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Geography of Oklahoma 
 
 CHAS.'N. GOULD, Ph. D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY 
 THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 DIRECTOR 
 OKLAHOMA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 1909 
 
 BUNN BROTHERS 
 , ARDMORE, OKLA. 
 
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 C&k/j 
 
 Copyright, 1909 
 
 BY 
 
 CLINTON ORRIN BUNN 
 
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 CiA'244 533 
 JUL 29 1909 
 
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PREFACE. 
 
 Very) little has been written on the geography of Okla- 
 homa. At the time when this text was prepared, Ok- 
 lahoma had been a state less than two years. Most county 
 lines and county seats were established with statehood. 
 While certain geographical features, such as rivers, moun- 
 tains, rocks, and climate are permanent, others, like po- 
 litical boundaries,' cities and government, often change 
 rapidly. This is particularly true in a. new state like ours. 
 Since statehood a number of county seats have been 
 changed and others will probably be changed before the 
 book leaves the press. 
 
 For the most part, the subject matter of this volume is 
 based on the writer's personal experience, gathered during 
 the past fifteen years, while doing geological work in the 
 various parts of the State. The work of other investi- 
 gators has been consulted, however, where occasion re- 
 quired, particularly the publications of Mr. Joseph A. 
 Taff of the United States Geological Survey, who has 
 spent a number of years in eastern Oklahoma. 
 
 This book is intended primarily for students in the 
 grades, although it is believed that until a more compre- 
 hensive text is written, the facts contained may be use- 
 ful for the high school or even for more advanced work. 
 The primary thought has constantly been kept in mind, 
 however, that many people will never learn more of the 
 geography of Oklahoma than is contained in this volume. 
 For that reason, the attempt has been made to combine 
 simplicity of style with briefness and accuracy of state- 
 ment. 
 
 The greater part -of— the illustrations are from photo- 
 graphs taken by the author. Pierce Larkin and E. Z. 
 Carpenter prepared the drawings. 
 
 Charles N. Gould. 
 Norman, Okla., May, 1909. 
 
Ranj. H.Ntll, A Co,-. N.« I] , l| M.n 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Pages 
 Location and Boundaries. — Location of Oklahoma, Boun- 
 daries, Area, Government Maps 1-4 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Topography. — The Great Plains, The Highest and Lowest 
 Points, Topographic Regions, Ozark Mountains, Ouach- 
 ita Mountains, Arbuckle Mountains, 'Wichita Mountains, 
 Arkansas Valley Region, Red River Valley Region, 
 Sandstone Hills Region, Red'beds Plains Region, Gyp- 
 sum Hills Region, High Plains Region 5-24 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Geology. — Kinds of Rocks, Geologic Periods, Sedimentary 
 Rocks, Igneous Rocks, Oldest Rocks in Oklahoma, Ori- 
 gin of Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains, Carboniferous 
 Rocks, The Mississippian, The Pennsylvanian, The Per- 
 mian-Triassic and Jurassic Times, Cretaceous Rocks, 
 Tertiary Rocks, Quaternary Rocks 25-42 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Underground Water. — Disposal of Rainfall, Underground 
 Water, Movement of Underground Water, Springs, 
 Mineral Springs, Wells. Artesian Wells , 43-49 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Drainage. — Origin of Streams, Chief Streams of Oklahoma, 
 Character of Oklahoma Streams, Drainage Basins, Ar- 
 kansas River, Grand River, Verdigris River, Poteau 
 River, South Canadian River, North Canadian River, 
 Cimarron River, Salt Fork River, Washita River, Red 
 River, Lakes 50-62 
 
viii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Pages 
 Weather and Climate. — Weather, Temperature, Air, Wind, 
 Humidity, Precipitation, Weather Bureau, Cyclones, Cli- 
 mate, Temperature, Humidity, Rainfall, Oklahoma Cli- 
 mate 63-72 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Vegetation and Animal Life. — Flora and Fauna, Flora of 
 Oklahoma, Trees, Grasses, Mistletoe, Fauna of Okla- 
 homa, Wild Animals, Birds, Snakes and Lizards, Tur- 
 tles, Do-not-kill Snakes, Fishes 73-82 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Location of Indian Tribes. — Original Owners of Oklahoma, 
 Homes of the Five Civilized Tribes, Migration of Five 
 Civilized Tribes, Settlement of Friendly Indians in Ok- 
 lahoma, Mode of Life 1 83-90 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Early History and Settlement. — Old Oklahoma, Agitation 
 Leading to the Opening of Oklahoma to Settlement, Op- 
 ening of Oklahoma, No Man's Land, Other Reserva- 
 tions, The Cherokee Strip, Greer County, The Kiowa 
 County, Indian Territory, Work of Dawes Commission, 
 Admission of Oklahoma, Character of Settlers 91-101 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Education. — Free Education, School Laws-, State Superin- 
 tendent, Country Schools, City Schools, State Schools, 
 Church Schools, Religious Denominations.. 101-107 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Government. — Constitution, Legislative Department, Execu- 
 tive Department, Judicial Department, Local Govern- 
 ment 108-111 
 
CONTENTS ix 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Pages 
 Agricultural Resources. — Soil Areas, Residual Soil, Trans- 
 ported Soil, Corn, Wheat, Oats and Other Small Grain, 
 Broom Corn, Cotton, Alfalfa, Prairie Hay, Fruits, Po- 
 tatoes, Vegetables, Minor Crops, Stock Raising, Cattle, 
 Horses, Hogs, Dairying, Poultry, The Farmer's Need. .112-125 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Mineral Resources. — Variety of Minerals in Oklahoma, The 
 Fuels, Coal, Oil, Gas, Asphalt, Salt, Gypsum, Lead and 
 Zinc, Building Stone, Clay, Sand 126-143 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Manufactures. — Need of Factories, Clay Products, Port- 
 land Cement, Gypsum Plaster, Flour and Oil Mills, 
 Other Manufacturing Plants, Future of Manufacturing 
 Industries of Oklahoma 144-149 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Commerce. — Land and Water Transportation, Oklahoma 
 
 Rivers, Railroads 150-153 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Public Land Surveys. — Initial Point, Principal Meridian 
 and Range Lines, Base Line and Township Lines, Con- 
 gressional Township, Sections, Corner Stones, Cimarron 
 Meridian 154-160 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Population, Cities and Counties. — Population and Emmi- 
 gration, Growth of Cities, Oklahoma Cities, Oklahoma 
 City, Muskogee, Guthrie, Shawnee, Enid, Ardmore,_Mc- 
 Alester, Chickasha, Tulsa, Lawton, El Reno, Durant, 
 Sapulpa, Bartlesville, Ada, Vinita, Norman, Stillwater, 
 
 Alva, Edmond, Weatherford, Counties 161-173 
 
 Pronouncing Vocabulary 174-175 
 
 Index 176 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 The Washita River Gorge Frontispiece 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 1. Products Grown on a Single Farm in Oklahoma 1 
 
 2. Topographers at Work in the Field 3 
 
 3. Topographic Regions of Oklahoma •.. 7 
 
 4. Spring and Milkhouse in Eastern Oklahoma 8 
 
 5. Rocks on Edge 10 
 
 6. Turner Falls at a Distance of One Mile 11 
 
 7. Near View of Turner Falls 12 
 
 8. The Washita Gorge Showing Rock Crusher 13 
 
 9. Rock Cut the R. R. Blasted Out of the Rocks 14 
 
 10. Saddle Mountain 15 
 
 11. Gypsum Hills, Blaine County 20 
 
 12. Lake on High Plains 22 
 
 13. Fossil Crinoid Stems 25 
 
 14. Fossil Camarocrinus 26 
 
 15. Conglomerate Rock 27 
 
 16. Boulders of Oklahoma Granite near . Tishomingo 29 
 
 17. Limestone on Edge, Oil Creek, Oklahoma 30 
 
 18. Three Views of White Mound near Dougherty, Oklahoma 32 
 
 19. Camp of Geology Students in the Arbuckle Mountains.... 33 
 
 20. Folded Rocks 34 
 
 21. Rocks on Edge 35 
 
 22. Price's Falls, Arbuckle Mountains 36 
 
 23. Cross-section of the Arbuckle Mountains Before Erosion.. 37 
 
 24. Cross-section of the Arbuckle Mountains at the Present 
 
 Time 37 
 
 25. Spring at Old Fort Arbuckle 45 
 
 Wall Built in 1852. 
 
 26. Mineral Springs at Bromide 46 
 
 27. Well Drilling Machine 47 
 
 28. An Artesian Well at Lehigh 48 
 
 29. Maps Showing the Drainage Basins of Oklahoma 52 
 
 30. Valley of the Arkansas River in Kay County 53 
 
 31. A Team Crossing the Canadian River in a Flood 56 
 
 32. The Cimarron River, Showing Low Sandy Banks 58 
 
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 33. Limestone in Washita Gorge 59 
 
 34. View on Little River, Eastern Oklahoma 60 
 
 35. Ferry Boat on Kiamitia River 61 
 
 36. An Artificial Lake near Newkirk 61 
 
 37. A Cyclonic Area Crossing Oklahoma 66 
 
 38. Chart Showing the Monthly Temperature of Oklahoma.. 68 
 
 39. Chart Showing the Mean Annual Precipitation of Ok- 
 
 lahoma 69 
 
 40. Chart Showing the Average Monthly Rainfall in Okla- 
 
 homa 70 
 
 41. Upland Timber in Eastern Oklahoma 74 
 
 42. A Sawmill in Eastern Oklahoma 75 
 
 43. Piles of Cross 'lies and Lumber at Bennington 76 
 
 44. Rail Fence and Deadened Timber 77 
 
 45. A Dwarf Elm o:i the High Plains 78 
 
 46. Cottonwood and Elm Timber along a Stream in Western 
 
 Oklahoma 79 
 
 47. Buffalo Herd in the Forest Reserve in the Wichita 
 
 Mountains 80 
 
 48. A Map Showing the Location of Indian Tribes in Ok- 
 
 lahoma Before the Settlement of the Whites 85 
 
 49. Wichita Grass Houses 86 
 
 50. Sac and Fox Bark Houses 87 
 
 51. Conical Tepees of the Comanches 88 
 
 52. Indian Papoose 89 
 
 53. The Opening of Oklahoma 92 
 
 54. Indian Cabin in Eastern Oklahoma 96 
 
 55. Indian Cabin in the Timber 97 
 
 56. Sod House in Western Oklahoma 98 
 
 57. A Claim Shanty in Western Oklahoma 99 
 
 58. Breaking Ground in the Timbered Country 100 
 
 59. Modern Oklahoma Farm House 100 
 
 60. Stone School House in Kay County 103 
 
 61. Science Hall, State University 104 
 
 62. Buildings at the A. & M. College 105 
 
 63. Corn Awaiting Market 113 
 
 64. Wheat Raising in Oklahoma 114 
 
 65. Threshing Wheat in Northern Oklahoma 115 
 
 66. Hauling Broom Corn to Market 116 
 
 67. Cotton Going to Market 116 
 
 68. A Train Load of Cotton 119 
 
 69. Cotton Baled on Board Cars 119 
 
 70. A Fruit Farm in Central Oklahoma 120 
 
 71. Cattle on the Plains 122 
 
 72. Map Showing the Mineral Products of Oklahoma 127 
 
 73. A Coal Mine at Midway 128 
 
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 74. Coal Mine at Lehigh 129 
 
 75. Oil Well Derricks at Cleveland 130 
 
 76. Oil Gushing from a New Well 131 
 
 77. A Tank Farm Near Copan 132 
 
 78. A Train Load of Oil Leaving Bartlesville 133 
 
 79. An Asphalt Mill and Mine Near Sulphur 134 
 
 80. Streets of Ardmore Paved with Oklahoma Asphalt 135 
 
 81. Salt Plains of Alfalfa County near Cherokee 136 
 
 82. Zinc Mines near Miami 137 
 
 83. Two Views Showing the Effect of a Blast in a Lime- 
 
 stone Quarry at Crusher, Oklahoma 139 
 
 84. Limestone Posts in Kay County 140 
 
 85. Pioneer Telephone Building in Oklahoma, Built of Ok- 
 
 lahoma Marble 141 
 
 86. Ledge of Glass Sand at Bromide 142 
 
 87. Portland Cement Mill at Dewey, Oklahoma 145 
 
 88. Gypsum Ledges in Western Oklahoma... 146 
 
 89. Cotton Oil Mill at Madill 147 
 
 90. Interior of a Cotton Mill at Guthrie 148 
 
 91. Zinc Smelter at Bartlesville 148 
 
 92. Diagram of a Township Showing Each of the Subdi- 
 
 visions 156 
 
 93. Diagram Showing How a Section May Be Divided 157 
 
 94. A Modern Office Building at Oklahoma City 163 
 
 95. Court House at Oklahoma City 164 
 
 96. Masonic Temple at McAlester 165 
 
 97. Busby Hotel at McAlester 166 
 
 98. Smoke from Burning Oil 167 
 
 99. A Bird's Eye View of Sapulpa Showing Burning Oil in 
 
 the Distance 168 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Location of Oklahoma, Oklahoma is situated a little 
 south of the center of the United States. Oklahoma City, 
 which, is not far from the center of Oklahoma, is about 
 200 miles south of the geographical center of the nation. 
 It is about 450 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico, 800 
 miles south of Canada, 1,300 miles from New York and 
 almost an equal distance from San Francisco. 
 
 Fig. 1. Products Grown on a Single Farm in Oklahoma 
 
 1 
 
2 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Although on regional maps of the United States Okla- 
 homa is classed as the most northwestern of the southern 
 states, there is no state in the Union which combines 
 greater variety of soil, climate, crops, and inhabitants. 
 Upon a single farm can be seen products that grow in 
 the states from Minnesota to Florida and from Maine to 
 California. (Figure 1 shows the products grown on a 
 single- farm.) In character of inhabitants and variety 
 of crops and industries the southern part of Oklahoma re- 
 sembles the southern states; northern Oklahoma is in 
 the same class with such states as Kansas, Iowa, and 
 Illinois ; western Oklahoma has all the characteristics of a 
 far western state. 
 
 Boundaries. The boundaries of Oklahoma have been 
 determined by the boundaries of the older states which 
 touch it. Red River on the south, which separates Okla- 
 homa from Texas, is the only natural boundary. Three 
 straight lines form the eastern boundary and mark off 
 Oklahoma from Missouri and Arkansas. The line be- 
 tween Oklahoma and Missouri was originally drawn from 
 the mouth of the Kansas River at Kansas City south to 
 the parallel of 36° 30'. The line from the Arkansas River 
 south to Red River was drawn from a point 100 paces 
 west of old Fort Smith, thus separating Arkansas from 
 the old Choctaw Nation. The third straight line was 
 drawn diagonally northwest and southeast from Fort 
 Smith to the southwest corner of Missouri. The northern 
 boundary of Oklahoma is formed by the 37th parallel of 
 latitude, which is also the southern line of Kansas and 
 Colorado. The extreme western line of the state lies in 
 longitude 103° west and separates Oklahoma from New 
 Mexico. The main part of the state, however, extends 
 
LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES 3 
 
 only to the 100th meridian, the eastern line of the Pan- 
 handle of Texas. The southern line of the three western 
 counties is the parallel of 36° 30', the same as the south- 
 ern line of Missouri. 
 
 Area. The greatest distance across the state is from 
 east to west along the northern boundary, and measures 
 467 miles. The greatest distance from north to south 
 along the eastern line is 230 miles. Oklahoma contains 
 
 Fig. 2. Topographers at Work in the Field 
 
 about 70,430 square miles, or 45,075,200 acres of land — 
 enough to make 381,720 farms of 160 acres each. 
 
 Government Maps. That part of Oklahoma which was 
 formerly Indian Territory, as well as a part of the Ter- 
 ritory of Oklahoma, has been surveyed and mapped by 
 the United States Geological Survey. These maps have 
 been carefully prepared and show all the streams, hills, 
 and valleys, as well as the location of the roads, rail- 
 roads, cities, and houses that were present when the 
 map was made. These maps are known as topographic 
 sheets and represent from 800 to 1,000 square miles each. 
 (Figure 2 shows a party of students from the State Uni- 
 
4 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 versity preparing topographic maps in the field.) The 
 government maps may be purchased of the Director of 
 the Survey, at Washington, for five cents each, or three 
 dollars per hundred. Folios, which contain a geologic 
 map showing the location of the various formations and 
 the different valuable minerals, have been published of 
 the Atoka, Ooalgate, Tishomingo, Tahlequah and Musko- 
 gee sheets. The folios are sold for twenty-five cents 
 each. A good county map of Oklahoma may be ob- 
 tained by senlding twelve cents to the Superintendent of 
 Documents at Washington, D. C. These maps contain 
 the very latest information on the subjects treated, and 
 are sold practically at cost. Students are urged to pur- 
 chase a state map and a topographic sheet of their home 
 region. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. Locate Oklahoma in the United States. 
 
 2. How far is Oklahoma from New York? From San Fran- 
 cisco? From Canada? 
 
 3. Bound Oklahoma. 
 
 4. What river forms the southern boundary of Oklahoma? 
 
 5. How were the three straight lines located which form the 
 eastern boundary? 
 
 6. "What parallel forms the northern boundary? 
 
 7. What two meridians form the western boundary? 
 
 8. What is the greatest distance across the State from east to 
 west? From north to south? 
 
 9. What is the area of Oklahoma in square miles? In acres? 
 10. How many 160-acre farms would it contain? 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Great Plains. Oklahoma is located in that part of 
 the United States known as the Great Plains. The Great 
 Plains slope from the Rocky Mountains on the west to 
 the Mississippi River on the east. The Plains appear to 
 be nearly level, but in fact uear the mountains the eleva- 
 tion is more than a mile above the ocean. 
 
 The Highest and Lowest Points. The highest point in 
 Oklahoma is on Black Mesa in the extreme northwestern 
 corner of Cimarron County, the most western county in 
 the state. Black Mesa is a flat-topped hill made up of 
 black lava rock which was long ago poured out from a 
 volcano. It is about 4,800 feet above sea level. Prom 
 this point the surface of Oklahoma slopes gradually to 
 the east. The average slope is about eight feet to the 
 mile, which is so slight that one can hardly see that the 
 country slopes at alii. 
 
 The lowest points in the state are along the eastern 
 line where the two largest rivers flow from Oklahoma 
 into the state of Arkansas. The Arkansas River flows 
 from Oklahoma at Port Smith, and the Red River at the 
 extreme southeast corner of the state. At these places 
 the elevation above sea level is between 300 and 400 feet. 
 
 The greater part of Oklahoma consists of grass-covered 
 "rolling prairie," with occasional ranges of hills trend- 
 ing usually north and south. In the southern and the 
 
 5 
 
6 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 eastern parts of the state there are a number of ranges 
 and groups of hills, some of which rise to the dignity of 
 mountains. These hills and mountains are usually covered 
 with timber. Between the hills are areas of rolling and 
 level country, sometimes timbered, sometimes prairie. 
 
 Topographic Regions. The unevenness of land surfaces 
 is called Relief, or Topography. A part of the country 
 containing the same general form's of relief is called a 
 Topographic Region. Oklahoma may be divided into the 
 following ten Topographic Regions : 
 
 The Ozark Mountains. 
 
 The Ouachita Mountains. 
 
 The Arbuckle Mountains. 
 
 The Wichita Mountains. 
 
 The Arkansas Valley Region. 
 
 The Red River Valley Region. 
 
 The Sandstone Hills Region. 
 
 The Redbeds Plains Region. 
 
 The Gypsum Hills Region. 
 
 The High Plains Region. 
 
 It must be understood that there is no sharp line of 
 division between these various regions in Oklahoma. In 
 most instances one region grades insensibly into another, 
 so that it is often impossible to say just where one region 
 ends and another begins. For instance, the exact line 
 of separation between the Arkansas Valley region and 
 the Sandstone Hills region can not be determined. In 
 studying the different regions turn to the topographic 
 map, Figure 3, and locate each region. 
 
 Ozark Mountains. The Ozark Mountains of Oklahoma 
 include only a small portion of this uplift which oc- 
 cupies a great part of southern Missouri. In northern 
 
& 
 
8 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 Arkansas the same range is known as the Boston Moun- 
 tains. There are no very high peaks or ridges in these 
 mountains, but the region is a high level table-land, 
 covered with a floor of white limestone. This is the 
 rock which contains the lead and zinc at Joplin in 
 southern Missouri. The general level of this plateau in 
 Oklahoma is about 600 feet above the lowlands, or about 
 1,100 feet above sea level. The Arkansas River flows 
 south of the mountains and the Grand west of them. A 
 
 Fig. 4. Spring and Milkhouse in Eastern Oklahoma 
 
 number of small streams rise on the flat upland and flow 
 south and west into the Arkansas or the Grand. The 
 largest of the streams flowing south into the Arkansas 
 are Lees Creek, Sallisaw Creek, Vian Creek, and the Illi- 
 nois River. Those flowing west into the Grand are Clear, 
 Spring, Saline and Spavinaw creeks. All these streams 
 and their many branches have cut deep and narrow val- 
 leys in the mountains, forming steep and rocky cliffs and 
 bluffs. Some of the finest scenery in Oklahoma is found 
 along these valleys. The mountains are in most places 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 9 
 
 densely wooded. Oak, hickory, elm, walnut and persim- 
 mon trees are most common. 
 
 In the Ozark region there are thousands of springs. 
 Some of the purest water in the United States comes 
 from these springs. Tahlequah, the old Cherokee capital, 
 is located on the site of strong springs and such towns 
 as Wauhillau, Stilwell, and Westville all have fine springs. 
 There is scarcely a farm house in the whole region that 
 does not use spring water. (Figure 4 shows one of these 
 springs and a milk house.) Eureka Springs, Siloam 
 Springs, Electric Springs, and Monte Ne are health re- 
 sorts in Arkansas located by springs of the same kind 
 as those in Oklahoma. Ottawa, Delaware, Adair, Chero- 
 kee and parts of Sequoyah, Mayes, and Craig counties 
 are located in the Ozark Mountains. The largest towns 
 are Tahlequah, Miami, Westville and Stilwell. 
 
 Ouachita Mountains, The name Ouachita (Wa-she-taw) 
 Mountains is often used to include a number of chains 
 and groups of mountains located in southeastern Okla- 
 homa and southwestern Arkansas. The group of moun- 
 tains as a whole extends from near Little Rock, Arkansas, 
 westward nearly to Atoka, Oklahoma, a, distance of about 
 200 miles. Only the western half of the group is in 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 The Ouachita Mountains in Oklahoma consist of a great 
 many long narrow ridges composed of sandstone stand- 
 ing on edge. These ridges are sometimes two thousand 
 to three thousand feet above sea level. They lie parallel 
 to each other, and usually extend northeast and south- 
 west, and are separated by deep and narrow valleys. 
 Some of the largest ridges of the Ouachitas are the Kia- 
 mitia, Black Pork, Seven Devils, Winding Stair, Pine, and 
 
10 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Jack Fork mountains. Poteau River flows across the 
 northern part of the group and Mountain Fork, Little 
 River, Glover Creek, Kiamitia River and McGee Creek 
 rise in the mountains and flow south. 
 
 In general the mountains are well wooded, including 
 some valuable forests of pine and oak. Some prairie 
 land is found in the valleys. The Ouachitas in Oklahoma 
 include southern LeFlore, Latimer and Pittsburg coun- 
 
 Fig. 5. Rocks on Edge 
 
 ties, eastern Atoka and northern Pushmataha and Mc- 
 Curtain counties. There are no large towns in the moun- 
 tains. This is the roughest part of Oklahoma and fewer 
 people live here than in any other section of the State. 
 The land is not suitable for agricultural purposes and has 
 few mineral deposits. 
 
 Arbuckle Mountains. The Arbuckle uplift occupies an 
 area 60 miles long and 20 miles wide in southern Okla- 
 homa. Only that part of the uplift which lies west of 
 
11 
 
Fig. 7. Near View of Turner Falls 
 
 12 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 
 
 13 
 
 the Washita River is usually spoken of as the Arbuckle 
 Mountains, but the name may well be applied to the entire 
 range of rocky hills that extends as far east as Wapa- 
 nucka. The rocks are largely massive ledges of lime- 
 stone which have been upheaved, broken, folded and 
 twisted until they are highly inclined, standing on edge 
 as in Fig. 5. There are occasional peaks and rounded 
 hills composed of granite. The granite is exposed in a 
 
 Fig. 8, The Washita Gorge Showing Rock Crusher. 
 
 large area north and northeast of Tishomingo, and in 
 the East Timbered Hills and West Timbered Hills west 
 of Washita River, southwest of Davis. The highest peaks 
 are only 700 feet above the surrounding plain or 1,400 
 feet above sea level. 
 
 There are many strong flowing springs in the Arbuckles, 
 and a number of picturesque waterfalls. Figs. 6 and 7 
 are two views of Turner Falls. Sulphur and Bromide are 
 two health resorts which have grown up around mineral 
 springs near the edge of the mountains. Such creeks as 
 
14 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Honey, Palls, Rock, Canyon, Pennington, Blue and Mill 
 are fed largely by springs. The Washita River flows 
 
 across the mountains in 
 a deep canyon which 
 it has cut in the lime- 
 stone rocks, as shown 
 in Fig. 8. The Santa 
 Fe Railroad follows the 
 canyon of the Washita 
 in a roadbed blasted 
 out of the solid rock as 
 in Fig. 9. The slopes 
 of the hills are usually 
 covered with timber ; 
 the limestone-covered 
 uplands are mostly 
 prairie. There are no 
 large towns in the 
 mountains. The Ar- 
 buckles include parts 
 of Murray, Garter, Pon- 
 totoc and Johnston 
 counties. 
 
 Wichita Mountains. 
 The Wichita Moun- 
 tains in southwestern 
 Oklahoma extend from 
 Fig 9. Rock Cut. The Railroad Lawton to Granite, a 
 Blasted out of the Rocks. ' 
 
 distance of 60 miles. 
 
 The greater part of the Wichitas consists of scattered 
 ranges, groups, and sharp, jagged peaks of granite and 
 porphyry. The peaks are only the tops of buried moun- 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 
 
 15 
 
 tains projecting above a sea of plain. Mt. Scott, ten miles 
 northwest of Lawton, is the highest peak. It is a round 
 mountain of granite 1,200 feet above the level of the 
 plain and 2,400 feet above sea level. Some other promi- 
 nent peaks are Mount Sheridan, Mount Baker, Saddle 
 Mountains (see Fig. 10), Tepee Mountain, Devil's Can- 
 yon Mountain and Headquarters Mountain. There is a 
 little timber in the valleys and on some of the slopes in 
 
 Fig. 10. Saddle Mountain 
 
 Photograph by Dedrick, Talog-a, Okla. 
 
 the eastern part of the range, but most of the granite 
 peaks have no vegetation. 
 
