeding. — As soon as the young flax is about 
 two inches high, and weeds appear, tliey must 
 be exterminated. The weeders sit flat on the 
 ground, and weed on each side of them, as far as 
 they can reach, and hitch along on their hands 
 and seat. The plants are not injui'ed by persons 
 sitting on them ; on the contrary, it does them 
 good, because the soil is pressed closer to the 
 roots, which promotes the growth. As weeding 
 is very tedious work, it is best to have the soil 
 so ]irepared that very few weeds will appear. 
 
 Harvesting.— When the flax becomes of a 
 yellowish color, and the lower leaves drop off", do 
 not delay the pulling lest the good quality of the 
 flax be injured, though the bolls may yet be 
 rather green. When the flax is pulled, it is tied 
 in large bundles, with rye straw or willow twigs, 
 ■which are set up on the root ends. In this 
 condition the flax is exposed as little as possible 
 to the sun, until it is carted home to have the 
 seed bolls removed. For this purpose, an mstru- 
 ment called the rippler is used, which consists of 
 an iron comb, one foot in breadth, and with teeth 
 a foot long. It can be made by a blacksmith, out 
 of iron plates, which stand so far apart that the 
 seed bolls will be stripped off" when the flax is 
 pulled through. The rippler is fastened to a 
 block of wood. In Missoui'i,I made such a com!) 
 myself, out of wood. Taking an oaken jilank, 
 with a large saw I sawed out tiie wood between 
 the teeth, and pointed tlie latter. This instru- 
 ment did good service. After the seed bolls are 
 removed, the flax is bound in small bundles, about 
 as large as can be spanned by both hands. 
 
 Rotting. — Wafer Botting. — Slow running 
 brooks, with sandy, or gravelly bed, or still 
 jionds, the beds of which are free from mud. 
 should be selected for this purpose. To prevent 
 its being carried down stream, should the stream 
 rise, a pole is driven in the ground, at tlie spot 
 where the rotting is to be done. Then a few 
 bundles of flax are tied crossways, and slipped 
 over the pole. The otjier bundles are then, one 
 after another, laid around the pole. Brush, or 
 straw, is placed over them, and stones are put on 
 top, so that all the flax will keep under water. 
 If no stones are at hand, sods, with the grass side 
 on the flax, will answer the purpose. The water 
 rotting requires from four to s'^ven days. If the 
 nights lie warm, the rotting wiil be done sooner. 
 After four days, examine it, to ascertain how far 
 the rotting has progressed. Pull a little flax out 
 of one of the bundles, and if the shives break 
 short, when bent, the rotting is completed. 
 
 Take the bundles out of the water, rinse them 
 clean, because the gummy substance that covers 
 
 the flax will color the fiT)re red, if it is not re- 
 moved. Sometimes, however, in examining the 
 rotting flax, it will appear to be twisted together 
 and tangled. This is called rough rotting. In 
 this condition, the flax must not be taken out, but 
 you must wait until it is straight again, which 
 will require about two nights. After the flax is 
 removed from the water, haul it to a stubble 
 field, or a mown meadow, and spread it. Take 
 a bundle in the left arm, and spread the flax out 
 thinly with the right hand, while walking back- 
 ward. Children can hand the bundles to tlie 
 spreader. Here the flax is left until it becomes 
 somewhat slack in sunshine. When this is no- 
 ticed, take up a little and break it in the middle, 
 rubbing it thoroughly, and if the " bast " separates 
 readily from the shove, it is time to take it up 
 with a rake, bind in sheaves, and secure it 
 in a dry place. In rotting, remember the rule : 
 "Rather too little than too much rotting." [The 
 writer's remarks on Dew Hotting are omitted.] 
 
 The seed is removed, after rotting, in the fol- 
 lowing manner: The flax is laid on a barn floor, 
 or on an even, hard piece of land, and threshed, 
 being beaten with a beetle, or " crig," [as described 
 in the Second Prize Essay, but with a deeply 
 corrugated and cross-cut bottom.] The flax is 
 beaten until it is soft, and is then turned over and 
 the other side treated in the same manner. The 
 more the flax is worked in this way, the less 
 breaking will be required afterwards. In taking 
 up the strawy be very careful to pull out all that 
 hang over, or that do not lie even, and straighten 
 them. After this, the flax is laid up in little ricks, 
 built around a stick, like a broom-stick, set up- 
 right in a block li feet square. The flax is laid 
 up in small handfuls, until about five or six feet 
 high, and is there left until wanted for breaking. 
 [The writer's remarks <m the breaking, etc., are 
 good, but add notliinglo what has been previously 
 given. Of the Hatchel, he says :] 
 
 There are two Hatchels in use, the coarse and 
 fine. Those I have seen here are unfit for pro- 
 ducing fine lint, and these must be imported from 
 Germany. On the coarse hatchel the flax is pre- 
 pared for the finer one, and all shives are removed. 
 Through the finer hatchel the flax is pulled, unti. 
 all the tow is removed. 
 
 Seed. — The unripe seed is not fit for sowing, 
 and that which is threshed off in breaking may 
 be used for oil, if an oil-mill is near, and it will 
 make good feed for horses, when scalded with 
 boiling water. The best and most seed may be 
 gained by raising the plants in rows, so that they 
 can be hoed. If sown broadcast, sow^ thinly, 
 hardly one-half the quantity mentioned before. 
 The seed is ripe when the straw turns brown, and 
 the seeds rattle in the bolls, when shaken. The 
 plants, either pulled or mowed, are left in the sun 
 
PKIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 15 
 
 to dry thoroughly, and are then carted to the 
 house and threshed at once. The straw has no 
 vuUie. The seed is cleansed in a fanning-mill, 
 and is kept in a dry place, where the changes of 
 the weatlier have the least influence. Fax seed 
 will last good for six years, if well kept, and 
 that more than a year old starts most uniformly. 
 Enemxes. — The most dangerous enemy of the 
 flax is the weed, spoken of before ; then comes 
 the cut-worm. Last summer, I sowed a few rows 
 for raising seed ; the plants came up finely, and 
 as there were no weeds in the plot, it happened 
 that I did not visit the spot for several days. I 
 was greatly astonished to find a whole row gone 
 one morning, and, investigating the matter, I 
 found the evil-doer, the cut-worm. With the aid 
 of my wife, I dug out half a gallon of these 
 worms, and fed them to the cliickens. A friend 
 claims that, by sowing salt with the s?ed, and 
 harrowing it under, these worms can be destroyed. 
 Jjong-continued drouth is also disadvantageous 
 to flax. It often happens that there is but little 
 rain from May to June, and more from July to 
 the fall, it would, therefore, be advisable to sow 
 part of the seed early, and another part late. In 
 "arts where prairie land has been broken in the 
 
 beginning of June, a good crop may yet be raised 
 on such land. In the year 1835, I sowed, iii Mis- 
 souri, in the first week of April, half a buslicl of 
 flax seed, pulled the plants eleven weeks after- 
 wards, rippled the flax, dried the bolls and tliresh- 
 ed them. The seed thus gained I sowed July 4th 
 of the same year, on the same piece of ground. 
 The plants grew taller, but the fibre was coarser 
 than the early flax, the plants having stood too 
 thinly, because all the seed did not germinate. 
 This double crop produced 66 pounds of clean 
 and very fine flax, for which I received, in St. 
 Louis, 25 cents per pound. * * * 
 
 Treatment of the Tow. — The tow, especi- 
 ally the coarser sorts, must be worked over before 
 it can be used for spinning. It is laid in small 
 quantities on the floor, a man sits flat before it, 
 the feet stretched forward, Avith a willow twig, as 
 thick as a little finger, in each hand, he whips tho 
 tow thoroughly, shaking it from time to time to 
 remove all the remaining shives. The tow ia 
 twisted up in "heads," spim, and used for 
 weaving bags, workingmen's aprons, tent cover- 
 ings, etc. ; the finer sorts, when flax-yarn is taken 
 for the web, will make good filling for sheets and 
 table-cloths, as also for towels. 
 
 ESSAY BY GEORGE W. HICKS, 
 
 WARRES CENTER, BRADVORD CO., PA. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 Soil. — I have raised more or less flax, every 
 year, for the last fifteen years, selecting a field 
 that has been planted the previous season with 
 Indian • corn, potatoes, or some otlier hoed crop, 
 to have as few weeds among the flax as possible. 
 I plow it in the fall and spring, with narrow fur- 
 row slices, say six or eight inches wide, and ten 
 deep, at each plowing. Then harrow it thor- 
 oughly. I have raised good flax on green sward 
 plowed in the fall and harrowed in the spring, 
 but such ground is liable to be so grassy as to in- 
 jure the crop and to prevent rapid pulling. 
 
 Soioing. — I sow about one bushel of seed per 
 acre, when the crop is designed for lint. When 
 seed only is the object, one-half the above quan- 
 tity is sufficient. If the seed be sowed too thick, 
 the flax will be fine and short. I measure my 
 ground, and sow it in lands six paces wide (going 
 and returning on the same bed). Beginners are 
 apt to sow it too thin (or too thick), unless thej^ 
 measure their ground and seed, and exercise 
 much care when sowing. Some fanners sow two 
 ways, sowing half the desired quantity each way, 
 but this is not necessary if you measure both 
 ground and seed. After sowing, I harrow lightly. 
 Most farmers harrow too much after sowing. I 
 knew of five acres of flax that were sowed, and 
 
 about one-half of it was harrowed in, when it 
 commenced raining, and rained for tw^enty-four 
 hours. The other half was never harrowed, and 
 I never could see any difference in it, tliough 1 
 helped pull the whole of it. It yielded eighteen 
 bushels of seed, and about four hundred pounds 
 of dressed flax to the acre. I sowed a lot of si.x 
 and one-fourth acres, in 1854, and it yielded sixly 
 bushels of seed and twenty-six hundred pounds 
 of dressed flax. In 1863, 1 raised twelve acres of 
 flax, and it yielded about nine bushels of seed 
 and three hundred pounds of lint per acre. I 
 bought and dressed, in 1863, sixty acres of flax, 
 after it was rotted, and it j-ielded about three 
 hundred pounds per acre. This season, 1864, I 
 raised five acres, which yielded eight bushels of 
 seed per acre. The heaviest yield of seed that I 
 know of in this town, this season, is thirteen and 
 one-half bushels per acre. 
 
