77 ^r Class _^=L^Dx Book , /^ l_Z_ GopyrightN°_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 1] -5^3 Copyright 1914, by THE BIBLE HOUSE CHICAGO, ILLINOIS ALL RIGHTS KKSKRVKD SEP cb 1914 - >CI.A380543 ^o BRITISH TROOPS CROSSING A RIVER FRENCH SUBMARINE ATTACKING GERMAN RATTLESHIP A MODERN WAR MACHINE IN ACTION THE GREAT BATTLE AT LIEGE, BELG TWEEN GERMAN AND BELGIAN FORCES LOADING A MACHINE GUN LANDING ARTILLERY PROM TRANSPORTS GERMAN GUNS SHOOTING FRENCH AEROPLANES NEW GERMAN TORPEDO BOAT G. 8 CATCHING A SPENT TORPEDO I; ffll ■ •Mat- i St i ■ 1 M81 - •%l TORPEDO SHOT OUT BY POWDER GUN WMfr TORPEDO LEAVING GUN A DARING DASH OF NEW WAK MACHINES TORPEDO CAUGHT OX THE FLY PUTTING ON THE WAR PAINT PREFACE The spectacle of all but one of the really great powers of Europe at war eclipses all the other war spectacles in the history of the world in the number of troops, the magnitude of armament and the theater of operations. Millions of men met upon battlefields where tens of thousands had met before. Siege guns of a size unheard of before were used to reduce fortifications, and perfected machine guns mowed down battalions, while submarine and aeroplanes and monster Zeppelins played for the first time their deadly parts in the carnage of battles. In order to understand and appreciate the importance of events of the great European war of 1914 it is desirable, and more or less necessary, to know the previous war history of Europe, the relations of the contending powers, their peoples and their history. In this volume, Europe at War, will be found a history of the events leading up to the outbreak of hostilities between Austria-Hungary and Servia, which plunged a con- tinent into the most gigantic armed conflict ever known or conceived. In this great work will be found the thrilling story of the assassination of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir a b Preface to the Austrian throne and his morganatic wife, which was the overt act that precipitated the war. The form and manner in which war was declared by the several powers, giving their reasons therefor, including the speeches of the German Kaiser; the British Foreign Min- ister, Sir Edward Grey; the manifesto of the aged Austrian Emperor, Franz Joseph, together with the ultimatums and declarations of war are also set forth. The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente are described and explained, thus explaining the alignment of the forces engaged in the gigantic conflict. Europe at War contains the history of all the decisive battles of the world from Marathon to the battle that ended the Russo-Japanese war. In these thrilling descrip- tions of the world's greatest battles preceding the great European war of 1914 may be found facts and figures for comparison with the greatest of all wars in the history of the world. The Seven Years' war waged by the great ancestor of the Kaiser, Frederick the Great, in which all Europe was arrayed against him, is given a special chapter. Another chapter is devoted to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, which left France and Germany mortal enemies, and which resulted in the enormous armaments and war preparations of those nations, which were under way for more than forty years. This work also contains a descrip- tion of the fair provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which Germany exacted from France as a war prize, and which were the scenes of hard fighting in the great war of 1914. One of the underlying causes of the world's greatest war was the growth of Pan- Slavism and Pan-Germanism, the sentiments which united the Slav races into one faction and Preface c the Germanic races into another, with resulting rivalries and antagonisms, all of which are fully explained herein. Thrilling Personal Experiences in the War constitute a chapter to stir red blood, reciting daring deeds of individuals in battles of earth, sea and air. Under the title Best Stories of the War are given a series of incidents replete with tragedy, adventure, humor, pathos and human interest. All the rulers of the nations at war in 1914 were related by blood or marriage except the King of Servia. Just what these relationships were, giving the various marriages between European royalty are accurately told herein. The biographies and personal histories of the leading commanders and rulers make another attractive feature. Among them will be found faithful pen portraits of the German Kaiser, Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, the young King of the Belgians and others. This great work also contains descriptions of the modern methods of warfare, submarines, aeroplanes, the deadly mines sown on land and sea and how they are operated. The characteristics and habits of the various peoples and interesting and valuable facts concerning the nations at war are given. The army and navy strength of the Great Powers are accurately set forth. In fact, everything of historical and educational value necessary to an understanding of the world's greatest war has been made a feature of this great work. Preface THE REAL SUFFERERS IN A AVAR ARE THE ONES LEFT AT HOME CONTENTS CHAPTEE I THE GREAT EUROPEAN WAR OF 1914 PAGE The Beginning of the Greatest War in the History of the World, Involving Five of -the Greatest Nations of Europe, Great Britain, Germany, France, Aus- tria-Hungary and Russia and the Smaller Nations of Belgium, Servia and Montenegro, Followed the Shots of an Assassin WJio Killed the Heir to the Throne of Austria-Hungary. A Summary of the Events That Pre- ceded the Greatest of all International Conflicts . . . .43 CHAPTER II THE 'ASSASSINATION THAT STARTED THE WAR Archduke Francis Ferdinand, Heir to Austrian Throne, and His Wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, Slain in Bosnia — First Attempt on Their Lives with a Bomb — History of Their Courtship and Marriage — Assassins In- volve High Servian Officials . . . . . . .51 CHAPTER III AUSTRIA DECLARES WAR ON SERVIA High Feeling Against Servia in Austria — Demand for Satisfaction — Servia' s Reply — Austria Declares War on Servia — Efforts to Settle Differences by European Mediation — Emperor Francis Joseph Explains Austria's Attitude Toward Servia — The Match Touched to the European Powder Barrel ........... 59 chapter iv how The war cloud spread Austria Invades Servia — Russia Mobilizes for War — Germany Orders Czar to Cease Warlike Preparations — Kaiser Declares War on Russia — Kaiser Appeals to His People ........ 69 CHAPTER V THE INVASION OF LUXEMBURG Germany's Early Moves in War Game — France in a State of War with Ger- many — Kaiser's Demand on Belgium — Great Britain Stands by France and for the Neutrality of Belgium ..... 77 CHAPTER VI FIVE NATIONS IN THE GRIP OF WAR Great Britain Declares War on Germany — Kaiser Blames Other Nations for Trouble — Czar Puts Blame on Germany — France Also Blames Kaiser's Government — Montenegro Declares War on Austria — Great Britain De- clares War on Austria ........ 87 Contents CHAPTER VII JAPAN TAKES A HAND IN THE TROUBLE Japan Soon Takes Steps to Take a Hand in the Great War—Kiaochou Ter- ritory Leased by Germany in China Causes Japan to Prepare for War— Mikado s Government Sends an Ultimatum to Germany Demanding That German Ships Leave Oriental Waters and That Germany Evacuate Kiao- C jy m — Txme Limit Set in Note Expires with Germany Failing to Notice the Communication— Japan Declares War on Germany— Japan's Strength on Land That Is Thrown in with the Allies— Strength of the Japanese ■"O/vy ••••.... 97 CHAPTER VIII YOUNG KING OF THE BELGIANS Grandson of a German Prince— His Queen the Grand Niece of the Murdered Empress of Austria— His Visit to America When Crown Prince— His Large Possessions in the Congo with 30,000,000 Belgian Subjects— A Democratic Monarch . . . .' . 103 CHAPTER IX GERMANY'S WAR LORD Perao^l Description of Kaiser Wilhelm II— His Work as Emperor and Methods of Life— Has a Big Body, Short Legs and a Withered Arm— lhe German Navy His Personal Creation— His Income $7,000 000 a Year — His Hobbies .... . 107 CHAPTER X THE RUSSIAN COMMANDER The Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholaevitch Was Prominent in the Russo-Japa- ^War—One of the Finest Cavalry Officers of the Great Empire— His Mother a German— Known as the Strong Man of Russia Who Might Become Beg ent or Even Czar .... 113 CHAPTER XI KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM The Great Soldier Who Was at the Head of England's War Department in the European War of 1914— He Organized the British Army in India and Yh?T™i f ° f Ji% °fL°r d R 0herts in the Boer War-How He Destroyed the Tombs of the Prophets After Slaying 17,000 of the Enemy in One Day 115 CHAPTER XII A WAR OF COUSINS All of the Royal Families of Europe in the Great War of 1914 Were Belated by Blood or Marriage Except Servia's—Many Grandchildren of Kino Christian of Denmark and Queen Victoria of England— Also Held Mil- iary Titles w Each Other's Armies and Navies— A Continental Family 121 CHAPTER XIII ARMED STRENGTH OF WARRING NATIONS Strength of the Rival Nations— Twenty Million Men Prepare for War— Allies Have Advantage in Land Power— Naval Strength of Allies Also Greater —Great Britain, s Powerful Navy— Classification of Great Sea Fleets— Aenal Strength of Powers Favors Allies— Wealth of Warring Nations with Revenue, Expenditure and Debt— Cost of General War ' 129 137 Contents S PAGE CHAPTEE XIV BATTLES IN THE AIR Lord Tennyson's Bemarkable Prophecy Bealized-Aerial Crafts Zevolutwn- izinq Warfare— Germany's Zeppelins Veritable Aerial Battleships— How Aerial Forces Were Distributed Along Frontiers— The Aeroplane by Day and the Dirigible by Night— England's Attempt to Bar Foreign Air Craft —All Nations Steadily Increasing Their Air Strength—Biplanes More Adaptable for Dropping Bombs— Damage by Bombs an Open Question- Zeppelin a Convertible Cruiser . CHAPTER XV THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE AND THE TRIPLE ENTENTE The Former a Signed and Sealed Compact, the Latter a "Gentlemen's Agree- ment"— How They Were Formed and Why— Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy Composed the Alliance and Bussia, France and Great Britam Composed the Entente— Bismarck the Originator . • • 153 CHAPTER XVI PAN-SLAVISM VS. PAN-GERMANISM Bacial Hatred Primary Cause of the War, with Over-Armament a Contrib- uting Factor— Disruption of Turkish Empire Hastened Comrng Conflict— Pan-Germanism Against Pan-Slavism— Definition of the Two Terms— Deeply Booted Bacial Hatred) Apparent Everywhere— Ser via Once a Mighty Empire Subjugated by Turkey— Servia's Struggle for Thirty- five Years for a Seaport Checkmated by Austria-Hungary— Growth of Pan-German Movement — Deep-Seated Season for Bacial Hatred— The Bule of the Hohenzollerm Versus the Bule of the Czar . . -159 CHAPTER XVII MODERN METHODS OF WARFARE Weapons Used by Modern Armies and Navies— Machine Guns — The Submarine The Aeroplane — Present Day Ammunition — Mines on Land and Sea — Modern War's Death Power — Submarines of Warring Powers — The Chem- ical Mine — Classes of Mines— Explosives Used— Placing of Destroyers How Japan Treated Mines Planted by Bussia — Attack on Modern Mine Field — Invention of Mines ....... 167 CHAPTER XVIII SERVIA AND HER PEOPLE Most Picturesque of the Countries at War— The Servian Empire Overthrown by the Turks in 1389 Begaimed in Part by a Bevolution in 1804 — People Love Politics, Poetry, Music and Dancing— Description of Their Brilliant Costumes and Chief Characteristics ...... 173 CHAPTER XIX THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE A Nation Great in Art and Literature, with a War-Bidden History, Is Made Up of Many Different Elements Whose Chief Industry Is Agriculture — The Bretons, Basques and Flemings Still Betain Their Original Customs and Distinctive Languages . . • . • • 177 h Contents PAGE CHAPTEE XX THE GERMAN EMPIRE Second in Area and Third in Population Among the Warring Nations of Europe — The Extent and Diversity of Its Commerce — An Empire Made Up of Prussia and the German Confederation — Its Form of Government — The Kaiser Supreme in War ...... 181 CHAPTER XXI THE GREAT RUSSIAN EMPIRE It Comprises One-Sixth of the Land Surface of the Globe and the Greatest Diversity of Races — Its Government and Characteristics of Its People — Land of Contrasting Riches and Poverty — Nobility Spends Money Freely on Entertainments ........ 185 CHAPTER XXII ALSACE-LORRAINE, THE FAIR PRIZES OF WAR Division of Charlemagne's Vast Empire Among His Grandsons — Lothair, the Weakest, Gets as His Heritage Alsace-Lorraine Among Other Lands — Provinces a Bone of Contention Between France and Germany — France Gets Alsace and All Lorraine but the City of Strassburg by Treaty of Westphalia — Louis XIV Takes Strassburg for France — Provinces a The- atre of Operations in Franco-Prussian War — Germany Gets Them as a Price of Peace — German Government — The Zabern Affair — Character- istics of Natives ........ 189 CHAPTER XXIII FREDERICK THE GREAT AND THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR Battles in Which the Ancestor of Kaiser Wilhelm II Won His Title — Fought Against Six Nations with Odds of More Than Two to One Against Him and Won — The Eleven Great Battles That Cost One Million Lives — The Great Military Genius of Prussia After Fighting Seven Years Died in Peace and Amidst Plenty ....... 193 CHAPTER XXIV THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Louis XVI a Poor Ruler — His Personal Characteristics — Marie Antoinette, His Queen — Conditions at the Court of Louis — Huge Funds Wasted by the Courtiers — Power of the King Over His Subjects — Protests of the People Against Heavy Taxation — Opening of the French Revolution — Talcing of the Bastile — Formation of the National Assembly — The King Is Defied — Chaotic Conditions in France — Effects of the New Constitu- tion on Europe — France Embroiled in War — The King's Death War- rant — The New Republic — Its Early Troubles — The Rise of Napoleon — • His Career — The Restoration — The Second Republic — The Second Em- pire — The Third Republic . . . . , . 203 CHAPTER XXV THE WARS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE History of His Campaigns Against Austria, Italy, Prussia, Russia and Eng- land — Cut Up Germany and Italy and Distributed Them Among His Favorite Generals — His Defeat in the "Battle of the Nations" and Final Defeat at Waterloo, Belgium, Scene of the Great European War of 1914 .......... 211 Contents i PAGE CHAPTER XXVI THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR Napoleon III Makes War on Prussia Over the Selection of a King to the Spanish Throne — Gen. Von Molfke, in Bed, Tells Messenger Where to Find Plans for Mobilization and Goes to Sleep — Historic Battles of the Short War — Flight of the Emperor and the Empress Eugenie — The Be- ginning of the German Empire ...... 223 CHAPTER XXVII DECISIVE BATTLES AT SEA The Building of Modern Navies Began in the United States with the Monitor arid Merrimac — China and Japan in Next Battle of Ironclads at the Mouth of the Yalu — Naval Fights in the Spanish- American War and the Busso- Japanese War — The Decisive Naval Battles of the World . 231 CHAPTER XXVIII THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES (Marathon to Orleans) The Battle of Marathon — The Peloponnesian War — The Battle of Arbela — The Battle of the Metaurus — Defeat of Varus, the Roman, by Arminius — The Battle of Chalons — The Battle of Tours — The Battle of Hastings — Joan of Arc at Orleans ....... 239 CHAPTER XXIX THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES— Continued (Defeat of Spanish Armada to Waterloo) The Spanish Armada — Battle of Blenheim — Battle of Pultowa — Burgoyne's Defeat at Saratoga — Battle of Valmy — Battle of Waterloo . . 255 CHAPTER XXX THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES— Continued QUEBEC TO TSTJ-SHIMA "".he Fall of Quebec — Surrender of Cornwallis at YorTctown — Battle of VicTcs- burg — Battle of Gettysburg — Battle of Sedan — Battle of Manila Bay — Battles of Santiago — Battle of Tsu-Shima .... 265 CHAPTER XXXI NEUTRALITY OF THE UNITED STATES President Wilson's Proclamation of Neutrality — United States Declared to Be Absolutely Neutral in Great Conflict — Recognizes the State of War — Acts Forbidden to Americans — Acts Forbidden to Belligerents — Pres- ident's Warning to Americans to Keep Calm — Wilson's Offer of Medi- ation to Warrimg Powers — Powers Courteously Decline Profer . 279 CHAPTER XXXII AMERICANS ABROAD AT OUTBREAK OF WAR Americans Caught in War Zone — Service Rendered by American Diplomats — President Wilson's Call on Congress for Funds — $250,000 Immediately Voted for Relief of Stranded Americans — $2,500,000 More Voted for Same Purpose — Battleship Tennessee Sails with Gold Cargo on Mission of Relief — Refugees Arrive on the Philadelphia — The France and New York Return Crowded with Refugees — Stories of Thrilling Experiences . 287 • Contents j PAGE CHAPTER XXXIII FIRST SEA BATTLE OF THE WAR E«scu« Gcr«uj?i Saitor*— German O^ctol Report CHAPTER XXXIV BOMB ATTACK BY A ZEPPELIN S^i^SS 2&£3W f - ^U- »«— **■» ™« * 315 Piacff Shells— Other Thrilling Experiences CHAPTER XXXV THE DEFENCE OF LIEGE - teAMfes: »«sS«wms= 323 -Reprisals for the Belay CHAPTER XXXVI THRILLING WAR EXPERIENCES IN THE FIELD, IN THE CLOUDS 1M AND ON THE SEA Relai.nOf.cer C^*^^ f ^^ ^ ?£ iZ%£ ifine in the North Sea— Ger ™"*™%T t of Fr J ench Turcos —The Austrians Walk Into Russian ^r-^ff^rsWent to Their Deaths Chase of ttofoebenan .d Br* ^f^/XS? « Bomft. Fall on City ^^VStf££^ ^^ Ge ™ 331 BottlesTiip . CHAPTER XXXVII BEST STORIES OF THE WAR . ^ • -nscne+er m,mor and Pathos— Alsatian Who Went to CHAPTER I THE GREAT EUROPEAN WAR OF 1914 The Beginning of the Greatest War in the History of the World, Involving Five of the Greatest Nations of Eu- rope, Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria-Hun- gary and Russia and the Smaller Nations of Belgium, Servia and Montenegro, Followed the Shots of an As- sassin Who Killed the Heir to the Throne of Austria- Hungary. A Summary of the Events that Preceded the Greatest of all International Conflicts. THE shots fired by a Herzogovinan student in the city of Serajeve, Bosnia, on June 28, 1914, which killed the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the crown of Austria- Hungary, and his wife the Duchess of Hohenberg, were echoed by the roaring guns of five of the most powerful nations of Europe. The "shot heard 'round the world" in the American rev- olution was fired by a patriot; the shot heard 'round the world in the Great European war of 1914 was fired by an assassin. Actually, the greatest war the world had ever known, which at the beginning involved Austria-Hungary, Servia, Russia, Germany, France and England, and later Japan in 43 44 The Great European War of 1914 the order named began on July 27, 1914, when Austria-Hun- gary invaded Servia, although Austria-Hungary did not de- clare war upon the little Servian state until the following day. The act of the Herzogivanan assassin and his bomb- throwing confederate was not the cause of the war; it was the preliminary overt act which, so to speak, touched the match to the European powder barrel. The causes had been multiplying for years and are to be found in the racial hatreds, the commercial rivalries, the subjugation of the weak by the strong, the theft of terri- tory, the pride and arrogance of autocracy and the bitter memories of other wars. THE BALANCE OF POWER IN EUROPE The peace of Europe for a half century has depended upon the proper maintenance of the balance of power, so that no one nation or combination of nations should become so powerful that it or they could dominate the others. To maintain this balance of power among peoples naturally an- tagonistic the nations of Europe have for years been build- ing up the most powerful armies and navies the world has ever known until the burden of war taxes has well nigh broken the backs of the people and has been one reason for the large emigration to America of thousands who found the burden greater than they could bear. But while these monster preparations for war have been going on the statesmen of the several countries have sought to prevent or at least to delay armed conflict by alliances, understandings, treaties and all the arts of diplomacy. The Great European War of 19U 45 So enormous and powerful were the great war machines which grew in size and cost every year that they became in themselves a sort of guarantee of peace. It seemed incred- ible that nations so armed should risk annihilation by such powerful engines of destruction. The mere thought of a European war to the average person became a grotesque ab- surdity The alliances to preserve the balance of power seemed too well adjusted, the means of warfare too destructive. r , To aid in the preservation of the balance of power little states lying between the possessions of the great powers were permitted to retain their independence of the great powers which guaranteed their neutrality, thus relieving tension and friction along the boundaries of the great states. All the safeguards of peace seemed to have been taken. _ Yet when the first blast of war sounded treaties and al- liances were in some cases disregarded and the neutrality- of the so-called little "buffer" states was violated. CAUSE OF THE ASSASSINATION In considering the causes of the Great European war of 1914, the greatest in the history of the world, and the direct acts leading up to hostilities it is necessary to recall that in 1909 Austria seized from Turkey the territory of Bosnia and Herzogovina, inhabited by Serbs, whose dream had been to unite with Servia in a Servian empire and who resented the rule of Austria. It was this resentment to- gether with pride of race that led the young Serb, Prinzip, to assassinate the heir to the Austrian throne. Despite this crime against his family and throne it was 46 The Great European War of 1914 not believed that the aged Emperor of Austria- Hungary, Francis Joseph, then in his eighty-fourth year, would re- taliate upon the Servian nation, although it was made clear that the plot of the assassin and his accomplice was hatched in Servia. The history of the world, however, shows that some of its greatest wars have directly resulted from indi- vidual acts far less important and malicious than this. On July 23, following the assassination of his nephew and heir, the government of the venerable Emperor Franz Joseph issued an ultimatum to the Servian government de- manding guarantee of reforms calculated to protect Aus- tria-Hungary from alleged Servian plotting and to pre- clude a like tragedy. The Servian reply granted all points of the ultimatum except one and that was not rejected but left open for fur- ther negotiations. Austria-Hungary's reply was that the Servian reply was unsatisfactory. On the same day shots were exchanged be- tween the two nations across the Danube River near Bel-< grade, the Servian capital. KUSSIA BEGINS MOBILIZATION Servia's one dependence was upon Russia, which like Austria had an enormous Serb population. Almost coinci- dent with the exchange of notes between the two govern- ments Russia began to mobilize her enormous army, alleg- ing her action to be but a precautionary measure. Germany, which with Austria and Italy composed the Triple Alliance, supported Austria-Hungary and demanded of Russia that she cease mobilizing her army. The Great European War of 1914 47 Prior to this, however, Great Britain, through her for- eign minister, Sir Edward Grey, proposed an international peace conference, France and Italy agreeing, but Germany holding off. Russia having continued her mobilization beyond the twenty-four hours named in Germany's ultimatum-, Ger- many on August 1st declared war on Russia, and on the same day France and Germany began mobilizing their forces. Russia and France and Great Britain constituted what is known as the Triple Entente, that is to say, these three nations had a verbal understanding, a sort of "gentlemen's agreement" as to what they would do in the event their in- terests or safety were menaced, whereas in the # Triple Al- liance the terms were signed and sealed and had the force and effect of a written contract. Although Germany's declaration of war was against Russia the mobilization of three of her armies was directed against Russia's long time ally, France, and on the following day the forward movement upon her ancient foe of the Franco-Prussian War began, breaking a peace which had ex- isted for nearly forty-three years between them. On the same day Russia invaded Germany. Between Germany and France lay the neutral little king- dom of Belgium, the neutrality of which had been guaran- teed by the Treaty of London in 1867, to which Germany and Great Britain were both signatories. By marching her armies straight across Belgium it would have been possible for Germany to reach the French frontier before the French army could arrive there to defend. 48 The Great European War of 19 H GERMANY INVADED BELGIUM Basing her action upon military necessity Germany in- vaded Belgium — a violation of the neutrality treaty. It is only fair and impartial to state, however, that Germany did not expect Belgium to offer any opposition to this move- ment and offered to reimburse Belgium for any damage she might sustain. The German chancellor freely and publicly acknowledged that the invasion of the German troops was a violation of Belgium's neutrality, but declared that the menace was so great that she was justified. Belgium not only rejected Germany's offer, but ap- pealed to Great Britain and at the same time prepared to resist the invasion with force. Great Britain's response was a declaration to defend both France and Belgium and on August 4th a declaration of war was issued against Germany by Great Britain and be- gan the mobilization of her army for the purpose of sending an expeditionary force to join the French and Belgians. Germany on the same day declared war against Great Britain. Italy, the third member of the Triple Alliance, was called upon by Germany and Austria-Hungary to join forces with them, but instead of doing so declared that she would re- main neutral, alleging that the terms of the alliance only required her to aid her allies in a war of defense, whereas in this war she considered them the aggressors. GREATEST WAR OPENS Under these conditions the greatest war in the history of the world was in full blast by August 5th, upon which date The Great European War of 1914 49 the first of the three enormous armies which Germany sent against France crossed the Belgian frontier in force and be- gan an attack upon the forts at Liege where the Belgians made a desperate and brilliant defense. In the meantime Austrian warships were battering the deserted Servian capital of Belgrade and Austrian troops, facing the hail of Servian shells and bullets, were forcing a passage of the Drina and Save rivers. The Russian army, like a huge bear, was moving slowly but steadily upon the frontiers of its enemies. The activities of the powerful navies of Great Britain, Germany and France were screened in mystery. With the most powerful nations at war even the neutral nations summoned their fighting men to the colors to defend, if need be, their frontiers. Em*ope trembled beneath the feet of twenty millions of men under arms. The war which had figured only in the imagination of writers, the war which the world had dreaded, the incon- ceivable war which enveloped a continent and was to remake the map of Europe and be felt to the uttermost ends of the earth was a reality. 50 The Great European War of 1914 • /^TOrtJ •Brussels )f ^ ^ARMS O0KRJ CENTERS © PRINCIPAL DEFENCES SCALE, or MILES 25MI. 30MI. fQOM'l. I 1 h- 1 RELATIONS OF DISTANCES, COMPARED TO AMERICAN CITIES CHAPTER II THE ASSASSINATION THAT STARTED THE WAR Archduke Francis Ferdinand, Heir to Austrian Throne, and His Wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, Slain in Bosnia — First Attempt on Their Lives with a Bomb — History of Their Courtship and Marriage — Assassins Involve High Servian Officials. ARCHDUKE FRANCIS FERDINAND, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, journeyed to Bosnia on a martial errand but on a peaceful mission. Created head of the army, he went there to represent Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, at the grand manoeuvres. It was his first official visit to Bosnia and he paid for it with his life. Foiled in their first attempt to slay him and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, the band of Servian assassins were successful in the second effort. Where a bomb failed to put an end to the heir to the Aus- trian throne a bullet was successful. On the morning of June 28 the archduke and his wife decided to attend a reception at the town hall in Sarajevo. Many fetes had been arranged in their honor and to show that the Austrians had a kindly feeling toward the people of 51 52 The Assassination That Started the War the annexed provinces, the archduke and duchess planned to mingle freely with the Bosnians at entertainments. As Archduke Francis Ferdinand and the duchess were driving to the town hall a bomb was thrown at their motor car. Only the great presence of mind of the archduke saved their lives then. The deadly missile was thrown as the automobile was going ahead at a snail's pace and the archduke warded it off with his arm. The dynamite did not explode until after the archduke's car had passed. Then there was a crash and the occupants of the following car were injured. They were Count von Boos-Waldeck and Colonel Merizzi, the archduke's aide-de-camp. Neither was seriously hurt. Six persons in the crowd that lined the street were also injured. THE DOUBLE ASSASSINATION It was when the archduke was going to the hospital to see how his aide-de-camp was recovering from the effects of the explosion that he lost his life. The assassin, a student of eighteen, named Gavrio Prinzip, stationed himself in the front rank of a cheering crowd, at a point on the route from the town hall to the palace, and, as the royal automobile slowed down at a turning, he opened fire with an automatic pistol, hitting the archduke in the face as he sought to pro- tect his consort. As he fell back in the seat the murderer turned his weapon on the duchess, who sank across her husband's knees with bullets through her throat and abdomen. Thus, for the second time, the aged Emperor Francis Joseph, then in his eighty-fifth year, was robbed in tragic The Assassination That Started the War 53 fashion of an heir, and the House of Hapsburg sustained one more crushing blow in its unhappy history. The two attempts evidently were carefully planned. The archduke and his consort arrived at Sarajevo in the morn- ing from Ilidza, a little seaside resort where they had spent a brief holiday. The first attempt against the life of the archduke was made as he was about to leave the girls' high school, where he made a brief inspection. The archduke remained calm throughout this trying ordeal. He stopped his car to inquire as to the injuries of Count von Boos-Wal- deck and Colonel Merizzo. After giving orders that the in- jured be properly attended, he drove on to the town hall, where the mayor proceeded to read his address of welcome. The archduke, however, interrupted the proceedings to exclaim : "What is the good of your speeches? I come to Sara- jevo on a visit and I get bombs thrown at me. It is out- rageous!" Then, after a pause, he said: "Now you may speak." The reception ceremony was overshadowed by the bomb explosion, and his royal highness was still indignant when the time came to leave. The duchess endeavored to restrain her husband from getting into the automobile again, but the governor of Bosnia, General Potiorek, said: "It's all over now. We have not got more than one murderer in Sarajevo!" A SECOND BOMB THROWN At this the archduke decided to enter the car again. As the machine proceeded along the Appel Quay another bomb 54 The Assassination That Started the War was thrown. It failed to explode, whereupon the assassin drew an automatic pistol and fired a fusillade. The first bullet hit the archduke in the neck, the second in the leg and the third struck the duchess in the abdomen. Governor Potiorek, who was seated in the royal car, was covered with blood as the archduke and the duchess sank on the floor. He had them conveyed to his official residence, but they were past aid, and after receiving the last sacrament the duchess expired, the archduke breathing his last a few minutes later. Spectators asserted that the archduke saw the glint of the automatic pistol as the assassin approached, and en- deavored to shield the duchess. The fury of the crowds of peasantry, all decked out in gala costume to welcome their prince, knew no bounds. They tried to tear the assassin to pieces, and he was rescued with difficulty by the police, with his clothes almost torn from his back. The assassin was a native of Herzegovina, and his fel- low conspirator who threw the bomb was a compositor named Nedeljo Gabrinovics, twenty-one, who also came from Herzegovina. When interrogated by the police they seemed proud of their exploits. Both had spent some time in Belgrade, where Gabrinovics asserted he had obtained the bomb from an anarchist, whose name he did not know. He said he had been employed in the government printing works. He made no