 There are a number of strong springs among the moun- 
 tains. Most of the larger creeks, such as Medicine Bluff, 
 Rainy Mountain, Blue Beaver, Cache and others, head in 
 mountain springs. The Wiehitas are located in Comanche, 
 Kiowa, Jackson and Greer counties. Lawton, Granite 
 and Snyder are the largest towns near the mountains. 
 
 Arkansas Valley Region lies along the Arkansas and 
 
16 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Canadian rivers between the Ozark and Ouachita regions, 
 extending southwest till it touches the eastern end 
 of the Arbuckle uplift. The western limit where it 
 merges with the Sandstone Hills region is poorly denned. 
 The rocks consist of massive ledges of sandstone and 
 shale, which have been thrown up by some internal force 
 into immense folds, and afterward worn down by water, 
 wind and frost, leaving a number of groups and ranges 
 of high hills, some of which are more than 2,000 feet above 
 sea level. The most prominent elevations, such as Cav- 
 inal, Sansbois, Sugar Loaf, Potato, Wild Horse, Rattle- 
 snake, Kiowa and Beaver, are known locally as moun- 
 tains. Between these various elevations are broad fertile 
 valleys. The region is mostly timbered, although prairie 
 land is found in the level country. This is the great coal 
 country of Oklahoma. More than half the coal in the 
 state lies in this region. For this reason it is destined to 
 become one of the wealthiest parts of the state. All or 
 part of Sequoyah, LeFlore, Haskell, Muskogee, Pittsburg, 
 Mcintosh, Latimer, Atoka and Coal counties are included 
 in the Arkansas Valley region. A number of towns of 
 considerable size are located in this region, the largest of 
 which are McAlester, Coalgate, Lehigh, Wilburton, Po- 
 teau, Spiro, Sallisaw, Bokoshe, Stigler, Eufaula and Che- 
 cotah. 
 
 Red River Valley Region. This region includes that 
 portion of Oklahoma which lies north of Red River and 
 south of the Ouachita and Arbuckle Mountains. It ex- 
 tends west to the Redbeds Plains south of the western end 
 of the Arbuckles and grades into them. This is the low- 
 est topographic region in Oklahoma, the average eleva- 
 tion above the sea being not more than 600 feet. A num- 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 17 
 
 ber of streams which rise in the mountains to the north 
 and flow south across the region have carved out broad 
 valleys. Little River, Kiamitia, Boggy, Blue and Washita 
 rivers are the largest of these. The rocks are soft sand- 
 stone and shales, interstratified with two ledges of rather 
 hard limestone, in which stream erosion has carved out 
 low hills, and, in places, steep cliffs. The sandstone and 
 shale exposures are usually wooded; the limestone areas 
 are often prairie. Part or all of McCurtain, Choctaw, 
 Bryan, Pushmataha, Atoka, Johnston, Marshall, Love and 
 Carter counties lie in the Red River Valley region. The 
 chief towns in the region are Ardmore, Marietta, Madill, 
 Durant, Caddo and Hugo. 
 
 Sandstone Hills Region. The Sandstone Hills region 
 includes that part of Oklahoma extending west from the 
 Ozark Mountains and the Arkansas Valley region about 
 as far as the main line of the Santa Fe Railroad, and 
 from Kansas south to the Arbuckle Mountains. Through- 
 out this region the rocks, which consist of alternating 
 strata of soft shales and hard sandstones, either lie level 
 or dip slightly to the west. The slope of the country is to 
 the east. Erosion has worn away the soft shales and 
 left the hard sandstone standing as prominent hills, which 
 often form continuous ridges extending in a general north- 
 east-southwest direction for many miles. In many cases, 
 however, isolated buttes stand out on the level plain. The 
 steep slope of all these hills is to the east, while the west- 
 ern slope is long and gentle. Some prominent ranges and 
 peaks that have received distinctive names are Concharty 
 Mountains, Council Hill, Bald Hills, Twin Knobs, Outlaw 
 Mountain, Mount Inola, Catoosa Hills, Scaly Bark Moun- 
 tain, Osage Knob, Chimney Hill, Shawnee Hills and 
 
18 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Claremore Knob. Flat prairie lands and wooded stream 
 valleys occur between the hills. Many large rivers cross 
 this region, including Arkansas, Verdigris, Grand, the 
 three Canadians and Cimarron, with their numerous trib- 
 utaries. 
 
 In the northern part of this region are the Flint Hills, 
 which occupy western Osage and eastern Kay counties. 
 The name comes from a number of ledges of flint which 
 occur in heavy ledges of limestone. The flint is harder 
 than the limestone and other rocks which form the hills. 
 Where everything else has been worn away the flint re- 
 mains, covering the ground. In Kansas the Flint Hills 
 are higher and the flint more common than in Oklahoma. 
 
 The rougher parts of Sandstone Hills region, particu- 
 larly the steep slopes, as well as the valleys, are forested ; 
 the intervening plains are grass-covered. This region in- 
 cludes all or part of the following counties: Craig, No- 
 wata, Washington, Rogers, Mayes, Wagoner, Tulsa, Mus- 
 kogee, Okmulgee, Mcintosh, Pittsburg, Coal, Hughes, 
 Pontotoc, Garvin, Seminole, Pottawatomie, McClain, 
 Cleveland, Lincoln, Okfuskee, Creek, Payne, Logan, 
 Noble, Osage and Kay. 
 
 This part of Oklahoma contains not only the greatest 
 oil and gas fields in the State, but vast deposits of coal, 
 clay and limestone. It is destined to become the great 
 manufacturing region of Oklahoma. Many growing 
 towns are located in this part of the State, the most im- 
 portant of which are Muskogee, Shawnee, Tulsa, Bartles- 
 ville, Vinita, Okmulgee, Holdenville, Pawhuska, Sapulpa, 
 Wewoka, Okemah, Wagoner, Claremore, Pryor Creek, Ada, 
 Chandler, Stillwater, Nowata and Pawnee. The soil is 
 very fertile and a large variety of crops are raised. 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 19 
 
 Redbeds Plains Region. The Redbeds Plains extend 
 west from the Sandstone Hills region and the Arbuckle 
 Mountains to the Gypsum Hills, and from Kansas south 
 to Red River. The southwestern part of the region en- 
 tirely surrounds the Wichita Mountains. The rocks are 
 known as Redbeds ; they are largely soft clay shales, brick- 
 red in color, with a few ledges of soft sandstone. The 
 shales are so red that the water in the streams is colored 
 blood-red. The surface is rolling. Steep bluffs are rare 
 and high hills are unknown. Several rivers, Salt Pork, 
 Cimarron, North Canadian, South Canadian, Washita and 
 Red, flow across this region from northwest to southeast. 
 These streams have carved broad and shallow valleys in 
 the almost level plain. The south bluffs of these rivers 
 for the greater part of their course in this region are cut 
 up by small canyons and gulches, while the slope north 
 of the rivers is unbroken and is often covered by sandhills. 
 The high divides are remnants of the old plains surface, 
 and their slopes to the east are so gentle as to be un- 
 noticeable. One may often travel across the country for 
 20 miles along some lines without ascending or de- 
 scending 20 feet from the general level. 
 
 The level plain is very fertile. There is very little waste 
 land. It is the great wheat, alfalfa, cotton and corn coun- 
 try of Oklahoma. Except along the streams, where timber 
 is sometimes found, this region is prairie. It includes all 
 or part of the following counties: Kay, Grant, Alfalfa, 
 Woods, Major, Garfield, Noble, Logan, Kingfisher, Blaine, 
 Oklahoma, Canadian, Cleveland, McClain, Grady, Caddo, 
 Garvin, Stevens, Jefferson, Comanche, Tillman, Kiowa, 
 Greer and Jackson. Many of the largest towns in the 
 State are in this region, including Oklahoma City, Guth- 
 
20 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 rie, El Reno, Enid, Lawton, Chickasha, Norman, King- 
 fisher, Alva, Newkirk, Ponca and Blackwell. 
 
 Gypsum Hills Region. A great part of western Okla- 
 homa is occupied by the Gypsum Hills region. The 
 rocks here are red clay and shale as in the Redbeds 
 Plains, but in this part of the State the red shales also 
 contain hard members of gypsum and dolomite. These 
 harder members weather out, forming high hills, cliffs 
 
 Fig. 11. Gypsum Hills, Blaine County 
 
 and out lying buttes, so that the topography is more 
 broken than in the Redbeds Plains. 
 
 There are three lines of Gypsum Hills in western Okla- 
 homa. The first line, the so-called "Gyp Hills" of the 
 cowboy, extends from Canadian County northwest to the 
 Kansas line, crossing Blaine, Major, Woodward, Harper 
 and Woods counties. These hills are 150 or 200 feet 
 high, capped with two ledges of massive white gypsum 
 15 to 20 feet thick (shown in Fig. 11) and rise like a wall 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 21 
 
 above the Redbeds Plains to the east. Most of the gyp- 
 sum plaster mills in Oklahoma are located along this line 
 of hills. The second line of Gypsum Hills lies parallel 
 to the line just described and is 40 to 50 miles further 
 southwest. The highest hills are in Caddo, Washita, 
 Custer, Dewey and Ellis counties. In this section of the 
 State the hills are usually low white-topped, rounded gyp- 
 sum knolls, which stand out on the plain or gentle slopes 
 or along shallow streams. The third line of Gypsum Hills 
 occurs in Jackson, Greer and Beckham counties. The 
 ledges of gypsum are from 10 to 20 feet thick. Some of 
 the hills consist of long, steep cliffs and some of rounded 
 mounds. There are a number of hills in this region which 
 are not formed by gypsum at all, but by hard ledges of 
 dolomite or sandstone. For instance, the Red Hills be- 
 tween Geary and Watonga, and the Caddo County Buttes 
 southwest of Bridgeport, are formed by a heavy ledge of 
 dolomite. The hills in northern Beckham, eastern Roger 
 Mills and western Washita, Custer and Dewey counties 
 are formed by heavy ledges of sandstone. Several large 
 streams, including Salt Fork, Cimarron, North Canadian, 
 South Canadian, Washita and branches of Red River flow 
 southeast across the Gypsum Hills. These streams have, 
 in most places, cut deep, steep-sided valleys among the 
 gypsum and sandstone ledges, and, in many places, have 
 formed conspicuous cliffs and bluffs. This is a fertile re- 
 gion, as gypsum and dolomite are both good fertilizers. 
 Corn is raised in all the counties; cotton in the southern 
 part, and wheat in the northern section. The following 
 counties are all or in part included in the Gypsum Hills 
 region: Woods, Harper, Ellis, Woodward, Major, Blaine, 
 Dewey, Canadian, Caddo, Custer, Roger Mills, Beckham, 
 
22 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Washita, Greer and Jackson. The chief towns are Wood- 
 ward, Taloga, Cheyenne, Thomas, Watonga, Arapaho, 
 Weatherford, Clinton, Elk City, Cordell, Sayre and Man- 
 gum. 
 
 High Plains Region. The High Plains includes the high- 
 est part of the State and lie west of the Gypsum Hills 
 and at a higher level. This region is a part of that vast 
 level tract lying east of the base of the Rocky Mountains 
 and extending from Canada to Mexico. In Oklahoma this 
 
 Fig. 12. Lake on the High Plains 
 
 plain slopes from an altitude of 4,800 feet in western 
 Cimarron County to a little more than 2,000 feet in Wood- 
 ward and Ellis counties. In this plain Cimarron River 
 and Beaver Creek have cut their broad, shallow valleys. 
 A number of smaller creeks are at work dissecting the 
 level uplands. Large areas remain, however, which ap- 
 pear to be as level as a floor and on which the only drain- 
 age is into broad, shallow depressions or lakes, some- 
 times called "buffalo wallows." One of these lakes is 
 shown in Fig. 12. Until the last few years this has always 
 been a cattle country. Recently the region has been settled 
 
TOPOGRAPHY 23 
 
 and crops, particularly kafir corn, milo maize, broom 
 corn and sorghum, are raised. The soil is very fertile, but 
 lack of rainfall sometimes prevents the crops from ma- 
 turing. There is no timber except an occasional lone elm, 
 cottonwood or willow along a stream. The whole coun- 
 try is covered with a soft carpet of buffalo grass, Cimar- 
 ron, Texas, Beaver and parts of Harper, Ellis and Roger 
 Mills counties are included in this region. The largest 
 towns are Guymon and Beaver. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 
 
 1. Locate the Great Plains. 
 
 2. In what part of the Great Plains is Oklahoma located? 
 
 3. Where is the highest point in Oklahoma? 
 
 4. What is the average slope across the State? 
 
 5. What is the elevation of the lowest points in Oklahoma? 
 
 6. In what part of Oklahoma is the surface level? 
 
 7. Where are the mountains located? 
 
 8. Define Belief; Topographic Eegion. 
 
 9. Name and locate the different topographic regions in Okla- 
 homa. 
 
 10. What is the character of the topography in the Ozark 
 Mountains? 
 
 11. \vnat kinds of rocks are found? 
 
 12. What is the average elevation? 
 
 13. What rivers flow near the mountains? 
 
 14. What creeks head in the mountains? 
 
 15. What is the character of the vegetation? Of the water? 
 
 16. Name the counties and cities in these mountains. 
 
 17. Apply questions 10 to 16 to the Ouachita, Arbuckle, and 
 Wichita Mountains. 
 
 18. What is the character of the rocks in the Arkansas Valley 
 Region? 
 
 19. Name the principal peaks. 
 
 20. What mineral is found in this region? 
 
24 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 21. Name the counties and chief cities. 
 
 22. What streams cross the Red River Valley Region? 
 
 23. What is the character of the vegetation? 
 
 24. Name the counties and chief cities in the region. 
 
 25. Locate the Sandstone Hills Region. 
 
 26. What is the character of the rocks? 
 
 27. What streams cross the region? 
 
 28. Name the counties and chief cities. 
 
 29. Apply questions 25, 26, 27 and 28 to the Redbeds Plains 
 Region, the Gypsum Hills Region, and the High Plains Region. 
 
 30. In what topographical region do you live? 
 
 31. What large streams, mountains, or hills are located near 
 your home? 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 Kinds of Rocks. Oklahoma has a great many kinds of 
 rocks and a great variety of soils. In some parts of the 
 State there are mountains made up of solid granite; in 
 other places the rocks are largely sandstone or limestone. 
 In certain counties the only hard rock is white gypsum; 
 
 in other localities there 
 are no hard rocks of 
 any kind exposed on 
 the surface. 
 
 Fossils. In some of 
 the rocks of the State 
 fossils may be found. 
 Fossils are the remains 
 of animals and plants 
 which were alive when 
 the rocks were laid 
 down. Certain kinds 
 of fossils are found in 
 the rocks of certain 
 ages. Geologists tell 
 the age of the rocks by the kind of fossils contained in 
 them. Shells, something like our modern clams and 
 oysters, tribolites which resemble the modern crayfish or 
 crab, and various forms of corals and other sea animals, 
 two of which are shown in Figs. 13 and 14, are found 
 
 25 
 
 Fig. 13. Fossil Crinoid Stems 
 
26 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 preserved as fossils in the limestone rocks of many of 
 the counties. In the coal regions there are remains 
 of the leaves, stems and trunks of the plants which 
 formed the coal. In southern Oklahoma immense coiled 
 shells are found, something like our modern snail — many 
 of which are three feet in diameter. On the High Plains 
 in the western part of the State there are bones of the 
 rhinoceros, tiger, camel and other large beasts which are 
 not now found in North America. Bones of the masto- 
 don, the extinct elephant, are found in many places. 
 
 Fig. 14. Fossils — Camarocrinus 
 
 Geologic Periods. Geologists divide the history of the 
 earth, since the time of the first fossils, into the following 
 ten great divisions or periods. They are arranged in order 
 of their age, the last named being the oldest. 
 
 Quaternary 
 
 Tertiary 
 
 Cretaceous 
 
 Jurassic 
 
 Triassic 
 
 Carboniferous 
 
GEOLOGY 27 
 
 Devonian 
 
 Silurian 
 
 Ordovician 
 
 Cambrian 
 Sedimentary Rocks. Rocks of these ages are some- 
 times called sedimentary rocks because they were laid 
 down as sediments in former oceans, and sometimes strati- 
 
 Fig. 15. Conglomerate Rock 
 
 fied rocks because they are composed of strata or layers 
 lying one above another. By far the greater part of the 
 sedimentary rocks belong to one of three classes : sand- 
 stones, limestones or clays. Sandstones are composed of 
 sand grains cemented together and are supposed to have 
 been laid down along an old sea beach. Very coarse 
 sandstone is called conglomerate, as shown in Fig. 15. 
 
28 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Limestones ' are made up largely of petrified shells and 
 other fossils and were deposited either in the deep sea or 
 in shallower water where conditions were favorable. Clay 
 is hardened mud, and was formed in still bays and seas. 
 If the clay is in thin layers it is called shale. Some form 
 of stratified rock, either sandstone, limestone or clay, is 
 found in most places on the surface of the earth. 
 
 Igneous Rocks. Below these sedimentary rocks lie ig- 
 neous or fire-formed rocks. The most common forms are 
 granite, porphyry, diorite, seyenite and gabbro. Boulders 
 of Oklahoma granite are shown in Fig. 16. Igneous rocks 
 form the original crust of the earth and underlie every- 
 thing else. If a person should drill anywhere on the sur- 
 face of the earth, he would come to the granite or other 
 igneous rocks, provided he went deep enough. In some 
 places, usually in mountain ranges, these rocks are ex- 
 posed on the surface, but in most regions they are cov- 
 ered with many thousands of feet of stratified rocks. 
 
 In order to understand the story written in the rocks 
 of Oklahoma, it is necessary to study the formations ex- 
 posed on the surface in all parts of the State. We must 
 also go far back in the world's history, back to Cambrian 
 times, to the times of the very first stratified rocks, the 
 time of the first fossils. 
 
 Oldest Rocks in Oklahoma. The oldest stratified rocks 
 exposed on the surface in Oklahoma are found in the Ar- 
 buckle and Wichita Mountains. These rocks were laid 
 down many millions of years ago, just how long ago no one 
 knows, when all this country was an open sea. In these 
 regions there are a number of formations composed of 
 limestone, sandstone and shale, lying one above the other. 
 The very oldest stratified rock in the State is known as 
 
29 
 
30 
 
GEOLOGY 31 
 
 the Reagan Sandstone. It lies directly on the granite, 
 which is .exposed as high peaks near the center of the 
 mountain ranges. It is of Cambrian age. Above the 
 Reagan is a very heavy ledge of limestone, the Arbuckle 
 limestone, 6,000 to 8,000 feet thick, one of the heaviest 
 ledges of limestone in the world. The upper part of the 
 Arbuckle is Ordovician in age. Then comes the Simpson 
 sandstone, 2,000 feet thick, and the Viola limestone, 800 
 feet thick, also of Ordovician age. Next is the Svlvan 
 shale, then the Hunton limestone, which is of Silurian and 
 Devonian age. A ledge of Hunton limestone standing on 
 edge is shown in Fig. 17. Above the Hunton is the Wood- 
 ford chert, probably of upper Devonian age. Figs. 5, 8, 
 9, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 83 and 86 show the rocks of these 
 various formations. 
 
 All these formations were laid down in regular succes- 
 sion in the long-gone prehistoric seas. Sometimes the 
 country was raised — the land stood above water — and 
 then it was eroded or worn away by the action of the 
 elements. For the most part, however, the deposition of 
 sediments was continuous, from the beginning of the 
 Cambrian to the close of the Devonian age. During these 
 times many animals lived, but they were all low forms 
 of life. There were none of the higher forms, such as 
 reptiles, birds or mammals, which were introduced at 
 later geological periods. There were trilobites, corals, 
 crinoids (Fig. 13), shells and bryozoa or sea-mosses in 
 great numbers. Their skeletons have been preserved in 
 the various formations as fossils. In the Hunton forma- 
 tion alone more than 200 different species have been 
 found, the greater part of which are brachiopods, a kind 
 of shell. There are many places in the Arbuckle Moun- 
 
Fig. 18. Three Views of White Mound Near Dougherty, Okla. 
 
 32 
 
GEOLOGY 33 
 
 tains where the fossils are as thick on the ground as acorns 
 under an oak tree. Fig. 18 shows three views of "White 
 Mound," a fossil-bearing locality of the Hunton limestone. 
 Fig. 19 shows a party of geology students from the Uni- 
 versity of Oklahoma, camped by the mountains, and Fig. 
 18 shows the same party collecting fossils at White Mound. 
 Origin of the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountains. Dur- 
 ing the next geological period, the Carboniferous, there 
 
 Fig. 19. Camp of Geology Students in the Arbuckle Mountains 
 
 was a series of great upheavals in many parts of North 
 America. Large areas of land were raised above the 
 ocean. The Appalachian Mountains in the eastern part 
 of the continent and the Wichita and Arbuckle Moun- 
 tains of Oklahoma were elevated at that time. 
 
 There are a great many places in Oklahoma where the 
 rocks of these mountains may be studied, but one of the 
 best localities, and the one most easily reached by many 
 people in the State, is that part of the Arbuckle Moun- 
 
34 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 tains along the Washita River between Davis and Ard- 
 more. At this place one may find many fossils and see 
 some very fine examples of folding and faulting, show- 
 ing the effects of the terrific strains to which the rocks 
 have been subjected. Fig. 20 shows rocks which have 
 been folded, and Fig. 21 rock standing on edge. There 
 are a number of waterfalls, the most noted of which are 
 Turner's Falls (Figs. 6 and 7) and Price's Falls (Fig. 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 s ; 
 
 ^^ 
 
 S :■• ^ 
 
 &L^k x -^'#% > >?^ 
 
 
 Fig. 20. Folded Rocks 
 
 22), besides the Washita Gorge (Fig. 8), the "Burning 
 Mountain" and other places of interest. 
 
 The geological structure of the mountains is shown in 
 Figs. 23 and 24. Fig. 23 represents a section across the 
 Arbuckle Mountains during Carboniferous times after the 
 rocks had been deposited and the dome had been elevated 
 above the ocean, but before it had been eroded. At that 
 time the Arbuckle Mountains stood up as a great ovaL 
 dome sixty miles long, twenty miles wide and two miles 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 35 
 
 high above the surrounding- plains. As soon as it had 
 been raised out of the water, the agents of erosion — rain, 
 running water, wind, frost, etc. — began to cut away the 
 rocks and to wash them down into the seas. The process 
 continued for a long period of time. In fact, it is still in 
 operation. The higher rocks which formed the top of 
 the dome have all been worn away, exposing the rocks 
 underneath, until at the present time nothing remains 
 
 Fig. 21. Rocks on Edge 
 
 but the eroded stump of the old mountain, as shown in 
 Fig. 24. In passing from the Washita River to the granite 
 peak 700 feet high known as the East Timbered Hills, 
 which forms the core of the mountains, one walks over 
 the upturned edges of more than two miles of stratified 
 rocks, including limestones, shales and sandstones. In 
 ascending 700 feet in altitude one descends more than 
 10,000 feet geologically. 
 Carboniferous Rooks. During Carboniferous times 
 
36 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 much of Oklahoma was under water and vast deposits of 
 sedimentary rocks were laid down. The rocks of the Car- 
 boniferous period are divided into the following series, the 
 oldest being last named : 
 
 Permian 
 
 Pennsylvanian 
 
 Mississippian 
 The Mississippian. Rocks belonging to all of the three 
 
 Fig. 22. Price's Falls, Arbuckle Mountains 
 
 divisions of the Carboniferous are well exposed in Okla- 
 homa. In the Ozark Mountains there is a formation 300 
 feet thick, composed largely of limestone, known as the 
 Boone Chert, which is of Mississippian age. This is the 
 rock which contains the lead and zinc. On passing west 
 these Mississippian rocks pass beneath the surface and are 
 covered by rocks of the next younger age, the Pennsyl- 
 vanian. 
 The Pennsylvanian. With the exception of the forma- 
 
GEOLOGY 37 
 
 tions exposed in the Ozark Mountain practically all 
 the rocks in eastern Oklahoma are of Pennsylvanian 
 age. They are the Coal Measures. At the time when 
 these rocks were deposited there were vast areas of 
 swamps and marshy lowlands in this region in which grew 
 great number of ferns and trees, forming dense and heavy 
 
 Fig. 23. Cioss-sections of the Areuckle Mountains 
 Before Erosion 
 
 T ^-M^. 
 
 WaQhita R,vrr. 
 
 Fig. 24. Cross-sections of the Arbuckle Mountains at 
 the Present Time 
 
 vegetation. This vegetation accumulated through the 
 long years so that it finally formed thick deposits, which 
 gradually changed into beds of coal. Many of the leaves, 
 stems and trunks of these coal plants are now preserved 
 in the rocks. If you examine a piece of coal you will 
 probably find in it traces of leaves and stems of the coal 
 plants. 
 
 After a long period of accumulation the surface was 
 submerged below the ocean and deposits of sand and 
 
38 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 mud were laid down, which, on hardening, formed sand- 
 stone and shale. After a time the region was again ele- 
 vated, other swamps and marshes were formed, vegetation 
 grew once more and formed other accumulations which 
 were changed into coal. This elevation and subsidence 
 continued for a long time. Strata more than 15,000 feet 
 thick were laid down in eastern Oklahoma. More than 
 20 veins of coal were formed, about 10 of which are thick 
 enough to be worked. One of these veins extends from 
 near Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Lehigh, Oklahoma, a dis- 
 tance of 150 miles. Another one comes to the surface 
 along a line running from Pittsburg, Kansas, into Okla- 
 homa and south past Chelsea, Claremore, Catoosa, Broken 
 Arrow and Henry etta to the Canadian River. The Penn- 
 sylvanian rocks dip west and pass beneath the next 
 younger rocks, the Permian Redbeds. 
 