 Pulling. — The old rule for pulling is, when one- 
 third of the bolls, or heads, are turned brown. 
 If I have considerable to pull, and help scarce, I 
 commence a little sooner. If it gets dead ripe, it 
 will dress away more. I prefer to pull it a little 
 green, than to allow it get too ripe, as it will make 
 more pounds of dressed flax per acre. I com- 
 mence on the lower side of the field, if on sidling 
 
46 
 
 FLAX CUJ.TIRE, ETC. 
 
 ground, and pull a strip about thirty feet wide 
 across the piece, and bind it in small sheaves. 
 When it is dry enough to draw in, I bind each 
 shock in one bundle, as it occupies less room. 
 Some farmers draw it in without binding, but it 
 is apt to snarl and pull out and waste if it is not 
 bound. The best way 'of threshing off the seed 
 is with rollers, driven by water or horse power. 
 The next best way is to place a large flat stone 
 on the barn floor, with one edge raised sixteen or 
 eighteen inches, and to beat it out upon that. 
 
 Rotting. — Flax should not be spread in very 
 hot and dry weather, as the scorching sun injures 
 the fibre, and makes it dark-colored and harsh. 
 It should be spread as soon as the fall rains com- 
 mence. If left until cold weather, it rots slowly, 
 and will not weigh so much as if rotted earlier in 
 the season. Spread with the tops towards you, 
 as they are apt to snarl when from you. Spread 
 the swaths about six or eight inches apart. 
 When it is about half-rotted, tuni it over with a 
 smooth pole, about fifteen feet long. Run one 
 
 end of it under the swath, near the top of the 
 flax, and* raise the top ends and turn it over, let- 
 ting your pole drop on the flax so as to press it 
 down, that the wind will not blow it away. 
 When it is rotted enough, the fibre will begin to 
 separate from the coarsest stalks, as the coarse 
 flax rots soonest. By rubbing a few stalks in 
 your hands, if the shives separate readily, it is 
 rotted enough. When taking it up, take a com- 
 mon hand-rake, and walk close to the buts and 
 rake it, by sliding it along every time you step. 
 If you roll it as some do, it brings the long and 
 short all mixed together, and does not handful 
 out as well when you brake it. I rake the 
 bundles as large as I can bind handily with a 
 double band. Before binding, you should raise 
 every bundle up fifteen or twenty inches, and let 
 it drop on the buts to even them. "When dress- 
 ing, make your bunches of flax so that they will 
 weigh from fifty to seventy-five pounds. If to 
 be shipped by railroad or boat, it should be sack- 
 ed, say 150 or 200 pounds in a sack. 
 
 ESSAY BY L. M. HOLBROOK, 
 
 DUNDEE, KANE CO., ILL. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 The best soil for producing flax with a strong, 
 fine fibre, is a sandy loam that has been well 
 manured three or four years previously, and no 
 other crop raised on it but corn, and this kept 
 entirely free from grass and weeds. It is true 
 that you can raise a tolerable crop of flax on 
 almost an J'' soil, and by almost any process, but 
 remember that you cannot raise a large crop, of 
 good quality, without taking great pains to have 
 the soil in a high state of cultivation. For seed, 
 the very best should be selected, free from every 
 foul seed. As soon in the spring as the weather 
 becomes warm, and the ground settled, begin to 
 prepare your ground for a crop of flax, have it 
 entirely free and clear from all weeds and rub- 
 bish of every kind, and work the ground when 
 it is dry enough to crumble and not stick to- 
 gether in lumps. Treading the ground, when 
 plowing, injures it very much. When you have 
 plowed the ground, about six inches deep for 
 common soil, take a fine, heavy harrow and drag 
 it the same way it was plowed. Pulverize it suf- 
 ficiently so that no lumps will be likely to hinder 
 the growth of the young plants. In the prepara- 
 tion of the land, you lay the foundation for a 
 good or poor crop. After you have sown the 
 seed, it is too late to rectify any mistakes, or atone 
 for any neglect in preparing the soil. As soon as 
 the ground is well prepared, the seed should be 
 sown. Sow, as evenly as possible, from one-half 
 to three-fourths of a bushel per acre. If you 
 
 sow it mainly for the seed, sow the smaller quan- 
 tity. But if you want a good quality of straw, 
 sow it thick, as the larger the stalk the coarser 
 will be the fibre, and vice versa. After the seed is 
 sown, take a harrow and drag it the same way 
 you did the first time, and be careful and not fill 
 the dead furrows up. Then roll it lightly. If 
 there is any place where water will be likely to 
 stand, it must be drained off, as standing water 
 will kill the young flax in a short time. Flax is 
 a plant that cannot grow with weeds, without 
 being materially injured by them. The general 
 opinion is, that in order to have the best quality 
 of fibre, flax must be pulled before the seed is 
 ripe. In Iflinois, until within a year or so past, 
 not much account has been made of anything 
 except the seed. As soon as the seed is fully ripe, 
 it is cut with a reaper, gathered, and threshed, and 
 the straw sold to the factory. As soon as the 
 bolls begin to turn yellow, it is time to pull it. 
 Commence on one side, and take a breadth about 
 four or five feet wide. Grasp a handful near the 
 top and pull it up. W^hen you have as much as 
 you can hold in both hands, lay it down in a 
 swath and continue thus through the field. It i' 
 pretty hard work, and will be likely to makt 
 your back ache, but it is the only right way to 
 harvest it. It can be cut with the reaper, like 
 grain, but it injures the flax. When you have it 
 pulled, bind it in small bundles, and set it up in 
 stooks, and as soon as it is dry enough so that the 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 47 
 
 seed will slioll out, take it on the barn floor, and 
 lay the heads together, not unbinding the bundles, 
 and thresh the tops with a flail. Do not break 
 the straw more than is absolutely necessary. 
 Then shake the bundles to get out all the seed. 
 There are two methods of rotting flax, called 
 dew, and water rotting. Dew rotting is generally 
 
 practised in this country. Take your straw to n 
 piece of smooth meadow, and sprea<l it evenly 
 and thin, in swaths. Let it lie two or three weeks, 
 or until the woody part is so weakened that it can 
 be easily broken. Then bind it up, and place it 
 under cover in some dry place. [Account of the 
 operations of dressing, etc., omitted.] 
 
 ESSAY BY W. B. MOREY, 
 
 GEORGETOWN, MADISON CO., N. T. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 Soil. — Flax may be grown advantageously on 
 all moderately cohesive soils resting on a sound 
 clay subsoil, if naturally dry or underdrained. 
 The land should be free from weeds. Herce it 
 should best succeed some hoed crop, but very 
 good crops of flax are often raised upon wheat 
 land where barn-yard manure had been freely 
 applied, and the weeds thoroughly exterminated. 
 There is still richness enough remaining in the 
 3oil to prove servicable to this crop, without 
 resorting to other means of supplying nutriment. 
 The ground should be thoroughly plowed in the 
 autumn, in time to insure the germination of the 
 weed seeds, that they may be effectually destroyed 
 by the frosts of winter. Fall plowing, if the soil 
 be heavy, is preferable for this, as well as many 
 other crops, and deep plowing is advantageous 
 to insure the success of the crop, and for this 
 purpose the Michigan double-plow is to be re- 
 commended. The ground should then be well 
 pulverized, by the use of a harrow, or cultivator. 
 Flax should be sowed as early as the ground is 
 in a condition to be worked in the spring. The 
 ground may be enriciied by the application of 
 ashes, plaster, salt, old leached ashes, and phos- 
 phates. The three former may be mixed, or used 
 separately, with advantage. Dr. Ure says that 
 30 pounds of potash, 28 of common salt, 34 of 
 burnt gypsum, 54 of bone dust, and 56 of sul- 
 phate of magnesia, will replace the constituents 
 of an average acre of flax. From one bushel to 
 one-and-a-half of clean seed should be used per 
 acre, where lint and seed is the object. Two 
 bushels will give a finer fibre. In those countries 
 where the finest linens are produced, from two to 
 four bushels is the quantity sowed per acre. But 
 in that case, the seed is not allowed to ripen 
 before harvesting. Where flax is sowed for the 
 seed principally, and allowed to get fully ripe, it 
 is then of less value for lint, which is often sold 
 to manufacturers of pasteboard and paper, at fair 
 prices. The yield of a crop of lint will vary 
 from one to two tons to the acre, and the yield 
 of seed from ten to fifteen, and sometimes as 
 high as twenty bushels to the acre. 
 
