COFmiGUT DEPosm Chesapeake Strawberry. ' 'From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1912. FARMING FOR PROFIT FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND FLOWERS ANON-TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THEIR CULTURE, MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT BY FRANK D: GARDNER PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE AND EXPERIMENT STATION R. L. WATTS Dean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experi- ment Station, Pennsylvania State College. PAUL WORK Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Veg- etable Gardening, Cornell University. C. W. WAID Extension Specialist, Michigan Agricultural College. H. M. WARE Practical Mushroom Grower, Delaware. W. W. STOCKBERGER Physiologist in Drug and Poisonous Plant Investi- gation, United States Department of Agriculture. M. G. KAINS Professor of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College. F. F. MOON Professor of Forest Engineering College, of Forestry, Syracuse University. ASSISTED BY PROF. L. C. CORBETT In charge of Horticultural and Pomological Investi- gations, United States Department of Agriculture. JOHN P. STEWART, Ph.D. Professor of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania State College. F. C. SEARS Professor of Pomology, Massachusetts Agricultural College. HERBERT J. WEBBER, Ph.D. Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, University of California. C. A. REED Nut Culturist, United States Department of Agriculture. F. G. DE QUEVEDO Pennsylvania State College. A. W. COWELL In charge of Landscape Gardening, Pennsylvania State College ILLUSTRATED THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY PHILADELPHIA CHICAGO Copyright, 1918, by The John C. Winston Company Copyright, 1916, by L. T. Myers APR i9!9l9 ©CLAr)l5286 PREFACE This book is written for growers of fruits, vegetables and flowers, and makes a popular appeal to all engaged in this branch of farming, whether amateurs or professionals. It is designed to be a handy reference work on the culture of vegetables, fruits, nuts, and flowers. There are chapters on the principles of vegetable gardening, mush- room culture, medicinal and aromatic plants, principles of fruit produc- tion, nut culture, beautifying home grounds, and a lengthy treatise on diseases of garden and orchard crops, and their remedies. Each department has been prepared by a speciahst in the subject presented, and his name appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those unacknowledged have been prepared by myself. References are given here and there to books and pamphlets for those wishing m.ore exhaustive information on specific subjects. The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit has been given these. Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and the other volumes in the series for their conception, and for the many helpful suggestions in the presentation of its subject-matter. Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor R. S. Smith, both of the Pennsylvania State College, for helpful sugges- tions and criticisms on soils and crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowledge the valuable editorial assistance of my -wdfe in the preparation of the manuscript. Frank D. Gardner. (^ CONTENTS PART I. HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FLORICULTURE Chapter 1. THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE GARDENING 19 Soils and locations — Tillage and tools — Stable manures — Cover crops — Com- mercial fertilizers — The use of lime — Seeds and seed sowing — Transplanting — Starting early plants. Chapter 2. VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 25 Asparagus — Bean — Beet — Brussel's sprouts — Cabbage — Carrot — Cauliflower — Celery — Cucumbers — Eggplant — Horseradish — Kale — Kohl-rabi — Leek — Lettuce — Muskmelon — Onion — Parsley — Parsnip — Pea — Pepper — Radish — Rhubarb — Salsify — Spinach — Squash — Sweet corn — Sweet potatoes — Tomato — Turnips — Watermelon. Chapter 3. THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 45 Choosing a site — The garden plan — Fertility — Tillage — Garden seed — Growing early plants — Seed sowing — Transplanting — Cultivation — Irrigation — Pest control — Quality of vegetables — Storage of vegetables — Literature. Chapter 4. VEGETABLE FORCING 55 Cold-frames — Hotbeds — The greenhouse — Growing plants under glass. Chapter 5. MUSHROOM CULTURE 59 Houses — Preparation of the compost — Filling the beds — Spawning — Casing the beds — Temperature — Water — Ventilation — Picking and marketing — Mushroom enemies — Yield and returns. Chapter 6. