Class 7/ 6 ^ Book -/ -^ o ()op>iightN?_ / COPYIJIGHT DEPOSrr FOOD AND CLOTHING BY LENO OSBORNE SUPERVISOR OP TIFF, DEPARTMENT OF HOME EOONOMTCS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLAHOMA CHICAGO NEW YORK ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY Copyright, 1914 ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY SEP d\ 1914 OCU'380476 PREFACE The course contains material for the first one hundred and forty lessons to be taught in foods, cookery, diet, textiles, and clothing. The number of lessons given per week and the length of time taken for each recitation will determine the number of school years it will require to complete the course. In schools without laboratories, if three Theory les- sons are given per week, with three Practice lessons of home-work required, the course may be finished in two years. It makes very little difference whether the teaching of this subject is first introduced in the fifth or a later grade. The beginning lessons should 1)p the same ; that is, those presenting : The classification of the difi^erent foods. The building materials they contain. The efi^ect heat and moisture will have upon them. The planning, cooking, and serving of meals with regard to "balanced rations." The composition and manufacture of difi^erent cloths. The making of plain and useful garments. The appropriateness of material and style to occasion. The present day Physiology treats the subjects of sani- tation and digestion so completely that it is not necessary to repeat but to correlate with them. In the Agriculture we find the growth, cultivation, and care of most of our food stuffs, simply and clearly explained ; the Geography takes up the adaptation to climate, and the commercial side of these subjects. Teachers by this correlation may 6 PREFACE save the time of at least two recitations per day — a valu- able feature in a crowded program. Language Lessons, or Composition work, might often be selected from these subjects with gratifying results. The subject matter has been arranged in chapters for a matter of convenience, but it is not the intention that they be taught in the order given unless the season of the year so dictates. For example the chapter on vege- tables should be divided and the fresh vegetable lessons be presented in the spring and the dry vegetables in the winter ; the sugar lessons at Christmas time ; the meat lessons and dry fruits and vegetables in the winter. In the "Suggestions to Teachers" it is the aim to discuss very plainly the hoiv of presenting these subjects. The aim of this course is to give the student the prin- ciples of the selection and preparation of food ; a study of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, with the effect of heat upon them ; a study of meats and vegetables with a comparison of animal and vegetable foods and ways of preparing and combining them ; the cost of the different foods in comparison with the building material each con- tains ; laboratory work which teaches how to perform the various duties of the home with the greatest efficiency and the least expenditure of effort. For many helpful suggestions and for assistance in proofreading, the author expresses cordial appreciation to Misses Helen Bishop, B. S., Columbia University ; Alice Blair, B. S., Columbia University ; Leaffa Randall, B. S., Kansas A. M. College ; Helen Allison, Kansas M. T. School ; and Kathryne IMaxwell of Oklahoma City. Leno Osborne. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, May, 1914. CONTENTS PAGE Suggestion to Teachers 8 CHAPTER FIRST YEAR I Home Economics, Instructions to Pupils, Food, Cooking 15 II Milk 26 III Eggs As a Food (protein) 33 IV Vegetables (carbohydrates) 39 V Sugar (carbohydrate) 53 VI Meats— Beef, Pork, Fish 62 VII Cheese (protein) 82 VIII Cereals (carbohydrates) 86 IX Flour (in combination) 93 X Beverages 110 XI Table Setting and Service 118 XII Canning, Preserving, Pickling (ster- ilization ) 121 second year XIII Eggs As a Thickening Agent (protein) . 130 XIV Beef, Game, Fowl 136 8 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XV Warmed-over Dishes 144 XVI Fats and Oils 150 XVII Bacteria — Yeast 159 XVIII Cakes 167 XIX Soups and Salads 177 XX Fruits 189 XXI Sherbets and Ice Creams 196 XXII Dietary Standards 201 XXIII Planning and Serving IVIeals. House- hold Expenses 209 domestic art XXIV Textiles 216 XXV Plain Sewing 218 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS If it were possible for all teachers who must teach Domestic Science to have training in the theory and practice of the subject, the following suggestions would hardly be necessary. But ob- servation has taught us that a carefully planned text, with general directions for class manage- ment, in the hands of resourceful and energetic teachers, can bring about results far superior to those of the trained teacher who lacks initiative. It makes little difference how well or how poorly equipped the instructor is for presenting this sub- ject, the most essential qualifications in her are resourcefulness, system, good judgment and per- sonal cleanliness. No woman can arouse in girls the proper inter- est in this subject unless she is interested in it herself. The teacher who makes the assertion that she does not enjoy any phase of housekeeping or of the preparing of meals, should not be allowed to teach Domestic Science. Her pupils may be able to pass an examination, but they will never be able to make the house a home, and she must be able to lead girls to feel that they cannot do a better thing than to give their time and energy to the care and maintenance of this home. 9 10 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Personal cleanliness of the teacher has a great influence upon the girls. No woman can inspire the proper interest in this subject, if she appears before her class in a soiled dress or apron, or with unclean hands and nails. Large white aprons over woolen dresses may be tolerated where the work occupies only a minor portion of the day, but the careful teacher will wear a wash-dress, preferably white. The woolen dress collects odors and dust, often full of bacteria, and in the kitchen these may be the cause of harmful results. The teeth should be clean and the breath free from bad odors. The P^quipment The object of equipment in this work is three- fold: to prepare food for cooking, to furnish the vessels w^hich contain the food while it is being cooked, and to supply heat. Elaborate equipment has very little to do with good results. One teacher succeeded with this purchased equipment for each of her pupils: one 12 inch pan, one 6 inch pan, one pie tin, one knife, one fork, one tablespoon, one tin cup; all costing 40c. The large pan served as a dishpan, as a vegetable pan, and, by placing the smaller one in it and using the pie tin for a lid, as a double boiler. The fork was used in place of an egg beater. A baking powder can was used as a biscuit cutter and a pop SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 11 bottle for a rolling pin and a maslier. A piece of window screening was cleaned with gasoline, shaped over an inverted pan and used as a sifter. These, besides a stove, and tables and cupboards made of boxes, furnished the equipment for a school kitchen. The results were so gratifying that the patrons were anxious to have money spent towards the furnishing of a modern labor- atory. A teacher in a rural district borrowed a tent from one family, an old stove from another and whatever could be loaned from the various homes in the way of dishes and cooking utensils. These she kept in a locked box which was carried out to the tent-kitchen every morning and each day four pupils prepared, under her direction some one thing for the lunches of the other pupils. When a laboratory is to be fully equipped and the teacher is inexperienced, it is wise to consult the director of a larger or an older school as con- ditions vary so greatly tliat it is not wise to give specific directions which are to be used generally. Class Management Where There Is No Equipment In rural schools where all practical work must be done at home, tlie teacher should, as each new subject is presented, lead the pupils to become interested in its production (from agriculture) ; its adaptation to climate and its commercial value 12 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS (from geograpliy) ; its food classification (domes- tic science) ; the effect of the digestive fluids upon it (physiology) ; the effect of heat upon it (moist or dry), and the various ways it may be prepared by itself or in combination to make it palatable and digestible (domestic science). The number of lessons for this Avill depend upon the time given at each recitation. The recipes in the Domestic Science text are for small amounts, individual proportions unless otherwise stated. Help the students to figure the amount they must prepare for the number of people at home. Use the time of several lessons for reports as to the results of the home-work, and if any failures are reported, help them to find from their text the cause and the means of prevention. Lead them by questions from their Physiology and Domestic Science texts to make food selections suitable for body building, and emphasize con- tinually the dangers of allowing appetite to gov- ern food consumption. If possible study and prepai'e the quick-grow- ing perishable vegetables and fruits in the spring and fall seasons, leaving the dry vegetables, grains, fruits and meats for the winter months. Class Management The order in the room depends upon conditions. Usuallv there is no occasion for conversation SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 13 among pupils, especially if the equipment is in- dividual. Working in groups is by no means a satisfactory method and does not bring about the best results. Pupils de])end upon each other in- stead of developing independent judgment and self-reliance. Housekeepers There is so much general work to do in a lab- oratory that it is necessary to have some extra help after each lesson. The girls who are ap- pointed to do this work are called "house- keepers." This is the only general housekeeping work that most school kitchens oft'er and it should be under close supervision. The duty of each housekeeper and the number needed will depend upon the equipment. These duties should last only during one lesson, and care should be exer- cised that the appointments come in regular rota- tion with a change of duties. The following sug- gestions may be helpful : Housekeeper No. 1 — Put away supplies. Clean the supply table. Clean the ice box and keep in order. Housekeeper No. 2 — Wipe out all the drawers and shelves in the laboratory not in special charge of any one else. Clean the faucets, strainers and soap dishes. Housekeeper No. 3 — Clean the sinks and all stoves not used during the lesson. Housekeeper No. 4 — Inspect cupboards and drawers and report missing utensils. Inspect towels, tea-kettles, 14 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS etc., and report any disorderly condition in the laboratory. The Lesson It is practically impossible to conduct a Domes- tic Science lesson in the lahuratory in less than ninety minutes, even though the theory or chem- istry part is given at a separate period. A few directions must be given, the lesson prepared, criticisms offered, and failures, if any, explained, with means of prevention reasoned out. Dishes and utensils must be washed and tow^els scalded and placed to dry.- Each girl's part in the cleaning of the labor- atory after a lesson is one of the most valuable of the hour. A pupil who is not corrected for leaving her dishes improperly scalded and dried, her stove not clean, or her equipment out of place, has lost an essential part of every labora- tory lesson, — those of order and neatness and cleanliness. It is best for the teacher to have all supplies out and ready for use when the pupils come to the room. This is considered one of the very important parts of lesson preparation. FIRST YEAR CHAPTER I HOME ECONOMICS Home economics. This term is applied to tlie scientific study of all matters pertaining to the healthy, efficient, enjoyable home life. Within its scope is included the study of chemistry, bac- teriology, plant life; the home, its location, ar- rangement, furnishings and ventilation; househohl management, which includes not only the study of how to perform the various duties of the home with the greatest efficiency and least expenditure of effort, but how to maintain the mental and physical health of those in the home; physiology of digestion ; sanitation ; care of the sick ; cookery of food ; textiles and clothing. So great is the importance of this subject to the home, and to the welfare of those in the home, that colleges have extended the completion of the course over four years of time. We, with less than one hundred recitations, can give the subject under only two heads: Domestic science, which includes the study of food, its source, nutrition, cost and cookery; the 15 16 FOOD AND CLOTHING physiology of digestion; tlio scientific planning and serving of meals with reference to "balanced rations," or the amount of food necessary, under specified conditions, to supply the body with building material. Domestic art, the scientific study of clothing from the standpoint of health and comfort; tex- tiles, with reference to their various sources, weaves, and colors; garment making, including the appropriateness of the style to the wearer and the occasion. IXSTKrCTTOXS TO PUPILS In tite Laboratory Each girl should have: A clean apron, preferably white. A small hand towel fastened to tlie l)elt. A nail file. A small hag or purse to liold rings. l)racelets. etc. Girls should ^vear, if possible, clean wash dresses. The dangers of the Avoolen dress in the kitchen may be very great. A girl often wears the same dress for weeks ; and, since the pupils come from many different homes, having varied conditions, possibly diseases, the woolen dress is likely to be a germ carrier. Place great stress upon clean hands and nails. HOME ECONOMICS 17 The hands should be washed, the nails cleaned, then the hands washed again before beginning to prepare a food. Things to Reme^fber When Cooking 1. Read the recipe carefully before beginning to prepare the dish. Determine the fewest pos- sible utensils with which you can prepare this food and do not use more. Avoid the very bad habit of so many housekeepers, that of soiling every dish in the kitchen when preparing a meal. 2. Keep all dishes and other utensils washed and in the smallest possible space. 3. Plan your work so as to save steps. ' ' Con- servation of strength'* should be the watchword of every housekeeper. 4. Do not use your apron for a towel, a lifter, or in place of a handkerchief. Many women who consider themselves neat, wipe their hands and face on their apron and then use it for removing dishes from the oven, handling pans, etc. 5. Keep your hands absolutely clean duriug the lesson. Wash them after you have used the handkerchief or had them on your face or hair. 6. "When tasting a food to determine its sea- soning, place a portion in a spoon with the mixing spoon. Do not place a spoon that has been in the mouth in food. Many years ago, before people 18 FOOD AND CLOTHING knew the dangers of infection from the hreath, women would blow their breath on portions of food to cool it for the children, or would blow back the cream from a vessel containing milk when they wanted only the milk. Read the chap- ter in your physiology, ''The Air Passages and the Lungs," and reason from that, why any of these careless habits are very dangerous to the health of those about us. 7. Do not eat particles of food while cooking. A housekeeper who minces over her food as she cooks it does not take the proper interest in its preparation or service. To Wash Dishes 1. Scrape all food particles from the dishes. 2. Rinse the dishes before placing them in the dish water. 3. Dishes or vessels which have had egg or flour mixtures in them should be rinsed in cold water. 4. Dishes or vessels which have had greasy foods or syrup in them should be rinsed in boiling water. 5. Pack like dishes and cooking vessels to- gether. 6. Wash in this order: glass, silver, china, tin, crockery, iron. Place in another pan, scald each division and dry before washing the next. When HOME ECONOMICS 19 placing tlieiii in the draining pan to be scalded, place each dish inside up. Why? 7. Have two dish cloths, one for dishes and one for cutlery. Scald the cloths before hanging away to dry. Drying towels should be scalded after each us- ing, or hung in the sun to sterilize. Too mucli importance can not be given to having clean, pure, sanitary dish cloths and towels. FOOD A food is any substance which, when taken into the body, builds tissue, and produces heat and energy without directly or indirectly injuring the cells. Foods are divided into five classes: 1. Proteins. The tissue or lean meat builders, which may also be used to produce heat, are ob- tained from lean meat, eggs, milk, cheese, fish, dry peas and beans, wheat, oats, and in small amounts from any cereal except rice. Each food has its own specific kind of protein, yet all have the general characteristic of coagulating at a low temperature and hardening and contracting at a high temperature. The protein in milk and cheese is known as casein; in eggs as albumin; in wheat as gluten; in peas and beans as legumen; in lean meat as myosin; in blood as fibrin. All protein foods should be cooked at a tem- 20 FOOD AND CLOTHING perature below the hoiliny point to insure ease in digestion. 2. Starches and sugars, carbohydrates. These fatty-tissue builders and heat producers are obtained from fruits, vegetables and cereals. Almost all plants have their own kind of starch, as corn starch, rice starch, wheat starch, potato starch, etc. Commercial sugar is obtained from sugar cane and the sugar beet. We obtain sugar also from fruits, milk, corn, cereals, sweet pota- toes, and peas. 3. Fats and oils. The decided heat producers are fats and oils. In a small way they produce fatty-tissue. We obtain most of these from but- ter, meats, nuts, salad dressings, cheese, milk and chocolate. The digestive organs can take care of only a limited amount of these at a time; there is great danger in over-eating. 4. Minerals. Some inorganic materials such as salt, lime, iron and sulphur are valuable in the building of the solids of the body and the blood. They are obtained from fruit, vegetables, grains and animal foods. 5. Water acts as a solvent and is necessary in the fluids of the body. Balanced Rations To take within our bodies, each day, the proper proportion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, HOME ECONOMICS 21 and, on tlie other hand, have these in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of the various condi- tions brouglit about by climate and vocation, is called '* balanced rations." So important is a thorough knowledge of balanced diet to every boy and girl that a chapter will be devoted to it later, under "Dietary Standards." Accessories Numerous other substances are taken into the body which are not foods, but in food combina- tion add to the attractiveness of the dishes by giving odor and taste. These are: Flavors. The various oils and essences, as van- illa, lemon, etc. Stimulants. Alcohol, tea, coffee, cocoa, beef tea. Condiments. Salt, pepper, mustard, spices. In other chapters these will be treated more fully, but too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the injurious effects of the over-use of these accessories. COOKING Cooking is the preparation of food by means of heat to develop new flavors, or to make it more palatable and digestible, and to destroy micro- organisms. 22 FOOD AND CLOTHING ]\Iethods of Cooking Baking is cooking by means of dry, confined heat. Roasting really means exposing food to the di- rect rays of a fire. Before the invention of ovens all foods not cooked in water were roasted, but now it is very unusual to taste a piece of roasted food. Meats spoken of as roasts, are really baked meats. Broiling is a combination of baking and roast- ing. The meat is exposed to the direct rays of a fire, yet in the broiler attachments to the new stoves the heat is confined. In broiling we use thinner cuts of meat than for a roast, with as much surface exposed as possible. Pan-h roiling means that the food is placed on a very hot iron surface and turned continually until sufficiently cooked. No fat is used and if any collects, it is removed. This is the most satis- factory way of cooking game or fowl for con- valescents. Frying is a method of immersing the food in deep hot fat. Degrees of heat used for frying are not general as vegetable oils may be heated to a higher degree than animal oils. Sauteing is very much the same as pan-broiling, except that in sauteing the fat is allowed to collect or is added as the food is cooked. This method HOME ECONOMICS 23 of cooking lias been improperly termed frying. Fricasseeing is sauteing and serving with a sance or gravy. Very thin steaks or jointed chickens are the foods commonly cooked by this method. Boiling means that foods are cooked to the de- sired degree by being placed in boiling water. Stewing means cooking to the desired degree in water just below the boiling point. This is the best method for all protein foods as the albumen will coagulate instead of contracting and harden- ing, as when strong heat is applied. Steaming food means cooking over hot water in vessels that confine the steam. This is the best method for young, green vegetables, potatoes that have a tendency to fall to pieces when partially cooked, and some meats. Fireless cooker. Vessels for holding foods are placed in boxes or cases so packed that when the hot food is placed in them and the lid fastened down, there will be little change of temperature for from eight to twelve hours. Sometimes a hot soapstone is placed under the vessel. For cook- ing meats, fowls and cereals they have no equal. Sherbets and creams, if cooled to the freezing point before being placed in the cases, will con- tinue to freeze. The theory of this invention is insulation to prevent change of temperature. 24 FOOD AND CLOTHING Degrees of Heat in Water Luke-warm. When a tin vessel holding the water can be held with comfort in the hand. Scalding. When steam arises. Simmering. When tiny bubbles collect around the sides and on the bottom of the vessel. Boiling. When these bubbles arise to the top, burst and send out steam. Degrees of Heat in the Oven Warm. When th(' hand may be held in with comfort. Moderate. When a piece of white paper will brown in 10 minutes. Hot oven. When a piece of white paper will brown in 10 seconds. Most of the new kitchen ranges have ther- mometers in the ovens with the different degrees of heat registered. This is the only true way of testing heat, but until we are all supplied with new stoves, the old methods of testing must be used. Abbreviations Some teachers prefer to use the small "t" for teaspoon and the capital "T" for tablespoon. It makes very little difference if the same abbrevia- tions are used throughout the work, but since the HOME ECONOMICS 25 true abbreviations for the words are "tsp." and ''tbsp." they will be used in this text: tsp teaspoon qt quart tbsp tablespoon pt pint c cup oz ounce ni mmute lb pound cm cream Ind Individual B. P Baking Powder All measures used in cooking are level. Pupils must not be allowed to use "rounding" or ''heap- ing" measures in any recipe. To get one spoonful, take upon the spoon all that it will hold, then with the sharp edge of a knife level it smooth to the edge of the spoon; one-half spoonful, the spoonful is cut in two lengthwise; one-fourth spoonful, the half-sj)oon is cut in two crosswise; one-eighth, the fourth is cut in two crosswise, etc. All liquid measures should be leveled oft', the same as dry measures. In small amounts and with thick materials as molasses the amount that would adhere might be enough to cause a failure. Weights and IMeasures 3 tsp 1 tbsp. 2 c. ground meat . . 1 lb. 16 tbsp 1 cup 15 lbs. potatoes. ... 1 pk. 2 cups 1 pint 16 ozs 1 lb. 4 c. flour 1 lb. 2 tbsp. butter 1 oz. 2 c. butter 1 lb. 4 c. shelled nuts. .1 lb. 2 c. g. sugar 1 lb. 1 egg, mixed. 3 to 4 tbsp. CHAPTER II MILK Milk contains all of the elements necessary to sustain life and to build body tissues of the very young or of inactive people, but, when activities that require a great deal of energy are begun, milk will not suffice, as it is lacking in carbohydrates, as will be seen by the following table: Water Fats Sugar Casein Albumeii Minerals 87% 4% 5%, 2>4% /2% 1% This will prove why bread and milk is a health- ful food for children. The fats in milk are in the form of tiny globules, so small and so evenly dis- tributed through the milk, that in fresh milk they can not be observed without the aid of a magnify- ing glass, but if left undisturbed in a cool place the fat particles will rise to the top as cream. Test. Put 1 tbsp. of vinegar and 1 tsp. of an oil in a bottle and shake well. Notice how the oil is broken up into tiny particles. This represents the fats in the milk as they would appear, if magnified. Hold the bottle still, and notice how the globules run together and gather at the top. This explains to you how cream rises. 