 Pulling, or Cutting. — The crop is ready for 
 
 pulling when t'ae seed is beginning to change 
 from a green to a pale brown color, and the stalk 
 becomes yellow about two-thirds of its length. 
 Pulling too soon, or allowing the crop to get too 
 ripe, are both injurious to the fibre. In pulling 
 the flax should be separated from weeds, should 
 be pulled whei. dry, the root ends kept even, 
 and tied up into small sheaves, these may be set 
 up two and two in stocks, from fifteen to twenty 
 bundles in a bunch, and allowed to stand till 
 thoroughly dried. Where but few acres are 
 sowed, it can be pulled by the help of women 
 and children. But if many acres are sowed, 
 great care should be exercised in the preparation 
 of the ground, that it may be clear of weeds and 
 smooth, so that it may be either cut with a reaper 
 or mower, or cradle. The seed can be threshed 
 very fast, with a common flail, when bound in 
 small bundles, by threshing the heads on both 
 sides. Other ways are by trampling with horses, 
 by a threshing machine, by drawing through a 
 hatchel, by rollers operating by horse power, or 
 by whipping over a smooth board, or stone. 
 
 Rotting. — This is accomplished either by water 
 or dew. The process of water rotting is said to 
 produce a finer and softer fibre. Soft, or river 
 water, should be used. A tank, or vat, is used for 
 the purpose, where the flax can be covered in 
 water, to remain until properly rotted, the time 
 required, depends in part upon the ripeness of 
 the flax, and varies from ten to twenty days. It 
 should be taken from the water as soon as the 
 lint will freely separate from the woody part. 
 The more common method is, to spread as evenly 
 as possible in swaths, upon a smooth meadow. 
 It should be turned occasionally, that it may rot 
 alike on both sides. It is readily turned by run- 
 ning a pole under the straw. October is a proper 
 time for this operation. The length of time re- 
 quired for rotting depends upon the condition of 
 the straw and state of the weather. In good 
 weather, with occasional rains, it will rot in from 
 one to two weeks. In very dry weather, it will 
 take much longer. When rotted sufficiently, it 
 is bound in good-sized bundles, as soon as it is 
 dry, and housed, or drawn to. the factory to be 
 
48 
 
 FLAX CULTURE. ETC. 
 
 dressed. Suitable buildings -nitli machines are 
 now being put up in different localities, where 
 the flax is either bought or dressed, on shares, or 
 
 at so much per hundred. The old method of 
 dressing it by hand will now be resorted to only 
 by those remote from such machinery. 
 
 ESSAY BY CARL BOES, 
 
 DETROIT. MICH. (EXTRACTS.) TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 Soil. — There are few plants on which the soil 
 has so much influence as on flax. Neither light 
 sandy soils, nor heavy loams, are suitable for 
 it. On the former it grows weak'.y, for want 
 of moisture, while heavy, binding, clayey soils 
 hinder its growth. I do not say that heavy soils 
 should be avoided, on the contrary, a strong soil 
 is suitable to flax,'but it must be worked fine, and 
 not bind and bake after rains. A mellow soil, 
 mixed with old vegetable mould, is best. After a 
 piece of land is selected for flax, it is manured in 
 the fall, and the manure plowed under. In the 
 spring it is again plowed and harrowed. Land 
 having been manured and used for hoed crops, 
 such as cabbages, potatoes, etc., may be plowed 
 and harrowed in spring for flax, without previous 
 manuring. Land that has been down to grass', or 
 clover, and broken up the summer previous, is 
 especially desirable. Although moisture is bene- 
 ficial to flax, wet soil is not suitable, and low 
 lands must be well drained. 
 
 Sowing. — The seed should not be sowed until 
 danger of frost is past, the cold rains have ceased, 
 and warm weather has come. Therefore, the 
 preparation of the soil for seeding cannot be 
 commenced early. The particular time of sow- 
 ing cannot be given in this extended country. 
 The time of sowing ranges from the middle of 
 May to the beginning of June. Here in Michigan, 
 and further North, it is not safe to sow before the 
 latter date, as a late frost may kill the young 
 plants. In the Middle States, and at the East, 
 the sowing may be done earlier, according to cir- 
 cumstances. When the time for sowing has 
 come, the soil is thoroughly worked with the 
 cultivator, which I prefer to plowing, and is then 
 harrowed finely. This double working in the 
 spring is beneficial for two reasons. First, on 
 account of the early plowing, and the working 
 afterwards, the soil becomes more porous and 
 fertile, and retains the moisture longer. Second, 
 the weeds that have grown in tlie meantime AviJl 
 be destroyed. When the soil is thus prepared, 
 tlie seed should be sowed. The seed should be 
 fully ripe and glossy, not musty, as it is some- 
 times, on account of carelessress in drying, and 
 It should be entirely free from weed seed. If the 
 seed is not clean it should be made so by sifting. 
 The proper quantity of seed is Si bushels for an 
 acre. The seed is sown in the same manner as 
 nther small seed, and is harroAved in thoroughlv. 
 
 Weeding. — When the flax is four to five inches 
 liigh, the work of weeding commences. This is 
 a necessary labor, not only for the better growth 
 of the flax, but the weeds will hinder the work 
 materially at the time of harvesting, when they 
 will have grown tall. The cultivator must be 
 particularly careful to exterminate a weed called 
 " Flax-Dodder" {Cuscuta epilinum), which is plen- 
 tiful in flax-growing countries. It is a parasitic 
 vine which grows upon and winds itself around 
 the plants. This hinders not only the growth 
 of the plant, but is also very troublesome in 
 dressing the flax. [This plant is smaller than, 
 but very much like, the common American Dod- 
 der [Cttscitta Oronovii), which is a leafless, light 
 orange-colored vine, clinging to other plants, 
 and living upon their juices, and having numer- 
 ous tufts of small flowers. — Ed.] All of a 
 household take part in weeding, and I gladly 
 remember the time, in my youth, when flax 
 was to be weeded ; to expedite the work, the 
 youngsters were offered a little reward. The 
 weeding is done by each one taking a strip as wide 
 as he can reach the weeds on each side. Bending 
 the plants does not injure them. The next morn- 
 ing after Aveedingthe difference may be distinctly 
 noticed in the field. The riddance of the weeds, 
 and the loosening of the soil in consequence, 
 gives the plants a strong and healthy appearance. 
 
 HarTesting. — Wlien flnx has made about two- 
 thirds of its growth, the flowers come out, giving 
 the field a very attractive appearance. After 
 flowering, the seed bolls appear. When the 
 flax haulms become of a yellowish color, tlie 
 leaves die, and the bolls become brown, the 
 harvesting should commence. It is not neces- 
 sary to wait the full maturity of all the bolls, 
 as this would injure the quality of the flax. 
 The crop is pulled by grasping a handful of 
 haulms with the right hand, and then helping 
 with the left hand. Tlie haulms remain in the 
 left hand until it is filled. The flax is spread 
 evenly, in rows, just behind the workman. This 
 is continued until all the flax is pulled. Here the 
 flax is left for eight days, and is then turned over 
 with a long, smooth stick, bent a little at one end, 
 and is left to remain for eight days more, after 
 Avhich time it is bound and carted home. The 
 next work is to free the flax from the bolls, by 
 drawing the top ends through a rippler. 
 
 The governments in flax-growing countries or 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 49 
 
 Germany encourage the use of foreign seed, by 
 giving tlie seed to tlie poorer classes of tlie dis- 
 tricts at reduced prices or on long credit. It 
 would be advisable that some of our seed-dealers 
 procure some of the new Riga seed, which can 
 easily be done through a Bremen or Hamburg 
 house, so tha,t those who wish may try it. The 
 flax is now ready for the brake, and only needs 
 drying for this purpose. A sunny day is selected 
 and as much flax as is intended to be broken that 
 day, is placed alongside of the building or in 
 other similar exposure, and the flax is taken for 
 breaking directly out of the sun. Tliere are 
 other methods of drying flax, such as putting it 
 into a still hot baker's oven, or digging a trench 
 in the ground, over which a light scafl'old or 
 platform is made, on which the flax is placed, a 
 fire being kindled below. Those methods are 
 not onl}^ dangerous, because the flax may easily 
 take fire, but they require, especially the latter, 
 the steady supervision of a careful man. (De- 
 scription of dressing, etc., omitted.) 
 
 The process of hatcheling must be preceded by 
 scutching, as the flax fibres still stick together, 
 and must be parted, so that the hatchel will not 
 tear them. For this purpose a scutching-board 
 is used. An upright board, with a foot piece 
 and a swingle blade. Some of the straw is 
 taken in the left hand and placed through the 
 opening of the board, while with the swingle in the 
 riifht hand it is hit downward. The flax is held 
 
 as much as possible apart, and the points of the 
 swingle help doing this. After the liandful is 
 turned over several times, shaken and swung 
 sufficiently, it is twisted around and laid aside, 
 and the work continued in tlie same way. 
 
 Now the last work, to liatcliel tlie flax, is to be 
 done. The machine for this purpose consists of 
 a i-inch board, 1 foot broad and 3 feet and a few 
 inches long. On this the hatchel is listened, 
 which is a block 7 to 8 inches square and 4 inches 
 high, a little smaller at the top than at the bottom. 
 A piece of tin is fastened on the top, into this 
 holes are made, and the steel needles, a little 
 stronger than knitting needles, 5 inches long and 
 evenly pointed at the top, are inserted. The dis- 
 tance apart is '|i6 to ^\s of an inch, accord- 
 ing to the fineness the flax is desired. In 
 hatcheling, this machine is taken between the 
 knees, and the feet rest in the openings at the 
 lower end, or a kind of stool may be made, with 
 two open arms, into which the hatchel is placed 
 and fastened by bolts. Some lay down a chair, 
 fasten the hatchel upon it, and draw the back of 
 the chair towards themselves. Half of one of the 
 scutched beets taken into the right hand and 
 brought over the hatchel, with the left hand the 
 lower end is taken hold of and pulled, while the 
 right hand makes an up and down motion. Pro- 
 ceed thus until the desired fineness is reached. 
 For very fine flax two hatchels are necessary. 
 