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 66 Requirements for medicinal plants — Anise — Belladonna — Caraway — Coriander — Digitalis or foxglove — Common sage plant — Ginseng — Peppermint — Spearmint — Tansy — Wormwood — American wormseed — Additional equipment. Chapter 7. PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE HOME PLANTATION 71 The main factors to consider — Moisture — Soil — Subsoil — The parasite — Site — Aspect — Wind-breaks — Nursery stock — Southern vs. Northern grown nursery trees — Time to plant — To heel-in trees — Marking out the field — Mixed plantings — The operation of planting— First pruning — How fruit buds are borne — Pruning for fruit — Pruning older trees — Tillage — Fertilizing — Thinning — Spraying — Harvest- ing and marketing — The value and importance of the home fruit garden — Quality first for the home. Chapter 8. SMALL FRUITS. 80 The Strawberry. Selection of soil — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Selecting and preparing the plants — Perfect and imperfect flowered plants— When to set the plants— ^How to set the plants — Depth to set the plants — Planting in hills — Renewing old beds — Cultivation — Objects of mulching — Materials for mulch — Harvesting and shipping — When to apply the mulch — Receptacles. (7) CONTENTS The Raspberry. Red raspberries — Selection and preparation of soil — Planting — Cultivation — Fertilizers — Pruning — Harves; ing the fruit — Black raspberries or blackcaps — Propagation — Character of the soil — Preparation of the soil — Cultiva- tion — Winter protection — FertiHzers — Pruning — Harvesting. The Blackberry. Soil — Propagation — Planting, tillage and fertihzers — Pruning and training — Harvesting. The Currant. Soil requirements — Culture and fertilization — Enemies and dis- eases — Harvesting the fruit. The Gooseberry. Soil — Preparation of land — Plants for setting — Planting — Cultivation — Fertilizers — Pruning — Harvesting. The Cranberry. Chapter 9. GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 98 Soil — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Choice of varieties to plant — Propa- gation — Planting, plowing and cultivating — Pruning — Diseases and insects — • Picking. Chapter 10. THE POME FRUITS 108 The Apple. Origin — Cultural range— Propagation — Location and soil for the orchard — Varieties — Purchase and handling of nursery stock — Laying out the orchard — Planting the trees — Forming the heads — Later pruning — Soil management — Fertihzation — Protecting the trees — Spraying during the growing season — Thinning — Fruit picking and storage. The Pear. Origin — Propagation — Cultural range — Varieties — Location, soil and culture — Trees, planting and pruning — Protection and spraying — Picking the fruit. The Quince. Cultural range and varieties — Soil and cultiural methods — Pruning — Enemies. Chapter 11. STONE FRUITS 124 Sites and soils — Nursery stock — Varieties — Planting — Soil management — Fer- tihzers — Pruning — Diseases, insects and spraying — Thinning the fruit — Harvesting and marketing. Chapter 12. CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTIVATION 136 History — Citrus species and varieties — The sweet orange — The sour orange — The lemon — The pomelo or grapefruit — The lime — The mandarin orange — The citron — Citrus regions and their production — Propagation of citrus varieties — Orange seedlings — The orange nursery — Budding the nursery stock — Care of the nursery stock — Planting the orchard — Cultivation — Irrigation — Fertilization — Pruning — Frost protection — Diseases — Insects — Picking, packing and marketing of fruit. Chapter 13. NUTS AND NUT CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES .... 151 The Principal Nuts. The peanut — The pinon pin{-yon) — The Persian walnut — The pecan — The almond — Nuts of minor importance. Chapter 14. MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 159 The pineapple — Propagation — Soil — Preparation of soil — Cultivation — Varieties — Marketing — The avocado — The mango — The banana — The fig — The guava. CONTENTS 9 Chapter 15. THE FARM WOODLOT 173 Need of forestry — Value of the woodlot — Managing the woodlot — Improvement cuttings — Reproduction cuttings — Pruning — Planting — Financial results — Summary. Chapter 16. BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 183 The survey — Planning for convenience — Formal ornamentation — Informal orna- mentation — Lawn planting — Use of flowers — Suggested materials. Chapter 17. WINDOW GARDENING 191 Drainage — ^^Soil and exposure — Method of potting — Watering — Feeding plants — Ferns and foliage plants — Flowering plants — Plant lice. PART II. PLANT DISEASES, INSECT ENEMIES AND THEIR CONTROL Chapter 18. DISEASES OF GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS, AND THEIR REMEDIES 199 Apple. Bitter rot or ripe rot — Black rot — Brown rot — Storage rots — Scab — Blotch — Rust — Fire blight — Other foliage spots and twig cankers — Mildew — Crown gall and hairy root. Pear. Blight — Rust — Scab — Leaf spot — Rots — Crown gall. Quince. Rust — Blight — Leaf — Rots — Crown gall — Spray table for apples, pears and cfuinces. Peach. Brown rot — Scab or freckles — Leaf curl — Shot holes — Crown gall — Mildew — Yellows — Little peach — Peach rosette — Spray table for peach. Plum. Black knot — Leaf spot— MUdew — Yellows — Brown rot — Crown gall — Spray table for plums. Cherry. Leaf spot — Black knot — Crown gall — Brown rot — Powdery mildew — Spray table for sweet cherries. Citrus Fruits. Brown rot — Black rot — Stem end rot and melanose — Other rots — Sooty mould — Black pit of the lemon — Anthracnose or wither tip — Scab — Canker. Fig. Rust — Cankers — Fruit rots. Pineapple — Mango — Avocado. Olive. Olive knot. Blackberry, Dewberry and Raspberry. Crown gall — Leaf spot — Anthracnose — Orange rust — Double blossom — Cane blight — Yellows. Strawberry. Leaf spot. Cranberry. Scald or blast — Rot — Anthracnose. Gooseberry. Powdery mildew. Currant. Anthracnose. Grape. Black rot — Bird's-eye or anthracnose — Bitter rot or ripe rot — Downy mildew — Powdery mildew — Necrosis — Crown gall. Asparagus. Rust. Bean. Anthracnose — Rust — Blight — Downy mUdew — Leaf spot. Pea. Spot. Beets. Leaf spot — Root rot — Scab. Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnips, etc. Black rot — Club root or finger and toe disease. 10 CONTENTS Canteloupes and Melons. Leaf blight — Downy mildew — Anthracnose — Wilt. Cucumber. Downy mildew — Anthracnose — Leaf blight and fruit spot — Wilt. Celery. Leaf spot. Onion. Smut — Downy mildew or blight. Parsnips. Blight. Potato. Late blight or downy mildew — Early blight — Wilt, stem rot and dry rot — Black leg — Scab — Little potato, rosette, stem rot, scurf — Bacterial wUt — Tipburn. Tomato. Early blight — Leaf blight — Fusarium wilt — Bacterial wilt — Blossom-end rot or point rot — Anthracnose — Fruit rot. Eggplant — Pepper. Lettuce. Mildew — Drop or wilt. Sweet Potato. Soft rot — Black rot — Stem rot. Peanut. Foliage and root diseases. Tobacco. Granville tobacco wilt — Mosaic, calico or mottle top — Leaf spots — Root rots. Chapter 19. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 224 General Crop Insects. CaterpUlars (leaf-eating) — Cutworms — Grasshoppers or locusts — Leaf beetles — Plant lice — White grubs — Wire worms — The army worm — The fall army worm. Truck Crop Insects. The asparagus beetle — Bean aphis — Bean weevil, the common — Other bean wee- vils — The beet army worm — Beet leaf beetle, the larger — The beet leaf hopper — BUster beetles — The cabbage looper — The caobage maggot — The Colorado potato beetle — Flea beetles — Harlequin cabbage bug — The hop aphis — The hop plant borer — The imported cabbage web worm — The imported cabbage worm — The melon aphis — The potato tuber moth — The squash bug — Squash vine borer — The striped cucumber beetle — Sugar beet web worm. Fruit Insects. Apple maggot or railroad worm — Apple-tree tent caterpillar — The brown-tail moth — Canker worm, the spring — And the fall — The cherry fruit flies — The codling moth or apple worm — Currant worm, the imported — The flat-headed apple-tree borer — The fruit tree bark beetle — The gipsy moth — The grape berry moth — Grape leaf hopper — The grape-vine flea beetle — The lesser apple worm — The peach tree borer — Pear leaf blister mite — Plant hce— Plum curculio — The rose chafer — Round- headed apple-tree borer — The San Jose scale. Chapter 20. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 252 Insecticides. Paris green — Arsinate of lead — Arsenate of zinc — London purple — White arsenic — Sulphur — Lime-sulphur wash — Tobacco extracts — Pyrethrum — White hellebore — Coal oil — Crude oils — Soaps — Coal tar — Borax — Other insecticides — Bisulphide of carbon — Carbon tetrachlorid — Para-dichlorobenzene — Hydrocyanic acid gas. Fimgicides. Copper sulphate — Bordeaux mix-ture — Copperas or iron sulphate^ — Formalin or formaldehyde — Bichloride of mercury — Lime-sulphur wash. Combined Insecticides and Fimgicides. Literature. CONTENTS 11 PART III. TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS TABULAR STATEMENTS 269 Table I. Percentage composition of agricultural products. Table II. Fertility in farm produce. Table III. Weight per bushel, seeding rate per acre, number of seeds per pound and depth to cover farm seeds. Table IV. Water requirements of various standard crops. Table V. Cost per acre, producing crops. Table VI. Average farm prices for the United States. Five-year periods, 1866- 1915. Table VII. Weights and measures. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Chesapeake Strawberry (Color Plate) Frontispiece PAGE Necessary Garden Tools 19 One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills 22 A Dibble 23 Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market 26 Four Strains of Jersey Wakefield Cabbage 29 A Plant Transferred with Plenty of Earth is not Checked in Growth .... 