 The Permian. During Permian times, after the coal 
 beds had been laid down, the character of the deposits 
 in Oklahoma changed. The Redbeds which occupy so 
 much of western Oklahoma were probably deposited in 
 shallow seas or in salt lakes something like the Red and 
 Caspian seas today. The Redbeds consist of a great mass 
 of red clay shales, of unknown thickness, which covers an 
 area extending from Kansas across western Oklahoma and 
 northwest Texas to New Mexico. Besides the red shales 
 there are a few ledges of white gypsum, red sandstone 
 and gray dolomite, which is a kind of limestone. It is 
 the unequal weathering of the ledges of hard gypsums, 
 sandstones and dolomites that makes up the Gypsum Hills, 
 the Red Hills and other hills of western Oklahoma. 
 Among the Redbeds there are beds of salty shale, and the 
 water which runs across these salty beds issues as salt 
 
GEOLOGY 39 
 
 springs. There are very few fossils of any kind in the 
 Redbeds and little indication of coal, oil or gas. 
 
 Triassic and Jurassic Times. At the close of the Per- 
 mian times practically all of what is now Oklahoma was 
 elevated above the ocean, and the greater part of it has 
 never again been submerged. During Triassic and Jurassic 
 times all the country except possibly a part of western 
 Cimarron County stood out of the water. There are some 
 deposits along the bluffs of Cimarron River near Kenton, 
 in the extreme western part of the State, which may be 
 of Triassic and Jurassic age. 
 
 Cretaceous Rocks. During Cretaceous times parts of 
 southern and western Oklahoma were again submerged 
 beneath the ocean and deposits of shale, sandstone and 
 limestone were laid down. Almost all the rocks in that 
 part of the State which lies south of the Ouachita and 
 Arbuckle mountains, extending along Red River from the 
 Arkansas line west to Ardmore, are of Cretaceous age. 
 These rocks contain petrified oyster shells, large coiled 
 shells called ammonites, sharks' teeth and bones of reptiles 
 and other animals which lived during Cretaceous times. 
 All the fossils found in these rocks are very different 
 from those in the Arbuckle Mountains or among the coal 
 beds. They represent higher forms of life and show a 
 great advance over the earlier forms. In several of the 
 counties in western Oklahoma shell rock of Cretaceous 
 age occurs on the hills, indicating that the Cretaceous 
 seas extended over that country also. 
 
 Tertiary Rocks. During Tertiary times Oklahoma stood 
 out of the water and the surface was worn down about 
 to its present level. It was at this time that the Rocky 
 
40 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Mountains were being eroded very rapidly and the ma- 
 terial washed from the mountains — sand, pebbles; clay, 
 silt and mud — was carried eastward by streams and spread 
 out on the plains. This process continued for a long time 
 until deposits several hundred feet thick were accumu- 
 lated. This Tertiary deposit now makes up nearly all the 
 surface rocks on the High Plains in western Texas, Okla- 
 homa, Kansas, Nebraska and the Dakotas, as well as in 
 eastern New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. 
 The greater part of- the rocks exposed on the surface in 
 Cimarron, Texas, Beaver, Harper and Ellis counties are of 
 Tertiary age. It is believed that the sand in the sandhills 
 along the north side of so many of the streams in central 
 and western Oklahoma is derived from the same source. 
 It must be remembered that the Tertiary is only a super- 
 ficial blanket spread out over the rocks beneath, so that 
 if a person will dig deep enough anywhere on the High 
 Plains he will come to the underlying rocks, either Red- 
 beds or Cretaceous rocks. These Tertiary rocks carry 
 the good water found in wells and springs in western 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 The Tertiary is sometimes called the age of mammals. 
 A great many large and strange beasts lived at this time, 
 some of which have become extinct, while others have 
 disappeared from North America and are now found only 
 in Asia and Africa, In the rocks of the High Plains have 
 been found bones of the three-toed horse, rhinoceros, prim- 
 itive buffalo, pig, camel, hyena, saber-toothed tiger, arma- 
 dillo, llama, tapir and mastodon, none of which are now 
 native to this country. 
 
 During Tertiary times there were a number of vol- 
 canoes in what is now northeastern New Mexico and 
 
GEOLOGY 41 
 
 southeastern Colorado. One of these volcanoes was only 
 a few miles from the northwest corner of Cimarron County 
 and the lava flowed east and now forms the cap of Black 
 Mesa, which extends for four miles into Oklahoma. Ashes 
 and dust from these volcanoes, carried by western winds, 
 drifted east and settled to the surface. Beds of "vol- 
 canic ash" are found among the Tertiary deposits in the 
 western counties. 
 
 Quaternary Rocks. Rocks of Quaternary age are rep- 
 resented in Oklahoma by surface deposits, such as the 
 alluvial bottom lands along the streams and the black soil 
 on the high divides. There is no evidence of glacial de- 
 posits in the State. The nearest point reached by the ice 
 sheet during the Quaternary times was in the vicinity of 
 Topeka and Manhattan, Kansas. The most common fossils 
 in Quaternary rocks are skeletons of the mammoth and 
 mastodon. Mastodon bones have been reported from 
 nearly every county in the State. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 
 
 1. Name some kinds of rock found in Oklahoma. 
 
 2. Define a fossil. How were fossils formed? 
 
 3. What kinds of fossils are found in Oklahoma? 
 
 4. Name ten geological periods. 
 
 5. Define sedimentary rock. Stratified rock. 
 
 6. Name the three chief kinds of sedimentary rock. 
 
 7. How was each kind formed? 
 
 8. Name the chief igneous rock. 
 
 9. What and where is the oldest stratified rock in Oklahoma? 
 
 10. Name the Arbuckle Mountain series. 
 
 11. What fossils are found in these rocks? 
 
 12. Describe the history of these mountains. 
 
 13. Why are they not as high as they once were? 
 
 14. What are the divisions of the Carboniferous period? 
 
42 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 15. Where in Oklahoma are rocks of each division exposed? 
 
 16. How was coal formed? 
 
 17. What is the character of the Pennsylvanian rocks in Okla- 
 homa? 
 
 18. What is the character of the Permian rocks in the State? 
 
 19. What minerals are found in the Permian rocks? 
 
 20. What was the condition of Oklahoma during Triassic and 
 Jurassic times? 
 
 21. Where in the State are Cretaceous rocks found? 
 
 22. What fossils are found in the Cretaceous rocks? 
 
 23. Describe the Tertiary rocks. 
 
 24. From what were they derived? 
 
 25. What fossils are found in them? 
 
 26. Where are the Quaternary rocks? 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 UNDERGROUND WATER. 
 
 Disposal of Rainfall. Water which falls upon the sur- 
 face of the earth in the form of rain, snow or hail is dis- 
 posed of largely in one of three ways. Part of it evapo- 
 rates, part soaks into the ground, and part runs off, 
 forming streams. The evaporated water passes into the 
 air in the form of vapor and may again become rainfall. 
 The water which passes into the streams is soon carried 
 away. The amount of water which soaks into the ground 
 varies from place to place with the character of the soil, 
 the slope of the surface and the dryness of the climate. In 
 a loose, sandy soil, or a level country, a large amount of 
 water will soak in. If the country is hilly or the surface 
 material compact, a much smaller quantity will be ab- 
 sorbed. 
 
 Underground Water. Part of the water that enters the 
 soil is caught up by the roots of plants and some comes 
 to the surface again and is evaporated into the air. The 
 greater part of it, however, sinks to lower levels in the 
 ground. At some distance below the surface all the pores 
 or open spaces in the rock and soil are completely filled 
 with water. That is to say, the ground, deep down, is 
 saturated with water, forming the zone of saturation. The 
 top of this zone of saturation is known as the water table. 
 In some places, as in a swamp or marsh, the water table 
 is at the surface ; in other places it may be hundreds of 
 
 43 
 
44 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 feet deep. It rises nearer the surface during rainy seasons 
 and sinks during dry times. 
 
 Movement of Underground Water. Underground water 
 is everywhere slowly moving. From the uplands it moves 
 to the valleys and in the valleys it moves downstream. In 
 coarse sand and gravel, where the pores are large, the 
 water moves faster than through clays or other fine- 
 grained rocks. The rate of motion is never rapid, how- 
 ever. Experiments conducted by the United States Geo- 
 logical Survey along the valley of the Arkansas River 
 show that the average rate of flow of underground water 
 in the valley does not average more than 12 to 20 feet a 
 day, or about a mile a year. 
 
 Springs. Springs have their source in the under gro and 
 water. ■ They usually issue at the point where* a porous 
 bed comes to the surface. Most springs occur at the bot- 
 tom of a ledge of sandstone, gravel or porous limestone 
 and above a bed of fine-grained clay or shale. 
 
 Springs are found in all parts of Oklahoma. In some 
 of them the water is fresh and pure ; in others it contains 
 gypsum or salt. In several parts of the State there are 
 strong springs of sulphur water. 
 
 Some of the finest springs in Oklahoma are in the Ozark 
 Mountains, in the northeastern part of the State. In this 
 region the water issues from below a ledge of limestone 
 and just above a heavy, fine-grained shale. There are 
 thousands of these springs along the creeks and on the 
 mountain sides. Some of the most famous are at Tahlequah, 
 Salem Springs, Wauhillau, Spavinaw, Bunch and Stilwell. 
 
 In the Arbuckle Mountains there are a great many 
 strong springs. The water comes usually from crevices 
 in the limestone and coarse sandstone. The spring at old 
 
UNDERGROUND WATER 
 
 45 
 
 Fort Arbuckle is shown in Fig. 25. Such streams as Sul- 
 phur Creek, Honey Creek, Falls Creek, Pennington Creek, 
 Oil Creek, Mill Creek and Blue River, which flow all year, 
 are fed by Arbuckle Mountain springs. In the Wichita 
 Mountains there are a number of springs, some of which 
 issue from crevices in granite rocks; others come from 
 the limestone. 
 
 In the sandstone countrv of eastern Oklahoma there 
 
 Fig. 25. Spring at Old Fort Arbuckle — Wall Built in 1S52 
 
 are occasional springs which issue from under sandstone 
 ledges. There are many springs in the limestone country 
 of the Flint Hills in the northern part of the State. One 
 of the most noted is Big Spring, on Little Beaver Creek, 
 near Hardy. 
 
 There are not many springs in the fine-grained shales of 
 the Redbeds in the central counties. Among the Gypsum 
 Hills springs are very common, many of them being very 
 strong. The water in this region usually contains gyp- 
 
46 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 sum and other mineral salts in such quantities that it is 
 often unpleasant to drink. The purest spring water in 
 western Oklahoma comes from springs in the sandhills 
 and the high upland. These are usually called Tertiary 
 springs because they come from a geological formation 
 known as the Tertiary. Examples of Tertiary springs are 
 the Cleo Springs, Elm Springs at Alva, Caddo Springs 
 north of El Reno and several large springs near Moscow, 
 Aline, Grand and Woodward. 
 
 Fig. 26. Mineral Springs at Bromide 
 
 Mineral Springs. Mineral springs are found in many 
 parts of the State. The most famous are at Sulphur and 
 Bromide (Fig. 26) in the Arbuckle Mountains. There are 
 several sulphur springs in the Wichita Mountains, partic- 
 ularly those near Granite and Rainy Mountain. Others 
 occur in the Ouachita and Ozark mountains. Several 
 health resorts are located near these springs. Piatt Na- 
 tional Park is a government reservation which includes the 
 mineral springs at Sulphur. 
 
 Wells. A well is an excavation extending from the sur- 
 face down to the zone of saturation. Well water is ground 
 
UNDERGROUND WATER 
 
 47 
 
 water obtained through an artificial opening in the 
 ground. It flows out of the sand or gravel in which the 
 well usually ends and fills the well to the level of the 
 water table — in other words, as high as the top of the zone 
 of saturation. 
 
 During wet weather the water table is raised and the 
 water stands higher in the well. During times of drought 
 the water table is low- 
 ered and the water in 
 the well becomes low, 
 or it may disappear 
 entirely. Wells in the 
 valley are usually 
 shallow, because the 
 water table is near the 
 surface. Upland wells 
 are often deep because 
 the water table is deep. 
 An ordinary well- 
 drilling machine is 
 shown in Fig. 27. 
 
 There is no part of 
 Oklahoma in w h i c h 
 water is not obtained 
 in wells. In the four 
 
 mountain regions, however, but few wells have been sunk. 
 There are two reasons for this. First, there are few people 
 living among the mountains; and, second, there are 
 plenty of springs to supply water for domestic use. In the 
 Sandstone Hills region of eastern Oklahoma wells are 
 common, and they usually find an abundant supply of 
 pure water at less than 50 feet. In the Redbeds and 
 
 Fig. 27. Well Drilling Machine 
 
48 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Gypsum Hills regions water is usually deeper, varying 
 from 50 to 100 feet. The water often contains gypsum 
 or salt. The best well water in Oklahoma is found among 
 the sandhills and on the High Plains in the western part 
 of the State. The wells are sometimes as much as 300 
 feet deep. The water is abundant, cool and pure. Wind- 
 mills are used to bring the water to the surface. 
 
 Artesian Wells. There are three regions in Oklahoma 
 
 Fig. 28. An Artesian Well at Lehigh 
 
 in which artesian wells are found. An artesian well is 
 one in which the water rises in the well, usually coming 
 to the surface. Wells of this kind are found only where 
 the rock strata lie in a peculiar manner. The water enters 
 the ground at a level higher than the mouth of the well 
 and usually passes underground for some distance. 
 
 There is an area occupying several counties in north- 
 eastern Oklahoma in which artesian wells are found 
 which produce strong mineral water. Wells have been 
 
UNDERGROUND WATER 49 
 
 put down at Miami, Afton, Welch, Bluejacket, Vinita, 
 Pryor Creek, Wagoner, Chelsea, Claremore and Nowata. 
 The water is used for medicinal purposes. At Claremore 
 the water is very strong in mineral salts and is called 
 Radium water. At Wagoner it is called Germicide. The 
 source of supply of all this mineral water is in the Ozark 
 Mountains to the east. Another artesian well region is 
 at Sulphur in Murray County. The water is strong with 
 sulphur gases, being very similar in taste to the water in 
 the springs near by. The water enters the ground in the 
 Arbuckle Mountains to the south. A third region is near 
 Lehigh, Coal County. A well is shown in Fig. 28. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. How is rain water disposed of? 
 
 2. What becomes of the water that soaks into the ground? 
 
 3. Define Zone of Saturation. Water Table. 
 
 4. What is the average rate of flow of underground water? 
 
 5. Define spring. 
 
 6. When does a spring usually issue? 
 
 7. Where in Oklahoma are springs found? 
 
 8. Discuss the springs of the Ozark Mountains; the Arbuckle 
 Mountains; the Sandstone Country; the Gypsum Hills; the Ter- 
 tiary Springs. 
 
 9. Locate the salt springs of Oklahoma. 
 
 10. Locate the mineral springs of Oklahoma. 
 
 11. Define a well. 
 
 12. Discuss wells in various parts of Oklahoma. 
 
 13. Where are the artesian well regions in the State? 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 DRAINAGE. 
 
 Origin of Streams. Streams are fed partly by the rain 
 water which runs off the surface and partly by water from 
 springs. If the rainfall is slow and gentle and the soil 
 is^ level and sandy, the greater part of the water will soak 
 into the ground. This descends to the zone of saturation 
 and finally issues in the form of springs. On the other 
 hand, if the rainfall is violent and the surface rocky and 
 steep, most of the water will run off and find its way into 
 small streams. A number of small streams unite to form 
 a creek, and a number of creeks form a river. Streams 
 fed largely by springs usually flow all year, but those 
 supplied by rainfall only carry no water in dry times. 
 After very heavy rains streams become large and often 
 overflow their banks. 
 
 Chief Streams of Oklahoma. All the drainage of Okla- 
 homa is into the Mississippi River. The two largest rivers 
 in the State, the Arkansas and the Red, are tributaries of 
 that river. All other large streams in Oklahoma are trib- 
 utaries of either the Red or the Arkansas. The general 
 course of the streams is southeast, following the slope of 
 the Great Plains. The Arkansas River and its tributaries 
 drain the northern part of the State, about two-thirds in 
 all. Red River, which forms the southern boundary, re- 
 ceives the drainage of the southern third of the State. 
 
 None of the large rivers of Oklahoma rises in the State. 
 
 50 
 
DRAINAGE 51 
 
 The Arkansas and its largest tributary, the South Cana- 
 dian, rise among the snow-covered granite peaks of the 
 Rocky Mountains. All the other streams rise in surround- 
 ing states. 
 
 Character of Oklahoma Streams. Generally the streams 
 in western Oklahoma are very different in appearance 
 from those in the eastern counties. The western streams 
 flow in broad, sand-choked channels with low sand banks. 
 They are supplied largely from run-off after heavy rains. 
 Often for months at a time there will be little water in 
 the channel. The river may be dry from bank to bank, 
 when suddenly, without warning, a wall of foaming 
 water several feet high, carrying all sorts of debris, will 
 rush downstream at great speed, filling the channel bank- 
 full. For several days the water will be high, then it will 
 gradually recede and the channel will be dry again. 
 
 In eastern Oklahoma, on the other hand, the streams 
 have deep channels, containing very little sand, with 
 muddy or rocky banks. These streams are spring-fed and 
 usually contain water all the year. During the dry season 
 the water is low, but after heavy rains the channel is bank- 
 full. 
 
 Drainage Basins. The area drained by a river or a 
 river system is known as its basin. There is a great dif- 
 ference in the shape of the drainage basins of eastern and 
 western Oklahoma. Those in the western part of the 
 State are long, narrow and ribbon-like in outline, while 
 those farther east are oval in outline. This condition is 
 shown on the drainage map, Fig. 29. 
 
 Arkansas River. The Arkansas River, the largest 
 stream in Oklahoma, flows for 200 miles across the north- 
 east corner of the State. This river rises in the Rocky 
 
52 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 53 
 
 Mountains and flows in a broad, shallow channel south- 
 east across the plains of Colorado and Kansas. Near Ar- 
 kansas City, Kansas, a few miles north of the Oklahoma 
 line, it strikes the Flint Hills, and from this point to Tulsa, 
 near the southeast corner of Osage County, it flows in a 
 crooked channel among the limestone hills. Fig. 30 shows 
 the Arkansas in eastern Kay County. The distance is 
 about 90 miles direct, but as traversed by the river is 
 nearly twice as great. From Tulsa to Fort Smith, Ark., 
 
 Fig. 30. Valley of the Arkansas River in Kay County 
 
 where the river flows from the State, the Arkansas flows 
 in a broad, fertile valley often bounded by sandstone hills. 
 The bed of the Arkansas is filled with sand. In Colo- 
 rado and western Kansas much of the water is taken out 
 for irrigation, so that in northern Oklahoma there is 
 often little water in the channel. The many tribu- 
 taries in the State furnish water to keep the river flow- 
 ing all the year. From the point near Muskogee, where 
 the Verdigris and Grand rivers empty, the Arkansas is 
 navigable for small boats part of the year. 
 
54 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 The chief streams which enter the Arkansas from the 
 north are the Grand and Verdigris. The principal south- 
 ern tributaries are the Poteau, Canadian, Cimarron and 
 Salt Fork. Other smaller tributaries of the Arkansas are 
 Lees, Sallisaw, Vian, Illinois and Beaver creeks, which 
 enter from the north, and Sansbois, Polecat, Blackbear 
 and Redrock creeks, from the south. 
 
 Grand River. This stream, the largest northern tribu- 
 tary of the Arkansas, is formed by two streams, Neosho 
 and Spring rivers, which unite in the northern part of 
 the State. The Neosho River drains southeastern Kansas 
 and Spring River drains southwestern Missouri. Grand 
 River flows through a fertile valley along the western 
 edge of the Ozark Mountains and enters the Arkansas at 
 Fort Gibson. It is a clear, swift stream flowing over a 
 rocky or pebbly bed. It carries a large amount of water 
 and is one of the finest rivers in the State. Spavinaw, 
 Saline, Pryor and Big Cabin creeks are the largest tribu- 
 taries. 
 
 Verdigris River. Verdigris River rises in east-central 
 Kansas and flows south. It crosses Nowata, Rogers and 
 Wagoner counties before entering the Arkansas near the 
 mouth of the Grand. The river flows through a broad 
 valley, much of which is swamp land, in a crooked chan- 
 nel with steep mud banks. The chief tributaries are 
 Caney, Bird, Dog and Big creeks. 
 
 Poteau River. The Poteau is the only large stream in 
 Oklahoma that flows north. It takes its rise among the 
 high sandstone hills of the Ouachita Mountains in south- 
 western Arkansas, flows northwest and enters Oklahoma 
 in southeastern Le Flore County. The river follows a tor- 
 tuous course, flowing back and forth among the sand- 
 
DRAINAGE 55 
 
 stone bluffs, and empties into the Arkansas River at Fort 
 Smith. The channel is deep, with steep rock and mud 
 banks; the valley is sometimes broad and sometimes nar- 
 row. Several veins of coal cross the valley and the region 
 is destined to become, in time, a wealthy manufacturing 
 section. Brazil Creek and Black Fork are the chief tribu- 
 taries. 
 
 South Canadian River. The South Canadian, the largest 
 tributary of the Arkansas, rises in New Mexico. It crosses 
 the Panhandle of Texas before entering Oklahoma, and 
 then flows for 350 miles and joins the Arkansas 40 miles 
 above Fort Smith. In the western part of the State the 
 river swings back and forth in a series of ox-bow bends 
 and flows in a canyon-like valley about 200 feet deep. In 
 Dewey and Custer counties it flows among the Gypsum 
 Hills. The drainage basin in Oklahoma is narrow, not 
 averaging more than 20 miles wide, while in places it is 
 less than 10 miles. The channel is sand-choked and aver- 
 ages half a mile in width, the banks being low and sandy. 
 The channel is constantly shifting, and bends and cut- 
 offs are common. It is the most uncertain and treacherous 
 of all Oklahoma streams. Sudden and rapid rises are 
 common. Fig. 31 shows a team crossing the South Cana- 
 dian in high water. The largest tributary is the North 
 Canadian, which in turn receives Deep Fork. The river 
 has few large tributaries in Oklahoma, the largest being 
 Gaines Creek, Little River and Deer Creek. 
 
 North Canadian River. The North Canadian is formed 
 by Wolf Creek and Beaver Creek, which unite at Fort Sup- 
 ply, in Woodward County. Wolf Creek rises in the north- 
 ern part of the Panhandle of Texas and flows northeast. 
 Beaver Creek rises among the volcanic peaks in north- 
 
56 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 eastern New Mexico. It flows east across Cimarron, Texas, 
 Beaver and Harper counties before joining Wolf Creek. 
 Its chief tributaries are Coldwater, Palo Duro, Clear and 
 Kiowa creeks. The North Canadian flows parallel to the 
 South Canadian across Oklahoma. The width of the 
 drainage basin does not exceed 20 miles and in several 
 places the distance from the bed of the North Canadian 
 across the divide north of the stream to the water of the 
 Cimarron is not more than a mile. Its bed averages 200 
 
 Fig. 31. A Team Crossing the Canadian River in Flood 
 
 feet higher than the valley of the Cimarron. There is a 
 saying in western Oklahoma, "the North Canadian flows 
 on a ridge." In its upper course the bed of the stream 
 is filled with sand and the banks are low, but from Okla- 
 homa City eastward the amount of sand decreases and the 
 banks are steep and muddy. The water is purer than that 
 of most streams in the State, partly because it is fed 
 largely by springs from the sandhills, and partly because 
 no salt springs drain into this stream. North Canadian 
 has few tributaries. Deep Fork is the largest. Others of 
 some importance are Wewoka, Persimmon and Indian 
 
DRAINAGE 57 
 
 creeks. Deep Fork rises in Oklahoma County and flows 
 east across Lincoln, Creek and Okmulgee counties. It 
 is a narrow stream flowing in a crooked channel. The 
 bottom lands along this stream are subject to frequent 
 overflow. 
 
 Cimarron River. The Cimarron rises among the vol- 
 canic peaks of northern New Mexico and flows east, 
 crossing parts of Oklahoma, Colorado and Kansas before 
 finally entering Oklahoma at the Salt Plain on the Woods- 
 Harper county line. For 60 miles or more it flows in a 
 broad canyon among the Gypsum Hills, then passes out 
 onto the Redbeds Plains and flows east and enters the 
 Arkansas River at the southeastern corner of Pawnee 
 County. The Cimarron drainage basin is broader and 
 more regular in outline than that of any other stream in 
 western Oklahoma, averaging more than 40 miles wide. 
 The bed is broad and sandy, with low sand banks, as 
 shown in Fig. 32. The flow of water is intermittent, and 
 the stream is subject to sudden and rapid rises, rendering 
 it often unsafe to ford. Below the Salt Plains the water 
 contains a large amount of salt, rendering it unfit to use. 
 The chief tributaries are Buffalo, Eaglechief, Salt, Tur- 
 key, Kingfisher, Cottonwood, Skeleton and Stillwater 
 creeks. 
 
 S'ait Pork River. The Salt Fork of the Arkansas, an- 
 other typical stream of the plains, rises in southern Kan- 
 sas and flows east across Woods, Alfalfa, Grant and Kay 
 counties, a distance of 115 miles, before entering the Ar- 
 kansas. The banks are low and sandy and the channel is 
 filled with sand. The stream carries pure water as far as 
 the Salt Plains in Alfalfa County, but below that point 
 the water is salty. The valley of the stream is very fer- 
 
58 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 tile. The principal streams which empty into Salt Fork 
 are Medicine, Mule, Sand, Chikaskia, Deer, Cottonwood 
 and Bois d'Arc creeks. 
 
 Washita River. The Washita is the only stream in 
 western Oklahoma which has steep mud banks and little 
 sand in its channel. This is accounted for by the fact 
 that the "Washita flows across the Redbeds for almost its 
 entire course. Rising in the Panhandle of Texas, it flows 
 
 Fig. 32. Cimarron Ri^er, Showing the Low, Sandy Banks. 
 
 east into Oklahoma and across Roger Mills, Custer, Wash- 
 ita, Caddo, Grady, Garvin, Murray, Carter, Johnson and 
 between Marshall and Bryan counties before emptying 
 into Red River. In the western part of the State the 
 river cuts its way through the Gypsum Hills. Then it 
 flows out on the Redbeds Plains as far as the Arbuckle 
 Mountains. It crosses these mountains in a deep gorge 
 which it has cut through limestone rocks. (Fig. 33.) 
 South of the Arbuckles it crosses the Cretaceous forma- 
 
DRAINAGE 59 
 
 tions. The valley of the Washita is one of the most fer- 
 tile parts of Oklahoma. Its chief tributaries are Quarter- 
 master, Cavalry, Rainy Mountain, Cobb, Sugar, Little 
 Washita, Rush, Wild Horse, Caddo, Mill and Pennington 
 creeks. 
 