 ESSAY BY "NOVICE," 
 
 SARATOGA SPRINGS, SARATOGA CO., N. Y. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 Growing. — Soil. — Any good, strong, well cul- 
 tivated ground, that is free from grass, sods, and 
 weeds, and will raise a good fair growth of oat 
 straw, will answer for flax. 
 
 Preparation of the Ground. — If the soil is heavy, 
 the lot intended for flax may be plowed in the 
 fall. If a light soil, it should be plowed as soon 
 as the frost is out of the ground in the spring. 
 Harrow the ground well three or four times, at 
 least, to provide a good seed bed, and to enable 
 the young flax plant to root readily in the soil. 
 
 Seed. — The best kind of seed to sow is the 
 Riga. It yields more seed per acre, and more 
 flax per tun of rotted straw than other kinds that 
 I am acquainted with. 
 
 Time of soicing. — The same as with oats. As 
 early as tlie season will permit, as the flax plant 
 makes its best growth when the weatlier is cool 
 and the ground moist. 
 
 Where flax is raised for the seed alone, one 
 half bushel is sufficient seed for an acre. For 
 .fibre and seed together, one and one half bushels 
 
 will answer. For fibre alone two bushels is bct- 
 tei-, as the plants will be crowded, grow slender, 
 and without branches, which is desira\»le, as the 
 flax straw will handle better, make better dressed 
 flax, and yield more per tun of straw, and also 
 more fliix per acre. 
 
 Sowing.— The seed should be spread evenly 
 over tlie ground, and then be well harrowed into 
 the soil. Some go through their flax on their 
 knees as soon as weeds appear and pull them out. 
 Others wisely defer weeding until pulling time. 
 
 Time to pull flax— Is when two-thirds of the 
 bolls are ripe. If there should be wet places 
 where the flax is green, and places where the 
 flax has fallen down, they should be pulled before 
 the main crop, and each kind kept by itself. 
 
 (Pulling and binding omitted.) 
 
 The flax should be set up on its root ends as 
 soon as possible, placing from four to six bundles 
 together in a stook, so as to dry evenly and 
 quick ,y. As soon as it is dry, it should be drawn 
 to the barn and stored away, to prevent its being 
 
50 
 
 FLAX CULTURE. ETC. 
 
 stinbnrncd, as burned flax will not rot evenly. 
 To remove tlie seed, place a large stone on the 
 barn floor or other tight floor. Incline the upper 
 surface of the stone to about the angle of forty- 
 five degrees, block it firmly in its position, and 
 you are ready for work. Now take a bundle of 
 flax in both hands, clasping it near the root ends, 
 raise the bundle above your head and strike; 
 bring it down across the stone, the bolls will fly 
 •in all directions. Repeat this a few times and 
 the bolls will be all whipped ofl'. Jam the root 
 ends against j^our breast to even them and the 
 operation is ended. Some roll them off by ma- 
 chinery, but boys, with the assistance and direc- 
 tion of one man, will whip them off" cleaner, and 
 the work will be nearly as cheaply done without 
 the extra cost of machinery. The bolls may be 
 threshed with a flail, trod out by horses, or pass- 
 ed through a machine set for threshing grass seed 
 or clover. Flax seed may be cleaned in a com- 
 mon fanning-mill, by providing suitable sieves, 
 and when cleaned it is ready for market. Here 
 the labor of the farmer should cease, and those 
 of the manufacturer begin. The farmer raises the 
 straw, but cannot always spare the necessary time 
 and labor at the proper season of the year prop- 
 erly to prepare his flax. 
 
 Water Rotting. — This should be done if pos- 
 sible while the weather is warm, because the 
 agents to be used are warmth and moisture. 
 
 Pool. — A pool may be dug in any place where 
 joft water may be found or collected; or if this 
 8 not attainable, any pond or river of soft water 
 may be used, providing the water will make 
 good suds with common bar soap. Such is not 
 too strongly impregnated with minerals. Set 
 the bundles of flax tops down and roofs upper- 
 most in a row, at one side of the pond or pit, in- 
 clining the straw at an angle of forty-five degrees. 
 Add to the first another row, shingle fashion, and 
 still another, until you have enough down to 
 manage at once, say 1,000 lbs. of straw in a bed. 
 Now lay on the roots poles or slabs, and on them 
 stones enough to settle the bed under the water. 
 It will stay there until you want it to come out. 
 If the weather is warm and the tcater also, look to 
 your bed the second day, and if the woody pai-t 
 separates easily, and does not stick to the fibre, 
 it is ready to come out, and the sooner you tend 
 to it the better. If it does not separate readil)--, 
 let it lay a few hours, but examine it very often, 
 as a few hours time may destroy a valuable bed. 
 When it is ready, take the flax from the water and 
 let it drip some of the water out. 
 
 Spreading.— T\\\% should be done carefully. 
 Break the bands and spread it as soon as possible 
 in thin, even swaths, on a meadow to dry. The 
 roots should be placed evenly together. 
 
 Taking up —As soon as it is dry. take a hand- 
 
 rake and draw gently together, without rolling 
 the straw, into a small bundle, bind and set it up 
 to dry out any remaining moisture it may contain. 
 House the flax, and you may repeat the operation 
 if you please on a new bed if any is left. You 
 will notice as you look over your rotted flax that 
 there is here and there a handful of straw so rot^ 
 ten that it will not bear handling. This was 
 either green or lodged, and sliould liavebeen kept 
 by itself and rotted by itself, as you may do now 
 if you have saved any separate. No amount of 
 care or skill can make good flax from poor 
 straw. More depends on the treatment flax re- 
 ceives in the field, after pulling, than most farm- 
 ers are willing to allow. Water-rotted flax is rot- 
 ted evener, is brighter and stronger, and will 
 bring a higher price in the market than dew- 
 rotted flax. But if soft water is not attainable or 
 help is scarce, the flax must be dew-rotted. 
 
 Dew RoTTmo. — To accomplish this the flax ia 
 spread evenly upon the ground, like water- 
 I'otted flax, and is allowed to remain nearly two 
 ■weeks, when it is turned. This is done readily 
 by running a small pole under the flax and turn- 
 ing it completely over. It is allowed to remain 
 in this position until the woody portion will sep- 
 arate readily from the fibre. 
 
 Taking up. — Take a hand-rake and di'aw it 
 gently together, without rolling the straw, into a 
 small bundle, bind and set it up to air, and 
 remove any remaining moisture, as it should be 
 perfectly dry before housing. It will not bear 
 exposure equal to water-rotted flax. House the 
 flax where moisture will not readily penetrate, 
 and if sold in the straw it is ready for market. 
 
 Sometimes it is advisable to get the flax 
 di'essed, so as to obtain a fair compensation for 
 our labor and capital invested, and compete 
 with speculators in market. In this locality we 
 can have our flax dressed for 3 cts. per lb. of 
 dressed flax, and bailed in crood condition to send 
 to distant markets. Well -rotted, good flax, will 
 yield 500 lbs. dressed flax per tun of straw; poor 
 flax in proportion. In localities where specula- 
 tors control the market, fiirmers do themselves a 
 great injustice if they do not combine and pur- 
 chase tlie necessary machinery to work up their 
 own flax in good condition, and thus sujiply the 
 increasing demand for a staple pi-oduct of our 
 countrj\ It will pay to transport dressed flax as 
 far as flour or pork can be freighted at paying 
 prices. Farmers living in the West, and others 
 distant from large markets living near transpor- 
 tation, may, by watching the market reports, 
 successfully compete with those living nearer 
 the place of consumption, or manufacturers. 
 Profit and loss vary from $30 per acre clear loss, 
 to $80 per acre clean profit, is quite an important 
 step for a farmer to make on a single acre of 
 
PRIZK ESSAYS. 
 
 51 
 
 ground. He is an unfortunate man to lose more 
 than thirty doHars, and a very fortunate man to 
 gain eighty dollars clean profit per acre. 
 
 From this estimate it will be seen that there is 
 considerable expense incurred in cultivating and 
 preparing flax for market, and at the same time 
 quite a wide margin for profits for the man who 
 intends to raise flax for market as a speculation, 
 to consider. The capacity of land to produce is 
 so variable, and drouths and other adverse cir- 
 cumstances so prevalent, that it is impossible to 
 fix permanently the limits of profit and loss of 
 any of the staple product of this or any other 
 country. I know an old farmer, who, last season, 
 made fifty dollars per acre on flax, was so elated 
 with his success that he hired all the good land 
 he could bargain for at a fair price, in his vicini- 
 ty, and, owing to the drouth, lost twenty dollars 
 per acre on all he had under the crop. He came to 
 the conclusion that flax will not pay, and yet his 
 corn crop was a total failure. Still he did not 
 conclude to reject it as an unprofitable crop. 
 Another farmer had a good crop of flax, and 
 after it Avas ready for market, overreached him- 
 self in the sale, and found to his chagrin that the 
 crop was produced at a loss. He will not raise 
 flax again. Another, whose land is poor and 
 sand}', seeing a statement that "fifty dollars 
 could easily be made from an acre of ground," 
 
 sowed five acres as an experiment. He received 
 four bushels of seed and a proportionable amount 
 of straw, four inches long, and now (justly 
 enougli he thinks) estimates the "flax specula- 
 tion" as a "humbug." I think the average 
 profits, acre bj' acre, in average seasons, to be 
 thirty dollars per acre. I do not mean to be 
 understood as saying that under fiivorable cii'cum- 
 stances that this is a proper estimate. I think 
 that on good soil, with good cultivation, a good 
 to fair season, care in harvesting and rotting, 
 witli good dressing, a judicious marketing, and a 
 feir price, that my limit of profit may be reached, 
 (i. e., that $80 may be made clear of all expense 
 on a single acre of ground.) As a novice in flax 
 culture on medium to good ground, may wish to 
 embark in the enterprise of raising flax, I will 
 say for his encouragement that I made $35 per 
 acre on medium soil, under unfavorable circum- 
 stances, with extraordinary prices paid for labor, 
 operating against me the expenses, consuming 
 one-half the returns from the sale of the crop. I 
 do not think the flax crop exhausts the soil any 
 more than oats or wheat, while the returns from 
 the sale of the flax and seed will nearly double 
 that of either oats or wheat, and the profits ar*? 
 sufficient in most cases to return as much as the 
 land used for the crop would probably sell for, 
 the first season it is occupied. 
 