26 MILK 27 The fat of milk is commercially its most im- l^ortant element, since from it we get the cream and the butter, and it enters largely into cheese making. The sugar in milk is known as milk-sugar or *' lactose," and is not so sweet as cane sugar. It is collected from the whey after cheese has been made and is used in the manufacture of medicines and baby foods. The casein, a protein, may be seen by adding acid to milk. The tiny flecks you see are the casein, which the acid has caused to contract and separate from the water. This will be discussed in detail under '^Cheese." The albumen, another protein, may be seen by placing milk over a hot fire. The scum which col- lects on the top is the albumen which has been hardened by the heat. The mineral matter in milk is made up largely of phosphates and lime. How milk is classified. Whole milk is that Avhicli contains all of its elements; skimmed milk, that which is left after the cream has been taken; buttermilk, the milk left after churning; the fats have practically all been removed, and the lactic acid which caused the milk to sour has separated the casein from the water. Since the fat has been removed and the acid has performed some of the functions of stomach digestion, butter- 28 FOOD AND CLOTHING milk is sometimes recommended by physicians in cases of intestinal troubles. Why milk sours. Milk is subject to a great many chemical changes as it presents favorable conditions for the growth of various bacteria, but the one most common is ''souring," due to the forming of lactic acid. This acid develops very quickly in milk, if the temperature is above 40 degrees. The widespread belief that thunder or lightning sours milk is unfounded. Souring at such times is brought about by the atmospheric conditions. The same climatic condition that pro- duces electricity during a thunder storm will cause milk to sour. The chief sources of bacteria in milk are, health conditions of the cow, the stables, the feed, the utensils and the milkers. The general belief now is that milk is never entirely free from bacteria ; yet the milk from dairies where the vessels are thoroughly scalded and cleaned, the milkers work with clean hands and clothes and the animals are thoroughly cleaned and are healthful, tests prac- tically pure. On the other hand, pure, clean milk is often sold to a person who leaves it uncovered where flies or dust can get into it, or turns it into a poorly washed vessel, or places it in a warm, moist place where odors from other foods can get to it. Tests have been made and by great care milk has been MILK 29 kept sweet 21 days by simply using cleanly methods. Many preservatives are used to prevent milk from souring, but in all cases these are in- jurious to the health of the consumer. While slight warmth promotes the growth of bacteria, extreme heat kills them. Unfor- tunately heat sufficient to kill bacteria causes chemical changes to take place in the milk. How- ever, heat is often used and the two most common methods are pasteurization and sterilization. Pasteurization requires just enough heat to de- stroy as many bacteria as possible without mak- ing a chemical change. Milk is placed in jars, sealed and immersed to the neck in hot water and heated to 150 F., let stand for 30 minutes, then removed and cooled quickly. Rapid cooling lessens the "cooked" taste. Sterilized milk has been heated three succes- sive days to boiling point and continued at that degree for 15 minutes. Sterilized milk will re- main sweet in a warm place several days, but the extreme heat has caused an undesirable change. Condensed and evaporated milk and milk pow- ders are forms of canned milk, which have been heated until all of the water has evaporated. Effect of strong heat upon milk has been seen in the test for albumen. The protein becomes so con- tracted and hard that the digestive fluids can not liquify it. All foods containing milk should he 30 FOOD AND CLOTHING cooked heloiv the boiling point. Double boilers and fireless cookers have done mncli toward tiie proper cooking of milk in food combinations. WHITE SATJCE The thickness of the sauce desired is regulated by the number of tablespoonfuls of flour and but- ter used to 1 cup of liquid. Since the amounts of (flour and butter are the same we indicate the con- sistency as: ''One to one" white sauce means 1 tbsp. each flour and butter to 1 c. milk, — used mostly for thickening soups. "Two to one" white sauce means 2 tbsp. each butter and flour to 1 c. milk, — used for creamed vegetables, heavy gravies and purees. When a very heavy sauce is desired, as for croquettes, the amount of fat is decreased as tlie amount of flour increases as; 2 tbsp. butter, 5 tbsy). flour, 1 c. milk and would be given as "2 to 5 to 1." In making small amounts for class work the evaporation will be relatively so much greater than for a large amount — that, in a recipe which calls for 2 c. white sauce ''2 to 1," one-fourth cup would have to be made ^'1 to 1" to give the desired consistency. Melt the butter slightly, blend it with the flour, add the liquid and cook over boiling water about I\IILK 31 8 minutes, until thick and tlie starch in the flour has a clear look. Add the salt last. The usual amount is i/4 tsp. to the cup, but that depends upon its use. Two tbsp. grated cheese added to 1 c. white sauce is called cheese sauce. Tomato juice used in place of milk is called tomato sauce. Why starch thickens. If we were to examine the fine white powder through a microscope, we would see that each grain resembles a white marble. This expands and bursts in sufficiently moist heat. TESTS 1. To 1 tsp. starch add 1 tbsp. cold water, mix well, add Yi e. boiling water and cook three minutes. What change has taken place in the color? In the consistency? 2. To 1 tbsp. starch add Yz c. boiling water. Cook 3 minutes. What change in consistency do you find as compared with that in the first test? 3. To 1 tsp. starch add 1 tsp. fat or oil, blend well, add Y^ c. boiling water and cook 3 minutes. What consistency do you find ? MOCK OYSTER SOUP 1 c. whole milk 2 crackers Vl^> t^P- salt Spread the crackers with butter and place in a soup dish. Heat the milk to scalding point over hot Avater, pour it over crackers and serve hot. 32 FOOD AND CLOTHING 1. In what one of the food classes is milk deficient? 2. Why is milk, alone, not a perfect food for a child old enough to go to school? 3. Why is milk a perfect food for a baby :' 4. Give four reasons for milk souring. 5. Why should milk or foods containing milk not be cooked at a boiling temperature ? Note: Unless otherwise stated, the reeipes may lie considered to be for individual service. CHAPTER III EGGS Eggs, another form of protein food, are in a sense a perfect food since they contain all of the elements necessary to life. The entire body of the chick is formed inside of the shell, yet when it is hatched and begins to move about, the ele- ments in different proportions must be taken up by its body to keep it alive and growing. Eggs, like milk, lack the carbohydrates, and as soon as the chick begins to use muscular energy, he is fed upon cornmeal or other starchy foods to insure his supply of energy-producing material. The proportion of elements in the egg is : Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Minerals 74% 13% 12% .... 1%, Perhaps no article of diet of animal origin is more commonly eaten in all countries, or served in a greater variety of ways than eggs. Hens ' eggs are most common, although the eggs of all fowls and most birds are used to some ex- tent. Turtle eggs are highly prized in some coun- tries, and fish eggs, under the name of caviar are sold in large quantities. 33 34 FOOD AND CLOTHING The different parts of an egg are : Shell, lining, air space, white, twisted cord, yolk, and embryo. The white is nearly pure albumen and water, with a percentage of sulphur; the yolk contains fat, albumen and a number of minerals in small quantities; for example, iron, sulphur, etc.; the shell is made up of mineral matter, principally lime. The embryo, on the yolk, is the germ from which the life of the young chick starts. The cords hold the yolk in place. How TO Tell Fresh Eggs 1. If, when held between your eve and a strong liglit, the egg is clear with a dark spot in tlie center it is fresh ; if it is cloudy, it is stale. This is called "candling." 2. Drop an egg into fresh water. If it is fresh it will sink ; if it comes to the top it is stale or spoiled. 3. Shake an egg close to .your ear; if it rattles it is spoiled. 4. The shell of a fresh egg is rough ; that of a stah^ egg is usually srnootlL Why Eggs Spoil. 1. The shell is porous and when the egg is exposed to the air, the water in the egg evaporates and air enters and takes its place. Bacteria, enter- ing with the air, begin working and soon the egg- is stale or spoiled, according to the length of time it is exposed. EGGS 35 2. When subjected to heat equal to that of the body of the hen, about 78 degrees, the germ of the chick will begin to develop and within a few days the egg will be unfit for use. Many ways of preserving eggs have been tried and a few have been successful. If, when eggs are plentiful and selling at a low price, they can be packed away and kept fresh until they are scarce, an important problem in domestic economy has been solved. Eggs should never be packed in a material that has a disagreeable odor. Musty straw or bran will injure the flavor, and crates of eggs have been ruined by leaving them near cabbage or onions. Preserving Eggs The results of preserving eggs by different methods through a period of eight months showed the following results: Brine — salt absorbed by egg, not edible. Wrapped in paper — 80% bad. Rubbed with salt— 707^ bad. Packed in bran — 709? bad. Covered with paraffin — 70% bad. Partially sterilized by placing in boiling water for 12 to 15 seconds — 50% bad. Varnished with vaseline — all good. In lime water — all good. In solution of water glass — all good. 36 FOOD AND CLOTHING Cooking. Coagulation is the solidifying of tlie albumen by means of heat. If coagulated rapidly the albumen becomes hard and contracts and is hard to dissolve. If coagulated slowly it is easily dissolved. In the cooking of eggs it is necessary to keep this in mind, and cook them very slowly or at a temperature below the boiling point. As one of the functions of stomach digestion is to liquify its contents, the easier a substance is liqui- fied the quicker it is digested and the less strain on the digestive organs. SOFT-COOKED OR "BOTTiEO" EGGS Drop an egg into a pan of water that is just below the boiling point and let stand from 3 to 5 minutes. When broken, the white will be jelly- like and the yolk heated through. POACTTF.D EGGS Break an egg into a pan of simmering salt water, deep enough to cover the egg. When the white is firm, remove and place on buttered toast. Scalding hot milk may be used in place of water. HARD-COOKED OR " BOTTLED " EGGS Drop an egg into a pan of water just below the boiling point, turn the fire very low and cook at the same temperature 40 minutes. Remove the EGGS 37 eggs and yjlace in cold water for a few seconds, then take tliem out of the cold water, put aw^ay and cool before taking off the shell. This insures a dry mealy yolk and a firm but not tough white. GOLDEN-KOD EGGS 1 hard-cooked egg 1/3 c. white sauce "2 to 1 " Dice egg white and add to white sauce. Turn into a toasted bun cup. Press yolk through a ricer and pile on the top. A slice of toast may be used in place of the bun cup. TOASTED BT'N-CT'PS Cut off the bottom crust of small buns and partially hollow out. Butter the inside and toast in a hot oven. They are very nice to use in serv- ing creamed meats. EGG SANDWICHES ( S samlwiclies) 2 hard-cooked eggs ^s tsp. salt ^2 tsp. celery salt ^ tsp. paprika 1 tbsp. melted butter 2 tbsp. mayonnaise Rice the yolks, add cliopped whites and blend with it the other ingredients. Cut bread very thin, brush each side with melted butter, spread on a layer of the egg mixture, press down the other slice and cut in triangular slices. Approximate cost, 8 cents. 38 FOOD AND CLOTHING FOAMY OMELET Beat the white of one egg stiff and dry. Add 1 tsp. water to the yolk and beat until lemon colored. Fold into the white, add % tsp. salt and turn into a well greased and hot omelet pan. When brown on the under side, place in a hot oven to cook the top. Wlien firm, remove from the oven, slip a spatula under the side nearest the handle and fold. Garnish with parsley. BREAD OMELET Soak 1 tbsp. small pieces of bread in 2 tbsp. milk. Add egg yolk and white, beaten stiff' and dry. Cook as foamy omelet. SCRAMBLED EGGS 1 egg }4 tbsp. milk y2 tsp. butter 1/16 tsp. salt. Melt butter in pan that is heated over hot water. Mix egg thoroughly with milk and turn into the melted butter. Stir continually until the egg is cooked to the desired consistency. (If cooked at a low temperature hard-cooked eggs are digest- ible.) Add salt last and serve on toast or on a warm plate. . CHAPTER IV VEGETABLES Fresh vegetables are composed mainly of water, but all of the five food principles may be obtained from the vegetable kingdom. Dry vegetables, as peas and beans, contain a higher percentage of starch and protein than the fresh vegetables. All vegetables have in their construction a woody fiber called cellulose. In cooking vegetables the main object to attain is the softening of this cellulose so that it may be more easily digested. Plants that grow rapidly, with plenty of moisture and sunshine, have little of this when very young, but more when old. Radishes and asparagus are good examples. Vegetable protein occurs as legumen and gluten substances. Vegetables are rich in minerals, especially iron, potash and phosphate. Vegetable protein lies near the outer surface of the different grains and vegetables. All green vegetables contain a coloring matter, chlorophyll, which develops in light and air. Chlorophyll develops best in the presence of iron, 39 40 FOOL) AND CLOTHING and is essential to the continued growth and de- velopment of all green plants. If green plants are covered so that light cannot reach them a change takes place in the chlorophyll and it is bleached out. Celery, lettuce, endive, and other salad plants are bleached and it is believed that in the bleach- ing, strong flavors are diminished. Vegetable foods are divided into: Cereals, which include all grains, as corn, wheat, etc. Legumes, as peas, beans, lentils. Tubers, as potatoes. Roots, as turnips, beets, radishes. Bulbs, as onions, garlic. Greens, as lettuce, celery, si)inacli. Fruit, as tomatoes. i)umpkin, cucuihIxm-. melons. Flower, as caulitlower. Digestibility of vegetables. Aside from the amount of tissue-building material they contain, vegetables aid in the process of digestion by fur- nishing bulk, or substances which help carry the foods along the digestive tract. Many times we should eat vegetables wdiose building properties are very low, simply for the bulk they furnish. Cabbage has very little material for the body, yet it is recommended by dietitians as a proper food, occasionally, for well people. By cooking, the cellulose is softened and it is not irritating to the digestive organs. VEGETABLES 41 Cooking of Vegetables The preparation of vegetables for cooking var- ies with each kind, so that no general rules can be given except these: 1. Vegetables u'ilf because some of the water in their cells has evaporated ; therefore all wilted vegetables should be soaked in cold water before being cooked. 2. Vegetables have decayed places on them be- cause bacteria have begun their work ; all decayed places must be removed. 3. In preparation for cooking, vegetables that form heads, as cabbage, cauliflower, etc., should be soaked, heads down, in cold salt water to which has been added a small amount of vinegar. If there are any worms in these vegetables they will crawl out. To secure the best results in cooking vegetables, all except the dry legumens, should be put in boil- ing salt water, and allowed to boil until tender. Green peas and beans should simmer; greens should boil gently, or be steamed so as not to break them. A little soda added to the water helps dis- solve the cellulose, but too much destroys the flavor and its use is not recommended. Briefly, the changes which take place in the cooking of vege- tables are: Cellulose tissues are softened and loosened. 42 FOOD AND CLOTHING Protein substances coagulate. Starch grains swell and burst. Flavors and odors are developed. The Potato In a text on agriculture read the chapter on the potato : of the soil, time of planting, care, market, etc. From a geography make a list of states or sections of the country where potatoes grow best. Examine a cross-section of a potato and notice the three distinct layers: 1. The brown outer skin, of no food value. 2. A broader white layer mside the skin. This contains the largest amount of the mineral and protein. 3. The flesh of the potato and a center core with decided arms extending into the flesh. These are the cells holding the water in which the tiny starch grains float. Scrape a tablespoonful of the potato flesh and place it in a thin cloth. Squeeze it until you can get no more moisture from it. In the cloth you will have a dry fiber, or broken-down cell walls which hold the starch and water. After the water has stood a few minutes you will find a white sediment. This is starch. By this time the water and cellulose has turned a reddish brown. This change of color in many fruits as well as in pota- VEGETABLES 43 toes is clue to the action of tlie oxygen in the air upon the wet minerals. The potato is composed of: Water Starch Cellulose Minerals Protein 75 7o 18%' 4% 1% 2% 1. The potato belongs to what class of foods'? 2. Why do we get more food value from the j^otato that is cooked with the jacket on than from one that has been peeled? 3 In what food principle are potatoes lacking'^ Effect of Heat Heat causes the water in the cells to expand and change to steam. As it expands it presses hard against the cell walls and they are broken down and the starch grains are freed. They also expand and change in color. This is the reason why a potato which has been cooked in the jacket should be pierced to allow the steam to escape, otherwise the steam will change back to water and the potato will be soggy. For the same reason potatoes should always be served in an uncovered dish. A theory of long standing, that potatoes should be plunged into boiling water, is perhaps not a bad one to follow, but tests prove that peeled potatoes lose very little of their value if placed in cold water, while potatoes cooked in their jackets lose none at all in that way. 44 FOOD AND CLOTHING BOILED POTATOES 1 potato y^ tsp. salt Boiling water to cover. Wash, pare very thinly, remove eyes, and rinse in cold water; place in the boiling salt water and cook very slowly until it can be easily pierced with a tooth pick. Let the water boil very gently, as vigorous boiling wears away so much of the potato. Drain off the water and shake over the fire until dry and ''snowy. " Chopped parsley sprinkled over just before serving adds to the appearance and food value. We add salt to the water, not to flavor the po- tato, but to increase the density; that is, raise the temperature at the boiling point, as the thicker the liquid, the higher the temperature is at boiling point. At certain seasons of the year potatoes, if cooked by this method, will break to pieces before they are done. At such seasons the only satis- factory way is to steam them. The price of a steamer will be saved many times by the saving of the potatoes. BOILED POTATOES IN .JACKETS Wash, clean, and cook as above. These may be skinned and sent to the table hot or allowed to cool, then skinned and cooked as German saute or hash brown potatoes. VEGETABLP]S 45 Test a small amount of the potato water from each recipe with iodine and observe the differ- ence in the amount of starch, (Iodine is a liquid which turns all starchy substances blue.) Place a drop of iodine on a cracker, on some sugar, on some butter, bread, flour, meat. Note the difference. Which contain starch? BAKED POTATOES Use medium sized potatoes. Scrub thoroughly with a brush. Oil lightly, place on the grill of a hot oven, and bake until they can be easily pierced, from 20 to 40 minutes. Eoll in a clean napkin and twist until the skin is broken, or pierce sev- eral times. Serve in an uncovcixd dish. 1. Why oil the skin? 2. Why twist and break the skin ? 3. Why serve potatoes in an uncovered dish? BAKED POTATOES ON THE HAl.F-SHELL Cut otf the end of a baked potato, scoop out, and season. To every cup of the potato, add i/4 tsp. salt, dash pepper, V2 tsp. butter and 1 thsj). cream (sweet or sour) or milk. Beat until light and creanw. Refill the shell loosely and heap above the shell. Return to the oven to brown. Grated cheese may be sprinkled over the top before returning to the oven to brown. If the potatoes are allowed to cool before sea- 46 FOOD AND CLOTHING soiling and refilling the shell, the beaten white of an egg folded into them adds much to the lightness of the filling. 1. Why add butter and milk to the potato? 2. What combination of food does it give you? 3. Why does the grated cheese sprinkled on the top add to the food value ? GERMAN SAUTE (.Serve 6) 3 e. cold boiled finely chopped potatoes, cooked in jackets. 3 slices bacDU, sauted crisp and cut fine. Yz c. finely chopped onion. 1 tsp. salt — dash pepper. Mix thoroughly and turn into skillet where the bacon was rendered. Cover and cook very slowly, stirring as they broAvn on underside, so as to brown evenly, through and through. Serve hot. Just before serving, ^ c. cream may be turned over the potatoes, the lid replaced and the whole allowed to steam for a few seconds. This softens the brown crusts and adds to the flavor. BOILED CABBAGE After cleaning as directed in ^'Prej^aration and Cooking of Vegetables," cut fine and put in a stew pan wdth enough boiling water to cover. Cook from 25 to 45 minutes, depending upon the age of the cabbage. Drain for 2 minutes in a colander, season with salt, pepper and butter. VEGETABLES 47 If cabbage is cooked in a great amount of water with tlie lid off the odor will not be notice- able. To 1 c. shredded cabbage, use 5 c. of water, and as the water evaporates add more. BOILED CABBAGE WITH PORK ■ Boil the pork until tender, adding the cabbage as directed above, and serve all together. CREAMED CABBAGE Boil cabbage as directed. Make cream sauce or cheese sauce ''2 to 1." Put cabbage in baking dish, turn sauce over it, sprinkle with buttered crumbs, and brown. (See "white sauce.") CREAMED CAULIFLOWER Use only the flowers. Soak in cold, salt, vinegar water for an hour, cook as ''Boiled Cabbage" and turn over all a cheese sauce. SPINACH Pull the leaves from the roots, drop in a pan of water, wash well in two waters, shaking each leaf separately. Throw into a kettle, with only the water that is on the leaves, and cook with the lid on for 20 minutes from time it begins to steam. Pour spinach in colander and drain thoroughly. Place in a dish, add salt, pepper, butter and hard- 48 FOOD AND CLOTHING cooked egg cut in slices. One peck of spinach will make IV2 pts. when cooked. Mustard greens should cook from one to three hours very slowly. The cellulose in these greens is very hard to soften. BOILED BEETS Wash the beets well, being careful not to break the skin; also leave about 2 inches of the top on. This will keep in the red coloring matter. Drop in boiling water. Young beets will cook in one hour, but old beets sometimes require as long as 4 hours. Put in cold water, slip off the peeling and prepare as: 1. Buttered beets, by dieing and adding salt, pepper and plenty of butter, then reheating. 2. Pickled beets, by -slicing and covering with half vinegar, half vvater, and allowing to stand 24 hours. ASPARAGrs Cut off the lower, woody part of each stem. Wash well, tie in a bunch, and stand in a pan with the tender ends up. Fill the pan with enough boiling water to cover and cook until tender, about ]5 minutes. Drain, season with salt, pepper and butter or make a ''3 to 1" white sauce and pour over. This is often served on toasted points. After the cooked asparagus has drained and cooled, several sticks may be arranged on a let- VEGETABLES 49 tuce leaf, with French dressing or mayonnaise over it and served as a salad. CANDIED SWEET POTATOES Skin boiled sweet potatoes and cut in length- wise slices. Place in an earthen dish, put lumps of butter on each slice and sprinkle with sugar. Bake until the butter and sugar has candied and the potatoes are brown. SWEET POTATO PUFFS Cut baked potatoes in halves, scrape out the inside, season with salt, pepper, butter and chopped nuts, refill shells, leaving a rough surface, and bi'own in a liot oven before serving. TOMATOES To peel : Put ripe tomatoes in a dish, pour boil- ing water over them and let stand one minute; pour the water oif, and pour on cold water; turn this off immediately and cool. The thin skin will slip off readily, and the tomato will retain its shape. SCAIJ.OPED TOMATOES (Servo 6) 2 0. peeled tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 2 ('. bread chunks 1 tbsp. butter Reserve Y^. c. crumbs for the top 50 FOOD AND CLOTHING Add the salt and bread chunks to tomatoes. Put in baking dish, dice butter over top, add crumbs and brown in an oven. One tbsp. or more of diced onions may be added if desired. CREAMED ONIONS Select small onions of uniform size. Remove roots and outside skin. Cook until tender in enough boiling water to cover, with the lid off. Drain and pour over, for each onion, 2 tbsp. white sauce *'2 to 1" and serve. GREEN CORN The most satisfactory way to serve green corn is on the cob. Remove the husks and silks and any brown places on the cob or corn. Drop the ears in a kettle of boiling water, and boil rapidly for 20 minutes. Drain before serving. TURNIPS Wash, peel and if very large, quarter. Cook until tender in a large amount of water, just at the boiling point. Drain, and season with salt, pepper and butter. Creamed turnips: mash the boiled turnips thor- oughly, add salt, pepper, butter and cream. CREAMED CARROTS Wash and scrape the carrots thoroughly. Dice VEGETABLES 51 and cook until tender in boiling water. Drain and serve with a white sauce "2 to 1." Many people are not fond of carrots, but they contain a high percentage of mineral, and their cellulose is so easily softened that they are a very desirable food. CREAMED STRING-BEANS %. c. golden snap beans ]4, <"■ white sauce "2 to 1" 1 sHce toasted bread If canned beans are used, add to the white sauce, and cook over water 10 minutes. Turn onto toast and serve hot. If fresh beans are used, they should be cooked in boiling water until tender, then measured. CREAMED PEAS 1 tbsp. peas 2 tbsp. white sauce "2 to 1 " 1 slice toast or 1 patty shell Cook as for creamed beans. Peas and beans belong to a family of vegetables known as the pulse family. Dried, they are very rich in nitrogen and their principle protein is known as "legumen." They are, therefore, often called legumens. On account of their large amount of protein they are sometimes styled '^Poor Man's Beef." They are also very rich in carbohydrates, but are poor in fats, and for that 52 FOOD AND CLOTHING reason are usually served with fatty foods. Served with a cream sauce they make a well-bal- anced food. Fresh peas and beans should be cooked immedi- ately after pickini^ as they loose both in flavor and value by evaporation. When 'Afresh w^ith the dew from the garden" they are at their best. 1. What names are given to vegetable protein? 2. Name some minerals that are fonnd in vegetables. 3. Give three reasons for a strong vegetable diet. 4. What do we mean by ' ' coarse vegetables ' ' ? 5. Why do we need "coarse vegetables"? CHAPTER V SUGAR Sugar, one of tlie carbohydrates, lias its source in fruits, cereals and vegetables, as well as in milk. There are several kinds of sugar : Sucrose, cane or beet sugar, very sweet. Lactose, milk sugar. Glucose, made from corn starch. It is not as sweet as cane sugar and does not crystallize read- ily, hence its value in making some candies. Dextrine, a sugar which is produced in the process of digestion, also, by applying heat to starch, as in toasted bread. Commercial sugar is made from the juice of sugar cane, beet roots, and maple trees. Sugar cane is a tall plant of the grass family resembling corn, cultivated extensively in the South for use in making syrup and sugar. Sugar heel is a large white variety of beet, from the juice of whicli sugar is made. It is cul- tivated extensively in Colorado, New Mexico, Michigan and California. Maple sugar is made from the juice of a maple tree which grows in northeastern United States. There are two kinds of granulated sugar, — beet 53 54 FOOD AND CLOTHING and cane. Often beet sugar has a blue tinge and cane sugar a yellow tinge, though when both are highly refined there is no distinction between them. In cane sugar the sweet juice which is obtained by crushing the cane between large rollers is boiled down to a thick syrup. As it slowly cools part of it separates into crystals. The liquid that will not crystallize is called molasses. After drain- ing this off the impure product called raw sugar (brown sugar) is left. This is mixed with water and filtered several times and then boiled down in covered vessels which contain no air. Granulated sugar is made by putting the syrup into revolving vessels, the centrifugal force forming the gran- ules. Other kinds of granulated sugar are block sugar and powdered sugar. Block or cut sugar is the purest kind and is made by running the syrup into molds wdiere it hardens. AVhen taken from the molds it is sawed into blocks. An inferior kind of square loaf sugar is made by pressing granulated sugar into cubes. Powdered sugar is made by pulverizing the sugar particles left from sawing the block sugar. Brown sugar is the unrefined cane sugar. Molasses is the thick brown syrup which drains from the sugar in the process of manufacture. Sugar is often adulterated by adding to it white sand, lime dust, or starch. As pure sugar dis- SUGAR 55 solves quickly in warm water, the presence of foreign matter may be readily detected. The digestion of sugar requires less energy on the part of the digestive organs than any other food, on account of its solubility, but since the body can care for only so small an amount at a time, people commonly eat too much and a great amount ferments and causes digestive disturb- ances. Effect of heat upon sugar. Heat changes sugar chemically almost as soon as it is applied. When sugar is melted over a slow fire, it has been changed to barley sugar; when barley sugar has begun to brown we have caramel sugar; burned until it is black we have carbon. In each sugar, some of the sweetness has been lost, until, if you were to taste the carbon, you should find it bitter. This proves to us that when cooking fruits or vegetables, where sugar is to be used, it must be added just in time to melt it as the longer it cooks the greater the loss of the sweet taste. Sugar as a food is both wholesome and pleasant. It is also one of the best and cheapest sources of body heat and energy. Children, who are natur- ally more active than grown people, require more sweets. A moderate amount of candy is good for children, but it should be eaten immediately after meals, otherwise it spoils the appetite for other foods. 