concealment of his sympathy with the King of Servia. Spectators of the death scene state that the Duchess of Holienberg did not know she was seriously wounded, and, while dying of internal hemorrhage, supported her husband The Assassination That Started the War 55 and sought to comfort him, while streams of blood flowed from his wound. The day, which began with bands playing, the streets decked in bunting and the inhabitants in festive mood, ended in somber tragedy. The gay flags were soon torn down, and in their place were hung crape and festoons of black cloth. The bright costumes of the peasantry were exchanged for robes of mourning, and a silence of stunned consternation hung over the city, except where infuriated bands of stu- dents threatened the residences of Servians. STORY OF A ROYAL ROMANCE Meanwhile the bodies of the heir to the Austrian throne and his wife were lying in state with a sad faced stream of mourners passing before the biers. That morning most of them had seen the couple pulsating with life and the joy of living either at the high school on their trip of inspec- tion or as they drove through the crowded streets. Many had seen the first attempt on their lives; many others had seen the successful attempt of the young student. All had heard of the devotion of the couple; how the archduke had tried to shield the duchess and how she thought only of him in her dying moments. Theirs had been a love match. In the circles of royalty the Duchess of Hohenberg was a Cinderella transformed by the magic wand of love to the highest grandeur and magnifi- cence. She appealed with an especial romantic interest to Americans. She was a girl of good birth, as we would con- sider it, although not good enough to mate with royalty, as royalty thought. She was modest, unsophisticated and care- 56 The Assassination That Started the War fully educated for the conventional life of the Austrian court — the most conventional in Europe, with the excep- tion of that of Spain, upon which it is modelled. A more unlikely place than either court could scarcely be found for such a girl to make an advantageous marriage, or a more barren spot for the growth of the woodland rose of unworldly love. The differences in rank among the nobility themselves create barriers well nigh impassable for marriage unless accompanied by such extraordinary wealth that one might call it colossal. And royal blood is exalted with a mediaeval reverence long since dead and gone else- where in Europe. Sophie von Chotek, who became the Duchess of Hohen- berg, was not an actress nor a prima donna whom the jeunesse dore crowned queen of their night-life and then yielded to the prince whose superior position demanded their submission. She was not a Pompadour, a Du Barry or a Nell Gwyn, inveigling with the fascinations of the experi- enced courtesan a worn-out roue willing to sell his crown for the sensations of a new pleasure. AN OLD-FASHIONED LOVE STORY When Archduke Francis Ferdinand fell in love with her she was not beautiful and she was not rich. A motherless girl at eighteen, she had been since that time earning her living in an exacting position as companion, or hofdame, in the household of royalty — about the only conventional way open to women of good birth who do not wish to take the veil. But at the age of thirty-two she made one of the most The Assassination That Started the War 57 brilliant marriages in all history and became as much the legal wife of the future ruler of the Dual Monarchy as was possible with the rites of the Catholic Church and the decrees of the Imperial Parliament. The marriage could not have been more free from sordid considerations if both she and her husband had been simple peasant lovers. And on the other hand, the wife's position could not have been legally more secure if she had been born an archduchess. It was a sweet old-fashioned love story, such as we are accustomed to think comes true only in our own democratic freedom. This gentle Bohemian girl upset all the preconceived ideas of the marriages of princes, with their pompous fam- ily councils to weigh the microscopic differences in royal lineage and inherited fortune, and their solemn pourparlers of statesmen to use the alliance to strengthen the state against its enemies and provide successors upon its throne. And she upset the plans and the ideas of the Austrian Em- peror and his cabinet, with the archdukes and archduchesses, just about one hundred strong, fighting them all and holding her lover true to his pledge through a period of twelve long years before he could make her his wife. During those twelve years she exhibited talents for state- craft and diplomacy of the highest order. After the mar- riage, no one at the Austrian court or any other court in Europe was foolish enough to speculate about Austria's fu- ture without taking into account the Duchess of Hohenberg. But the most far-seeing statesmen were not afraid that she would attempt to become Empress of Austria or even Queen of Hungary. She was far too wise. Hardly had the last Bosnian peasant viewed the bodies 58 The Assassination That Started the War of the archduke and his wife than unexpected developments came to light; the developments that later shook the civilized world and were responsible for plunging practically all Eu- rope into a titanic struggle. Questioned by the police, Prinzip and his confederate in- volved high Servian officials in the plot to slay Francis Fer- dinand and his duchess. Prinzip, a mere boy, said he had been reading anarchist books and periodicals from the time he was fourteen years old. He gloried in his deed, admit- ting his guilt and saying he felt no compunction for his act. \posm \LISSA &2Z&SZAU\ GERMANY GZEH&TOCHDWJL \USTRI A CITIES FIRST ATTACKED BY THE GERMAN ARMY CHAPTER III AUSTRIA DECLARES WAR ON SERVIA High Feeling Against Servia in Austria — Demand for Sat- isfaction — Servians Reply — Austria Declares War on Servia — Efforts to Settle Differences by European Mediation — Emperor Francis Joseph Explains Aus- tria's Attitude Toward Servia — The Match Touched to the European Powder Barrel. AUSTRIA and Hungary seethed with feeling following the assassination of the archduke and his wife. It was only a question of days when Emperor Francis Joseph demanded a heavy reckoning. Austria, knowing many of the details of the assassina- tion plot and guessing at others, sent an ultimatum to Ser- via on Thursday, July 23rd, to which an answer was de- manded in forty-eight hours. The note, which threw Bel- grade into a state bordering on panic, reviewed the relations with Servia since 1909 and complained that, although the Servian government promised loyalty to the Austro-Hun- garian government, it had failed to suppress subversive movements and agitations by the newspapers, and that this tolerance had incited the Servian people to hatred of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and contempt for its in- stitutions. 59 60 Austria Declares War on Servia "This," said the note, "culminated in the Sarajevo as- sassinations, which are proved by depositions and confes- sions of the perpetrators to have been hatched at Belgrade, the arms and explosives having been supplied by the con- nivance of Servian officers and functionaries. "The Austro-Hungarian government is unable longer to pursue an attitude of forbearance, and sees the duty im- posed upon it of putting an end to the intrigues which form a perpetual menace to the monarchy's tranquillity. It there- fore demands from the Servian government formal assur- ance that it condemns the dangerous propaganda whose aim is to detach from the monarchy a portion of its territory, and also that the Servian government shall no longer per- mit these machinations and this criminal, perverse propa- ganda." The note then gave the terms of a long formal declara- tion which the Servian government was required to publish in its official journal on the front page, condemning the sub- versive propaganda, deploring the fatal consequences of this, regretting the participation of Servian officers in this propaganda, repudiating any further interference with Austro-Hungarian interests and warning all Servian officers and functionaries and the whole Servian population that rigorous proceedings would be taken in the future against any persons guilty of such machinations. This declaration should also be officially proclaimed to the Servian army and the Servian courts should undertake to suppress subversive publications and dissolve immediately the Pan-Servian society styled "Narodna Odbrana," con- fiscating all its means of carrying on a propaganda and Austria Declares War on Servia 61 suppress all similar societies having anti- Austrian tenden- cies, it was demanded. Servia was further enjoined to eliminate from the edu- cational system such tendencies, to remove all officers and functionaries guilty of an anti- Austrian propa- ganda, whose names and deeds the Austrian govern- ment reserved to itself the right of communicating to the Servian government; to accept the assistance of represent- atives of the Austro-Hungarian government in this work of suppression; to prosecute the accessories to the Sarajevo plot; to arrest Major Tankavitch, and a Servian state em- ployee, Giganovitch, who were compromised by the Sara- jevo magisterial inquiry; to stop the illicit traffic of arms and explosives across the frontier; to dismiss and punish the Servian officials in the frontier service guilty of assisting the assassins across the frontier ; to furnish the Austrian govern- ment with explanations of anti- Austrian utterances credited to high Servian officials since the Sarajevo crime, and finally to notify the Austrian government promptly of the execu- tion of all the foregoing demands. Appended to the note was a long memorandum detailing all the facts of Servian complicity elicited by the magisterial inquiry at Sarajevo. SERVIANS REPLY TO AUSTRIA^ ULTIMATUM Servia took the full time allotted to answer the ultima- tum. Then the little country granted every condition de- manded by Austria except the participation of Austrian of- ficials in the inquiry, qualifying the refusal, however. A summary of the reply follows : 62 Austria Declares War on Servia First — Servia agrees to the publication in its official jour- nal, on the front page, of the formal declaration submitted by the Austrian government condemning the subversive propaganda and deploring its fatal consequences, regretting the participation of Servian officers in this propaganda, re- pudiating any further interference with Austro-Hungarian interests and warning all Servians that rigorous proceedings will be taken in the future against any persons guilty of such machinations. Second — Servia agrees to communicate this declaration to the army in the form of an order of the day. Third — It promises to dissolve those societies which may be considered capable of conducting intrigues against Austria. Fourth — Revision of the laws governing the press. Fifth — Dismissal from the army and navy of officers and the removal also of civilian officials whose participation in an anti- Austrian propaganda may be proved. The Ser- vian government, however, protests against Austrian offi- cials taking any part in the inquiry. Sixth — The Servian government asks for an explana- tion as to just what part the Austrian officials are to be called upon to take in the inquiry into the Sarajevo plot, and it is announced that Servia can only admit such par- ticipation as would be in accordance with international law and good neighborly relations. Seventh — To sum up, Servia accepts all the conditions and all the demands of Austria, and makes reservations only regarding the participation of Austrian officials in the in- quiry. It does not give its formal refusal to this point, but 'confines itself to asking explanations. Austria Declares War on Servia 63 Finally, if the Austrian government finds this reply in- adequate, Servia appeals to The Hague Tribunal and to the powers which signed the declaration of 1909 relative to Bos- nia and Herzegovina. The note expressed the hope that the response would dis- pel all misunderstandings that threaten neighborly relations, and said that Servia had given proofs of her pacific and moderate policy throughout the Balkan crisis. ;,"The Servian government," the note continued, "can- not be held responsible for manifestations of a private char- acter, such as are common in all lands and escape official control. The Servian government has been painfully sur- prised by the statements connecting persons in the kingdom with the Sarajevo outrage. "It expected to be invited to co-operate in the inves- tigation of the crime and was ready to prove by deeds the earnestness of its action against all persons concerning whom communications should be made, without regard to situation or rank. "The government of Servia condemns all propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary, namely, all aspirations to detach from the Austro-Hungarian monarchy territories which form a part thereof, and sincerely deplores the lamentable consequences of such criminal actions. "It regrets that certain Servian officers and officials, ac- cording to the Austrian communication, have participated in these, thereby compromising neighborly relations. The government disapproves of and repudiates any attempt to interfere with the destinies of the inhabitants of any part of Austria-Hungary. ' ' 64 Austria Declares War on Servia AUSTRIA BREAKS WITH SERVIA Apparently Austria was ready for conflict, for on the afternoon of the reply from Servia M. Jovanovitch, the Ser- vian minister to Vienna, was handed his passports and war was virtually under way. Meanwhile other powers in Eu- rope sought to prevent a general war, as war feeling ran high in Germany and Austria, with people in Russia and France resentful of the attitude of the two members of the Triple Alliance and making demonstrations hostile to them. Europe was rapidly being worked up to a warlike pitch; Mars so long in an eclipse was again in the ascendent as the stage was being set for his bloody role. Russia early took a hand in the affair. The Czar as his first step asked Austria to extend the time limit of the Servian ultimatum thereby showing his sympathy with the little country. It was the beginning of the alignment of\ nations for the conflict. Here it was that Germany took a hand in the trouble, following Russia's warning that Aus- tria must not invade Servian territory. The Kaiser's gov- ernment declared for a "hands off" policy by other nations, leaving Austria uninterfered with in its plans to discipline Servia. Sir Edward Grey, British foreign minister, proposed an international conference of mediation, backed up by France and Italy. This was on July 27th. The plan favored by Sir Edward Grey was that the four powers, Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy, should endeavor to settle the misunderstanding between Austria and Servia on the basis of Servia's reply to the ultimatum, or, failing this, to try to prevent hostilities spreading to other nations. Austria Declares War on Servia 65 Austria and Germany did not wait long to decline to take part in a conference looking to an amicable settlement of the trouble. Within twenty- four hours Austria had for- mally declared war on Servia and Germany had rejected the British offer. As soon as Germany heard that Austria had declared war it communicated with the British foreign ministry and declared that, while it considered Sir Edward Grey's sug- gestion well meant and in principle good, it was not feasible in practice for a great power to submit its differences with a smaller nation to the judgment of other countries. The counter suggestion was made by Germany that, in- stead of an international conference, negotiations for peace should be conducted by the cabinets of the governments in- volved. Germany stated further that she would welcome suggestions to localize the conflict. Austria's declaration of war on Servia marked the be- ginning of the European-wide struggle. The text of the declaration, issued July 28 was as follows : The royal government of Servia not having replied in a satisfactory manner to the note remitted to it by the Austro- Hungarian minister in Belgrade on July 23, 1914, the im- perial and royal government finds itself compelled to pro- ceed itself to safeguard its rights and interests and to have recourse for this purpose to force of arms. Austria-Hungary considers itself, therefore, from this moment in a state of war with Servia. Count Berchthold, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary. 66 Austria Declares War on Servia EMPEROR FRANZ JOSEPH^ MANIFESTO With it went a manifesto from the aged Emperor Francis Joseph stating that it had been his fervent wish to dedicate his declining years to preserving the empire from the burdens and sacrifices of war. "Providence has decreed otherwise," he said. "The in- trigues of a malevolent opponent compel me in defense of the honor of my monarchy and for the protection of its dig- nity and the security of its possessions, to grasp the sword after long years of peace." The manifesto referred to the ingratitude of Servia for the support the emperor's ancestors afforded to Servian in- dependence; how Servia for years had pursued a path of open hostility to Austria-Hungary; how Austrian annexa- tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which injured no Servian rights, called forth in Servia outbreaks of the bitterest hatred. "My government," continued the emperor, "then em- ployed the handsome privileges of the stronger and with ex- treme consideration and leniency only requested Servia to reduce her army to a peace footing and promise to tread the paths of peace and friendship." Then recalling that it was Austrian forbearance two years ago that enabled Servia to reap the fruits of the struggle against Turkey, the emperor said: "The hope that Servia would keep its word has not been fulfilled ; the flame of its hatred for myself and my house has blazed always higher. The design to tear from us by force inseparable por- tions of Austria-Hungary has been manifested with ever lessening disguise." Austria Declares War an Servia 67 The manifesto then dwelt on the "criminal propaganda which has extended over the frontier, aiming at the destruc- tion of the foundations of order and loyalty in the south- eastern part of the monarchy and the leading astray of growing youth and inciting it to deeds of madness and high treason." It continued: "A series of murderous attacks in an or- ganized and well carried out conspiracy, whose fruitful suc- cess wounded me and my loyal people to the heart, forms the visible and bloody track of those secret machinations which were operated direct in Servia." Declaring that a stop must be put to these intolerable provocations, the honor and dignity of the monarchy pro- tected, and its political, military and economic developments guarded from continuous shocks, he said : "In vain did my government make a last attempt to in- duce Servia to desist. Servia rejected the just and mod- erate demands of my government and refused to conform to the obligations forming the natural foundations of peace in the life of peoples and states. I must therefore proceed by force of arms to secure those indispensable pledges which alor can insure tranquillity in new states within and lasting peace without. "In this solemn hour I am fully conscious of the whole significance of my resolve and my responsibility before the Almighty. I have examined and weighed everything, and with serene conscience I set out on the path that duty points. I trust in my peoples, who throughout every storm have always rallied in united loyalty around my throne, and ha\ e always been prepared for the severest sacrifices for the honor, greatness and might of the fatherland. 68 Austria Declares War on Servia "I trust in Austria-Hungary's brave and devoted forces and in the Almighty to give victory to my arms." And now the battle of nations was on; the Armageddon of modern times followed on the heels of the assassination of an Austrian prince in Bosnia when Austria sought re- venge on Servia. The match had been touched to the Eu- ropean powder barrel. PATRIOTISM CHAPTER IV HOW THE WAR CLOUD SPREAD Austria Invades Servia — Russia Mobilizes for War — Ger- many Orders Czar to Cease Warlike Preparations — Kaiser Declares War on Russia — Kaiser Appeals to His People. AFTER Austria's declaration of war came a series of climaxes that shook all Europe. Developments, each more startling than the other, rapidly piled up until soon it was evident that the horrors of war were to be enacted throughout Europe. Opening their campaign the day following the declara- tion of war, the Austrian forces bombarded Belgrade. While this was being done, Russia, living up to the letter of her demand to Austria that she keep her troops out of Servian territory, began to mobilize for war. Russia had not swerved in her determination to support Servia. The czar called to the colors all the reservists of twenty- three whole governments and of seventy-one districts in fourteen other governments; part of the reservists of nine districts of four governments, the naval reservists in sixty- four districts of twelve Russian governments and one Fin- nish government; the time-expired Cossacks of the terri- tories of Don, Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan, Orenburg and 69 70. How the War Cloud Spread Ural and a corresponding number of reservist officers of the medical and veterinary services, in addition to needful horses, wagons and transport services in the governments and districts thus mobilized. All this took place on July 29 and was the signal for Germany to declare that unless the Russian mobilization was suspended that Germany would proclaim partial mobili- zation within twenty-four hours. War talk which was so rife in Russia and Germany was beginning to be heard in Great Britain and France. The governments of the four countries were laying plans so as to be in partial readiness in case of need. Russia did not heed the kaiser's ultimatum relative to mobilization which was issued on July 29th. On July 30th England took a hand in the trouble. On that date the British foreign office dispatched a note to Germany setting forth her view of the possibilities of a general European conflict and indicating very plainly that Great Britain could not afford to stand aloof if the balance of power in Europe were endangered. At the same time the good offices of Ger- many were urged as the only sure means of localizing the conflict before interests were compromised which might make a universal war inevitable. The following day was marked by some sensational de- velopments. As Russia and Austria renewed direct nego- tiations and Great Britain and France exerted further ef- forts to bring a normal state out of chaos the kaiser made war moves that shook the civilized world. He issued a de- cree of martial law and made a stirring speech to the Berlin populace in which he said the sword had been forced on Ger- many. It was about 6 o'clock when the kaiser, accompanied How the War Cloud Spread 71 by his whole family, walked out on the historical balcony of the royal palace, where his grandfather, Emperor William I, appeared years ago under much the same circumstances. THE SWOED IS FOECED INTO OUE HAND — THE GEEMAN KAISER A tremendous ovation greeted the kaiser, and as he started to speak it was impossible to hear him. But Prince Edelbert, the "marine prince," lifted his hand and everybody knew then that the German emperor was about to say some momentous words. And so he began the most serious speech that perhaps was ever delivered by a mighty monarch to his people. He said: "A heavy hour has come today upon Germany. Envious peoples everywhere force us to take measures for our own protection. The sword is forced into our hands. But I hope that in the last hour it will be given to me to sheath the sword again and do all that we can for peace. But if war comes, that same sword, with the help of God, will lead us to victory, and we will sheath it then with all honor. "War would demand of us an enormous sacrifice in property and life, but we would show our enemies what it means to provoke Germany. And now I commend you to God. Go to church and kneel before God and pray for His help for our gallant army." The people of Berlin after the speech of the emperor were in pessimistic mood. All eyes are turned toward Rus- sia, for whose benefit Emperor William apparently spoke. The decree proclaiming martial law and the prohibition 72 How the War Cloud Spread of the publication of news of the movements of German troops and war material was issued earlier in the day. The proclamation announced military measures on the frontiers, the armed protection of the railroads and the re- striction of telegraphic, postal and railroad services except for military purposes. All dispatches regarded by the authorities as objection- able were returned to the senders, and a rigid censorship on telegrams to all parts of the world was put into operation. Crown Prince Frederick William was appointed to the command of the First Division of the Imperial Guards Army Corps. Germany, in short, was getting ready for the develop- ments of the following day. That day was Saturday, August 1st, and it will be a memorable date in the history of the world. It was then that the kaiser declared war on Rus- sia, it being officially announced that the time limit of the German ultimatum to Russia had expired at noon. After Count von Pourtales, the German ambassador to St. Petersburg, delivered the declaration of war, he and his staff left the Russian capital immediately. A DRAMATIC SCENE The rupture of diplomatic relations between Russia and Germany took place under dramatic circumstances. It was midnight Friday when Count von Pourtales visited Foreign Minister Sazonoff and asked for an urgent interview. As soon as he was received he formally called upon Russia to cease her mobilization in twelve hours. The allotted period of time passed without an answer. At 7 o'clock Saturday How the War Cloud Spread 73 evening Count von Pourtales again called upon M. Sazonaff and again asked if Russia would cease mobilizing her forces. To this the Russian statesman replied : "Inasmuch as the Russian Government has not answered within the time you specified, it follows that Russia has de- clined to agree with your demand." Three times Count von Pourtales repeated the German ultimatum, and each time the Russian Foreign Minister met his statement with the same firm negative. Finally Count von Pourtales rose from his chair, bowed to the Foreign Minister and left the room without another word. He and the members of his staff at once departed from St. Peters- burg by way of Finland. According to the Novoe Vremya, Count von Pourtales held in his hand the typewritten texts of two replies from •Germany. One was for presentation in the event of Rus- sian acceptance of the German ultimatum, and the other in case of its rejection. In his great agitation the German Ambassador presented both replies to M. SazonofF at the same time. The one that counted and plunged two more nations into war was the rejection reply. At about the same time Count von Pourtales was being handed his passports in St. Petersburg, Emperor William again addressed the Berlin populace from a window of the Imperial Palace. More than 50,000 of his subjects cheered him wildly. He said: "I thank you for the love and loyalty shown me. When I enter upon a fight let all party strife cease. We are Ger- man brothers and nothing else. All parties have attacked me in times of peace. I forgive them with all my heart. I 74 Hoic the War Cloud Spread hope and wish that the good German sword will emerge vic- torious in the right." The Imperial Chancellor also addressed the assembly, saying : "All stand as one man for our Emperor, whatever our opinions or our creeds. I am sure that all the young Ger- man men are ready to shed their blood for the fame and greatness of Germany. We can only trust in God, who has hitherto always given us victory. "At this serious hour, in order to give expression to your feelings for your Fatherland, you have come to the house of Bismarck, who, with Emperor William the Great, and Field Marshal von Moltke, welded the German Empire for us. "We wished to go on living in peace in the empire which we have developed in forty-four years of peaceful labor. "The whole work of Emperor William has been devoted to the maintenance of peace. To the last hour, he has worked for peace in Europe, and he still is working for it. Should all his efforts prove vain, and should the sword be forced into our hands, we will take the field with a clear conscience in the knowledge that we did not seek war. We then shall wage war for our existence, and for the national honor, to the last drop of our blood. "In the gravity of this hour I remind you of the words of Prince Frederick Charles to the men of Brandenburg: " 'Let your hearts beat for God and your lists on the enemv.' " Hoic the War Cloud Spread 75 GERMANY CALLS 5,000,000 MEN TO THE COLORS V Twenty-four hours later the total mobilization of the German army was ordered. This placed in the field ap- proximately 5,000,000 men. All male citizens between the ages of eighteen and forty-five were called upon to bear arms. The general mobilization previously ordered called to the colors the second and third reserves. The order of August 2 called out the Landsturm and put every available fighting man in Germany in active service. The Russian Ambassador was handed his passports, a special train placed at his disposal and he was escorted to the frontier. Germany regarded the last hope of peace as hav- ing disappeared. The temper of the people of Berlin had changed in twenty-four hours. The enthusiasm of the pre- vious day gave way to sober realization of the tremendous possibilities of the pending conflict. An official statement issued early in the day following the arrival of Kaiser Wilhelm from Potsdam, read : "In consequence of a Russian attack on German terri- tory, Germany is in a state of war with Russia. The French reply to the German representations is of an unsatisfactory character. Moreover, France has mobilized, and an outbreak of war with France must therefore be reck- oned with any day or any moment." Another statement, issued officially, declared: "Russia has invaded Germany during a time of peace, in flagrant contradiction of Russia's peaceful assurances." 76 H ow the War Cloud Spread UNTIL THE SLATS COME OFF CHAPTER V THE INVASION OF LUXEMBURG Germany's Early Moves in War Game — France in a State of War with Germany — Kaiser's Demand on Belgium — Great Britain Stands by France and for the Neutrality of Belgium. DEVELOPMENTS on August 2 showed that all hope for peace was at an end. They also showed that the Kaiser was ready for eventualities and that Germany had planned to strike quickly in its effort to gain the ascendency. On that date German troops entered the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg despite the protest of the young Grand Duchess. The French Embassy at London issued a statement declar- ing that German troops had invaded French territory at Cirey without a declaration of war. This was the statement from the Embassy : FRANCE STATES HER POSITION "German troops have invaded Luxemburg. Germany has violated the neutrality of Luxemburg. This neutrality was established by a treaty negotiated and signed in London in April of 1867. Ratifications of this treaty were ex- changed in London, May 30, 1867. Article II of it reads as 77 78 The Invasion of Luxemburg follows: 'The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg will be a state perpetually neutral. The powers which sign the present treaty declare themselves as bound to respect this neutrality and to make it respected by others. This neutrality is placed under the guarantee of the powers which have signed this treaty.' "The British Ambassador at Berlin asked the German Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs whether Germany was prepared to respect the neutrality of Belgium. The German Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs declared that he was not able to answer. The neutrality of Belgium has been established by a treaty signed in London. "The German Ambassador at St. Petersburg notified Russia of the declaration of war by his Government when negotiations were pending between Austria-Hungary and Russia, and at the very moment when Austria-Hungary had declared that she was prepared to consider the matter of the Austro-Serb conflict with Servia or with a neutral power on behalf of Servia. "The German Ambassador at Paris yesterday morning had an interview with the French Prime Minister concerning the Austro-Serb conflict, and especially about the decision reached by Austria-Hungary to consider the matter with Servia or with a neutral power speaking in behalf of Servia. In spite of this, on the afternoon of the same day war was declared by Germany on Russia. "France was asked to tell what she would do in case of war between Russia and Germany, and the German Am- bassador at Paris began to prepare everything for his de- parture from the French capital. "July 31, Germany called to the flag the last five classes The Invasion of Luxemburg 79 of her reservists. This she could do by means of the martial law proclaimed by Germany, which permitted her to keep this news secret. Consequently, on July 31 mobilization was going on in Germany. "In spite of this France waited until August 1, at 5 o'clock in the afternoon, to order a general mobilization. This was done for the purpose of making it clear that she was not the aggressive power, and also that she might be able to claim British support. "General mobilization was ordered in France August 1, at 5 o'clock in the afternoon. The first day of mobilization began August 2 at midnight. The fateful order for French mobilization consisted of only seventeen words, and read as follows : "Ministry of War. Order of general mobilization. Ex- treme urgency. First day of the mobilization Sunday, Au- gust 2." The words were w r ritten in a large hand and appeared on sheets of white paper about eight by twelve inches. These posters were manifolded by a duplicating machine and not printed. The organization immediately began in Paris of bat- talions of foreign volunteers, notably Belgians, Slavs and Syrians. Italians paraded through the downtown section carrying Italian and French flags and shouting "Down with Germany!" and "Long live France!" The war spirit which was so rampant in France reached a fever heat on August 3 when the German Ambassador to Paris received word from Emperor William to demand his passports. 