 Red River. Red River forms the southern boundary of 
 Oklahoma. This river resembles the Cimarron and South 
 Canadian in having a broad and sandy channel and an 
 intermittent flow. The name of the river is derived from 
 
 
 
 " -'^Lm • >'** .&*&°'''"n 
 
 3£** 
 
 "* : ;j|gi! 
 
 ■-■■:■:.-. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 33. Limestone in the Washita Gorge 
 
 the color of the water, and the red color comes from the 
 Redbeds across which the river flows. The river rises on 
 the High Plains, or Llano Estacado, of northern Texas. In 
 its upper course it flows for nearly 100 miles in Palo Duro 
 Canyon, which is in places 1,000 feet deep — the deepest 
 gash cut by stream erosion anywhere on the Plains. 
 
 Red River has a number of tributaries in southern Okla- 
 homa. The Washita has already been described. Little 
 River (Fig. 34) and Kiamitia (Pig. 33) drain the Ouachita 
 Mountains. Boggy Creek drains the southern part of the 
 Sandstone Hills region and the country between the 
 
60 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Ouachitas and the Arbuckles. Blue Kiver drains the east- 
 ern part of the Arbuckles. Mud and Beaver creeks drain 
 the southern part of the Redbeds Plains, which lies be- 
 tween the Arbuckles and the Wichitas. Cache Creek 
 drains the eastern part of the Wichitas and the surround- 
 ing plain. North Fork of Red River rises in the Pan- 
 handle of Texas and flows southeast. Its chief tributaries 
 are Elm Fork, Elk and Otter creeks. Salt Fork empties 
 inta South Fork. North, South, Salt and Elm Forks 
 
 Fig. 34. View on Little River, Eastern Oklahoma 
 
 of Red River are typical streams of the Plains, with 
 broad, sandy channels and low banks. The other streams 
 named have steep mud or rock banks and carry little sand. 
 Lakes. Oklahoma has no large lakes. Lakes are char- 
 acteristic of an ill-drained country, and Oklahoma is 
 everywhere well-drained. Along the larger streams, such 
 as Arkansas, Red and Canadian rivers, there are a few 
 long and narrow lakes that have been formed by cut-off 
 bends. On the High Plains there are numerous broad, 
 shallow basins which are sometimes filled with water, but 
 these are seldom more than 100 yards in diameter. Arti- 
 
, T ^7' r ' 
 
 Fig. 35. Ferry Boat on Kiamitia River 
 
 Fig. 36. An Artificial Lake Near Newkirk 
 
 CI 
 
62 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 ficial reservoirs, sometimes known as "tanks" are com- 
 mon in grazing regions. Fig. 36 shows an artificial lake 
 near Newkirk. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. How are streams fed? 
 
 2. Into what stream does all the drainage of Oklahoma finally 
 flow? 
 
 3. Name the two largest rivers in the State. 
 
 4. Where do the large rivers of Oklahoma rise? 
 
 5. What difference is there between the streams in eastern 
 and western Oklahoma? 
 
 6. Study the drainage map. Notice the soured and direction 
 of the various rivers. 
 
 7. Trace the divide between the Arkansas and Red River. 
 
 8. Compare the shape of the drainage basin of North Canadian 
 and Grand River. 
 
 9. Describe the Arkansas River, noting source, direction of 
 flow, chief tributaries, counties crossed or bordered, and chief 
 cities. 
 
 10. Describe likewise the Grand; Verdigris; Poteau; South 
 Canadian; North Canadian; Cimarron; Salt Fork. 
 
 11. Describe Red River; Washita. 
 
 12. Why has Oklahoma no large lakes? 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 WEATHER AND CLIMATE. 
 
 Weather refers to the condition of the air in regard to 
 rain, clouds, wind and heat. Climate is the sum total of 
 the weather for a long period of time. The weather often 
 changes suddenly, but climate changes so slowly that we 
 can rarely observe any variation in it. 
 
 Weather. The chief factors which go to make up the 
 weather in any particular region are temperature, winds, 
 humidity, sunshine and cloudiness and precipitation. If we 
 know these we can determine what the weather will most 
 likely be. These terms will now be explained. 
 
 Temperature. Temperature is the amount of heat that 
 any region receives, and is a very important thing to con- 
 sider, for upon it depends largely the kind of animal and 
 plant life in any place. Weather may be hot, cool or 
 cold. The average temperature for a day or year is called 
 the mean temperature. The difference between the high- 
 est, or maximum, and lowest, or minimum, is called the 
 range of temperature. 
 
 Air. Air is a mixture of several gases. The most im- 
 portant are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water 
 vapor. The great body of air which surrounds the earth 
 is called the atmosphere. Like other substances, air has 
 weight. At the surface of the ocean, where the pressure 
 is greatest, 13 1-3 cubic feet of air weigh a pound and 
 the weight of the air on every square inch of surface is 
 
 63 
 
64 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 about 15 pounds. As we ascend from sea level the density 
 of the air constantly decreases and thus the air becomes 
 lighter. When air is heated it rises. Other air rushes 
 in to supply its place, -forming winds. You have noticed 
 that when a strawstack or brush pile was burned on a 
 still day the heated air ascended, carrying with it a col- 
 umn of smoke. If you will walk around the fire you will 
 find that the air is moving inward toward it from all 
 directions. The ascending column of air and the cur- 
 rents flowing into it from all directions is a good illus- 
 tration of what is happening at the point of low pressure 
 in one of the great cyclonic storms which pass over Okla- 
 homa. 
 
 Wind. Wind, then, is air moving along the surface 
 of the earth, and it is caused by the unequal heating of 
 the air in different places. The rate at which the air 
 moves varies greatly. A gentle breeze which hardly 
 moves the leaves moves about two miles an hour. A 
 prairie wind may move 15 to 20 miles an hour, and a 
 destructive storm as much as 80 or 100 miles an hour. 
 
 Humidity. By the term humidity we mean the amount 
 of water vapor in the air. If the air contains little mois- 
 ture the humidity is low. If much moisture is present the 
 humidity is high. When air contains as much water vapor 
 as it will hold it is said to be saturated. The warmer the 
 air the more water vapor it will hold. If saturated air is 
 cooled, the water vapor is condensed in small drops, 
 forming clouds, fog or dew. Clouds form a curtain in the 
 sky and prevent the direct rays of the sun from reaching 
 the earth. In some countries clouds are almost always 
 present, but in Oklahoma about 250 days in the year are 
 
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 65 
 
 clear. There are more clear days in the western part of 
 the State than in the eastern. 
 
 Precipitation. The term precipitation is used to in- 
 clude all the moisture that falls on the surface of the 
 earth. In one climate by far the greater part of the 
 precipitation is in the form of rain; in another it may 
 be snow. In Oklahoma the greater part is in the form 
 of rain. During the summer months hail sometimes falls. 
 In the winter the drops of water are often frozen as they 
 pass through the air and form sleet. When the moisture 
 in the air is condensed at a temperature below freezing 
 point frost or snow results. The greatest amount of rain 
 in any one month falls in May. 
 
 Weather Bureau. One of the departments of the United 
 States Government is the Weather Bureau. Under the 
 direction of this bureau stations have been established 
 at every large city and at many other places for the pur- 
 pose of observing and recording weather conditions. At 
 these various stations observations are made twice a day 
 — at eight o'clock, morning and evening, Washington 
 time. The observer notes the direction of the wind, the 
 clearness of the sky, the temperature, air pressure and 
 the amount of precipitation that has fallen in the last 
 twelve hours. These observations are sent by telegraph 
 to Washington and other large centers, and a map is pre- 
 pared showing the weather conditions in all parts of the 
 country. By studying the map the officers are able to 
 predict the weather from twenty-four to thirty-six hours 
 in advance. About four-fifths of the predictions are cor- 
 rect. The station for Oklahoma is at Oklahoma City. 
 Daily weather maps may be obtained free by people of 
 
66 
 
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 67 
 
 Oklahoma by sending to the Director of the Weather 
 Bureau at Oklahoma City. 
 
 Cyclones. Oklahoma weather is said to be cyclonic. A 
 cyclone is a disk of air, hundreds of miles in diameter, 
 covering several states, and about two miles thick, ly- 
 ing upon the surface of the earth. At the center of this 
 area is a center of low pressure, where the heated air is 
 constantly rising. Cooler air from areas of high pressure 
 without the cyclonic area flows in along the ground, 
 ascends at the center and flows upward with a spiral 
 twist in the opposite direction from the hands of a clock. 
 
 In addition to this circular motion the cyclone as a 
 whole is moving across the country at the rate of 20 to 
 30 miles per hour. The direction is usually eastward. 
 These cyclones pass over Oklahoma usually at intervals 
 of from three to seven days. During the passage of a 
 cyclone over Oklahoma the weather usually changes sev- 
 eral times. As the air in the area of low pressure ascends 
 it is cooled, the moisture is condensed and clouds are 
 formed. Rain begins to fall. Thunder storms and hail 
 are frequently produced. After the storm center or low 
 pressure area has passed, the wind changes to the north, 
 the clouds disappear and the sky is clear and the weather 
 cooler for several days. Fig. 37 shows the progress of a 
 cyclone across Oklahoma. 
 
 Most of the Oklahoma storms originate either in the 
 northwestern part of the United States and pass south- 
 east, or in the New Mexico region and pass northeast. 
 The former are the ' ' northers " or " blizzards ' ' in winter, 
 and the latter cause most of our thunder storms and 
 tornadoes. After crossing our State the storms pass east- 
 ward across the Mississippi Valley; and many of them 
 
68 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 swing to the northeast, cross the Great Lakes and turn 
 down the St. Lawrence Valley. Most storms are bene- 
 ficial, because they bring rain, without which vegetation 
 could not exist. Only occasionally is the State visited 
 with destructive storms, such as a tornado, hailstorm or 
 cloudburst. 
 
 Climate. Climate is the sum of the weather for a num- 
 ber of years. The principal causes' which influence cli- 
 
 ■irmary 
 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 ill II 1 
 
 
 
 
 J 1 II 
 
 
 III II 1 jl 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 ill 1 I I ' 1 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 tt 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 il 1 1 III IJJ 1 I|m 
 
 
 iii 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 M ii 1 1 ii 1 1 1 1 1 ii 1 1 ii i it in ii in it til 1 1 1 1 1 1 ii ii i ii i ii i 
 
 
 Jar, 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 Mau 
 June 
 duly 
 AuyuSt 
 Oe/'remier 
 October 
 /Voirember 
 December 
 Annua/ 
 
 Chan Shon\nj Areraye A'fonthly Temperatures in Oklahoma 
 
 Fig. 38. Chart Showing the Monthly Temperature 
 of Oklahoma 
 
 mate are: Latitude, or distance from the equator; alti- 
 tude, or distance above sea level; direction of the pre- 
 vailing winds; distance from large bodies of water; hu- 
 midity, or amount of moisture in the air; ocean currents; 
 and mountains. 
 
 Countries which are located near the equator have a 
 warm or torrid climate, but near the poles the climate 
 is frigid. Oklahoma is situated midway between the 
 equator and the poles and has a temperate climate. 
 
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 
 
 69 
 
 Temperature. Temperature changes with altitude 
 about one degree for every 65 feet. The tops of high 
 mountains are always cold, even those near the equator. 
 Western Oklahoma is nearly 5,000 feet above sea level 
 and the climate is much cooler than in the eastern part 
 of the State, where the altitude is less than 1,000 feet. 
 Fig. 38 shows the monthly temperature of Oklahoma. 
 
 Winds. Winds bring high or low temperature and 
 moisture and consequently affect climate. The cold north 
 
 :IE=^ "WxH 
 
 OKLAHOMA 
 
 "VS 
 
 Fig. 39. Chart Showing the Mean Annual 
 Precipitation in Oklahoma 
 
 winds make the winter climate of Oklahoma colder than 
 it would otherwise be. The hot southwest winds in sum- 
 mer bring excessive heat from the heated plains. Large 
 bodies of water temper the climate and make changes 
 less frequent. The nearest large body of water to Okla- 
 homa is the Gulf of Mexico, about three hundred miles 
 distant. The influence of the Gulf is felt especially in the 
 southern and eastern parts of the State, where the rain- 
 fall is heavy and the temperature less changeable than 
 further north and west. 
 
70 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Humidity. The humidity of Oklahoma decreases from 
 east to west. The greater part of the State is in what is 
 known as the humid region of the United States. The 
 extreme western counties only are in the arid region. The 
 climate in the interior of continents is spoken of as a 
 continental climate. It is subject to frequent changes. 
 Near the oceans, where changes are less frequent, the 
 climate is known as an oceanic climate. The climate of 
 
 UanuafL 
 
 r e br 
 
 iruary 
 
 March 
 Afrit 
 A/ ay 
 </une 
 
 (.lulu 
 
 AutjvSt 
 
 Seblember 
 
 October 
 
 Novemb'tr 
 
 Dec ember 
 
 /nclits J - 
 
 Cfiart o/><)#/y Areraye Monthly Precipitation in Oklahoma 
 
 Fig. 40. Chart Showing the Average Monthly 
 
 Rainfall in Oklahoma 
 
 Oklahoma is continental. The almost constant breezes 
 purify the air and make it very healthful. 
 
 Rainfall. The rainfall of Oklahoma varies from place 
 to place, from year to year, and from season to season. 
 The chart shown in Fig. 39 shows the mean annual rain- 
 fall for the past seventeen years. It will be seen that 
 the rainfall steadily decreases from east to west. Snow 
 rarely falls in southeastern Oklahoma, but in the north- 
 
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 71 
 
 ern part of the State it sometimes occurs. Fig. 40 shows 
 the average monthly rainfall in Oklahoma. 
 
 The following table shows the mean annual rainfall for 
 the State by months for the past seventeen years : 
 
 nj x . Eastern Division. t , 
 
 Station. Inches. 
 
 Durant 40.41 
 
 Tahlequah 43.91 
 
 Muskogee 37.28 
 
 Tulsa 34.65 
 
 Holdenville 37.95 
 
 Webber Falls 38.74 
 
 Fairland 43.04 
 
 «, ,. Central Division. t . 
 
 Station. Inches. 
 
 Ardmore 37.13 
 
 Chickasha 30.76 
 
 Guthrie 31.50 
 
 Kingfisher 29.50 
 
 Newkirk 32.80 
 
 Oklahoma 30.96 
 
 Pawhuska 41.03 
 
 Shawnee 33.08 
 
 „, j_. Western Division. t . 
 
 Station. Inches. 
 
 Arapaho 28.07 
 
 Alva 28.58 
 
 Fort Sill 31.59 
 
 Kenton 15.74 
 
 Mangum 26.23 
 
 Temple 29.27 
 
 Weatherford 26.39 
 
72 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Rainfall by Months. 
 
 Month. Inches. Month. Inches. 
 
 January 1.26 July 3.56 
 
 February 1.24 August 2.97 
 
 March 2.41 September 3.04 
 
 April 3.07 October 2.43 
 
 May 5.31 November 1.83 
 
 June 3.82 December 1.47 
 
 These figures show that the greater part of the rain- 
 fall occurs during the spring and summer months, i. e., 
 during the growing season. 
 
 Oklahoma Climate. Oklahoma has a bright and sunny 
 climate and sufficient rainfall for vegetation, but is not so 
 humid as to be unhealthful. The amount of sunshine 
 and the dry cool air are all favorable to health. As a re- 
 sult, Oklahoma is a healthful State. Its low death rate 
 is due largely to its climate. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEEC1SES 
 
 1. What is weather? 
 
 2. What is climate? 
 
 3. What are the chief factors which go to make up weather? 
 
 4. What is temperature? With what instrument is it measured? 
 
 5. What do you understand by maximum, minimum, and mean 
 temperatures? 
 
 6. What is wind? 
 
 7. What is meant by humidity? 
 
 8. What is meant by precipitation? 
 
 9. Study the map on page 69, and find out what the precipita- 
 tion of your special locality is. 
 
WEATHER AND CLIMATE 73 
 
 10. Study the same map and try to tell why western Oklahoma 
 gets less rainfall than eastern Oklahoma. 
 
 11. What is low pressure? High pressure? 
 
 12. Study Figure 37. Where is the center of low pressure? In 
 what direction is the wind flowing east of this center? West? 
 South? Where is the area of clouds? The area of clear weather? 
 Where do the storms occur? . 
 
 13. What is cyclonic weather? A cyclone? 
 
 14. What are some characteristics of a continental climate 
 compared with an oceanic? 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 VEGETATION AND AOTMAL LIFE. 
 
 Flora and Fauna. The flora of a region includes all 
 the plants, and the fauna all the animals found there. 
 The plant life of a region is more directly dependent up- 
 on climatic conditions than the animal life, for plants 
 
 Fig. 41. Up-land Timber in Eastern Oklahoma 
 
 cannot move from one place to another as animals can. 
 The chief factors affecting the flora of a country are : the 
 amount and the distribution of rainfall ; the temperature ; 
 and the character of the soil. The distribution of animal 
 life depends chiefly upon the distribution of plants and 
 the abundance of other animals. 
 
 74 
 
VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 
 
 75 
 
 Flora of Oklahoma. Eastern Oklahoma lies in the tim- 
 bered region of the United States; western Oklahoma is 
 in the prairie region. The line of separation of forest 
 and prairie corresponds roughly to the line which sep- 
 arates the Sandstone Hills from the Redbeds Plains ; and 
 lies east of the main line of the Santa Fe railroad. No 
 hard and fast lines can be drawn, however, for there are 
 
 Fig. 42. A Saw Mill in Eastern Oklahoma 
 
 considerable areas of prairie east of this line, and some 
 forest areas are found west. 
 
 Trees. The trees of eastern Oklahoma are the ordinary 
 forest species found in the Mississippi valley. On the 
 hills the principal trees are several species of oak and 
 hickory shown in Fig. 41, besides ash, persimmon, sassa- 
 fras, pine and cedar. A saw mill is shown in Fig. 42. 
 Along the valleys, cottonwood, elm, maple, sycamore, 
 willow, hackberry, walnut, bois d'arc, pecan and sweet 
 gum, are most common. Several species of wild plum 
 
76 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 and wild cherry, mulberry, honey locust, haw, crabapple 
 and wild grape are found. Fig. 43 shows piles of cross 
 ties and lumber at a station. Fig. 44 shows a rail fence 
 and deadened timber in a clearing in eastern Oklahoma. 
 In the western half of the State trees are found usual- 
 ly only along the streams or among the sand hills. The 
 level uplands are grass-covered. Cottonwood, elm, hack- 
 berry, chinaberry, walnut and willow are the prin- 
 
 n * "* *"^ K ,;,* -,„■ 
 
 
 
 
 -- 
 
 
 .^<^< 
 
 
 :■ ' .*- i:. >' 
 
 - 
 
 Fig. 43. Piles of Crossties and Lumber at Bennington 
 
 cipal trees along the streams. Fig. 45 is a dwarfed elm. 
 Fig. 46 shows cottonwood and elm trees. On the flat 
 prairies and along some of the streams in the western 
 counties is found the thorny mesquite. Black jack, post 
 oak, hackberry and hickory grow in the sand hills. On 
 the High Plains in the extreme western part of the State 
 there are very few trees even along the streams, but even 
 here an occasional low elm or dwarf cottonwood or willow 
 may be found. 
 
VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 
 
 77 
 
 Grasses. There are a great many species of native 
 grasses in Oklahoma. In the eastern and central parts 
 of the State the grasses grow tall. The chief grass 
 in this region is commonly known as "bine stem." On 
 the High Plains the most common form is called "buffalo 
 grass." Buffalo grass grows only two or three inches 
 high; but it stands very thick and forms a heavy sod 
 carpet on the ground. Western Oklahoma is sometimes 
 
 Fig. 44. Rail Fence and Deadened Timber 
 
 known as the "short grass country." The principal cul- 
 tivated grasses are alfalfa and Bermuda grass. Clover, 
 orchard grass and blue grass are cultivated in lawns, and 
 timothy is grown in the eastern counties. In the sandy 
 country on the High Plains is found the so-called sage 
 brush and the spiney yucca. Several species of cactus, 
 also, grow on the plains. 
 
 Mistletoe. The mistletoe grows everywhere in Okla- 
 homa except in the northwestern part of the State. It is 
 
78 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 a parasite and flourishes best on elm trees. The branches 
 are short and stubby, the leaves dark green and in win- 
 ter the berries are white. The beautiful dark green clus- 
 ters with white berries form handsome decorations. 
 Great quantities of mistletoe are every year shipped to 
 northern markets at Christmas time. The mistletoe is 
 usually accepted as the state flower of Oklahoma. 
 
 Fauna of Oklahoma. Oklahoma contains a very diverse 
 
 Fig. 45. A Dwarf Elm on the High Plains 
 
 fauna. The borderland of forest and prairie has helped 
 to promote animal migration. Many of the largest and 
 most useful of the wild animals have been destroyed by 
 man so that now only the smaller and less important re- 
 main. 
 
 Wild Animals. Buffalo once roamed in countless num- 
 bers over our plains, but they have practically all been 
 killed. At the present time three small herds are kept in 
 
VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 
 
 79 
 
 captivity, one herd at Pawnee, one at Bliss, and one in 
 the Forest Reserve in the Wichita Mountains, Fig. 47. 
 
 Elk were once plentiful but they have long since dis- 
 appeared. A few years ago there were still several droves 
 of antelope on the High Plains but there are none now. 
 Deer are found occasionally in the timbered country in 
 eastern Oklahoma. Bears and panthers which were once 
 common have about all disappeared. Gray wolves are 
 
 Fig. 46. Cottonwood and Elm Timber Along a Stream — 
 Western Oklahoma 
 
 occasionally found and coyotes are still common in cer- 
 tain localities in the central and in the western part of 
 the State. 
 
 Jack rabbits and ground squirrels are common on the 
 prairies, and cotton-tail rabbits, red squirrels and gray 
 squirrels in the timber. Badgers, minks, and otters 
 are occasionally found, but the beavers have all been de- 
 stroyed. Muskrats live along the streams. Gophers are 
 common and many colonies of prairie dogs are yet found 
 
80 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 in the western part of the State. Wild cats, raccoons, 
 opossums, and skunks are still to be seen in many regions. 
 Birds. There is a great variety of birds in Oklahoma. 
 Among the flesh-eating birds are several species of owls, 
 of which the barred owl, screech owl, monkey-faced owl, 
 and prairie-dog owl are most common. A number of spe- 
 cies of hawks, also, abound. The Mississippi kite is com- 
 mon in the western counties. Both the bald eagle and the 
 
 Fig. 47. Buffalo Herd in the Forest Reserve, 
 Wichita Mountains 
 
 Photograph by Dedrick, Talogu, Okla. 
 
 golden eagle are found, and the turkey buzzard is com- 
 mon everywhere. Game birds are common. Quails are 
 abundant, and prairie chickens and wild turkeys are still 
 found in sparsely-settled localities. Ducks, geese, brants, 
 cranes, snipe, plover, mud hens, curlew, and other migra- 
 tory wildfowl are common at certain seasons of the year. 
 Crows are found in the timbered country. There are 
 many kinds of song birds both in the timber and on the 
 
VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE 81 
 
 prairie, the most common of which are various species 
 of sparrows, thrushes, orioles, blackbirds, doves, larks, 
 warblers, fly catchers, and robins. 
 
 Snakes and Lizards. There are but few kinds of poi- 
 sonous snakes in Oklahoma; the rattle snake, the copper- 
 head and the water moccasin, and none of these is com- 
 mon. There are four forms of the rattlesnake in the 
 State, the most common of which are known as the prairie 
 rattler, the timber rattler, and the diamond rattler. All 
 snakes except the poisonous ones are useful to man and 
 should not be killed. Among these are the bull snake, 
 spreading adder, water snake, black snake, king snake, 
 blue racer, coach whip, garter snake, and house snake. 
 Frogs and toads which are common are useful also. 
 There are several species of small lizards, the largest of 
 which is sometimes known as the "mountain boomer." 
 It is really a chameleon and has the power of changing 
 the color of its skin. There are two peculiar kinds of 
 lizard in Oklahoma which bear the name of another an- 
 imal. The "horned toad" is not a toad at all, but a 
 lizard. It is much more common further west than in 
 Oklahoma. The "joint snake" is a lizard also. Its tail, 
 which is longer than the rest of its body, is composed 
 of sutures which may be pulled apart. The animal may 
 lose all its tail and still live. 
 
 Turtles. There are several varieties of turtles, both on 
 land and in water. The most common land form is the 
 box tortoise, sometimes known as the terrapin. The two 
 most common turtles living in water are the soft-shelled 
 and the hard-shelled turtle. Both kinds are used for 
 food. 
 
 Do Not Kill Snakes. None of these small forms of an- 
 
82 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 imals, except the poisonous snakes, are harmful to man. 
 Most of them are very useful* They destroy countless 
 numbers of harmful insects and small animals such as 
 mice and rats. Only ignorant or cruel people now kill 
 snakes, toads, lizards or turtles. 
 
 Fishes. The streams of Oklahoma abound with fish. 
 Bass, perch, catfish, sunfish, trout and buffalo are the 
 most abundant native species. German carp and crappie 
 have been introduced into many streams and ponds. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. Define flora; fauna. 
 
 2. What factors affect the fauna of a country? The flora? 
 
 3. What part of Oklahoma is timbered? 
 
 4. Name the trees growing on the upland in eastern Oklahoma. 
 
 5. Name the principal species found in the valleys. 
 
 6. Where are the trees found in western Oklahoma? 
 
 7. Name t.ke chief species. 
 
 8. What are the principal wild grasses? The cultivated 
 grasses? 
 
 9. Name some plants found* on the High Plains. 
 
 10. Describe the mistletoe. 
 
 11. Name some wild animals that are nearly extinct. 
 
 12. What are the most common wild animals in the State? 
 
 13. Prepare a list of all the birds you can think of that live in 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 14. What are the poisonous snakes? 
 
 15. Name the non-poisonous snakes. 
 
 16. To what form of life do the horned toad and joint snake 
 belong? 
 
 17. Why should non-poisonous snakes, toads, turtles and lizards 
 not be killed? 
 
 18. Name the principal kinds of fish found in Oklahoma. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES. 
 
 Original Owners of Oklahoma, By the provisions of 
 the Louisiana purchase of 1803, all of Oklahoma except 
 that part which lies west of the one hundredth meridian, 
 came into the possession of the United States. The 
 Osage Indians claimed all the land north of the South 
 Canadian River, and the Quapaws all the land south of 
 that stream. In 1817 both these tribes ceded their land 
 to the general government. 
 