 ESSAY BY S. C. GORDON, 
 
 SOUTH EASTON, WASHINGTON CO., N. Y. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 Flax has been raised on my farm every year 
 since 1810, as a member of a regular rotation of 
 crops. In the year 1810 I was left with a farm, 
 and legacies to pay to other heirs. Among other 
 experiments tried was that of cultivating flax, 
 and this, which we soon found, would yield in a 
 favorable season more money than any other 
 crop we had tried. Our friends remonstrated 
 against raising a crop that was so deleterious 
 to the land, assuring us, that if we persisted 
 in sowing flax that our farm would be ruined, 
 and finally set us down as insane for our per- 
 severance in raising more each succeeding 
 year, but the soil continued to improve. In 1830, 
 we had 40 acres of flax growing, and the most of 
 our adjacent neighbors had each a few acres. The 
 soil throughout this region of country is rather 
 a cold, springy, yellowish, slaty soil, on a blue 
 hard pan, abounding in small stones. A strong 
 rich soil naturally, yet heavy and hard to till. 
 
 In selecting seed, we much prefer the "sap- 
 ling" variety, as the straw is stronger, not so apt 
 to fall, and theyield both of lint and seed is great- 
 er. Our practice has been to sow flax after a 
 
 crop of Indian corn. We apply upon a pasture 
 sod that has lain two or three years, a good coat 
 of barnyard manure, in the fall, and plow it if 
 convenient. If not, plow it early in the spring 
 and plant corn. In cultivating the corn crop, 
 great pains is taken to kill the weeds, particularly 
 the Canada thistle, which abound here. In the 
 spring following, the corn hills are split with the 
 plow as early as the soil will permit. In a few 
 days it is cross-plowed with great care to have it 
 well done. Then it is well harrowed that the 
 earth may be fine and free from clods, as the seed 
 is much more likely to take well if the ground 
 is in prime order. The seed is immediately sowed 
 broad-cast, about one bushel to the acre, and har- 
 rowed in, going twice over the field with a large 
 square harrow, of two leaves hung together with 
 hinges. The earlier the seed is sown in the 
 spring the better for the flax. A slight frost will 
 not injure it after it is up, but rather cause it to 
 branch out and cover the ground more closely, 
 consequently it will produce more seed than a 
 straight stalk, and will not be so apt to fall from 
 rain or wind. If the soil has been made too rich, 
 
52 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 and the flax grows too rampant, it is apt to be 
 blown over, or fall by its own weight, before it is 
 ripe, and nearly destroy both the lint and the seed. 
 
 The Seed for sowing ought to be entirely clean, 
 and fi'ee from foul seed. We sift ours through 
 three sieves, one coarse splint one, to take out 
 any substances that may be left, from the fanning 
 mill. Then we use a coarse wire sieve with long 
 meshes that lets the flax seed through, and retains 
 coarser seeds ; then, a finer wire sieve, with square 
 meshes, that will retain the flax seed, and allow 
 any finer seed to go through. This leaves the 
 seed in fine order and pays well for extra work. 
 
 Weeding the flax should commence when it is 
 about six inches high (if there be thistle among 
 it), while their roots are tender and the ground 
 soft. We use wooden pinchers similar to a black- 
 smith's forge tongs, having handles about 3 or 4 
 feet long for pulling weeds. It gives a long reach. 
 Sometimes it may be necessary to go over the 
 field a second time about two weeks later to se- 
 cure good pulling, if the flax is not too large by 
 this time. It is not well to go much among it 
 after it is in bloom, as it is tender and easily 
 broken down. 
 
 Harvesting. — Pulling is commenced as soon as 
 it assumes a fine golden hue, before the seed is 
 ripe, and being a slow operation, it should be 
 done before the flax gets too ripe and brown. 
 We employ men, women, and such children as 
 are old enough, to assist in this work, paying 
 them usually by the acre. It is pulled with care 
 to keep it even at the but or root ends, and bound 
 into small bundles as it is pulled. These are set 
 up in small shocks, of six or eight bundles each, 
 where it is left to cure. When so dry that the 
 seed will easily shell out, it is drawn to the thresh- 
 ing floor, we put a band round each shock as it 
 stands in the field, this keeps the flax from shp- 
 ping and becoming uneven, and it will not shell 
 off so much seed in handling it, afterward. Whip- 
 ping oft" the seed, we have done by taking one of 
 the bundles and striking it hard on a block of 
 wood, or a barrel laid on the side ; either answers 
 very well, the block or log perhaps lies more solid. 
 Many are using a roller machine for taking off 
 the seed, which does it more quickly, but leaves 
 the flax uneven by drawing it between tlie rollers. 
 After the seed is whipped clean off of the stalks, 
 the little bundles (or beets) are thrown in a heap 
 until there are enough to bind, say six, eight or 
 ten, they are then bound and thrown in a heap at 
 the barn door, where it may lie for a week, or un- 
 til the crop is all cleaned off, if there is no rain 
 to wet it. If it gets wet it should be drawn to 
 to the field immediately and spread, particularly 
 if the weather is warm. 
 
 Rotting.— For rotting the flax we usually take 
 it to the meadow or pasture where surface is 
 smooth, and drop the bundles over the ground to 
 be convenient for the spreaders. The spreader 
 follows, takes up the bundles (beets) and spreads 
 them, laying the flax about half an inch thick. 
 After getting across the field, he turns and spreads 
 back, leaving a space of three or four inches be- 
 tween the swaths, and the tops all the same way. 
 
 If the crop is large it is better to spread or put 
 it out to rot at diflerent times, that none be over- 
 rotted by lying too long. If the weather be cold 
 and dry, it requires much longer time than in 
 warm, damp, or rainy weather of early fall. I 
 think it better to turn the flax over when it is 
 about half or two-thirds rotted, it gets more 
 evenly done, and is not so apt to be streaked. 
 
 I prefer the flax that is rotted late in the fall, 
 the progress of rotting being slower and the rays 
 of the sun less powerful, it passes through a kind 
 of bleaching process which softens the lint, and 
 gives it a soft silky appearance, one more surer of 
 an even rotting, and more time in securing it. 
 [The completion of the rotting process is deter- 
 mined as elsewhere repeatedly described.] 
 
 Dressing flax in the mills is the almost univer- 
 sal mode of preparing the crop for market of late 
 years, and this is a great saving both of time and 
 lint. The flax is taken to the mill at such times 
 in the winter as it can be received, or as soon as 
 there is a vacancy in the mills, there it is dress- 
 ed and tied up in parcels of perhaps an hundred 
 pounds each, in order for market. 
 
 In storing away flax after it is dressed we pre- 
 fer a rather damp place, and think the flax is im- 
 proved by lajdng some weeks in a moderately 
 damp room, not in a cellar, but rather in a half- 
 under-ground room. Flax keeps finely in such a 
 room, and will improve in softness of texture and 
 increase in weight. 
 
 Some farmers sell it on the ground before pul- 
 ling, others pull it and store it and then sell it, 
 others again, go farther and whip off the seed and 
 then sell it, with the understanding that they will 
 rot it and put in the barn, and the purchaser 
 takes it from the barn. 
 
 We have thought it the better way to have the 
 crop dressed and stored before offering it in mar- 
 ket, unless the dresser himself became the pur- 
 chaser, and received it at the mill, saving to the 
 farmer the trouble and expense of drawing it 
 home, storing and marketing it. For several 
 years past speculators have been plenty, to pur- 
 chase all that has been raised, and are willing tc 
 pay remunerating prices. 
 
PRIZE ES5AV3 
 
 53 
 
 ESSAY BY N. WRIGHT, 
 
 H38NELLSVILLE, STEUBEN CO., N. Y. (EXTKACTS.) 
 