80 The Invasion of Luxemburg GERMANY BLAMES FRANCE Germany in an official communication placed the blame for the rupture of diplomatic relations and the existence of a state of war on France. The communication said : "On the morning of August 2, French airmen flew over Nuremberg and threw bombs, while during the night of August 1 French aeroplanes flew over the Province of the Rhine. During the forenoon of August 2 a number of French officers dressed in German uniforms crossed the Ger- man frontier from Holland, while on the same day French troops crossed the German border in Upper Alsace near Belfort. "We consider ourselves as having been attacked by France before diplomatic relations had been broken off. "The German troops hitherto have obeyed the orders given them by the German commanders not to cross the French frontier. French troops, on the contrary, since yes- terday have made several attacks on our frontier posts with- out any declaration of war having been made. "The French have crossed the frontier at several places in spite of the fact that the French Government a few days ago informed us that it would not infringe on the un- occupied zone of six miles from the frontier, and since last night companies of French troops have been in the occu- pation of a number of German villages. "French army aeronauts have been flying over Baden and Bavaria yesterday and today throwing bombs, and have violated Belgian neutrality flying over Belgian territory into the province of the Rhine in an effort to destroy our rail- ways. In this way France has opened the attack upon us The Invasion of Luxemburg 81 and has established a state of war which has compelled the German Empire to take defensive measures for the security of its territory." Germany continued her policy of rapid movements. The Kaiser's Government sent a note to Belgium on the evening of August 2, proposing to Belgium friendly neutrality, cou- pled with the free passage through Belgian territory of German troops, the maintenance of Belgian independence at the conclusion of peace and threatening in case of refusal to treat Belgium as an enemy. The time limit of twelve hours was fixed for a reply. Belgium refused to accede to the demand. GREAT BRITAIN TAKES A HAND When this communication was read in the British House of Commons by Sir Edward Grey, Great Britain, too, got ready to unleash the dogs of war. "Belgium answered that an attack on her neutrality would be a flagrant violation of the rights of nations, that to accept the German proposal would be to sacrifice her honor, and, being conscious of her duty, Belgium was firmly re- solved to repel aggression by all possible means," Sir Edward said in a speech to the House on August 3. The text of the Belgian King's telegram to King George, which was read by Sir Edward, follows : "Remembering the numerous proofs of Your Majesty's friendship, and that of your predecessor, of the friendly atti- tude of England in 1870, and the proof of the friendship which she has just given us again, I make a supreme appeal to the diplomatic intervention of Your Majesty's Govern- ment to safeguard the integrity of Belgium." 82 The Invasion of Luxemburg Sir Edward Grey, at his first appearance before the House of Commons on August 3, stated that the House was free to decide what the British attitude in the present Euro- pean conflict would be. He added that Great Britain had not committed herself to anything but diplomatic support. Sir Edward requested the House to approach the considera- tion of the European crisis from the point of view of British interests, British honor and British obligations. He re- quested the House to deal with the issue without passion, and added : "When the documents are made public it will be seen how genuinely and wholeheartedly we have made efforts to preserve peace." Dealing with the question of Great Britain's obligations, Sir Edward said: "Up to yesterday, we had given no promise of more than diplomatic support. I was asked at the time of the Algeciras crisis if we would give armed support, and I said I could promise nothing to any foreign power, unless it received the whole-hearted support of public opinion. I gave no prom- ise, but I told both the French and German Ambassadors that if war were forced on France public opinion in the British Isles would rally to France." Sir Edward added that, if a foreign fleet came down the English Channel to bombard the French coast, "we would not stand aside." The Foreign Secretary stated that the British fleet had been mobilized, and the mobilization of the British army was taking place, but that no engagement had yet been made by the British Government to send an expedition abroad. He continued : The Invasion of Luxemburg 83 "The French fleet is in the Mediterranean, and the Northern coasts of France are defenseless. If a foreign fleet, engaged in war against France, should come down and battle against those defenseless coasts, we could not stand aside. We felt strongly that France was entitled to know at once whether, in the event of an attack on her un- protected coasts, she could rely on our support. I gave as- surance to the French Ambassador last night that, if the German fleet goes into the English Channel or into the North Sea to attack French shipping or the French coast, the British fleet will give all the protection in its power. That answer is subject to the approval of Parliament. It is not a declaration of war. I understand that the German Government would be prepared, if we would pledge our- selves to neutrality, to agree that its fleet would not attack the northern coast of France. That is far too narrow an engagement." Sir Edward Grey then recited the history of Belgian neutrality, saying: "Our interest is as strong today as it was in 1870. We cannot take a less serious view of our obligations no' r than did the late Mr. Gladstone in that year. When mobilization began I telegraphed to both the French and German Gov- ernments, asking whether they would respect Belgian neu- trality. France replied that she was prepared to do so un- less another power violated that neutrality. The German Foreign Secretary replied that he could not possibly give a response before consulting the Imperial Chancellor and the German Emperor. He intimated that he doubted whether it was possible to give an answer, because that answer would disclose the German plans. We were sounded last week as 84 The Invasion of Luxemburg to whether, if Belgian neutrality were restored after the war it would pacify us, and we replied that we could not barter our interests or our obligations." Toward the close of his speech Sir Edward said: "We must be prepared, and we are prepared, to face the consequences of using all our strength at any moment, we know not how soon, in order to defend ourselves." In other parts of his speech Sir Edward had said: "The intervention with Germany in regard to the inde- pendence of Belgium was carried out by England last night. If the independence of Belgium should be destroyed the in- dependence of Holland also would be gone. Do not imagine that if a great power stands aside in a war like this it is going to be in a position to exert its influence at the end. I am not quite sure whether the facts regarding Belgium are as they reached this Government, but there is an obligation on this country to do its utmost to prevent the consequences to which those facts would lead if they were not opposed. So far as the forces of the Crown are concerned, the Premier and the First Lord of the Admiralty have no doubt what- ever of their readiness and their efficiency. They never were at a higher mark of readiness. There never was a time when confidence was more justified in their ability to protect our shores and our commerce." ■^ober.t -e CAR.-! £ ft. -tf 1870— THE PILOTS— 1914 86 The Invasion of Luxemburg 10 ARMS! CHAPTER VI FIVE NATIONS IN THE GRIP OF WAR Great Britain Declares War on Germany — Kaiser Blames Other Nations for Trouble — Czar Puts Blame on Ger- many — France also Blames Kaiser's Government — Montenegro Declares War on Austria — Great Britain Declares War on Austria. SIR HOWARD GREY'S speech indicated the prelimi- nary step to Great Britain's becoming involved in the war of nations. Twenty- four hours later the Brit- ish Government declared war on Germany follow- ing the expiration of the time limit set in her ultimatum to Germany demanding a satisfactory reply on the subject of Belgian neutrality. Germany's reply was the summary rejection of the request that Belgian neu- trality should he respected. These words brought the force of British arms with France, Russia, Belgium and Servia against Germany and Austria-Hungary: "Owing to the summary rejection hy the German Gov- ernment of the request hy His Britannic Majesty's Govern- ment that the neutrality of Belgium should he respected, His Majesty's Ambassador at Berlin has received his pass- ports and His Majesty's Government has declared to the German Government that a state of war exists between 87 88 Five Nations in the Grip of War Great Britain and Germany from 11 o'clock P. M., August 4» On the day Great Britain declared war Emperor Wil- liam in opening the Imperial Parliament again declared he was forced to grasp the sword, saying: THE KAISER'S SPEECH "The world has been a witness of the indefatigable man- ner in which we stood in the front rank during the worries and troubles of recent years in the endeavor to spare the nations of Europe from a war between the great powers. The greatest perils which had arisen owing to the events in the Balkans appeared to have been overcome, but then the assassination of my friend, the Archduke Francis Ferdi- nand, opened up a great abyss. My ally, the Emperor Francis Joseph, was compelled to take up arms for the pro- tection of his empire against the dangerous agitation exist- ing in a neighboring state. In pursuing its interests the Russian Empire stepped in the way of Austria-Hungary. "Not only our duty as an ally called us to the side of Austria-Hungary, but the great task was cast upon us at the same time, with the ancient community of culture of the two empires, to protect our own position against the at- tack of unfriendly forces. It was with a heavy heart that I was compelled to mobilize my army against a neighbor with whose troops mine had fought side by side on so many fields of battle, and with sincere regret I saw the breaking of a friendship to which Germany had been so faithful. The imperial Russian Government, giving way to an insatiable nationalism, has stepped to the side of a state which, through Five Nations in the Grip of War 89 a criminal act, had brought about the calamity of this war. That France also placed herself on the side of our opponent was not surprising to us. Only too often had our efforts to bring about more friendly relations with the French Repub- lic come into contact with the expression of old hopes and with long standing malice. "The present situation arose not from temporary con- flicts of interest or diplomatic combinations, but is the result of ill-will existing for years against the strength and pros- perity of the German Empire. We are not pushed on by the desire of conquest. We are moved by the unbending desire to secure for ourselves and those coming after us the place on which God has put us. My Government, and above all my Chancellor, tried until the last moment to prevent the worst happening. In enforced self-defense, with clear conscience and clean hands we grasp the sword. To the peo- ples and races of the German Empire my appeal goes forth to stand together fraternally with our allies in defense of that which we have created in peaceful work. "Following the example of our forefathers, firm and faithful, earnest and chivalrous, humble before our God and ready to fight when in face of the enemy, let us confide our- selves to the everlasting Almighty, who will strengthen our defense and conduct it to a good end." THE CZAR'S MANIFESTO The day previous the Czar of Russia had laid the blame for the trouble at the Kaiser's door. The manifesto issued by Nicholas was as follows: "By the grace of God we, Nicholas II., Emperor and 90 Five Nations in the Grip of War autocrat of all the Russians, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland, etc., to all our faithful subjects make known that Russia, related by faith and blood to the Slav peoples and faithful to her historical traditions, has never regarded her fates with indifference. But the fraternal sentiments of the Russian people for the Slavs have been awakened with perfect unanimity and extraordinary force in these last few days when Austria-Hungary knowingly ad- dressed to Servia claims inacceptable for an independent state. Having paid no attention to the pacific and concilia- tory reply of the Servian Government, and having rejected the benevolent intervention of Russia, Austria- Hungary made haste to proceed to an armed attack and began to bom- bard Belgrade, an open place. "Forced by the situation thus created to take necessary measures of precaution, we ordered the army and the navy put on a war footing, at the same time using every endeavor to obtain a peaceful solution. Pourparlers were begun amid friendly relations with Germany and her ally, Austria, for the blood and the property of our subjects were dear to us. Contrary to our hopes in our good neighborly relations of long date, and disregarding our assurances that the mobiliza- tion measures taken were in pursuance of no object hostile to her, Germany demanded their immediate cessation. Be- ing rebuffed in this demand, Germany suddenly declared war on Russia. Today it is not only the protection of a country related to us and unjustly attacked that must be ac- corded, but we must safeguard the honor, the dignity and the integrity of Russia and her position among the great powers. "We believe unshakably that all our faithful subjects will rise with unanimity and devotion for the defense of Five Nations in the Grip of War 91 Russian soil; that internal discord will be forgotten in this threatening hour; that the unity of the Emperor with his people will become still more close, and that Russia, rising like one man, will repulse the insolent attack of the enemy. With a profound faith in the justice of our work, and with a humble hope in omnipotent Providence in prayer, we call God's blessing on holy Russia and her valiant troops." THE FRENCH PREMIERES STATEMENT When Great Britain declared war on Germany the French Minister of War announced that his country was also officially at war with Germany. When Premier Viviani made the French Government's statement on the war in the Chamber of Deputies on August 4 his remarks roused the deepest enthusiasm. He detailed at great length the history of the events of the past fortnight, presenting strong argu- ments in the case against Germany, which, he declared, "irrefutably and logically justified the acts of the French Government." During the course of his remarks the Premier said : "France has been unjustly provoked — she did not seek the war ; she has done all in her power to avoid it. Since war was forced upon her she will defend herself against Ger- many and any other power who, not yet having made known its sentiments, takes part by the side of Germany in the con- flict between the two countries. Against an attack which violates all the laws of equity and all the rights of nations we have now taken all necessary dispositions. They will be carried out rigorously, methodically and calmly. The mobil- ization of the Russian army is proceeding with remarkable energy and boundless enthusiasm." MOBILIZED Five Nations in the Grip of War 93 AS IT WAS IN THE BEGINNING 94 Five Nations in the Crip of War The House turned toward the Russian Minister, M. Iswolsky, who sat in the diplomatic gallery, and cheered Russia. The Premier continued: "Belgium now has 250,000 men in arms, prepared to de- fend with magnificent ardor the neutrality and independence of their native land. The English fleet is mobilized to the smallest vessel and the English army is mobilizing." The Deputies rose again and turned toward where the British Ambassador, Sir Francis Bertie, was sitting, in the gallery, and cheered wildly round after round. The French Minister of War issued the following note earlier in the day: "The German Ambassador has demanded his passports, and diplomatic relations between France and Germany have been broken off. "War is declared." The Government sent a message to Jules Cambon, French Ambassador in Berlin, telling him to ask for his passports and to leave the embassy and consulate in the care of the United States. Two more declarations of war followed within a week. The first was when little Montenegro lined up with the allies against Germany and Austria by declaring war against the latter country on August 8. In this connection came a dec- laration from the Czar of Russia that it was a Slav war. Addressing the members of the Council of the Empire and the Duma in audience at the Winter Palace Nicholas said: "In these days of alarm and anxiety through which Rus- sia is passing, I greet you. Germany, following Austria, has declared war on Russia. The enormous enthusiasm, the Five Nations in the Grip of War 95 patriotic sentiments and the love and loyalty to the throne — an enthusiasm which has swept like a hurricane through the country — guarantee for me, as for you, I hope, that Russia will bring to a happy conclusion the war which the Almighty has sent it. It is also because of this unanimous enthusiasm, love and eagerness to make every sacrifice, even of life itself, that I am able to regard the future with calm firmness. It is not only the dignity and honor of our country that we are de- fending, but we are fighting for brother Slavs, co-religion- ists, blood brothers. "I see also with joy the union of the Slavs with Russia progressing strongly and indissolubly. I am persuaded that all and each of you will be in your place to assist me to sup- port the test, and that all, beginning with myself, will do their duty. Great is the God of the Russian Fatherland!" GREAT BRITAIN DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA On August 12, Great Britain made her stand clear to take a leading part in the struggle when she declared war on Austria. This was done by handing the Austro-Hun- garian Ambassador his passports. The British Foreign Of- fice issued the following statement in doing so : "His Majesty's government has declared to His Excel- lence the Austro-Hungarian Ambassador that they feel themselves obliged to announce that a state of war exists be- tween Great Britain and Austria-Hungary as from midr night," Austria later attacked Great Britain for her stand in the following note: "Austria's war against Servia, an independent state, and 96 Five Nations in the Grip of War for a cause which did not affect international politics, can- not be considered as the cause for the present European war." Great Britain's note to Austria, the statement continued, failed to point out the fact that Austria was obliged to de- clare war against Russia because the latter's mobilization threatened Austria. It is denied that Austria sent troops to the frontier, a fact, the statement says, which France al- ready knew from the Austrian Ambassador. The note ended : "It is evident that Great Britain's alleged reasons for de- claring war not only are arbitrary alterations of facts, but deliberate lies. England has thus lightly broken her tradi- tional friendship with Austria in order to support France; but, nevertheless, she will not find Austria unprepared." • GEMBWVX LIEGE v V • «»ANGLEUP • " •ORJVEGNEE PUDEEE C1EFF SEA* "%. 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THE weapons used in the wars of the late nineteenth cen- tury were antique compared to the weapons with which modern armies are equipped. The death dealing power of modern arms, it has been estimated by many military men, is 50 per cent more powerful than that of the weapons used in the civil war. Long range guns, the submarine, the aero- plane and the increased death capacity of the ammunition used, all go to make up an armament of marvellous destruc- tive force. Nor are these the only things which make for increased mortality in modern war. Floating mines and other things to trap the unwary on the water are a terror to the naval ves- sel and even the peaceful fishing smack. Death lurks under the rolling waters of the sea just as he sprints on the mod- ern battlefield. It is not the leisurely secretiveness of death. 167 168 Modern Methods of Warfare under the waters such as an undertow is to the swimmer, nor is it death of the old battlefields. The reaper on land and sea practically races to his victim so deadly are the imple- ments used. SUBMARINES OF WARRING POWERS Submarines have been developed to a high stage in re- cent years. They can lay mines and if necessary rise to the surface of the water and give battle. The torpedoes they fire cut the water like so many knives and few of them go wide of their marks. At the outbreak of the 1914 war Great Britain had sixty- four submarines. France was second with sixty-one and Russia had twenty-nine. Japan had about a dozen. On the other hand, Germany and Austria could only muster twenty-four submarines, the Kaiser had eighteen of these. The long range guns of comparatively recent invention are a terror on land and on sea. Gatling guns and other types of the machine artillery spit death at the rate of so much a second. They have mowed down many thousands since they were first perfected. And with all these death dealing implements goes the ammunition of a death dealing power that would have caused army and navy men the world over to have laughed at its possibilities not so many years ago. Deadly chemicals are used in mines on land and sea. POWER OF CHEMICAL MINES The chemical mine is a non-controllable affair. It is a large iron cylinder filled with dynamite. Projecting from Modern Methods of Warfare 169 its surface are a number of plungers encased in lead tubes. Any one of these plungers when struck breaks a tube of sul- phuric acid imbedded in powdered sugar and chlorate of potash. The explosion that results would break the back of a super Dreadnought. A country can mine its own waters as it pleases, but on the high seas a mine must become ineffective within an hour. That practically means that only torpedoes can be used be- yond the three-mile limit, and they too come under the hour rule. That is a rule that, it has been charged, was not observed by the Japanese in their war with Russia. There are no regulation mines for nations. Great secrecy is attached to them as coast defenses. Plans for mining har- bors are usually intrusted to only three officers. Not even their clerks know the secrets of location and composition. There are two classes, controllable and non-controllable mines. The former are always manipulated from shore. Then there are three kinds of mines. Fixed mines mean those that are set off by electricity from shore. There also are those that have trigger indicators to warn shore stations that a ship is over the mine. The triggers do not explode the mines. When a ship hits one there is a signal on shore. These are called observation mines. Both fixed and observa- tion mines are controllable. Then there are those that are set off by a ship hitting the triggers. They are contact mines and are non-controllable. If the plunger of the contact mine operates a firing pin it be- comes a mechanical mine. If it breaks a tube of acid it is a chemical mine. An electrical mine can be made either con- trollable or non-controllable. 170 , Modern Methods of Warfare Dynamite and gun cotton are the explosives ordinarily employed. The explosive must be little affected by moisture, have a high destructive factor and yet must not be so sen- sitive as to be discharged by the action of the waves. In placing mines an effort is made to arrange them so that a war vessel passing up a harbor must come within the destructive radius of one of the mines in the system. They should always be placed in channels and usually at the nar- rowest part. From a military standpoint mines are obsta- cles and their function is to delay, the position of the mine field being such that when the enemy passes over them it will be under the most destructive fire of the defense on shor/" WHEN JAPAN SHOWED CONTEMPT The shore guns should be able to prevent torpedo boats and submarines from destroying the mines. The Russian mines in Talien Bay did not prevent the Japanese from eventually using Dalny as a base from which to operate against Port Arthur. They were planted beyond supporting distance of the shore guns and the Japanese openly picked up the mines and went ahead. Buoyant mines are held below the surface by a steel mooring rope at such a distance that the mine will be struck by the hull of a vessel below its armor belt. The ordinary form of a buoyant mine is a sphere, the buoyancy of a hollow sphere being greater than that of any other volume having the same skin thickness. The electrical mine has a steel case, inside of which is the charge. In the center of the charge is a metallic case containing the fuse, a detonating charge, a special device for Modern Methods of Warfare 171 firing at will and a circuit closer. Then there is an insulated wire cable running out of the bottom near the anchoring rope and connecting the fuse and the filing apparatus on shore. Ground mines are sometimes placed in water less than 35 feet deep. They rest on the bottom. They can be made of iron or steel. The mine itself contains the charge, the fuse, the detonating charges and the device for firing at will, but the circuit closer is placed in a buoy attached to the mine. The mine operating room on shore contains generators, switchboards and a gallery for the cables extending to the water. Mines are usually placed about 100 feet apart so that the explosion of one may not injure an adjacent one. HOW MINES ARE CONQUERED An attack on a mine field consists of countermining, sweeping or creeping. Countermining is exploding charges that will destroy the mines or cables. Sweeping is dragging a long cable attached to two boats across the mine field. When a mine is located its cable is destroyed by a charge placed by a diver. Creeping consists in dragging hooks along the bottom to locate cables which are then severed. The earliest record of the use of apparatus similar to the submarine mine was in the siege of Antwerp in 1585. An Italian engineer filled several small vessels with gunpowder, arranged a clockwork with triggers in their magazines and floated the vessels downstream against a bridge which had been erected by the enemy. The scheme was successful and led to the development of mine defense. 172 Modern Methods of Warfare David Bushnell, a native of Maine, proved in 1775 that a charge of gunpowder could be exploded under water. Two years later he floated kegs of gunpowder down the Delaware River at Philadelphia to attack British shipping there. The ships had been taken into docks to avoid the ice in the river, so the plan failed, but the attempt became known as the "Battle of Kegs." In the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the superiority of the French over the Germans in the matter of ships was greatly neutralized by the latter in their use of electrical, me- chanical and dummy mines for harbor defense. The moral effect of the planted German mines was sufficient then to keep the French fleet at a respectful distance. ROUTE OF THE GERMAN ARMY— ON TO PARIS CHAPTER XVIII SERVIA AND HER PEOPLE Most Picturesque of the Countries at War — The Servian Empire Overthrown by the Turks in 1389 Regained in Part by a Revolution in 1804 — People Love Politics, Poetry, Music and Dancing — Description of Their BriU liant Costumes and Chief Characteristics. THE most picturesque of all the countries engaged in the great European War of 1914 is Servia, once an empire, which was overthrown by the Turks in 1389. A revolution led by a peasant in 1804 gained Servia her independence, but on lesser scale in territory. The population of Servia is about 2,750,000. More than four-fifths of this number belong to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race. Servia is a land without aris- tocracy or middle class. Instead it possesses an army of placemen and officials ; but these being recruited mainly from the peasantry do not disturb the prevailing social equality. In 1900 there was neither pauper nor workhouse in the country. The people, less thrifty and industrious than the Bulgars, less martial than the Montenegrins, less versatile and intel- lectual than the Rumans, value comfort far more highly than progress. A moderate amount of work enables them to live 173 174 Servia and Her People well enough, and to pass their evenings at the village wine- shop; although, being a sober race, they meet there rather to discuss politics than to drink. Of politics they never tire; and still greater is their devo- tion to music, poetry and dancing. Perhaps their most char- acteristic dance is the kolo, sometimes performed by as many as 100 men and women, in a single serpentine line. All classes delight in hearing or intoning the endless romances which celebrate the feats of their national heroes ; for every true Serb lives as much in the past as in the present, and media2vel wars still furnish themes for new legends and ballads. It is largely this enthusiasm for the past which keeps alive the desire for the reunion of the whole race, in another Servian empire, like that overthrown by the Turks in 1389. BRILLIANT FESTIVAL COSTUMES The fasts of the Orthodox Church are strictly kept; while the festivals, which are hardly less numerous, are celebrated even by the Servian Moslems. As in Bulgaria and Rou- mania, the Slava, or patron saint's day, is set aside for re- joicing. A Servian crowd at a festival presents a medley of brilliant and picturesque costumes, scarlet being the favor- ite color. Men wear a long smock of homespun linen, beneath red or blue waistcoats with trousers of white frieze. The women's dress consists of a similar smock, a zouave jacket of embroidered velvet and two brightly colored aprons tied over a white skirt, one in front and one behind. The head- dress is a small red cap, tambourine-shaped, and strings of coins are coiled in the hair, or worn as necklaces or bracelets. Servia and Her People 175 In this manner a farmer's wife will often decorate herself with her entire dowry. During the cold months both sexes wrap themselves in thick woolen coats or sheepskins with the fleece inwards; both are also shod with corded sandals. The Roumanian women retain their native costumes and are further distinguished by the wooden cradles, slung over the shoulders, in which they carry their babies; the Servian mothers prefer a canvas bag. Women weave most of the garments and linen for their families besides sharing in every kind of manual labor. Turkish ideas prevail about their social position, but so highly are their services valued that parents are often unwilling to see their daughters marry; and wives are, in many cases, older than their husbands. BELGIANS ON MYTHS AND CHARMS AND OMENS At a funeral the coffin is left open to the last minute — a custom found everywhere in the Balkans and said to have been introduced by the Turks, who found that coffins were a convenient place for hiding arms. The same practice, how- ever, is common in Spain and Portugal. Few countries are richer in folklore and myth than Servia. The peasants believe in charms and omens, in vampires, ghosts, the evil eye, and many other things. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century, education had done little to dispel such superstitions. The scarcity of labor prevents the growth of any great manufacturing industries. There is no native artisan class; for, except in rare cases, the people value their independ- ence too highly to work in factories, or even to enter domestic service. A large proportion of the artisans throughout 176 Servia and Her People Servia are Austro-Hungarians or gypsies. The chief maim-' f acturing industries are those for which the country supplies raw material, notably meat packing, flour-milling, brewing, tanning, and the weaving or spinning of hemp, flax and wool. There are also iron foundries, potteries and sugar, tobacco and celluloid factories. A law of 1898 authorizes the government to grant con- cessions on very favorable terms to foreign capitalists willing to promote mining and manufactures in Servia; but in 1910 the number of large industrial establishments in the kingdom did not exceed sixty, nor the number of hands employed 5,000. There are a few domestic industries, such as the manu- facture of sandals, and of the hand-woven carpets and rugs made at Pirot, which are popular throughout the Balkan Peninsula. CHAPTER XIX THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE A Nation Great in Art and Literature ; With a War-Ridden History, Is Made Up of Many Different Elements Whose Chief Industry Is Agriculture — The Bretons, Basques and Flemings Still Retain Their Original Cus- toms and Distinctive Languages. THE most thrilling and stirring chapters of European history are found in the history of France and in her transition from a monarchy to a republic is to be found, perhaps, the reddest chapter in all history — the French Rev- olution — a chapter written from end to end in blood, but which has been an inspiration to all liberty-loving peoples. With first rank in art and literature, she has had more than her share of wars. Although, broadly speaking, we refer to the French people as Gauls, the French nation is formed of many dif- ferent elements. Iberian influence in the southwest, Ligurian on the shores of the Mediterranean, Germanic immigrations from east of the Rhine and Scandinavian immigrations in the northwest have tended to produce ethnographical diver- sities which ease of intercommunication and other modern conditions have failed to obliterate. 177 178 The Republic of France The so-called Celtic type, exemplified by individuals of rather less than average height, brown-haired and brachy- cephalic, is the fundamental element in the nation and peo- ples the region between the Seine and Garonne; in Southern France a different type, dolichocephalic, short and with black hair and eyes, predominates. The tall, fair and blue-eyed individuals who are found to the northeast of the Seine and in Normandy appear to be nearer in race to the Scandinavian and Germanic invaders ; a tall and darker type, with long faces and aquiline noses, occurs in some parts of Franche-Comte and Champagne, the Vosges and Perche. THE BRETONS, BASQUES AND FLEMINGS RETAIN ORIGINAL CUSTOMS The Bretons, who most nearly represent the Celts, and the Basques, who inhabit parts of the western versant of the Pyrenees, have preserved their distinctive languages and cus- toms and are ethnically the most interesting sections of the nation ; the Flemings of French Flanders, where Flemish is still spoken, are also racially distinct. The immigration of Belgians into the northern depart- ments and of Italians into those of the southeast exercise a constant modifying influence on the local populations. During the nineteenth century the population of France increased to a less extent than that of any other country (except Ireland) for which definite data exist, and during the last twenty years of that period it was little more than stationary. The population in 191 4 was about 40,000,000. In 1906 it was 39,252,245. In 1876 it was 36,905,788. The Republic of Franca 179 About two-thirds of the French departments, comprising a large proportion of those situated in mountainous districts and in the basin of the ( Garonne, where the birth-rate is espe- cially feeble, show a decrease in population. Those which show an increase usually possess large centers of industry and are already thickly populated, like the Seine and Pas- de-Calais. In most departments the principal cause of de- crease of population is the attraction of great centers. WINE GROWING REGIONS MOST THICKLY POPULATED The average density of population in France is about 100 to the square mile, the tendency being for the large towns to increase at the expense of the small towns as well as the rural communities. In 1901, 37 per cent of the population lived in centers containing more than 2,000 inhabitants, whereas in 1861 the proportion was 28 per cent. Besides the industrial districts, the most thickly populated regions include the coast of the department of Seine-Inferieure and Brittany, the wine-growing region of the Bordelais and the Riviera. While a goodly proportion of the French are engaged in agricultural pursuits the development of machinery in France as in other countries, whether run by steam, water power, or other motive forces, has played a great part in the promotion of industry; the increase in the amount of steam horse-power employed in industrial establishments is, to a certain degree, an index to the activity of the country as regards manufactures. With the exception of Loire, Bouches-due-Rhone and Rhone, the chief industrial departments of France are to be found in the north and northeast of the country. 180 The Republic of France The department of the Seine, comprising Paris and its suburbs, which has the largest manufacturing population, is largely occupied with the manufacture of dress, millinery and articles of luxury, but it plays the leading part in almost every great branch of industry with the exception of spin- ning and weaving. The typically industrial region of France is the Depart- ment of Nord, the seat of the woolen industry, but also promi- nently concerned in other textile industries, in metal-work- ing and in a variety of other manufactures, fuel for which is supplied by its coal fields. A THRIFTY AGRICULTURAL TEOPLE Despite the great interest taken in manufacturing indus- tries in the French Republic, agriculture can well be called the leading pursuit of the nation. Approximately 17,000,- 000 inhabitants depend on the fields for their means of live- lihood, although only about 6,500,000 actually work at agri- cultural labors. Ninety-four per cent of the area of France is cultivatable land and the French with their innate thrifti- ness have not allowed much of this to remain uncultivated. France's flag floats over other lands than its home in Continental Europe. The French have dependencies in Asia, Africa, America, the Indian Ocean and Oceania. For administrative purposes the government is divided into eighty-six departments. The executive power is vested in the President of the Republic, while the legislative power lies in the hands of two chambers — the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. CHAPTER XX THE GERMAN EMPIRE Second in Area and Third in Population Among the War- ring Nations of Europe — The Extent and Diversity of Its Commerce — An Empire Made up of Prussia and the German Confederation — Its Form of Government — The Kaiser Supreme in War. GERMANY, or more properly, the German Empire, is in central Europe. The territories occupied by peoples of distinctively Teutonic race and language are commonly designated as German and in this sense may be taken to include, besides Germany proper, the German-speaking sec- tions of Austria, Switzerland and Holland. The German empire was formed in 1871 by virtue of treaties between the North German Confederation and the South German states and by acquisition, in the peace of Frankfort (May 10, 1871) of Alsace-Lorraine and embraces all the countries of the former German Confederation with the exception of Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liech- tenstein. The sole addition to the empire proper since that date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by Great Britain in 1890, but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in Africa and the Pacific. 181 182 The German 'Empire THE GERMAN FRONTIERS The empire is bounded on the southeast and south by Austria and Switzerland for 1,659 miles; on the southwest by France 242 miles; on the west by Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland, a total of 558 miles. The length of German coast on the Baltic is 927 miles and on the North Sea it is 293 miles, the intervening land boundary on the north of Schleswig being only 47 miles. The eastern boundary of 843 miles is with Russia. The total length of the frontiers is 4,569 miles. The area of the German empire is 208,830 square miles. The population is 64,925,993. In area, the German empire occupied the third place among European nations, and in point of population the second, coming in point of area immediately after Russia and Austria-Hungary and in popu- lation next to Russia. Twenty-six states and divisions make up the empire. These are as follows: The kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Wurttemberg; the grand duchies of Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg - Schwerin, Mecklenburg - Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Saxe-Weimar; the duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe- Meiningen; the principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss- Greiz, Reuss-Schleiz, Schaumberge-Lippe, Schwarzburg- Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, and Waldeck-Pyr- mont ; the free towns of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubeck and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. In 1900 the German speaking population of the empire amounted to 51,883,131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there were : Polish, 3,086,489 ; French (mostly in The German Empire 183 Lorraine), 211,679; Masurian, 142,049; Danish, 141,061; Lithuanian, 106,305; Cassubian, 100,213; Wendish, 93,032; Dutch, 80,361; Italian, 65,961; Moravian, 64,382; Czech, 43,061; Frisian, 20,677; English, 20,217; Walloon, 11,841. In 1905 there were resident within the empire, 1,028,560 subjects of foreign states as compared with 778,698 in 1900. Of these 17,293 were subjects of Great Britain and Ireland, 17,184 of the United States and 20,584 of France. Despite the enormous development of industries and commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent in Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth. Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, pastures and meadows, and of the whole area, 91 per cent was classed as productive. The largest estates are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Posen and Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Russian Rhine province, in Baden and Wurttemberg, small farms are the rule. The same kinds of cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant and in the north and east rye, barley and oats. GERMAN MANUFACTURES In no other country of the world has the manufacturing industry made such strides as in Germany in recent years. The chief manufactures may roughly be distributed geo- graphically as follows: Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria and Saxony are the chief seats of the iron manufacture. Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predomi- nant in the production of textiles, though Silesia and West- phalia manufacture linen. Cotton goods are largely pro- 184 The German Empire duced in Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine, and Wurttem- berg, woolens and worsteds in Saxony and the Rhine province, silk in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace and Baden. Glass and porcelain are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in Saxony ; tobacco in Hamburg and Bremen ; chemicals in the Prussian province of Saxony; watches in Saxony and Nuremberg; toys in Bavaria; gold and silver filigree in Berlin and Asehaffenburg and beer in Prussia and Bavaria. Ger- many has obtained a leading position in the markets of the world more through its iron industry than its other manu- factures. The constitution of the German empire is, in all essen- tials, that of the North German Confederation, which came into force in 1807. Under this the presidency of the con- federation was vested in the king of Prussia and his heirs. In 1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor. His authority as territorial sovereign extends over Prussia, not over Germany. The emperor exercises the imperial power in the name of the confederated states. Iii his office he is assisted by the Bundesrat which represents the governments of the individual states of Germany. The legislative functions are vested in the emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag, or imperial Diet. The members of the latter are elected by universal suffrage. The executive power is in the emperor's hands. He represents the empire inter- nationally, and can declare war if defensive, and make peace as well as enter into treaties with other nations; he also appoints and receives ambassadors. The separate states have the privilege of sending ambassadors to other courts, but all consuls abroad are officials of the empire and are named by the emperor. CHAPTER XXI THE GREAT RUSSIAN EMPIRE It Comprises One-Sixth of the Land Surface of the Globe and the Greatest Diversity of Races — Its Government and Characteristics of Its People — Land of Contrasting Riches and Poverty — Nobility Spends Money Freely On Entertainments. THE Russian Empire stretches over a vast territory in eastern Europe and northern Asia, with an area exceed- ing 8,660,000 square miles, or one-sixth of the land surface of the globe. It is, however, but thinly populated, including only one-twelfth of the inhabitants of the earth. Its popula- tion is 166,250,000. In this population is the greatest divers- ity of nationalities belonging to any old world nation, due to the amalgamation or absorption by the Slav race of a variety of Ural-Altaicstocks, of Turko-Tartars, Turko-Mon- gols and various Caucasian races. In Russia there are Aryans, Semies, Ural- Altaians and Caucasians as well as Koryaks, Chukchis, Chinese, Japanese and Koreans. Under the Aryans come the Slavs, the Lithuanians, Latin and Teutonic races, and Iranians. Under the Ural- Altaians, the Turko-Tartars, Finns and Mongols. Under the Caucasians the Georgian races and Caucasians. 185 180 The Great Russian Empire The Slavs can be divided into the Great Russians, Little Russians, White Russians, Poles and other Slavs. Roman- ians, Germans, Greeks and Swedes make up the Latin and Teutonic races and the Armenians, Persians, Tajiks, Taly- shes, Tates, Kurds, Ossetes and Gypsies the Iranians. The Finns are the Esthonians, Finns, Lapps, Mordvin- ians, Karelians, Cheremisses, Syryenians, Permiaks and Yotyaks. Under the Turko-Tartars come the Tartars, Chuvashes, Rashkirs, Turks, Turkomans, Kirghiz, Sarts, Uzbegs, Yakuts and Kara-kalpaks. The Kalmucks and Ruriats are the Mongols. Russia's govern mf.nt Russia was described in the Almanach de Gotha for 1910 as "a constitutional monarchy under an autocratic tsar." At the head of the government is the emperor, whose power is limited only by the provisions of the fundamental laws of the empire. - The Council of the Empire consists of 196 members of whom 98 are nominated by the emperor and 98 are elected.^ As a legislative body the powers of the council are coordinate witli those of the Duma; in practice, however, it has seldom initiated legislation. The Duma, which forms the Lower House of the Russian Parliament, consists of 442 members elected by an exceedingly complicated process. The chief occupation o\' seven-eighths of the population of European Russia is agriculture, but its character varies considerably according to the soil, climate and the geographi- cal position of the different regions. Despite this agriculture stands at a low level in Russia. The landowners are often poor and suffer from want of capital and lack of enterprise. The Great Russian Empire 187 The peasantry are impoverished and in many parts live on the verge of starvation for the greater part of the year. Mining and its related industries are still at a very low stage of development also. With regard to Russian industry generally, the extravagant prices which have to be paid for iron goods, owing to the prohibitive tariffs, combined with the obstacles put in the way of education, hamper the de- velopment of all industries. The wealth of Russia, consisting mainly of raw produce, the trade of the country turns chiefly on the purchase of this for export, and on the sale of manufactured and imported goods in exchange. RUSSIAN CHARACTERISTICS The lower classes in Russia can well be termed a down- trodden people. In many respects they are little better than serfs. This condition of life has been a subject for many authors. But despite this condition the Russians get much enjoyment out of their festival days. They are good dancers and enjoy many simple pleasures. Russia has given to the world many great thinkers and musicians. Because of the autocratic form of the government upris- ings against governmental authority, especially in the shape of attempts to take the life of high officials, have been fre- quent. These have been put down with an iron hand. Siberia, the land of lost hopes is the lot of political offenders. Those who have escaped the terrors of that bleak country tell thrill- ing stories of their experiences. The prodigality of many Russian nobles is a common topic of gossip in European courts. Members of the Imperial 188 The Great Russian Empire family, with their huge incomes, go to great lengths in the line of entertainment to spend the wealth which is often wrested from a hard working people. Russian peasants delight in singing the old songs of the land and in telling and re-telling the folk-lore tales that have been handed down from generation to generation. While they have no great future to look forward to, most of them are well contented with their lot. Advanced thinkers in Russia have done much for the peasants. Universities are becoming more and more popular and the children of the poor are taking advantage of them. CHAPTER XXII ALSACE-LORRAINE, THE FAIR PRIZES OF WAR Division of Charlemagne's Vast Empire Among His Grand- sons — Lothair, the Weakest, Gets as His Heritage Al- sace-Lorraine Among Other Lands — Provinces a Bone of Contention Between France and Germany — France Gets Alsace and All Lorraine But the City of Strassburg by Treaty of Westphalia — Louis XIV Takes Strassburg for France — Provinces a Theatre of Operations in Franco-Prussian War — Germany Gets Them as a Price of Peace — German Government — The Zabern Affair — Characteristics of Natives. THE provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, in whose territory- there was much fighting in the early days of the war, cover together an area of 5,601 square miles. The maximum length from north to south is 145 miles ; the maximum breadth is 24 miles. They may be compared with the Hudson River Valley from New York to Albany. It is not an extensive territory but many of the wars in Europe since the passing of Charlemagne have been concerned with it. It was in 1843 that the three grandsons of Charlemagne, lighting among themselves, decided to end it by dividing their grandfather's possessions among them. They acted on that ancient principle that the lands, and the peoples dwelling 189 190 Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War upon them, tilling the soil in time of peace and fighting the battles in time of war, were the private property of the sovereign, ruling by the "divine right of kings." Charle- magne had ruled the whole of Europe as one united govern- ment from his capital at Aachen — the Aix la Chapelle of to- day which belongs to Prussia. The private possessions of the Pope of Italy alone were excepted. Charlemagne's son, Louis le Debonnaire, was too weak to hold together such a heterogeneous empire of peoples of dif- ferent race and temperament and speaking different tongues, their only bond being an official religion — that of the sov- ereign — and a common government. He was too weak even to rule in his own family. Long before he was dead his sons were quarrelling over their inheritance. FIRST KING OF THE GERMANS AND FIRST KING OF THE FRANKS The one who was the strongest, called Louis the German, had the first choice in the division and he became the first King of the Germans. The second strongest, Charles the Bold, had second choice, and he became the first King of the Franks, the people of modern France. These two broth- ers took land which formed a compact whole and which could be easily defended. The subjects of Charles all spoke one language, those of Louis all spoke another. The third brother, Lothair, the weakest, had to take what was left of his father's empire, and that included what is now comprised in Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Alsace, Lorraine, and a small strip of northern Italy. It was made up of many different nationalities. It could not be easily defended because the Alps broke it into two parts, and Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War 191 the narrow strip along the Rhine from the Alps to the North Sea which kept the possessions of Louis from touching those of Charles was too great a prize not to be converted by both of the two stronger brothers. They soon began to fight one another about it, each to take it from Lothair. And the troubles of the buffer states began. Alsace and Lorraine have alone remained of Lothair's kingdom to be fought over, by the two great nations on either side, France and Ger-J many. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR France was the banker for Sweden and in the Thirty Years' War of the seventeenth century, which Sweden fought against Austria and Germany, Sweden won and the spoils fell to the banker, France acquiring by the Treaty of West- phalia which closed the war in 1648, all of Alsace with the exception of the city of Strassburg. Germany had to give it up, as well as confirm France in the possession of Metz, in Lorraine, at this time a private appendage of the sovereign of Austria. In 1681, during a lull of peace in the tormented provinces, Louis XIV of France, quietly surprised Strassburg and took it, so that France had that province entire. It was not un- til after the first French Revolution that the whole of Alsace and Lorraine went to France. As soon as war was declared between France and Prussia, July 15, 1870, Alsace-Lorraine became the theater of opera- tions. The first decisive battle of the war was fought in Al- sace at Woerth-sur-Sauer, August 6, 1870, the French under Marshal MacMahon retreating before the Germans, led by 192 Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War the Crown Prince, afterward Kaiser Frederick, father of Kaiser William II. When Thiers, coming as the Ambassador of France to sue for peace from Germany, Bismarck laid down as the first stipulation that Alsace-Lorraine should be a price of peace. France had to let the provinces go. GERMANS RULE ALSACE-LORRAINE , It was Bismarck's idea to treat the two provinces with the utmost kindness and benevolence. The Kaiserin's cousin, Prince von Hohenlohe, became the Governor, and although he was a dictator, his rule was kindly. Rights of citizenship were showered upon the inhabitants and they were given their own Parliament in 1874. The dictatorship was abolished in 1902. Alsace-Lorraine was given representation in the Diet at Berlin. Between 1880 and 1885, 50,000 natives emigrated from thejtwo provinces into France and the emigration has kept up more or less ever since. In the foreign legions of France men from these German-held provinces are enrolled in large numbers. They visit their relatives back in the old homes and Germany has complained that they returned to France with military information which Berlin did not intend for Paris to have. - THE ZABERN AFFAIR It was only in January, 1914, that the "Zabern affair," brought a flood of light upon conditions in Alsace and Lor- raine. A young German officer, stationed at Zabern, Lieut. Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War 193 Baron von Foerstner, incensed at the mocking taunts of the populace in Zabern, the little Alsatian town which has been the scene of bloody battles for ten centuries, ordered his men to charge upon the crowd. It was a grim story that the only victim was a decrepit man, caught and sabred as he was hobbling away on his crutches. The young officer was reprimanded and a lightly punish- ment. The Reichstag passed a vote of censure upon the Imperial Chancellor that such things could happen in the German Empire and there the affair ended. In Lorraine one sees the slender physique and the viva- cious temperament of the French, but the skull formation of the Teuton. In Alsace, there is the giant frame and the broad face of the Teuton, with the round skull of the French. The two peoples are in reality a mixture of both. They could love the Germans or the French with equal facility. They speak the German language in large majority — that is cited as the reason why they should certainly love the Germans more than the French. But it has now been some time since the teaching of French to the children was prohibited as well as using French uniforms on the stage or using the French language on the shop signs. The language of the children soon becomes that of the parents, and the language forced by law upon commerce will e'er long become the language of the home. 194 Alsace-Lorraine, the Fair Prizes of War PROGRESS CROWDED OFF CHAPTER XXIII FREDERICK THE GREAT AND THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR Battles in Which the Ancestor of Kaiser Wilhelm II Won His Title — Fought Against Six Nations With Odds of More Than Two to One Against Him and Won — The Eleven Great Battles That Cost One Million Lives — The Great Military Genius of Prussia After Fighting Seven Years Died in Peace and Amidst Plenty. A CENTURY and a half ago, Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, the great ancestor of Kaiser Wilhelm II, was involved in a war with practically all Europe. Frederick the Great faced six nations with a combined population of about 90,000,000. They put into the field against him in 1757 armies numbering 425,000 men. Against this force, Frederick was able to muster 200,- 000 men, the population of Prussia being at that time about 4,500,000. Thus, the Great Frederick went into the fight at numer- ical odds of more than 2 to 1 against him. In reality the odds were greater because of his 200,000 men at least 50,000 were not available for the field, being sequestered as garri- sons of his fortresses. Opposed to Wilhelm II in the war of 1914 (also called the War of Six Nations) were countries having an aggre- 195 196 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War gate population of 308,000,000, not counting colonics or dependencies. Germany and Austria combined had a pop- ulation of 116,265,000 besides that of the German colonies. Three to one therefore very nearly approximates the odds in point of population faced by the Kaiser. THE KAISEE's ARMY COMPARED WITH FREDERICK'S The discrepancy in armed forces is not so great. The strength of the German armies was 5,200,000 men; of the Austrian, 2,000,000; a total of 7/200,000. Against these the allies were able to muster 10,902,000, distributed thus: Rus- sia, 5,500,000; France, 4.000,000; England*, 720,000 (which did not include the forces stationed in the English posses- sions) ; Belgium, 222.000; Servia, 300,000, and Montenegr* , 150.000. Frederick the Great had no navy, so that there are no data for comparison on that score. The Kaiser entered the war with 430 fighting craft, as against 1,208 of the Allies, and 194,233 sailors and officers, to 276,784 of the Allies. Roughly speaking, the Kaiser's navy was about one to three as compared with those of the Allies. As for aeroplanes, which played a considerable part in the Kaiser's war, Frederick the Great never saw one and might have dropped dead on the spot if he ever had. As a master of quick movement and skillful strategy with the means at his hand in the eighteenth century he was the master captain of his age and so a military genius like Napoleon T regarded him. Austria was not an ally of Prussia in the wars of Fred- erick the Great. It was arrayed against him with France, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years War 197 Russia, Sweden, Saxony and Poland, then a separate na- tional entity. England, now chief of the Allies arrayed against the Kaiser was his great ancestor's chief friend, hope and dependence. There have heen many shuffles and fresh deals of the diplomatic cards of Europe in the past 150 years. Frederick's crushing defeat at kollin More than once during the Seven Years' War, Frederick the Great found himself completely surrounded by his foes and stricken almost to death. After his crushing defeat at the battle of Kollin, in Bohemia, June 18, 1757, when he lost 14,000 killed, wounded and taken prisoners of an army of 32,000 Frederick retired to Prague which he had been be- sieging with another corps. He was compelled to raise the siege and retire from Bohemia. By the time he got back to Saxony in July there remained under his banner only 70,000 of the 114,000 men whom he had led into Bohemia three months before. Undaunted, he rushed into Thuringia to face the French and their German speaking allies. The position of the great Prussian seemed at this time hopeless. He was menaced on every side. Besides the Austrians who had just beaten him, the French, Russians and Swedes converged upon his army to destroy him. They formed a complete circle. But Frederick was equal to the emergency. By move- ments of the most astounding celerity he forced the famous battle of Rossbach, the most renowned of his achievements, at which he completely overcame an army twice as large as his own, broke the cordon that surrounded him and emerged from the period of his gloom. 198 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War Another period of despair fell upon him in August, 1759, after the battle at Kunersdorf, a place in Brandenburg near the Oder River. The army of Frederick was completely routed. In a contest with 78,000 Russians he lost more than 18,000 of his 48,000 men. He himself suffered severely. Two horses were shot under him. His clothes were riddled with bullet holes and a gold case which he wore over his heart was crushed by a bullet. "Is there no cursed bullet can reach me?" he exclaimed. To his minister he wrote on the evening after the battle: "I hold all for lost. I shall not survive the ruin of my count- y . Farewell forever." That night he resigned his command to one of his gen- erals and directed that the army should swear allegiance to his nephew. But out of the despair and apparent ruin Frederick sur- vived. His enemies neglected to push their advantage and he again cut through the ring that surrounded him. After varying fortunes in which more than once all seemed lost, the Russians retreated across the Oder and he was once more upon his feet. Frederick the Great's reputation as a military genius rests chiefly upon eleven battles fought during the Seven Years' War. Some he won, some he lost. At times the odds were three to one against him, but he never shrank from a conflict on that account. The threatre of his operations was confined to a topographical square measuring not more than 300 miles on a side. Though there were of course no railroads in his day to facilitate mobilization, it is not easy Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War 199 to make comparison between his achievements and those of the Kaiser which, after the intervention of Japan were world-wide. THE ELEVEN BATTLES OF FREDERICK THE GREAT Here is a brief chronicle of Frederick the Great's battles : At Lobositz on the Elbe in Bohemia, October 1, 1756, with 80,000 men he defeated the Austrians with 42,000. At Prague, May 6, 1757, with 64,000 Prussians, he de- feated 65,000 Austrians. At Kollin, Bohemia, June 18, 1757, 54,000 Austrians under Marshal Daun defeated Frederick with 32,000. Fred- erick had not hesitated to attack, though so far outnumbered. At Rossbach, near the Saale, Frederick, with 22,000 men, gained a complete victory over the combined Austrians, French and Imperialists, November 5, 1757. The Allies lost 8,000, Frederick only 165 killed and 376 wounded. This, as has been said, is esteemed the great Prussian's most won- derful victory. At Leuthen, December 2, 1757, Frederick with 34,000 men defeated 80,000 Austrians. At Zorndorf in Brandenburg, August 25, 1758, 32,000 Prussians defeated 50,000 Russians under Count Femor. This was the most murderous battle of the war and Fred- erick, to his surprise, found that the Russians at close quar- ters, were fierce fighters. Men wounded to the death used their last moments in butchering each other. It is related that one Russian, mortally wounded, was found on the body of a fallen Prussian choking his foe and gnawing him with his teeth. 