 Homes of the Five Civilized Tribes. At this time there 
 were living in the southeastern part of the United States 
 several Indian tribes — among others the Cherokees, 
 Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws and Chickasaws. The 
 Cherokees lived in the country covered by the corners of 
 the states North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ala- 
 bama, Tennessee and Virginia. The Creeks, who knew 
 themselves as the Muskogees, lived in western Georgia 
 and Alabama. The Seminoles, a branch of the Musko- 
 gees, lived in southern Georgia and Florida. The Choc- 
 taws and Chickasaws lived in western Alabama and Mis- 
 sissippi. 
 
 As these southern states were settled these tribes re- 
 tired before the encroachments of the white man, until 
 finally they were confined to small reservations. At vari- 
 ous times they sold their homes to the government and 
 received in return certain lands in what is now Okla- 
 
 83 
 
84 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 lioma. By the terms of the treaties the land was to be- 
 long to the Indians forever. 
 
 Migration of the Five Civilized Tribes. Before the 
 year 1820 the Cherokees had sold part of their land in 
 North Carolina to the general government and received 
 cession of land north of the Arkansas River in what is 
 now northeastern Oklahoma. This included not only the 
 old Cherokee Nation, but also the Osage, Pawnee, Ponca, 
 Otoe and Tonkawa reservations and the so-called Chero- 
 kee Outlet or "The Strip." 
 
 In 1820 the Choctaw Indians gave to the government 
 certain lands in Mississippi and received in lieu thereof 
 lands in the Indian Territory, lying between the Cana- 
 dian and Red rivers ; and in 1832 the Chickasaws, a band 
 of the Choctaws, came west and settled on the same land. 
 
 In 1825 the Creek Indians ceded to the United States 
 their lands in Georgia and received, acre for acre, land 
 lying, north of South Canadian River extending north to 
 the Cherokee possessions. In 1833 the Seminoles re- 
 ceived a grant of land along the southern part of the 
 Creek country, including everything between the North 
 and South Canadian rivers, extending from a point near 
 where Shawnee is now located, westward to the Texas 
 line. 
 
 At the opening of the Civil war, the Five Civilized 
 Tribes — the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, and 
 Chickasaws — owned all that is now Oklahoma except No 
 Man's Land and Greer County. Texas claimed Greer 
 County. 
 
 Disposal of Land by the Five Civilized Tribes. After 
 the war, in 1866, all the tribes except the Cherokees, 
 were forced to give up to the general government part 
 of their territory. The Seminoles ceded to the United 
 
< w> tn 
 
 <K<25Z0 5 
 
 u D|->-U<OHo 
 
 a. o-o £ 
 
 O < 
 
 a. < 
 < * 
 
 * z 
 2o 
 
86 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 States all of their land between the North and South 
 Canadian rivers, and bought from the Creeks 200,000 
 acres of land lying just east of their former possession. 
 At the same time the Creeks ceded all the western part 
 of their lands to the United States. The Choctaws and 
 Chickasaws gave up their land west of the 98th me- 
 ridian. The Cherokees divided their lands along the 96th 
 meridian and authorized the United States government to 
 
 Fig. 49. Wichita Grass Houses 
 
 settle friendly Indians in the western part of the terri- 
 tory, known as the Cherokee Outlet. They still owned 
 this land, however. 
 
 Settlement of Friendly Indians in Oklahoma. It was 
 about this time that the government began to pursue 
 the policy of bringing scattered tribes or remnants of 
 tribes from other parts of the country and settling them 
 on this land, which had been given up by the Five Civil- 
 ized Tribes. The eastern part of the State, which was re- 
 
LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES 
 
 87 
 
 tained by the Five Civilized Tribes, was afterward known 
 as Indian Territory. The western part, settled by vari- 
 ous tribes, was called Oklahoma. 
 
 In 1867 the Sac and Fox Indians ceded their lands in 
 Wisconsin to the United States government and received 
 750,000 acres of land between the Cimarron and North 
 Canadian rivers. The same year several bands and rem- 
 nants of tribes settled in the northeast corner of the 
 
 Fig. 50. Sac and Fox Bark House 
 
 Cherokee country in the region east of the Neosho River. 
 Among these were the Wyandottes, Quapaws, Miamias, 
 Senecas, and Peorias. The Pottawatomies came from In- 
 diana and Michigan the same year and received land be- 
 tween the two Canadian rivers, extending west from the 
 Seminole country to the Indian meridian. The Kiowas 
 and Comanches, two tribes of "Wild Indians of the 
 Plains," were the same year assigned a reservation be- 
 tween the Washita and Red rivers extending west from 
 
88 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 the Chickasaw country to the North Fork of the Red 
 River. 
 
 In 1869 the Cheyermes and Arapahoes, also Plains In- 
 dians, were given lands between the 98th and 100th me- 
 ridians, extending from the Washita River north to the 
 Cherokee Strip. 
 
 In 1872 the Osages sold their land in Kansas and 
 bought of the Cherokees a tract bounded by the 96th 
 
 Fig. 51. Conical Tepees of the Comanches 
 
 meridian, the Kansas line, the Arkansas River and the 
 Creek country. They, in turn, sold to the Kaw Indians, 
 who came from eastern Kansas, the western part of their 
 country, including that part of what is now Kay County 
 which lies east of the Arkansas River. The same year 
 the Wichitas and Caddos ceded lands which they owned 
 in Texas and Louisiana to the government and received 
 a tract between the Washita and South Canadian rivers 
 extending from the 98th meridian to a line 38 miles west. 
 
LOCATION OF INDIAN TRIBES 
 
 89 
 
 The Pawnees in 1875 sold their land in Nebraska and 
 received twelve townships lying between the Arkansas 
 and Cimarron rivers in what is now Pawnee County. In 
 1881 the Otoe, Missouri, and Ponca Indians came from 
 Nebraska and settled on reservations in what is now east- 
 ern Kay and Noble counties. 
 
 In 1883 the Iowas 
 from Iowa and the 
 Kickapoos from Mexico 
 received tracts of land 
 in what is now Lincoln 
 County, the former set- 
 tling north of Deep 
 Fork, the latter south. 
 
 Fig. 48 shows the lo- 
 cation of the various 
 tribes in Oklahoma be- 
 fore any land was op- 
 ened to settlement. 
 
 The Apache Indians, 
 who were once the ter- 
 ror of Arizona under 
 Geronimo. are now held 
 at Fort Sill Military 
 Reservation i n Co- 
 manche County, where 
 they have been for six- 
 teen years under military supervision and direction. The 
 Apaches are virtually prisoners of war and do not own 
 any land. There are about 230 Apaches in this group. 
 
 Mode of life. For many years after settling on their 
 Oklahoma reservations these Indians retained their prim- 
 
 Fig. 52. Indian Papoose 
 
90 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 itive customs. Each tribe had its own peculiar form of 
 house. The Wichitas lived in grass houses, as shown in Fig. 
 49, the Sac and Fox and Kaw Indians had bark houses, 
 such as those in Fig. 50, and the wild Indians of the 
 Plains used the conical tepee pictured in Fig. 51. Later 
 the government built houses on the allotments. Today 
 the greater part of the Indians live in wooden .houses and 
 are engaged in farming and stock-raising. Fig. 52 shows 
 an Indian papoose. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. What Indian tribes originally occupied the territory now 
 comprised in Oklahoma? 
 
 2. Where did the Five Civilized Tribes live? 
 
 3. When did each of these tribes come west? 
 
 4. Where did each tribe settle? 
 
 5. What land was given up by each tribe after the Civil War? 
 
 6. What policy did the government establish regarding the 
 location of scattered tribes? 
 
 7. Give the original home and the location of the land in Okla- 
 homa given to the Sac and Foxes; the Pottawatomies; the Kiowas 
 and Comanches; Cheyennes and Arapahoes; Osages; Kaws; Paw- 
 nees; Otoes and Missouris; Iowas; Kickapoos; Apaches. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT. 
 
 Old Oklahoma. After the various Indian tribes from 
 different parts of the United States had been settled on 
 their reservations there still remained a tract of land in 
 the center of the territory containing 1 about 2,000,000 
 acres, which was unoccupied by any tribe. This tract 
 extended from the Indian meridian west to the 98th me- 
 ridian and from the Cherokee Strip south to the South 
 Canadian River. (See Fig. 48.) It was called the Okla- 
 homa country. The name was derived from two Choc- 
 taw words, "Okla, " meaning people or tribe, and 
 "Homa," meaning red. The word Oklahoma, then, means 
 red people or red tribe. 
 
 Agitation Leading to the Opening of Oklahoma to Set- 
 tlement. For a number of years this country was occu- 
 pied by stockmen only. Beginning about 1875 an agita- 
 tion was commenced to induce the government to open 
 the lands to settlement. It was claimed that it was no 
 longer Indian land, but a part of the public domain. Be- 
 ginning with the year 1880 determined efforts were made 
 to force the opening of the Oklahoma country. Boomer 
 colonies were organized along the north line of the Cher- 
 okee Strip and many caravans of white-topped "prairie 
 schooners" moved south to the "promised land." 
 
 Many men had part in this agitation, but the one to 
 whom most credit is due was Capt. David L. Payne, the 
 
 91 
 
92 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 prince of Oklahoma boomers. Five times he led colonies 
 of settlers into Oklahoma, He was arrested a number of 
 times and his followers put out of the country by United 
 States troops. He was tried in court for trespassing, but 
 was cleared of the charge, the Court holding that Okla- 
 homa was public domain. Capt. Payne died at Welling- 
 ton, Kansas, in 1884, five years before the country was 
 opened. 
 Opening" of Oklahoma. Agitation continued, and finally 
 
 Fig. 53. The Opening of Oklahoma 
 
 Congress passed an Act authorizing the settlement of 
 Oklahoma. The President issued a proclamation and at 
 noon on April 22, 1889, the country was opened to settle- 
 ment. The opening was conducted on the horse race 
 plan, as shown in Fig. 53, every contestant running for 
 a piece of land and taking what he could get. In many 
 cases two or more persons got on the same tract of land. 
 Many contests followed, often leading to bloodshed and 
 in many cases long-continued law-suits. The counties of 
 Logan, Payne, Oklahoma, Cleveland, Canadian and King- 
 
EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 93 
 
 fisher were framed from old Oklahoma. Additions to all 
 these counties have been made from lands acquired from 
 time to time by the opening of adjacent reservations. A 
 territorial government was inaugurated. Geo. W. Steele 
 of Indiana was appointed the first Governor. 
 
 No Man's Land. In 1890 Beaver County, sometimes 
 known as the Neutral Strip, No Man's Land, or Cimarron 
 Territory, was added to Oklahoma. This strip of land, 
 167 miles long and 35 miles wide, containing 3,682,360 
 acres, extends west from the main part of Oklahoma. It 
 once belonged to Mexico and afterward was a part of the 
 Republic of Texas, but was not admitted as a part of the 
 State of Texas because it lies north of 36° 30', the north- 
 ern limit of slave territory. For a number of years it 
 was not a part of any state or territory. It was settled, 
 however, and the citizens met, organized a government, 
 and named the country Cimarron Territory. They elected 
 officers and even sent a delegate to Congress, but he was 
 not recognized. 
 
 Other Reservations. The Territory of Oklahoma hav- 
 ing been organized the government began to pursue the 
 policy of opening to settlement other adjacent reserva- 
 tions. Treaties were from time to time made with the 
 various tribes. The Indians received allotments of land, 
 usually 160 acres for each man, woman and child. The 
 remainder, usually the poorest land, was then thrown 
 open to settlement by white men. 
 
 On Sept. 22, 1891, the Sac and Fox, Iowa and Pottawat- 
 omie reservations in eastern Oklahoma were opened for 
 settlement. The reservations contained 1,282,434 acres. 
 This opening was also on the horse race plan and much 
 dispute and many contests arose. Portions of Pottawat- 
 
94 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 omie, Lincoln, Cleveland, Logan, Oklahoma and Payne 
 counties were formed from these reservations. 
 
 The Cheyenne and Arapaho country in western Okla- 
 homa, embracing 4,297,771 acres, was opened on April 19, 
 
 1892. This country extends from old Oklahoma west to 
 Texas and lies south of the Cherokee Strip. All or part 
 of Blaine, Washita, Custer, Dewey, Roger Mills, Ellis, 
 Beckham, Canadian and Kingfisher counties are included 
 in the reservation. The horse race plan was followed, but 
 the country was so large that only a small part of it near 
 the border was settled on the day of the opening, so that 
 contests were not so common as in the other reservations. 
 
 The Cherokee Strip. The Cherokee Strip, containing 
 6,014,239 acres, was opened to settlement September 16, 
 
 1893. This is the largest reservation ever opened in Okla- 
 homa, and contains some of the finest agricultural land in 
 the State. In the opening of this reservation an attempt 
 was made to regulate the abuses that had marked former 
 openings. Booths were established along the border. No 
 one was permitted to file on land who could not produce 
 a booth certificate to prove that he was not a "sooner," 
 a term applied to persons in Oklahoma who had entered 
 upon land before it was legally opened to settlement. The 
 booth system was not a success and many contests oc- 
 curred. Pawnee, Noble, Kay, Grant, Garfield, Alfalfa, 
 Major, Woods, Woodward, and Harper and part of Payne 
 and Ellis counties were in the Cherokee Strip. 
 
 On May 23, 1895, the Kickapoo lands, containing 206,662 
 acres located in eastern Oklahoma, were opened to set- 
 tlement. The horse race was the feature of the opening 
 and many contests resulted. The Kickapoo country was 
 
EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 95 
 
 divided between Lincoln, Oklahoma, and Pottawatomie 
 counties. 
 
 Greer County. . By a decision of a supreme court of the 
 United States rendered March 16, 1896, Greer County, 
 containing 1,511,566 acres was added to Oklahoma. This 
 country had been claimed as a part of Texas and that 
 state had exercised jurisdiction over the disputed terri- 
 tory. The point at issue dated back to the time of the 
 Louisiana purchase, and depended upon whether the 
 North Fork or South Fork of Red River was the main 
 branch of that stream. Greer, Jackson and part of Beck- 
 ham counties are in this territory. 
 
 The Kiowa Country. The Kiowa, Comanche, and Wich- 
 ita reservations, comprising nearly 4,000,000 acres, were 
 opened to settlement August 6, 1901. For the first 
 time the race horse was done away with and the drawing 
 plan was adopted. Every applicant was required to reg- 
 ister, the names were placed in a box, then drawn out, 
 numbered, and the applicant allowed to file in the order 
 of the number thus drawn. AH of Caddo, Kiowa, Comanche 
 and Tillman counties, and parts of Jefferson, Stevens, 
 Grady, Canadian and Blaine counties, belonged to this 
 reservation. 
 
 Certain areas in these reservations were reserved by 
 the Kiowa and Comanche Indians and known as pasture 
 reserves. These were opened to settlement in 1907. This 
 land was sold by private bids. 
 
 The Kansas reservation and portions of the Ponca res- 
 ervation have been attached to Kay County. Parts of the 
 Ponca and Otoe and Missouri reservations were added to 
 Noble County. Pawnee County received portions of the 
 Otoe and Missouri reservations. In these reservations all 
 
96 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 the land was alloted to the Indians, so none of it was sub- 
 ject to settlement by white men. 
 
 The Osage reservation now forms a county. This land 
 belongs to the Osage Indians and they have divided the 
 land pro rata, each Indian receiving 659 acres. 
 
 Indian Territory. On the Indian Territory side of the 
 State conditions were very different. Here all the land 
 had belonged to the Five Civilized Tribes ever since they 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 IF 
 
 
 
 
 : -:• 
 
 
 
 Fig. 54. Indian Cabin, Eastern Oklahoma 
 
 came west 70 years before. According to the ancient 
 treaties, "as long as the sun shall shine; as long as the 
 grass shall grow; as long as water shall run; the land 
 shall be to you and your children." For many years 
 few white men were permitted to live in the Indian coun- 
 try. After the advent of railroads, however, white set- 
 tlers became more numerous. Towns began to spring 
 up. Each Indian tribe, however, retained its own govern- 
 ment, made its own laws, and managed its own schools. 
 
EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 97 
 
 Some of the Indians had fine homes, but the greater part 
 of them lived in little cabins near some mountain spring, 
 such as shown in Figs. 54 and 55. 
 
 Work of Dawes Commission. When the people of Okla- 
 homa began the agitation for Statehood, Congress ap- 
 pointed a commission known as the Commission to the 
 Five Civilized Tribes, popularly known as the Dawes Com- 
 mission, to settle up the affairs of these nations. This 
 
 Fig. 55. Indian Cabin in the Timber 
 
 Commission has been employed for a number of years in 
 this work. It has virtually stood in the light of an admin- 
 istrator to several thousand minor heirs. Rolls of citizens 
 of the various tribes have been prepared. The land has 
 been surveyed and appraised. Each citizen has received 
 his allotment of land. Tribal relations have about all been 
 dissolved. 
 
 When the Indians moved west many of them held Negro 
 slaves. These slaves were made free by the Fourteenth 
 
98 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Amendment to the United States Constitution. These 
 Negroes, known as freedmen, have always lived with the 
 Indians in the various nations. When the land was 
 divided the freedmen received allotments also. Much of 
 the best land in Oklahoma is now owned by Negroes who 
 were once slaves. 
 
 Admission of Oklahoma. When this had been done 
 Congress passed an Enabling Act, permitting the people 
 
 -%'f^Hls^v^ 
 
 Fig. 56. Sod House in Western Oklahoma 
 
 of the two territories to frame a State government. Dele- 
 gates were elected and a Constitutional Convention held. 
 A constitution was written, which was adopted by the 
 people by a large majority. November 16, 1907, the 
 State of Oklahoma was admitted as the 46th State of 
 the Union. 
 
 Character of Settlers. The first settlers of Oklahoma 
 were from all parts of the Union. They were hardy, in- 
 dustrious and energetic, used to privations and hardships. 
 
EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 
 
 99 
 
 Few of them had money, but they had what was better — 
 courage and ability. They came to Oklahoma, not through 
 love of adventure, but in order to obtain a home for 
 themselves and their children. For the first few years 
 they lived in a very primitive manner. In the prairie 
 country the settler's first home was usually a dugout or 
 sod house. Types of early buildings are shown in Figs. 
 56 and 57. In the timber a log house would be built. 
 
 Usually the settlers 
 were many imiles from 
 the railroad and all 
 provisions and farm 
 products had to be 
 hauled in wagons. Ox 
 teams were often used 
 in farming, as shown 
 in Fig. 58. In a few 
 years the country be- 
 came more prosperous. 
 Railroads were built 
 and towns sprang up. 
 The dugouts and sod 
 houses were abandon- 
 ed and substantial 
 
 stone or frame houses built.*; In most parts of Oklahoma 
 today the farms are as well improved as in many of the 
 older states. Fig. 59 shows a modern up-to-date Okla- 
 homa farm house. 
 
 Fig. 57. A Claim Shanty in 
 Western Oklahoma 
 
Fig. 58. Breaking Ground in the Timbered Country 
 
 4 ' 1' " 
 
 Fig. 59. Modern Oklahoma Farm House 
 
 100 
 
EARLY HISTORY AND SETTLEMENT 101 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. Locate old Oklahoma. 
 
 2. "What does the word Oklahoma mean? 
 
 3. When was Oklahoma opened for settlement? 
 
 4. Who was the first Governor? 
 
 5. Give a brief history of No Man's Land. 
 
 6. What reservations were opened to settlement in 1891? 
 
 7. When was the Cheyenne and Arapaho country opened? 
 
 8. Describe the opening of the Cherokee strip. 
 
 9. What is a "sooner"? 
 
 10. When was the Kickapoo country opened? 
 
 11. How did Oklahoma secure Greer County? 
 
 12. How was the Kiowa and Comanche country opened? 
 
 13. Which was the last reservation to be opened to settlement? 
 
 14. How was the land in Indian Territory disposed of? 
 
 15. When was Oklahoma admitted into the Union? 
 
 16. What was the character of the first settlers? 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Free Education. Education is free in Oklahoma. Free 
 public schools in city and country are open to all children 
 between the ages of 6 and 21. All the larger towns and 
 many of the counties have free high schools. On complet- 
 ing the high school the young man or young woman may 
 enter the State University, which is the capstone of the 
 educational system of the State, and there secure without 
 tuition as good an education as the country affords. 
 
 School Laws. Oklahoma has a magnificent endowment 
 of school land. When the lands of the Territory of Okla- 
 homa were open to settlement, sections 16 and 36 in each 
 township were reserved by the government to be used for 
 the benefit of the schools. In certain parts of the Terri- 
 tory section 13 has also been reserved. This land has 
 been leased and the income derived has been used by the 
 State for the benefit of its public schools. Certain grants 
 of land aggregating more than 1,000,000 acres in the west- 
 ern part of the State were set apart for the benefit of 
 the higher institutions of learning, including the Univer- 
 sity, the Agricultural College and the Normal Schools. 
 One of the greatest problems before the people of Okla- 
 homa is that of the disposal of the school land. Whether 
 the lands are sold, or whether the State keeps the land 
 and leases it, the income will continue to be used for the 
 benefit of the school children of the State. There is no 
 
 102 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 103 
 
 school land in the Indian Territory part of Oklahoma. 
 All the land in that region belonged to the Indians and 
 was not government land. In lieu of public land, Con- 
 gress donated to the State school fund $5,000,000. 
 
 State Superintendent. The educational interests of the 
 State are in charge of the State Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, who is elected by the people. He is a member 
 of the State Board of Education, the Board of Regents 
 of the State Normal 
 Schools, and other State 
 Boards. He outlines the 
 educational policy of 
 the State, proposes 
 school legislation, con- 
 sults with county and 
 city superintendents, 
 and has general over- 
 sight of all educational 
 'matters in the State. 
 Country Schools. The 
 country schools of each 
 county are in charge 
 of a County Superin- 
 tendent of Public Instruction. He organizes new school 
 districts, visits each school in the county at least once a 
 year, has charge of the summer normal institute, conducts 
 examinations and issues certificates to teachers. Three 
 grades of certificates are issued: a first grade, good for 
 three years; a second grade, good for two years; and a 
 third grade, good for one year. Each teacher in the county 
 is supposed to attend the county normal institute, which 
 is held during the summer and continues not less than 
 
 Fig. 60. Stone School House, 
 Kay County 
 
104 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 two nor more than four weeks. Each county is divided 
 into a number of school districts, each of which is under 
 the direction of a board composed of three members, who 
 hire a teacher and look after the general interests of the 
 school. One member of the board is elected each year at 
 the annual school meeting. All the voters of the district 
 may attend this meeting and have a voice in the election 
 of members of the board, the length of school term and 
 
 
 
 
 "*"*,• •"---'■ 
 
 
 Kilt •:? m 
 
 1 lit;: wlEPlpi 
 
 
 
 Fig. 61. Science Hall, State University 
 
 the amount of tax to be levied. Fig. 60 shows a stone 
 schoolhouse in Kay County. 
 
 City Schools. The public schools in the cities are under 
 the control of a Board of Education elected by the people. 
 This board employs a city superintendent, who has direct 
 charge of all school matters, a high school principal, as 
 many ward principals as there are ward buildings and 
 high school and grade teachers. These city schools are 
 graded. Children enter first the kindergarten, then pass 
 
EDUCATION 105 
 
 through the various grades. After completing the eighth 
 grade they may enter the high school, which includes the 
 ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. On complet- 
 ing the high school they may enter the State University. 
 State Schools. The State University (See Fig. 61) is 
 located at Norman. In it young men and women receive 
 training in higher learning, such as the languages, 
 mathematics, history, the sciences, medicine, law, phar- 
 macy, music and engineering. Graduates of accredited 
 
 *:-'&» ,. ■ 
 
 Fig. 62. Buildings at the A. and M. College 
 
 high schools and academies, the University Preparatory 
 Schools and the Normal Schools are admitted to the Uni- 
 versity without examination. 
 
 The Agricultural and Mechanical College is at Stil- 
 water. (See Fig. 62.) It is primarily a school for train- 
 ing in agriculture and the mechanic arts. The greater 
 part of the students are from farms. The state experi- 
 ment station is in connection with it. Oklahoma has six 
 normal schools, located, respectively, at Edmond, Alva, 
 Weatherford, Tahlequah, Durant and Ada. These schools 
 are intended for the training of teachers. University 
 
106 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 preparatory schools are located at Tonkawa and Clare- 
 more. The work offered is the same as that given in 
 the high schools, the object being to train students for 
 the State University. The School of Mines is at Wilbur- 
 ton and the Colored Agricultural and Normal University 
 at Langston. 
 
 Church Schools. There are a number of denomina- 
 tional colleges in different parts of the State supported 
 by the various churches. Kingfisher College (Congre- 
 gational) at Kingfisher is one of the oldest. Bacone 
 (Baptist), Spaulding (Methodist) and Nazareth (Cath- 
 olic) are at Muskogee; Henry Kendall (Presbyterian) at 
 Tulsa, Epworth (Methodist) and St. Mary's (Catholic) at 
 Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Christian University at Enid, 
 Sacred Heart (Catholic) at Sacred Heart, Hargrove Col- 
 lege at Ardmore, and a Presbyterian college at Durant. 
 Besides these there are a number of academies, seminaries, 
 private schools, conservatories of music and business col- 
 leges in various parts of the State. 
 
 Religious Denominations. The various religious de- 
 nominations are represented in Oklahoma. The value of 
 church property is estimated at six million dollars. 
 
 A high moral tone pervades the citizenship of Okla- 
 homa. By a provision of the constitution, ratified by a 
 vote of the people, the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 
 cating liquors is prohibited for 21 years. Sobriety, moral- 
 ity, industry and home-making are dominant traits. Okla- 
 homa has a higher percentage of native-born American 
 citizens than most states, and the general moral and re- 
 ligious conditions are above the average. 
 
EDUCATION 107 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. Who may attend free schools in Oklahoma? 
 
 2. What schools are free to the people of the State? 
 
 3. Where are the school lands located? 
 
 4. What sections are reserved in each township? 
 
 5. What are the duties of the State Superintendent? 
 
 6. What are the duties of the County Superintendent? 
 
 7. How are city schools graded? 
 
 8. Locate the State schools. 
 
 9. For what purpose is each State school established? 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Constitution. The organic law of Oklahoma is the Con- 
 stitution, which was adopted by a popular vote of the 
 people September 17, 1907. The Oklahoma Constitution 
 is the most up-to-date of any of the state constitutions and 
 contains a number of provisions not usually written into 
 state constitutions. Among others may be mentioned the 
 initiative and referendum, provisions for the control of 
 corporations, prohibition of the liquor traffic and compul- 
 sory primary elections. Political power is vested in the 
 people and the Constitution may be amended by a ma- 
 jority vote whenever the people desire. 
 