 The most suitable ground for flax is a good mel- 
 low loam (noL sandy) or wet, whicli has produced 
 a hoed crop the previous year. Such ground is 
 not as liable to be weedy. It ought to be in a 
 good state of cultivation, so as not to need ma- 
 nuring, as manure is apt to make it lodge. I liave 
 known it to lodge in spots where manure was ap- 
 plied, so that there would be neither fibre or seed. 
 Plow the ground well twice, and harrow before 
 sowing. For a brush harrow take two hard- 
 wood trees, about three inches through at the but, 
 and twelve feet long, with all the limbs on, and 
 two more trees about two thirds as large, and 
 wind a chain around the but ends, to hitch the 
 team to. Spread the tree* with the largest ones 
 on the outsides, in the form of a crotch harrow; 
 and fasten a stick across them about the middle, 
 to keep them spread. Draw the brush crosswise 
 of the furrows and it will brush about twelve feet 
 at each time crossing. If some of the largest 
 limbs make too large a mark, cut them part way 
 off. I have never known any one to raise flax on 
 sod ground. It used to be said that flax would 
 not do well on the same piece of ground two 
 years in succession. I once saw this tried, and 
 the second crop was not more than two thirds as 
 large as the first. As soon as the ground is in 
 good order to work in the spring, sow the seed 
 and harrow it in well. Procure good plump 
 seed and be sure to have it clean of grain and all 
 foul seed. I used a sieve made about the size of 
 two sheets of tin, with a wooden rim about Si 
 inches wide around it. The holes in the sieve 
 were about | of an inch long, and wide enough 
 to let the flax-seed through, but not the grain. 
 For separating weed seeds I used another sieve 
 made like the first, only the holes were small and 
 round, and would not let the flax-seed tlirough. 
 One bushel of seed to an acre was considered 
 enough. When the leaves are dead half way up 
 the stalks, it is time to pull it. Some men prefer 
 to pull what they can hold convenient in their 
 hands; and bind it as fast as it is pulled, and set 
 it up in bunches to dry. Others spread it on 
 the ground as fast as it is pulled. Let it remain 
 spread until dry ; then take it up and bind it in 
 bundles about as large round as a water-pail, as 
 larger ones are more apt to "snarl" together by the 
 heads. It ought to be taken up with the hands 
 and not with a rake. If it is raked up, it is difli- 
 cult to separate it, to whip off the seed. After it 
 is taken up it must be sheltered to keep it dry 
 until put out to rot. My manner of threshing off 
 
 the seed is, to place a barrel on the barn floor, on 
 its side, to thresh on. Unbind a bundle, part off 
 as much as you can well hold in your hands, and 
 whip the heads on the barrel until the seed is off. 
 If your flax is tied in handfuls when pulled, as 
 some do, you will have no mibinding and bind- 
 ing up, when you whip off the seed. It is quite 
 necessary to have a dry day to whip the seed off; 
 and if it is sunned that day, it will whip all the 
 easier. It is sometimes necessary to thresh the 
 bolls to pieces with a flail before cleaning the 
 seed, as many of them remain whole. 
 
 When it is to be rotted, spread out in thin 
 swaths on a low piece of ground, where it will 
 not be overflowed with water. When it is rotted 
 enough the fibi-e will start fi-om the stalk at the 
 branches, as it apjiears to shrink in length, so as 
 to pull straight across the crooks that are formed 
 by the branches. Another way of ascertaining 
 when it is rotted enough is to take a few spears 
 in the hands and rub them, and see if the woody 
 part will break and come out easily. When rot- 
 ted enough, it must be taken up, bound in bun 
 dies, and put under cover until dressed out. The 
 latter part of September is the best time to put it 
 out to rot. It is better not be spread until most of 
 the hot dry weather is over for that season, as it 
 will rot soon enough to be taken up before winter. 
 
 To break flax, unbind a bundle and part oft 
 nearly as much as you can grasp with both hands, 
 always taking some care to keep the but ends 
 even, and put the top end in the brake, and break 
 it one third the length, so that it will be easy to 
 hold. Then grasp it with your left hand, and lay 
 the but end of the handful on the brake ; and 
 with your right hand spread it in the shape of a 
 fan. Then hoist the head of the brake, swing 
 the flax in edgeways, as it breaks much easier for 
 being thin than it does to be in a bunch. Turn 
 it over in your hand as you break it, until it is 
 well broken. Then whip it over the brake to 
 get some of the shives out. Pull off some of the 
 longest ends and put them on the handful, so as 
 to keep it even ; put the top end of the handful 
 in the brake again, and break it until broke 
 enough. Then whip it over the brake again to 
 clear out the shives, and pull off some of the long 
 ends again, and put on the handful to even it, 
 and it is finished. Twist the handful and lay it 
 away until you are ready to swingle it. The ob- 
 ject of twisting it is to keep it from snarling in 
 case it is handled before it is swingled. 
 
 Before swingling, it is necessary to have a 
 
!A 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 natcbel, or, as some call it, a flax-comb, vvliich is 
 made by putting a lot of some forty teeth or 
 more, made of iron or steel, five inches long, 
 three-sixteenths of an inch square at one end, and 
 tapered at the other, to a point. Set a row of 
 them a little less than half an inch apart, in a 
 board one and one fourth of an inch thick, then 
 set another row about the same distance that the 
 other teeth are apart, and so as to break joints 
 with the first row, then another to break joints 
 with the last row set, and so on until you have a 
 hatchel with about eight rows one way, and six 
 rows the other way. A smaller one will do, but 
 a larger one is better. Flax swingles easier if 
 partially hatcheled. 
 
 The manner of swingling flax is to lay the top 
 end of a handful over the end of the swingling 
 board, and whip it with the knife, and turn it 
 over and whip it again until most of the shives 
 
 are removed. Then change ends with it. Afler 
 swingling, out the shives on the outside of tlie 
 handful, hold it up before you and let the end 
 bend down over your hand, and with your right 
 hand part and turn it inside out, so as to get all 
 the shives out. It is best to pull off" some of the 
 tag ends occasionally, and lay them on the hand- 
 ful, so as to keep it even. When swingled clean, 
 twist it and double it, like a kink in a rope, and 
 lay it away, and after you get a lot dressed ; it 
 may be tied up with a wisp of flax or other string. 
 When swingling, I used to hit the flax occasionally 
 with the knife, when raising it up, so as to throw 
 a portion of it up over my hand that held it 
 Then strike so as to draw down a little more at 
 each stroke, until I had drawn it all on to the 
 front of the board. When it is very dry, it will 
 dress clean without turning the handfuls inside 
 out, as described. 
 
 ESSAY BY ROBERT GRAY, 
 
 DENNISON MILLS P. O., SHIPTON, E. T., C. W. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 There is a great difference of opinion in regard 
 to the kind of land suited to the culture of flax. 
 You can grow it on any kind of land if it is dry. 
 When I was engaged in the cultivation of it in 
 the Old Country, I mostly sowed it after potatoes, 
 in which case I always found it to do well. The 
 manuring for the potatoes left the land in good 
 order, and the weeding and picking off" the stones 
 left the land clean, a thing you must always do 
 in order to raise good flax. Sometimes when the 
 land was too rich, I took a crop off it of oats, be- 
 fore the flax. Land that has been pastured for a 
 few years is well adapted for it. Land that will 
 grow good corn will give good flax. On the 
 lighter kind of soil the Riga seed will do best, as 
 it is naturally of a stronger growth than the 
 Dutch or American seeds. There are four kinds 
 of seeds in use in Ireland— Riga, Dutch, English 
 and American. Being grown on a light soil 
 makes tlie stalks grow finer, therefore the woody 
 part of tiie stalk is reduced, and also the fibre is 
 increased and of a finer quality. If sowed on 
 heavy clay or rich bottom lands, it must be sowed 
 very thick, else it will grow too rank, and the 
 fibre coarse. On such land I always sowed the 
 Dutch or American seed. Where flax is raised 
 only for the seed, the Riga is the best. Where 
 you raise it for the fibre alone, the Dutch seed is 
 the best. But I believe the Riga will do best for 
 this countrj', as it is the best for seed, and the 
 second in quality of fibre. In Ireland, where 
 flax is raised for fibre only, they will get from 
 200 to 240 lbs. of dressed flax from a bushel, sow- 
 
 ing in a good season on good land. And I have 
 known as much as 320 lbs. to be got on veiy rich 
 land. In Ireland and Scotland they put from 3 
 bushels to 25 seed to the acre. 
 
 Land for flax must be plowed in the fixll. Then 
 plowed again in the spring, not too deep, or else 
 you will turn under that part of the soil that was 
 exposed during the winter. The finer the soil 
 is pulverized the better: harrow well before 
 and after sowing ; sow from fifteenth to the 
 twentieth of May; pick off the stones and clods. 
 Many farmers in the Old Country pass a light 
 roller over it on light soil, when it is sprouted 
 about an inch above the ground. I have never 
 done so myself, but I have seen it done often, and 
 with good eff"ect, too. Be careful and pull out 
 any grass or weeds that may spring up amongst 
 it; no other care is necessary until it is ready for 
 pulling. When the bolls containing the seed are 
 turned of a brown color it is time to pull it; but 
 if you care more about the seed than the fibi-e, 
 you must let it become riper. A dry day is 
 the best to pull flax. When you go to pull, 
 catch it near the top, as much as j'ou can 
 conveniently hold in your band, pull it out of the 
 ground, strike the roots against your foot or 
 something to knock off any dirt that may adhere 
 to it. Tie it up in sheaves and shock it as you 
 would grain. If j^ou want to take the seed oflj 
 do it with a rippling comb. If you want to make 
 good flax, you must steep it within two days afler 
 pulling. For steeping select a place where you 
 can conveniently have about four feet depth of 
 
PRIZE ESSAYS. 
 
 55 
 
 water, and if possible a place wliere you can 
 have a grassy sward for sides and bottom of dam. 
 This is to be preferred, for mud or clay diffused in 
 the water is apt to color the fibre. So particular 
 are they in Ireland on this point, that when they 
 cannot have such a pond, they strip the sods off a 
 field to line it witli, cutting tiiem only about an 
 inch thick so that they may have as little clay as 
 possible. Having filled the hole with water a 
 few days before it is wanted for use, in order to 
 subject it to the softening influence of the sun and 
 air, then proceed to put in your flax in a sloping 
 position, roots down. Tiien place some stones or 
 sods on top so as to keep it down, for if allow- 
 ed to get above water it will spoil. Let no more 
 water run in, only to make up the waste from 
 evaporation. It will take from a fortnight to 
 tliree weeks to steep, according to the softness 
 and temperature of the water. Very cold or hard 
 water will take longer, but the only certain test 
 is to take a few stalks and break them, and if the 
 outer part, which is the fibre, separates from the 
 inner or woody part, it is time to talie it up. 
 Then allow it to stand a da)' on the bank to 
 drain before spreading it on the field. Tiie best 
 
 place is a dry meadow; it will keep the article 
 clean, and benefit the grass more than any other 
 thing you can put on it, as also the water which 
 you have steeped it in is a most valuable manure, 
 especially for grass land. Spread the flax on the 
 field in thin, regular rows, and if a shower ot 
 rain would fall on it so much the better, for it 
 would wash off a certain gummy substance 
 which adheres to it. To know when to take it 
 up, take some of the stalks, bi'eak them at the 
 top, and if the fibre will sti-ip off easily from top 
 to bottom, it is ready to lift, if dry. Tie it up 
 again in sheaves; then you can house it. But if 
 not perfectly dry you must give it plenty of barn 
 room, or stook it out a while, if the weather is 
 fine. It is then ready for dressing. This ends 
 the cultivation of flax. I thought on giving you 
 an account of the manner of hand-dressing or 
 scutching, but it is a tedious way compared to 
 the present improved manner in which it is done 
 by machinery. The capital required is but small, 
 and there are men enough who have capital to 
 engage in the business if they were only stirred 
 up, and it is very profitable (and likely so to 
 continue for a considerable time to come). 
 