30 Strain Tests of Cabbage 31 Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System 33 Good Celery Well Prepared for Market 34 Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation 37 Some Commercial Types of Sweet Potatoes 41 Tomatoes Supported by Stakes 42 A Farm Garden Laid Out for Convenience in Working 47 Transplanting Board and Dibble in Use 48 Planting the Seedlings 48 Sowing from Seed Package or Envelope 51 Wheel Cultivator and Attachments 52 A Double Sash Steam-heated Hotbed 56 A Greenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants 57 A Fine Bed of Mushrooms Grown from Spawn of Pure-culture Origin .... 60 Turning the Compost . 61 A Typical Range of Mushroom Hotijses 62 Sifting the Casing Dirt 62 Types of Fancy Packages 63 Good Nursery Stock 72 Before and After Pruning 75 Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon 77 A Spray of Good Strawberries 81 Planting a Strawberry Runner 82 American Quart Boxes of Well-graded Strawberries 85 Land that will Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Fruits ... 87 A Young Planting Cane of Raspberry, Showing Fibrous Roots 88 Currants Should Find a Place in Every Home Garden 93 White Currants 94 Well-set Branch of Gooseberries 96 A Typical Vinifera Valley Vineyard in California 98 Picking and Hauling Wine Grapes 100 A Typical Vinifera Hillside Vineyard in California 101 American Euvitis Pruned and Trellised 102 Typical Rotundifolia Arbors 103 (13) 14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Canes in California 104 ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Spurs in California 105 Picking and Drying Raisin Grapes in California 107 Well Located Apple Orchard 109 A Properly Pruned Young Apple Tree 113 Apple Orchard Favored by Type of Soil 114 Tools for Use in Removing Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer from Burrows . . 115 A Power Sprayer Adapted to Large Trees 116 A Good Cluster of Apples, but with Some Scab Showing 117 Picking and Packing Apples 118 Pear Tree in Blossom 120 Good Specimens of Winter Nelis 121 A Typical Peach Orchard Site 125 Typical Sweet Cherries 126 Block op Young Peach Trees with Strawberries as an Inter-crop 128 Peach Tree with Well-formed Framework Heavily Cut Back for Renewal Purposes 129 Peach Twig, Showing Arrangement of Leaf and Blossom Buds 130 A Properly Pruned Peach Tree 131 Pruning Tools 132 Picking Peaches ; 134 Ever-bearing Orange Tree 137 Good Orange Seedlings 139 Shield Budding with Angular Wood 140 Shield or Eye Budding 141 Shield or Eye Buds 142 Pruning and Root Trimming of Citrus Tree at Time of Planting 146 Picking and Packing Oranges 149 Schley Pecan Tree 152 Franquette Walnut Orchard, near Santa Rosa, Cal 154 Major, Burkett, Warrick, Havens and Owens Pecans 156 The Pineapple Plant in Fruit 160 Pineapples Planted in an Orange Gro\'e 162 The Taft Avocado Fruit 164 Method of Budding the Avocado 165 Fruit of the Mango 167 A Top-worked Mango Tree in Fruit 169 A Well Protected Farm Homestead 175 Field and Woodlot 176 A Woodlot after Thinning 177 Good Work in Piling Brush 179 A Convenient and Attractive Farmstead 184 An Example of Good Informal Ornamentation 186 A Desirable Method of Planting Daffodils 187 Hyacinth Bed 188 Removing the Plant from Old Pot 192 A Well Proportioned Fern 193 A Large Boston Fern 194 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 15 PAGE Bulbs Grown in Water-tight Receptacle 195 Apple Scab 201 Apple Tree with Typical Collar Blight 202 Young Apple Tree from Nursery 203 Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot 205 Black Knot on the Cherry 207 Anthracnose of Bean 214 Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes 216 Enlarged Roots of Cauliflower Caused by the Club-root Organism .... 217 Potato Affected with Russet Scab 220 Spray of Asparagus, with Common Asparagus Beetle in Different Stages. 227 The Broad Bean Weevil 228 Blister Beetle 228 Leaf Hoppers and their Work 229 Harlequin Cabbage Bug 230 Colorado Potato Beetle 231 Hop Plant Borer 231 Wingless Progeny of Winged Hop Aphids from Alternate Host 232 Imported Cabbage Web Worm 233 Potato Tuber Moth 233 Work of the Potato Tuber Moth 233 Imported Cabbage Worm 234 Squash Vine Border. 235 Striped Cucumber Beetle 235 Su gar-Beet Web Worm 235 Cantaloupe Leaves 236 Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar 237 Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm 238 Stages and Work of Spring Canker-Worm 239 Brown-Tail Moth 240 Cherry Fruit Fly 241 Fruit Tree Bark Beetle 241 An Imported Currant Worm 241 The Grape Berry Moth 243 Injury to Grapes by Larv^ of Second Brood of Grape Berry Moth .... 