200 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War At Hochkirch, near Dresden, October 14, 1758, Fred- erick was surprised by a force of 120,000 Austria us, who fell upon his army of 51,000 and compelled him to retreat. He lost Marshal Keith, one of his best officers in this en- gagement and on the same day received the news of the death of Wilhelmina, his favorite sister. At Kunersdorf, in Brandenburg, August 12, 1759, Fred- erick with 48,000 men was cut to pieces by an army oi' Aus- trians and Russians numbering 78,000. The Prussians lost 18,500 men and an immense number oi' guns. At Liegnitz, in Silesia, August 15, 17(H), Frederick's army of 80,000 men was surrounded by four armies of Rus- sians and Anstrians with a combined strength of 115,000. Frederick defeated one Austrian army and broke through the toils. At Torgau, in Saxony, November 3, 1700, with a force of 44,000 men, Frederick defeated an Austrian army of (>;>,000. At Burkesdorf, July 21, 1762, Frederick, aided by a Russian army (a new Russian emperor had reversed his predecessor's policy and now fought with the Prussians) de- feated the Austrians under Marshal Daun. END OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR This closed the celebrated Seven Years' War. At the treaty of Hubertsburg, February 5, 1763, Maria Theresa of Austria bowed her head to fate. She acknowledged Fred- erick's seizure of Silesia, previously denounced as a theft, to have legalized by the war and restored to Prussia the county of Glatz which her troops occupied. Prussia in turn evacuated Saxony. Frederick the Great and the Seven Years 1 War 201 Though a victor in this war and the beneficiary of a treaty on its own terms, Prussia had paid dearly for its triumph. Its army was reduced to 00,000. The well disciplined troops of* the first years of the war, including the famous Grenadiers of whom Frederick was especially proud, were all gone and nondescripts or even deserters filled their places. Discipline was relaxed, mutiny was always imminent and graft was rampant. The Seven Years' War cost a million lives, including the losses of the Prussians and the Allies. It brought to Prussia not a foot of territory, except that by the arbitrament of arms it vindicated her title to Silesia which she had forcibly taken from Austria. For the sake of this title Frederick began the war. The utmost that he gained was a reputation through all the ages for dare-devil bravery and recklessness. He shrank from no adverse odds and is quoted as having said once in reply to a general who was trying to dissuade him from engaging the enemy : "I would attack them though they were all standing on the town steeples." Most of his victories were won because of this spirit. FREDERICK A FATALIST Frederick the Great was a fatalist. He always expected to win, but it is related that he carried continually in his pocket an ounce of a deadly poison and swore that he would not survive a decisive defeat. After the rout at Kuners- dorf he put this poison to his lips but decided at the last second to have one more trial. 202 Frederick the Great and the Seven Years' War What are the points of resemblance between the great Frederick and the present Kaiser, his great-great-great- grandnephew? It is said that the Kaiser believed himself a reincarnation of his great ancestor. Physical resemblance there was none for Frederick was very short and slight — a much smaller man than the Kaiser. If one was brave even to recklessness it is said of the Kaiser that he was no less brave (though until the war of 1914 broke out he had never been under fire). But it is related of Frederick that he was scared within an inch of his life when he first faced the enemy on the field and leaped into the saddle of a fleeter horse that he might run away. He spent forty-six years in the saddle and devoted the best of his years to stimulating the military spirit in the Prussians. But when he died, in 1786, at the age of seventy- four, it was in the midst of peace and plenty. There were 6,000,000 thalers in the treasury when he succeeded to the throne; his successor, Frederich Wilhelm II, found 72,000,- 000 thalers in the strong box, and began to reign over 6,000,000 contented and industrious Prussians who blessed the name of "Father Fritz," as the old king loved to be called. CHAPTER XXIV THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Louis XVI a Poor Ruler— His Personal Characteristics — Marie Antoinette, His Queen — Conditions At the Court of Louis— Huge Funds Wasted by the Courtiers- Power of the King Over His Subjects— Protests of the People Against Heavy Taxation — Opening of the French Revolution— Taking of the Bastile— Formation of the National Assembly — The King Is Defied — Chaotic Conditions In France— Effects of the New Constitution On Europe— France Embroiled In War— The King's Death Warrant— The New Republic— Its Early Trou- bles—The Rise of Napoleon— His Career— The Restora- tion—The Second Republic— The Second Empire— The Third Republic. WHEN medieval history ended with the French Revolu- tion, the latter event, which may well be said to have led up to the present war between Germany and Austria and the allies, began. It was in 1789 that the French Revolution, which marked the beginning of European democracy, came to a head. It was the cry of the people that the governed be allowed to do some of the governing and it was a direct blow to the old theory of the divine right of kings. Louis XVI was the ruler of France at the time. He was at best a most commonplace type of man and many historians 203 204 The French Revolution have held that he would have been better fitted for the posi- tion of a baker than for that of the ruler of a nation. He was not a soldier, nor was he a statesman by any stretch of imagination. He was honest to be sure, but this did not make up for other deficiencies in his character. He was the pawn of wiser men largely for the reason that he did not under- stand men. Marie Antoinette, Louis's queen, was a great beauty. She was an Austrian and she made no effort to conceal her distaste for everything French. The court of Louis has often been pointed to as an example of great immorality. Whether or not this was so is a question. But certain it is that Marie Antoinette often shocked the conventions and that the members of the court were guilty of similar breaches in a more marked sense. The atmosphere of the court was unhealthy. Marie Antoinette was no better at reading men than her husband and she was frequently imposed upon and duped into having incompetent or dishonest government officials appointed. It was a lavish court that Louis held and money was wasted with a wanton hand. Naturally it was necessary to raise great funds for the maintenance of Louis and his courtiers. The only means to do this was to raise the taxes on the French people and to keep on raising them. As a result France was groaning under a heavy financial burden. Louis and his ministers resorted to method after method in order to wrest money from the people. It was an era of ex- travagance for the nobles; an era of abject poverty for the common people. The French Revolution 205 KING HAD POWER OF LIFE OR DEATH Nor was poverty the only burden the French peasants had to bear. The nobles rode roughshod over them and their feelings and the king could mete out life or death to anyone without the person concerned having any redress. These very things marked the coming end of the feudal system in vogue in France. When a country is unable to get credit things are in a bad state indeed. This was the position France was in during the reign of Louis XVI. The French Revolution began on July 14, 1789, when the people stormed the Bastile and released the prisoners held there. On January 21, 1793, Louis went to his death on the guillotine. The release of the prisoners in the Bastile fol- lowed a number of incidents that foretold the beginning of the end for Louis. Demands were made on Louis which he first refused to grant. Later the provinces showed something of a united front and he was compelled to bow to their wishes. The Three Estates finally managed to get together and in June, 1789, they adopted the title of National Assembly. They took the oath to give a new constitution to France although the king ordered them to dissolve and the nobles backed him up. The king's order was ignored and Louis called out his soldiers to force the dissolution of the National Assembly. The answer to this was the formation of the National Guard and the storming of the Bastile by the peo- ple. Louis sought to compromise and for a time it appeared as if he would win the people over, but it was not long before the obstinate side of his nature showed itself. France at the time was in a state of great turmoil. Vio- lent acts were the order of the day and the tension was great 206 The French Revolution when the "Declaration of the Rights of Man" was announced. This Louis opposed and France was rocked to the core by the storm that ensued. At this juncture, when the fortunes of the king and queen were at a low ebb and it seemed that only a miracle could save them, Mirabeau appeared on the scene as an adviser to the king. Had his advice been followed he would, in all probability, have been the miracle worker. But Louis and Marie Antoinette had their minds poisoned against the leader of the assembly and when they lost him they lost the man who might well have saved their lives and possibly their fast tottering throne. KING AND QUEEN ATTEMPT TO FLEE Disregarding Mirabeau's advice that his only hope was to gather the arm)'- and war on the revolutionists, Louis and his queen attempted to flee. They were overtaken near the fron- tier and that practically sealed their fate. Calm heads saved them for the time being but the storm was only temporarily checked and when it did break it did so with such great force that it not only caused the deaths of the king and queen but of many nobles as well. France seemed to go blood-mad. In 1791 when the new French constitution was decreed all Europe was shaken. Kings felt that if the revolutionary ideas of the French leaders were to spread their thrones were as good as gone. Even before this Marie Antoinette had been in touch with the courts at Berlin and Vienna, declaring that unless they threatened France with their armies the revolution was sure to spread and carry with it the seal of destruction of monarchs. Austria soon heeded the warning The French Revolution 207 and prepared to war on France. It did not take Prussia long to follow a similar policy, Louis having added his en- treaties to those of Marie Antoinette. On the face of things it looked as if the revolution would be crushed and that the combined armies of Austria and Prussia would make short work of the tricolored forces. But the plans of the king and queen acted as a boomerang. Their palace was stormed and they were put under arrest as the people prepared to make war on two foes. Conditions were chaotic in France at the time and when the allied foe swept all before him the life of the revolu- tionary party seemed nearing its end. Beaten in the field, the French people wreaked horrible vengeance on the nobility. Outlying chateaus were stormed and their inmates put to death, nobles were dragged from prison to be put to death. The thirst for blood had to be allayed some way. In September came the real birth of the republic. This seemed to carry good luck with it for soon the allies were seeking peace. With the allies backing down the king's fate was as good as sealed and Louis's death was voted on Jan- uary 15, 1793. He went under the knife six days later and France was a republic in that royalty had come to an end. The people had taken the life of their king. A COUNTER REVOLUTION STARTS Soon the revolution had a counter revolution with which to deal. Those who had taken the life of Louis and many of his courtiers were worried for fear that they in turn would have to sacrifice their lives. England and Spain, too, took a hand in the trouble. Agaio things looked gloomy for the 208 The French Revolution republic but again they were saved. Carnot took the helm and he steered the ship safely over its troubled course. Fol- lowed then wholesale executions which well nigh amounted to massacres. Carnot, aided by Robespierre and Marat in directing things, decreed the death of hundreds. Paris was a human slaughter house. This was the period of the Reign of Terror and it was well named. When the situation cleared up there was more trouble in the government. Paris had had enough of blood for the time being and a period that was marked by a more sane attitude was the result despite the bickerings among the lawmakers. But this period was short lived for there was an uprising in many parts of France over the rights of the people. Napoleon took a prominent part in quashing the trouble, which was done without much bloodshed and from then on he was a marked man. The new government was finally launched and France began a campaign to force her ideas on other countries. Armies were sent against Germany and Napoleon led the force intrusted with the role of driving the Austrians out of Italy. The Corsican made a whirlwind cam- paign of great brilliance, crossing the Alps on his march to victory. His other victories are familiar ones and as his popularity increased the directory of the new government tot- tered. Soon he overthrew the directory and the first republic had gone the way of Louis XVI. napoleon's rule Followed then the rule of Napoleon. France was again under the heel of a ruler who soon made himself emperor and before long seemed to have all Europe under his thumb. But The French Revolution 209 his power finally waned and Waterloo saw the passing of his star. His exile followed and later came his death on the lonely little island of St. Helena, far from his beloved France. The House of Bourbon succeeded to the throne with the passing of Napoleon and the republican ideas of France were for the time being forgotten. After Napoleon ousted the Directory, France was gov- erned by the Consulate. Bonaparte, Cambacers and Lebrun were put in charge of the government in 1799. In 1802 Napoleon was made sole consul for ten years. A few months later he was made consul for life. In 1804 came the period of the Empire, with Napoleon decreed ruler of the French. The period of the Restoration lasted ten years, from 1814 to 1824, during which time the Bourbons were again in power. The House of Orleans ruled until 1848 when the Second Republic was formed. Louis Napoleon was elected president that same year. The Second Empire witnessed its rise in 1852, Napoleon III being elected to fill that office. He was deposed in 1870 and the Third Republic, which still is alive, came into being. 210 The French Revolution Stations open to ship and shore communication, Hich Power Stations open, to ship and shore ... . „ „ ... „ . communication. High Power Public Semce. Private Stations. High Power Private Stations. Imperial Scheme. Trans-Ocean Scheme. • PETERSBURG JvaL^owstadt MAP OP WIRELESS STATIONS CHAPTER XXV THE WARS OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE History of His Campaigns Against Austria, Italy, Prussia, Russia and England — Cut Up Germany and Italy and Distributed Them Among His Favorite Generals — His Defeat in the "Battle of the Nations" and Final Defeat at Waterloo, Belgium, Scene of the Great European War of 1914. THOUGH enrolled among the great warriors of history, Napoleon Bonaparte's genius was scarcely less for diplomacy, material development and state affairs. The Code Napoleon remains as a model of law to a great part of the civilized world. He was born at Ajaccio in the Island of Corsica, August 15, 1769. His family on both sides belonged to the smaller nobility of Italy, and until he was twenty-seven years old he spelled his name in the Italian manner, Nabulione Buono- parte. As a boy he was destined for the army, and at the age of ten he was sent to the military school in Brienne, France. Here he by no means distinguished himself and his poverty, pride, Corsican birth and imperfect knowledge of French combined to make him anything but a favorite with his fellow 211 212 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte students. He excelled in mathematics and his favorite author was Plutarch. After five years at Brienne he went to the military school at Paris to complete his preparation for the army. One year later, at the age of sixteen, he received his commission as second lieutenant in the artillery regiment of La Fere. BONAPARTE AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION The French Revolution was at this time rapidly develop- ing. Many of Bonaparte's aristocratic fellow officers threw in their lot with the royalists, but he chose the side of the people, though in a quiet and undemonstrative way. He became captain of artillery by seniority in February 1, 1792, and was a witness to the insurrections of June 20th and August 10th. Bourrienne, his colleague and future biog- rapher, relates that he stood by Napoleon's side when the mob broke into the Tuilleries and forced the King to don the red cap. "It's all over with that poor man," Bourrienne records his companion observed, "but a few charges of grape-shot would set those wretches to fleeing." In the beginning of 1795, after a furlough in Corsica, he was again in Paris, out of employment, despondent and with his ability still unrecognized. His first opportunity came when he was named as commander of 5,000 troops raised by the Convention of Paris to oppose the mobs in rebellion. He took the command on short notice and had but a single night to make his preparations. Yet in the morning, when the National Guard, as the mob styled itself, marched along the quays of the Seine toward the Tuilleries they The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 213 found every point severely guarded and in an hour of actual fighting complete victory was secured for the Convention. From this moment the young officer's fortunes began to improve. The Convention appointed him forthwith to the command of the Army of the Interior, and in March follow- ing he set out for Italy at the head of an army of 40,000 men. Meanwhile he had met and married Josephine Beau- harnois, the beautiful woman who was destined to play so important a part in his career. The wedding occurred on March 9, 1796, and a week later he started on the campaign. DEFEATS AUSTRIANS AND SARDINIANS His opponents were the combined forces of the Austrians and Sardinians and they were in force greatly superior to his own, both in numbers and equipment. Proceeding with great celerity he divided his enemies and then attacked them in detail. He was so quickly successful that the Sardinians were overtaken and beaten at Mondovi on March 22d and the Austrians were defeated at the Bridge of Lodi May 10th. Five days later Napoleon entered Milan and levied heavy contributions on the state, besides despoiling the museums of invaluable paintings and statuary, which he sent back to Paris. Naples, Modena, Parma and the Papal States has- tened to sue for peace and the whole of Northern Italy was in the hands of the French. The Italian campaign lasted until the following spring, Austria sending successive armies to retrieve the losses of the first and rallying various Italian states about her banners, but by April 7, 1797, Napoleon had overcome them all by generalship, audacity and celerity of movement, and an 214 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte armistice was concluded, Austria surrendering territory and indemnity to France and receiving Venetia in return. When Napoleon returned to Paris in December, 1797, he had his first taste of popular applause. The enthusiasm his appearance aroused was overwhelming and the Directory at once placed him in command of an army which had been raised with the avowed object of invading England. Napoleon professed to favor that design, though he was fully aware that it was impracticable. He was probably aware that it was merely a feint to cover the invasion of Egypt as a preliminary step to the conquest of British India. NAPOLEON'S EGYPTIAN CAMPAIGN At any rate, he collected an army of 36,000 men and embarked at Toulon, May 10, 1798. A month later the French landed at Malta and took possession of that island. Ten days later they resumed their voyage and, landing at Alexandria July 1st, they took that city and began the march to Cairo. Here they encountered and repulsed a large body of Mamelukes at the desperate Battle of the Pyramids, and, having received the submission of many other tribes, Na- poleon appeared to be in possession of all Egypt. Fate, however, had a terrible reverse in store for him in the person of the English Admiral Nelson, who had long been in pursuit of his fleet, overtook it as it lay moored in the Bay of Abukir and utterly destroyed all but four of his vessels, which contrived to escape. All means cut off of retreat to France, Napoleon made an expedition into Syria to meet the Turks. Various stories are extant of the cruelties he perpetrated during this cam- The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 215 paign, but it is known that he returned to Cairo after sixty days, having failed in the great objects of his expedition, lost 4,000 men and left a country in ruins behind him. In July, 1799, he attacked a force of 18,000 men whom the Sultan had landed at Abukir, the scene of Nelson's victory, and most annihilated them. Getting bad news from Paris he embarked in a frigate August 22 and landed at Frejus, after having escaped the British cruisers in the Mediterranean. He found when he reached Paris that he had come none too soon. The govern- ment's credit was gone at home and abroad and the authority of its generals was greatly impaired. The distracted fac- tions rallied about Napoleon, a new constitution was drawn up and Napoleon was made first consul, with power of appointing all the public officers, making him virtually the ruler of France. From this time the policy of Napoleon developed more distinctly. Its objects were the establishment of order in France and the humiliation of the enemies of the nation abroad. Personal aggrandizement was an end, also, and the whole was backed up by sagacity, boldness and unquenchable energy. He recruited the national treasury and repealed the more violent laws passed during the Revolution, reopened the churches and suppressed the Vendean insurrection by decided though conciliatory measures. DEFEATS AUSTBIANS AT MARENGO Having offered terms of peace to England, Austria and Turkey and seen his offers rejected, he resolved to strike a 216 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte blow first at Austria. Accordingly, having concentrated an army of 36,000 men with unparalleled rapidity on the banks of Lake Geneva, he crossed the Alps and almost before the enemy were aware, w T as in Milan. After several skirmishes he met the Austrians at Marengo and won one of the most brilliant victories of his career, June 14, 1800. On the 2d of August, 1802, Napoleon was proclaimed Consul for life by a decree of the Senate backed by a plebis- cite of 3,000,000 votes. He devoted himself forthwith to the improvement of the internal affairs of the nation ; established the Legion of Honor, inaugurated education in mathematics and physical science and assembled the first lawyers in the land to draw up the Code Napoleon. These activities were disturbed by rumblings of discon- tent from neighboring countries. Europe was beginning to look askance at the new giant and Napoleon, feeling that he was on the eve of an important crisis in his career and the career of France decided that the time had come for him to assume imperial honors. He summoned Pope Pius VII to Paris and was crowned Emperor May 18, 1804, in Notre Dame. Rather he crowned himself, for Napoleon snatched the crown from the Pon- tiff's hands and placed it on his own head. Then he per- formed a like office for Josephine. On May 26, 1805, he was crowned King of Italy in the cathedral at Milan, and appointed his stepson, Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy. He created a new nobility with high-sounding titles, surrounded himself with a brilliant court and set up all the ostentatious etiquette of royalty. The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 217 DEFEATS AUSTRIANS AND RUSSIANS AT AUSTERLITZ England, Russia, Austria and Sweden united in a coali- tion against the new Emperor. Napoleon concentrated his forces at Mainz, marched across Bavaria at the head of 180,000 men and compelled the Austrian general, Mack, to surrender Ulm. Proceeding to Vienna he entered that city and made preparations to meet the combined armies of Austria and Russia, then concentrating on the plains of Olmuetz. On December 2 he met them at Austerlitz and after a desperate struggle completely routed them. The Austrian Emperor instantly sued for peace, giving up all his Italian and Adriatic territories. The Russian retired behind his own frontiers. Joseph Bonaparte, the Emperor's brother, was made King of Naples and Louis, another brother, King of Holland. Italy and Germany were cut up into little kingdoms and dependencies and distributed among the French commander's favorite generals. The years 1810 and 1811 were the period of Napoleon's greatest power. He had fought and won Friedland, a vic- tory so decisive that Alexander of Russia was compelled to sue for an armistice ; had extended his sway over the Spanish Peninsula and had issued the celebrated Berlin Decree. The notion of founding an imperial dynasty had come in the train of his repeated successes in the field and in December, 1809, he divorced Josephine. She had never borne him a child and, besides, Napoleon seems to have arrived at the conclusion that the only way to put an end to the machinations against him of the old legitimate dynasties was by intermarriage with one of them. Accordingly he married, March 11, 1810, the 218 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria and a year later a son was born to him, Napoleon Charles Francois Joseph, pro- claimed in his cradle King of Rome. His empire at this time extended from the frontiers of Denmark to those of Naples, with Paris, Rome and Amster- dam as capitals and a population of 42,000,000. In addi- tion he had almost unlimited control in Spain, Switzerland, the Italian kingdoms, and the confederation of the Rhine. NAPOLEON'S RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN But now the tide began to turn. In May, 1812, Napo- leon declared war against Russia and, against the advice of his wisest counsellors, determined to invade that country. He organized at Dresden an army of 675,000, including Prussian, Austrian, German, Polish and Swiss auxiliaries. In June he crossed the Niemen, the Russians retiring before him and wasting the country as they went. On August 16 the Russians made a stand at Smolensk and when the French entered that city, August 18, it was a smoking ruin. The Russians gave battle at the Borodino, September 7, and in a long and obstinate struggle the French lost 30,000 men. When Napoleon reached Moscow he found that city in flames and, realizing that it was in vain to pursue the Russians further, reluctantly determined to retreat. The line of retreat lay through the country that had just been devastated. The winter set in extraordinarily early and proved to be one of great severity. The French army, reduced to 120,000 when they turned back at Moscow and further reduced by cold, famine and disease, not to mention The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 219 the Cossacks who continually harassed their flank, did not number more than 25,000 fighting men by the time they had fought their way back to Smorgoni. The rest was scat- tered in the snow drifts along this calamitous march. At Smorgoni, December 5, Napoleon quitted the army, leaving Murat in command. He reached Paris two weeks later and issued a fresh conscription, still determined on prosecuting the war. But the magic of his name had been destroyed by his reverses. Kings, clergy and people arose against the devastator of the continent. Another coalition was formed of England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Spain and in the spring of 1813 sent its forces toward the Elbe to meet Napoleon. The latter still had an army of 350,000 men in Germany and for some months he was uniformly victorious. He de- feated the allies at Luetzen and Bautzen and on June 1st reached Breslau where he concluded a six weeks' armistice. This gave the allies time to reorganize and, what was of at least equal consequence, to gain over Austria. DEFEATED IN THE "BATTLE OF THE NATIONS" The campaign reopened in mid- August and reached its climax at the Battle of Dresden, better known in history as the "Volkerschlacht" or "Battle of the Nations," fought October 16-19, 1813, in which the French were completely defeated and driven across the Rhine in a retreat almost as calamitous as that from Moscow. On his arrival in Paris Napoleon was able, in spite of the prevalent discontent, to obtain from the Senate a decree 220 The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte for a new levy of 300,000 men and again he took the field. This time the war was fought on French soil and never before was the genius and fertility of resource displayed by Napoleon greater. But in the end the number of the allies prevailed and March 31, 1814, the allies, under the leader- ship of Alexander of Russia and the Duke of Wellington, entered Paris after reducing its forts. Napoleon abdicated April 6 in favor of his son. He was allowed to retire to the Island of Elba with the title of Emperor and $1,200,000 of revenue and Louis XVIII was restored to the French throne. After ten months on the island, mostly spent in intriguing with the republicans of Paris and his own adherents, he made his escape from Elba and landed in France at Frejus, March 1, 1815, with an escort of 1,000 of his old guard. As soon as his arrival became known Marshal Ney at the head of a great part of his army joined him and he made a triumphal entry into Paris, March 20. Louis was driven from the throne without a shot being fired. As soon as they had recovered from the shock of their surprise the allied armies started for the French frontier. Napoleon went forth to meet them with an army of 130,000 men. They came together on the same field in Belgium where the first battles of the great Europeon war of 1914 were fought. The English and Prussians were commanded by Wellington and Blucher. June 16 Napoleon encountered Blucher at Ligny and defeated him, while Ney was able to keep the English in check at Quatre-Bras. The Prussians made an orderly retreat, pursued by the French under Grouchy. The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte 221 THE 1815 BATTLE OF WATERLOO Wellington, in order to keep his communication open with the Prussians, fell back on the plain of Waterloo and here, June 18, 1815, he was attacked by Napoleon. There was a stubborn fight all day and when, in the evening, Blucher came up, having outmaneuvered Grouchy, the French were crushed and put to disorderly flight. Napoleon's power was gone forever. The allies marched without opposition to Paris and again took possession of the city. Once more Napoleon abdicated in favor of his son, and having been threatened by Fouche, who had assumed control of the French government and seeing no hope of safety in France, he made his way to Rochefort and sur- rendered to Capt. Maitland of the British man-of-war Bellerephon, claiming the hospitality and protection of the English nation. Capt. Maitland was ordered to detain Napoleon as a prisoner and to transfer him to the Northumberland, in which ship he was to be conveyed to the Island of St. Helena and there confined for the rest of his life. These were the terms of a convention signed at Paris, August 20, 1815, between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia. Napoleon's health began to fail in September, 1818. He developed cancer of the stomach and May 8, 1821, he was buried on the island. In 1840 his remains were disintered and taken to Paris, where they were received with splendid ceremonial and entombed under the dome of the Hotel des Invalides, their final resting place. ooo The Wars of Napoleon Bonaparte CHAPTER XXVI THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR Napoleon III Makes War on Prussia over the Selection of a King to the Spanish Throne — Gen. Von Moltke, in Bed, Tells Messenger Where to Find Plans for Mobilization and Goes to Sleep — Historic Battles of the Short War — Flight of the Emperor and the Empress Eugenie — The Beginning of the German Empire. NAPOLEON III of France, finding at the beginning of 1870 that neither his people nor his army was entirely- loyal, decided that they needed a war of conquest to put them in good humor with themselves and with him and determined to enter precipitately into a war with Germany. This, he felt sure, was inevitable sooner or later and in his failing health he did not choose to leave it to his suc- cessor. Besides, he would give a frontier on the Rhine to France, at least to the borders of Belgium, and thus bring his reign to a glorious end. Napoleon found a pretext in the condition of Spain which at that time was in need of a king. Several princes had been proposed and the most acceptable one would have been the Duke of Montpensier. But Napoleon dreaded the rivalry of the house of Orleans and gave Spain to under- 223 224 The Franco-Prussian War stand that Montpensier would not be acceptable to him. Spain then selected Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a rela- tive of the Prussian royal house. Napoleon thereupon in- structed the French minister at Berlin to take a haughty tone with the Prussian king and say that if Leopold was permitted to accept the Spanish crown it would be a cause of war between France and Prussia. The King of Prussia retorted that he would not be in- timidated and that Leopold might do as he chose. Napoleon, anxious for a casus belli, chose to object that the tone of this reply was offensive and, spurred by the Empress (Eugenie) , a bitter enemy of Germany, declared war. VON MOLTKE IN BED MOBILIZES ARMY BY MESSENGER This was July 19, 1870. For months before, Prussia had been making extraordinary preparations for a conflict with France. It is said that when a messenger went to the house of Gen. von Moltke to announce that war was at last declared he found the general in bed. The general took the news with perfect calmness. Sitting up in bed, he said to the messenger: "In the second drawer from the top of that bureau you will find the plans for mobilization. Large package wrapped in gray paper and tied with red twine. Yes ; that's it. Good night." Then the general lay down and went to sleep. His plans were found to be perfect in every detail. For weeks Alsace-Lorraine, the provinces of France adjoining the German frontier (and the scene of much of the activity of both armies in the war of 1914) had been pervaded by i — i W Eh PS <1 Eh w Eh Ph <;>y The President's proclamation closed : * "And I do hereby give notice that all citizens of the United States and others, who may claim the protection of this Government, who may misconduct themselves in the premises, will do so at their peril; and that they can in no wise obtain any protection from the Government of the United States against the consequences of their misconduct." PRESIDENT WARNS AMERICANS Before this proclamation and while conditions in Conti- nental Europe were getting worse day by day; President Neutrality of the United States 283 Wilson took occasion to sound another warning to Ameri- cans. He told them to be calm in the face of the European crisis. He said: "It is extremely necessary, it is manifestly necessary, in the present state of affairs on the other side of the water that you should be extremely careful not to add in any way to the excitement. Of course, the European world is in a highly excited state of mind, but the excitement ought not to spread to the United States. "So far as we are concerned, there is no cause for excite- ment. There is great inconvenience, for the time being, in the money market and in our exchanges, and, temporarily, in the handling of our crops, but America is absolutely pre- pared to meet the financial situation and to straighten every- thing out without any material difficulty. The only thing that can possibly prevent it is unreasonable apprehension and excitement. "If I might make a suggestion to you gentlemen, there- fore, I would urge you not to give currency to any unverified rumor, to anything that would tend to create or add to excite- ment. I think that you will agree that we must all at the present moment act together as Americans in seeing that America does not suffer any unnecessary distress from what is going on in the world at large. The situation in Europe is perhaps the gravest in its possibilities that has arisen in modern times, but it need not affect the United States unfavorably in the long run. "Not that the United States has anything to take advan- tage of, but her own position is sound and she owes it to mankind to remain in such a condition and in such a state of mind that she can help the rest of the world. 