 Oklahoma is represented in the Congress of the United 
 States by two Senators and five members of the House 
 of Representatives. Robert L. Owen of Muskogee and 
 T. P. Gore of Lawton were the first United States Sen- 
 ators elected from Oklahoma. 
 
 The government of Oklahoma is vested in three de- 
 partments — the legislative, which makes the laws; the 
 executive, which enforces the laws, and the judicial, 
 which interprets the laws and applies them to individual 
 cases. 
 
 Legislative Department, The legislative department is 
 composed of two bodies. The House of Representatives is 
 composed now of 109 members elected by the people for 
 two years. Each county has at least one representative; 
 
 108 
 
GOVERNMENT 109 
 
 the larger counties have two or more. The Senate is com- 
 posed of 44 members elected from districts for a term of 
 four years. Usually several counties compose a senatorial 
 district. The presiding officer of the House is called the 
 Speaker. The Lieutenant Governor presides over the Sen- 
 ate. Laws must pass both the House and the Senate and 
 be signed by the Governor. 
 
 Executive Department. The executive department con- 
 sists of a Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of 
 State, Attorney General, Auditor, Treasurer, Superintend- 
 ent of Public Instruction and State Examiner and In- 
 spector, all of whom are elected by a popular vote for a 
 term of four years. 
 
 The following are the names of the principal executive 
 officers of Oklahoma elected at the first State election : 
 
 Governor Charles N. Haskell 
 
 Lieutenant Governor George W. Bellamy 
 
 Secretary of State William Cross 
 
 Attorney General Charles "West 
 
 Auditor M. E, Trapp 
 
 Treasurer James A. Menefee 
 
 State Superintendent E. D. Cameron 
 
 State Examiner and Inspector. .Charles A. Taylor 
 Other executive officers elected by the people are Mine 
 Inspector, Commissioner of Labor, Commissioner of Char- 
 ities and Corrections, Commissioner of Insurance and 
 three Corporation Commissioners. The Governor ap- 
 points a number of State officers, including Oil Inspector, 
 Bank Examiner, State Librarian, Fish and Game Warden, 
 Grain Inspector, Adjutant General. Several state boards 
 and commissions are established by law, including the 
 Board of Education, Board of Agriculture, Pharmaceuti- 
 
110 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 cal Board, State Board of Examiners, Text Book Commis- 
 sion, Geological Survey Commission, Medical Board and 
 the Boards of Regents of the various institutions of higher 
 learning. 
 
 Judicial Department. The judicial power is made up of 
 a system of courts of various ranks. The lowest are justice 
 of peace and police courts, of which there is at least one 
 in each township and town. Next come the 75 county 
 courts, one in each county. Several counties are combined 
 into a district under the jurisdiction of a district judge. 
 There are 21 district courts. The highest court in the 
 State is the Supreme Court. It is composed of five judges, 
 one of whom is Chief Justice. 
 
 Local Government. The people in each county elect 
 their own county officers, consisting of a County Judge, 
 Sheriff, County Clerk, Attorney, Treasurer, Register of 
 Deeds, Superintendent of Schools, Surveyor, Clerk of Dis- 
 trict Court and three Commissioners. 
 
 Counties are divided into townships. Township offi- 
 cers are a Trustee, Clerk, Treasurer, Constables and Road 
 Overseers. 
 
 Cities have their own local government and elect their 
 own officers. The executive officer is the Mayor. The 
 legislative officers are councilmen, of whom two are 
 elected from each ward. The council passes ordinances 
 for the government of the city which in a way corre- 
 spond to the laws passed by the State Legislature. The 
 judicial department has a police judge, who tries small 
 offenses. 
 
GOVERNMENT 111 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 
 
 1. What is the organic law of the State? 
 
 2. When was it written? When adopted? 
 
 3. Name some unusual provisions in the Oklahoma Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 4. Name the Oklahoma Senators. 
 
 5. Give the functions of the three departments of government 
 in Oklahoma. 
 
 6. Of what two bodies is the State Legislature composed? 
 
 7. How many members are there in the House of Representa- 
 tives? How many Senators? 
 
 8. Who is your Representative? Your Senator? 
 
 9. Name the executive officers. 
 
 10. Name the chief State boards. 
 
 11. Of what does the judicial department consist? 
 
 12. Name the county officers in your county. 
 
 13. Name the officers in your city or township. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 
 
 In Oklahoma more persons are engaged in some form 
 of agriculture than in all other occupations combined. 
 The mild and favorable climate and the great diversity of 
 fertile soil make possible the raising of a large variety of 
 farm products. 
 
 Soil Areas. The State has a number of soil areas which 
 in a general way correspond with the Topographic Re- 
 gions outlined in Chapter II. With the exception of the 
 rougher parts of the four mountain regions and certain 
 localities among the Sandstone Hills and Gypsum Hills, 
 there is very little of Oklahoma that may not be success 1 
 fully cultivated. 
 
 At the present time not more than one-third of the 
 agricultural resources of the State have been developed. 
 A great part of the most fertile land in Oklahoma has not 
 yet been put under cultivation. This is especially true 
 in the eastern counties, where the greater part of the 
 land belongs to citizens of the Five Civilized Tribes. As 
 the condition of soil, underground water and climate vary 
 from place to place, the forms of agriculture vary, so that 
 there are well-defined crop belts in various parts of the 
 State. The positions of these crop belts are determined 
 largely by three sets of factors : Rainfall, temperature and 
 character of the soil. 
 
 Soil. Soil consists of broken-up rock fragments mixed 
 
 112 
 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 
 
 11 J 
 
 with decayed vegetable and animal substances. It is of 
 two general kinds, residual soil and transported soil. 
 
 Residual Soil. Residual soil is derived from the rocks 
 in place— that is, it has not been carried for any great 
 distance. Sandstone produces sandy soil, limestone a 
 limestone soil and shale and clay rocks a clay soil. By 
 far the greater part of the soil in Oklahoma is residual 
 and partakes of the character of the rocks from which 
 
 Fig. 63. Corn Awaiting Market 
 
 it was derived. In the limestone regions, particularly 
 among the Flint Hills and the Ozark and Arbuckle moun- 
 tains, there is an abundance of rich, black limestone soil. 
 Among the Sand Hills in the central and western counties 
 the soil is often sandy. The Coal Measures rocks in east- 
 ern Oklahoma, which consist largely of clay and shale, 
 have produced a stiff clay soil. All over central and 
 western Oklahoma the greater part of the soil is deep red, 
 being derived from the brick-red shales and clays of the 
 
114 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Redbeds. On the High Plains the soil is deep and black, 
 and only the lack of sufficient rainfall prevents the raising 
 of a great variety of crops. 
 
 Transported Soil. Transported soils are those that have 
 been carried for considerable distances. "Wind, water and 
 ice are the chief agents that carry soils. In the northern 
 states much of the soil has been brought in by the ice 
 during the glacial epoch. There is, however, no glacial 
 soil in Oklahoma. The soil on the bottom lands along 
 
 Fig. 64. Two Views Illustrating Wheat-raising 
 
 the streams, usually known as alluvium, has been carried 
 downstream by water. On account of the unusually large 
 number of streams which cross the State, Oklahoma con- 
 tains a larger proportion of rich alluvial soil than almost 
 any other state. Much of the so-called black land on the 
 high divides in central and western Oklahoma and the 
 sandy soil in the sandhills has been carried in by the wind. 
 In general, alluvial soil and limestone soil are consid- 
 ered the most fertile. The Redbeds soil comes next. 
 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 115 
 
 Sandy soil and clay soil are fairly fertile also. Care 
 must be taken to prevent the sandy soil from washing 
 and blowing. 
 
 But little fertilizer has been used in Oklahoma. Fields 
 that have been cultivated continuously for twenty years 
 still produce abundantly. Western Oklahoma contains an 
 inexhaustible amount of gypsum, which is a natural fer- 
 tilizer. The time will come when this material will be 
 used to enrich the worn-out soils of the State. 
 
 Corn. Corn, wheat, oats and kafir corn are the most 
 important grain crops raised in Oklahoma. Corn has the 
 
 
 Fig. 65. Thrashing Wheat in Northern Oklahoma 
 
 widest range, being produced abundantly in all sections 
 of the State except on the High Plains in the extreme 
 western part. In many of the central and northern coun- 
 ties corn is the great staple crop. On account of the 
 length of the season a corn crop is often raised on land 
 from which a wheat crop has been harvested. Much of 
 the corn is fed to stock on the farm on which it is raised, 
 although many hundreds of thousands of bushels are each 
 year shipped to outside markets. Fig. 63 shows corn piled 
 up alongside a railroad awaiting shipment. In 1906 
 134,230,590 bushels of corn, valued at $65,000,000 were 
 raised in Oklahoma. 
 
116 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Wheat. Wheat is raised chiefly in northern Oklahoma. 
 In such counties as Kay, Grant, Garfield, Kingfisher, Al- 
 falfa, Woods, Blaine and Canadian it is the leading crop. 
 Various scenes illustrating wheat raising are shown in 
 Figs. 64 and 65. Even in the three western counties 
 which are located on the High Plains, certain varieties of 
 hard wheat are raised at a profit. About one-third of the 
 wheat raised is ground into flour in Oklahoma mills. 
 
 -,,i :*,/"': 
 
 
 Fig. 66. Hauling Broom-corn to Market 
 
 Much of the flour and wheat are exported to the eastern 
 states or to Europe. Hundreds of thousands of bushels 
 each year go to Liverpool by way of Galveston. The 
 wheat crop of 1906 was 20,554,000 bushels, valued at 
 $13,000,000. 
 
 Oats and Other Small Grain, Oats are raised chiefly 
 in the central and northern part of Oklahoma. Ten mil- 
 lion five hundred thousand bushels of oats, valued at 
 $5,700,000, were raised in Oklahoma in 1906. The greater 
 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 
 
 117 
 
 part of the crop is fed to live stock in the State, although 
 a large amount is exported. Kafir corn, milo maize, mil- 
 let, barley and sorghum are raised in many parts of the 
 State, particularly in the western counties. These crops 
 are used both for forage and grain. On the High Plains 
 kafir corn and milo maize produce as many bushels of 
 grain per acre as do the more common grain crops in a 
 
 Fig. 67. Cotton Going to Market 
 
 region of greater rainfall. The value of the kafir corn 
 crop is $2,000,000 a year. 
 
 Broom Corn. The last few years Oklahoma has pro- 
 duced more broom corn than any other State in the Union. 
 The soil and the climate of the western part of the State 
 are particularly suited to this crop. 44,749 tons, valued 
 $1,483,000 were produced in 1906. Fig. 66 illustrates mar- 
 keting broom corn at Woodward. 
 
 Cotton. Cotton, which is one of the most important 
 crops raised in Oklahoma, is cultivated most extensively 
 
118 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 in the southern part of the State, chiefly in the counties 
 south of the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers. Figs. 67, 68 
 and 69 illustrate various stages in marketing cotton. 
 Oklahoma cotton is noted the world over for the long 
 superior quality of its fiber, and for that reason it is in 
 great demand. Cotton always commands a ready sale, 
 and so can be depended upon as a money-making crop. 
 Nearly all the cotton raised in the State is exported, the 
 greater part of it going by way of Galveston to European 
 ports or to eastern states. During the past few years 
 much cotton has been exported to the Orient, especially 
 to Japan. In 1906 Oklahoma produced 918,000 bales of 
 cotton, valued at $48,500,000, and the value of the cotton- 
 seed products was $6,012,000. 
 
 Alfalfa. Alfalfa, our greatest hay and forage crop, is 
 grown in every county of the State, and each year wit- 
 nesses a largely increased acreage. From three to five 
 cuttings are produced each year, depending upon the loca- 
 tion and length of the season. Alfalfa does best on bottom 
 land or under irrigation, but it is grown on the upland 
 also. The value of the alfalfa crop is more than one 
 million dollars a year. Bermuda grass is also a valuable 
 forage crop. 
 
 Prairie Hay. During the early settlement of the coun- 
 try prairie grass was cut for hay in all parts of the State. 
 With more extensive farming in the older counties, the 
 greater part of the land once covered with prairie sod 
 has been placed under cultivation, and alfalfa is now 
 grown. In many parts of Oklahoma, however, much 
 prairie hay is still cut, particularly in Craig, Nowata, 
 Rogers, Mayes, Wagoner, Muskogee, Comanche and Till- 
 man counties. The hay is usually baled in the field the 
 
Fig. 68. A Train Load of Cotton 
 
 Fig. 69. Cotton Bales on Board Cars. 
 
 119 
 
120 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 same day it is cut. It is usually stored in hay barns until 
 it is shipped, the greater part of it going to Kansas City, 
 St. Louis, Memphis and New Orleans markets. The hay 
 crop sells for more than $3,000,000 a year. 
 
 Fruit. Fruit raising is destined to become one of the 
 most important industries in Oklahoma. Both soil and 
 climate are particularly adapted to the culture of a very 
 large variety of fruits. A typical fruit farm is shown in 
 Fig. 70. There are more than twenty species of wild 
 fruits growing in Oklahoma, including blackberries, rasp- 
 
 Fig. 70. A Fruit Farm in Central Oklahoma 
 
 berries, strawberries, grapes and several species of plums. 
 The cultivated varieties of apricots, grapes, cherries, pears, 
 plums, quinces and several kinds of berries thrive well. 
 The staple fruits are peaches and apples, both of which 
 grow to larger size and possess a more excellent flavor 
 than those in adjoining states. Extensive orchards are 
 found in many parts of the State, particularly in Cleve- 
 land, Oklahoma, Logan, Lincoln and Pottawatomie coun- 
 ties. There is no part of the State except the extreme 
 western counties where the staple fruits do not thrive. 
 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 121 
 
 The income from the orchards of Oklahoma is more than 
 $2,000,000 a year. 
 
 Potatoes. Potatoes are grown for home use in every 
 county and as a farm crop in a number of localities. Many 
 farmers have made small fortunes raising potatoes. This 
 crop does best in the warm, sandy bottom lands of such 
 streams as the Arkansas and Canadian rivers. More pota- 
 toes are shipped from Shawnee and Fort Gibson than from 
 any other points. Two crops are raised each year. The 
 first crop, which is harvested in June, is shipped to north- 
 ern markets. The second crop is dug in October and is 
 disposed of largely to local dealers. The value of the 
 potato crop is $1,500,000 annually, Sweet potatoes are 
 extensively grown in many counties, particularly in the 
 fertile sandy upland loam of Canadian and Oklahoma 
 counties. Hundreds of carloads of sweet potatoes are 
 shipped each year to northern and eastern markets. 
 
 Vegetables. Vegetable gardening and truck farming 
 are carried on quite extensively near several of the larger 
 cities. In a number of localities sweet corn, tomatoes and 
 peas are raised for canning purposes. Onions are exten- 
 sively cultivated in many localities. The soil and climate 
 of Oklahoma are well adapted to truck farming, and only 
 the absence of a home market prevents the development 
 of a flourishing industry. 
 
 Minor Crops. There are several crops of minor im- 
 portance which may be mentioned. Castor beans are an 
 important source of income in some localities in the central 
 and western counties. Watermelons are raised chiefly in 
 the sandhill regions and hundreds of carloads of melons 
 are each year shipped to the northern markets. Canta- 
 loupes are becoming an important crop in many places. 
 
122 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Pecans and other nuts are gathered and shipped from a 
 number of towns in southern Oklahoma. Peanuts are cul- 
 tivated in many places. Flax is not an important crop, 
 but has been successfully raised in many counties. To- 
 bacco grows well in the eastern part of the State. 
 
 Stock Raising — Cattle. Oklahoma ranks high in the 
 production of live stock, especially cattle, hogs, horses 
 and mules. For many years Oklahoma and Indian Terri- 
 tory were the stockman's paradise. Nowhere on the con- 
 
 Fig. 71. Cattle on the Plains 
 
 tinent could be found more nutritious grasses and abun- 
 dant water. These, with the mild climate and timber 
 along the streams, which formed windbreaks, all com- 
 bined to make cattle raising profitable. Hundreds of thou- 
 sands of half-wild, long-horned cattle roamed at will over 
 the broad prairies, as shown in Fig. 71. These cattle 
 were marked with the owner's brand. Twice a year the 
 owners and cowboys collected these cattle in " round- 
 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 123 
 
 ups" and separated those belonging to the different own- 
 ers. When the adjoining states, Kansas and Texas, were 
 settled, the free range became more restricted. As parts 
 of Oklahoma were from time to time opened to settlement 
 the cowman retreated before the advance of civilization. 
 His last stand was in "No Man's Land," the Osage Na- 
 tion, and the "Big Pasture" in Comanche County. But 
 even these regions are now being allotted or settled and 
 the reign of the cattleman in Oklahoma is at an end. 
 
 As the country has been settled and the amount of free 
 range decreased the grade of cattle has been constantly 
 improved. The long-horn has disappeared forever. High- 
 grade dairy and beef cattle are now raised on practically 
 every farm in Oklahoma, and it is altogether probable that 
 the total number of cattle in the State is greater than 
 during the period of free range. In 1907 Oklahoma had 
 3,200,000 cattle. The value of animals slaughtered for 
 local market was $9,000,000. 
 
 Horses. Horses and mules are also raised in all parts 
 of Oklahoma. During the period of free range there 
 was no need for heavy draft animals and the only horses 
 in demand were light-weight, active saddle horses known 
 as "cow ponies." With the coming of the settler, how- 
 ever, the grade of horses has improved until at the pres- 
 ent time the farm horses and roadsters bred in Oklahoma 
 compare favorably with those of any of the older states. 
 In 1907 there were 870,000 horses and mules in Oklahoma, 
 valued at $17,898,000. 
 
 Hogs. Formerly hogs were raised only in the corn belt, 
 but with the introduction of the growth of alfalfa hogs 
 are being successfully raised in practically all parts of 
 the State. Sheep are raised in certain localities and wool 
 
124 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 is becoming an important source of income. Angora goats 
 are raised in several places. 
 
 Usually the cattle and hogs raised in Oklahoma are 
 shipped out of the State for slaughter, the greater part 
 going to the stockyards at Fort "Worth and Kansas City. 
 Packing plants are located at Oklahoma City and Mus- 
 kogee. Many of the products, such as salt and canned 
 meats, soap and lard, come back to the State and are 
 used on the farms and ranches where the animals were, 
 grown. Local butcher shops are supplied from home- 
 grown cattle and hogs. Many farmers cure their own 
 meat. 
 
 Dairying'. Dairying is rapidly becoming an important 
 industry. The introduction of hand separators has made 
 it possible to put the milk into marketable condition. 
 Cream is separated on the farms and hauled in cans to 
 shipping stations, from whence it is taken regularly to 
 centrally-located creameries. Butter is still made on the 
 farm, however, and milk forms a large part of the food. 
 The cheap forage and grain, pure water and good roads 
 of Oklahoma all combine to make dairying an important 
 industry. The industry is further promoted by instruc- 
 tion in the Agricultural College at Stillwater. The dairy 
 herds are being improved and a number of large dairy 
 farms are scattered throughout the State. The dairy 
 productions of Oklahoma amount to $2,750,000 a year. 
 
 Poultry. Poultry raising is carried on in all parts of 
 the state and is constantly increasing. There is an 
 abundance of natural food, and the climate and pure 
 water insure the health of the fowls and their rapid 
 growth at small expense. Chickens are raised on prac- 
 tically all farms, and turkeys, ducks and geese are found 
 
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 125 
 
 in many communities, particularly in the eastern part of 
 the State. Poultry and eggs form an important part of 
 the food products and are shipped in large quantities to 
 other states. The value of the poultry and eggs produced 
 in Oklahoma each year is $3,500,000. 
 
 The Farmer's Need. The great need of the Oklahoma 
 farmer is a home market. With a soil and climate capable 
 of producing a very large number of salable crops, he is 
 compelled to raise only those products that can be shipped 
 outside the State. As soon as the mineral resources of 
 the State are developed, factories and plants will be estab- 
 lished, mines and quarries opened, and the army of work- 
 men necessary to operate these industries will create a 
 home market for a great variety of farm products. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. What is the chief occupation of Oklahoma 1 ? 
 
 2. Why are not the agricultural resources of the State more 
 fully developed? 
 
 3. Define soil. 
 
 4. What are the two chief kinds of soil? 
 
 5. Distinguish between the two kinds. 
 
 6. What is the character of the soil near your home? 
 
 7. What are the chief grain craps of Oklahoma? 
 
 8. Where is corn raised? Wheat? Oats? Kaffir corn? 
 
 9. Where is cotton raised? Where is it manufactured? 
 
 10. What are the chief hay crops in the State? 
 
 11. Name the principal fruits raised in Oklahoma. 
 
 12. Where are potatoes grown? Vegetables? Watermelons? 
 Peanuts? 
 
 13. Why is Oklahoma a good stock country? 
 
 14. What are the chief kinds of live stock raised? 
 
 15. Name the chief breeds of cattle. Horses. Hogs. 
 
 16. Where is dairying carried on? Poultry raising? 
 
 17. What is the principal need of the Oklahoma farmer? 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 MINERAL RESOURCES. 
 
 Variety of Minerals in Oklahoma. Very few states 
 have as many kinds of minerals or as much mineral of a 
 kind as has Oklahoma. The new State has practically in- 
 exhaustible quantities of eleven valuable mineral prod- 
 ucts, as follows: Coal, oil, gas, asphalt, gypsum, salt, 
 lead, zinc, clay of all kinds, stone of all kinds, and sand. 
 In addition to these, Oklahoma has also considerable 
 amounts of iron, some copper and a little gold and silver. 
 There are also known deposits of such substances as 
 tripoli, phosphate, volcanic ash, novaculite and the radium 
 earths, and it is very probable that in time a number of 
 other minerals not now known will be discovered. The 
 map in Fig. 72 shows the locations of the principal min- 
 erals in Oklahoma. 
 
 Fortunately these mineral products are not confined 
 to any single part of the State. They are widely dis- 
 tributed. There is not a county that does not contain 
 one or more of these products and usually several of them 
 occur in the same locality. 
 
 The Fuels. The minerals which are always of the 
 greatest importance in the upbuilding of any region are 
 the fuels, coal, oil and gas. For fuel is necessary 
 in the development of manufacturing industries unless 
 water power is present. In many parts of the country 
 the fuel must either be hauled long distances to the raw 
 
 126 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES' 
 
 127 
 
 material or the raw material hauled to the fuel. For 
 instance, there are large deposits of iron along the shores 
 of Lake Superior, but there is no fuel in the region, so 
 the iron ore is carried to Chicago, Cleveland and Pitts- 
 burg to be smelted. 
 
 Mineral Resources of Oklahoma. 
 
 tool and Zinc Ama 
 
 |#jffl| lax/and Zinc Mines. \* ■ | Salt Ptams 
 
 | -+- | Marble \\\\\\\\ PioMteCo"' A™ 
 
 HHHl Gypsum. ry»"| Segregated Coa/ Lands | . ; V | Probable Ojl& Gas Area 
 
 ■,.■■■ ; | Gnmtte |a a a[ Asphalt Beds ^&&\ OpevfedOU* Gat fieias 
 
 Fig. 72. Map Showing Mineral Products of Oklahoma 
 
 Oklahoma's fuel supply is enormous. Coal, oil and gas 
 are all present in large amounts. This means that not 
 only will the raw material in the State be manufactured 
 at home, but also the mineral products from other states 
 will be shipped here to be manufactured. 
 
128 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 Coal. The total amount of coal in Oklahoma can as 
 yet be only estimated. According to the figures of the 
 United States Geological Survey, there are in the old 
 Choctaw Nation 2,945,138,000 tons of coal, which has 
 been segregated or set apart for the benefit of the Choc- 
 taw and Chickasaw Indians. This is probably not more 
 than half the total amount of coal in the State, for there 
 are vast deposits in the former Creek, Cherokee and 
 
 Fig. 73. A Coal Mine at Midway 
 
 Choctaw nations that have not been segregated. The 
 total amount is probably not far from 6,000,000,000 tons. 
 This is more coal than is found in most other states. More 
 than 100 coal mines, large and small, are now being oper- 
 ated, and the amount of coal mined is over 3,000,000 tons 
 a year. A coal mine at Midway is shown in Fig. 73, and one 
 at Lehigh in Fig. 74. The value of the coal mined in 1907 
 was $11,440,000. The principal mines are located at or 
 near McAlester, Krebs, Hartshorne, Haileyville, Alder- 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES' 
 
 129 
 
 son, Coalgate, Lehigh, Edwards, Savanna, Blocker, Hen- 
 ryetta, Schulter, Broken Arrow, Dawson and Collins- 
 ville. The coal is chiefly a high-grade bituminous coal. 
 Coke is manufactured near a number of the mines, the 
 fine coal or slack being used for that purpose. The out- 
 put of the Oklahoma mines supplies a large part of the 
 southern Great Plains with fuel. 
 
 Oil. Only a small part of the Oklahoma oil and gas 
 
 Fig. 74. Coal Mine at Lehigh 
 
 fields have yet been developed; but, in spite of that, 
 Oklahoma produced nearly 50,000,000 barrels of oil in 
 1907. By far the greater part of the oil and gas so far 
 found occurs in three general areas. The easternmost 
 of the three areas, known as the Coody's Bluff- Alluwe 
 field, lies along the Verdigris River in the eastern part 
 of Nowata County. The oil is here found at a depth of 
 500 to 600 feet below the surface and the field is known 
 as the "shallow field." The second line of development 
 
130 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES' 
 
 131 
 
 is near the 96th meridian in Osage, Washington and 
 Tulsa counties, extending from the Kansas line south for 
 a distance of more than 76 miles. Along this line 
 occur the oil fields of Copan, Dewey, Bartlesville, 
 Ramona, Skiatook, Tulsa and Red Fork. At the southern 
 end of the region lies 
 the famous Glenn 
 Pool, from which 20,- 
 000,000 barrels of oil 
 have been produced 
 in less than two years. 
 The third important 
 oil-producing region 
 is at Cleveland, Paw- 
 nee County, shown in 
 Fig. 75, where oil 
 comes from a depth of 
 1,700 feet, There are 
 also a number of scat- 
 tered fields, some of 
 which show great 
 promise of future de- 
 velopment. The most 
 important of these are- 
 near Muskogee, Bald 
 Hill and Morris . 
 