244 Grape Leaf Hopper 245 Lesser Apple Worm 245 Peach Tree Borer 246 Adult Male and Female Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer 247 Castings of Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer at Base of Young Apple Tree 247 The Rose Chafer 248 San Jose Scale 249 A Lime Sulphur Cooking Outfit 255 Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas 259 Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas 260 Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes 262 Teeating Grain with Fokmalin foe Smut 263 PART I HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FLORICULTURE 17 CHAPTER 1 The Principles of Vegetable Gardening By R. L. Watts Dean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experiment Station, The Pennsijlvania State College A thorough knowledge of the underlying principles of vegetable gardening is exceedingly important, whether the vegetables are to be grown for the home table or for commercial purposes. Soils and Locations. — Soils containing a considerable quantity of sand are best adapted to the growing of vegetables. Such soils are well drained, easily calti- vated, and may be worked early in the spring. Sandy soils are warmer than clay soils, and for this rea- son crops mature earlier in them. They are especially desira- ble for crops requiring high temperatures, such as eggplants, peppers and melons. Any soil, however, which satisfactorily produces general farm crops,will,with proper treatment, grow good garden crops. The clay soils are avoided so far as possible by market gardeners and South- ern truck growers. Southern or southeastern exposures are preferable for vegetable gardening because they are warmer and, therefore, conducive to earlier crops. Northern and western exposures are satisfactory for the later crops. Natural or artificial windbreaks are of advantage where there are cold exposures. ' Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses, Vol. II. 19 Necessary Garden Tools.^ 20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Tillage and Tools. — The importance of thorough tillage in the pro- duction of vegetables cannot be over-emphasized. It counts for high yields as well as high quality. The conservation of soil moisture should be kept constantly in mind. Vegetables are composed largely of water and enor- mous quantities of it are required in their growth. Fall plowing is often advisable, especially in clay soils which are to be planted early the follow- ing spring. Early spring plowing, followed by immediate harrowing, is favorable to the retention of moisture. The prudent garden maker will possess at least a small assortment of carefully selected modern tools or implements. Of the hand tools, the hand seed-drill and hand wheel-hoe are great time and energy savers and should be employed in all market gardens and in most home gardens. A variety of hand hoes and rakes should also be available. Stable Manures. — ^All classes of vegetable growers recognize the value of stable manure. It not only supplies plant food, but adds humus to the soil, thus making it more retentive of moisture and more favorable to chemical and bacteriological changes which are essential to plant growth. Horse manure is most universally employed. Market gardeners nearly always compost it in large piles, which are kept moist and turned one or more times before the manure is used. If the piles have rectangular sides and are kept moist there will be practically no loss of fertility during the process of composting. From four to six weeks of composting will kill all weed-seeds and leave the manure in the finest state of texture. Cow manure is most excellent for all classes of vegetables, but it is slower in action than horse manure. Sheep and poultry manures are rich in nitrogen and their texture makes them particularly desirable for vegetable gardening. Cover Crops. — In vegetable gardening it is absolutely essential to maintain the supply of vegetable matter in the soil. If stable manures are not available, cover crops must be produced for manurial purposes. The legumes, such as vetch, cowpeas, soy beans and the clovers, are most desirable, provided they can be grown satisfactorily, because they mate- rially add to the supply of soil nitrogen. Rye, oats and buckwheat, how- ever, can often be used to great advantage. The usual practice is to sow the seed of cover crops before the last cultivation of vegetables which mature and are harvested during the fall months. Commercial Fertilizers. — Commercial vegetable growers are seldom able to obtain, at reasonable prices, all the stable manure that they need for the maximum production of crops. In many instances they rely wholly upon green crops for humus, and purchase commercial fertilizers to supply plant-food. There is the most varied practice with reference to the kinds and amounts of fertilizer applied for the various crops. The character of the fertilizer depends upon the crops to be grown, nature of soil, previous treatment