56 FOOD AND CLOTHING Since sugar, in any form, is a food, and candy is the most attractive form of sugar, and people, especially children, will have candy, it is wisdom for every girl to learn to make pure simple can- dies, and make them often in the home. The ''penny-candy" habit has brought more harm to children than any other source of temptation set before them. Cheap candies are often full of poisonous colorings and flavorings and contain adulterations that stunt the growth and ruin the health of thousands of their users. Candy ]\Iaking The different stages oi sugar cookery m candy making are, soft ball, hard ball, crack, and hard crack. The sugar and Avater boiled together reaches the ''soft ball" stage when a portion dropped into cold water can be gathered up into a soft ball. The "hard ball" stage is reached when the por- tion tested forms a firm, compact ball. At the "crack" degree, the portion tested be- comes slightly brittle and can no longer be molded into a ball. The ' ' hard crack ' ' is the stage at which the por- tion tested becomes hard and brittle. After the hard stage is passed, the syrup gradu- ally changes color, becoming first light yellow, SUGAR 57 then brown and finally a deep red. These repre- sent the different stages of carmelization. At the last stage the sugar has lost its sweet taste and is used for coloring soups and gravies. At the intermediate stage it is used for flavor- ing ice creams and custards. These different stages may be easily determined by the use of a thermometer, which is the most accurate way of testing. In most candies the object is to prevent the recrystallization of the sugar, or to insure its formation in minute crystals, that the candy may be creamy. This may be brought about by invert- ing a portion of the sugar: first, by long boiling, with the addition of at least half as mucli liquid as sugar, or by the addition of an acid as vinegar, lemon juice, or cream of tartar (an acid salt); second, by melting the sugar at a high tempera- ture with no addition of liquid. PEANUT BRITTLE 1 c. sugar 1 c. shelled peanuts Put the peanuts on a buttered tin plate. Heat the sugar slowly until it is a brown color (cara- mel). Pour over the peanuts. Even the thickness in the pan by tilting. Weigh the candy, note the cost and compare with the selling price. Do not attempt to make more than one pound of this at a time, as in melt- 58 FOOD AND CLOTHING ing large amounts of sugar some will burn before the rest can melt. NUT TAFFY 2 c. sugar 1 tsp. viuegar 1 c. water 1 tsp. butter Yi c. chopped nuts Cook sugar and water together until sugar is dissolved. Add the butter and vinegar and cook to the hard ball stage. Pour into buttered pans on which the nuts have been spread. When cool enough to handle, pull until white and hard. Twist into ropes ^2 inch in diameter and when cold break into small pieces. COCOANUT CREAM CANDY V/z c. sugar 1 tbsp. butter Ya, e. milk Y^ c. coeoanut Y2 tsp. vanilla Stir sugar in milk, add butter and heat gradu- ally until the butter is melted. Cook to soft ball stage. Remove from fire, beat in coeoanut and vanilla, and beat until mixture is creamy and be- gins to sugar around the edge. Turn at once into a buttered plate and score. CHOCOLATE NUT FUDGE 2 c. sweet milk 2 tbsp. butter 1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. sugar V2 e. chopped nuts 2 sections chocolate, of the Y2. lb. cakes SUGAR 59 Melt chocolate over hot water, acid milk and let it come to the boiling point. Cream butter and sugar, add to hot milk and chocolate. Cook until soft ball stage is reached. Remove from fire and beat in the nuts. Add vanilla and beat until creamy. Pour into pans and score. A slight acid in the chocolate will sometimes curdle the milk, but this does not interfere witli the creaminess of the fudge. 1. Why add the vanilla last? 2. Why beat the fudge? 3. Has fudge a food value? FONDANT 3/2 c. sugar ^ c. water ys tsp. cream of tartar Add sugar to water and stir until the sugar has dissolved. Place over a slow fire and, when it begins to boil, shake in the cream of tartar. With a wet cloth wrapped around the tines of a fork, keep the sides of pan washed clean from sugar grains that accumulate as the syrup boils. When a drop of the syrup, in cold w^ater, may be gath- ered up and brought to the top, it has cooked suffi- ciently. Pour into a vessel, and when cold, beat until creamy. Then knead like bread for a few minutes, put in a jar, cover and let stand until ready for use. It is better if allowed to stand a few days before using. Do not stir fondant after it begins to cook. Do 60 FOOD AND CLOTHING not scrape it from the pan; use only what will pour. When testing fondant or any candy always remove from the fire and wait until boiling ceases. Sometimes the few seconds between the test and the time for removing from the fire, it will have cooked too much if it was just right at the time the test was taken. If fondant has been cooked too long and it turns to a hard sugar, equal parts of water may be added and it may be cooked again with good results. When cooking larger amounts of sugar for candy, as 2 cups, one-half the amount of water may be used, but in small amounts, as y^ c. of sugar, equal parts of water must be used, as the evaporation is relatively greater. CANDIED ORANGE PEEL Cut the rind of six oranges into fine strips. Throw into 2 qts. of boiling salt water and cook imtil tender, changing the water three times. Drain and dry. Make syrup of 2 c. sugar, 1/2 c. water, and when it has reached the crack stage put in the peel and cook again for 2 or 3 min- utes. Turn on paper, sprinkle with enough sugar to keep the strips from sticking together. MARSHMALLOWS 1 e. sugar 1 egg white y2 c. water 1 tsp. gelatine SUGAR 61 Soak gelatine in 2 tsp. cold water. Cook sugar and water until it spins a long thread. Add gel- atine to hot syrup and, when well dissolved, pour slowly over the stiffly beaten egg white, stirring continually. Beat until stiff. Pour in a shallow pan, cover with powdered sugar, and let stand until firm and cut into small cubes. CHAPTER VI MEATS The food value of meat depends upon the pres- ence of two classes of nutriment; namely, protein and fat, which build muscular tissue and yield heat and energy. Compared, with other protein foods, meat is very expensive, and in many cases it is slow to digest. Bacteria develops so rapidly in meat that, unless the digestive organs are rapid or entirely normal in their work, substances will be absorbed and thrown into the circulation which will cause general disorder. The classifications are: 31 eat: Beef, pork, lamb, mutton, veal. Fish: Red fish, white fish, oysters, elams, shrimps, etc. Poultry: Chicken, capon, turkey, duck, goose. Game: Rabbit, pigeon, squab, quail, squirrel, wikl duck, wild turkey. Beef The fat consists of tiny sacks or cells filled with oil. In the young, well-fed beef it is firm and of a light yellow color ; in old beef it is soft, flabby and of a dark yellow or straw color. 62 MEATS 63 The muscular tissue, or lean meat, consists of bundles of muscular fibers or tubes held together by means of a connective tissue, which in the young beef is soft and jelly-like, while in the old beef it is firm and elastic. The bundles may be seen very plainly by examining a piece of round steak or the cross cut of a section of a rump roast. In each of the different muscles, these Inmdles are placed one way ; and for this reason a person who carves should cut across the grain of bundles of each muscle even though he has to change the direction of his knife several times. These bundles of muscles tied together with this connec- tive tissue may be compared to a bundle of wheat wrapped from the top to the bottom with the twine. It is easy, from this comparison, to see how carving a cross-section would give an alto- gether different result tlian cutting lengthwise of the fiber. A fresh cut of beef should be bright red in color, but as it is exposed to the air it turns a dark color. One of the best tests for fresh meat is the odor. Do not accept a cut of meat that has the least trace of an offensive odor. Meats are cooked for four reasons: To loosen and soften the connective tissues. To kill parasites and organisms. To coagulate the protein substances. To render it more acceptable to the sight and to develop the flavor. 64 FOOD AND CLOTHING In tougli cuts, and by those we mean the muscu- lar parts most used by the animal, the percentage of nutrition is greater but it also requires greater etfort on the part of the digestive organs to pre- pare it for use, unless the method of cooking lends aid. Strong heat hardens and contracts proteins, while slow heat coagulates them. From this w^e have two rules for cooking the tough cuts of meat : First, if the flavor and nutrition is desired in the meat, strong heat must first be applied to harden the protein substances on the outside so as to keep the juices in, then it should be reduced to a temperature below the boiling point for the remainder of the cooking. Second, if the flavor and nutrition is to be taken from the meat, as for soups and sauces or gravy, it should be placed in cold water and the temperature increased very slowly until it is sim- mering. The fireless cooker method is the most success- ful way of cooking tough cuts of meat. "Ways of Cooking Beef Soups: Hind shank, fore shank, neck. Stews: Chuck, shoulder, brisket, flank, ribs. Boasts: Prime ribs, third, fourth, fifth, etc. Pot roasts: Rump, top shoulder. Steals: Loin, top round, chuck, flank. MEATS 65 1. Give two reasons why meat is an expensive protein food. 2. Make a comparison between the fatty tissues and the lean tissues of meat. 3. What proof have we that tough meats should be cooked at a low temperature? 4. Why are some pieces of meat termed ' ' tough ' ' and some "tender"? 5. Why will carving a piece of meat cross-grain make it seem tender ? 6. Why is the tireless cooker a successful method of cooking tough cuts of meat? ROLLED FLANK STEAK (Mock Duck) Wipe a flank steak and chop it each way. Salt, pepper and spread with rendered suet. Spread over this a layer of dressing about 1 inch thick. Roll, skeAver and tie. Weigh and place in a hot baking pan, which has a small amount of fat in it, and bake in a moderate oven, 20 minutes per pound. Several times during cooking baste with extra fat. Remove all fastenings, slice through meat and dressing and serve with brown gravy. DRESSING 1 e. bread chunks 2 tbsp. chopped onion 54 tsp. sage Yi tsp. salt Moisten all with waten or tomato juice. Handle very lightly as the crumbs are likely to become packed and the dressing will be heavy. 66 FOOD AND CLOTHING BROWN GRAVY To every tbsp. of fat in the baking dish add 1 tbsp. of flour. Blend well and brown slightly, scraping loose all browned particles in the pan. Add water slowly until it is as thick as '*3 to 1" white sauce. Add salt and pepper if necessary. 1 \ \\ / z 1 ' iO 12 1. Keck. V^ — — 1 \ -^ ^ 8. Chuck. V i 3. Ribs. \ 4. Shoulder cled, ' ^I 4. 7 ^ S y. // / 13 1 6. Fore shank. v>N L_ ^__^„...'^ ^ >w 6. Brisket. w ^ ^ ^/v -wi 7. Cross ribs. ^ st r^ -^^ > 8. Plate. \ wol 9. Navel. \ s A 10. Loin. \ , / 1 n. Flank. ..*! m ' ^ */ uk ^Mf/.^ 12. Rump. 13. Round. M. m '\i'-'i(.L Mi^i 14. Second cut round. 15. Hind shank. Diagram of Cuts of Beef 1 . Locate en diagram a tiaiik steak. 2. AVhy do the fibers of muscles all run one way? 3. Why should we add fat to the flank steak! 4. Name other foods tliat may be served with it. MEATS 67 IIAMBCIRG STEAK (Servo 6) 1 c. ground steak (imeooked) dash pepper y2 tsp. salt 1 egg 1 tsp. chopped onion, or 6 drops onion juice if preferred Mix thoroughly. Mold into small flat cakes and saute in hot drippings until thoroughly browned and cooked. The round is cut from the leg of the hind quarter and is easily recognized by the round bone, near the center of the entire cut. It is one of the most nutritious cuts of the beef and is used for beef teas and juices. 1. Why do we mix the egg with the ground beef? 2. When eggs are expensive, what may be substi- tuted ? FRICASSEED STEAK (Serve 4) Use % lb. cut of round steak I/2 in- tbick. Salt, pepper and dredge with flour. Saute in a saute pan with enough fat to brown the meat well on both sides. When well browned turn in enough water to cover. Befill as often as necessary and let simmer one hour, or until tender. A bay leaf added to the water will improve the flavor. 1. Why cook so long? 2. Why use round steak? 3. What is the price per pound? 68 FOOD AND CLOTHING Chuck Steak (from Shoulder) Rib Roast Tip of Sirloin Porterliimse Steak a. Sirloin b. Tenderloin Round Steak Flat-bone Sirloin PLATE I MEATS By CREAMED DRIED HEEP (Serve 8) Yi lb. chipped beef (sliredded) 4 tbsp. flour 2 c. milk 4 tbsp. butter If beef is very salt, soak in boiling water for 5 minutes. When butter is hot in saute pan turn in the beef and cook until brown. Sift the flour over gradually, stirring continually. When well blended add the milk and cook for 3 minutes. Instead of adding the milk, ^4 c. grated cheese and three eggs may be added and all stirred until the cheese is melted and the eggs well scrambled- This last makes a very palatable luncheon disli. BOILED BRISKET (Servi' 4) Cut 1 lb. of brisket into small pieces after wip- ing thoroughly with a damp cloth. Drop into boil- ing water, then reduce the temperature to sim- mering and cook until tender, about 2 hours. Add salt, from 1 to 2 tsp., depending upon the brand of salt. Brisket is the cut along the end of the ribs. The cartilage on the ends of the bones, is an indication of a good cut. The li(iuor from this meat is ex- cellent for cooking dumplings or potatoes. BEEF STEW (Serve 8) Use 2 lbs. of neck meat, brisket, or shoulder. 70 FOOD AND CLOTHING Cut in small pieces and place in cold water and bring to tlie simmering point. At the end of one hour add 2 tsp. salt, 1 onion cut into small pieces, 4 turnips quartered, 4 carrots halved, and 20 minutes before the dish is to be served, add 4 potatoes halved, which have first been cooked in boiling salt water 10 minutes. If dumplings are to be served with this, follow recipe in chapter on ''Flour." Turnips should be pared, carrots scraped and potatoes peeled very thinly before being added to the stew. POT ROAST (Serve 8) Place 4 lbs. of rump meat in a large iron kettle with a piece of suet the size of a cup. Pour over enough boiling water to cover. Simmer with the lid off until the water has evaporated, add 3 tsp. salt, then turn and brow^n each side of the meat in the hot fat. Remove and add to the fat V^ c. flour, mix thoroughly, scraping all of the brown particles from the sides and bottom of the kettle*^ Pour in cold water enough to make a brown sauce of *'2 to 1" consistency. Veal Veal is the flesh of a calf. In some states the law requires that calves must be six weeks old before they may be killed for veal. Since it is MEATS 71 immature flesh it is much less nutritious than beef, but easier to digest. The bundles of fibers are softer and the connective tissue very easy to dis- solve. Being very poor in fats it is usually cooked with bacon or other fat meats. Sweetbreads are the thymus or ''throat glands" and the pancreas or ''stomach glands" of the calf and are at their best while the calf is still living upon milk. They are decidedly a pro- tein food and one of the easiest to digest. TO PREPARE SWEETBREADS Soak in salt water 1 hour. Throw into simmer- ing water and cook at that temperature from 1 to 2 hours or until the connective tissue may be loosened from the glands. Cut in small pieces and serve with a cream sauce or use as equal part with peas or mushrooms, creamed. Pork Pork is the flesh of the hog. It is very rich in fats and contains a medium amount of protein. Tlie indigestibility of pork, for so many people, is due to the fact that the fat is so thoroughly distributed throughout the muscular fibers as well as around the muscles, also that these fibers are very compact. It is stated that it requires one hour longer to digest pork than beef. Acid fruits or vegetables are usually served 72 FOOD AND CLOTHING with pork, so the acid may aid the stomach in eiimlsifying the fats; thus the combination of ''roast pork and apple sauce." In a bottle put 1 tbsp, oil, 1 tsp. vinegar and shake well. The tiny particles into which the oil has been divided is called an emulsitication and is one step in digestion. The fats in cured bacon and ham are partially broken down and are more easily digested. For this reason crisp bacon is often given to children or people who can not digest other fatty food. The cooking- of pork should be thorough and very slow. In no instance should pork be broiled. Its compactness and its likelihood of containing disease germs, makes of it a dangerous food which can only be rendered safe by the slow and pro- longed application of heat. PORK CHOP WITH DRESSING Make dressing as for mock duck, using the tomato juice. Pile the dressing in a loose mound on the chop and bake in a moderate oven 30 min- utes. Make brown gravy as given in mock duck recipe. Dressing adds the much needed starches to the meats and is also a good way to use dry bread. The chop is cut from the small ribs and is very tender. It sells for from 15 to 22 cents per pound. Note: Read the papfe in Physiolo4 7o >^% 2% Red Fish 64% 20 % 14% 2% Shell Fish 84% 12 % 3% 1%, The connective tissue is a substance which soft- ens very easily, and the meat fibers are very short, so that the cooking of fish should be at a moderate temperature and for a short time. When selecting fish that has been shipped care must be taken that the eyes are full, the gills red and fiesh firm. BAKED WHITE FISH — FRESH POTATO BALLS Use a fish that weighs from 2^/2 to 4 lbs. Clean and wipe fish with damp cloth. Rub the inside with salt, brush outside with melted butter, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, tie and bake in a dripping pan or skillet in mod- erate oven until flesh is firm and separates easily from the bone. Baste during baking with melted butter and hot water. When brown slip onto a hot platter, garnish with parsley and thin slices of lemon. This should bake from 30 to 45 min- utes. MEATS 77 POTATO BALLS Cut small potato balls from raw potatoes and fry ill deep fat until well browned and tender. Salt and pile on platter around fish. CREAMED CODFISH (Serve 2) 1/3 c. white sauce " 2 to 1 " 1/4 egg 1 tbsp. shredded codfish dash nutmeg 1/4 tsp. lemon juice 1 tbsp. buttered crumbs Mix white sauce and codfish in baking dish. Stir in beaten egg. Add lemon juice, nutmeg and crumbs to the top. Bake 20 minutes in moderate oven. The codfish is a large white fish of the north- eastern Atlantic. Those caught on the New Eng- land coast are eaten extensively by the people of that locality. Large canneries are located there which ship our fish to us. SALMON CROQUETTES (4 croquettes) yi c. shredded red sahnoii dash salt j4 c. white sauce "4 to 1" 6 drops lemon juice Mix lemon juice and salt with the salmon and add to the Avhite sauce. Cool. A\ hen cold mold into small cylinders, roll in crumbs, in beaten egg, in crumbs again and let stand until the egg has dried. Drop in deep fat and cook until a golden 78 FOOD AND CLOTHING brown. Drain on cloth or soft paper and serve garnished with parsley. To test hot fat. When a crumb of bread will brown in 40 counts the fat is hot enough. In preparing the eggs for croquettes, add 3 tbsp. of water for each good sized egg and beat all to- gether until well mixed. One egg will roll from 8 to 10 croquettes, depending upon the size. The salmon is a red-fleshed fish. The most ex- tensive fisheries of this country are on the north- western coast and especially in the Columbia river. The older fishes live in the sea, but ascend some large fresh water river which empties into the ocean to deposit their eggs in the fresh water. The young fish sometimes stay in the fresh water two years. In buying salmon, always select the reddish flesh. Pink or white salrnon is very inferior. 1. What is the difference in composition between the cod and salmon? 2. Which is easier to digest? Why? 3. What foods are best to serve with fish? 4. Why do fish courses usually contain potatoes and bread ? Why use lemon juice with fish '! SCALLOPED SALMON (Serve 6) 1 lb. can red salmon c. milk 2 c. cracker crumbs 1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. lemon juice MEATS 79 In a baking dish make alternate layers of the salmon and the crumbs, beginning and finishing with the crumbs. Shake over the salt, add the lemon juice by drops and then the milk. Bake in a moderate oven 30 minutes. Oysters Oysters, under the best conditions are very easy to digest though in proportion to their weight and usual cost they have not high nutritive value compared with other foods. They supply the most food value, when eaten raw, as cooking hardens and contracts them, but if cooked very lightly they are more appetizing to some people. Inland towns do not get oysters at their best and great care must be taken in selecting and preparing those that have been sealed and shipped. It is not advisable to use the liquor that comes with the oysters that have been packed in large kegs. Each oyster should be carefully washed and run through the fingers to remove shells. OYSTER SOUP J/2 c. oysters (selected and washed) 1 e. milk ji tsp. salt 1 tsp. butter Put milk and butter in double boiler and, when scalding hot, add the oysters and salt and heat 80 FOOD AND CLOTHING until the gills of the oyster begin to curl. Re- move from the fire and serve. A dash of nutmeg- over the top improves the flavor for some persons. CREAMED OYSTERS 34 ^'- oysters (selected and wjished) 1 e. Avhite sauce "2 to 1 " Add oysters to hot white sauce and when the gills begin to curl, pour over toast and serve. The juice of Vi small lemon, squeezed over the top, improves the flavor. SCALLOPED OYSTERS ( Serve () ) 1 pt. oysters 1 tl)si). butter 2 c. cracker cruinl)s 1 c. milk 1 tsp. salt dash cayenne After oysters have been prepared, arrange in a baking dish alternate layers of crumbs and oysters, beginning and finishing with the crumbs, and over each layer of oysters dot pieces of the butter and some of the salt. Add the milk and bake in a moderate oven 20 minutes. CREAMED SHRIMP (Serve S) 1 can dry shrimps 2 c. white sauce " 2 to 1 " diced whites of 2 hard-cooked eggs MEATS 81 Pick the shrimps into small pieces, removing' all hard particles. Add the shrimps and egg white to the white sauce and serve on toast. CHAPTER VII CHEESE Cheese is believed to be the first form in which milk was preserved for future use. From the standpoint of the housekeeper cheese is of importance; first, because of its high nutri- tive value in muscle-forming material; second, because of the great number of foods with which it may be served in combination; and third, be- cause of its use as a flavoring. The general com- position of cheese is as follows : Water Protein Fats Milk Sugar Mineral 347r 25% 347c 37o 47o Cheese is made from whole milk, skimmed milk, or cream. In some foreign countries goat's milk is used entirely, but American cheese is made from cow's milk. Rennet, a kind of acid, is added to the milk which causes it to curdle; that is, the casein is separated from the water, which is called whey. The whole is heated to a degree of 100 F. The whey is drained off and the curd salted and put into a press for a day. Then the cheese is kept several weeks to "ripen"; that is, develop flavor, 82 CHEESE 83 which it does by the growth of bacteria. The aver- age cheese when fresh, contains about i/i its weight in protein, 1/3 fat, 1/3 water and 1/12 min- eral and carbohydrates. Owing to the addition of salt the percentage of mineral matter is high. There is always present a small amount of albu- men and milk sugar which clings to the curd. This is the cheese we ordinarily buy for our home use. Numbers of foreign makes are sold in this country which we shall study later. Digestibility of cheese. Cheese has, heretofore, been considered the cause of digestive disturb- ances, but recent experiments have shown that this is not a fact. There are persons with whom eggs or milk do not agree. The same principle applies to cheese in the average diet! The fatty acid which cheese contains in small amounts causes trouble in some stomachs just as do dough- nuts, pork or fats of any kind. The compactness of cheese, when eaten alone, renders it hard for the digestive fluids to liquify. However, it does not remain longer in the healthy stomach than some kinds of meat. Why cheese is served with pie. When cheese enters tlie stomach an excess of juice is called forth to digest it, and as pastry is also hard to digest, the extra juice more easily disposes of the pastry. Whj pastry is hard to digest will be studied later. 84 FOOD AND CLOTHING CHEESE BALLS (To be served with a salad) 1 egg white 1 e. grated cheese 1 tsp. salt and cayenne Beat egg white, mix witli it tlie cheese and sea- soning. Mold in small balls and roll in cracker crumbs. Place on the ice about 30 minutes to dry the egg on the outside. Drop in deep fat and fry a golden bro^vn. WELSH RAREBIT I y2 c. white sauce "2 to 1" j4 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. grated cheese speck cayenne Make white sauce in double boiler. Add cheese and seasonings and, when cheese has melted, serve on w^afers or toast. This is the least expensive rarebit that can be made. WELSH RAREBrr H (Serve fi ) 1 c. diced fresh cheese 1 tbsp. bntter 1 c. milk 1 egg }i tsp. salt dash cayenne Melt butter in a pan over water, add milk, then cheese and cayenne. When melted, add egg which has been thoroughly mixed, and cook one minute. Serve on wafers. Tomato juice may be used in- stead of milk. CHEESE 85 CHEESE SANDWICHES ( 1.1 saiuhviches) 2 e. grated cheese (>4 lb.) Yz tsp. salt y^ c. mayonnaise 1 large pimento ^ tsp. paprika )<4 c. chopped nuts Cut pimento very fine. Blend cheese, mayon- naise, salt, paprika, nuts (if used) and pimentoes. Spread as in other sandwiches. Estimate the cost. Thin slices of tomato, hard cooked egg or cu- cumber, in these sandwiches, adds much to their taste. ('OTTAOE CHEESE Heat one gallon firm clabber very slightly or until the whey is separated from the curd. Drain the whey off by pouring the heated mixture in a cloth sack and hanging it where it can drip for an hour or so or until the curd is dry. Season with salt, pepper and cream, either plain or whipped. This may be used for salads, in pie, or in place of a vegetable. CHAPTER VIII CEEEALS Cereals are manufactured from the seeds or grains of the various members of the grass family. The grains most used are wheat, oats, corn, rice, rye and barley; and from these are prepared the numerous brands of breakfast foods which flood the markets. Oatmeal, the oat grain, is ground into small particles and is used mostly for porridge and gruel. Boiled oats, the grains are moistened and run between hot steam rollers, which flattens each grain and partially cooks the starch. For this reason oatmeal should be steamed from 5 to 6 hours, while rolled oats will cook sufficiently in from 30 to 45 minutes. For a well-balanced cereal, rolled oats, when properly cooked, furnishes the most nutriment. Most cereals contain a large amount of starch. Oats, corn, and wheat contain, also, a large amount of vegetable protein, and are very rich in fats and minerals. Compare the foods from the f ollow^ing table : 86 cp:iie. .