 Small quantities of oil and gas have also been found at 
 Madill and Wheeler, south of the Arbuckle Mountains, 
 and at Lawton and Gotebo, near the Wichita Mountains. 
 Fig. 76 shows a well from which the oil is flowing. 
 When the oil comes from the wells it is carried in 2- 
 
 Fig. 76. Oil Gushing from a 
 New Well 
 
132 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 inch pipes to tanks which hold from 600 to 3,000 barrels 
 each. When these tanks are full the oil is carried again 
 by pipes to larger tanks which hold 35,000 barrels each. 
 There are hundreds of these large tanks in the oil fields. 
 Fig. 77 shows a number of tanks near Copan. From the 
 large tanks the oil is carried away in 6-inch pipes. One 
 pipe line runs from the Oklahoma oil fields north through 
 Kansas and past Chicago to the Atlantic Coast. Two pipe 
 
 Fig. 77. A Tank Farm Near Copan 
 
 lines run south to the Gulf of Mexico. Much oil is shipped 
 by train, as shown in Fig. 78. Part of the oil is used for 
 fuel in locomotives and factories, but the greater part of 
 it is refined. Our kerosene, gasoline, paraffine and lubri- 
 cating oil is distilled petroleum. 
 
 The Oklahoma oil field has all been developed within 
 the past few years. The difficulty of securing titles to 
 the land in the Indian Territory has hindered develop- 
 ment. There is reason to believe that within a few years 
 the area of the oil field will be greatly increased. 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES' 
 
 133 
 
 The amount of gas in Oklahoma is very great. 
 Hundreds of wells flowing anywhere from 1,000,000 to 
 10,000,000 cubic feet a day have been shut in, and many 
 wells are reported to flow 40,000,000 to 80,000,000 cubic 
 feet daily. Large areas of known productive territory 
 have not yet been drilled because there is no market for 
 the fuel. Natural gas is now being used in Oklahoma 
 City, Guthrie, Muskogee, Ardmore, Tulsa, Bartlesville, 
 
 Fig. 78. A Trainload of Oil Leaving Bartlesville 
 
 Pawhuska, Coweta, Wagoner, Claremore, Chelsea and a 
 number of other towns in the State. The abundance and 
 cheapness of the gas is attracting manufacturing plants 
 from other states, and before many years the gas and oil 
 region will become the wealthiest part of Oklahoma. 
 
 Asphalt. The deposits of asphalt in Oklahoma are, so 
 far as known, among the most extensive in the United 
 •States. Asphalt is found in many parts of the State, 
 but chiefly in Murray and Carter counties, south of the 
 Arbuckle Mountains. It occurs along fault lines or fis- 
 
134 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 sures, which extend from the surface to an unknown 
 depth. The rocks along either side of the fissure for a 
 distance of 10 to 50 feet are permeated with a semi- 
 liquid asphalt, Hundreds of veins have already been 
 found, and new ones are constantly being brought to light, 
 so that no on© can say how much asphalt will eventually 
 be discovered. Fig. 79 illustrates an asphalt mill and a 
 
 Fig. 79. An Asphalt Mill and Mine Near Sulphur 
 
 mine near Sulphur. The asphalt is used chiefly for street 
 paving and roofing. The streets and country roads for 
 a good part of the State will soon be paved with Okla- 
 homa asphalt, and the supply is sufficient for many gen- 
 erations. Fig. 80 shows the streets of Ardmore paved with 
 Ardmore asphalt. 
 
 Salt. There are in western Oklahoma seven regions of 
 salt springs from which flow salt water so strong that 
 100 parts of brine will make 33 parts of salt. The springs 
 

 135 
 
138 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 which is shown in Fig. 82. These minerals are also re- 
 ported from the Arbuekle Mountains. 
 
 Building Stone. Building stone of almost all kinds is 
 found in Oklahoma. Granite of very fine quality occurs 
 in vast quantities in the Wichita and Arbuekle mountains. 
 It is being quarried at Granite and Tishomingo. Gabbro, 
 a fine black ornamental stone, is found in the Wichita 
 Mountains, and is being quarried at Cold Springs. Por- 
 phyry occurs in the Wichita and Arbuekle mountains. 
 Limestone suitable for building stone or for burning into 
 lime occurs in a number of counties in eastern and south- 
 ern Oklahoma. Pig. 83 shows the effect of a blast in a 
 limestone quarry at Crusher, in the Arbuekle Mountains, 
 and Fig. 84 represents limestone posts in Kay County. 
 Marble, which is found in several places, is used in the 
 construction of some of the finest buildings in the State. 
 The Pioneer Telephone building at Oklahoma City (Fig. 
 85) was built of this marble. Sandstone is present in 
 every county, and near practically every town ; it is used 
 locally in the construction of residences and business 
 blocks. The sandstone in the eastern part of the State 
 is gray or brown in color. Some very handsome build- 
 ings are built of this stone. In central and western Okla- 
 homa the sandstone is usually red. At the present time 
 comparatively little of the Oklahoma stone is being 
 utilized, and a considerable part of the stone used in the 
 construction of buildings comes from Kansas, Missouri 
 or even from Indiana. 
 
 Clay. Clay of various kinds is present in many parts 
 of Oklahoma. Throughout the western part of the State 
 there is a large amount of red clay shale, which is utilized 
 for making pressed brick. In many places in eastern 
 
Fig. 83. Two Views Showing Effects of a Blast in a 
 Limestone Quarry at Crusher, Okla. 
 
 139 
 
140 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Oklahoma there is a clay suitable for the manufacture of 
 drain tile, terra-cotta, stoneware, hollow-ware and other 
 products. Large deposits of fire clay occur in the coal 
 regions, and good kaolin, or fine pottery clay, is reported 
 from the Wichita Mountains. Shale from various re- 
 gions where limestone is abundant is suitable for the 
 manufacture of Portland cement. The abundance and 
 variety of these clay products, and the immense amounts 
 of coal and gas, render it very probable that within a few 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Fig. 84. Limestone Posts in Kay County. 
 
 years a large number of clay-products plants will be in 
 operation in Oklahoma. 
 
 Sand. There is no part of Oklahoma where sand does 
 not occur. Building sand is everywhere sufficient for 
 local demands. In several places, particularly in the Ar- 
 buckle Mountains, large deposits of a very fine grade of 
 glass sand have been found. Fig. 86 shows a ledge of 
 glass sand near Bromide. Glass sand differs from other 
 sand in that it is almost pure white, and contains very 
 little iron or other impurities. In some cases this sand 
 is near veins of coal or natural gas. The glass factories 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES' 
 
 141 
 
 in southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma haul their 
 glass sand from Illinois and Iowa because it is cheaper 
 to transport the sand to the fuel than to bring the fuel 
 to the sand. As soon as the Oklahoma glass sand de- 
 posits have been de- 
 veloped another valu- 
 able industry will be 
 added to the State. 
 
 Iron has been found 
 in small quantities in 
 several places. A high- 
 grade maganese iron 
 ore has been discover- 
 ed in the Arbuclde 
 Mountains and hun- 
 dreds of carloads have 
 been shipped to east- 
 ern markets. Deposits 
 of hematite and sider- 
 ite iron ores are re- 
 ported near McAles- 
 ter. Copper occurs 
 widely scattered in 
 Oklahoma, but in 
 small amounts. Traces 
 
 of gold and silver occur in the Wichita and Arbuckle 
 mountains, but there is little reason for believing that 
 either of these minerals will ever be found in large quan- 
 tities. Novaculite, or razor-hone rock, occurs in the Ouach- 
 ita Mountains^ in the southeastern part of the State. 
 
 Fig. 85. Pioneer Telephone Build- 
 ing, Oklahoma City, Built of 
 Oklahoma Marble 
 
142 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OP OKLAHOMA 
 
 Tripoli, which is used chiefly for making filters, is found 
 near the Missouri line. Volcanic ash has been found in 
 western Oklahoma. It is used for polishing powder. De- 
 posits of phosphate are reported from several regions. 
 
 Fig. 86. Ledge of Glass Sand at Bromide 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES 143 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. Name the chief minerals in Oklahoma. 
 
 2. How are they distributed? 
 
 3. Which are the most important minerals? 
 
 4. Discuss Oklahoma's coal deposits. 
 
 5. Locate the oil and gas fields. 
 
 6. How is the oil produced? How disposed of? 
 
 7. Discuss the gas fields. 
 
 8. Where is asphalt found? For what is it used? 
 
 9. Locate the Salt Springs of Oklahoma. 
 
 10. Where are the Gypsum Hills? 
 
 11. For what is gypsum used? 
 
 12. How much gypsum is there in Oklahoma? 
 
 13. Where does the lead and zinc occur? 
 
 14. Name the chief kinds of building stone in Oklahoma. 
 
 15. Name the chief kinds of clay. 
 
 16. Where is glass sand found? 
 
 17. Name and locate the minor minerals. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 MANUFACTURES, 
 
 Most products, either agricultural or mineral, must be 
 manufactured in order to be useful to man. Wheat must 
 be ground into flour, cotton, wool and flax must be woven 
 into cloth, and cloth made into garments; iron ore must 
 be smelted into iron, and the iron made into tools and 
 machinery; trees must be sawed into lumber, and the 
 lumber used in building houses. All workers in mills, 
 factories and industrial plants, as well as carpenters, 
 masons and bricklayers and the like, are, in a sense, 
 manufacturers. 
 
 Need of Factories. The manufacturing industries of 
 Oklahoma are yet in their infancy. Few states have 
 either as much raw material or as much fuel for its man- 
 ufacture ; but the people of the State are importing prac- 
 tically all the manufactured articles they use. The State 
 is so young that the people have not yet had time to 
 establish manufacturing plants. The total capital em- 
 ployed in manufacturing in 1906 was $16,124,417; num- 
 ber of wage earners, 5,456 ; wages paid, $2,799,402 ; value 
 of products, $24,459,107. 
 
 Clay Products. Pressed brick is being made at a num- 
 ber of the larger cities, particularly at Oklahoma City, 
 McAlester, Cleveland, Tulsa, Sapulpa, Bartlesville, Mus- 
 kogee, Enid and Ardmore. Small plants for the manu- 
 facture of common brick are located at a number of 
 
 144 
 
MANUFACTURES 
 
 145 
 
 towns. Several tile and pottery plants are being located 
 in eastern Oklahoma. There is an abundance of good 
 clay in many parts of the State. 
 
 Portland Cement. Portland cement plants have been 
 located at Dewey (Fig. 87) and Ada, and others are in 
 contemplation at Nowata, Bartlesville, Tulsa and Mc- 
 Alester. Portland cement is made of limestone and shale. 
 Both are ground fine, mixed, and burned at a high tem- 
 
 Fig. 87. Portland Cement Mill at Dewey 
 
 perature in large kilns. The substance is again ground 
 fine and then sacked and shipped. There is plenty of 
 lime, clay and fuel for the manufacture of Portland 
 cement in many parts of the State, but few of these re- 
 sources have been utilized. Portland cement is destined 
 to take the place of wood, stone and iron for the con- 
 struction of all kinds of buildings. Many people now in 
 middle life will live to see the time when a new wooden 
 house will be a rarity. 
 
146 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Gypsum Plaster. Gypsum plaster mills have been 
 erected at or near Okarche, Alva, Watonga, Ferguson, 
 Bickford, Southard, McAlester, Marlow, Eldorado and Ce- 
 ment. During 1907, 384,200 tons of wall plaster worth 
 $4,610,400 were manufactured. The supply of gypsum in 
 Oklahoma is inexhaustible. (See Fig. 88.) The chief diffi- 
 culty in the way of profitable manufacture of gypsum 
 plaster in Oklahoma is the fact that fuel must be hauled 
 
 Fig. 88. Gypsum Ledges in Western Oklahoma 
 
 for a considerable distance. Neither coal, oil nor gas is 
 known to occur in any quantity nearer than 150 miles 
 to the gypsum, and the cost of hauling coal so far makes 
 the plaster more expensive than it would otherwise be. 
 
 Flour and Oil Mills. There are 76 flour mills in Okla- 
 homa having a total daily capacity of 15,000 barrels of 
 flour. Perhaps one-third of the wheat raised is ground 
 into flour in Oklahoma. Cotton oil mills are located at 
 a number of the larger towns. An oil mill built of native 
 
MANUFACTURES 
 
 147 
 
 limestone is shown in Fig. 89. In them the oil is ex- 
 tracted from cottonseed and the seed ground into meal 
 which is used for fattening stock. 
 
 Other Manufacturing Plants. Several glass plants are 
 being erected in the gas region. Iron foundries, machine 
 shops, planing mills, sash and door factories, creameries, 
 canning factories and similar industries are located at 
 the larger cities. Packing plants are located at Okla- 
 
 FlG. 
 
 Cotton Oil Mill at Madill 
 
 homa City and Muskogee. A cotton mill (Fig. 90) and a 
 cereal mill are located at Guthrie. There are a number 
 of stone crushers in the State where limestone is crushed 
 for railroad ballast and concrete. Oil refineries are located 
 at Muskogee, Oklahoma City and Tulsa in which crude 
 petroleum is refined into gasoline, benzine, kerosene and 
 the lubricating oils. Bartlesville has a zinc smelter, shown 
 in Fig. 91. The ores from Joplin and Miami are shipped 
 here to be smelted. 
 
Fig. 90. Interior of a Cotton Mill at Guthrie 
 
 Fig. 91. Zinc Smelter at Bartlesville 
 
 148 
 
MANUFACTURES 149 
 
 Future of the Manufacturing' Industries in Oklahoma. 
 
 Oklahoma is destined to become one of the wealthiest 
 states in the Union. Within the past five years the manu- 
 facturing industry has increased more than 200%. The 
 great variety and vast amount of the mineral products, 
 and the unsurpassed agricultural resources, taken with 
 the healthful climate, will combine to make Oklahoma 
 a very prosperous state. The thing most needed now is 
 the development of the natural resources. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 
 
 1. What are manufactured articles? 
 
 2. Where in Oklahoma is pressed brick manufactured? 
 
 3. Where might clay-products plants be established? 
 
 4. What is Portland cement? 
 
 5. For what is it used? 
 
 6. Of what is it made? 
 
 7. Where in Oklahoma are Portland cement plants located? 
 
 8. Where are gypsum plaster mills located? 
 
 9. Where are flour mills located? Cotton oil mills? 
 
 10. Name and locate some other manufacturing plants. 
 
 11. Why are there so few factories in the State? 
 
 12. What manufacturing plants might be established in your 
 county? 
 
 13. Why have they not been located? 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 The products of the farm, the factory and the mine 
 must be transported and sold before they are used. Those 
 persons who buy, sell and carry these products are said 
 to be engaged in commerce. This includes all merchants, 
 both wholesale and retail, all railroad employes and sail- 
 ors, all expressmen and telegraph operators. In olden 
 times goods were carried in caravans on the backs of 
 camels. Even in certain parts of the country today goods 
 are carried by stage or wagon, or even by pack trains. 
 
 Land and Water Transportation. By far the greater 
 part of the world's commerce is today carried either 
 by rail or on water. Water transportation is carried 
 either in ships on the ocean or in boats on navigable 
 rivers or canals. Water transportation is much cheaper 
 than land transportation and for that reason goods are 
 always shipped by water whenever possible. 
 
 Oklahoma Rivers. Oklahoma has many rivers, but 
 very few of them are suitable for navigation. The 
 greater part of the streams have sand-choked channels 
 and carry a small amount of water for the greater part 
 of the year. The only streams that may some time be 
 made . navigable are the Arkansas below the mouth of 
 the Grand and the Red River in the eastern part of the 
 State. For this reason by far the greater part of the 
 
 150 
 
COMMERCE 151 
 
 products shipped into or out of Oklahoma must always 
 be carried by rail. 
 
 Railroads. Oklahoma has 3,433 miles of railroads. 
 Only four counties are without railroads. Four lines 
 have a larger mileage in the State than all other roads 
 combined. These lines are the Atchison, Topeka and 
 Santa Fe, commonly known as the Santa Fe; the St. 
 Louis and San Francisco, called the Frisco; the Chicago, 
 Rock Island and Pacific, or the Rock Island; and the 
 Missouri, Kansas and Texas, or the Katy. Some one of 
 these roads touches nearly every county seat in Okla- 
 homa and many towns contain two or more of these lines. 
 The Santa Fe and Rock Island roads run directly to Chi- 
 cago. The Santa Fe touches the Pacific Ocean at Los 
 Angeles, and the Gulf of Mexico at Galveston. The Rock 
 Island touches El Paso and Denver. The Frisco has four 
 main lines of v road which cross Oklahoma, touching at 
 Paris, Denison, Vernon and Quanah in Texas. It leads 
 directly through St. Louis to Chicago. The Katy road 
 runs from St. Louis through Oklahoma to Galveston. All 
 these roads have numerous branches which act as feeders 
 to the main line. 
 
 The Kansas City Southern road, from Kansas City to 
 the Gulf, crosses eastern Oklahoma. A branch of the 
 Missouri Pacific runs from Fort Smith, Arkansas, crossing 
 the northeastern part of the State to Coffeyville, Kansas. 
 Two other roads run west from Fort Smith. The Midland 
 Valley passes northwest along the Arkansas River to 
 Arkansas City, Kansas, and the Fort Smith and Western 
 goes to Guthrie and El Reno. The Kansas City, Mexico 
 and Orient road crosses western Oklahoma. The Mis- 
 
152 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 souri, Oklahoma and Oulf and the Oklahoma Central 
 cross the coal fields. 
 
 A study of the map will show that Oklahoma is cob- 
 webbed in every direction with railroads. These roads 
 carry the products of the farm and mine to other parts 
 of the country and bring in the manufactured articles 
 from other regions to Oklahoma. Our cotton and flour 
 go to Galveston, the nearest Gulf port, from which they 
 are shipped by steamer to eastern cities and to Europe. 
 Our cattle and hogs go to the packing plants at Kansas 
 City, Chicago and Ft. Worth. Our corn and hay go to St. 
 Louis, Memphis, New Orleans and eastern markets. Over 
 the same roads are carried lumber from Louisiana and 
 Texas; salt, brick and Portland cement from Kansas; 
 fruits from California; and shoes, clothing and groceries 
 from eastern states. Our modern civilization could not 
 exist in its present form without railroads. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 
 
 1. Who are engaged in commerce? 
 
 2. How is the world's commerce carried? 
 
 3. Why is transportation on water cheaper than on land? 
 
 4. What part of Oklahoma may some day have water trans- 
 portation? 
 
 5. Name the chief railroads in Oklahoma. 
 
 6. What counties are crossed by each? 
 
 7. What important cities outside of Oklahoma are touched 
 by each? 
 
 8. What are the chief railroads in your home county? 
 
 9. Over what roads do we export most of the cotton raised in 
 Oklahoma? Corn? Cattle? Wheat? 
 
 10. Over what roads do we import most of our oranges? 
 Pressed brick? Shoes? Lumber? Sugar? Wagons? 
 
COMMERCE 153 
 
 11. What roads would you take and where would you change 
 cars to go from your home to Oklahoma City 1 ? Alva? Stillwater? 
 Norman? Weatherford? Edmond? Tonkawa? Muskogee? Law- 
 ton? Miami? Idabel? Sulphur? Medford? Guymon? Bar- 
 tlesville? Ardmore? Frederick? 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS. 
 
 Initial Point. All the land of Oklahoma has been sur- 
 veyed by the Federal government according to a system 
 of public land surveys. On a rocky hill a mile south of 
 old Fort Arbuckle, eight miles west of Davis, stands a 
 stone pillar about four feet high and a foot square. On 
 one side are carved the letters I. P. (meaning Indian 
 Principal). On the opposite side is the date, 1870. This 
 is the point from which all the public land in Oklahoma, 
 except Beaver, Texas and Cimarron counties, has been 
 surveyed. 
 
 When the United States government decided in 1870 to 
 survey the land in what is now the State of Oklahoma, 
 a party of surveyors was sent to Fort Arbuckle, which 
 was then the army post nearest the center of the area to 
 be surveyed. These men went a mile south of the fort and 
 selected a point at which to begin. This is called the Ini- 
 tial Point. On this point they set up the sandstone pillar. 
 
 Principal Meridian and Range Lines. From the Initial 
 Point the surveyors ran a true north and south. line ex- 
 tending north to Kansas and south to Texas. This line is 
 called the Indian Principal Meridian. They then went six 
 miles east of the principal meridian and surveyed another 
 north and south line parallel with it. This is known as a 
 range line and all land between the principal meridian 
 
 154 
 
PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 155 
 
 and this line is said to be in Range 1 East. Six miles 
 farther east is a second range line and the land between 
 the first and second range lines is in Range 2 East. In 
 like manner, running north and south, range lines were 
 laid out every six miles apart all the way to the Arkansas 
 line. Other range lines were surveyed west of the prin- 
 cipal meridian and the land lying between these lines is 
 known as Range 1 West, Range 2 West, etc. 
 
 Base Line and Township Lines. Going back to the 
 Initial Point a line was surveyed east and west from Ar- 
 kansas to the western part of the territory. This is known 
 as the Base Line. At intervals of six miles apart north 
 and south of the base line, other lines were surveyed, 
 known as township lines. The strip of land six miles wide 
 running east and west between two township lines is 
 known as a township. Thus the six mile strip north of 
 the base line and between it and the first township line is 
 known as Township 1 North. The strip between the sec- 
 ond and third township line south of the base line is 
 Township 2 South, etc. 
 
 Congressional Townships*: By this method all the 
 territory was cut up into blocks six miles square, known 
 
 *It is unfortunate that the word township is used in three 
 senses in the United States: 
 
 First. A township is a strip of land running east and west six 
 miles wide, parallel to a base line. 
 
 Second. A congressional township is a tract of land six miles 
 square containing thirty-six sections, bounded by range lines and 
 township lines. 
 
 Third. A municipal or political township is a subdivision of 
 a county which has its own local government and elects its own 
 officers. It may contain only a part of a congressional township 
 or it may include several congressional townships. 
 
156 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 as congressional townships. There are in Oklahoma 
 about two thousand congressional townships. 
 
 Each congressional township contains 36 square miles 
 known as sections, each containing 640 acres. These sec- 
 tions are numbered consecutively from 1 to 36, beginning 
 on the northeast corner as shown in Fig. 92. 
 
 Sections. Bach section is usually divided into quarter 
 sections containing 160 acres. The quarter section is the 
 unit of subdivision in granting land to settlers. No person 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 .31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 Fig. 
 
 92. Diagram of a Township Showing Lo- 
 cation of Sections. 
 
 can homestead more than 160 acres; so that many farms, 
 particularly in the western part of the state, are of this 
 size. 
 
 The section, however, may be divided into tracts of any 
 size as shown in Fig. 93, which represents a section di- 
 vided into tracts of 320, 160, 80, 40, 20, and 10 acres. The 
 description of tract numbered B would read the South- 
 west quarter of section thirty-four, Township four North, 
 Range seven East, usually abbreviated to S. W. % Sec. 
 34, T. 4 N., R. 7 E., containing one hundred and sixty 
 
PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 
 
 157 
 
 acres. The description of tract numbered F would be 
 the southeast quarter of the southeast quarter of the 
 southeast quarter of section thirty-four, Township four 
 north, Range seven East, usually abbreviated to S. E. 14, 
 S. E. %, S. E, %, Sec. 34, T. 4 N., R. 7 E., containing ten 
 acres. 
 
 Corner Stones. A stone has been placed in the ground 
 at each section corner, and usually one at the corner of 
 each quarter section. These stones have been marked so 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 F 
 
 Pig. 93. Diagram Showing How a Section May 
 be Divided. 
 
 that by reading the marks one can locate the section. It 
 is easy to learn to read the marks on a corner stone if 
 the following rules are observed: 
 
 Along a range line, that is, on the east or west side 
 of a township, the marks are on the north and south sides 
 of the stone. There will be as many marks on the north 
 side of the stone, for instance, as the number of miles to 
 the next township corner. On the southeast corner of 
 section 12, there will be two marks on the north side of 
 the stone and four marks on the south side. On the 
 
158 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 northeast corner of section 36 there will be five marks 
 on the north and one on the south. 
 
 Along township lines, the marks are on the east and 
 west sides of the stone and there are as many marks 
 as the number of miles to the next township corner. The 
 northeast corner of section 2 will have one mark on the 
 east and five on the west. 
 
 Except along township and range lines the marks are 
 on the east and south sides of the stone, and there are 
 as many marks as the number of miles to the east or 
 south line of the township. For instance, the stone at the 
 corner of sections 10, 11, 14 and 15 will have two marks 
 on the east and four on the south because this stone is 
 two miles from the east line of the township and four 
 miles from the south line. In the center of the township 
 at the corner of sections 15, 16, 21 and 22 there will be 
 three marks on the east and three on the south. 
 
 In the eastern part of the state, that is in old Indian 
 Territory, there is at each township corner an iron pillar, 
 standing about three feet above the ground, with a brass 
 cap, on which is given the number of the township and 
 range as well as the elevation above the sea level. In 
 the timbered country section lines may be followed by 
 blazes on the trees, and at each section corner the num- 
 ber of the land is cut on four trees, one in each section, 
 known as witness trees, or bearing trees. 
 
 In the prairie country there are of course no blazes 
 nor witness trees. The corner stones are marked how- 
 ever. In the older settled parts of the state where roads 
 have been opened upon section lines, the marks on the 
 corner stones have usually been rubbed off by passing 
 
PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS 159 
 
 wheels, and in many cases the corner stones themselves 
 have been broken down. 
 
 Cimarron Meridian. The land in Cimarron, Texas and 
 Beaver counties, which occupy what was formerly known 
 as No Man's Land or the Neutral Strip, was not surveyed 
 from the same principal meridian or base line as the re- 
 mainder of the State. This area, which is about 135 miles 
 long east and west and 35 miles wide, was surveyed from 
 the Cimarron Meridian, which is the extreme western 
 line of the State. The Base Line is the southern line of 
 the area, which is also the northern line of the Texas 
 Panhandle. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXEECISES 
 
 1. Where is the initial point for Oklahoma? 
 
 2. What is a principal meridian? 
 
 3. Through what counties does the Indian principal meridian 
 pass? 
 
 4. In what range is Muskogee? Iiobart? Newkirk? Durant? 
 
 5. Near what towns does the Oklahoma base line pass? 
 
 6. What is a township? A congressional township? A mu- 
 nicipal township? 
 
 7. How are sections numbered? 
 
 8. How are sections divided? 
 
 9. Write the descriptions of an eighty-acre tract; a ten-acre 
 tract. 
 
 10. How are corner stones numbered? 
 
 11. What marks are on the corner stone at the southwest cor- 
 ner of section 8; northeast corner of section 13; at the center of 
 the township; at the northeast corner of section 12; at the north- 
 west corner of section 27? 
 