and seasonal conditions. If stable manures have been used in liberal amounts, say twenty to forty tons to the acre, and for truck crops like cabbage and sweet corn, it is seldom necessary to use more than half PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING 21 a ton of fertilizer to the acre, containing four per cent of nitrogen and seven or eight per cent of each of the mineral elements — potash and phosphoric acid. As a rule, a complete fertilizer should be applied before the crops are planted, and thoroughly mixed with the soil by harrowing. If additional plant-food is needed after the crop is started, it may be applied along the rows. Nitrate of soda is largely used for this purpose. Applications may range from 100 to 250 pounds to the acre, and if desirecl may be applied at intervals of ten days to three weeks. The Use of Lime. — Lime in soils aids the development of plants. Vegetable growers recognize the necessity, more than ever, of keeping their soils in a neutral or slightly alkaline condition, so that liming at regular intervals is probably a necessity on most soils, and especially those which receive large annual applications of acid fertilizers. Serious troubles are likely to develop in such soils and it is desirable to take preventive measures by liming the land. This is the best known treatment of soils to prevent clubroot which infects cabbage and other members of this family. Seeds and Seed Sowing. — The utmost care should be exercised to obtain seed of the highest quality. Numerous experiments show that there is marked variation in the strains of our most common varieties of cabbage, tomatoes, lettuce, onions and other classes of vegetables. A superior strain may mean a profit of fifty to one hundred dollars more to the acre than one which is inferior. The most reliable seedsmen should be patron- ized. It may even pay to grow seed at home or to buy from specialists who have developed strains of unusual merit. A fine, moist seed-bed is essential to germination, whether the seeds are sown under glass or in the open ground. The surface of the ground should also be smooth, so that the seeds will be covered with a uniform depth of soil. Transplanting. — Vegetable growers find that transplanting is often a great advantage if not a necessity. It makes it possible to care for thou- sands of seedlings on a very small area. For example, it is easily possible to start 10,000 cabbage plants under a 3 x 6 foot hotbed sash, while ten sash are necessary to protect that number of seedlings after they have been transplanted. Vegetable plants should be transferred to their new quarters before they have become crowded and spindhng. The time of sowing should be carefully planned so that this condition will be avoided. Machine planters are largely used in field operations. If they are properly managed, they do the work fully as well as it can be done by hand. Whatever the method employed, the main essential is to bring a consider- able quantity of fine, moist soil into close contact with the roots. Starting Early Plants. — Soil to be used for starting early plants should be fine, free from stones and sticks and fairly rich. For cabbage or cauli- flower, it should be taken from land that has not grown either those or other members of the cabbage family for seven or eight years in order to 22 SUCCESSFUL FARMING avoid clubroot. The soil should also contain considerable humus, and some sand is a great advantage. If composted, two parts of loam, one part of rotten manure and one part of sand will give good results. It is always desirable to prepare and store the soil in the fall, so that it will be ready for use when wanted in February or March. Flats or shallow plant boxes are a great convenience in starting early plants. They may be made of new lumber or of empty store boxes. Chest- nut and cedar are very durable woods for this purpose. The thin pine boards of boot and shoe boxes are easily made over. A common plan is to rip soap and tomato boxes into sections, using any kind of thin lumber One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills.^ for the bottom of the fiats. Plant boxes need not have a depth of more than two inches, though deeper boxes require less attention in watering because they hold more soil, and, consequently, more water. Seed sowing with such crops as cabbage and lettuce usually begins about the first of February in northern districts and earlier in the South. While the seed may be sown broadcast in fiats or beds, the better plan is to sow in rows about two inches apart. This is ample space for all of the vegetables which are ordinarily started under glass. If ten to twelve good seeds are dropped to each inch of furrow, there should be a satisfactory stand of plants. The furrows should be about one-quarter inch deep for 