 ESSAY BY G. E. W. LEONARD, 
 
 CEDAR RA.PIDS, LINN CO., IOWA. (EXTRACTS.) 
 
 Flax raised Chiefly fok Seed. — Any ground 
 )n which you can raise corn, will raise flax; yet, 
 from my experience, I would prefer sanriy loam. 
 T he preparation is of great importance. Plow your 
 ground thoroughly and deeply in the spring,which, 
 as a general rule, is better than fall plowing, 
 leaving the ground more mellow ; less inclined to 
 weeds, that sometimes may drift with snow from 
 the neighbor's farms. Then harrow it twice 
 thoroughly. Be sure you haVe good and clean 
 seed. Half a bushel to the acre on common soil 
 is sufficient. If the ground is rich, sow it thicker. 
 After it is sown evenly, harrow twice, and roll it. 
 The best time of harvesting is when about three- 
 fourths of the bolls have turned brown. If you 
 wait later the seed will waste. If harvested 
 sooner, it will shrink, and sometimes mould, if 
 the weather be rainy. 
 
 From boyhood to manhood, the universal cus- 
 tom in my native State was pulling by hand, 
 binding in small sheaves, and threshing by hand. 
 But here in the West I have found a much easier 
 and faster way. I use one of the best Reapers 
 and Mowers, combined, with two horses, and one 
 hand. I harvest ten acres a day, cutting it close 
 to the ground, leaving it in little bunches, where 
 I le'. it remain five or six days; then I draw it to 
 the barn and put a load on the floor, and tread 
 
 out the seed with three or four horses abreast, 
 turning it once over in the meantime. I then 
 haul the straw to the meadow and spread it out 
 to rot, and when it, is rotted, tai\e it to the facto- 
 r)'. The seed is run through a fanning-mill and 
 taken to market. It can be cut quite fast by a 
 hand cradle, going back and forth, and laying 
 two swaths together. Let it lie till dry; rake 
 it up in the morning when damp, then draw 
 to the barn to tread out. Those that have no 
 barns, can make a floor on the ground. Those 
 that raise but little, harvest it by pulling. The 
 seed is whipped out on a stone or block of wood. 
 
 For rotting, I spread it out evenly on a meadow. 
 Sometimes it will need turning, if it does not rot 
 evenly. It usually takes about tliree weeks to 
 rot it sufficiently for the brake, or for sale at the 
 fiictory. The length of time depends on the 
 weather. You can readily tell by taking five or 
 six stalks between the fore finger and thumb in 
 each hand, and rubbing them up and down. If 
 the stalks break to pieces readily, and drop from 
 the fibre, it is ready for the brake, and should be 
 housed at once, for if left too long the fibre rots. 
 
 The old way of dressing was by the hand- 
 brake, which is slow and tedious, but will answer 
 for family use. Where there is no factory, I 
 would recommend using superior machines. 
 
56 
 
 FLAX CULTURE, ETC. 
 
 GLOSSARY, OR EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 
 
 Aspect.— The point of the compass towards which land 
 iiopes. 
 
 Bast.— The long fibres. 
 
 Beets.—A sm»\l sheaf of flax. 
 
 Blay.- SilUy Insire. 
 
 Boll.— The seed capsule of ihe flax plant, cotton, etc. 
 
 Brake. — The iinplciiient for bjeaking flax, which see. 
 
 Breaking.— Any o|ieiatioii resulting in reducing the 
 woody part of the plant to small piec'es. 
 
 Brushing. — Drawing bushes or small tree-tops over 
 newly plowed land, ur-ualiy to cover seeds. 
 
 Crig. — A liind of beetle-lii<e flail. 
 
 Dam. — A pool fi>r rotting flax. 
 
 Dead Fuirow. — TUe fnrrow left through the centre of a 
 land, from which furrows were turned each way. 
 
 Exhaustion of Land. — P'ailure of the soil to produce 
 good crops on account of repealed cropping without 
 proper manuring. 
 
 Firing Flax. — Dryiug by artificial heal. 
 
 Flax.^X. The plant. 2. The dressed fibre. 
 
 Gavel. — Properly an unbound sheaf. 
 
 Grassing. — Spreading upon the gi ass for drying and for 
 rotting. 
 
 Green Manure. — A crop plowed under where it grew, (as 
 clover.) 
 
 Grub.— To work over the land by hand with hoes, or 
 mattocks, instead of plowing. 
 
 Ka«d.— A handful of dressed flax. 
 
 Handful. — As much flax as may be held in the hand ; ap- 
 plied to undiessed flax. 
 
 i/arrf-para.— Indurated sub-soil, or upper part of it. 
 
 Hatcheling. (Hetcheling). — Freeing the -'long line" from 
 tow with a liatcl el. and reducing the fibre to a gieater de- 
 gree of fineness for spinning. 
 
 Haulm.— 'iXevas or stalks, as of grain, clover, peas, flax, etc. 
 
 Headers. — Sheaves which cap a long stonk. 
 
 Land. — The piece of ground struck out by the plowman, 
 and plowed, turning the furrow, slices outward. 
 
 Lea. — Land in grass. 
 
 Line, Long Line. — The dressed fibre of tlax. the raw ma- 
 terial of linen. 
 
 Linseed. — The seed of flax. 
 
 Lint. — The long fibre. 
 
 Loam. — A soil in which clay and sand mingle, neither 
 predominatinR. 
 
 Rrtting. (rotting) — Incipient decay of the flax plant aftei 
 pullins i)r cutting. 
 
 Retting Pool, {Rotting Pool) or Dam. — A pool with Sod- 
 ded bottom and sides, for retting flax under waier. 
 
 Ridge. — The two furrow-slices turned together between 
 lands ; also the entire space betvieen two dead furrows. 
 
 Rippling. — Removal of the bolls of flax with a comb. 
 
 Rntation of Crops.— \ regular succession of different 
 crops on the same land. 
 
 Rotting. — See retting. 
 
 Scutch ing .—Kewav^l of the shove or shives by whipping 
 with a blade called a swingle, or scutcher. 
 
 Shoove, Shove. Shive avd Shives. — The woodv or straw- 
 like part of the flax haulm removed in breaking. 
 
 Soil. — Agriculturally, ilie earth turned by the plow oi 
 spade : in distinction from the sub soil, which see. 
 
 Stack. — A large quantity of hay. or of grain in the straw, 
 laid up to stand the weather. 
 
 Steeping. — Soaking in water. 
 
 Stook, Shock. — .A small number of sheaves or bundles 
 arranged with system in the field, ;iiid standing on the Inns. 
 
 Straw. — Applied to the haulm of flax, also to the woody 
 poriion. 
 
 Streek.—See "Hand." 
 
 Stubiile. (Stubble land).— The land from which small 
 grain has been cut. 
 
 Sub-Soil. — The earth below the soil which may be sub- 
 jected to artificial drainage, or stirred by sub-soil plow. 
 
 Swingle. — See Scutching. 
 
 Tailings. — Light grain, etc., blown over with the chaff in 
 winnovvins. 
 
 Toll). — Broken, or tangled fibre. 
 
 Watering. — Water retting. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 Awards and Report of Committee, 1-2 
 
 Assorting flax 10 18, 29 
 
 Baling and Storing, 35 
 
 Bands— Best material for 18 
 
 Belgian Stricked Flax 36 
 
 Bolls, etc., as cattle food, 8, 34 
 
 Brake, Power 13, 30, . "55, 36, .39 
 
 Breaking bv hand, 13, 22, 26, 42, .^3 
 
 Breaking,.'. 13, 23 
 
 Bush Harrow, 7,53 
 
 Cutting flax, 10, 11,5-5 
 
 Dew Retting. 11,26,30,33,39,42 
 
 Dodder, 16, 48 
 
 Dressing by hand not orofi table, 35 
 
 Dressing machine of Rowan, S.'j 
 
 Dressing machine of Sanford <fc Mallorv, 30, 35, 55 
 
 Drying by fire heat, '. 3(1 
 
 Enemies of the flax crop 16 29, 48 
 
 Essay, 1st Prize— by S. E. Todd ..? 
 