\LS 87 Carbo- Protein hydrates Fats iMiuerals Water Oats . . . . 12% '66% 7 % 3 % 12% Wheat . . . 12% 71% 3 % 2 % 12% Corn . . . . i07f 70% 4 % 2 % 14% Rice . . . . 7% 78% /2% 1/2% 13% Since cereals contain sucli a high percentage of starch and so little water, they must be cooked a long time in a large amount of water. Table for Cooking Cereals Method of Cereal Amount Water Salt of Cooking Time Oatmeal 1 c. 4 c. 1 tsp. steamed 6 hrs. Rolled Oats. . . 1 c. 2 c. 1 tsp. steamed 40 min. Cm. of Wheat 1 c. 4 c. 1 tsp. steamed 40 min. Cornmeal .... 1 c. 6 c. 1 tsp. boiled 40 min. Rice 1 c. 10 c. 1 tsp. boiled 20 min. Rolled Oats.. . 1 c. 4 c. 1 tsp. boiled 25 min. General directions for cooking cereals. Add the salt to the boiling water, and add the cereal to the water, stirring continually. If it is to be steamed, cook it over direct heat for 5 minutes, then over water the required length of time. If it is to be boiled, cook over direct heat the re- quired length of time. Cornmeal mush must be stirred continually the entire time of cooking. Rice must have a sufficient amount of water, that, as it boils, the grains may be kept apart. 88 FOOD AND CLOTHING When cooking small amounts the evaporation will be greater and more water may have to be added to obtain the desired results. Digestion of cereals depends upon their being properly cooked or prepared. Some are so pre- pared before they are sent to the market that a large amount of their starch has been turned to dextrine (one of the functions of digestion) and they are advertised as ''pre-digested" foods. CREA^I OF WHEAT WITH DATES (Serve 4) 3/2 c. cream wheat Vi tsjx salt 2 c. boiling water 4 chopped dates Cook as directed in table. A(hl dates the last 10 minutes. Since dates contain a large percentage of sugar, the combination with cream gives us a well-bal- anced food. Raisins may be used in place of the dates with the same results. What will it cost per person to serve Cream of Wheat with milk? CORNMEAL MUSTT (Serve 4) 1 e. meal (> c. water 1 tsp. salt Cook as directed in table. Einse a square or oblong granite pan with cold w^ater, turn mush CEREALS 89 into it, let stand until cold. Remove from pan, slice in i/o inch slices, dredge with flour, saute in bacon drippings, and serve crisp or with a syrup. If served crisp, grated cheese may be sprinkled over the top. 1. What is the cost per pound? 2. Why should we eat a great deal of food prepared from cornmeal? 3. What additional food element does it give to serve it with s.yrup? 4. What food element is added when cheese is used? 5. Suggest other combinations that add to its value. RICE WITH CHEESE SxVUCE (Serve 4) %. c. dry rice >4 tsp. salt ■1 c. Ijoiliiig water Wash rice until the last water is clear. A good way is to put rice in a strainer and hold under a faucet until the water runs through clear. Cook as directed in the table, and when tender, drain. Pour over it the cheese sauce and serve immedi- ately or place in a hot oven and brown slightly, with buttered crumbs added to the top. CHEESE SAUCE 1 e, white sauce "2 to 1" 2 tbsp. grated cheese Add the cheese to the hot white sauce and let stand until cheese is melted. A dash of cayenne may improve the flavor for some. 90 FOOD AND CLOTHING 1. Why wash rice so thoroughly ? 2. What does rice lack as a food that the cheese and white sauce supply? 3. Rice is rarely served alone, but usually in combina- tion with eggs, milk, meat, etc. Why this combination f 4. Where does rice grow? How is it harvested? What is the cost per pound? BAKED RICE (Serve 4) Yi e. rice 1 tbsp. sugar \y2 qts. of milk Wash rice in one water. Mix with the milk and sugar and bake slowly for 3 hours. Cinnamon may be sprinkled over the top. Rice is washed in one water only so as not to lose the starch that will thicken the milk. ROLLED OATS APPLE SAUCE (Serve 4) ^ c. rolled oats 1 c. water K' tsp. salt Cook as directed in table. Pile on top of each dish of rolled oats 2 tbsp. apple sauce, and serve with sugar and cream. A pound of rolled oats costs 5 cents and will serve 16 liberal portions. As the food elements are so well balanced in this cereal it makes a very economical, wholesome food. CEREALS 91 1. What would it cost per service with milk and sugar 1 2. "Why is apple sauce a logical combination with the oats? HOMINY GKITS (Serve 4) 1 c. hominy grits 1 tsp. salt 3 c. boiling water Cook as directed for all cereals. Serve with cream and sugar. Or cook very stiff and serve with maple syrup. Macaroni Macaroni is not, in a true sense, one of the cereals, but as it is manufactured from flour we study it along with the cereals. Macaroni is manufactured from a paste made of hard wheat flour and w^ater molded in slender tubes. Spaghetti and vermicelli are different forms of the same paste. It was first manufac- tured in Italy, and it is one of the principal food- stuffs of that country. The best is made from a fine grade of hard wheat which is very rich in a protein, called gluten, but is poor in water and fat. To obtain the best results, it should be cooked in plenty of water and seasoned well or combined with other foods sucli as fats, milk, butter, cheese, eggs, or meat stocks. 92 FOOD AND CLOTHING MACARONI AU GRATIN (Serve 4) 1 c. macaroni (broken) 1 tsp. salt 4 c. boiling water 1/3 c. grated cheese lyo c. white sauce "2 to 1" Drop macaroni in the boiling salt water and cook until tender (about 20 minutes). Drain. To the white sauce add the grated cheese and, when the cheese has melted, pour over the macaroni. Put into a baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs and brown in a hot oven. When macaroni is to be served with roast beef, as is usually done, a tomato sauce instead of the cheese sauce adds to the general taste of the course. Whyf 1. What is the meaning of "an gratin"? 2. AVhy not serve beef and cheese together? 3. What is the cost of macaroni per pound ? 4. What is the cost per person with cheese? MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE (Serve 4) 1 c. macaroni 1 tsp. salt 4 c. boiling water Cook as macaroni au gratiii. Turn over it the tomato sauce, put in a baking dish, sprinkle but- tered crumbs over the top and brown in the oven. TOMATO SAUCE 1 c. strained tomato juice 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour ^ tsp. salt Make as white sauce. CHAPTER IX FLOUR Flour is made by grinding the grains of various cereals into a powder, as rice flour from rice, rye flour from rye, white flour from wheat. Some cereals are ground or broken into fine particles called meal, and thus we have, cornmeal, oatmeal, barleymeal, etc. Since we deal principally with the white flour, the term flour to us always means that made from wheat. Two kinds of wheat are used in making flour; namely, hard wheat and soft wheat. Hard wheat is so called on account of the high percentage of protein, called gluten, which it con- tains. It is planted in the spring and is harvested in the late summer. While it may be grown in the south as well as the north, the northern states seem to excel in this special wheat. The flour from this wheat is called ''bread flour" and is used especially for making bread mixtures. The gluten has a peculiar elastic quality, which makes it especially desirable in mixtures which are to have body or be without crumb. Soft irlieat has very little gluten in it, but a Read in a text on agriculture, "Wheat" and Farm Jiulletin No. 380. 93 94 FOOD AND CLOTHING liigli percentage of starch. The wheat for this flour is planted in the fall, grows all winter and is har- vested in the early summer. The flour from this wheat is called "pastry flour" and it is recom- mended for mixtures which are to be crumbly or short, as cakes or pastry. Whole wheat flour is made by grinding the whole grain of the wheat into a powder. Graham flour is made by separating the brown skin of the wheat kernel from the inner portion, grinding each separately and then combining. This is so often adulterated by the use of inferior brans that its use is not recommended when whole wheat flour can be purchased. Test for gluten. Take V4, c. bread flour and moisten it with enough cold water to make stiff dough. Let stand 15 minutes. Work this dough with the hands until it becomes smooth and elastic, then wash it under cold water until it gives out no more starch. Bake in a very hot oven. Its pe- culiar structure and quality may be plainly ob- served. This elastic property renders it unfit for a dough or batter which is to be kept short and crummy in texture ; as cakes, pastry, etc. Doughs and Batters Wlien we mix a liquid and some starchy mate- rial together, we call it either a dough or a batter, according to the degree of stiffness. Those that FLOUR 95 we are able to handle and shape, are called doughs. Those that must be stirred or mixed with a spoon until the cooking is begun, are called batters. Flour and meal are the starchy materials most used. Milk and water are the liquids. Just flour and water mixed together with a little salt would be a very compact substance, hard to digest, so it is necessary to imprison air in these doughs and batters to make them "light" or less compact. The substances used to ** lighten" these mix- tures are baking powder, soda and an acid, air in- closed in beaten egg white, or yeast. In nature there are two opposing elements, acids and alkali. When brought together in the presence of mois- ture the stronger overcomes the weaker and a gas is formed. This gas formation expands and grows when subjected to heat. The gas, when entangled with the batter and forced to expand, pushes the dough upward in the pan. The tiny holes we see in doughs and batters are the cells where the gas bubbles were formed. The acids most used in cooking are cream of tartar, sour milk, sorghum molasses. The alkali used is soda. Good baking powder is composed of one part of soda to two parts of cream of tartar, with a small amount of starch added as a filler or to absoi'l) moisture. 96 FOOD AND CLOTHING These definite statements should be thoroughly understood; acid plus alkali plus moisture forms a gas ; when heat is applied the gas expands. When baking powder is used. Dry acid (cream of tartar) plus dry alkali (soda) plus moisture (milk or water) forms a gas. The heat of the oven causes the gas to expand and the composition is light. When soda is used. Moist acid (sour milk or molasses) plus dry alkali (soda) forms a gas. Cream of tartar is made by drying and grind- ing the scum which collects on the top and around the sides of vats where grape juice is being boiled. This dried purple scum is bleached, refined and powdered, and is our commercial cream of tartar. Soda or sodium carbonate is a salt of strong al- kaline taste. It is formed in nature, as in soda lakes, etc. ; but for the most ])art is made artifici- ally, as by the burning of sea plants, etc. Tests 1. Add 2 tbsp. cold water to 1 tsp. B. P. 2. Add 2 tbsp. boiling water to 1 tsp. B. P. Which foams the more? What does that ex- plain ? What are in these bubbles? 3. Add 2 tbsp. cold water to i/o tsp. soda. 4. Add 2 tbsp. vinegar to Yi ^^V- soda. FLOUR 97 Which foams the more ? What does that ex- plain ? 5. Mix 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of tartar. What happens ? Now add 2 tbsp. cold water and heat. What happens 1 Albumen or egg white is very elastic and holds the air in small sacks which form during the pro- cess of whipping. Wlien flour is mixed with the beaten egg, the dough or batter is filled with air l)ubbles. A soft dough. Starchy material with sufficient liciuid to make it thick enough to handle, makes a soft dough. Since the kinds of flour dif- fer so widely in the amount of water they will absorb, it is never wise to use a given amount, but first, know your batter or dough, then add the liquid to the dry materials until the desired con- sistency is obtained. In the use of shortenings, if a compound is used, measure out 1/3 less, than if butter or lard is to be used. Compounds are con- centrated, while butter and lard have water in them. In these recipes, unless stated differently, compounds are used as a matter of economy. BAKING POWDER BISCTHTS (9 small biscuits) 1 e. pastry flour J4 tsp. salt 2 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. tirm shortening liquid to make soft dough 98 FOOD AND CLOTHING Sift dry ingredients together. Cliop in fat. When mealy-like add liquid. Handle and stir as little as possible. When all of the dry material is moistened, turn on a floured board, pat into shape, cut and bake in hot oven. Be sure that you cliop in your shortening. If blended or mashed the dough will be soggy and oily. When oil is used add it after the liquid. Save out a portion of the dough and work it with the hands, then bake it. Note the difference in structure. Is tliere any difference between the textures of the biscuits that were baked without handling and those baked after kneading? A well-made and properly baked biscuit will rise evenly all around with layers of crumb be- tween the top and bottom crust. A poorly made and baked biscuit will rise in the center and the outer edges will still touch the bottom crust. SODA BISCUITS . (8 small biscuits) 1 c. flonr Ya tsp. salt 14 tsp. soda 2 tbsp. fat sour milk to make soft dough Sift flour, soda and salt together. Chop in fat. Add the liquid and make as B. P. biscuits. The amount of soda required depends upon the sourness of the milk, usually it is 1/2 tsp. to 2 c. of flour, or 1 c. of butter-milk, in a soft dough. FLOUR 99 There is a story told in tlie south, that at one time milk was very scarce and the women made griddle cakes and biscuits with orange juice. Could such a thing be possible ? QUICK CINNAMON ROI.LS (3 rolls) ^ e. flour y2 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. shortening ]/16 tsp. salt liquid to make soft dough Mix as for B. P. biscuits. Roll 1 inch thick, spread with a thin layer of butter, sift over 1 tsp. brown sugar and i/^ tsp. cinnamon. Roll as for a jelly-roll cake, cut in three pieces and bake with scroll side up, in a moderate oven for 15 minutes. Raisins may be dotted over the surface when the sugar is sifted on. DFMPLTNGS (8 dumplings) 1 c. flour 1 tsp. salt 2 tsp. B. p. liquid to make soft dougli Sift dry ingredients, add liquid to make soft dough, leaving it moist. Scrape from a spoon. Have boiling the liquor in which a piece of meat has been cooked. Drop in the dough, a spoonful at a time. Cover closely and boil the broth, with- out lifting the lid for 12 minutes. Serve. 1. How do dumplings differ from biscuits! 2. Why do we use uo shortening? ]00 FOOD AND CLOTHING SHORT CAKES. Make as for baking power biscuits, using twice the amount of shortening, rolling and cutting a larger size. Open, fill and cover the top with crushed strawberries, peaches or any fruit. Serve witli Avhipped cream. Stiff doughs. A mixture of a starchy material and enough liquid to moisten, allowing ease in han- dling, is classed as a stiff dough. Usually they re- quire from 6 to 8 times as much dry material as liquid. This amount depends upon the propor- tion of egg and fat in the mixture. STTGAR COOKIES (A gallon fiofk full) 1 ('. butter 2 tsp. B. P. 1 egg 1 c, sugar 3 e. flour milk to make stiff dough (about }4 c.) Mix as butter cakes. When stiff, turn onto well- floured board and roll out a part at a time to a very thin sheet. Cut, sprinkle with nutmeg and sugar and bake in moderate oven. Keep pan and board well floured. INDIVIDUAL RECIPE FOR SUGAR COOKIES 2 tbsp. butter M tsp. B. P. 6 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. egg 2 tbsp. sugar liquid to make stiff doufrb (about 1 tsp. milk) FLOUR 101 Mix butter cakes by creaming the butter and the sugar, adding the egg, the flour, the B. P. and liquid. DOUGIINITS ( 12 eakos) iy2 c. fionr 1/16 tsp. ench nutmeg, mace, cinnamon ^ tsp. sah 6 tbsp. sugar 3 tsp. B. P. 2 tsp. shortening y2 egg liquid to make stiff dough (about 3 tbsp. milk) Sift dry ingredients, chop in fat, a(kl egg and liquid, a littk^ at a time, until the right consistency for a stiff dough. Roll 14 in- thick, cut and fry in deep fat. Roll in sugar while hot. For individual recipe use i/j. of these quantities. If doughnuts fall to pieces in the grease it is not hot enough, or too much shortening has ])e<'n used. These were originally called Fried Cakes and those make from bread-dough, Doughnuts, l)ut now we call both Doughnuts. OATMEAL rOOKIES ( lU cookies I 1 egg 2/3 e. flour 1/4 tsp. soda 1/3 c. butter 2/3 e. rolled oats 1/3 tsp. cinnamon 1/3 c. sugar 1 scant tbsp. water 1/3 c. raisins 1/3 c. chopped nuts 102 FOOD AND CLOTHING Sift flour, soda, cinnamon and sugar; add oat- meal, butter, egg, raisins, water, nuts, and mix thoroughly. Drop these from a tsp. onto a dry pan and bake in hot oven from 13 to 15 minutes. These are better if allowed to stand in a stone jar several days before serving. Whj'-'? Drop batters. When a mixture of starchy mate- rial and liquid wdll drop from a spoon, yet retain something of its shape, it is a drop batter. Usually it is given as 2 measures of flour to 1 of liquid. Eggs and fat count as liquid. MUFFINS (12 nmmns) 2 c. flour 4 tbsp. shortening y2 tsp. salt 4 tsp. B. P. 6 tbsp. sugar 2 eggs liquid to make drop batter (about 2/3 e.) Sift dry ingredients. Chop in fat. Drop in whole egg and a little of the liquid. Mix, adding a little liquid at a time until it is the right con- sistency. Do not stir more than is necessary to mix well. Bake in hot oven. If a sweeter mufhn is desired from 1 to 2 tbsp. more sugar may l)e added. 1. Notice the similarity of this batter to biscuit dough. 2. AVhat are the differences? FLOUR 103 How eggs leaven. In beating the white of eggs, we enclose air in small bubbles, these bubbles then become distributed through the dough when mixed in with it. In baking, the heat expands the air and also makes the walls of the air bubbles firm, so that a porous or spongo-like structure is retained. Be- fore hardened by heat, these cell walls are very easily broken down, for that reason we fold in beaten egg white instead of beating it in. This gives a fine spongy texture. TEA CAKES (12 cakos) 2 c. flour }i c. sugar 2 eggs 4 tsp. B. P. 6 tbsp. shortening >^ tsp. vanilla 3/2 tsp. salt /4 c. currants (cooked, dried and floured) liquid to make drop batter Sift dry ingredients together, chop in shorten- ing, add eggs and a small amount of liquid at a time, until consistency desired is obtained. Add floured fruit and flavoring and bake in mufhn tins in a moderate oven. Stir only enough to mix well. 1. Work out the cost of these cakes. 2. Compare with the same amount purchased at a bakeshop. 3. What is the principal food element in these cakes? 4. How do they differ from muffins? From biscuits? 104 FOOD AND CLOTHING GRAHAM GEMS I 16 ycms) 2 c. gTaham tioiir Yi tsp. soda 3 tbsp. shortening 4 tsp. B. P. 1 tbsp. sugar Yi tsp. salt 4 tl)s]). molasses Sweet milk or water to make dro]) liatter Sift dry ingredients and turn the bran back witli them. Chop in shortening and add molasses and liquid, a little at a time, until the desired con- sistency is obtained. Bake in a moderate oven. 1. AYhy us(' soda and K. W l)oth? FRITTERS (4 flitters) 3/2 e. Hour 1)/ tbsp. sugar Yi egg 1 tsp. B. P. Y?, tsp. salt liquid to make drop batter (about 8 tbsp.) Sift dry ingredients. Add egg and liquid a lit- tle at a time. Beat thoroughly. Mix with it 4 tbsp. of corn, or cut banana or any fruit. Drop by tablespoonfuls in hot fat and fry until golden brown. CREAM PITFFS (8 small puffs) Y2 c. flour Ya ^- butter 2 eggs Y^ ^- boiling water Add butter to water and when boiling, add flour all at once and stir vigorously. Remove from the FLOUR 105 fire, cool and add unbeaten eggs one at a time, beating until thoroughly mixed before adding the next egg. Droj) by spoonfuls on a buttered sheet, about 2 inches apart, shape as nearly round as pos- sible, and slightly higher in the center. Bake 30 minutes in a moderate oven. If not thoroughly cooked they will fall. With a sharp knife open one side and fill with cream filling. No baking powder or soda is used. What acts as a leaven ? CREAM FILLING 6 tbsp. sugar ^ tsp. salt 3 tbsp. tiour 1 egg 1 c. scalded milk ^ tsp. lemon extract Mix flour, salt and sugar, add egg slightly beaten and pour over gradually the scalded milk. Cook 15 minutes in a double boiler, stirring constantly until thick, afterwards occasionally. Cool and flavor. This filling may be used for any of the cream pie fillings and will fill one small pie shell. AVhipped cream, sweetened and flavored with vanilla may also be used. CORN MEAT; MUFFINS (6 muffins) 1 c. corn meal 1 tbsp. shortening 2 tsp. B. P. i;4 tsp. salt 1 egg sweet milk 106 FOOD AND CLOTHING Sift meal and salt in a bowl. Add tlie butter and pour over this % c. boiling water, and beat until cold. Break into it the egg and add the milk a little at a time until a drop-batter consistency is obtained. Dissolve the baking powder in the last tbsp. of milk used, mix it thoroughly with the bat- ter and bake immediately. It will require from 15 to 20 minutes in a hot oven. SOFT GINGER BREAD (1 loaf I 2^4 c. flour y2 tsp. soda, 1/2 c. molasses 1 egg 1 tsp. ginger J/2 c. sugar % e. nuts 4 tbsp. shortening 34 tsp. salt hot water (about yi c.) Sift Hour, ginger, soda and sugar together. Chop in shortening. Stir in molasses, egg and nuts and enough hot water to make drop batter. Bake as soon as mixed, as the gas will form, expand and escape very rapidly. All mixtures containing a high percentage of fat or sugar must bake at a moderate or low temperature. Pour batters. When a mixture of starchy mate- rial and liquid will pour from one vessel to an- other it is called a pour batter. Usually it is equal parts of liquid and of flour, butter and eggs count- ing as liquid in a proportionate way. There are two classes of pour batter ; that is, thick pour and FLOUR 107 tliin pour. We will note tlie dill'erence as we make the different mixtures. TIMBAL CASES (40 cases) V/z c. flour 2 tbsp. sugar 2 eggs 1 tbsp. olive oil 1 tsp. salt 1 c. milk Sift dry ingredients together, add whole eggs and a little milk at a time, beating continually. When well mixed, beat in the oil. If the timbals are not crisp when baked the bat- ter is too thick. If the timbals do not stick to the iron while cooking, the iron is too hot. If the timbals stick to the iron so that they can- not be removed, the iron is too cold. Timbals are used as cases for serving creamed foods, as creamed peas, chicken, beef, etc. Timbals belong to the class of thin pour bat- ters. GRIDDLE CAKES 2 c. flour 4 tsp. B. P. 1 tsp. sugar y2 tsp. salt 1 egg 1 tbsp. shortening liquid to make pour batter (about 2 e. milk) Sift flour, sugar, salt and B. P. together. Chop in shortening. Add egg and milk and beat until thoroughly mixed. Stir the batter each time be- 108 FOOD AND (M.OTHING fore pouring a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle. Bake by tablespoonfuls. When the cakes are full of bubbles on the top and brown on the under side, turn with a broad knife or turner. If large bubbles rise at once at top of cakes, the griddle is too hot. If the top stiffens before the under side is brown, the griddle is not hot enough. Never turn a cake twice. Put the griddle on the stove where it will be hot by the time batter is made. BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES Yz c. bread crumbs 1/16 tsp. salt J4 tbsp. butter 34 ^- flour Yz egg Yi tsp. B. P. J4 f-- niilk Sift the dry ingredients. Mix the ^^^ and stir it in the milk. Pour the ^^% and milk over the bread crumbs and when they are soft stir in the dry ingredients and the melted butter. WAFFLES (6 waffles) 2 ('. flour 2 tbsp. sugar 3 eggs 1 tsp. B. P. 4 tbsp. butter Y^ tsp. salt, liquid to make pour batter, about 1 1/3 c. Sift flour, B. P., salt and sugar. Beat ^%^ yolks until lemon colored. Add to the dry ingredients to- gether with a little of the milk at a time. Melt FLOUR 109 tilt; butter and beat in. Lastly fold in whites, which have been beaten stiff and dry. (The batter should be a very little thicker than a gxiddle cake batter.) Have both sides of the waffle iron hot and well- oiled. Put 1 tbsp. of batter on each compartment, spread out and let top down. When brown on under side turn the iron. If well made and bakeel the watfle will be crisp and tender. Estimate the cost of these waffles. SOUTHERN WAPFLP:S (These are less expensixe and \eiy good) 2 c. tioiir 1 tb.s[). sugar Yi tsp. salt 1 egg 3 tbsp. coriiineal 4 tsp. 1>. P. 2 tbsp. butter liquid (about lyi c.) Sift flour, cornmeal, B. P., sugar and salt to- gether. Add egg and a portion of the liquid. Mix thoroughly. Add melted butter and mix again. Add enough more milk to make desired con- sistency. 1. What effect does the eoi-unieal have ui)()u tlie bat ter .' 2. Estimate the cost of these waffles. CHAPTER X BEVERAGES Beverages are liquids used as drinks to quench the thirst, as stimulants, and in a small way to sup- ply the body with food. Water, when pure and fresh, is nature 's remedy for thirst, and from three to four pints per day is needed to keep the body in a healthful condi- tion. Many acids and flavors are added to water to in- crease its popularity as a thirst quencher, but in so doing the benefit of the drink is often lost by the injurious etfects of the concoctions put into it. The evil effects of some of the ''soda fountain" drinks upon the nervous system cannot be over estimated ; and when a person feels that he cannot do his work without a certain number of these drinks per day, it is time to give them up alto- gether, as the stimulation is only artificial and is wrecking the nervous system. Tea and coffee contain an acid called tannin, which, if extracted in any considerable degree, has an injurious effect upon the digestive system by Note: Read in connection "Disease Oerms in Water" in your Physiology. 