160 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 12. What are bearing trees? 
 
 13. Where is the Cimarron meridian? 
 
 14. Write the description of some farm in Oklahoma. 
 
 15. Write the description of the forty-acre tract upon which 
 your school house is located. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 POPULATION, CITIES AND COUNTIES. • 
 
 Population and Emigration. The population of Okla- 
 homa in 1907 was 1,414,177. Of these 75,012 were In- 
 dians. Only about one-fourth of the inhabitants of Okla- 
 homa were born within the State. The immigration from 
 adjoining states has been large, Texas being accredited 
 with 153,000; Missouri with 128,000, and Kansas with 
 111,000. Every state and territory in the Union is rep- 
 resented in Oklahoma. In the western part of the State 
 there are a few colonies of Germans and Russians, but by 
 far the greater part of the inhabitants are American- 
 born. 
 
 By far the greater part of the people in Oklahoma live 
 in the country. The government census showed that only 
 about 250,000 persons, or one in six, lived in towns of 
 over 1,000 population. 
 
 Growth of Cities. A city may be located by accident, 
 but no city ever became great by accident. Cities natural- 
 ly grow up where there are particular advantages in the 
 way of manufacturing, mining, or commerce. New York, 
 Galveston, Chicago, Seattle and New Orleans are exam- 
 ples of cities that owe their importance largely to com- 
 merce. Lowell, Rochester and Niagara Falls are manu- 
 facturing centres because they are located near extensive 
 water power. Butte, Joplin, Scranton and Birmingham 
 
 161 
 
162 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 are mining centres. Pittsburg and St. Louis are exam- 
 ples of cities which have favorable location for both man- 
 ufacturing and commerce. Pittsburg is located at the 
 head of navigation on the Ohio river near the vast coal 
 and gas deposits. St. Louis is near coal fields also and 
 near the point where the Missouri and Ohio enter the 
 Mississippi. Occasionally a city becomes large which 
 seems to have no particular reason for doing so. Exam- 
 ples are Denver, Indianapolis and Dallas. These towns 
 sometimes owe their prominence to the number of rail- 
 roads, or to being natural distributing centres, but more 
 often to the energy of "town builders." 
 
 Oklahoma Cities. Nowhere in the world have towns 
 grown faster than in Oklahoma. Twenty years ago the 
 State was a raw prairie ; today it is dotted with hun- 
 dreds of towns. The largest towns are those that have 
 had some advantage of railroad or rich farming com- 
 munities. Most of the larger towns in the Territory of 
 Oklahoma were the original county-seat towns. A few 
 large ones, such as Ponca, Blackwell, Weatherford and 
 Geary, are not county seats. On the Indian Territory 
 side of the State such towns as McAlester, Wilburton, 
 Coalgate, Lehigh, Tulsa and Bartlesville owe their im- 
 portance largely to the location of mineral. Durant, Ard- 
 more, Vinita and Chickasha are in fine farming com- 
 munities. Muskogee, the largest town in eastern Okla- 
 homa, owes its importance partly to its location near the 
 head of navigation on the Arkansas and partly to the 
 fact that the headquarters of the Dawes Commission was 
 located there. 
 
 The report of the Government census taken in Septem- 
 ber, 1907, showed that Oklahoma had at that time 95 
 
POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 
 
 163 
 
 cities with a population exceeding 1,000, of which 44 have 
 more than 2,000 and 5 more than 10,000 population. The 
 more important cities of the State will be discussed in 
 the order of their population. 
 
 Oklahoma City, the largest city in Oklahoma, is located 
 within twenty miles of the geographical center of the 
 State. It is a railroad center and carries on a large 
 wholesale trade, having 185 manufacturing and jobbing 
 
 Fig. 94. A Modern Office Building at Oklahoma City 
 
 houses and ten banks. There are 40 miles of asphalt 
 streets, 73 miles of sewers and 120 miles of brick and ce- 
 ment sidewalk. It is a prominent cotton and grain mar- 
 ket, approximately 100,000 bales of cotton and 1,200,000 
 barrels of flour being handled annually. Epworth Uni- 
 versity, a denominational school, and several private busi- 
 ness and academic schools, are located here. Fig. 94 
 shows an office building and Fig. 95 the Court House in 
 Oklahoma City. 
 
164 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Muskogee, the second city of importance in Ok- 
 lahoma, is located near the mouth of the Verdigris and 
 Grand rivers and at the head of navigation of the Arkan- 
 sas River. Muskogee has four competing lines of railroad, 
 a number of wholesale houses and factories and is located 
 near rich oil, gas, coal and mineral deposits, and not 
 far from cheap water power. Three denominational col- 
 leges, Bacone, Spaulding and Nazareth, are located here. 
 
 
 
 nil 
 
 -* Up 
 
 '' k 
 
 
 4 *^4"*a 
 
 Fig. 95. Court House at Oklahoma City 
 
 Muskogee is the seat of the Indian agency and was for 
 years the headquarters of the Dawes Commission. 
 
 Guthrie, the present capital of the State, is the county 
 seat of Logan County. It has 50 factories and wholesale 
 houses, six competing lines of railway and a large retail 
 trade. 
 
 Shawnee is located in a rich farming country in the 
 valley of the North Canadian River; cotton and potatoes 
 being the chief crops shipped. The city contains 37 fac- 
 
POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 
 
 165 
 
 tories and 15 jobbing houses. The Rock Island shops are 
 located here. 
 
 Enid, the largest city in the northwestern part of the 
 State, owes its prominence to the number of railroads 
 which converge here and to the wholesale and retail 
 trade. It is the center of the wheat producing section of 
 the State. A denominational school, the Oklahoma Chris- 
 tian University, is located at Enid. 
 
 Fig. 96. Masonic Temple at McAlester 
 
 Ardmore, the largest city in southern Oklahoma, has a 
 large cotton trade and is located near rich asphalt, oil 
 and mineral deposits. There are several factories and 
 wholesale houses. It has three competing lines of rail- 
 road. See Fig. 80. 
 
 McAlester, the largest city in the southeastern part of 
 the State, owes its prominence to the vast deposits of coal 
 and other minerals located near at hand. The town has a 
 number of wholesale houses and manufacturing estab- 
 
166 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 lishments and is the chief coal shipping point of the State. 
 A street railroad connects McAlester with a number of 
 suburban towns. Fig. 96 is the Masonic Temple at Mc- 
 Alester, and Fig. 97 a hotel in the same city. 
 
 Chickasha, the county seat of Grady County, which is 
 one of the richest counties in the State, is a distributing 
 point for southwest Oklahoma. It has three competing 
 lines of railroads and a number of jobbing houses. 
 
 B El D 
 
 ^£0 . 
 
 I B □ 
 
 Fig. 97. Busby Hotel at McAlester 
 
 Tulsa is situated on the Arkansas river near the cen- 
 ter of the oil and gas region of Oklahoma. A burning oil 
 tank near Tulsa is shown in Fig. 98. Coal, clay and 
 limestone are found near at hand. The city has several 
 lines of railroad and a number of manufacturing plants. 
 A denominational college, Henry Kendall, is located at 
 Tulsa. 
 
 Lawton, the county seat of Comanche County, is lo- 
 
POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 
 
 167 
 
 cated near Fort Sill, at the eastern end of the Wichita 
 Mountains. It has a large cotton and grain trade. 
 
 El Reno, the county seat of Canadian County, is at the 
 junction of two important lines of railroad. It is the cen- 
 ter of a rich farming country and has a large cotton and 
 grain trade. 
 
 Durant, in Bryan County, the second largest city in 
 
 Fig. 98. Smoke from Burning Oil 
 
 southern Oklahoma, has a denominational school and a 
 State Normal school. It has a large cotton trade. 
 
 Sapulpa, in Creek County, is an important railroad cen- 
 ter, situated near the center of the oil and gas fields of 
 the State. Fig. 99 is a bird's-eye view of Sapulpa, with 
 smoke from burning oil in the distance. 
 
 Bartlesville is the county seat of Washington County, 
 which is one of the wealthiest counties in the State. One 
 of the largest known gas fields in the world is located 
 
168 
 
POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 169 
 
 near the city. The city has zinc smelters, glass and brick 
 plants and a Portland cement plant is located near by. 
 
 Ada, in Pontotoc County, in the center of a rich farming 
 country, contains a State Normal school. A Portland 
 cement mill is located here. 
 
 Vinita, the largest city in northeastern Oklahoma, is 
 the county seat of Craig County. It is near the oil and 
 gas fields and is the center of a rich farming country. 
 
 Norman, in Cleveland County is the seat of the State 
 University, the head of the State school system. It has a 
 good grain and cotton market. 
 
 Stillwater, in Payne County, is the seat of the Agricul- 
 tural College. 
 
 Alva, the county seat of Woods County; Edmond, 
 in northern Oklahoma County, and Weatherford, in 
 Custer County, contain State normal schools. 
 
 Brief mention may be made of the following cities 
 which fall below 3,000 in population: 
 
 Sulphur, in Murray County, is located near Piatt Na- 
 tional Park, where are a number of medicinal springs. 
 
 Coalgate and Lehigh, in Coal County, are in the center 
 of one of the most productive coal regions in the State. 
 
 Perry, in Noble County, is the center of a good wheat 
 and corn country. 
 
 Newkirk, Blackwell and Ponca City are large towns in 
 Kay County, which is one of the richest counties of the 
 State. 
 
 Hobart, in Kiowa County, and Mangum, in Greer 
 County, are noted cotton markets. 
 
 Hartshorne, Haileyville, Wilburton and Poteau are coal 
 towns in eastern Oklahoma. 
 
170 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 Wagoner, Okmulgee, Claremore, Miami and Nowata 
 are county seats in eastern Oklahoma. 
 
 Tahlequah is the county seat of Cherokee County, the 
 capital of the former Cherokee Nation. It has fine springs 
 of soft water. A Normal school is located here. 
 
 Tishomingo, Purcell, Duncan, Hugo, Pauls Valley and 
 Marietta are county seats in southern Oklahoma. 
 
 Pawhuska was the capital of the Osage Nation ; Wewoka 
 of the old Seminoles, and Okmulgee of the former Creek 
 Nation. 
 
 Chandler, Kingfisher, Elk City, Anadarko, Frederick, 
 Wynnewood and Woodward are cities of over 2,000 popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Counties. The State is divided into 75 counties. The 
 smallest county is Washington with 440 square miles; 
 the largest is Osage with 2,297 square miles. The most 
 populous county is Oklahoma with 55,849 people ; the least 
 populous is Cimarron with 5,293. 
 
 The following table includes the names of the counties, 
 with the area and population of each, as well as the name 
 and population of the county seat, according to the Fed- 
 eral census taken in 1907. The figures are those of the 
 census taken the same year: 
 
 AREA 
 
 NAME sq. jni. POP. 
 
 Adair 612 9,115 
 
 Alfalfa 888 16,070 
 
 Atoka 990 12,013 
 
 Beaver .1,890 13,364 
 
 Beckham ....1,044 17,379 
 
 Blaine 1,008 17,277 
 
 Bryan 900 27,865 
 
 COUNTY SEAT POP. 
 
 Westville 941 
 
 Cherokee 964 
 
 Atoka 1,700 
 
 Beaver 271 
 
 Sayre 1,179 
 
 Watonga 1,608 
 
 Durant 4,516 
 
POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 
 
 171 
 
 AREA 
 NAME sq. mi. POP. 
 
 Caddo 1,386 30,241 
 
 Canadian 900 20,110 
 
 Carter 800 36,402 
 
 Cherokee .... 792 14,274 
 
 Choctaw 825 17,340 
 
 Cimarron ....1,450 4,293 
 
 Coal 522 15,585 
 
 Cleveland .... 576 18,460 
 
 Comanche ...1,723 31,938 
 
 Craig 775 14,955 
 
 Creek 972 18,365 
 
 Custer 1,008 19,478 
 
 Delaware .... 770 9,876 
 
 Dewey 1,029 13,329 
 
 Ellis 1,041 13,978 
 
 Garfield 1,080 28,300 
 
 Garvin 846 22,787 
 
 Grady 936 23,420 
 
 Grant 1,008 17,638 
 
 Greer 1,116 23,624 
 
 Harper 980 8,089 
 
 Haskell 612 16,856 
 
 Hughes 792 19,945 
 
 Jackson 720 13,439 
 
 Jefferson .... 780 13,439 
 
 Johnston 666 18,672 
 
 Kay 927 22,165 
 
 Kingfisher ... 900 9,349 
 
 Kiowa 1,486 24,678 
 
 Latimer 756 37,294 
 
 Leflore 1,731 30,707 
 
 COUNTY SEAT POP. 
 
 Anadarko 2,190 
 
 El Reno 5,370 
 
 Ardmore 8,749 
 
 Tahlequah 1,916 
 
 Hugo 2,676 
 
 Kenton 225 
 
 Lehigh 2,188 
 
 Norman 3,040 
 
 Lawton 5,562 
 
 Vinita 3,157 
 
 Sapulpa 4,294 
 
 Arapaho 610 
 
 Grove 694 
 
 Talo£a 430 
 
 Grand 200 
 
 Enid 10,087 
 
 Pauls Valley 2,157 
 
 Chickasha 7,896 
 
 Pond Creek , . 2,200 
 
 Mangum 2,672 
 
 Buffalo 500 
 
 Stigler 1,001 
 
 Holdenville 1,868 
 
 Altus 1,927 
 
 Ryan 1,115 
 
 Tishomingo 1,300 
 
 Newkirk 1,788 
 
 Kingfisher 2,300 
 
 Hobart 3,136 
 
 Wilburton 1,451 
 
 Poteau 1,726 
 
172 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 AKEA 
 NAME sq. mi. 
 
 Lincoln 967 
 
 Logan 737 
 
 Love 500 
 
 Major 1,144 
 
 Marshall 450 
 
 Mayes 684 
 
 McClain 600 
 
 McCurtain . ..1,942 
 
 Mcintosh 666 
 
 Murray 450 
 
 Muskogee .... 828 
 
 Nowata 576 
 
 Noble 675 
 
 Okfuskee .... 648 
 Okmulgee .... 684 
 Oklahoma ... 720 
 
 Osage 2,297 
 
 Ottawa 504 
 
 Pawnee 720 
 
 Payne 720 
 
 Pittsburg .... 1,368 
 
 Pontotoc 684 
 
 Pottawatomie.. 864 
 Pushmataha .1,422 
 Roger Mills . . 1,122 
 
 Rogers 638 
 
 Seminole ... . . 605 
 Sequoyah .... 638 
 
 Stephens 810 
 
 Texas 1,962 
 
 Tillman 720 
 
 POP. COUNTY SEAT POP. 
 
 11,134 Chandler .. 2,234 
 
 14,307 Guthrie 11,648 
 
 13,081 Marietta 1,391 
 
 11,065 Fairview 887 
 
 12,888 Madill 1,587 
 
 10,359 Pryor Creek 1,103 
 
 17,975 Purcell 2,552 
 
 11,948 Idabell 600 
 
 17,975 Eufaula 950 
 
 11,948 Sulphur 2,936 
 
 38,341 Muskogee 14,418 
 
 10,453 Nowata 223 
 
 11,198 Perry 2,881 
 
 15,595 Okemah 1,027 
 
 14,362 Okmulgee 2,322 
 
 55,849 Oklahoma City 32,431 
 
 15,332 Pawhuska 2,407 
 
 12,827 Miami 400 
 
 17,112 Pawnee 1,943 
 
 22,022 Stillwater 2,577 
 
 37,677 McAlester 8,142 
 
 23,057 Ada 3,257 
 
 43,272 Tecumseh 1,621 
 
 8,295 Antlers 854 
 
 12,230 Cheyenne 600 
 
 15,485 Claremore 2,064 
 
 14,687 Wewoka 794 
 
 22,450 Sallisaw 1,689 
 
 20,148 Duncan 2,451 
 
 16,428 Guymon 839 
 
 12,869 Frederick 2,036 
 
POPULATIONS, CITIES AND COUNTIES 
 
 173 
 
 AREA 
 
 NAME eq. mi. 
 
 Tulsa ... 900 
 
 Wagoner .... 576 
 Washington . . 440 
 
 Washita 1,008 
 
 Woods 1,200 
 
 Woodward . . . 1,224 
 
 POP. COUNTY SEAT POP. 
 
 21,693 Tulsa 7,588 
 
 19,529 Wagoner 2,950 
 
 12,813 Bartlesville 4,215 
 
 22,006 Cordell 1,393 
 
 15,517 Alva 2,800 
 
 14,595 Woodward 2018 
 
 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 
 
 1. What is the population of Oklahoma? 
 
 2. How do cities become great? 
 
 3. Account for the growth of Oklahoma City. 
 
 4. Name the ten largest cities in Oklahoma. 
 
 5. Name and locate the counties of Oklahoma. 
 
 6. Name the county seat of each county. 
 
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 Ammonite, am'-mo-nite 
 Anadarko, an-a-dar -ko 
 Arapaho, a-rap'-a-ho 
 Arbuckle, ar'-buck-le 
 Arkansas, ar -kan-saw, 
 
 or ar-kan'-sas 
 Atoka, a-to'-ka 
 Bokoshe, bo-ko'-she 
 Brachiopod, brak'-e-o-pod 
 Cache, kash 
 Cambrian, kam -bre-an 
 Canadian, ka-na -di-an 
 Carboniferous, kar-bon-if - 
 
 er-ous 
 Catoosa, ka-too -sa 
 Checotah, she-co'-ta 
 Chelsea, chel -se-a 
 Cherokee, cher'-o-kee 
 Cheyenne, shi-en' 
 Chickasaw, chick'-a-saw 
 Chickasha, chick'-a-shay 
 Choctaw, chock'-taw 
 Cimarron, sim-ar-rone' 
 Concharty, kon-char'-ty 
 Cretaceous, kre-ta'-shus 
 Crinoid, kri'-noid 
 Devonian, de-vo'-ni-an 
 
 Eufaula, u-fau'-la 
 Illinois, il-li-noi' 
 Jurassic, ju-ras'-sic 
 Kiamitia, ki-a-me'-sha 
 Kickapoo, kick'-a-poo 
 Kiowa, ki -o-wa 
 Muskogee, mus-ko'-gee 
 Neosho, ne-o'-sho 
 Nowata, no-wa'-ta 
 Okemah, o-ke'-ma 
 Okfuskee, ok-fus'-kee 
 Okmulgee, ok-mul'-gee 
 Oklahoma, ok-la-ho'-ma 
 Ordovician, or-do-ve'-shan 
 Osage, o'-saj 
 Ottawa, ot'-ta-wa 
 Oteo, o'-toe 
 Ouachita, wa'-she-taw 
 Ozark, o'-zark 
 Pawhuska, paw-hus'-ka 
 Permian, per'-mi-an 
 Peoria, pe-o -ri-a 
 Ponca, pon -ka 
 Pontotoc, pon'-to-tok 
 Poteau, po -toe 
 Pottawatomie, pot-ta-wat'- 
 to-mie 
 
 174 
 
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 175 
 
 Pushmataha, push-ma-ta'-ha 
 Quapaw, qua'-paw 
 Quaternary, qua-ter'-na-ry 
 Sallisaw, salMi-saw 
 Sansbois, sandboy 
 Sapulpa, sa-pul'-pa 
 Seminole, sem'-i-nole 
 Seneca, sen'-e-ka 
 Sequoyah, se-quoy'-ah 
 Silurian, si-lu'-ri-an 
 Spavinaw, spav'-i-naw 
 Tahlequah, tah'-le-quah 
 Taloga, ta-lo'-ga 
 
 Tecumseh, te-kum'-se 
 Tertiary, ter -shi-a-ry 
 Tishomingo, tish-o-min -go 
 Tonkawa, tong'-ka-wa 
 Triassic, tri-as'-sic 
 Trilobite, tri'-lo-bite 
 Tulsa, tul'-sa 
 Verdigris, ver'-de-gree 
 Vinita, ve-ne'-ta 
 Washita, wa'-she-taw 
 Watonga, wa-tung'-ga 
 Wewoka, we-wo'-ka 
 Wichita, wich'-e-taw 
 
INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Ada 169 
 
 Admission of Oklahoma. 98 
 
 Air 63 
 
 Alfalfa 118 
 
 Alva 169 
 
 Arbuckle Mountains .... 10 
 
 Ardmore 165 
 
 Arkansas River 51 
 
 Arkansas Valley Region. . . 15 
 
 Artesian Wells 48 
 
 Asphalt 133 
 
 Bartlesville 167 
 
 Birds 80 
 
 Boundaries of Oklahoma.. 2 
 
 Broom Corn 117 
 
 Building Stone 138 
 
 Carboniferous Rocks 35 
 
 Cattle 122 
 
 Character of Settlers.... 98 
 
 Cherokee Strip 94 
 
 Chickasha 166 
 
 Church Schools 106 
 
 Cimarron River 57 
 
 City Schools 104 
 
 Cities, growth of 161 
 
 Clay 138 
 
 Clay Products 144 
 
 Climate 68-72 
 
 Coal 128 
 
 Constitution 108 
 
 Corn 115 
 
 Corn, broom 117 
 
 Cotton 117 
 
 Page 
 
 County Schools 103 
 
 Counties 170 
 
 Cretaceous Rocks 39 
 
 Crops, minor 121 
 
 Cyclones 67 
 
 Dairying 124 
 
 Dawes Commission 97 
 
 Disposal of Rainfall..... 43 
 
 Drainage 50 
 
 Drainage Basins 51 
 
 Durant 167 
 
 Edmond 169 
 
 Education 102 
 
 El Reno 167 
 
 Enid 165 
 
 Emigration 161 
 
 Executive Department ... 109 
 
 Factories 144 
 
 Fauna 74-78 
 
 Fishes 82 
 
 Five Civilized Tribes.... 83 
 Five Civilized Tribes, 
 
 migration of 84 
 
 Five Civilized Tribes, 
 
 disposal of land .... 84 
 
 Flora 74-75 
 
 Flour and Oil Mills 146 
 
 Fruits 120 
 
 Fuels 126 
 
 Gas 133 
 
 Geology 25 
 
INDEX 
 
 177 
 
 Page 
 
 Geologic Periods 26 
 
 Government 108 
 
 Government, executive 
 
 department 109 
 
 Government, judicial de- 
 partment 110 
 
 Government, legislative 
 
 department 108 
 
 Government, local 110 
 
 Government Maps 3 
 
 Grand River 54 
 
 Grasses 77 
 
 Great Plains 5 
 
 Greer County 95 
 
 Guthrie 164 
 
 Gypsum 136 
 
 Gypsum Hills Region.... 20 
 
 Gypsum Plaster 146 
 
 Hay 118 
 
 High Plains Region 22 
 
 Hogs 123 
 
 Horses 123 
 
 Humidity 64-70 
 
 Igneous Rocks 28 
 
 Indians, settlement of . . . 86 
 
 Indians, mode of life 89 
 
 Indian Territory 96 
 
 Jurassic Rocks 39 
 
 Judicial Department .... 110 
 
 Kiowa Country 95 
 
 Lakes 60 
 
 Land Surveys 154-159 
 
 Lawton 166 
 
 Lead and Zinc 137 
 
 Legislative Department.. 108 
 
 Lizards 81 
 
 Location of Oklahoma... 1 
 
 Manufacturing Plants 147 
 
 McAlester 165 
 
 Minerals in Oklahoma... 126 
 
 Mineral Springs 46 
 
 Page 
 
 Minor Crops 121 
 
 Mississippian Rocks 36 
 
 Mistletoe 77 
 
 Mode of Life Among 
 
 Indians 89 
 
 Muskogee 164 
 
 No Man's Land 93 
 
 Norman 169 
 
 North Canadian River.... 55 
 
 Oats and Other Grains.. 116 
 
 Oil 126 
 
 Oklahoma City 163 
 
 Oldest Rocks in Oklahoma 28 
 
 Opening of Oklahoma... 92 
 Origin of Arbuckle and 
 
 Wichita Mts 33 
 
 Origin of Streams 50 
 
 Original Owners of Okla- 
 homa 83 
 
 Ouachita Mountains .... 9 
 
 Ozark Mountains 6 
 
 Pennsylvanian Rock 36 
 
 Permian Rocks 38 
 
 Population 161 
 
 Portland Cement 145 
 
 Potatoes _ 121 
 
 Poteau River 54 
 
 Poultry 124 
 
 Precipitation 65 
 
 Quaternary Rocks 41 
 
 Railroads 151 
 
 Rainfall 70 
 
 Redbeds Plains Region.. 19 
 
 Religion 106 
 
 Red River 59 
 
 Red River Region 16 
 
 Reservations, Other 93 
 
 Residual Soil 113 
 
 Rivers, Navigation on... 150 
 
 Salt 134 
 
 Salt Fork River ..; 57 
 
178 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Sand 140 
 
 Sandstone Hills Region.. 17 
 
 Sapulpa 167 
 
 Shawnee 164 
 
 School Laws 102 
 
 Schools, city 104 
 
 Schools, country 103 
 
 Schools, church 106 
 
 Schools, state 105 
 
 Sedimentary Rocks 27 
 
 Settlement of Indians ... 86 
 Settlement of Oklahoma. 91-92 
 
 Snakes 81 
 
 Springs 44 
 
 Springs, mineral 46 
 
 Soil Areas 112 
 
 Soil, residual 113 
 
 Soil, transported 114 
 
 South Canadian River... 55 
 
 State Superintendent 103 
 
 Streams, character of.... 51 
 
 Streams, chief 50 
 
 Streams, origin of 50 
 
 Stillwater 169 
 
 Stock Raising 122 
 
 Surveys of Land 154-159 
 
 Temperature 63-69 
 
 Tertiary Rocks 39 
 
 Page 
 
 Topographic Regions ... 6 
 
 Transportation 150 
 
 Transported Coil 114 
 
 Trees x . 75 
 
 Triassic Rocks 39 
 
 Tulsa 166 
 
 Turtles 81 
 
 Underground Water .... 43 
 Underground Water, 
 
 movement of 44 
 
 Vegetables 121 
 
 Verdigris River 54 
 
 Vinita 169 
 
 Washita River 58 
 
 Weather 63 
 
 Weather Bureau 65 
 
 Weatherford 169 
 
 Wells 46 
 
 Wells, Artesian 48 
 
 Wheat 116 
 
 Wichita Mountains 14 
 
 Wild Animals 78 
 
 Wind 64-69 
 
 Zinc 137 
 
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