284 Neutrality of the United States "I want to have the pride of feeling that America, if nobody else, has her self-possession and stands ready with calmness of thought and steadiness of purpose to help the rest of the world. And we can do it and reap a great perma- nent glory out of doing it, provided we all co-operate to see that nobody loses his head. "I know from my conferences with the Secretary of the Treasury, who is in very close touch with the financial situa- tion throughout the country, that there is no cause for alarm. There is cause for getting busy and doing the thing in the right way, but there is no element of unsoundness and there is no cause for alarm. The bankers and business men of the country are co-operating with the Government with a zeal, intelligence and spirit which make the outcome secure." The day following the issuing of his neutrality proclama- tion President Wilson tended his good offices to the warring nations. OFFER OF MEDIATION In his cablegram to the German Emperor, the Czar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary, the President of France and the King of England, he said : "As official head of one of the powers signatory to The Hague Convention I feel it to be my privilege and my duty, under article three of that convention, to say to you in a spirit of most earnest friendship that I should welcome an opportunity to act in the interest of European peace, either now or at any other time that might be thought more suitable, as an occasion to serve you and all concerned in a way that would afford me lasting cause for gratitude and happiness." Neutrality of the United States 285 Representatives of the German, Russian, Austrian, French and English Embassies were notified of the Execu- tive's action by Secretary of State Bryan. The President acted on his own initiative. He did not get suggestion from any neutral or belligerent country on the subject. He did what he considered his duty under The Hague Convention, which provides that "in case of serious disagreement or dispute, before an appeal to arms, the con- tracting powers agree to have recourse, as far as circum- stances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly powers. "Independently of this recourse, the contracting powers deem it expedient and desirable that one or more powers, strangers to the dispute, should, on their own initiative, and as far as circumstances may allow, offer their good offices or mediation to the states as variance. "Powers strangers to the dispute have the right to offer good offices or mediation even during the course of hostilities. "The exercise of this right can never be regarded by either of the parties in dispute as an unfriendly act." Servia and Montenegro were not included in the offer because they were not parties of The Hague Convention. Servia took part in the conferences but never ratified the document. The Hague Convention, signed October 18, 1907, and ratified by the United States Senate April 2, 1908, and by the President of the United States February 23, 1909, and proclaimed a year later, provides that : "The part of the mediator consists in reconciling the opposing claims and appeasing the feelings of resentment which may have arisen between the states at variance. 286 Neutrality of the United States "The functions of the mediator are at an end when once it is declared, either by one of the parties to the dispute or by the mediator himself, that the means of reconciliation pro- posed by him are not accepted. "Good officers and mediation undertaken either at the request of the parties in dispute or on the initiative of powers strangers to the dispute have exclusively the character of advice, and never have binding force. "The acceptance of mediation cannot, unless there be an agreement to the contrary, have the effect of interrupting, delaying, or hindering mobilization or other measures of preparation for war. "If it takes place after the commencement of hostilities, the military operations in progress are not interrupted in the absence of an agreement to the contrary." The responses to this offer of mediation were all of a friendly nature and written in a courteous tone but all the nations involved declared that they could not accept at this time. CHAPTER XXXII AMERICANS ABROAD AT OUTBREAK OF WAR Americans Caught in War Zone — Service Rendered by American Diplomats — President Wilson's Call on Con- gress for Funds — $250,000 Immediately Voted for Re- lief of Stranded Americans — $2,500,000 More Voted for Same Purpose — Battleship Tennessee Sails With Gold Cargo on Mission of Relief — Refugees Arrive on the Philadelphia — The France and New York Return Crowded With Refugees — Stories of Thrilling Expe- riences. OVER 250,000 Americans who had gone to Europe to tour the Continent or were temporary residents there were caught in the vortex of the war zone early in August. Many of the Americans abroad at the time of the outbreak of war had thrilling experiences. Many were stranded in strange countries, unable to get their travelers' checks cashed. They suffered great hardship. Nor was the lot of wealthy tourists a bit lighter than that of the thousands of school teachers who were traveling "in suit cases," so to speak. The United States government took prompt steps to aid the stranded Americans. The State Department kept the cable wires hot between this country and Europe. Diplo- 287 288 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War matic and consular officials to the warring countries received orders to relieve the suffering of Americans. In such a crisis the often scoffed at diplomatic service of the United States rose to heights of efficiency. PRESIDENT APPEALS FOR FUNDS President Wilson asked Congress to appropriate $250,- 000, on August 3, with which to relieve immediately Ameri- cans abroad. Congress promptly rushed through a bill granting that amount. The following day he asked for $2,500,000 in an additional appropriation. The President's message read: "After further consideration of the existing condition in Europe in so far as it is affecting citizens of the United States who are there without means, financial or otherwise, to return to their homes in this country, it seems incumbent upon the government to take steps at once to provide ade- quate means by the chartering of vessels or otherwise of bringing Americans out of the disturbed region and con- veying them to their homes in the United States. Moreover, in view of the difficulty of obtaining money upon letters of credit with which most Americans abroad are supplied, it will be necessary to send agents abroad with funds which can be advanced on such evidences of credit or used for the assist- ance of destitute citizens of the United States. "In these circumstances I recommend the immediate pas- sage by the Congress of an act appropriating two million five hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to be placed at the disposal of the President for the relief, protection and transportation of American citizens Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 289 and for personal services, rent and other expenses which may be incurred in the District of Columbia or elsewhere con- nected with or growing out of the existing disturbance in Europe." Congress promptly backed up President Wilson again, and on August 6 the money was on its way to Europe, stowed in the after magazines of the United States cruiser Ten- nessee. Assistant Secretary Breckinridge went in command of the work of relief. Officials of the United States Govern- ment who were abroad at the time were ordered to co-operate with Mr. Breckinridge in ascertaining the whereabouts of stranded Americans so that they might be able to obtain speedy relief. The first of the American refugees from the real war zone reached this country on August 12 when, with 1,012 pas- sengers, a crew of 300 men, and six mail clerks on board, the American Line steamship Philadelphia warped into her pier in New York. Never had the Philadelphia accommo- dated such a crowd. There were 703 second cabin passengers and 309 in the steerage. Three of the men in the steerage could have purchased the Philadelphia several times over, but their wealth was not great enough to buy a bed in a second cabin. There are no first cabins on the vessel. In one second cabin slept fifteen women. Some were compelled to sleep on deck, some in the dining saloon and others in the companion- way. Many steerage passengers had the run of the deck and they were treated with the same consideration, as far as possible, as those occupying the cabins. The Philadelphia, in charge of Captain Mills, sailed from Southampton August 5 and touched Queenstown next day. It was found on leaving Queenstown that there was hardly 290 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War standing room on deck for all the passengers. Men gave up their steamer chairs to women and had to remain on their feet. So crowded was the deck during the day that pas- sengers stumbled over each other. The nights were cold and the men who were compelled to sleep in the open almost froze. WARSHIPS COVER LINER On leaving Queenstown the Philadelphia was followed by a British warship. Later another British vessel took the place of the first and kept close to the ship until she was well on her way. Soon after the last war vessel turned about after signalling "All right," the Philadelphia came upon several French torpedo boats. One of the boats ran close to the liner and signalled "Stop!" Captain Mills did not obey, thinking that his flying the United States flag was sufficient for him to continue. Then came this signal from the French boat: "Stop and stop quickly!" The Philadelphia obeyed and the torpedo boat came so close that the wash from the liner almost swamped it. Although the passengers suffered much discomfort throughout the trip because of the crowded condition of the ship, the weather was favoring them, except those who slept on deck. The passengers were mighty glad, however, to see Liberty, and when the Philadelphia was drawing into quaran- tine and a mail boat came alongside the passengers gave rousing cheers. "We have a kaiser on board. What shall we do with him?" yelled one man, and the passengers laughed. "Who played the Giants today?" asked another. Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 291 And so the ship rang with laughter and questions all the way up the bay to the pier. GERMAN TROOPS STOP TRAIN "I was in Dresden the day war was declared," said A. Assman, "and took the first train I could catch for Rotter- dam. When we reached the border line the train was stopped by troops and every car belonging to a German company was detached from the train. "At the time we had eight coaches, and all of them were crowded to the platforms. The taking off of three coaches was a serious matter. All the passengers from these coaches had to squeeze into the other already suffocatingly crowded coaches. "But the greatest hardships were in getting to London. There is hardly a passenger on the Philadelphia who has not lost his or her baggage. One woman on board who lost all her trunks and jewels landed in London with just one shilling." Milton Blumenthal, who boarded the Philadelphia at Southampton, was in Paris when war was declared against France by Germany. "I left Paris at 5 o'clock next morning," he said. "At that time the excitement was intense. The walls of the city were placarded with signs which read: " 'All men not over thirty-three go to the front.' "Even at that hour the streets were crowded with excited throngs. I got to London as quickly as possible, but that wasn't very quick. This trip to London was disagreeable enough to be remembered a lifetime." 292 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War John A. Wilson, the President's cousin, appeared to be the happiest person in the list of bedraggled passengers, while Martin Vogel, Assistant Treasurer of the United States at New York, appeared to be the most unhappy. Mr. Vogel finished up his honeymoon aboard the Philadelphia. He said: "Americans generally are in an extremely bad way in Paris and Berlin. The hotels are all closed in Paris and the waiters have all gone to the war. Many Americans are actually destitute. There was the case of young Mr. Wide- ner of Philadelphia, whose automobile was taken from him by the French soldiers while he was touring through the country and his chauffeur was hustled off to carry a gun. Mr. Bonner, manager of the Ritz-Carlton of Philadelphia, also was relieved of his machine while about three miles from the Belgian frontier. He was left to hustle for himself. "The plight of American women is peculiarly bad. Those who have no gold are being subjected to all sorts of indig- nities." Max Annenburg, circulation manager of the Chicago Tribune, was one of the passengers on the Philadelphia. With his wife and two children he was in Hamburg at the outbreak of the trouble. He thus described his experiences : NO GERMAN BOATS SAIL "Those who were to sail by the Imperator, of which I was one, got into Hamburg on July 30 and had their bag- gage transferred to Cuxhaven, their tickets changed and everything in readiness to sail the next day. The next morn- Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 293 ing I woke up at my hotel and the elevator boy told me that there were no boats sailing from the German ports. "Inside of an hour there was a mob of angry Americans storming the offices of the Hamburg- American Line. "At last they told us that the ship would not sail and the passengers cashed in their tickets. Every one of them got their money in German coin and then made a rush for the first train for London. "About two thousand were able to get aboard the train which left for Holland and the rest were left behind. "The conditions on the train on which we left were hor- rible. The German troops jammed and pushed men, women and children aboard until we were fairly piled up in the aisles. "Literally packed in like sardines, we rode to the Hol- land line with many stops. There the soldiers again came aboard the train and dumped everybody out. They said that the train had to go back to act as a troop train and that now we were on Dutch soil the Dutch would have to look after us. That was at 3 o'clock in the morning. "We waited in the dark for about two hours and a half, when a Dutch train backed up and we boarded this for Flushing, where we were to ship for England. The trip ordinarily takes ten hours. It took us exactly eighteen hours and on the way we had neither food nor water." "When I left Hamburg there were at least 15,000 trunks of Americans piled up on the Hamburg- American Line pier. No one will be able to get them until after the war. "The boat from Flushing to London usually carries about 500 persons ; there were 2,000 on the one on which I went over. In London we were in more difficulty because 294 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War German money was not accepted. From Saturday night until the Philadelphia sailed not a bank opened its doors. "People coming from Berlin told me they were stopped in the streets and made to alight from automobiles. An officer would hand them receipts for their automobiles, and tell them they might have them after the war." Leroy Vanderburgh of New York City was in Amster- dam July 31st when the mobilization order was given. "The next day we tried to get out," he said, "but could not because the train service had been taken over by the government. There was tremendous excitement among the Dutch. A train was finally made up which took us to the Hook of Holland, where we were held for eighteen hours waiting for the last train from Berlin. "One woman who came on that train from Strasburg told that the German soldiers had forced her to change cars eighteen times. Others had been put out of a train at 3 o'clock in the morning by German troops and forced to walk across the Holland line." The France of the French Line arrived in New York on August 20th carrying 1,374 Americans from the war zone. In the steerage were forty-two Americans, some prominent ; for example, a member of the Spanish Embassy at Wash- ington and Charles Leddy, the artist, who painted portraits all the way over for the benefit of the Red Cross. THE FRANCE MADE A FAST TRIP Captain Mourand said he passed four cruisers, all in mid- Atlantic. He thought they were British and one the Tigress. The entrance to the English Channel was guarded by French Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 295 torpedo boats. He had two days of fog, and the France made more than twenty-two knots an hour part of the way. He came across with his lights burning, was challenged by an English cruiser and hoisted his colors. On the day the France left her home port the eyes of Havre citizens were gladdened by the sight of 35,000 British troops landing from twenty transports. Bands played, the disembarkation was carried on with precision and Frenchmen danced with joy, literally embracing their fighting allies from across the channel. Mrs. Wilson Howe, sister of President Wilson, and her daughter and granddaughter, all garbed in mourning, were aboard. Mrs. Howe said she had been in Dieppe, whence she caught the last train for Paris. She had only two pieces of baggage, but lost both. Ambassador Herrick sent the party from Paris to Havre in his automobile. "Nobody can know the awful experience of Americans in a foreign land during mobilization," said Mrs. Totten, the wife of John R. Totten of New York. "The little details of official inspection, registration and a thousand annoyances are a small part of the indescribable situation. I was faint for lack of food. There were intervals of fourteen hours without anything to eat. I have only the dress I am wearing. "We had motored through France, Germany and Swit- zerland, but had to give up our tour in Austria and leave our car and French chauffeur at Interlaken for the govern- ment. The proprietor of the Hotel du Rhein, where we stopped in Paris, was a German. Twice mobs threatened to blow up the hotel. They gave us half an hour to get out. We told the rioters Americans were in the hotel. They said 296 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War they would blow it up. We shifted to the Hotel Lotti, dragging our trunks." DANCERS FORCED TO SLEEP IN AUTO Mr. and Mrs. M. Maurice, the dancers, of Wilmington, Del., and Mr. Maurice's brother, whose professional name is Oscar Suzette, and his wife left Vichy August 10th. They engaged an auto for $1,000 and stopped en route, at St. Pierre, Chartiers, Dreux and Rouen. In Chartiers the police told them to get off the street or they would be locked up. They slept that night in their auto. In another town they slept on straw in a hotel. At still another place they slept on the floor of the hotel office. Once they changed their machine, the first having been com- mandeered. Between Vichy and Havre their passports were vised fifty-seven times. They gave a dance there, raising 8,000 francs for the Red Cross. At Havre Mr. Maurice's father had been searching for them. They paid 4,875 francs for passage and only got aboard because so many passengers had left the ship at Havre. Robert Morris of New York said he had rather a good time waiting in Havre. Mrs. J. H. Potts of Chicago, with thirty-nine others, went from Paris to Havre on a cattle train. They were twelve hours on the road. Jules Glaenzer of the Chartiers Company, jewelers, brought the five-year-old daughter of his partner, M. Char- tier, who had gone to the war, while the little girl's mother had left Paris and was unable to return. Mr. Glaenzer said Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 297 his firm had hustled $40,000,000 of diamonds into the Bank of France in two hours August 2d, and 300 members of the firm and employes had left for the front. He, being an American citizen, was the only one who did not go to the war. "stranded" was the password Mr. and Mrs. Charles K. Baum were in the Morgan- Harjos Bank, Paris, awaiting a chance to have a draft hon- ored. A stranger passed them. "Stranded?" inquired the stranger. "Stranded," said Mr. Baum. "Here, take these 700 francs," said the unknown American. "But I don't know you and you don't know me," replied Mr. Baum. "Give me your I. O. U.," said the man. "I'll take your face." The good angel was Charles Rowen. In a bazaar Mr. Baum saw a hard-up fellow-countryman trying to buy two tickets from Paris to Havre. He did not know the man, but Mr. Baum paid for the tickets. The man met him on the France and paid him back the sum. Francis Campbell of Morgan, Harjes & Co., Paris, said he had never seen mobilization so orderly. There was no brawling, he said, and the crowds had sung only national anthems. "There was in Paris for a while a shortage of change, but the government issue of 5, 10 and 20 franc notes helped us out." Little Miss Lucy Churchill McDannel, the daughter of 298 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War T. H. McDannel, landing agent of the Savannah line, with her mother, was studying in Paris before the hegira. They were on board the France seventeen days in all. Mrs. Mc- Dannel carried her clothes in a pillow case. She lost her trunks. STATEROOM LAUNDRY ON SHIP "Everybody who had lost his baggage," said Miss Lucy, who is thirteen years old, "washed his own clothes at night and dried them before morning. A Chicago doctor left his shoes outside his stateroom door, but by morning they had been mobilized." Miss Florence Hatzfeld and Miss Lucy Collins of Phila- delphia went two days without food because Paris shop keepers would not sell it. Miss Hatzfeld, on her way to Havre, was jolted off the cattle train on which everybody was standing. A pile of trunks fell on top of her. She was bruised, but not seriously injured. For ten days the young woman had no change of clothing. Miss Hatzfeld said all went to bed early and extinguished lights for fear of airships dropping bombs. Mrs. Florence W. Lawrence and her fifteen-year-old daughter, Dorothy, lost all their trunks and money. They landed with two handbags. Mrs Lawrence is the wife of the editor of the Chicago Examiner. Jules S. F. Bache, the banker, said: "America doesn't realize the troubled conditions in Europe. The suddenness of the whole thing was not real- ized. The main trouble was to get money, but the only thing worth while in Europe was gold." Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 299 Mrs. Walter Haynes, wife of a lawyer, waited eleven hours in Paris for food and fainted away during the interval. Miss Edna Aug said that when the first regiments marched through the Rue de la Paix the hundreds of models appeared on the balconies of Paquin's and strewed roses and geraniums on the soldiers. Similar stories were told when the American liner New York arrived. Here are some of them: Miss Margaret G. Konkle, a very pretty girl, landed without her trunk. She had paid $155 for passage on the Imperator. She managed to get away from Paris, but her trunk didn't follow her to Cherbourg. She came aboard with only a little handbag. The stewardesses made up for her lack of wardrobe. Miss Konkle didn't have to pay any duty yesterday, which was some consolation. Francis De Vere, a stock broker, said many Americans still were in Paris by their own fault. They had been warned in time. "Some Americans who do not read or speak French," said Mr. De Vere, "did not wake up to what was going on for two or three days. They were making plans to go fur- ther into Europe while the embroiling was growing worse. Friday night, July 31st, was an anxious night. We didn't know whether the New York would come in at Cherbourg or not." Three weeks ago the broker was in Budapest. "There is a Greek church on the outskirts oi* Budapest, which had always borne a good reputation," said he. "The police arrested the priest on some evidence and his church was found packed full of bombs. The priest was in league with the Servians. 300 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War CALLED CROWN PRINCE BOMB TUTOR "Government detectives of Austria-Hungary say they learned that the Crown Prince of Servia conducted a regular school in which the curriculum was bomb making and bomb throwing. "A conversation with a cabman shows the earnestness and tenseness in Budapest. I asked if he would take me pleasure riding. 'No, sir,' he replied, 'but if you wish to go to a railway station or a hotel I will take you.' " Col. H. J. Gross, formerly in command of the First Light Infantry of Providence, It. I., and his wife left Paris Friday night, July 31st. "I beat the war announcement by five hours," said Colo- nel Gross. "On Saturday morning, August 1st, I learned that Paris had closed all its banks. You could not buy a meal. I had only fifty-franc notes, but nobody would change them." Colonel and Mrs. Gross tried successively to get home on the Imperator, La Provence and the Potsdam, finally man- aging to get on the New York. He had an upper berth in a four-bunk stateroom and a similar berth was found for Mrs. Gross in a stateroom with three other women. July 14th — the anniversary of the fall of the Bastile — Colonel Gross witnessed a review of 50,000 French troops. "They were the finest disciplined body of men I ever saw," said he. "If they can fight as well as they can manoeuver, they are all right." The Rev. Harvey K. Heigner of Philadelphia, who arrived on the New York, had gone through Germany Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War 301 after visiting Egypt and the Orient. He was two days in Berlin, leaving a few days before the trains stopped running and commercial traffic was paralyzed. saw Berlin's wae fire kindled "Berlin was very enthusiastic," said the clergyman. "On the Sunday night before the declaration of war twenty bands of music, at the head of many processions, paraded through the streets until 2 o'clock in the morning. In the processions were university professors, students, business men and even women. As they marched they sang 'Germany Over Every- thing.' "Unter den Linden was strewn with handbills and bulle- tins, struck off by the newspapers. Placards were every- where. Crowds marched and countermarched past the Rus- sian Embassy, singing jeeringly. A squad of cavalry was sent from the palace to guard the embassy, and the police quelled the rioting. "German soldiers in civilian life knew just where to go, at just what division to report. All they had to do was to get into their uniforms. "Harvests were ripe all through Germany. Women predominated in the fields. The greatest surprise to me is the suddenness with which it all clapped down. "In Dresden you could not get a meal until you showed money." Dr. J. D. McGowan of Chicago, accompanied by his wife, had attended the Surgeons' Congress. He found con- ditions getting hot in London and decided to get out. He said he saw the Coldstream Guards march into the Tower of 302 Americans Abroad at Outbreak of War London, drop their bearskins on the floor and get into their khaki. Every soldier he saw was in his fighting uniform. "We could not cash our American Express Company- checks," said the doctor, "and I understand Londoners charged 33 1-3 per cent for cashing American drafts. We didn't hear anything but war talk." Dr. John R. Pennington of Chicago, a passenger on the New York, said 900 American surgeons were delayed in London. All have patients to whom they promised to return immediately. Mrs. H. P. Martin of Red Bank, N. J., with her six- months-old babe, arrived at the American Relief Committee headquarters in London on August 20th after a trying trip. They started from Magdeburg, Germany, August 2d, with Mr. Martin, but he became separated from them as a crowd of foreigners was forced into a train. Mrs. Martin protested that she could not go alone, but the officers told her her husband was in another car. Mrs. Martin, who was only nineteen years old and unused to traveling, reached Berlin August 4th, where she found her husband was not on the train. By degrees she made her way to Holland and reached London almost penniless. CHAPTER XXXIII FIRST SEA BATTLE OF THE WAR English, Under Screen of Heavy Fog, Enter the Bight of Heligoland and Lure German Ships from Their Base — Two of the Kaiser's Cruisers Sunk, One Set Afire and Two Torpedo Boats Are Destroyed — Sir David Beatty, Who Married a Daughter of America's Merchant Prince, Marshall Field, in Command of the Victorious British Squadron} — English Rescue German Sailors — German Official Report, THE first important naval battle of the war was fought on a foggy morning, August 28, before daybreak, in the bight, or bay, of Heligoland, a large German island in the North Sea. All the details of the battle were suppressed by the censor but a bulletin flashed on the screen at the London theatres, "The British fleet has assumed the aggressive," was enough to set the audience wild. This excitement soon spread to the streets and London, which had remained taciturn and stern under reports of repeated German and Austrian successes on land, indulged in an orgy of self-glorification over the long expected news of a victory of the fleet. The Prussian tradition of the invincibility of its arms had its counterpart in the belief in England that the Eng- lish fleet could not be conquered. 