110 BEVERAGES 111 retarding the fiow of the saliva and gastric juice. They also contain an alkaloid called theine or caf- feine (the same elements) which has a stimulating effect upon the nerves. Tea or coffee may be made in such a way that but very little of the tannin acid will be extracted, and to the improper making we attribute a large percentage of their injurious effects. Cocoa is made from the bean or seed of a native tree of the tropical countries of America. In the factories these beans are cracked into irregular bits known as cocoa nibs. These nibs contain so much fat that when they are ground, instead of becoming a powder, they form a paste, giving us our commercial Chocolate. In some cases a large amount of this oil is extracted before the grinding and then the powder is called cocoa. The oil is called cocoa-hutter. Cocoa contains an element called theobromine, similar to caffeine or theine, though much less stimulating in its effects. Cocoa is composed of: Water Fats Starch Nitrogen ]\Iinerals Theobromine 4% 50';{ 14'/f 26% 4'/o 2% As you notice, cocoa contains a large amount of fat and starch and ranks as a high-class foodstuff. However, the presence of so much fat means that it is too rich for some people, though others can 1V2 FOOD AND CLOTIITXG digest it with no difficulty. Tlie food value depends to a large extent upon the manner in which it is prepared. The milk and sugar adds to its nutri- ment. coco.v (1 quart) 1 pt. ])oiling' water 6 tbsp. eoeoa 1 pt scalded milk 8 tbsp. sugar Mix the cocoa and sugar in a sauce pan; add the water and let it boil 5 minutes, or until it is smooth and free from any raw taste. Scald the milk in a double boiler and just before serving, add to the cocoa and beat well with a Dover beater. Do not allow the cocoa to boil after the milk has been added. Using the egg beater will prevent al- buminous skin from forming. The amount of cocoa used will depend upon the brand. Some con- tain more sugar and oil than others. TEA (Olio cup) 1 tsp. tea .1 e. fresh l)oiling water Place tea in a hot scalded vessel which may be covered. Pour over it the boiling water and let stand covered 2 minutes, stirring with a spoon once. Pour the tea from the grounds into an eathern vessel that has been scalded. Serve. BEVERAGES 113 A thin slice of lemon, a clove, a strawberry or a few drops of lime juice may be added to each cu]) to improve the flavor. Tea is made by infusion and not by boiling. The mistake of boiling tea is often made by inex- perienced housekeepers. Pouring the tea from the grounds after 2 minutes prevents a very great amount of tannic acid from forming. Tea is the leaves of a small bush, a native of China, Japan, Ceylon and India. The best tea is made from the young leaves and buds from the top of the bush and is called Orange Pekoe. If the leaves are dried as soon as picked, we have Green Tea ; if they are packed in such a way that a small amount of fer- mentation takes place, the color changes and we have Black Tea. During the fermentation, some of the acid is liberated and for that reason Black Tea is not as injurious as Green Tea. ICED TEA 1 tsp. tea >{> f. boiling water Pour water over the tea and after 1 minute strain off liquid into a tall glass that is half full of cracked ice. Sugar and a thin slice of lemon add to the flavor of the tea* for some people. The mistake is often made of infusing the tea several hours before it is to be used, or even worse, many housekeepers pour water over tea leaves and allow them to stand for several hours. By these 114 FOOD AND CLOTHING processes, tannic acid develops in very large quantities. Coffee Coffee is tlie berry or seed of a tropical ever- green tree. The fruit when on the tree resembles the cherry. When the flesh of the fruit begins to shrivel, it is taken from the tree and allowed to dry until the seeds can be easily removed. These seeds are roasted, ground and sold to us as the coffee we have in our homes. Coffee con- tains an element, caffeine, wdiich stimulates the nervous system. It is not a food in any sense, since it neillier builds tissue nor supplies heat or energy, but has the power of exciting extra action from the nervous system. In most cases a cup of strong coffe<' at night will defer sleep for hours. To make coffee. The coffee pot should be thor- oughly cleaned, scalded and sunned after each us- ing and the grounds thrown away. Many years ago, before science of foods was so clearly under- stood, people saved the grounds from one meal to another; put in fresh ground coffee, on top of the old grounds or just "boiled over" the old coffee. This is one of the most injurious practices ever employed by housekeepers. It is useless economy as the real coffee strength is extracted in the first few minutes after making, and it is detri- mental from the fact that tannic acid develops BEVERAGES 115 very rapidly if tlie liciuid romains loiii»' on the ^^Tounds. This exphiiiis wliy coffee turns (hirker in color after it has been made an hour or so. BOILKD COFFEE (10 pups) 12 thsp. coffee 1 o. cold water 1 egg white speck of salt 5 c. boiling water Put coffee in large kettle, drop into it the egg white and mix it thoroughly with the grounds. Add the cold water and stir. Pour over the boiling water, place on the fire and boil slowly for 3 min- utes. Remove from direct heat and let settle for 4 minutes. Strain through a fine cloth into another vessel. Serve. 1. Why mix egg with the grounds? 2. Why use cold water before the boiling water? PERCOIiATED COFFEE The coffee is held in a sieve-like receptacle at the top of the pot, while the boiling water and steam are carried up by means of a small tube and forced to filter down through the grounds. This is one of the most satisfactory ways of making- coffee, and, aside from the care of the pot, the easiest. Since very little of the water is lost by evaporation, a tbsp. of coffee for each cup of water, either hot or cold, is used, and is allowed to cook about 20 minutes. lie FOOD AND CLOTHING LEMONADE (Two o'lasses) 2 tbsp. juice (3^ lemon) 4 tbsp. sugar 3^2 c. boiling water Dissolve sugar in the boiling water. When cool add lemon juice, and ice water to suit indi- vidual taste. Adding the sugar to the boiling water completely dissolves it and adds to the flavor. One half c. grape juice may be added or 1 raw egg well beaten. Lemons grow best in warm climates, and are highly prized for their power of allaying thirst, developing flavors, aiding in emulsifying fats. CHAPTER XI TABJ.Iil SETTING AND SERVICE The girl who observes and reads, knows that the manner of table setting and the form of table service changes very often, and for that reason no detailed rules can be given which will be in good form for any specified length of time ; the up- to-date hostess observes what good authorities say, from time to time, and is guided accordingly. A few general rules at the present time are: ^vm BB^^l j^^='^''-'^» ~~Z_!5^^^B .jf^ ^ ^^B PLATE II. A Table Simply Set for Breakfast or Luncheon 1. Simplicity of arrangement, with strict ob- servance to straight lines. This means that the plates, silver and linen are placed on the table on a line, the napkin folded in a square or rectangle ; the ends of the handles of the knives, spoons and 117 118 FOOD AND CLOTHING forks are even with each other, and in line with the phite and napkins. 2. The silver should be so arranged that the outside pieces will be used first. "We eat in." It may be fault of the hostess and not ignorance on the part of the guests, if the wrong piece of silver is used, as the table arrangement should be such that no mistakes can be made. Various spoons or forks have no place beyond the plate as was once the custom, when every gTiest had to "watch the hostess" to know what piece to use with the next course. 3. The good hostess is the one wdio makes her guests feel comfortable. This can only be done by adhering to the general rules of simplicity. The bare table with doilies, for luncheons and break- fasts, is at present the favorite arrangement, while the damask is for the dinner table. With the ex- ception of this the following arrangements may be carried out in every detail : "uc* PLATE III. A Table Set for Three Courses TABLE SETTING AND SERVICE 119 Table Setting (liifoinial) 1. Cover the table with u clean thick cloth. This is called a silence cloth. 2. Spread the table cloth over the silence cloth with the length extending from head to foot. It should be of such size that from 6 to 8 inches will extend over the sides and ends of the table. 3. Arrange center piece of lace or embroidery and a low bouquet of flowers. 4. Arrange space in front of each person's place for the plate when it is served. 5. Arrange the silver in the order of its use, that to be used first farthest from the plate ; the knives and spoons on the right, the forks on the left, all the same distance from the edge of the table as the plate. The knives with the edges toward the plate, the spoons with the bowls up. The forks with the tines up. 6. Place napkin at left of forks, the loose corners toward the edge of the table. 7. Place water glass at point of knife. 8. Arrange salt and pepper shakers and other neces- sary dishes at convenient places on the table. 9. Place dinner plates before the host, with the meat and vegetable dishes in convenient places from which to serve. Table Service ( Formal ) When passing bread, cream or sugar, and the guest is expected to serve himself, go to the left side, so that he may use the right hand. In refilling water glasses or coffee cups, go to 120 FOOD AND CLOTHING the right side. There was, at one time a much used phrase, ' ' Serve to the right and remove from the left, ' ' and when convenient it may be followed, but if the dishes to be removed are at the right, it is far better to go to the right than to reach in front of the guest. The general rules for service are convenience, ease and consideration. CHAPTER XII CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING Tlie secret of successful preserving of foods for future use is perfect sterilization. This may be brought about by dyying, smoking, use of salt, thick syrups, acids, or enclosing the sterilized food in sterlised jars. Sterilization. Minute forms of life, which we call bacteria, are present everywhere in untold numbers. The air we breath, the water we drink, and the food we eat are teeming with them. These bacteria are practically the sole cause of the ' ' spoiling" or fermenting of the various fruits and vegetables. The reproduction of bacteria, whicli is very rapid, is brought about by one of two processes. The bacterium either divides itself into two parts, making two bacteria where one existed before, or else reproduces itself by means of spores. Spores may be compared with the seed of an ordinary plant. These spores present the chief difficulty in canning the products of the or- chard and garden. All forms of bacteria are killed by complete sterilization. This is nothing more than enclosing the products to be sterlized in jars or cans that 121 122 FOOD AND CLOTHING can be sealed air-tight and submitting them to heat of sufficient temperature for a time — long enough to destroy the bacteria that cause the raw- material to spoil. Sterilization is readily accom- plished by the use of boiling water. There are three different ways by which this can be done. WHiile the parent bacteria can be killed at the tem- perature of boiling water, their spores retain their vitality for a long time even at that temperature. In large commercial factories, sterilization is ac- complished by subjecting the cans containing the various products to steam under pressure. By this process the temperature is raised to a degree higher than that of boiling water, thereby killing both bacteria and spores at the same time. Smaller factories and the different home-canning outfits usually make use of the "open-kettle" process. Here the cans are submerged in boiling water and kept at that temperature for a time sufficient to destroy bacteria and spores. The third process known as fractional sterilization, is that of keep- ing cans or jars in boiling water for a specified time upon each of two or three consecutive days. The process of boiling upon consecutive days is the safest method and is much to be preferred in home canning. The first day's boiling kills prac- tically all the bacteria, but does not kill the spores. As soon as the jars or cans cool, these spores de- velop a new lot of bacteria, which begin their CANNING, PEESERVING, PICKLING 123 destructive work on the contents. The second day's boiling kills the new lot of bacteria before they have had time to produce spores. Boiling the third day is not alw^ays necessary, but it is advisable in order to be sure that the sterilization is complete. Jelly is fruit juices sterilized by the medium of hot syrup. All fruit juices wall not congeal or make jelly on account of the absence of a sub- stance called pectin, a gelatine or gum found in most fruits and vegetables. Pectin dissolves in boiling water and stiffens in cold. It is more abundant in the harder parts of the fruits, the core and the skin. Fruit containing the most pectin makes the best jelly. Quinces, crab-apples, cur^ rants, grapes and apples are rich in pectin. To make jelly. Usually fruit is lifted drip- ping from the last water where it was w^ashed into the cooking vessel, where it is cooked until the juice runs freely. It then is strained, measured and cooked for at least ten minutes before the sugar, which is measure for measure of the juice before it cooked down, is added. This is cooked until a drop on a cold plate wall congeal. If a path is made through the jelly on the plate and it does not run together, it has cooked sufficiently. To insure a clear jelly, the scum should be removed as it forms. When testing jelly remove from the fire each time before the test is made and wait until 124 FOOD AND CLOTHING tlie liquid is still. As in candy making, a few sec- onds longer would make a difference, if it was just right at the time the test was made. The sugar is not added until the juice has partially cooked doAvn, as long cooking lessens the sweetness of sugar. Do not attempt to make more than four glasses of jelly in one vessel. It is better to make it often and in small amounts. Many housekeepers can their fruit juices in the summer, then make their jelly from this juice in small amounts in the Avinter. There are three rea- sons why this is a good plan: First, sugar is usually much cheaper in the winter ; second, fresh jelly tastes better and is freer from grape sugar; third, cool weather is more agreeable for this work. Use of paraffin. Melt any amount of paraffin over a very slow fire and when clear and thin, turn over the firm jelly to the depth of 1/16 of an inch. Paraffin may be used from year to year if washed and reheated. GRAPE JELLY Pick fruit from stems, wash and lift dripping into a cooking pan and heat till juice runs freely. Strain through cheese cloth bag. Use measure for measure of sugar and juice. Cook the juice a few minutes before adding the sugar. When a few drops will congeal on a cold plate, strain into CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 125 sterilized glasses and wlieii firm, about 12 hours later, cover with paraffin. CRAB APPLE JELLY Wash and quarter firm crab apples. Place in enough water to cover and when soft drain through cheese cloth bag. Use equal parts of sugar and juice and cook until a drop will thicken on a cold plate. Pour into sterilized jars and let stand covered 24 hours. Cover with paraffin. BLACF- white and yolk until thoroughly blended. Add sugar and salt and beat until well mixed, then add t(> the milk and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Strain into buttered baking cups and cook in a moderate oven, with the cups in water, until the center is firm. The water in which the cups are placed nmst not be too hot or the custard will curdle at the bottom. This will require about 30 minutes to cook. 1. Give the different food elements in ;i enstard. 2. Why is eiistard easy to digest? 3. Why is it a good food for cliildi'cn or invalids? BREAD PUDDING ^ e. bread chunks 1^ tbsp. sugar 3/2 c. milk ^ egg yolk 1/16 tsp. salt dash nutmeg Beat the yolk thoi-oughly, add the sugar, salt and milk and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour this over the bread chunks and turn all into a but- tered baking cup, and bake as for firm custard. Raisins may be added to this. Sprinkle the nut- meg over the top or add 8 drops of vanilla to the milk before mixing it with the bread. When the pudding is firm, remove from the oven, spread a layer of jelly over the top and on this roughly pile the white of the egg, after it has been beaten stiff and dry, with 2 tsp. sugar added. Return to the oven to brown slightly. EGGS 1:33 Bread Puddini^' is a very old and wbolesome des- sert, but it has l)eeii out of favor on account of the poor substitutes which have been offered in the jjhice of good Bread Pudding. CHOCOLATE CITSTARD y^ c. milk 2 tbsp. sugar Yo egg 1/16 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. shaved chocolate 1 tbsp. tlour 8 drops vanilla. Blend the sugar, flour, salt and eg^ together. Heat the milk and chocolate over hot water until the chocolate has dissolved. Stir into the egg mix- ture and cook for 8 minutes. Add vanilla and turn into cold molds. Serve cold. More chocolate and sugar may be added to suit the taste. BLANC MANGE lA e. milk 1 tbsp. flour y2 e^^ 1/16 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. sugar 8 drops vanilla Make as Chocolate Custard. Serve with chopped nuts and maple syrup or any crushed fruits over the top. RICE PUDDING % e. cooked rice ^4 ^- liquid custard (uncooked) Mix rice with custard, add raisins, and bake in 134 FOOD AND CLOTHING slow oven until firm. Beaten egg white (meringue) may be added to tlie top. MACAROON PITDDING (Serve 4) ^ tbsp. gelatine 3 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. cold water 1/16 tsp. salt 1 e. milk 1/3 e. crushed macaroons 1 egg yolk y2 tsp. vanilla 2 tbsp. crushed almonds 1 egg white 2 tbsp. white raisins (cut in halves) Soak gelatine in cold water for 10 minutes. Make liquid custard of egg yolk, milk, sugar and salt. Add tbe gelatine and, when thoroughly dissolved, put on ice. When it begins to tliicken, fold in the stiffly beaten egg white, add the almonds, mac- aroons and raisins, and mold either in individual dishes or in loaf form. Serve with whipped cream. CHAPTER XIV BEEF, FOWL, GAME The tender cuts of beef are from the loin, the least used of any of the muscular parts of the body — hence its tenderness. The connective tissue is small in amount and the tubes making up the tissue bundles are thin, but contain a high percentage of liquid. Effect of heat. For this reason the tender cuts of beef require but little cooking and it may be done at a high temperature. The extreme heat ap- plied to the surface of the meat, causes the juices to change to steam which cannot escape because of the crust formed on the outside. This steam is sufficient to break down the connective tissue and to coagulate the albumen. Thei food value. These cuts of meat are desir- able chiefly because of the ease with which they may be digested, but as a matter of fact, they do not contain as much nutriment as some of the tough parts. The loin cuts are the choice pieces of meat and are expensive. The value received from them is only attained by proper cooking. Many fine pieces of meat are prepared in such a way that 135 136 FOOD AND CLOTHING they contain no more nutrition or taste, and are no better than the cheapest cut of the beef. PAN-BROILED STEAK Select a porter-house or sirloin steak, 1 to li/. in. thick. Wipe with damp cloth, trim off fat and bone. Rub a piece of the fat over an iron skillet and, when it is smoking hot, put in the meat, in- creasing the heat, and turn constantly from 10 to 20 minutes. This turning will prevent the juices from escaping. Serve on a hot platter, with slices of lemon, parsley or a butter sauce. Do not add salt or pepper until the last. A sauce may be ma(k^ by browning 4 tbsp. each of butter and flour, add- ing 2 c. milk and, when sufficiently cooked, turning in 1 c. mushrooms. This may be served over the steak or with it. 1. Locate on the meat chart a cut of sirloin steak. 2. AVhy will it cook in 10 inin.. while it requires 1 hr. for a round steak? 3. What is the cost of sirloin steak per lb. .' BROILED STEAK Many stoves have broiler attachments and, when possible, this is the ideal way to cook tender steaks. Prepare as for pan-broiled. Lay on the grill of the broiler and with the tire high, cook from 8 to 10 minutes. PLANKED STEAK Prepare steak as for pan-broiling, using a pre- BEEF, FOWL, GAME 137 pared oak board instead of the skillet. Heat the plank in a hot oven, lay on the steak and return to the oven, the temperature very high. Cook from 10 to 20 minutes. Remove, spread with butter, salt, pepper, and garnish with potatoes forced through a pastry bag, heated mushrooms and creamed peas. Slices of lemon and parsley add to the appearance. ROAST BEEF AND BROWN GRAVY Buy the third, fourth and fifth ribs with the bone. This will w^eigii from three to four ]l)s. Bone, wipe with a damp cloth, add 1 tsp. salt for each pound, in the places where the bones were removed. If desired, 1/16 tsp. ground cloves, some paprika and a small piece of bay leaf may be added. Cut the suet in small strips and add it also. Roll and tie and sear (in the baking pan on top of the stove) until w^ell browned on both ends. Fasten the lid and bake in a moderate oven, allowing 20 minutes to the pound. Do not put water in with the meat. Remove to a platter and add to the liquid and fat in the pan equal parts of flour, and brown. Pour over this the water from the bones and cook as for white sauce, scraping loose all brown particles from the edge and bot- tom of the pan. If the gravy is light in color small amounts of beef extract may be added. To bone a roast. With a sharp knife cut very 138 FOOD AND CLOTHING close around tlie bones and remove. This does not require any special skill and is a matter of great economy. Besides knowing that it is done in a cleanly manner, the bones may be placed in cold salt water and simmered for an hour or so, and this extract used for soups or gravies. To carve a rolled roast. Place the fork, tines up, in the side next to the carver, midway of the roll as it stands on end. Then with a sharp knife, slice the meat, beginning at the farther side and cut toward the fork. Remove each slice, with the knife, to the edge of the platter. The fork should not be removed until the carving is done, except to lower its place in the roast. 1. Why is boning a roast at home an economy? 2. Why is it a cleaner method? 3. How can the bones be used? FowtjS The breast of chicken and game is considered to be very easily digested, while the dark meat is tough and hard to liquify. The cooking of fowls and game should be at a low temperature and for a long time, except in the case of very young birds, when the breast may be broiled. The greatest fault of the untrained housekeeper in the cooking of these meats, is in trying to hurry the process, while only the long, slow application of heat can bring about the desired results. BEEF, FOWL, GAME 139 To dress a chicken. The head should be sev- ered from the body to allow free bleeding. Im- merse the entire chicken in a pail of water just be- low the boiling point, holding it by the feet, and lifting it up and down until it is entirely wet, then plunge in a pail of cold water. When cool enough to handle, pull or rub off the feathers. If the chicken is young, there will be small inn feathers on the wings, back and legs ; if it is old, there will be long hairs on the skin. To remove the pin feathers requires long, careful work by scraping and pulling with a knife. The hairs may be singed off by holding over a quick blaze. If the fowl is to be cooked whole, an opening should be made just below the breast bone, from thigh to thigh and the internal organs removed, care being taken that the gall is not burst. The liver, gizzard and heart should be cut from the rest of the organs and cleaned for use. If the chicken is to be jointed the following directions may be observed : First, remove the wings ; second, re- move the first and second leg joints together, then separate; third, open the body below the breast bone by cutting the thin membrane there and be- tween the back and the breast ; fourth, remove the internal organs, with their fastenings to the back ; fifth, cut the thin membrane which joins the back to the breast and sever ; sixth, break the back from the ribs, and remove the oil sack ; seventh, cut the 140 FOOD AND CLOTHING neck from the ribs ; eighth, remove the wish bone and divide the breast. FRIED CHICKEN AND CREAM GRAVY Joint a small, young chicken. Salt, i^epper and roll in flour. Have an iron skillet warming. Put in it 14 c. lard and 14 c. butter. When melted and hot, lay in pieces of chicken and turn fire low so that the pieces will brown but not burn. Turn often to brown evenly. When well cooked, re- move to hot platter. Dust into the hot grease 4 tbsp. flour and 14 tsp. salt, stir until brown. Add 2 c. rich sweet milk and let simmer. Serve in separate dish. SMOTHERED CHICKEN Joint a young fat hen. Salt (1 tsp. for each lb.) , roll each piece thoroughly in ilour and lay in a baking dish. Pour over this 3 c. cold water and place in a moderate oven and cook, undisturbed, for two hours. BAKED TriiKKY When baking- a young turkey allow 15 minut(\s for each pound. An old bird should be steamed an hour and then baked the required time. When thoroughly cleaned inside and out, salt, allowing 1 tsp. for each lb., fill with oyster or chestnut dress- ing, sew the skin together at the neck and at the lower opening ; tie the legs together and the wings BEEF, FOWL, GAME 141 to the body. Bake in a covered pan, at a moderate temperature the required time. When an open pan must be used, a cloth covered with a layer of dough may be laid over the bird to hold the steam. BAKED CHICKEN ■ Follow directions for Baked Turkey, using an onion dressing. ONION DKESSING 2 tbsp. melted butter or 1/16 tsp. pepper baeon fryings Yi tsp. salt 2 c. bread chunks 3^ tsp. sage 2 tbsp. chopped onion hot water to thoroughly moisten When mixing, use a fork, so as not to make the dressing compact. OYSTER DRESSING 2 c. bread chunks 2 tbsp. melted butter 1 tsp. salt 1/16 tsj). pepper 1 c. oysters (if large, cut water to thoroughly moisten in fourths) BAKED GOOSE Simmer gently in a covered vessel 1 hour. Stuff with dressing made of 2 c. bread crumbs, 1 c. diced raw apples, Vi> c. raisins, 1 tsp. salt, cold water to moisten. Bake slowly 15 minutes for each lb. Make gravy from water in which goose was par- boiled. 142 FOOD AND CLOTHING QUAIL Quail should be picked dry, never skinned or scalded. Bemove head and feet and open down the back. This leaves the breast whole. Follow recipe for fried chicken. Carving a Fowl The craving knife should be thoroughly sharp- ened before it is placed on the table. Never place the steel on with the set. The rasping sound that is made as the knife is drawn over the steel is very disagreeable and it is the duty of every house- wife to see that this is not a necessary preliminary to the carving. To stand while carving is permissible, but as sitting is more agreeable to most people, it is as easy to learn one way as another and beginners should practice sitting while carving. If possible, have a platter large enough to hold the bird and the slices after carving, if not, an extra one should be provided. Lay the bird on the platter with the head toward the left. The fork is placed astride the breast bone and should not be removed up to the No. 8. 1. Sever the drum stick from the second joint. 2. After the thin membrane which joins the second or thigh joint to the body has been cut, this piece can be pushed from the body with the dull side of the knife BEEF, FOWL, GAME U3 and then severed by raising the bird a little to avoid cutting against the platter. 3. Cut around the wing and sever the same way. 4. If but half of the bird is needed, begin to slice the breast by letting the knife follow a slanting line from the front side of the breast toward the wing joint, otherwise remove wing and leg on both sides tirst. 5. Remove wish bone by putting knife under it at the point of the breast and turning it back. 6. Remove shoulder blade by putting the point of the knife under it, turning it back and cutting the sinews. 7. Tip the bird slightly, and remove the meat known as the oyster and other pieces of meat found on the side bone. 8. Cut through the skin between the breast and ribs in order to have access to the dressing. 9. Cut through the cartilage which unites the breast and ribs and remove the breast bone. 10. Turn the piece over, then place the back of the knife on the piece which unites back and ribs, lift the back piece with the fork, thus breaking the joints and separating the two. 11. Lay the back on the platter inside down and separate in two pieces. 