1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses, VoL III. PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING 23 seeds sown under glass, with the exception of celery, which should barely be covered. After the seeds are sown, the furrows may be closed quickly by drawing a small pot label or the thumb and index finger along the rows. The soil should be firmed with a block and thoroughly watered. If possible, the soil should be made so moist that no additional watering will be necessary until the plants are up. Some fresh air should be admitted to the hotbed or greenhouse daily, unless the weather is unusually severe. This is essential to strong,, stocky plants. High temperatures and excessive moisture, both in the soil and atmosphere, are conducive to the growth of weak, spindling plants which are liable to damp off, and if they do not die, are very tedious to transplant. A safe rule is not to water unless it is absolutely necessary and then to water thoroughly. If the fiats are in hotbeds and the weather is severe, it will be necessary to protect the plants at night by means of mats those made of rye straw being the most satisfactory. In three to five weeks from sowing cabbage and many other vegetables the seedlings will be large enough to trans- plant. This operation may be performed any time after the rough or true leaves make their appearance. Soil such as has been described for seed sowing will be found satisfac- tory for this purpose. The flats or shallow plant boxes are also exceedingly useful receptacles in which to care for the plants until they are taken to the field. It is desirable to place about an inch of rotten manure in the bottom of the flat before filling it with soil. The soil should be moist enough to work well, and it is important to press it well along the sides and in the corners of the boxes. Cabbage, lettuce and other plants are set from an inch and one-half to two inches apart. If they are to be kept in the flats for an unusual length of time, more space should be allowed. The work of transplanting may be done rapidly by the use of a small, pointed stick, often called a dibble. This simple tool is used to make the holes as well as to press the soil against the small roots of the plants. Sometimes transplanting boards, with holes bored in check rows, are used, and then a dibble is employed to punch all the holes before any plants are dropped. This method provides for a uniform number of plants to each box. If the soil is just moist enough to work well during the transplanting, it will not be necessary to apply any water until the plants are well estab- lished. This is a great advantage, especially if the plants are placed in cold-frames and the weather is very severe. After the plants have been in the cold-frame from several days to a A Dibble. 1 (One-fifth actual size.) Very handy for making holes in which toset small plants. 1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. Vol. II. From Cornell Reading Courses, 24 SUCCESSFUL FARMING week, some fresh air may be admitted daily. Straw mats should be used at night. The mats will also be found useful in shading the plants in hotbeds and cold-frames. Plants should be hardened as much as possible before they are taken from the frames to the field. This is accomplished by gradually subjecting them to fresh air and by not watering more than is absolutely necessary. The latter factor is more important than fresh air and low temperatures. REFERENCES "Farm Gardening." Corbett. "Productive Vegetable Gardening." Lloyd. "The Practical Garden Book." Hume and Bailey. "Culinary Herbs." Kains. Cornell Reading Course, Garden Series 1. "Vegetable Gardening." CHAPTER 2 Vegetables and Their Culture By R. L, Watts Dean and Director, School of Agriculture arid Experiment Station, The Pennsylvania State College Asparagus. — The farmer's garden is not complete without this popu- lar, hardy perennial, and it offers special inducements for cultivation near good local markets. Numerous varieties are catalogued by our seedsmen and nurserymen but Palmetto is most largely grown. It is vigorous in growth, the shoots are large and the plants are regarded as more resistant to rust than other well-known varieties. Some meritorious new varieties are being developed at the Asparagus Experiment Station, Concord, Mass., and prospective growers should keep in touch with the work there and test for themselves the new sorts as soon as they are available. It is universally conceded that asparagus thrives best in deep, rich, moist, sandy loams. Any soil, however, which will grow a satisfactory crop of corn will, with proper management, produce a good crop of aspar- agus. Thorough drainage is necessary. The character of the exposure is not important, though cuttings may be made earher in the spring on south- ern slopes than on northern or western