303 304 First Sea Battle of the War A censorship which had kept secret the movements of every vessel in the British navy had whetted the anxiety which it was intended to allay until the people were in a state of mind when the smallest glimmering of good news was magnified into the news of a "glorious victory." London was quite prepared therefore to read in the morning papers of August 29 such announcements as this: "A glorious victory has fallen to the British fleet. With' all the courage and fearless enterprise that distinguished our, old officers, who many a time went into the very jaws of the enemy, Rear Admirals David Beatty, A. N. Christian, and Sir Arthur G. W. Moore have conducted a combined opera-, tion in the Bight of Heligoland, where the enemy had all his strength at his command. The triumph was complete." It was announced officially that the British fleet had "sunk two German cruisers and two German torpedo boats off Heligoland." And it was added that a third German cruiser had been set afire and left sinking. The newspaper version was that the German light cruisers Mainz and another of the Koeln class "and a third whose name was unknown had been destroyed, as well as two destroyers." It appeared that a concerted attack had been planned — "just as our old seamen would have planned it," the exultant press continued, "to begin in dark and reach its decisive point at dawn. The attacking force was organic." A less technical but more intelligible account was brought in by a wounded English sailor, landed at Harwich a day or so later. According to this sailor, the British fleet had bot- tled up the German fleet in the bight of Heligoland and the estuary of the Elbe and was standing by prepared to give the Germans battle when they should venture out. First Sea Battle of the War 305 "fishing with live bait" The British took advantage of the fog on the night of August 27-28 to send one of the smaller craft in close to the Germans with the object of luring the latter out. The sailor described this maneuver as "fishing with live bait," the smaller craft being the bait. The sailorman said that he didn't find the experience agreeable, as he was under fire of the enemy all the time at short range and without the oppor- tunity to "talk back." However, the ruse was successful. The Germans fol- lowed the "bait" out of their hiding quarters until they came within range of the main British fleet, concealed by the fog. When it was too late to escape they found themselves under the fire of a superior force and, by all accounts, suffered severely. The British fleet engaged consisted of the first battle cruiser squadron, the light cruiser squadrons and the de- stroyer and submarine flotillas. The British fighting was distinguished by great accuracy of fire and the chief praise was awarded to Rear Admiral Sir David Beatty, the youngest flag officer afloat, a sailor in whom Americans felt a peculiar interest because of his Amer- ican wife. He married in 1901 the daughter of the late Marshall Field of Chicago. Rear Admiral Beatty commanded the first battle cruiser squadron, comprising the Lion ( flagship ) , the Queen Mary, the Princess Royal and the New Zealand. He conducted the operation already described under the direction of Sir John Jellicoe, Commander-in-Chief. Jellicoe was a great favorite of the navy and of the English people. He was 306 First Sea Battle of the War one of the smallest men wearing the uniform and in his younger days was the champion lightweight of the navy, having "put it all over" all contenders in the fleet, without regard to rank. Complete as was their victory the British appear to have suffered little loss of life or damage to their ships. All the latter emerged from the engagement afloat and "in good order." "Not a German cruiser excaped," said the English accounts, "and the destroyers fled wildly for shelter, having had two of their number sunk." "It was a bold thing to do," continued the English stories, "to go into the Heligoland bight, but our officers had meas- ured the risk and their enterprise was justified. Many times did our young officers in the old wars go close to the enemy's forts and cut off his coastwise shipping. The new race is evidently the equal of the old." ENGLISH RESCUED GERMANS FROM SINKING SHIPS The loss of life must remain a matter of conjecture un- til the seas' shall give up its dead. The three German cruis- ers and two destroyers which were sunk would have had or- dinarily complements amounting to 1,500 officers and men. The Liverpool brought into Harwich as prisoners nine Ger- man officers and eighty-one men who had been rescued by their conquerors from the sea. Many of these were wounded. Herein is seen one of the few humane elements of war- fare. The German official account of the battle, published four days later, paid this tribute to the English: "It must be admitted that the British without stopping to consider their own danger sent out lifeboats to save our men." First Sea Battle of the War 307 Here is the carefully guarded official report of the Ger- nan imperial government on the same engagement. It hould be read if only to show how differently the same set >f facts may be made to appear from different angles : GERMAN OFFICIAL REPORT "During a fog a German torpedo boat was unexpectedly ittacked on all sides by British torpedo boat destroyers and ubmarines. She defended herself with all her might, but harp firing at close range reduced her moving capacity so hat there was no possibility of her escaping from the enemy's ire. "The vessel turned on her enemies determined to fight ler passage out or engage them in battle to the end. When he was no longer able to move she was blown up to prevent ler falling into the hands of the enemy. She sank quickly. "The Chief of the Flotilla Captain Gorvette Wallis and Captain-Lieutenant Techier, died like heroes. "It must be admitted that the British, without stopping o consider their own danger, sent out lifeboats to save our aen. "Summoned by the thunder of the guns the small cruiser \j-iadne rushed to the assistance of the V 187. The guns neanwhile were silenced, but retreat was not in accordance vith the fighting spirit of the German navy, and the Ariadne >egan to pursue the enemy, whose vessels, however, were lidden in the fog. "Suddenly new gun firing was heard, and two English irmored cruisers of the Lion class were bombarding the jerman vessel, to whose assistance the Ariadne was hurry- 308 First Sea Battle of the War ing. A shell struck the Ariadne's boiler room and put halii of her boilers out of action and reduced her speed to sixteen miles. "The unequal battle raged for another half an hour. The ship's stern was ablaze, but her other guns continuedi to fire. The enemy meantime turned toward the west, butt the brave Ariadne was doomed to destruction, and with threej hurrahs for the Kaiser and singing 'Germany above all! Above All' the ship was abandoned in perfect order and! sank. "The chief officer, the doctor, the officer of the watch, and> about seventy members of the crew were among the fallen. Many were injured." KAISER WILHELM DER GROSSE SUNK BY BRITISH CRUISER HIGHFLYER Winston Spencer Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, announced in the British House of Commons on August 27 that the North German Lloyd steamship Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, recently converted into a cruiser, had been sunk by a British cruiser. Mr. Churchill said: "The Admiralty has just received intelligence that the German armed merchant cruiser Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, of 14,000 tons, and armed with ten 4-inch guns, has been sunk by H. M. S. Highflyer off the west coast of Africa. "This is the vessel which has been interfering with traffic between this country and the cape and is one of the very few German armed auxiliary cruisers that succeeded in getting _ to sea. The survivors were landed before the vessel sank. The Highflyer had one killed and five wounded." First Sea Battle of the War 309 The Admiralty sent this despatch to the commander of the cruiser Highflyer this afternoon : "Bravo ! You have rendered a service not only to Great Britain but to the peaceful commerce of the world. The German officers and men appear to have carried out their duties with humanity and restraint and therefore are worthy of seamanlike consideration." The destruction of the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse caused an immediate drop of 25 per cent in Lloyds premiums on vessels for South Africa and South America. At the time of her launching in 1897 the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was the largest ship in the world, and for a time also was the fastest, holding the north Atlantic records until the Hamburg- American's Deutschland and then the fleet Cunarders took them from her. She cost $4,000,000 to build. The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was 648 feet long, with a displacement of 20,000 tons. She was built under the re- quirements of the imperial navy for use as a cruiser in time of war and had eighteen watertight compartments. It was on the deck of the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse that Mayor Gaynor of New York was shot by James J. Gallagher as he was about to sail for Europe. The Highflyer is a light cruiser of 5,600 tons displace- ment, lightly armored and carrying eleven 6-inch guns as her primary battery. She was completed in 1898. THE BRITISH ACCOUNT The British losses in the naval battle off Heligoland were two officers an rl fT - enty-seven men killed and forty wounded. The officii 1 it said that of the 1.200 men composing 310 First Sea Battle of the War the crews of the German warships sunk in the action only 330 survived, and that five German vessels were known to have been sunk. THE LAUREL'S BRAVE FIGHT The most striking experience in the battle was that of the destroyer Laurel, which led the division of four destroyers sent ahead by the British fleet to lure the Germans out. When the destroyer division, led by the Laurel, turned about to face the oncoming German destroyers it not only found itself unsupported by the cruisers, but saw coming out of the haze the light cruisers of the enemy. Nothing daunted, the division opened fire. The Laurel, which was in an inside berth, had for some time to face the fire of one cruiser and two destroyers. The men engaged made light of the German marksmanship, declaring that they ought to have been sent speedily to the bottom. The first shell which hit the Laurel found its way to the engine room, killing four men. The second struck the forward gun, jamming the charge which was just about to be fired and killing three men. laurel's commander wounded The third shell to strike her wounded Commander Frank Rose seriously in the left leg, but though urged by his men to go below, he shifted his weight onto the other leg and continued to issue his orders as though nothing had happened. All this time the Laurel was making it uncomfortable for the two destroyers with which she was engaged, one of which First Sea Battle of the War 311 shortly afterward went to the bottom, and giving as good as she was getting from the cruiser as well. A piece of the fourth shell struck the commander on the sound leg and brought him down on the bridge, but he still declined to give way, though his signal man insisted on tear- ing off his trousers to prevent his wounds from being poisoned. He continued to fight his ship until he lost con- sciousness, just after he had learned that they had managed to extract the charge from the damaged gun. As he lay unconscious on the bridge one of the petty officers fastened tenderly a lifebelt round him, for by this time only three rounds of ammunition remained, and though the British cruisers had appeared on the scene it appeared impossible that the Laurel could live much longer in the fire to which she was exposed. A final shell struck her amidships, enveloping her in a dense cloud of dust and smoke, and all on board were certain that she was going to the bottom. That last shell, however, was to prove her salvation, for a dense cloud hung to her as she lay helpless on the water, and though it was split in all directions by the enemy's projectiles, not one succeeded in finding her. In the heart of it there was not the slightest flurry, though even the satisfaction of fighting had been taken from them. "Good-bye, old man," said a bluejacket, bleeding to death on the forecastle, to his mate, stretched on the deck beside him. "My time is up, too," replied the other, calmly, reaching out a hand to him, and with that handclasp they died. The British destroyers exposed themselves to consider- able risk in endeavoring to save as many as possible of the 312 First Sea Battle of the War drowning German sailors. British officers present vouch for the fact that German officers were observed firing with pistols at their own men in the water and that several were shot before their eyes. Under these peculiar circumstances one destroyer was actually picking up the wounded with her boats when she was driven off by the approach of another German cruiser and had to leave two of her boats containing one officer and nine men behind. It was feared that these had been made prisoners, but a submarine arrived and brought the British party home. As it was not possible to accommodate the thirty Ger- mans in the submarine they were allowed to return to Ger- many in a boat under the charge of a German lieutenant who was not wounded. The complements of the five German vessels known to have been sunk aggregated about 1,200 officers and men, all of whom, with the exception of these thirty and about 300 wounded and unwounded prisoners, per- ished. Besides, there was a loss which must have been severe on board the German torpedo boats and the other cruisers which did not sink during action. The total British casualties amounted to sixty-nine killed and wounded, among whom, however, must be included in the killed two officers of exceptional merit, Lieut. Com- mander Nigel K. W. Barttelot and Lieut. Eric W. P. Westacott. GRAND FIGHT OF DESTROYERS The destroyers Liberty and Laertes fought a grand fight. A shell brought down the mast of the Liberty. The Laertes First Sea Battle of the War 313 was hit amidships, a hole was shot through her funnel, her forward guns were damaged, and she also received a shell in the dynamo room and a shot aft, which wrecked her cabin. It was hot work, but at that moment the British light cruisers and battle cruisers appeared. It was the moment for which they had been siting, and their execution was deadly. The first shot from one of the British battle cruisers sank a German cruiser which had been battering a destroyer. The German fleet then turned and fled in the direction of Cuxhaven. DOUBLE LINE OF FORTS FOR THE DEFENCE OF ANTWERP CHAPTER XXXIV BOMB ATTACK BY A ZEPPELIN Night of Horror In Belgian Capital When a Monster Air- ship Dropped Bombs On a Sleeping City — Story of An Eyewitness Who Heard and Saw the Great German Air- ship — How An Aeroplane Directed Artillery Where To Place Shells — Other Thrilling Experiences. NIGHT OF HORROR AT ANTWERP A CORRESPONDENT who was in Antwerp, Belgium, the night that a German dirigible passed over the city dropping explosive bombs as it went, sent the following thrilling description of an incident unique in war : "At 1 o'clock this morning death came to Antwerp out of the air. In my room in the Hotel St. Antoine, on an up- per floor overlooking the General Staff headquarters, I had just extinguished the light when a curious humming in the air, like the sound of a million bumblebees, drew me to the window. A thousand feet above me hovered an indistinct mass, which slowly resolved itself into the appearance of a gigantic black cigar, silhouetted against the purple sky. It was a German dirigible Zeppelin, and sounded, when closer, like an automobile with the muffier open. "As I looked, something resembling a falling star curved across the sky, and, an instant later, there came a rending, 315 316 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin shattering crash that shook the hotel to its foundations. "Only then did I realize that death was being rained upon the sleeping city from the sky. The first projectile com- pletely demolished a building two hundred yards from my window. Thirty seconds later there came another crash, and another and yet another, until ten in all had happened. Ac- companied by four Cabinet Ministers and five heads of lega- tions, all in our pajamas, I ascended to the hotel roof. "Belgian high angle and machine guns now were stabbing the darkness with spurts of flame, and the rattle of musketry was deafening, but they were unable to hit the Zeppelin, which disappeared in the upper darkness. The destruction caused by the projectiles was incredible, in both extent and horror. Capt. Williams of the United States Coast Artillery, who was here with money supplies from the cruiser Tennessee, re- ported that the projectiles used were some form of shrapnel, with a terrible new explosive and fired from a gun. One shell struck in the middle of the public weighing square. A policeman in the square was blown to pieces and six per- sons sleeping in adjacent houses were killed in their beds. Every building facing the square was partially or completely demolished and every house within a radius of a block in every direction was riddled like a sieve. "Another shell burst on the roof of a physician's house, in the Rue Escrimes, killing two maids who were asleep up- stairs. One shell fell in a garden in the Rue Dubarry, wound- ing terribly a man and his wife. Another shell fell in the barracks in the Rue Falcon, killing one and wounding two in- mates. Fortunately the regiment stationed there had just left. Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 317 "A child was mangled in a fashionable residence in the Rue de la Justice. A policeman in the public square had both his legs blown off. The quarter-inch thick steel gates of the Rue Lausanne were perforated like cardboard. "The authorities believed that a deliberate attempt was made to kill the royal family, the General Staff and the Cab- inet, and to destroy the hospitals, banks and barracks. "The accuracy with which the bombs were dropped sug- gested that the Germans had confederates displaying signals throughout the city. In all, ten were killed, including six women, and probably thirty were wounded. "The authorities mounted searchlights and high angle guns everywhere." GOOD-BY! MR. FLYING MAN Many stories were told of the uncomplaining heroism of the troops engaged about Mons. A number of the British wounded were brought across the border to Rouen. They belonged to divisions that had borne the brunt of the Ger- man attack. They had had to take the field immediately after they arrived at Mons. In fact, they only arrived just in time to stem the German onrush. For days they had been travelling and marching and they needed repose. In spite of this they behaved like fresh troops and held their ground magnificently, winning warm praise from the French com- mander. "On the whole it seemed they suffered far less than the French. A good many of them were merely broken down with the hard marching. 318 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin "One man said : " 'We marched into Mons on Sunday at 10 o'clock and were just going to be billeted when we were ordered to fall in again and get a move on. We wanted to rest. We had been marching since 4 o'clock and hadn't had our boots off! since we left home. I haven't had mine off yet. " 'It had been blazing hot and the ninety-six pound loads on our backs made us wish for cloudy old England. " 'Still we were wanted. We knew that or they wouldn't have sent for us, so we jumped off again to these trenches. The German artillery over a range two or three miles off soon opened on us. Fortunately most of the shells burst behind us and did no harm. Some burst backward and got among us. They kept it up as hard as ever when it was dark. " 'In the daytime they had aeroplanes to tell them where to drop the shells. They were flying about all the time. One came a bit too near. Our gunners a long way behind waited and let him come. Two thousand feet up, he was, I dare say. All of a sudden the gunners let fly. We could see the thing stagger and then good-by, Mr. Flying Man! He dropped like a stone, all crumpled up.' " AEROPLANE GUIDED FIGHTERS The London Times of August 27 printed a despatch from Paris describing the part an aeroplane played in the artillery battle about Mons. This machine, a biplane, the correspondent said, capable of cutting down its speed to a low rate, hovered at a safe height over the Franco-British artillery position, and actually directed the fire of the Ger- man gunners. Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 319 Its observer watched the effect of the shells fired by the Germans. Then, by means of a large disk which was swung at the end of a line and could be raised and lowered at will, he signalled as need be in code: "Higher — lower — right — left" and thus guided the gunners (who naturally could not see their mark or the effect of their fire) until they were mak- ing hits at almost every shot and creating great havoc. The second story described the manner in which bombs are fired from the Zeppelin dirigibles by an ingenious arrange- ment which makes the airship itself comparatively safe from harm and at the same time renders the aim of its bombman much more accurate. The refugee said that the immense airship came to a stop — or as near a stop as possible — above the city or fortification it wished to attack, at a height out of range of either artillery or rifle fire. Then, by means of a steel wire rope 2,000 or 3,000 feet long it lowered from one end a small wire cage, just large enough to contain one man and a supply of bombs. This cage was so fortified with steel netting that rifle fire against it was ineffective. At the same time it was so tiny a mark that artillery could not be pointed with sufficient accuracy to hit it. And if it should happen to be struck, of course, the air- ship proper would be safe, only one man would be lost, and besides, when he fell, his supply of bombs (unless they were exploded in midair by the shot) would fall with him. The Zeppelin, presumably equipped with at least two cages and cables, might at once lower another bombfirer. 320 Bomb Attach by a Zeppelin PREFERRED TO FIGHT BAREFOOT A trainload of wounded Senegalese riflemen returned from the front to Paris, August 27, and the following story was told by one of the wounded Africans of the capture of a machine gun by eighteen. The Senegalese did not appear to mind their wounds and many of them were contentedly smoking long porcelain German pipes on their arrival. They had taken the pipes from the Germans. The one thing the Senegalese com- plained of was being compelled to wear shoes while fight- ing. Before going into action at Charleroi they are said to have thrown away their shoes. They came back wearing German shoes, so that they would not be punished for los- ing a part of their equipment. A HERO UP A TELEGRAPH POLE Here is a story of a heroic Belgian up a telegraph pole told by the correspondent of the London Chronicle : At 5 o'clock the town of Ostend was aroused by the sound of heavy firing, coming from the direction of LefTinnhe, about four miles to the southwest, where there was a sharp fight when a body of Belgian gendarmerie, numbering 150, bravely attacked a superior Uhlan force which had ap- proached on the Bruges Road. The two opposing forces came into contact at daybreak. The Uhlans, who had passed the night in a wood, had come out to resume their march. Some minutes later they came under a sharp fire, directed upon them from the concealed force. The Uhlan cavalry was preceded by a body of cyclist Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin 321 scouts, and the latter were the first victims of the Belgian rifle fire. Thrown temporarily into confusion by well-directed vol- leys, the Uhlans took to the shelter of the woods and re- turned the fire of the Belgians. The latter, believing the Uhlan retirement heralded a rout, left their concealment and started in pursuit. They at once came under the fire of the dismounted Uhlans, who were assisted by machine guns, which they had mounted on automobiles. In this second phase of the fight the Belgians had several of their number killed and wounded. They, however, fell back in tolerably good order, and for about an hour shots were exchanged from behind cover. Four machine guns were dispatched to the aid of the defenders of Ostend, and their firing could be distinctly heard in the freshly awakened city. Some difficulty was experienced by the Belgians in dis- covering the exact whereabouts of the enemy, but a gendarme who climbed a telegraph post was able to obtain a clear view of the enemy, and with a flag directed his comrades' fire. He was however, speedily discovered by the Germans, who fired several volleys at him. Nevertheless, he remained in his dan- gerous position until German bullets in his leg and arm brought him down. DEATH RATHER THAN SURRENDER An official statement issued by the French government contained this story of desperate bravery of the siege of Liege : Fort Chaudefontaine has been the scene of an act of 322 Bomb Attack by a Zeppelin heroism which affirms once more the brilliant valor of the Belgian Army. The fort, which commands the railroad to Aix-la-Chapelle, by Verviers and the tunnel to Chaudefon- taine, was subjected to a continual and extremely violent bombardment. When it was reduced to a mere heap of ruins and Major Nameche, the commanding officer, judged that further re- sistance was impossible, he blocked up the tunnel by running several locomotives into each other, and set fire to the fuses leading to the mines surrounding the forts. His mission then accomplished, Major Nameche, deter- mined that the German flag should not fly even over the ruins of his fort, blew up the powder magazine and perished. HOTEL MAN SHOT AS SPY A New York hotel man had an experience in Paris show- ing how closely the French kept watch for spies. A bellboy in the hotel where the New York man was staying reported to the gendarmes that he had seen the manager of the hotel sitting in a little house, on the roof, with telephone receivers to his ears. The gendarmes invaded the hotel and seized the manager. On the roof they found a complete wireless receiving ap- paratus and more than 250 sheets of German script record- ing messages sent out from the Eiffel Tower station. The manager was shot as a spy. CHAPTER XXXV THE DEFENCE OF LIEGE The Defence of Belgium — The Liege Forts — The Siege of Liege — Heavy Losses on Both Sides — The Belgian Com- mander — Honor to the Brave — Reprisals for the Delay. WHEN" Kaiser Wilhelm decided to invade France he chose the route through Belgium, up the valley of the River Meuse, as the shortest road to Paris. True, Belgium was neutral territory and no party to the Kaiser's quarrel with France or England. But, as the Im- perial Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, pointed out, Ger- many was willing to reimburse Belgium for any incon- venience and loss she might sustain. If she would open her gates and stand aside while the Germans rushed through on their way to the French frontier she would have ample in- demnity, in cash or otherwise. Else; if she opposed the march of the Kaiser's armies, it was intimated that she must expect the harsh treatment of an enemy. There is no reason to doubt that the Kaiser counted on the speedy acquiescence of Belgium in his demands. In the German chancellery it does not seem to have been considered possible that the temerity of little Belgium would rise to the height of opposing the will of mighty Germany. The war- lords of Berlin evidently counted on a swift and easy passage through a friendly or at least not hostile territory and there- 323 324 The Defence of Liege after a swift descent upon Paris, on the one hand and the coast of the English channel on the other, within easy sti Ik- ing distance of England, on the other. This should be accomplished, it was reckoned, in time for the Germans to turn and meet the tide of Russian invaders on their Eastern frontier, slow of mobilization and tardily- transported by the single tracked railroads of the Czar's domain. The key to this plan was, of course, the acquiescence of [Belgium. But Belgium did not acquiesce in the Kaiser's demands. On the contrary the smaller country put up a defence which stayed the Kaiser's progress, cost him thousands of men, millions of treasure and undoubtedly resulted in a revision of the campaign plans so confidently made in Berlin. THE DEFENCE OF BELGIUM The defence of Belgium by the Belgians, before the French or English allies had time to come to their rescue is a story of desperate heroism which stands out in all the annals of war. It begins virtually with the siege of the town of Liege. The Germans crossed the border at Stavelot, Franco- champs and Verviers and in the first week of the war concen- trated before Liege, at the junction of the Meuse and the Ourthe. Both are navigable rivers and at this point railroads cen- ter which lead to all parts of the kingdom and to the coast city of Antwerp. The town itself (it had 171,000 popula- tion in 1910) was built on level ground in the valleys of the river, surrounded by mountains, or considerable hills, and on The Defence of Liege 325 the summits of these were built the fortifications which com- manded all the approaches by land or water. Underneath the mountain tops are rich mines of coal and iron and this natural wealth, together with the facilities for transportation made Liege a center of manufacturing, par- ticularly of the iron and steel industries. It has been called the "Pittsburgh of Belgium" and undoubtedly deserved that appellation, in addition to being the seat of many manufac- tures such as Pittsburgh does not possess. There were made most of the firearms for which Belgium is famous and there were textile industries as in all the Belgian cities. Readers of Sir Walter Scott's novels will recall the de- scription in "Quentin Durward" of the industrious and thrifty Ligeois and their stubborn devotion to their rights. More than once during the last four hundred years the city had been under siege and its walls invaded by the enemy. THE LIEGE FORTS But the modern fortifications, those which confronted the German forces when they poured down the valley of the Meuse, were of very recent construction. General Brial- mont, called by some the foremost military engineer of mod- ern times, was placed in charge of the work, when in 1888 the Beligans decided to fortify Liege and Namur so as to make them as far as might be impregnable. At Liege, Gen- eral Brialmont built twelve forts, six on either bank of the Meuse river and situated at a distance of from four to six miles apart. The forts are Barchon, Evegnee, Fleron, Chaudfontaine, Embourg and Boncelles, on the right bank of the Meuse, be- 326 The Defence of Liege ginning at the north and following an eastern curve, and Pontisse, Liers, Lantin, Loncin, Hollogne and Flemaille on the left bank and following a western curve. These forts thus virtually surrounded the city and bore a close re- semblance to the formidable defences of Bucharest. As the Germans advanced toward Liege from the east, the people were urged by the burgomaster to move to the western side of the river. When this had been done the Bel- gians blew up the bridges. The Germans continued to come on, in spite of the vigor- ous opposition from the forts on the east side of the river. The population were panic stricken and as many as could, rushed to the railway station and entrained for Brussels and Ostend. The burgomaster beseeched General Leman, who was in command of the defences, to surrender. The General refused to do so and gave fresh orders to the forts to redouble their vigilance. THE SIEGE OF LIEGE Then a messenger came from the German camp bearing a white flag of truce. He demanded that the city surrender under threat of a still heavier bombardment. Receiving an instant refusal, the messenger returned to his principal and within a short time the siege was renewed, as threatened, upon a heavier scale than before. The Germans fought with a bravery which even their enemies do not hesitate to praise. They approached the forts and came within range of the terribly effective guns of the Ligeois drawn up in solid formation. In consequence they were mowed down, in companies — in battalions — in regi- ments. Such recklessness on the part of a sane commander The Defence of Liege 327 is to be explained only on the theory that he had endless re- serves at his disposal and was bent to win at whatever cost. On both counts, this appears to have been the truth. How many men were brought to bear in the siege of Liege and how many men were lost are questions which may never be answered. The accounts of opposing sides conflict. The French official report was that the Germans had lost 5,000 men in one day. It was said also that the German force numbered, from first to last, fully 800,000 men. Both of these figures were denied in Berlin but no others were offered in their place. HEAVY LOSSES ON BOTH SIDES On the Belgian side the force was greatly smaller and the number killed correspondingly less. Fighting under cover of forts scientifically constructed they enjoyed an immunity which offset the superior numbers of the Germans. Their guns were mounted in concrete pits and covered by domes coated with nickel steel, from which the missiles of the Ger- man guns rebounded harmless. Most of the Belgian losses were incurred in sallies made by their cavalry. According to the official report made by the War Office at Paris, twenty-four German guns were captured and one general was made prisoner. The Belgian defenders num- bered 40,000. The Belgian fire was accurate and well placed, it was said and in proof it was cited that two heavy siege guns belonging to the Germans were destroyed. The three German army corps engaged in the siege were commanded by Generals von Pritzelwitz, von Einem and von 328 The Defence of Liege Emmich, who was also in command of the Army of the Meuse. He was reported killed during the engagement and the report gained circulation that he had committed suicide out of chagrin at his failure to enter Liege without opposi- tion. This report was denied at Berlin. THE BELGIAN COMMANDER The commandant of the Belgian forces was General Leman. His defence of Liege was noble but tragic. Dur- ing the early attack his legs were crushed by the fall of a piece of concrete. Undaunted, he continued to direct his campaign, visiting the forts in an automobile ambulance. The commander of one of the forts, at the moment when the bombardment was heaviest, went mad and began shoot- ing his own men. He was disarmed and bound. The cupola of one of the forts was destroyed by a bomb from a Zeppelin. Fort Chaudfontaine was blown into oblivion by a German shell which dropped into the magazine. Finally General Leman decided to make his last stand in Fort Loncin. When the end became inevitable he de- stroyed the last gun and burned up the plans, maps, papers and food supplies. He was about to order all the men to the trenches when a shell buried him beneath a pile of debris. He was unconscious when the fort surrendered. The following incident was told to the reporter of a Dutch newspaper by a German officer : "When the first dust and fumes passed away we stormed the fort across ground liberally strewn with the bodies of the Belgian defenders. All the men in the forts were wounded. Most were unconscious. A corporal with one arm shattered valiantly tried to drive us back by firing his rifle. The Defence of Liege 329 HONORS TO THE BRAVE "Buried beneath the debris and pinned down by a massive beam was General Leman. 