12. Cut thigh in two or three pieces. Serve each plate with light and dark meat and dressing. CHAPTER XV WARMED-OVER DISHES In no other way does a housekeeper display her skill so much as in the making of left-overs into attractive and nutritious dishes. It has been truly said that the untrained housekeeper wastes half of what she buys. To be successful she must know the classes of foods, the proportions of each necessary to make a balanced food, which and how much of flavoring foods will be required to give the desired result. Generally we observe these rules : If the left- over is a protein, we must add a starch and fat to make a balanced food; if it is a starchy food, we add protein and fat. Such flavoring as onions, smoked meats, spices, etc., are used when the foods in combination have no decided flavor. Often in the using of left-overs from roasts, steaks, etc., the flavor has been extracted in the cooking or it is the end cuts which have no particular flavor. Condiments Seasoning and spices are used to give relish to food and to gratify the taste. There is great danger of forming an appetite for these seasonings to such a degree that the flavor of the food may be entirely lost, and as they 144 WARMED-OVER DISHES 145 also stimulate the How ol' tlio (li.ij;estive juices their excessive use is injurious from that standpoint. Pepper is either black, white, or red. Black pepper is the whole dried pepper corn, ground. AYliite pepper is dried pepper corn ground after the black outer husk is removed. Red pepper, or Cayenne, is ground dried pods of the Chili pepper. Ginger is an underground stem and contains starch. AVhen young it may be preserved and is called candied ginger. When dried it is ground into a powder. Cinnamon is the bark of a small tree, the best grade coming from Ceylon. We may buy it eitlier as a bark or powder. Nutmeg and mace are from the same plant. Nut- meg is made by grinding the nut and mace by grinding the covering of the nut. The tree is cul- tivated in the West Indies. Cloves are the flower buds of a plant. These, when dried, may be ground or used whole. Allspice is the dried pimento, ground. Pimentoes are the berries from a tree in the West Indies. MEAT PIE (Serve 2) From cold roast, steaks, or boiled meat. 1 e. chopped meat Salt-pepper 1 tbsp. chopped onion paprika 1 c. white sauce "2 to 1" to suit taste 1 tsp. dried parsley 146 FOOD AND CLOTHING Add other ingredients to white sauce and pour in a baking dish. Spread over the top a crust 1/8 in. thick made from biscuit dough, using twice the amount of shortening. Bake 20 minutes in a hot oven. 1. Why add onion and parsley ? 2. Tell how yon eonld make over into a palatable dish, 1 c. rice, 1 c. cold mashed potatoes, 1 c. canned tomatoes. HASH BALLS 1 tbsp. ground meat 1 tbsp. cold mashed pota- ^ tsp. salt toes or rice Yi tsp. diced onion Yi, egg or 1 tbsp. of white sauce or tomato sauce " 2 to 1. " Mix all together, mold into small flat cakes, and saute in bacon f ryings until browned on both sides. 1. Why use bacon f ryings? 2. Name the food elements in these cakes. TAMALA PIE (Serve 6) 1 c. ground meat from 1 c. hot water with 1 tsp. roast beef extract or 1 c. 2 c. hot cornmeal mush brown gravy Season the meat with chili pepper and paprika to suit the taste. Mix thoroughly wdth the gravy. Line the bottom of the pan with a layer of the mush, turn in the meat, and spread the remainder WARMED-OVER DISHES 147 of the mush on top. Bake in a hot oven 20 minutes. There are several brands of the chili peppers on the market, some inferior and some very good. The use of these peppers is not recommended ex- cept in very small amounts to serve as flavoring in an otherwise tasteless dish. CREAMED CHICKEN (Serve 10) Use meat from a cold roasted or steamed chicken. J4 c. butter or chicken fat 1 tsp. salt 2 c. milk or chicken broth 2c. cut chicken ^ tsp. white pepper ^ c. tiour Cut chicken in small pieces. Make white sauce of fat, flour, milk. Add salt and pepper. Put chicken in white sauce and when warmed through serve on toast, wafers or rosettes. 1 c. mushrooms may be added to the white sauce. When serving light refreshments, one four lb. hen will make about 4 c. of cut chicken and should serve from 25 to 30 people. CREAMED BEEF The same proportions may be used as for creamed chicken. However, the gravy from meat will make a better sauce and often a few pieces of onion and diced potato are added. This is sometimes called hash. Croquettes are another very attractive form of 148 FOOD AND CLOTHTNG using up left-overs, but for some they are indi,2:est- ible on account of tlie fat they absorb; thougli, if properly made and cooked, very little fat pene- trates through the egg and crnm coating. A very heavy white sauce is made, — 1 c. milk, 2 tbsp. fat and 4 of flour. When cold, the meat or vegetable, ground in small particles, is stirred in, with such seasonings as will blend well. This is made into small cylindrical shapes, rolled in crumbs, in beaten egg, and set aside to dry, about 30 minutes. The thorough drying prevents them from falling to pieces in the hot fat. Heat the fat until a piece of dry bread will brown in 40 counts, then drop in the croquettes and cook until a golden brown, from 40 to 60 seconds. The following make very good croquettes : Ground chicken, veal, beef, ham; or rice, mac- aroni or cheese. . The amount of white sauce is 1/3 that of the other material. MINCEMEAT (2 (HUU-ts) 1 lb. chopped apples 34 lb. raisins 1 lb. ground boiled meat 2 tsp. salt 1 lb. currants y^ e. sugar 1^ c. apple vinegar ^^ lb. suet (weakened to suit taste) J/^ tsp. cinnamon % tsp. mace 5^ tsp. allspice Chop apples, meat, and suet and mix. Add the currants, raisins, spices, sugar, salt. Pour over WARMED-OVER DISHES 149 all the vinegar and cook slowly until lieated through. Seal up in jars until ready to use. Keep in cool place. When ready to be made into pies, 1/8 c. chopped nuts may be added to each pie. 1. Estimate the cost of each quart of mincemeat. 2. What is your idea as to its food value? 3. Is it an extravagant pie for a person in ordinary circumstances ? 4. Where is the best cooking suet found? (see Fats). 5. What cut of meat is most used for mincemeat ? CHAPTER XVI FATS AND OILS Generally we give the name fata to the solids and oils to the liquids. However, since the tem- perature has such a marked effect upon them, this classification will not hold. We also generally speak of obtaining fats from animals and oils from vegetables, but recently several vegetable oils have been manufactured which are solids when cold. The fats and oils most used are obtained from meat, fish, poultry, butter, cream, olives, nuts, cocoa bean and cotton seed. Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of the olive tree. The best oil is obtained from the first press- ing of fresh, carefully picked fruit; a poorer grade from the second pressing; and after treat- ing the pulp with hot water, a third grade used for soap making. In some parts of Europe, espe- cially Italy, it is commonly employed for frying, but in this country it is generally too expensive. It is, however, best of all fats for deep frying and can be heated to 600 degrees. Cotton-seed oil, when of the best quality, is excellent for table use. Like olive oil it is good 150 FATS AND OILS 151 for deep frying and can be heated to a higher de- gree than lard, suet, butter, etc. We buy it under many different names. Suet is the adiyjose tissue of cattle, and is found around the kidneys, heart and intestines. In the living body it is in the liquid condition and only after death does it become a solid, as suet, tallow, . etc. Lard is the adipose tissue of the hog. Leaf lard, which is best, is found around the heart, kidneys and intestines. Butter, the fat of milk, is, under the best con- ditions, an ideal fat on account of its flavor and its ease of digestion. Nuts. The term "nut" usually brings to our mind a hard, woody covering, surrounding a meat or kernel. The kinds vary so with different lo- calities that we are able to study only a few of the commonest used by us, as the peanut, English walnut, black walnut, and pecan. Their percentage of food elements is : Water Protein Carl)ohydrates Minerals Fats Peanut 8% 30%, 20% 2% 40%, Pecan 4%o 12% 12%, 2%o 70%; Wahiut4%, 18%o 16%o 2% 60%o The percentage of protein is very high, but, as with cheese, it is in a concentrated form and thorough mastication is necessary to insure ease 152 FOOD AND CLOTHING of digestion. Nuts also contain a small amount of tannic acid. It is only witliin the past few years that their value as a food was recognized. They are most valuable when eaten with other foods, as in salads, breads, and deserts. Digestion of fats. In the mouth, the sali^■a merely separates the fats into small globules and they pass on into the stomach as such. In the stomach they are changed very little, with the ex- ception of being split into smaller portions. As they enter the small intestines they are split by the pancreatic juice into fatty acids and gycerine. A small amount is absorbed as such. The bile next acts upon the fats, forming an emulsion in which the globules are finely divided and rendered cap- able of passing through the membranes to pro- duce heat and energy. The digestion of fats depends mainly upon get- ting the globules small enough that they may be easily passed through the walls of the intestines. Separating the fats into such tiny globules is called emulsification. The alkaline pancreatic juice unites with the fatty acid of the fats to form a soap, while the glycerine is set free. Both the soap and the glycerine are more easily absorbed than the original fat. Fatty foods are valuable to the body because of the material thev furnish for heat and energy. FATS AND OILS 153 They act in the same way as starch and sugar, ex- cept that fats produce between two and three times as much heat as starch. Fats "shorten" bread mixtures; that is, make them more tender by separating the starch grains of the flour. When using a compound 1/3 less must be used than when using lard or butter as the latter contain a percentage of water while the compounds are wholly condensed fat. Heat has much to do with the digestil)ility of fat, as a strong heat scorches it and decomposition sets in which causes it to be irritating to the mucus membranes of the digestive organs. 1*ASTRY Why pies are indigestible. The digestion of fat is not begun in the mouth as is that of starch. Fat undergoes no chemical change in the system until it is emulsified and saponified in the small intes- tine. In making pastry the starch granules are completely enveloped in fat, these cannot be acted upon by the saliva, hence the digestion of starch in pastry must be postponed until after the fat is acted upon. If the pancreatic juice can discharge its office, all is well, if this fails, the starch be- comes so much waste material. For this reason pie is looked upon with fear. Yet, when properly made, occasional indulgence may be permitted. Pie crust. The underlying principle of good 154 FOOD AND CLOTHING pastry is expansion. We place cold flour and cold fat in a bowl placed on crushed ice. The fat is cut into the flour until it resembles a meal; then ice water is cut into this, until the dough is smooth and free from fat or white streaks. Toss this on a cold floured board away from the fire, (a piece of marble or heavy glass is best) roll 1/16 inch thick, lifting and turning with each stroke of the rolling pin, fit over the bottom of a pie tin, pierce several times to allow the steam to escape, and bake in a moderate oven until well done, about 12 minutes. The air and the ice water wdiicli were worked into the cold materials expand immediately after being placed in a hot oven; result — a flaky, crisp crust. When a baked shell is wanted it is better to invert the \rdn and fit the dough over the outside. Materials: 1/3 as much shortening as flour. 1/5 as much ice water as flour. 1/4 tsp. salt to each c. of flour. When using butter or lard. Yz as much as flour may be used. Custard Pie One crust pies. Since pie tins differ so widely it is difficult to give -the amount of flour required for a crust ; but for the average tin, % c. flour will make one crust. Do not roll the crust too thin. Line pie tin with dough, cutting it around the edges larger than the pan. Pinch with the finger FATS AND OILS 155 tips, so that it will stand. Fill with liquid made as "firm custard," and bake until the center is firm, about 30 minutes. Cream Pies Bake a pie shell on an inverted pan. Make a cream filling as for cream putt's. Fill the shell with the cream filling, add meringue to the top and re- turn to the oven to brown ; or make, — Banana cream pie, by half filling the shell with thinly sliced bananas, (with sugar added) and fill- ing to the top with the cream and adding mer- ingue ; or make, — Cocoanut cream pie, by mixing cocoanut with the cream and filling the shell. To make meringue, beat an es^p:^ white stiff and dry. Add 1 tsp. sugar. Two crust pies. After the crust is made, divide it into two parts. Roll one, 1/16 inch thick and line the pan. Roll the other, making scroll or leaves in it — these to serve as an escape for the steam. Fill the pie, add such seasonings as are recommended, lay the top crust on very loosely, and fasten to the bottom crust by pressing with a fork or by pinch- ing them together with the thumb and finger. APPI;E PIE Fill the crust with thin slices of firm, tart fruit. Sprinkle over the top from i/o to 1 c. sugar mixed with 1 tsp. cinnamon. Dot over it small pieces of 156 FOOD AND CLOTHING butter and from 6 to 8 drops of lemon extract. Moisten tlie lower crust, lay on the top crust, press together and bake about 30 minutes or until the fruit is tender and the crust is brown. Any fruit pie as peach or apricot may be made by the same directions, or by leaving out the cin- namon and lemon and adding other flavors that night blend with the fruit. BERRY PIES Follow general directions for apple pie. The great difficulty with making berry pies successfully is in keeping the juice from running over the edges. They should not be baked in as hot an oven as other fruit pies. The crusts must be carefully pressed together, and the slashes in the top crust must be of sufficient number to allow the steam to escape. No extra moisture need be added, but from 1 to 2 tbsp. of flour, sifted with the sugar should be added to each pie. CHEESE STRAWS From any pie crust that is left cheese straws may be made. Eoll plain pastry 14 ii^ch thick. Sprinkle 14 with grated cheese to which has been added a few grains of salt and cayenne. Fold, press edges firmly together, fold again, pat and roll out 14 i^ch thick. Sprinkle with cheese and proceed as before. Eepeat twice. Cut in strips FATS AND OILS 157 5 inches long and i/4 ii^^li wide. Bake 8 minutes in moderate oven. SUET PUDDING (Serve 2) J4 e. chopped suet ^ tsp. soda }4 tsp. cinnamon ^ c. molasses 34 c. tiour }4. tsp. allspice ^ c. milk j-i tsp. salt % c. chopped raisins Mix dry ingredients. Chop suet fine, mix with milk and molasses, then with dry ingredients. Add fruit last. Grease baking powder cans and fill two- thirds full. Steam one hour. Larger amounts must be cooked longer. Four times this recipe will serve eight people and should steam three hours. Serve w^ith hard sauce. Dates or figs may be added to this recipe and it is then called fig pudding or date pudding. HARD SAUCE 34 ''. butter ] c. pwd. sugar 1 egg white j4, tsp. nutmeg 1 tsp. vanilla Cream butter and sugar, add white of egg, un- beaten, and the vanilla, and beat together thor- oughly. Grate nutmeg over the top and set in a cool place until ready to serve. One-half c. of whipped cream may be added instead of the egg. 1. "Why should a person with a weak digestion eat 158 FOOD AND CLOTHING very sparingly of this pudding.:' What do we mean by "weak digestion." POTATO CHIPS Wash and pare potatoes. Slice thinly into a bowl of ice water. Let stand i/. hour. Pat dry between towels, fry in deep fat until golden brown, keeping in motion. Drain on brown paper and sprinkle with salt. FRENCH FRIED POTATOES Cut pared potatoes in strips Yg inch thick and wide and 3 inches long. Fry in deep fat until tender. CHAPTER XVII BACTERIA— YEAST Dirt is matter out of place. It may be animal, vegetable, or mineral. Dust may be composed of the three classes of dirt and is a powder, so fine that it will fly in the air. If animal and vegetable dust is left undis- turbed where it settles, tiny plants will grow. These plants are known as molds, yeasts and bac- teria. Bacteria are tlie smallest and simplest of known living things, of the vegetable family. Each con- sists of a single cell, endowed with the character- istics of living animals in as much as they take food, change it into their own substance and give off waste. This waste or excretion 'sours milk and renders fish and all fresh foods unfit for use. Such foods are said to be spoiled. The brown spots on bananas and other fruits are good examples of the work of bacteria. Molds grow from vegetable dust in the form of long threads which, by uniting, form a frame work over the substance they are using as a food. They grow and multiply rapidly in warm moist places and destroy food and clothing. Mildew is a form of mold. 159 160 FOOD AND CLOTHING Yeast is the plant that produces fermentation or "working" in many liquids, fruits, juices, pre- serves, etc. From a lesson on bacteria in Physiology prepare to answer the following questions : 1. Why should food eaten raw or unskiuned be thor- oughly cleaned? 2. What sanitary end is attained by cooking food? 3. Why are oranges or bananas safer than grapes when bought from a street vender? 4. Why should milk receptacles be thoroughly scalded or sunned? 5. What is mildew, and under what conditions in the house is it likely to occur? YEAST In the fall, we dig up our flow^er bulbs, pack them in dry soil, and put them in a place — the temperature of which is such that they will live, but not grow until warm weather comes. Then we put them out again, and the warmth and moisture and soil causes them to grow. The small cake of yeast that we buy is a starchy mixture packed full of tiny plant-bulbs, known as yeast plants, which, mixed wdth certain material, and made warm enough, begin growing, budding and reproducing. In growing yeast plants these facts must be considered : They grow and multiply very fast. Note: Read in an A^-ienlture tlie various topics under "Uae- teria." BACTERIA— YEAST 161 Tliey grow only when warm and moist. They grow best at temperatures from 75 to 80 degrees. They may be forced to grow at a higher tem- perature, but a great lieat kills them. Cold checks their growth, but does not kill the plants. Frozen yeasts have been thawed out and made to grow. When yeast plants are fed upon a sugar with moisture they absorb the sugar and give off from their cells compounds called carbon dioxide and alcohol. Fill a glass half full of sweetened fruit juice and place in it a small amount of yeast. Place the glass in warm water and observe the change which will take place in a few minutes. In bread making the cells feed upon the sugar in the Hour and that which is added in the bread making, and, as the carbon dioxide is given off, it collects in tiny sacks and makes room for itself in the dough. These sacks are the holes we see in the slices of bread. If unbaked bread is kept at even temperature the gas formation will be about the same throughout the dough and the sacks will be of a uniform size, giving us an even- grained bread ; but we can readily see how a strong heat on one side and perhaps a cold draft of air on the other side would cause an uneven expansion 162 FOOD AND CLOTHING and a difference in the texture of tlie bread. Examine living yeast under the microscope. Yeast plants are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye, yet they are in the atmosphere, blown everywhere by the winds. These are known as wdld yeasts, but may be captured very easily if a glass of fruit juice be placed where the w^arm air can get to it. Ordinarily we would say ''the juice has soured." Yeast plants are very plentiful around hop fields. A pail of sweetened water left in a hop field will, in a short time, be full of tiny bubbles or foam. Cornmeal, stirred into this water until it forms a stiff dough, may be rolled to a thickness of % inch, cut in squares, dried, and used as yeast cakes. Another form of yeast is made by mixing a very fine flour (rice) in the hop water, making this into cakes, and wrapping these in tinfoil while they are still moist. This is called compressed yeast. Bread made from the dry yeast, which requires a longer time for growing, is called Long Process Bread. This usually requires about 18 hours to make and bake. Well made bread should have: An evenly browned crust without breaks at the sides or ends. Even texture inside. A "nuttv" flavor. BACTERIA— YEAST 163 Bread bakes in an uneven shape when the heat of the oven is irregular, and it has an irregular grain when the temperature during the rising- period is uneven. WHITE BREAD (1 loaf) 1 cake compressed yeast 1 tbsp. fat 2 e. warm water IJ^ tsp. salt flour to make stiff dough 1 tbsp. sugar (about 6 cups) Dissolve the sugar and fat in the warm water. Add the yeast and stir until dissolved. Add enough of the flour to make a batter and beat for 10 minutes. Add the salt and the rest of the flour and knead until the dough is elastic and will not stick to the hands. The exact amount of flour can not be given since flours differ as to the amount of moisture they will absorb. Place in a well greased bowl, in a warm place, where the temperature is even and let rise 2 hours. The top of the dough should be lightly oiled. Mold into a loaf, grease on top, and when the size has doubled, bake 60 minutes in a moderate oven. WHOLE WHEAT BREAD (1 loaf) 1 cake compressed yeast 1 tbsp. fat 1 c. warm water 2 tbsp. brown sugar }i tsp. salt y2 c. warm milk 164 FOOD AND CLOTHING Soak yeast in warm milk until tliorouglily dis- solved. Add sugar and fat to the water and, when dissolved, add to the milk and yeast. Beat in the flour gradually, with the salt added. Knead and bake as white bread, only lower the tempera- ture of the oven when baking. GERMAN COFFEE BREAD (1 loaf I 1 c. compressed yeast 1 egg ;?4 c. warm milk J,^ e. sugar l->4 c. flour 2 tbsp. fat ^ c. raisins Y^ tsp. salt Dissolve the yeast and 1 tbsp. of the sugar in the warm milk and add '-Vx c. flour. Beat well and set in a warm place to grow until light and spongy (about 1 hour). Cream the fat and the rest of the sugar, add the ^^^^ salt and raisins (well floured) to the sponge. Add flour until you have a cake batter and beat for 5 minutes. Turn into a bread Ijan and let rise until twice its size, then bake in a slow oven until the center is firm (about 25 minutes). This bread is especially a food for breakfast. LIGHT ROELS Follow the recipe for white bread until time to mold into loaf form. Then make into small balls the size of a walnut, greasing each one before BACTERIA— YEAST 165 placing it in a well-oiled pan. Crowd tliem very closely together and when twice their size bake in a quick oven for 20 minutes. PARKER HOUSE ROLLS Follow recipe for light rolls up to the time for molding into loaves, then roll the dough into a sheet 1/4 inch thick and cut in circles about 2 inches across. With the handle of a knife, press through the center until it forms a hinge, butter one side and fold the one over the other. Place in a pan and, when twice their size, bake. NUT BREAD (1 loaf) 2 c. flour 1 tsp. salt 4 tsp. B. P. y^ e. sugar 2 eggs 1 e. chopped nuts Sift the dry ingredients. Add the eggs and the milk until it is a stiff drop batter. Add the nuts and pour into a greased pan. Let rise 20 minutes in a warm place. Bake in a moderate oven 40 minutes. BROWN BREAD (1 11). coffee can full) 1 e. yellow meal ^ c. molasses 1 e. whole wheat flour ^ tsp. soda 1 e. flour 1 tsp. salt 4 tsp. B. P. milk 166 FOOD AND CLOTHING Mix dry ingredients, add molasses and milk until it is a drop batter. Bake in tins which are 2/3 full in a pan of boiling water for three hours or in a slow oven for ly^ hours. TEA BISCUITS (6 biscuits) 1 c. flour 2 tsp. B. P. ^4 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. fat 1 egg milk to make soft dough Sift dry ingredients, chop in fat, drop in egg whole, add the milk and mix thoroughly until it is a soft dough. Roll i/o inch thick, cut in circles and bake in a moderate oven until brown and well done. These may also be used for short cakes. CHAPTER XVIII CAKES Cakes are of two classes, those made with butter as the various layer, pound, or loaf cakes, and those made without butter as sunshine, sponge, and angel food. Cakes are a form of batter. For fruit or nut cakes the batter must be made stitf enough so that the nuts or fruits will not sink to the bottom. Plain cakes may be a pour batter, but generally we designate them as a "tear batter," that is, the batter seems to tear away from the edge of the vessel instead of drop. A thin batter cake may be baked in a quicker oven than a thick batter cake. In general a cake should be proportioned : % to y^ as much fat as sugar. 3 times as much flour as sugar. 1 whole egg or 2 whites for each cup of flour. Though material and conditions differ so widely that no definite rule in proportion can be given. If the flour is sifted several times it will hold the air better. It should be sifted once, measured, 167 168 FOOD AND CLOTHING then sifted several times. The sugar should be fine. It is best to use only the sugar that will fall easily through the sifter, — using the coarse in foods where it must be dissolved. On account of expense, the cotton seed oil compounds are used more generally than butter. "When using them add 1/4 tsp. salt for each cup and use 1/3 less than the recipe calls for if butter is designated. Since these compounds are a concentrated oil, the same amount as compared with butter would make the batter too rich. To cream butter or other fats. Beat the material with a wooden spoon until light and creamy. The texture and appearance will have changed de- cidedly when air is beaten into it. Pans may he: 1. Greased. 2. Greased and sprinkled with flour. (All flour that does not adhere should be shaken out.) 3. Lined with oiled paper (for very old pans). 4. Vsed dry (for all cakes without butter). Steps in- cake maling: 1. Arrange all utensils for convenience. 2. Measure and collect all materials. Sift flour and B. P. several times. 3. Prepare the pans. 4. Regulate the heat of the oven, unless the cake is to be placed in a cold oven. 5. Combine and bake. 6. Cool and ice. CAKES 169 Methods of coHibiniiig: First, 1. Cream fat. 2. Add sugar, cream again. 3. Add eggs whole (yolk and white, or either sep- arated) and beat the mixture thoroughly. 4. Add flavoring. 5. Add flour and milk and mix lightly until the de- sired consistency is reached. Fruit or nuts should be floured and folded into the batter the last thing. After the flour and baking powder is added the batter must be stirred as little as possible as the gas, which forms as soon as baking powder and moisture is combined, will escape. Second, 1. Cream fat and sugar (and o^g yolks if used). 2. Add flour, milk and flavoring. 3. Fold in beaten egg white. Forms of baking : Layer Loaf Roll Individual Sheet The sheet cake is decidedly the popular form for cakes at the present time. When baked they should be about 2 inches thick, the icing adding 1/4 to 1/^ inch more. 170 FOOD AND CLOTHING Temperature for baking. Many cake bakers who use gas ovens, tliat heat very rapidly, place the cake in the oven, light the fire, and after 10 or 15 minutes, turn off all of the heat. This is a very successful way if the housekeeper knows her oven thoroughly, but it is not recommended for general use. Generally the most successful way is to have the oven at a moderate temperature (see Degrees of Heat in Cooking) and continued at that degree until the cake is baked. It is usually considered that "it is the baking and not the making" that effects the results of cake making. Time for baking: Layer or sheet from 20 to 30 niiiuitcs (depending upon the thickness). Loaf from 40 to 60 minutes (depending upon in- gredients and thickness). Tests for telling when a cake is done : 1. When it shrinks from the sides of the pan. 2. When touched in the center it springs back. 3. When hissing ceases. Causes for falling: 1. Too much fat. 2. Jarring. 3. Draught of cold air. 4. Too much sugar. 