 Essav, 2d Prize— by James Cairns, 14 
 
 rbv Wm. H. White 24 
 
 ibvG. S. Kuester, 28 
 
 Essays, (five) 3d Prize, •( bV Hagh McKee, 31 
 
 I by James Baker, 37 
 
 I by John E. Stewart 40 
 
 Essay by John RenpstoilT, (Ger.) 43 
 
 Essay bv Geo. W. Hix 45 
 
 Essay by L, M. Holbmok, 46 
 
 Essay by W. B. Morey, 47 
 
 Essay by Carl Boes (Ger.) 48 
 
 Essay by " Novice," 49 
 
 Essav by S. C. Gordon, 51 
 
 Essay by N. Wright 53 
 
 E.ssay by Robert Gray, 04 
 
 Essav by G. E. W. Leonard, 55 
 
 Fertilizers . ., 15,24,40 
 
 Flax — Acres raised in Ohio, 1 
 
 Flax— Bad luck with, 51 
 
 Flax— Cotton, 35 
 
 Flax Culture— Profits of 36,50 
 
 Flax— $1 .000, $1,200 to $ 1 .500 per ton, 17, 37 
 
 Flax — Finest pulled green, 17 
 
 Flax Plant— Description of 2 
 
 Flax Plant— Habits of growth of 
 
 Glossary 
 
 Hatchelling, H, 
 
 Housing, 
 
 Lifting, 21,26, 
 
 Manure of animals fed on Oil cake, 
 
 Pressing and Baling 
 
 Pulling by machinery, 
 
 Pul ling by hand, ... .9, 18. 25, 29. 32, 38, 
 
 Pulling or cutting, time of 8, 17, 25. 
 
 Rippling 11,18,32, 
 
 Rilipling comb, 
 
 Rotation— Place of flax in 14, 27, 32, 40 
 
 Rotting bv sleam 
 
 Rotting— Philosophy of H, 
 
 Bolting the Second year, 
 
 Rotting pools 1\^^' 
 
 Scutching by power, 13. 23, 35, 38, 
 
 Scutching by hand, 13,93,27,30, 
 
 Seed— Contents of Commercial packages, 
 
 Seed— Covering 7, 8, 17, 24, 
 
 Seed — Irregular covering 
 
 Seed— Pre-^erving — 
 
 Seed- Selection of 5,16,24,28. 
 
 Seed— Testing of ■^• 
 
 Seed— Use of Green, ^. 
 
 Soils and preparation 4, 14, 24, 28, 37, 
 
 Sowing,...: 7,16,24,28.29,37, 
 
 Sowing thick or thin, 6, 24, o2, 
 
 Sprearling, 21,26, 
 
 Stacking 10' 
 
 Storing dressed fibre 
 
 Straw of flax (untt-oken)—Price paid for 
 
 Tangled Straw— Treatment of 
 
 Threshing by the Roller machine, 
 
 Threshing oif the bolls, 11, 2.5, 29, 32,^39, 
 
 Tunnng 21. 
 
 Water Relting, 12, 19, 26, 33, 42, 
 
 Water retting not injurious to health, 
 
 Weeds — Extirpation of _• 
 
 Weeding ^> ^'> 
 
 Yield of Flax, • 3"- 
 
 Yield of seed and fibre !> ■^6. 
 
NEW AMERICAN FARM BOOK. 
 
 ORIGINALLY BY R. L. ALLEN, 
 
 Author of ''Diseases of Domestic Animals'' and fnrmerli/ Editor of the '■'■American Agriculturixt:' 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED BY LEWIS F. ALLEN, 
 
 Author of "American Cattle," Editor of iJie "Aii,£rican Hhonhora jrerd-Book,'" etc 
 
 CONTENTS : 
 
 INTitODUCTION. — Tillage nusbaiuhy — Grazing — 
 Peedi iig — Breeding — Planting, etc. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— Soils — Classification — Description — 
 Management — Properties. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Inorganic Manures— Mineral-Stone- 
 Earth — Pliosplmtic. 
 
 CHAPTER HI.— Organic Manures— Tlicir Composition 
 — Animal — Vegetable. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— Irrigation and Draining. 
 
 CHAPTER v.— Mechanical Divisions of Soils— Spad- 
 ing— Plowing — Implements. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— The Grasses — Clovers — Meadows- 
 Pastures — Comparative Values of Grasses — Imple- 
 ments for their Cultivation. 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— Grain, and its Cultivation— Varieties 
 — Growtli — Harvesting. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. -Leguminous Plants — The Pea- 
 Bean— English Field Bean— fare or Vetch— Culti- 
 vation — Harvesting. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. — Roots and Esculents — Varieties- 
 Growth— Cultivation — Securing the Crops — Uses- 
 Nutritive Equivalents of Different Kinds of Forage. 
 
 CHAPTER X.- -Fruits — Apples — Cider — Vinegar- 
 Pears— Quinces — Peaches — Plums — Apricots — Nec- 
 tarines ^ Smaller Fruits — Planting — Cultivation — 
 Gathx!ring — Preserving. 
 
 CHAPTER XL— Miscellaneous Objects of Cultivation, 
 aside from the Ordinary Farm Crops — Broom-corn 
 — Flax — Cotton — Hemp — Sugar-cane — Sorghum — 
 Maple-Sugar — Tobacco — Indigo — Madder — Wood — 
 Sumach — Teasel — Mustard— Hops — Castor Bean. 
 
 CHAPTER XII.— Aids and Objects of Agriculture- 
 Rotation of Crops, and their Effects — Weeds — Res- 
 toration of Worn-out Soils— Fertilizing Barren 
 Lands— Utility of Birds — Fences— Hedges — Farm 
 
 NOTICES BY 
 It is a volum-! of over five hundred pages, and in its 
 
 present shape comprises all that can well be condensed 
 
 into an available volume of its l^ind. 
 
 Hartfo7-d Daily Times. 
 
 It has a veiy wide range of subjects, taking up nearly 
 all nnuters that are most important to farmers. Com- 
 prising the combined wisdom and experience of two 
 eminent agriculturists, it must prove of great value to 
 the class for whom it is prepared.- Veiw York Observer. 
 
 It is crammed full of just the information that is 
 wanted, which it is a pleasure to recommend. We 
 know of no better encyclopedia of farming. 
 
 New York Independent. 
 
 It is something in favor of this work that it has been 
 before the public for many vears. The original work 
 was prepared with extraordinary care, and contained 
 a vast amount of general truth that is as applicable 
 now as it was then ; it has therefore been made the 
 Itasis of the present work, which, to all intents and 
 purposes, is new, bIucr it is adapted to the present im- 
 proved state of agricnltiiral knowledcre. Everv depart- 
 ment is prepared with conscientious care, and with a 
 view of makincr the work a reliable source of a^ricul- 
 laral information. Chicago Republican. 
 
 Roads— Shade-Trees— Wood Lands— Time of Cut 
 ting Timber— Tools— Agricultural Education of tlie 
 Farmer. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII.— Farm Buildings— House— Barn- 
 Sheds- Cisterns— Various other Out-Buildings— 
 Steaming Apparatus. 
 
 CHAPTER XI v.— Domestic Animals— Breeding— Ana- 
 tomy— Respiration— Consumption of Food. 
 CHAPTER XV.— Neat or Horned Cattle— Devon s— 
 Herefords- Ayrshires — Galloways— Sliorthorns— 
 Alderneys, or Jerseys— Dutch or Holstein—Manage- 
 ment from Birth to Milking, Labor, or Slaugliter. 
 CHAPTER XVI.— The Dairy-Milk— Butter-Cheese 
 
 — Different Kinds — Manner of Working. 
 CHAPTER XVII.-Sheep - Merino - Saxon-South- 
 Down— The Long-wooled Breeds— Cotswold— Lin- 
 coln— Breeding— Management-Shepherd Dogs. 
 CHAPTER XVIIL— The Horse-Description of Differ- 
 ent Breeds— Their Various Uses— Breeding— Man- 
 agement. 
 CHAPTER XrX.— The Ass— Mule— Comparative Labor 
 
 of Worlving Animals. 
 CHAPTER XX.— Swine— Different Breeds— Breeding 
 
 —Rearing— Fattening— Curing Pork and Hams. 
 CHAPTER XXL— Poultry— Hens, m Barn-door Fowls 
 —Turkey — Peacock— Guinea Hen- Goose— Duck 
 — Honey-Bces. 
 CHAPTER XXII.— Diseases of Animals— What Au- 
 thority sliall we Adopt?— Sheep— Swine— Treat- 
 ment and Breeding of Horses. 
 CHAPTER XXHI.— Conclusion— General Remarks— 
 The Farmer who Lives by his Occupation— The 
 Amateur Farmer— Sundry Useful Tables. 
 12mo, 526 pp. 
 THE PRESS. 
 
 Comprehensive and careful, telling, and tellino- spe- 
 ciflcally, just what the tillers of tlie soil need to know 
 it will prove of great advantage to all who faithfully 
 follow its counsels in the spirit in which they are -riven. 
 Congregationaiisl and Recofdtr. 
 It intelligently and quite fully discusses the various 
 operations of farm life, and is invaluable to all en"-ao-ed 
 iu agriculture. Farmer's Cabind. 
 
 For the young man of rural tastes, but without a 
 training at the plow-handles, who asks for a general 
 guide and instructor that shall be to agriculture what 
 the map of the world is to geoirniphy. it is the best man- 
 ual to print. For the working farmer, who in summer 
 noonings and by the winter fireside would refresh his 
 convictions and reassure his knowledge by old defini- 
 tions and wcll-considemd summaries, it is thi' most 
 convenient hand-book. From its double authorship one 
 niiglit exnect some show of patch-work, the oriL'inal 
 statement of the author of 1S4G annotated and qnalifii^d 
 by the writ.'r of this vear. But this has been wisely 
 ayoub'd. The book is a unit, and shows no disparity 
 of style nor contradiction in statement. Practicallv. 
 It 19 alto2-Pther a recent and timelv volume. Onlj 
 so much of the oritrinal Book of the Farm, bv R L 
 Allen, as time could not change, has been adopted by 
 fi,„ .„„,„„_ ^^ Yarj^ Trunin.. 
 
 the reviser. 
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