'Le General, il est mort,' (the General is dead) said an aide-de-camp gently. With the utmost care, to show our respect for the man who had re- sisted us so valiantly and stubbornly, our infantry released the General's wounded form and carried him away. He recovered consciousness and said : " 'It is as it is. The men fought valiantly. Put it in your despatches that I was unconscious.' "We brought him to our commander, General von Emmich, and the two generals saluted. We tried to speak words of comfort but he was silent. He is known as the 'Silent General.' Extending his hand, our General said: " 'General, you have gallantly and nobly held your forts.' General Leman replied : " 'I thank you; our troops have lived up to their reputa- tions.' With a smile he added : 'War is not like maneuvers.' "This was a reference to the fact that General von Emmich was recently with General Leman at the Belgian maneuvers. "Then, unbuckling his sword, General Leman tendered it to General von Emmich. " 'No,' replied the German commander with a bow, 'keep your sword. To have crossed swords with you is an honor.' "And the fire in General Leman's eye was dimmed by a tear." The fiercest fighting was done in the day time. The Ger- man infantry would advance under cover of a heavy artillery fire. The Belgian defenders would wait until the enemy was 330 The Defence of Liege within close range when they would send in a hail of bullets from rifles and machine guns. After a short resistance the Germans would retire leaving their dead in heaps. This maneuver was repeated day after day. REPRISALS FOR THE DELAY Failing to reduce the forts around Liege, though they affected an entrance to the city, where, according to French and Belgian report, they committed horrible atrocities, the Germans "sidestepped" that locality and continued on their way toward the French territory by another route. Their disappointment was manifested by the imposition of a war levy of $10,000,000 on the city. By the time the Germans had passed Liege and, by slow degrees gained the French frontier, the French forces were mobilized and the British, having landed on the French coast, went to the rescue of the Belgians. Their united efforts were sufficient materially to delay the German advance ; insomuch that, as compared with the War of 1870, in which the Prus- sians were at the gates of Paris within a month after they passed the Alsatian frontier, the last day, first month of the War of 1914 found them still pounding at the doors of France, barely within a hundred miles of Paris. This delay, which disconcerted all the plans of the Kaiser, was largely due to the heroic defence of Liege. CHAPTER XXXVI THRILLING WAR EXPERIENCES IN THE FIELD, IN THE CLOUDS AND ON THE SEA Belgian Officer Creates Havoc Among German Troops with His Armored Automobile — His Narrow Escape from Capture — Routing the Enemy — Sinking of the Koenigin Luise — British Cruiser Amphion Sunk by a Mine in the North Sea — German Submarine Destroyed by British — Austrians Walk Into Russian Trap — Gallantry of French Turcos — The Chase of the Goeben and Breslau — How Leaders Went To Their Deaths — Fights In the Clouds — Experiences of Antwerp As Bombs Fall On City — Escape of the Kronprinzessin Cecilie — Mauretania Dodges German Battleship. THE war of the nations was hardly under way when the reports of thrilling experiences on the battlefield, in the clouds and on the sea reached this country. Belgium was the theatre in which many of these dramatic incidents were staged but they were not confined to King Albert's domains. Nor were these experiences the lot of only the members of one nation. Even Americans had them. An automobile played a leading role in the experiences of Lieutenant Henkart of the Belgian army. He developed the art of hunting for German uhlans with an armorplated 331 332 Thrilling War Experiences motor car, carrying a mitrailleuse, or machine gun, to a fine: point. Lieutenant Henkart brought down scores of uhlans and other German soldiers who have crossed his path. His principal work was reconnoitering the enemy's position. He: had several narrow escapes from capture, and the body of his car showed hundreds of bullet marks which the armor plating had stopped. Lieutenant Henkart formerly was an officer in the Bel- gian Grenadiers, but had retired and was living the quiet existence of a country gentleman when the war broke out. He at once volunteered and was detailed to the General Staff. This is the report made of his exploits : On August 15 he started from the Belgian headquarters at Louvain in the direction of Durbuy. He discovered sev- eral defensive positions of the Germans on the rivers Am- bleve and Ourthe and succeeded in rescuing two French horsemen and killing five uhlans. He visited the battlefield of Haelen on August 16, the scene of the one hot and severe fight of the campaign till then and found defensive positions at Curange-Kermpt and Herck-la-ville. On August 17 Lieutenant Henkart went to Jauche, near Jodoigne, where he heard of the presence of twelve German cavalrymen. He followed up the scent but was caught in a trap and had considerable difficulty extricating himself. Eventually he killed seven uhlans and reconnoitered the German entrenchments. On August 18 he reconnoitered the German position at Perwez in Brabant. He met a party of German military cyclists and cavalry and killed twelve of them. On the following day he returned to Jodoigne, where the presence of two German officers was signalled. The lieu- Thrilling War Experiences 333 tenant went in search of them but was again caught in a trap and had to run the gauntlet of a shower of bullets fired from houses at Jodoigne. His motorcar was scarred with bullets. The next day he went to Westerloo. This was the red letter day of his expedition. It almost ended in a fatality for the reconnoitering party, who found themselves suddenly confronted by two companies of cyclists and one squadron of cavalry. They numbered altogether about 450 men. It was too late to retreat, but fortunately the Germans did not realize the position and thought they faced an important Belgian force. The little mitrailleuse kept up its fire for an hour and a half, and as a result the Germans left twenty-five killed and a large number of wounded on the field before retiring. The next day Lieutenant Henkart went out to recon- noiter the German forces, which were moving toward Ant- werp. At Hofstade, near Malines, he met a party of thirty- four uhlans and killed twenty-one. Three other Germans were drowned and seven wounded, and of the latter five were brought back to Antwerp, where Lieutenant Henkart was warmly received. KOENIGIN LUISE GOES TO THE BOTTOM The destroyer Lance of the British navy, was the hero of the first naval engagement of the war. Firing only four shots, she sank the Hamburg- American liner Koenigin Luise, which had been fitted out as a mine ship and which was caught in the act of laying mines sixty miles from Harwich. The first shot destroyed the bridge of the Luise, and the others tore away her stern. The Luise sank in six minutes. The 334 Thrilling War Experiences Lance rescued twenty-eight of the German crew, several of whom had been wounded. This was early in August, just before the British cruiser Amphion was sunk by a mine in the North Sea. The official report of the sinking of the Amphion follows : "A. trawler informed the vessel's officers that she had seen a suspicious ship throwing things overboard. Shortly after- ward the German minelayer Koenigin Luise was sighted steering east. Four destroyers gave chase and in about an hour s time she was rounded up and sunk. "After picking up the survivors of the German ship, the plan of search was carried out without incident until 3 30 in the morning. At that hour, as the Amphion on her return course was near the scene of the operations of the Koenigin -Luise, her course was altered to avoid the danger zone This was successful until 6.30 a. m., at which hour the Amphion struck a mine. "A sheet of flame instantly engulfed the bridge. The Captam was rendered insensible, and he fell to the fore and aft bridge. As soon as the Captain recovered consciousness, he rang the engineroom to stop the engines, which were still going at revolutions for 20 knots. As all the forward part of the Amphion was on fire, it was found impossible to reach the bridge or flood the fore magazine. "The ship's back appeared to be broken and she was already settling down by the bows. All efforts, therefore were directed to placing the wounded in places of safety in case of an explosion, and in getting the cruiser in tow by the stern. "By the time the destroyers had closed in, it was clearly time to abandon the ship. The men fell in for this purpose Thrilling War Experiences 335 with the same composure that had marked their behavior throughout. All was done without hurry or confusion, and twenty minutes after the cruiser struck the mine, the men, the officers and lastly the Captain, had left the ship. "Three minutes after the Captain had left another ex- plosion occurred. This enveloped and blew up the entire fore part of the vessel. The effect of this showed the Ara- phion must have struck a second mine, which exploded the fore magazine. Debris falling from a great height struck the rescue boats and the destroyers, and one of the Amphion's shells burst on the deck of one of the destroyers, killing two Englishmen and one German prisoner. "Fifteen minutes later the Amphion sunk.' , GERMAN SUBMARINE DESTROYED The North Sea was the scene of another thrilling incident not many days later, when the German submarine U-15 was lost. The British cruiser squadron became aware of the approach of the submarine flotilla which was submerged, only the periscopes showing above the surface of the water. The British cruiser Birmingham, steaming at full speed, fired the first shot. This shot was carefully aimed, not at the submerged body of a submarine, but at the thin line of the periscope. The gunnery was accurate and shattered the periscope. Thereupon the submarine, now a blinded thing, rushed along under water in imminent danger of self-destruction from collision with the cruisers above. The sightless submarine was then forced to come to the surface, whereupon the Birmingham's gunner fired the sec- 336 Thrilling War Experiences ond shot of the fight. This shot struck at the base of the conning tower, ripping the whole of the upper structure clean and the U-15 sank like a stone. RUSSIANS TRAP AUSTRIANS Russian Cossacks trapped two picked Austrian cavalry regiments about this time near Lemberg, an important city in Galicia. The Governor of Lublin prepared the trap that sent the Austrians to their deaths. Skirting the dense forest which lies between this section of Lublin and the Galician border, the Governor prepared a fiendish ambuscade for the Austrians. Heavy rains had caused an overflow of the river Wieprz, on which Bilgoray stands, and in consequence the whole countryside on the other side of the highway that marks the edge of the forest had been converted into a dense swamp. Toward evening the Austrians, returning from their predatory expedition, had to pass this spot, where the Lublin Governor had secreted his battery and Cossacks in the forest. The Austrian advance guard trotted past the scene of the ambush. Only a few peasants were to be seen, toiling late in the fields, by order of the Governor. As the main body of the Austrians reached the place where the Cossacks were waiting they suddenly found them- selves beset by a ferocious onslaught. The Cossacks dashed among them, and the Austrian men and horses dashed off into what seemed the open way — the fields facing the forest, where they had seen the peasants at work. By hundreds they leaped into the fatal marshes, and there, while their horses struggled as the soft ground engulfed Thrilling War Experiences 337 them, the hidden battery, the Cossacks having withdrawn, opened fire upon them. Not an Austrian horse or man survived. CHARGE OF THE FRENCH TURCOS The experiences of the French Turcos, the native Afri- can troops, early in the war are worthy of note. They made many gallant charges. While the Germans were bombard- ing Charleroi the French made a sortie and were driven back by superior numbers. The bombardment continued until the Turcos, fretting under further inaction, debouched from the town and charged up to the German guns, bayonetting the gunners. Their loss in this wild charge under terrific artillery fire is said to have exceeded that of the Light Brigade at Balaclava. A RUNNING SEA FIGHT Wireless Operator Marsden, of the British cruiser Glou- cester, which pursued the German cruisers Goeben and Bres- lau among the Ionian Islands, in writing an account of the chase to his mother said : "The chase lasted four days and nights, during which our gunner indulged in some long range shots at the Breslau. After missing* the first shot at 11,000 yards, he spat on the second shell for luck and it went true, carrying away half of the Breslau's funnel. The gunner repeated the operation on the third shot, which cleared the Breslau's quarterdeck and put her after gun out of action. The cruiser fired thirty shots 338 Thrilling War Experiences in return. Two of them smashed boats on the davits on the Gloucester's upper deck. The British ship narrowly escaped destruction from a torpedo fired by the Goeben." HOW LEADERS WENT TO THEIR DEATHS The common soldiers, who showed great bravery, had a fine example in their leaders. Gen. Otto von Emmich, in command of the German troops which assaulted Liege, laid down his life early in the struggle. He fell mortally wounded while leading a charge on one of the forts. He was sixty-six years old. He joined the army as a volunteer in 1866 and was promoted two years later to a lieutenancy. He took part in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870-71. Afterward he was promoted through all the grades until he became Major General in 1901. When he was appointed to the command of the Tenth Army Corps he was made a general. Lieutenant General Prince Frederick of Saxe-Meinin- gen, one of the most important officers in the German army, was killed by a shell before ISTamur late in August. Prince Frederick of Saxe-Meningen was born in 1861. He was the third son of George, the late reigning Duke of Saxe-Meinin- gen. He married in 1889 Adelaide, Princess of Lippe, and had six children. Prince Ernest of Saxe-Meiningen was seriously wounded a few days later. Prince Ernest was the second son of Prince Frederick of Saxe-Meiningen, who was killed at Namur. He was in his nineteenth year and a lieutenant in the Sixth Thuringian Infantry Regiment. An elder brother, Prince George, was a lieutenant in the same regiment. They were cousins of the reigning Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. Thrilling War Experiences 339 Prince Frederick William of Lippe died in the fighting before Liege in a dramatic manner. The Prince's infantry regiment was surrounded by the Belgians under the walls of Liege, and he was struck by two bullets while standing among his men. The bullets took effect in his neck and chest, and he died immediately. EXPERIENCES IN THE CLOUDS The activities of aeroplanes were productive of many thrilling incidents. Early in the war Roland Garros, a French aviator, sacrificed his own life when he dashed his airship against a German military dirigible that had crossed the border near Nancy. The dirigible contained twenty-five men, and all were said to have been dashed to death. Ger- man and French aviators met in the air during the engage- ment at Longwy and the Frenchman shot the German, who fell 300 feet and was killed. An eyewitness of an exciting aeroplane chase near Namur told the following: "A German monoplane which for three days has per- sistently reconnoitered the positions of the Belgians was ob- served just before sunset hovering over an important forti- fied place on the banks of the River Meuse. "Two Belgian biplanes put upward immediately and gave chase to the enemy's aerial scout. It was some time before the Kaiser's aviator discovered that he was being pursued. When he did he turned about and flew at full speed toward Huy and Liege. "One of the Belgian airmen, by strategic manoeuvring managed to get high above the German. He was still above 340 Thrilling War Experiences him and close upon him when darkness fell, leaving the result of the pursuit, so far as I could tell, undecided." Belgian military aviators who were active in the fighting around Liege had this to say of an experience on August 6 : "On Thursday morning we rose at 7 o'clock to a height! from which we could see the German artillery, backed by constantly increasing forces of infantry, firing at the Belgian forts. Because of the high wind we could not get up above: the clouds and our machine made an attractive target for the invaders, who immediately opened fire upon us as we ap- proached their position. "We wheeled about and started back for our own terri- tory, when to our dismay the outer forts of Liege — not! knowing who we were — also let go their shots at us. "We went through a terrible ordeal. Shrapnel burst to the right and left of us and under us. The wings were pierced slightly several times. The concussion of the shells, bursting in the air, caused the plane to rock like a lifeboat in a heavy sea. We managed to alight safely in Waremme, in* our own country." BOMBS TERRORIZE ANTWERP Near the end of August, while the Germans were on their onward march in Belgium, they terrorized Antwerp by rain- ing bombs on the city from a dirigible Zeppelin. On the night of August 25 the great ship of the air appeared over the city and the sleeping inhabitants were aroused in the dead of night by rending, shattering crashes. Several buildings were demolished and ten persons were killed. Belgian high angle and machine guns spit their wrath at the Zeppelin but Thrilling War Experiences 341 it sailed away unscathed leaving death and destruction in its wake. Some new form of explosive was used in the bombs dropped from the Zeppelin. To show the destructive powers of the bombs the following examples may be used. One shell burst in the center of a small park killing a policeman and several persons sleeping on nearby benches. Several chil- dren were seriously injured in other bomb explosions and one was killed. Each bomb carried death with it. TREASURE SHIP ESCAPES CAPTURE Passengers on several of the big ocean liners also had thrilling experiences. The most dramatic of the escapes on the sea was that of the Kronprinzessin Cecilie. Carrying $13,000,000 in gold the North German Lloyd liner dashed into Bar Harbor, Maine, on August 4, after a four-day run across the Atlantic, saving the treasure and a big crowd of passengers from the clutches of British and French warships. The liner left New York with the treasure consigned to for- eign bankers in her hold and had several narrow escapes from capture. The boat ran at top speed in making the dash back to a neutral port and her captain drove her engines at full speed through a dense fog in order to evade the watching cruisers of Great Britain and France. CHAPTER XXXVII BEST STORIES OF THE WAR Narratives of Heroism, Disaster, Humor and Pathos — Alsatian Who Went to War to Kill His Son — Ger- man Sailors Sink Cheering the Kaiser — English Poacher Who Became Killer of Uhlans — Heroism of Women Victims of War and Tales of Human Interest in Scenes of Carnage. THE great European war of 1914 was crowded with events of heroism, of disaster, of humor and pathos, all fraught with intense human interest. Stories of some of these incidents appear elsewhere in this volume under the title of "Thrilling Experiences." Herewith are given others that may be classified as "The Best Stories of the War." "i'm going to fight to kill my son !" This story is told of the bravery of French women and men. General de Castelnau and his three sons went to the front at the outbreak of the war and Mme. de Castelnau retired to the south. One of the sons was killed in the early fighting. When the news of his son's death was conveyed to Gen- eral de Castelnau on the battlefield he read the statement and 343 344 Best Stories of the War then said quietly: "Gentlemen, let us continue," and the battle was renewed. When the news reached the country house of the family in the south the parish priest undertook the delicate task of conveying the news of the death of her son to Mme. de Castelnau. The priest tried to break the news to her but was so overcome with emotion that she guessed something serious had happened. Mme. de Castelnau simply asked, "Which one?" mean- ing whether it was her husband or one of her three sons who had been killed. When the Thirty-fifth Regiment of General Joffre's army entered Muelhausen an aged Alsatian offered the sol- diers everything he possessed, pressing them to accept wine and food. After they had finished their meal he bade them farewell, saying: "I am now going to fight to kill my son, who is in the Fortieth Regiment of German Infantry." DIED CHEERING THE KAISER An eye witness of the loss of the German cruiser Ariadne and the German torpedo boat destroyer V-157 in the fight- ing between British and German warships off Heligoland relates the following stoiy of the fight: "The destroyer was surprised in a fog by a large number of British destroyers and submarines. When the speed of the German destroyer became affected by the English shells it turned and confronted the enemy with the intention of fighting to the end. Her engines, however, soon completely failed her, and she was blown up to prevent capture. Her Best Stories of the War 345 crew continued firing until the boat disappeared beneath the waves. "The Ariadne attacked gamely, but a shell plumped her boilers, putting half of them out of commission. Despite this the fight continued. The quarterdeck of the Ariadne took fire, but those of her guns that were still capable of be- ing worked continued shooting. "The forecastle of the Ariadne was soon ablaze. Her magazine was flooded, but the gallant vessel was doomed. Her crew was mustered and gave three cheers for the Kaiser and sang the hymn, 'The Flag and Germany Above All.' ' A BELGIAN DEAD SHOT As an evidence of the indomitable spirit of the Belgians is this letter from a daring young man with a young wife and child who formerly was notorious as a poacher on game pre- serves. It was written in the siege of Namur while he was resting a moment : "A few weeks ago," the letter says in part, "I was in France working in the beet fields. But because the proud Prussians attacked our country I had to leave and could not bring home a few gold coins for my family. I am feeling as well as possible, am whole and sound, and hope, with God's help, to see my home once more. "The Prussians are poor shots. They don't know by a yard where they shoot, and when they see a bayonet they are so scared they just run. I have lost but very few bullets. When I aim for their noses, you can bet that they don't hear the bullets whiz by their ears. They get it right in the mouth. I never missed a bird on the wing, so how could I miss those 346 Best Stories of the War square head Uhlans ? I settled more than fifty of them, and if God lets me live I'll cool off a few more. When they come we kill 'em like rats, meanwhile singing 'The Lion of Flanders.' "Reverend Dear Father, while we send the Uhlans to the other country, please take care of my family and see that they may not suffer from hunger. Now I finish my letter to grab my gun and shoot Uhlans. X. "Formerly poacher, now Uhlan killer." WIFE OF CAPTOR GETS KAISER's NEPHEW'S SWORD During the hot fighting before Charleroi in the early part of the Belgian campaign, this incident occurred : "A band of Uhlans was captured Sunday at the gates of Courtrai by a detachment of French chasseurs. Their chief officer was found to be Lieut. Count von Schwerin, a nephew of the Kaiser. The young commander was only twenty-five years old and had been married only seven months. The officer commanding the French detachment found that the Count's sword was a present from the Kaiser himself and bore an inscription to that effect on the blade. "The Count's saber, belt and helmet were taken to St. Ouen and presented to the wife of the officer who made the capture." GRITTY BRITISH AND GERMAN SAILORS Many German shells which made hits in the naval engage- ment off Heligoland did not explode, according to British seamen, and at one time there were five in the boiler room of Best Stories of the War 347 one of the destroyers, any one of which would have destroyed the ship had it burst. A sailor, asked what they did with them, replied: "Oh, just shied them overboard. There was no room for such rubbish aboard our yacht." The German sailors showed equal grit. As one of the cruisers, decks aflame and mast and flag shot away, was sink- ing, the only man left in the forecastle hoisted the flag and then went down with the ship. RODE INTO THE JAWS OF DEATH A correspondent describing the fighting before Malines said: "I could see dark blue masses of Belgian infantry falling back, cool as on a winter's morning. Through a mistake, two battalions of carbineers did not receive the order to retire and were in imminent danger of destruction. To reach them a messenger would have had to traverse a mile of open road swept by shrieking shrapnel. A colonel summoned a gen- darme and gave him the orders and he set spurs to his horse and tore down the road, an archaic figure in towering bear- skin. It was a ride into the jaws of death. "He saved his troops, but as they fell back the German gunners got the range and dropped shell upon shell into the running column. Road and fields were dotted with corpses in Belgian blue. "At noon the Belgians and Germans were in places only fifty yards apart, and the rattle of musketry sounded like a boy drawing a stick along the palings of a picket fence. The railway embankment from which I viewed the battle was 348 Best Stories of the War fairly carpeted with corpses of infantrymen killed yesterday. I saw peasants throw twelve into one grave." SPIRIT OF HUMANITY OF NAVAL LORD A spirit of humanity to man is reflected in a message from the head of the British Navy to the head of the German Navy, which was transmitted through the Department of State at Washington, informing the latter of the safety of his son after a naval battle, in which the son had been reported among the slain. The message, which was from Winston Churchill, First Lord of the British Admiralty, to Admiral von Tirpitz, Ger- man Minister of Marine, was as follows: "Your son has been saved and has not been wounded." Secretary Bryan made public the dispatch with the com- ment: "There is something noble in the spirit." Themes- sage was sent to Ambassador Gerard at Berlin, who conveyed it to Admiral von Tirpitz. HEROISM OF WOMEN VICTIMS OF WAR A correspondent writing of scenes along the French fron- tier in the early days of the war said : "In the past two days I have watched many cases of women's heroism — not the self-denial of the Red Cross nurses, for to that one is accustomed — but a long procession of weary women cheerfully encouraging the children, hun- gry, tired and footsore, or with their bones aching from the jolting of the farm carts, was a picture of splendid courage, which made you understand how a nation becomes resolute in the face of war. Best Stories of the War 349 "One woman I met at an evacuated town was proceeding with her splendid son, aged ten, and a delightfully talkative little girl of eight, to a place where her children would be safe. This cultured lady was the wife of a captain of cavalry. "As she looked back at her home at Longwy, she saw a lifetime's treasures burnt, but sadness of her heart was not betrayed to her children. This family had not tasted food for three days; the children did not want to eat, while the mother starved. "The bright eyes of the boy were not dimmed by exhaus- tion; instead of hearing complaints of hardships, you were questioned as to the latest news from the battle line. "This small family, which I watched for eight hours in the sternly fought area, was but a type of thousands of others. Truly M^ar brings out the best as w r ell as the worst of humanity." LIFE IN THE TRENCHES A Brussels correspondent gave the following picture of life in the Belgian trenches : "Sometimes the trenches are only just ditches cut like deep furrows among potatoes or along the edge of a field of corn. Others are banked on the attacking side and branches are placed over them to screen the men from the eyes of airmen. "Along the quiet banks of the Meuse between Namur and Dinant are three score of these (trenches). There I saw men lying in readiness with rifles by their sides. Some were asleep on the earth, with a little straw under them, but ready at a word to seize their weapons. Others were gossiping. 350 Best Stories of the War " 'What do you think of to talk about in the trenches?' I asked a man who was off duty for a moment. His answer was: " 'Oh, anything — the heat, the flies, our experiences. Don't think we confide much in each other. When one is in a situation such as that one catches at anything interesting. We do not talk philosophy but some of us practise it. Most are only waiting for orders to kill, perhaps just as one waits for a tram and lets one's interest be taken by anything.' " airman's thrilling trip The following letter from a German military aviator to his parents was printed in the Brandenburger Zeitung: "Last Saturday night, while our company still lay in garrison, I received orders to start on a flight into the enemy's country at daybreak the following morning. The assign- ment was as follows : Over a French fortress, thence west- ward to Maas and back the entire distance of 300 kilometers (about 186 miles). "By way of preparation maps of the whole region were minutely studied till midnight. Next morning at cock-crow our Gotha-Taube rolled across the city square, then rose and headed westerly. In half an hour we had reached an altitude of 1,200 meters above the town. Then we headed for the French border, and immediately my observer, First Lieu- tenant A., called my attention to little black puffs of smoke, and I knew at once we were being fired at by hostile artillery, so climbed to 2,000 meters. "Next we noticed that three of the enemy's aeroplanes were pursuing us, but we soon outdistanced and lost sight of Best Stories of the War 351 them. Later we heard that two of the enemy's aeroplanes had been brought down by our artillery. Both hands of one of the pilots were said to have been blown away by a shot. "With a threefold 'Hurrah!' we now flew over the border toward a battlefield of the war of 1870-71, which we reached without any further untoward incidents. Here we noticed long columns of troops marching from the south toward the northeast. We circled around the place and then started toward Maas. "We were now continuously fired upon. I saw, among other things, how a battalion of infantry stopped in the street and aimed at us. Silently and quietly we sat in our Taube and wondered what would happen next. Suddenly I noticed a faint quivering throughout the whole aeroplane; that was all. As I saw later, one of the planes had four holes made by rifle bullets." 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