5. Not enough leavening. CAKES 171 Causes for cracking: 1. Too hot oven. 2. Uneven heat. 3. Too much tlour. PLAIN CAKE Yz c. tlour 8 drops vanilla 1 tbsp. fat y^ tsp. salt 1 tsp. B. P. y2 egg (yolk and white 3 tbsp. sugar mixed) milk to make tear batter ]\[ake by combination method No. 1. Six times this recipe will make a loaf or sheet cake. WHITE CAKE \y2 tbsp. fat 10 tbsp. tlour 4 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. B. P. 1 egg white 8 drops vanilla y% tsp. salt milk to make tear batter Make by combination No. 1. From four to six times this amount will make a large cake. CHOCOLATE CAKE 1 tbsp. fat. 2 tbsp. shaved chocolate y^ tsp. salt 1 tsp. B. P. 4 tbsp. sugar 1 egg yolk 3/2 c. tlour 8 drops vanilla milk to make heavy batter Melt cliocolate over hot water. Cream fat, sugar and ^g% yolk. Add melted chocolate (not hot) and flavoring, then the dry ingredients and 172 FOOD AND CLOTHING milk. The amount of chocolate a cake contains is a matter of taste. More or less may be used, as desired. For a large cake, use 4 to 6 times these amounts. SPICE CAKE 1 tbsp. fat 1 tsp. B. P. ^ tsp. ground cloves y^ tsp. salt 4 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. shaved <'hoco]ate 1 egg yolk 2 tbsp. hot mashed po- ys tsp. cinnamon tatoes milk to moisten 1/16 tsp. nutmeg yi c. flour Melt chocolate and mix thoroughly with the po- tatoes. Keep these in a warm place until used. Sift dry ingredients together. Cream fat, sugar and egg yolk. Add potatoes with the chocolate to the dry ingredients, and milk to make tear bat- ter. Bake into sheet or loaf form. Caramel or chocolate icing should be used. Angel Food Cake As eggs ditfer so materially in size, for this cake the whites should be designated by measure instead of number. From 11 to 13 whites are usually required to fill a cup. One c. each, egg white, flour and sugar, with 1 tsp. cream of tartar, flavoring and % tsp. salt make the ordinary loaf cake. Small amounts cannot be made so success- fully. The eggs must be fresh, so they will hold CAKES 173 the air. The sugar must be fine and the flour, a pastry flour. Beat the egg whites stiff and dry. When pai'ti- ally beaten, sift over the cream of tartar. Acid has a hardening effect upon albumen and thus helps the beaten whites to hold the air. Sift the sugar and the flour separately three times, then together once. Fold this into the beaten eggs, very gently from the side, adding the flavoring with the salt. Turn into a dry pan and bake in a moderate oven. When done invert the pan and cool. If the pan is smooth and dry, the cake will come out of its own accord. SUNSHINE CAKE ^ e. yolks 1 e. sugar 3/2 ('. whites 1 ts}). cream of tartar 1 e. flour 1 tsp. lemon extract Beat egg yolks until thick. Add sugar and i/g tsp. salt. Fold in beaten whites with cream of tartar and flavoring. Fold in flour. This may be baked as a butter cake. SPONGE CAKE ^S lemon (grated rind and yi c. flour juice) ] egg 34 c. sugar Add lemon rind and juice to the sugar and mix well. Separate the egg. Beat the yolk light, add 174 FOOD AND CLOTHING the sugar gradually and beat thoroughly. Beat the white of the egg stiff, fold it lightly into the batter, then sift in the flour a little at a time, mix- ing lightly. Bake until the center is firm and it shrinks from the pan. A sponge cake will shrink when removed from the oven and will have a sugary crust on top. Cake Icings Frosting — Egg white beaten to the frothy stage may have a small amount of sugar added. Meringue — Egg white beaten stiff, with sugar added. Icing — Cooked sugar and water syrup beaten into stiffly beaten egg white. Uncooked icings are made by blending pow- dered sugar with thick cream until it forms a paste. This is often used on angel food cakes. Frostings or meringues are very seldom used for cakes. Icings fail unless the sugar is in the right proportion to egg white and is cooked to the required degree. When icing is so thin that it will run off the cake, it should be placed in a vessel over hot water and cooked until it becomes grainy around the edge. There is too much moisture in it, either from the egg or the syrup, and reheating will evaporate H. If the icing is too hard to spread, place it in a CAKES 175 vessel over hot water, add a few drops of cold water and when melted it can be spread. WHITE ICING iy2 e. sugar Y^ tsp. cream of tartar 10 drops vanilla ^ c. water 1 egg white Read "Fondant Making" before making this icing. Cook sugar and water with cream of tartar until it spins a thread about 6 inches long. Stream into the beaten Qgg white and beat until it feels grainy around the edges. Spread with a silver knife on a cold cake. Various nuts, fruits and flavorings may be added to this icing. CARAMEL ICING lyi Q. brown sugar 2 whites (beaten stiff and y^ c. water dry) 3/2 e. granulated sugar Cook until it spins a thread 6 inches long. Pour slowly over the whites, beating meanwhile. Set over hot water and beat it as it cooks, until it will hold its shape and is slightly granular around the edge. One-fourth c. nuts may be added if desired. This will not run or stick and will stay soft for several days. CHOCOLATE ICING 1 c. sugar 2 tbsp. shaved chocolate 1 tbsp. butter 1 c. water 1 tsp. vanilla or ^ c. nuts 176 FOOD AND CLOTHING Cook, add flavoring or nuts, and beat until it begins to crystallize. Spread on cake. The same proportions of brown sugar, butter and water may be cooked tlie same way. L Of what food value are cakes? 2. Are cakes a balanced food? 3. For whom are they indigestible? 4. How may we make them so they will be more easily digested? CHAPTER XIX SOUPS AND SALADS Soups Soups are liquids which contain the flavorings and extracts of meat and vegetables. Their value to the body lies chiefly in their stimulating effect upon the digestive fluids. The food value, even in the strong soupj, is so low that it is a mistake to depend upon them for buikling material. How- ever, in some thick soups which contain macaroni, peas, beans, etc., a small amount of nourishment is obtained. Clear soups contain about 98% water, %% mineral, i/2% protein, 1% fats. Thick soups contain only about 909^ water, 8% carbo- hydrates and fat, and li/^% protein and i/^'v mineral. Tu cook foods and especially meats for- soup, they should be placed in cold water and the tem- perature raised very slowly. This gradually draws out the extracts and albumens: AVlien meats are placed in water and it boils very soon afterwards, a brown scum gathers on the top. This is the albumen which was hardened by the strong heat and since it cannot be dissolved again 177 178 FOOD AND CLOTHING it may as well be skimmed off, but in so doing the most nutritious part of the soup is lost. We serve soups at the beginning of our lunch- eons and dinners, the heavy soups at luncheons, as usually the other courses will be light, but at dinner, when heavy meats and vegetables and pastries are to follow, the clear soups are served. Cheese straws, and crisp wafers when served wdth soup, add to the food value. Stock is the clear extract made from cooking lean meat, bone and fat. A careful housekeeper saves the meat scraps, bones from roasts, etc., and makes the stock for her soups without additional expense. Soups are divided into two classes, — soups with stock and soups without stock. Under the first we include: 1. Bouillon, made from lean meats or vegetables delicately seasoned and cleared. 2. Consomme, usually made from two or three kinds of meats highly seasoned with spices and herbs, and cleared. T jider the second we include : 1. Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish, white sauce and seasoning. A cream soup may or may not be tliick. 2. Puree, made from vegetables or fish which have been cooked until they are tender enough to be forced through a sieve and retained in the soup. Always tliick. SOUPS AND SALADS 179 3. Bisques, made as Puree from fish or meat. Very thick. CLEAR CONSOMME (Serve 6) 1 beef knuckle bones from chicken or 1 ham bone (small) turkey 4 (|ts. water Simmer very gently for three hours. When ready to serve the water should have evaporated until only 1 qt. is left. Season with salt, ground cloves, and cayenne to suit the taste. Strain until clear and serve hot in tea or bouillon cups. TOMATO BOUILLON ^ e. tomatoes 3^ tsp. diced onion 2 cloves ^ e. water }i tsp. sugar small piece bay leaf Simmer all together until it is reduced to the . original amount of tomatoes. Strain, add salt, pepper, cayenne and reheat. Serve in cups. VEGETABLE SOUP 1 beef shank 1 e. peas 1 c. string beans snapped 1 c. diced turnips 1 c. chopped cabbage 1 e. diced carrots 2 tbsp. diced onion 1 c. tomatoes Simmer shank for 1 hr. in 3 qts. water. Add beans and carrots, and simmer ^2 hr. Add the other vegetables and simmer i/> hr. longer. Sea- son with salt, pepper and cayenne to taste. Stir each time before filling the dishes, so that por- 180 FOOD AND CLOTHING tions of the vegetables may be served Avitli each dish. CREAM OF CORN SOUP ^ e. com ^ c, milk 1 tsp. flour 1 tsp. butter Use canned or stewed corn. Cover with water. Cook until soft, mash through a sieve, add enough cold water to bring it up to the first measure. Make cream sauce of butter, flour and milk. Add corn pulp, salt and sugar to taste. Serve hot. POTATO SOUP (Serve 2) y2 c. diced raw potatoes y^ tsp. celery seed 1 tsp. flour Yi tbsp. chopped onion 1 tsp. butter 1 c. milk Cook potato and onion together until soft. Strain. Make cream sauce, add celery seed, salt and pepper. When hot, pour over the potato pulp. Serve. CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP (Serve 2) 1 c. tomatoes 2 cloves 1 tsp. onion 1 c. water Cook slowly until the water has evaporated and 1 c. of tomato juice remains. Strain. Make % c. white sauce "1 to 1." Have both the tomato juice and the white sauce hot and just before mix- SOTTS AND SALADS 181 iiig them add 1/16 tsp. soda to tlie tomatoes to neutralize the acid. When thoroughly mixed, if there are any lumps, strain, and pour into a heated soup plate and serve. BEAN PUREE ( Servo 2 i 1 0. soup beans, which have been cooked until soft, about 6 hours. 1 c. broth in which beans were cooked and in which a ham lione was simmered. Mash beans through a sieve and mix thoroughly with the broth. Season with paprika and cayenne to taste. A small piece of onion may be simmered with the broth, to impart flavor. SALMON BISQUE (Serve 2) Yz e. salmon ^ tsp. lemon .iuiee, dash 1 c. water nutmeg y% tsp. salt Simmer salmon, water, lemon juice and salt, until water has evaporated. Press through a sieve, and mix thoroughly with 1 c. white sauce "3 to 1." Reheat, strain into a hot soup dish, sprinkle nutmeg over the top and serve. A tsp. of whipped cream may be added to each dish. Salads Salads are a combination of the green vege- 182 FOOD AND CLOTHING tables, with fruits, meats or otlier vegetables and a French or mayonnaise dressing. They are given the place on our menus, first after the meat or heavy course, because they con- tain the food stuffs which call forth digestive fluids and therefore aid in the digestion of the heavy course. It is now considered very neces- sary to give the salad a place in every heavy din- ner and when well made and with the right com- binations it has a high food value. Different dressings are made for salads, tastes varying as to the best. French dressing. 1 c. oil (olive or salad), 5 tbsp. acid (lemon juice or vinegar), ^^ tsp. salt, dash cayenne and i/4 tsp. paprika. Mix all to- gether and beat thoroughly before turning over the salad. One tbsp. of sugar may be added for a fresh tomato salad or for any salad with which the taste of sugar blends. Mayonnaise. 1 egg yolk, blended with Yz tsp. salt, 1/4 tsp. paprika, dash cayenne, 2 to 4 tbsp. vinegar. Beat into this 2 c. oil. This should make a very hea^'y dressing for vegetables and fruit. For meat, mustard may be added. Many times, without any apparent reason, this dressing will fail to thicken. If, after streaming in a small amount of oil, it is thin, do not attempt it farther with that egg. Use another yolk and when that thickens, the first egg and oil may be added with- SOUPS AND SALADS 183 out fear of failure. These cautions may insure success: be sure of a fresh egg and keep the oil cold. The albumen in an old egg will not have sufficient strength to hold the oil in the form of an emulsion. Roquefort cheese salad dressing. 1/4 lb. Roque- fort cheese blended with French dressing until it forms a smooth paste. This is especially fine for vegetable salads, as tomato, asparagus, lettuce, etc. This amount will serve ten people. Cooked salad dressing. One c. weak vinegar water heated. Blend 1 egg yolk, 1 tbsp. flour, 2 tbsp. sugar, 14 tsp. salt, speck cayenne, i/4 tsp. paprika and a small amount of water, enough to form a paste. Stream slowly into the hot vinegar and cook over water for 8 minutes. Re- move and beat into it 1 tbsp. oil or 1 tbsp. melted butter. When cold, thin any amount of it with whipped cream. Mustard may be added but in small amounts, as its use is not recommended in any diet. To serve a salad, of a combination that will be in harmony with the other courses, is one of the marks of good training on the part of hostess or housekeeper. A meat salad should only be served at luncheons or with other refreshments to take the place of a meat course, never at a dinner where there has been a heavy meat course. 184 FOOD AND CLOTHING Fruit salads are most appreciated at tlie dinner or luncheon, when the first course has been a vegetable soup, or on a refreshment plate where meat and vegetables are served. Vegetable salads may be served when the first course has been a fruit or when the desert is to be a fruit. If the dinner course contains dry vegetables, and a vegetable salad is to follow, it must be of the. fresh variety. There are no limits to the possibilities of salads as to combination and manner of serving, but the points to remember in making salads suc- cessfully are: The salad must blend with the other courses. The salad must not repeat the other courses. The salad must be dainty and attractive in ar- rangement. The dressing must be well made, well seasoned, and used with discretion. Wafers, cheese straws, butter crisps or cheese crisps may be served with a salad. POTATO SALAD ( Sei-vi' (i ) 2 c. cold diced potatoes 1 tsp. diced carrots 2 tsp. capers 1 c chopped celery or 1 tbsp. diced onion 1 tsp. celery seed Sweet peppers and hard-cooked eggs may be added Mix thoroughly with any dressing. Pile loosely SOUPS AND SALADS 185 on crisp lettuce leaf. One tbsp. diced beets may be added to the top or grated cheese. TOMATO SALAD Select smooth ripe tomato. Peel. Cut off top, partially hollow and fill with diced cucumbers. Place on lettuce leaf and cover with French dress- ing or Roquefort cheese dressing. ASPARAGl'S SALAD Arrange 6 tender asparagus tips through a ring of green pepper, on a crisp lettuce leaf, and pour the dressing over them. CABBAGE SALAD 2 c. shredded cabbage 1 tbsp. celery seed 1 sweet red pepper J4 c. chopped parsley Mix well with dressing. Either dressing may be used with the following combinations : Cauliflower and beets. Cauliflower and pimentoes. Shredded lettuce, sliced tomatoes, green pep- pers cut into bits. GELATINE SALAD Yz box gelatine ^ c. sugar Yz c. cold water juice 1 lemon Yt. c. mild vinegar 1 tsp. salt 1 pt. boiling water 2 pimentoes 1 c. finely shredded cab- 2 c. celery (cut in small bage pieces) 186 FOOD AND CLOTHING Soak the gelatine in cold water 5 minutes, add boiling water, vinegar, lemon juice, sugar and salt. Strain, and when beginning to set, add remaining ingredients. Turn into small molds and chill. Serve on let- tuce leaf with mayonnaise dressing. This is a delicious accompaniment to cold chicken or veal. There are many varieties of the gelatine salads and, since they may be made hours before they are to be served, they are very popular. Fruit S.vlads WxlLDORF SALAD (Serve 6) 2 e. chopped apples 12 maraschino cherries Yz c. chopped celery (cut fine) i/z c. chopped nuts Mix these thoroughly in 1 c. cooked salad dress- ing and serve on lettuce leaf. The cherries may be halved and arranged on the top or mixed with the salad. PINEAPPLE SALAD Arrange 1 slice of pineapple on a lettuce leaf. Pile on center 1/2 banana, cut in cubes. Pour over this thick mayonnaise dressing. Sprinkle chopped nuts on the top. The exact proportion of different fruits used SOUPS AND SALADS 187 in the making of salads is not an important point so long as the blending flavors are pleasing. The following suggested combinations may be used in any proportion with dressing and served on lettuce leaf: White grapes (seeded), apples, nuts, celery. One-half pear, pineapple, pimento. Grape fruit, bananas, nuts. Peaches, oranges, marshmallows in orange cups. MEAT SALADS Chicken and fish are used most for meat salads, ayom salads. Mayonnaise dressing blends best with these CHICKEN SALAD (Serve 8-10) 2 e. cold cubed chicken ^ c. chopped celery Yz e. seeded white grapes Yz c. chopped nuts Use mayonnaise dressing. Serve on lettuce leaf with salted wafers. The following proportions will serve six. Use any of the dressings. 1. Oue-half c. shrimp, % c. shredded cabbage, 1 tbsp. diced onion. 2 hard egg whites diced. 2. One-half c. salmon, Yx c. diced cold potatoes, Y^ c. celery, 1 tbsp. lemon juice. 3. One-half c. stutfed olives, Ya ^- grated cheese, ^ c. nuts. 188 FOOD AND CLOTHING 4. One c. cottage cheese, 1 green pepper, cnt fine, one pimento, yi c. nuts. 5. One-half e. peas, 3^ c. salted peanuts, ^ c. diced cucumber in half tomatoes. EGG SALAD One cold hard-cooked Qgg cut in halves, cross- wise. Arrange on lettuce leaf with mayonnaise and garnish with ribbons of green or red peppers. CHAPTEPv XX FKUIT The walls of the cells of vegetable or fruit which hold the juices is known as cellulose. In young vegetables or fruits it is soft, but in older growths it is generally woody and hard to digest. Make a test for cellulose in apples, oranges, or bananas. (See experiment under Potatoes.) In a broad sense, all seed-vessels are fruits. This would include nuts, grains, squash, etc., so we commonly class as fruits those seed vessels served with sugar or as a dessert. When tomatoes were eaten with sugar and cream they were called a fruit, ''love-apples." Most fruits contain from 80 to 90 per cent water and the remaining per cent cellulose, acid, mineral and sugar, which, in an unripe state, is starch. They furnish a small amount of nutriment, con- vey water to the system, and act as both a tonic and an aid to digestion. Digestibility of fruit in the stomach and intes- tines depends largely upon its degree of ripeness. The excess of acids present in unripe fruit causes it to be irritating to the intestines, and is fre- quently the cause of acute digestive disturbances. 180 190 FOOD AND CLOTHING Cooking renders fruits more digestible by soft- ening their cellulose and it also, as we liave seen in the making of jelly, converts the gum into a gelatinous form. Pineapple juice contains a remarkably active digestive principle similar to pepsin. So power- ful is its action upon proteins that it will digest one thousand times its weight in a few hours. Bananas contain a large amount of starch, as much as the potatoes, therefore they should not be eaten in an unripe state. Cooking, of course, develops the food value and, for some persons, the flavor. Figs and prunes have an effect upon an inactive liver, and for that reason are considered most ex- cellent laxatives. They are also highly nutritive, as the pulp contains 60 per cent of sugar, and 6 per cent of protein. Apples may be said to be to other fruits what potatoes are to other vegetables. They exert a great influence upon the liver and kidneys, and those containing a great amount of juice, are a laxative. "Cooking" apples are those that con- tain a high percentage of acid and pectin. '* Eat- ing" apples have more sugar and less acid and pectin. Pears have less acid and cellulose than apples. They are best eaten raw, but may be preserved in syrup or dried. FRUIT 191 Quince resemble pears but liave much firmer flesh. The seeds are very rich in mucilaginous substances, which, when cooked with the fruit for jelly making, render it the easiest jelly of all to make. Oranges, lemons and limes have an abundance of citric acid and are especially valuable for their refreshing properties and power of allaying thirst. Oranges when cooked, are used mostly for marmalades. The rind of these fruits is dried, candied, and used extensively by confectioners. The white portion underneath the skin is almost entirely cellulose and should never be eaten. Grapes exceed all other fruits (except dates) in the amount of sugar. The minerals found in grapes are lime, potash, and magnesia. Raisins are dried grapes and are prepared in two ways. The finest are dried on the growing plant by partially cutting the twig. Others are gathered, dried in the sun, dipped in a solution of soda, olive oil and salt, then allowed to dry again for several days. Currants are a small seedless grape first found in Greece, but now grown extensively in our own country. Strawberries are richer than most fruits in potash and lime salts, and especially soda salt. Prunes have a large amount of digestible cellu- lose and sugar. They are considered to be a mild 192 FOOD AND CLOTHING laxative. For many years prunes were very cheap and so poorly cooked that they were entirely ban- ished from the average memi, but now they are slowly coming into favor owing to the modern ways of evaporating and the numerous ways in which they may be served attractively. BANANA PIE Line pie tin with short pie crust and bake. Fill crust with thinly sliced bananas and cover with meringue made of 2 eggs (whites) ^ c. sugar Put whites of eggs and sugar in bowl and beat until mixture will stay in shape. Pile on the pie in irregular form and bake in slow oven 15 min- utes. BAKED APPLES — CREOLE STYLE Pare and core sound tart apples. Steam until almost tender, remove to buttered pan, fill cavities with cocoanut, stick apples full of blanched al- monds, baste with syrup made with sugar, water and lemon juice. Bake tender. Serve with whipped cream or jelly. APPLE SAUCE (Serve 8) Pare and cut in eighths, 6 tart apples. Cover with warm water and steam until they can be FRUIT 193 easily pierced. Add y^ c. sugar, i/^ tsp. lemon extract, i^ tsp. cinnamon. When sugar has dis- solved, serve. 1. Why not cook in boiling water? 2. Why add the sugar last ? BAKED APPLES Wash each apple and remove the core. Fill hol- low place, with 1 tsp. sugar blended with i/o tsp. butter and % tsp. cinnamon. Pour over 2 tbsp. warm water and bake in a slow oven until soft. Serve with cream and sugar. PRUNE SAUCE Buy the best evaporated prunes. Wash care- fully, place in a vessel and cover with warm water and steam 2 hours. A few minutes before remov- ing from the fire add sugar to taste. PRUNE WHIP (Serve 6) Press through a sieve cooked prunes to meas- ure 2 c. Add to the pulp, sugar to taste and Yo c. flour. Fold into this the stiffly beaten whites of 2 eggs and bake in a very slow oven 20 minutes. The pan in which this is baked should be only one-half full when placed in the oven. FRUIT DUMPLINGS Make soft dough, as biscuit dough, using twice 194 FOOD AND CLOTHING the amount of shortening, Eoll Vs ii^- thick. Cut in three-inch squares, pile fruit in center, add sugar and spices to taste; gather up points and sides and press together. Turn the dough ball over and place in a buttered pan. Bake in a hot oven 20 minutes, if the fruit is cooked, or if raw, until fruit is sufficiently done. Just before remov- ing from the oven glaze with beaten egg and sugar. Serve with a sauce made of : ^ c. butter ^ e. water 1 c. brown sugar 3^ tsp. lemon extract j4 tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg Heat in double boiler until sugar and butter have made a syrup. Sliced apples, peaches, apricots or berries may be used in these dumplings. When fresh berries are used, the dough may be rolled thin, the berries spread over it, sugared and floured and all rolled as a ''jelly roll" and baked. Slices 1/2 in. thick are cut from the end and served. Fresh fruit should be served as nearly as pos- sible in its natural state. The following sugges- tions may be helpful : Strmvberries — washed thoroughly with the stems on, and served with the powxlered sugar. Oranges — in halves with the pulp cut free from the skin. Grape-fruit — in halves, with each section cut FRUIT 195 free from the skin and tlie tough white partitions of each section removed. These may be served with sugar or natural. Grapes — in bunches, thoroughly washed. Canteloupe — in halves, with seeds removed. Watermelon — only the heart, cut in small pieces, pieces. All fruits are better if served very cold. CHAPTER XXI SHERBETS AND ICE CREAMS The food value of these dishes depends upon their composition. Ice cream made from pure cream, sugar and flavorings, has a high food value, and the sherbets and ices made from the juices of fresh fruits rank high for their ability to stimu- late and refresh. The fact that ice cold drinks and foods delay digestion is much against this otherwise very delightful way of supplying the body with nutriment and liquid. Ices and sherbets are either a composition of fruit juice, sugar and water frozen, or crushed fruit added with the juice. Beaten egg white, gelatine and cream may be added to sherbets. Ice creams are a composition of milk, sugar and flavoring, frozen, or a thin custard frozen. The first class of cream known as Philadelphia ice cream is the simplest form of frozen cream. Those made from a custard are known as Neapol- itan ice creams and to them may be added the various flavorings, fruits, nuts, etc. Inferior creams of the last class are often made by using a large amount of starch in place of the egg in the custard. To freeze. The can, paddle and lid should be 196 SHERBP]TS AND ICE CREAMS 197 thoroughly scalded before placing it in the wooden bucket. Fasten the freezer and everything in place, as if ready to freeze. Fill the space be- tween the can and the bucket with ice and rock salt; 1 part salt to 3 parts ice — the ice pounded fine. Turn the freezer slowly while the packing is being done. When nearly to the top, remove the crank and lid and pour in the liquid. Do not have the can more than two-thirds full, as the liquid expands as it freezes. Replace the lid and crank, fill to the top with ice and salt and turn slowly a few minutes to evenly distribute the freezing through the liquid. As the liquid freezes the crank may be turned very fast. Why we use salt. Salt causes ice to melt and the melting ice withdraws heat from the surround- ing substances, and so lowers their temperature, causing them to freeze. The finer the ice the sooner it will melt. When the liquid is frozen, remove the paddle, pack firm with a spoon, place a paper over the top of the can, then the lid w^ith a cork in the top. Draw off all the water and fill the bucket with ice until the can is covered. Let stand for an hour or so. Do not add salt to the ice when pack- ing the cream. LEMON ICE (2 quarts) 1 qt. water juice 6 lemons 2 e. sugar 198 FOOD AND CLOTHING Dissolve the sugar in the hot water. Add lemon juice and freeze. PINEAPPLE SHERBET ( 1 gallon ) 1 qt. water 1 qt. can grated pineapple 1 egg white 2 c. sugar 2 lemons Dissolve sugar in hot water, add fruit and lemon juice, and when partially frozen add the egg white, beaten stitf and dry. After the egg is added the freezer must be turned very fast. When adding the egg white, 1 c. cream may be added also. The name sorbet is sometimes given to a sherbet when cream has been added. APRICOT ICE 1 pt. dried apricots (cooked 1 pt. sugar and strained) 1 fit. water 1 tbsp. lemon juice Dissolve sugar in hot water. Add fruit and freeze. When frozen remove paddle and pack until ready for use. PHILADELPHIA ICE CREAM ( I gallon ) 3 pts. sweet cream (2 c. maple syrup may be 1 tbsp. vanilla used in place of brown 1 c. b. sugar sugar) Scald cream, add sugar and when dissolved add flavorins: and freeze. yilEKBETS AND ICE CREAMS 19'J FRUIT ICE CREAM ( 1 gallon ) 2 ([tn. thin cream 2 c. crushed strawberries 2^ c. sugar Scald cream and sugar. Add the fruit, crushed. Freeze. Any fresh fruit may be used. NEAPOLITAN. ICE CREAM Make a thin custard as directed in Chapter XIII, and freeze. Nuts and fruits, either fresh or candied, may be added. Caramel creams are made by using one and one- half as much sugar as the recipe calls for, heat- ing it slowly over a fire until the sugar has melted and browned slightly. Eemove and pour over this water to cover and stir until it is dissolved. Use this with the cream or custard in place of the re- quired amount of sugar. We use more sugar, as caramelizing destroys some of the sweetness. Great care must be taken not to burn the sugar as it will then have a bitter taste. Gelatine in Creams Gelatine is a protein obtained from animals and vegetables. The animal gelatine is made by cook- ing the bones of young calves in water, strain- ing the liquid, allowing it to congeal, and then evaporating it. Vegetable gelatine is made from a sea weed. 200 FOOD AND CLOTHING Soak gelatine first in cold water until soft, then add boiling water or liquid to it and put it in a cold place to congeal. The directions on the packages of gelatine you buy are a safe guide to follow in the preparation of the dishes. In creams, gelatine gives body and food value to the dish. One oz. of gelatine will congeal 1 qt. liquid. When using it with a custard cream i/o oz. (i^ tbsp.) of gelatine should be used. 1. Why do we not draw off the water while the cream is freezing? 2. Why do Ave draw off the water and use no salt when packing cream? CHAPTER XXII DIETARY STANDARDS Statements of the amounts and kinds of food needed or taken by people of various climates, ages and occupations are called "dietary stand- ards," or "balanced rations." In studying these standards the aim is : (a) to determine the food requirements under different conditions. (b) to determine the amount of food neces- sary under different conditions. (c) to classify the foods that will give us the required nutrition. To secure a proper combination of the proteins on the one hand and the fats and carbohydrates on the other, in such proportions as to provide the necessary material for the building and repair of the body and to generate energy for its work, and at the same time not to complicate the process of excretion or elimination, is one of the problems of dietetics. Every act of ours is a breaking down of body tissue. It makes no difference if the body is kept practically still, the very acts of breathing and 201 202 FOOD AND CLOTHING thinking break down cells and tissue. The break- ing down of these cells and tissues produces a waste substance, which may be compared to the ashes left after wood or coal has been burned. This body waste should be thrown off as fast as it accumulates or we must pay for the storage with, headaches, indigestion, or severe illness. Nature provides several avenues through which this may be eliminated ; namely, the skin, the kid- neys, the lungs, and the intestines; and it is our duty to aid these organs in their work by making a careful selection of the kinds and amounts of food we eat. Physical and I\Iental Effects of Pood A very wise person said, ''The food we eat de- termines our efficiency," meaning that a man or woman is well and strong and capable of working and thinking according to the amount and kind of food he eats. If every mother or teacher would give one-tenth as much time to teaching her children how to select foods and how to eat, as she does to any one of the other subjects in school, the coming generations would be marvels of strength and intelligence. Among the lower animals the meat eaters are fierce and dangerous and of little or no value to man. While the vegetable or grass eating ani- mals are mild and gentle and of service to the DIETARY STANDARDS 203 world. Investigations into tlie lives of degener- ates and criminals prove that with but few ex- ceptions they were inveterate meat eaters. To make a comparison between educated people and animals or degenerates is perhaps too strong, yet it is a fact that the average American family eats too much meat. A liberal service of meat, once a day, eaten in combination with coarse vegetables could not possibly injure any one who is well, and in fact, the animal protein which meat contains cannot well be supplied by other foods ; but the families who serve one and sometimes two meats at each meal are committing nothing- short of a crime towards their own bodies. Meat putrifies sooner than any other food, and for that reason should be eaten with coarse vege- tables, corn bread, and the like, so as to insure its rapid movement along the alimentary canal. This putrification causes various disorders of body and mind, known as headaches, irritableness, indiges- tion. Appetite as a Standard The statement is sometimes made that if a per- son would follow his appetite, no mistake would be made as to selection of diet. It takes only a moment's time to satisfy a person that this state- ment is untrue. Some people, by following their appetites, become unduly stout or have all sorts 204 FOOD AND CLOTHING of digestive disturbances while others become very thin and show a lack of nourishing food. If, however, from year to year a person is strong and well from eating the things suggested by appetite, it is a safe guide until disorders arise. People have been known to learn to like foods that had been very distasteful to them; such as, tomatoes, celery, olives, spinach, etc. OVER-EATING Many times whole meals which otherwise would serve as '* balanced rations" are wasted as a re- sult of over-eating. When the stomach is over- loaded with food the mass becomes so compact that digestion is practically impossible, and fin- ally a large part is eliminated from the body as waste. Dietary Statements Fuel value of food is estimated by a measure termed "calories," which you will study in detail in more advanced work, but for our purpose it serves just as well to use the gram and the ounce as estimates, and it is well to keep these propor- tions in mind : 28 grams equal 1 ounce, 16 ounces equal 1 pound. While much valuable work is being done with the purpose in view of determining the amount of food which a person of a given age, sex, and DIETARY STANDARDS 205 degree of activity should eat, not enough has been accomplished as yet to make it possible to lay down any hard and fast rules. The most com- monly accepted American standard is that of Dr. C. F. Langworth, that the average adult in the United States should daily be supplied with : Protein 4 oz. Fats 5 oz. Carbohydrates 13 oz. Making an approximate of 22 oz. of solid food per day besides from three to six pints of liciuid. From these figures, for a man who exerts much physical energy, the following menu is suggested and contains the above amounts of food propor- tions : BREAKFAST 1 prepared wheat biscuit 1 Clip medium cream 1 tbsp. sugar 2 slices of toast 2 one-inch cubes of butter y4. cup coffee % cup cream 1 egg, poached LUNCH 1 cup chicken soup 2 water wafers 1 baked potato (medium) macaroni with cheese sauce (1 cup) 1 apple fritter 2 tbsp. maple syrup Yi pint milk DINNER 1 cup cream of tomato soup 2 water wafers 1 lamb chop broiled (lean) mashed potatoes (1 cup) 2 parker house rolls 2 one-inch cubes butter 1 tbsp. jelly 1 slice pineapple — lettuce mayonnaise — nuts 1 water wafer rice pudding (i/4 cup) with cream lA inch cube cheese 4 tbsp. black coffee 206 FOOD AND CLOTHING For a teacher or man or woman of indoor voca- tion the daily supply should be : Protein, 3 oz. ; fats, 3 oz. ; carbohydrates, 11 oz. BREAKFAST J^ orange 1 cup oatmeal (steamed; 1 cup medium cream 2 tbsp. sugar 2 slices toast 1 one-inch cube butter 1 cup milk LUNCH J/2 cup cream corn soup 2 wafers 1 three-inch cube white fish (tomato sauce) 34 cup creamed potatoes 2 slices whole wheat l)read ] one-inch cube butter 4 stewed prunes with juice 1 cup milk DINNER 1 slice roast beef (1 cub. 1 one-inch cube butter inches) 1 medium sized boiled potato y'2 cup spinach ]/,; cup cottage cheese — cream 2 slices white bread 1 tbsp. grape jelly J4 cup apple, celery and nut salad (mayonnaise dressing) 1 water wafer ^ cup thin custard water For the average school girl of from twelve to sixteen years of age the following amounts are approximate in temperate climates: Protein, 31/2 oz. ; fats, 2^ oz. ; carbohydrates, 10 oz. DIETARY STANDARDS 207 BREAKFAST 3/2 cup oatmeal with 1 1 banana 2 Yj cup medium cream 1 1 tbsp. sugar 1 1 graham muffin 1 2 one-inch cubes butter 1 4 tbsp. maple syrup 1 cup milk V2 r.UNCH cup vegetable soup wafers slice lean bacon, crisp baked potato (medium) one-inch cube butter three-inch cube corn bread cup baked custard DINNER 1 lean chop, broiled (well d(me) J4 cup creamed turnips 34 cup steamed peas 2 stocks young celery 2 parker house rolls 1 tbsp. jelly Yi cup lettuce and hai'd- boiled egg salad (mayonnaise) water or milk 1 baked apple — cream Needless Buying of Expensive Foods With people generally, and especially those witli moderate incomes, the mistake is made of buying' expensive foods or those out of season when tlie less expensive fruits, vegetables, or meats wouhl serve the purpose just as well. Strawberries, at 25 cents per box, tomatoes at 20 cents per pound or grapefruit at 15 cents apiece, are luxuries, yet- it is often those who can least afford it that in- dulge in these extravagances. On the other hand a woman may be very anxious to do the best she can for her family on a limited income, but is ig- 208 FOOD AND CLOTHING norant of the nutritive value of the cheaper foods and how to cook them to the best advantage; Eggs at 30 cents per dozen can be replaced with cheaper cuts of meat, beans, peas, etc., which will give three times as much nourishment for the money expended. Housekeepers need to learn that there is a higher nutritive value in some of the cheaper foods when compared in price with the costlier kinds ; that the present methods of cooking in the average home must be improved, and that to make the table more attractive will be an excellent means for making the home life more enjoyable. 1. What do we mean by "balanced rations?" 2. How will carefully selected foods effect onr gen- eral health? 3. Compare the inclinations of meat eatino: animals to vegetable or grass eating animals. 4. In M'hat way might a heavy and excessive meat diet affect our disposition? 5. Give reasons why it might affect our health. 6. Why do M-e need to eat coarse vegetables, as cab- bage, turnips, celery, etc. ? 7. Explain why we should not allow our appetite to govern our selection of food. 8. What are the dangers of over-eating? 9. Why does a man at hard work need more fats and protein in proportion than the man of indoor life? 10. Why does a teacher or pupil need less food, and in different proportions, than the man* who works in tlie field all dav ? CHAPTER XXIIT PLANNING MEALS It is the duty of every liomekeeper to plan her meals at least a day ahead. After breakfast, make out the menu for dinner, luncheon and the break- fast foT the next morning. In doing this, three points are to be considered : First, will your meals, as planned, contain each of the food principles as given in dietary stand- ards, known to be necessary to a well-balance.^ g h .<.^ ^ .^ ^ ^ (a) overcasting. (b) even basting. (c) uneven basting. (d) diagonal basting. (e) running stitch. (f) stitclTing or back stitch. (g) fell seam, machine and whipped edge, stitched it is sometimes called a tailored seam, (h) overhand seam showing one edge overcast, (i) French seam. When machine PLAIN SEWING 221 short and one long stitch is taken. This basting- is used in hems, etc. ; diagonal hasting — the stitches are taken in the goods in a vertical line, from y^ to 2 inches apart. Thijs basting is used mostly in tailoring when paddings and stiffening are fastened together. Permanent stitches are made in place of machine stitches; running stitch, the stitches are of even length and very small, often only two threads of the goods between stitches; back stitch, each new stitch is begun in the goods where the last stitch finished, an imitation of machine work; whipping stitch, the threads of the goods are taken up by the needle, then the edge of the goods. Used in hems. Seams constitute the manner of fastening edges of materials together: Plain seams are made by sewing the edges of two materials from i/4 to 1 inch from the edges. Open seams have the edges of the plain seams pressed open and over-cast. French seams have the edges of the goods first made into a plain seam on the right side of the goods, then this seam is trimmed very near to the raw edges turned in to the wrong side and stitched. Fell seams have a plain seam made on the right side, one edge of the cloth in the seam is trimmed very close to the stitching and the other folded over the short edge, turned down and stitched. This is used in underclothes, shirts, tailored waists 222 FOOD AND CLOTHING a. Overt- a s t edges Of button- hole. b. Worked but- ton-hole. One end fanned, the other barred. c. d. Hook and eye fastened in place with button- hole or blanket stitch. e. Blind - eye made with blanket stitch. f. The blind- eye in process of making. g. To sew on a two-hole button. h. To sew on a four-hole button. PLATE V PLAIN SEWING 223 and suits. Tlie wide edge in this seam should be folded toward the back. Overhanded seams are made w^itli the edges of the two pieces of cloth folded back the width of a seam, then the creased edges placed together and whipped. To make button-hole stitch. Pull the thread through the goods once, place the needle through the goods again, bring the threads from the eye of the needle around its point and then pull the needle through. This will make a knot or ' ' purl ' ' on the edge of the cloth. Button-holes should be cut, their length with the length of the goods, and may be made with rounding ends, where there is no strain on the ends, or with one end or both ends barred, where there is a great strain. In goods that frays very easily the edges should be overcast before the button-hole is worked. Hooks and eyes should be lightly fastened in place by a basting thread, and then made per- manent with the button-hole stitch. Plackets are finishings for openings of skirts at the belts, or for shirt sleeves at the cuff. The continuous placket, is made by sewing the strip of cloth, cut lengthwise of the goods, straight around the edge of the placket, turning the top edge over the raw seam and whipping it down. This placket 224 FOOD AND CLOTHING is best for the skirts of wash dresses and should he from 9 to 11 inches deep. PLATE VI (a) The faced edge. (b) The bound edge. Bound edge. Extended finishing of an edge. Faced edge. The entire finishing is turned back on the goods. The different steps to be followed in making the four foundation garments are given in order of their application. When the making of these four garments, with their various problems, is mas- tered, all plain sewing will be simply a matter of application and judg-ment. PLAIN SEWING 225 PLATE VII Darning-. Suitable for mending- table linen, lace, stockings or woolens. 226 FOOD AND CLOTHING Use of Patterns There are many companies ayIio make good, re- liable patterns. These patterns state length of skirt, bust and waist measure, and the number of yards of material, of stated widths, required. When selecting a waist pattern, buy according to bust measures ; when selecting a skirt pattern, buy according to waist measure. To obtain waist measure, place tape around smallest part of waist. For bust measurement, take loose measure around the fullest part of bust well down in front and slightly raised at back. Read carefully all printed explanation found with pattern. Follow these instructions closely, and thus avoid mistakes in cutting and putting the pieces together. Pin the entire pattern upon the cloth before cutting. This will eliminate waste of cloth. Plan of Skirt JMaking 1. Baste seams together and fit to figure. 2. INIake permanent seams (French or Fell). 3. Press all seams. 4. Make placket (continuous placket preferred). 5. Finish top with band ^ inch wide (on straight of goods) or face at waist line. 6. Hem or face at desired length. (To obtain length: measure from floor, with a ruler or gage, the distance the skirt is desired from the floor, and mark with chalk or pins.) PLAIN SEWING 227 To Make Waist 1. Baste shoulder and under-arm seams. 2. Fit to figure. 3. Make permanent seams. (French seam in thin ma- terial, fell seam in heavy material.) 4. Hem or put box plait on right side of waist, face left side. 5. Finish at neek with band or collar. 6. ]\Iake seams in sleeve to correspond with seams in waist. 7. Put sleeve in by matching notches in sleeve and eye of arm (bind or fell). 8. Obtain desired length of sleeve and finish with cuff or facing. 9. Finish bottom with band or narrow hem. To Make Corset Cover 1. Baste seams and fit. 2. ]\Iake narrow French seams. 3. Hem right side, face left side of front. 4. Face arms, eye and top, with narrow bias strips turned to the wrong side and stitched. 5. Finish at waist with 34 -inch band or narrow hem. 6. Work small button-holes, cut lengthwise of mate- rial. Sew on buttons. 7. Trim with lace or embroidery. To Make Drawers 1. Stitch front and back seams. 2. jNIatch front and back seams at crotch and stitch — thus forming the legs. All seams are narrow French seams. PLAIN SEWING 229 3. Allow nine inches opening at back or side for placket. 4. Finish with continnous placket. 5. P'inish at waist with straiglit or shaped band. 6. AVork button-hole and sew on buttons or sew on tape. 7. Hem legs with narrow hem or facing, then tinish with trimming. To Repair Garments or Linens Three methods are used to repair worn or torn garments and linens; namely, patching, mending and darning. Patching is used mostly on cotton goods. The rent is cut into the smallest possible square, the corners clipped, and the edges folded to the wrong- side. Place under this a piece of the goods, the length of the patch with the length of the goods in the garment, and the stripes or figures in exact line with those that were cut out. Whip down the folded edges of the square, turn to the w^rong side, cut the patch one inch from the wdiipped edge, fold under the edges and fasten to the goods with the running or wiiipping stitch. PLATE VTTT a. Continuous placket showing straiglit .strip of goods sewed to tlie cut edges. b. Continuous placket witli the .straiglit strip folded in place and ready for the band or finishing, c. Snagged or torn place in cotton or linen garments. d. Patch for linen or cotton garments, f. Snagged or torn place in woolen garment, g. Mended place in woolen garment. The rough edges are pressed flat, then with a raveling from the goods the edges are darned flat. All raw edges are trimmed with the scissors after the darning. 230 FOOD AND CLOTHING Mending is used mostly on woolens, mohair and table linens. When mending, if the rent is very large, a piece of the goods is fastened under the tear, the edges pressed flat upon it, and with ravel- ings from the goods, the edges are woven back in place. In very fine goods a long hair, is often used in place of the thread in the weaving. Darning is used mostly on table linen, knitted goods, stockings and laces. Darning is weaving back in place threads that have been removed or worn away. The illustration shows how the threads are first placed in the length of the goods and then another thread woven back and forth through them. INDEX Abbreviations, 24, 25. Accessories, 21. Apples, I'JO. baked, 1!);5. baked — Creole style, 1!)2. Apple sauce, 192, 193. Apricot ice, 198. Asparagus, canning of, 127. preparation of, 48, 49 B Bacteria, defined, 159. Baking powder, wlien used. 96. Baking powder biscuits, 97, 98. Baking, tenii)erature for, 170. time for, 170. Balanced rations, 20, 2i. Bananas, 190. Bean puree, 181. Beef, composition of, 02, (K!, 64. creamed, 147. effect of heat on, 135. food value of, 135, 130. tender cuts of, 135. ways of cooking, 64, 05. Beef stew, 69, 70. Beets, boiled, 48. Blackberry jelly, 125. Blanc mange, 133. Boneing a roast, 137, 138. Bound edge, 224. Bread, brown, 165, 160. German coffee, 164. nut, 165. white, 163. whole wheat. 163, 164. Bread griddle cakes, 108. Bread omelet, 38. Bread pudding, 132, 133. Brisket, boiled, 69. Brown bread, 165, 166. Brown gravv, 66. ]>utter, (h'fined, 151. Butter or other fats, how to cream, 168, 169. Button-holes, 223. Button-hole stitch, 223. C Cabbage, boiled, 46, 47. boiled with pork, 47. creamed, 47. Cake, angel food, 172, 173. causes for cracking, 171. causes for falling, 170. chocolate, 171. plain, 171. spice, 172. sponge, 173, 174. sunshine, 173. white, 171. Cake icings, 174, 175. Candied orange peel, 60. Candied sweet potatoes, 49. Candy making, 56, 57. Canning. 126. Carving a fowl. 142, 143. Carrots, creamed, 50, 51. Cauliflower, creamed, 47. Cereals, defined, 86, 87. digestion of, 88. general directions for cook- ing, 87, 88. Cheese, composition of, 82. cottage. 85. digestibility of, 83. how- made." 82, 83. why served with pie, 83. Cheese balls, 84. Cheese sandwiches, 85. Cheese sauce, 89, 90. Cheese straws, 156, 157. Ciiicken, baked, 141. creamed, 147. i31 232 LNDEX dressing a, 139, 140. fried and cream gravy, 14U. smothered, 140. Chocolate cake, 171. Chocolate custard, 133. Chocolate nut fudge, 58, 51). Clear consomme, 179. Cocoa, composition of. 111. 112. how made, 112. Cocoanut cream candy, 58. Codfish, creamed, 77. CoiTee, boiled, 115. defined, 114. how to make, 114, 115. percolated, 115. Condiments, 144, 145. Cooked salad dressing. 183. Cooking, coagulation, 36. defined, 21. methods of, 22. things to remember Avhen, 17, 18. Corn, green, 50. Cornmeal mutlins. 105, 106. Cornmeal mush, 88, 89. Corset cover, directions for making, 227. Cotton cloths, 217. Cotton-seed oil, 150. 151. Crabapple jelly, 125. Cranberry jelly, 125, 126. Cream filling, 105. Cream puff's, 104, 105. Cream of corn soup, 180. Cream of tartar, 96. Cream of tomato soup, 180, 181. Cream of wheat with dates, 88. ('reamed dried beef. 69. Croquettes, 147, 148. Currants, 191. Custard pie, 154, 155. Custards, composition of, 130, 131. firm, 131, 132. thin, 131. D Dietary statements. 204. 205. Dirt, defined, 159. Dish washing, 18. Domestic art, defined, 16, Domestic science, defined, 15. Dougiinuts, 101. Doughs and batters, 94, 95, 96. Drawers, directions for mak- ing, 227. 229. Dressing, 65. Dried beef, creamed, 69. Drop batters, 102. Dumjjlings, 99. E Egg sandwiches, 37. Eggs, as a thickening agent, 130. composition of, 33. 34. golden-rod, 37. hard cooked or boiled, 36. 37. how they leaven. 103. how to tell fresh, 34. poached, 36. preserving, 35. scrambled, 38. soft cooked or "boiled," 36. why they spoil, 34, 35. Equipment, 10. F Fats, digestion of. 152, 153. Figs, 190. Fireless cooker, 23. Fish, classification of, 75, 76. Flank steak, rolled, 65. Foamy omelet, 38. Fondant, 59, 60. Food, 19. Fowls, 138. French dressing, 182. Fricasseed steak, 67. Fritters, 104. ' Fruit, 189, 190. Fruit dumplings. 193, 194. G Garments or linens, directions for repairing, 229, 230. German coffee bread. 164. German saute, 46. Gluten, test for, 94. Goose, baked, 141. (Jraham gems, 104. Grape jelly, 124, 125. INDEX 233 Grapes, 191. Griddle cakes, 107, 108. H Haul sandwiches. I'.i. Hamburg steak, 67. Hams, to cook smoked, 74. Hard sauce, 157, 158. Hash balls, 146. Heat, degrees of in the oven. 24. degrees of in water, 24. Hooks and eyes, 223. Home economics, defined, 15. Hominy grits, 91. Hot fat, testing, 78. House keepers, 13, 14. Household expenses, a studv of, 213, 214. JVI ]Macaroni an gratin, 92. defined, 91. with tomato sauce, 92. Macaroon pudding, 134. Management, class, 11, 12. Marshmallows, 60, 61. Mayonnaise, 182, 183. Meals, of what they should be composed, 211. Meat pic. 145, 146. Mildew, defined, 159. Milk, composition of, 26, 27. how classified, 27, 28. why it sours. 28, 29, 30. :\Iince meat, 148, 149. Molds, defined, 159. Muffins. 102. Mutton, defined, 74. 75. Ice creams, composition of. 196. how to freeze, 196, 197. why salt is used in freez- ing, 197. Iced tea. 113, 114. Ice, apricot, 198. lemon, 197, 198. Ices and sherliets, 196. Icing, Caramel, 175. chocolate, 175, 176. white, 175. Instructions to pupils, 16. Jars, preparation of, 126. Jelly, blackberry, 125. crabapple, 125. cranberry, 125-126. defined, "123. grape, 124, 125. how made, 123, 124. Laboratory, in the, 16. Lard, defined, 151. Lemon ice, 197, 198. Lemonade, 116. Lesson, methods of conducting, 14. Light rolls. 164, 165. N Xeedle, defined, 218. how to thread, 219. Needless buying of expensi\e foods, 207," 208. Nut bread, 165. Nut taffy, 58. Nuts, composition of, 151, 152. O Oatmeal cookies, 101, 102. Omelet, bread, 38. foamy, 38. Onions, creamed, 50. Onion dressing, 141. Orange marmalade, 128. Oranges, use of, 191. Over eating. 204. Oyster dressing, 141. Oyster soup, 79, 80. Oysters, 79. creamed. 80. scalloped, 80. Paraffin, use of, 124. Parker house rolls, 165. Pastry, 153. Patterns, use of. 226. Peanut brittle, 57. Pears, 190. 234 INDEX r^as, creamed, 51, 52. Rice riiilailelphia ice cream, I'.l'S. Physical anil .nental eilects of food, 202, 203. Pickling, 128, 129. Pie, apple, 155, 156. banana, 192. Pie crust, 153, 154. Pies, berry, 156. cream, 155. one crust, 154. 155. why they are indigestible, 153. Pineapple sherbet, 198. Plackets, defined, 223, 224. Plain cake. 171. Plan of skirt making, 226. Pork chop with dressing, 72, 73. Pork, cooking of, 72. defined, 71, 72. Pot roast, 70. Potato, composition of the, 42, 43. Potato balls, 77. Potato chips, 158. Potato soup, 180. Potatoes, baked. 45. baked on the half shell, 45, 46. boiled. 44. boiled in jackets, 44. 45. effects of Meat on, 43. French fried, 158. Pour batters, 106, 107. Preserving, defined, 127, 128. eggs, 35. Prunes, 191, 192. Prune sauce, 193. Prune wnip, 193. Pupils, instructions to, 16. Q Quail, 142. Quick cinnamon rolls, 99. Quince, 191. R Repairing garments or linens, 229, 230. Repetition of foods and flavors 212, 213. baked, 90. with cheese sauce, 89. Rice pudding, 133, 134. Roast beef and brown gravy, 137, Rolled oats — apple sauce, 90, 91. Roquefort cheese salad dress- ing, 183. 188. 186. 133. 187. 79. 78. S Salad, a meat, 183 as|)aragus, 185. cabbage, 185. chicken. 187, vy^i:, 188. gelatine, 185. how to serve pineapple, 186, potato, 184-185. tomato, 185. Waldorf, 186. Salads, defined, 181, 182 fruit, 184. nu»at, 187. vegetable, 184. Salmon, scalloped, 78, Salmon bisque, 181. Salmon croquettes, 77, Salted cherries, 129. Sandwich dressing, 73. Saute liver and bacon. Seams, classification 223. Service, 211, 212. Short cakes, 100. Shrimp, creamed, 80. 81. Skirt making, plan of, 226 Soda biscuits, 98, 99. Soda, when used, 96. Soft dough, 97. Soft ginger bread, 106. Soup, 177, 178. 179. Southern waffles, 109. Spinach, preparation of. Starch, whv it thickens Steak, broi'led, 136. pan broiled, 136. planked, 136, 137. Sterilization, 121, 122 Stiff doughs, 100. 74. of. 221, 47. 48. 31. 123. INDEX 235 Stitches, bastiiij,', 21'.), 221. peiinaiR'nt, 221. Strawberries, 11)1. String beans, creamed, 51. Suet, defined, 151. Suet pudding, 157. Sugar, classification of, 53, 54, 55. Sugar cookies, 100. individual recipe for. 100, 101. Sugar, digestion of. 55. effect of heat upon, 55. 56. Suggestions to teachers, !). Sweetbreads, how to prei)are. 71. Sweet potatoes, candieil. 40. Sweet potato puffs, 40. Table service (formal), 110, 120. Table setting (informal i . ll'.i. Tamala pie, 140, 147. Tea, how made, 112, li;{. iced, 113, 114. Tea biscuits, 166. Tea cakes, 103. Tea and coffee, 110, 111. Teachers, suggestions to, 0. Tests, 96, 97. Tests for telling when a cake is done, 170. Textih^s, classification of, 215, 216, 217. Tliiml)le, defined, 218. Thread, defined, 219. Timbail cases, 107. Toasted bun caps, 37. Tomato bouillon, 179. Tomato sauce, 92. Tomatoes, 49. scalloped, 49, 50. Turkey, baked, 140, 141. Turnips, 50. V Veal, defined, 70, 71. Vegetable foods, classification of, 40. Vegetable soup, 179, ISO. Vegetables, composition of, 39, 40. cooking of, 41, 42. digestibility of, 40. W ^^■affles, 108, 109. southern, 109. Waist, directions fiir making, 227. Warmed over dishes, 144. Weaving, 217. Weights and measures, 25. Welsh rarebit I, 84. Welsh rarebit II, 84. Wliite bread, 163. White fish, baked — fresfi pt)tato l)alls, 76. White sauce. 30. 31. Whole wheat bread, 163, 164. Yeast, 160, 161, 162, 163. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 014 485 824 4 m Um mm m