exposures. It is exceedingly important to start with good stock. If a plot of even a few hundred plants is contemplated, it will pay to buy selected seed or roots from a specialist. The young plants are easily grown. A fertile plot should be chosen for the purpose and should be enriched still further by application of rotten stable manure at the rate of twenty-five tons to the acre. A good seed-bed should be prepared. Shallow furrows two feet apart should be made. The seeds should be dropped by hand at intervals of two or three inches and covered with an inch of soil. Radish seeds dropped eight to ten feet apart in the same drills with the asparagus will define the rows, since the radishes germinate within a few days, while the asparagus plants will not appear for about a month. It is quite an advan- tage to have the rows marked thus, so that the hand cultivator can be used before the asparagus plants are up. Experiments at The Pennsylvania State College and elsewhere show that it pays to plant only the strongest roots or crowns. In other words, it is a good business proposition to grow two or three times as many roots as are actually needed for the plat in mind, and then plant only the largest. The selection or grading of the roots should be done late in the fall after the 25 26 SUCCESSFUL FARMING foliage has fallen. They may be kept in good condition until spring by packing in barrels with a little moist sand or sawdust. The barrels are then covered with straw and a few inches of soil added to protect the roots against severe freez- ing. The grower should bear in mind the fact that the as- p a r a g u s plantation should last at least ten years; therefore the soil should be prepared with the utmost care. The land should be heav- ily manured, plowed and then harrowed until it is thoroughly pulverized. Planting distan- ces vary greatly. If blanched o r white shoots are to be grown, there should be at least five feet between rows, in order to provide plenty of soil for ridging. If green shoots — and they are gaining in popular- ity on American markets — are to be grown, four feet be- tween rows will provide sufficient space for the use of horse cultivators, though many grow- ers prefer a distance of four and one-half feet. Two feet between plants in the row is the most common distance, whether white or green shoots Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market.^ It pays to grade to a uniform size relative to color, length and size of bunches. » Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College. VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 27 are to be grown. The crown of the asparagus comes nearer to the surface of the ground every year, because the new bulbs form somewhat higher than those from which the shoots of the previous season grew. This necessitates planting in trenches, which is also an advantage when the rows are to be ridged for the production of white shoots. The roots should be planted just as early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. It is not desirable to make the trenches any deeper than the soil is ordinarily plowed. The fleshy roots are set on a tiny mound of soil, spread out and covered at first to a depth of not more than two inches. If conditions for growth are favorable, the new plants will soon appear and the trenches should be filled in gradually as the plants increase in height. Thorough tillage is essential to the highest success. In new planta- tions it should begin early in the spring and continue until fall; old plan- tations should be cultivated as long as a horse and cultivator can be used without damaging the plants. It is especially important to disk the land as early as its condition will permit in the spring and again at the close of the cutting season, thus incorporating into the soil whatever manure has been applied. No specific rule can be given for the fertilization of asparagus. One of the best methods is the application of ten tons or more of stable manure to the 0,cre — late in the fall or early in the spring — supplemented with at least 1000 pounds of commercial fertilizer containing about 5 per cent of nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 6 per cent potash; half of the forniula to be used early in the spring and half at the close of the cutting season. Intensive growers use at least a ton to the acre. Some commercial growers cut approximately $50 worth of asparagus to the acre the second season from planting. If vigorous crowns have been used and a satisfactory growth obtained, this practice is not regarded as harmful to the plants. The cutting period of the third year should not last more than three or four weeks, but after the third year the usual practice is to cut until about the first of July. The length of the shoots depends upon the demands of the market. Ordinarily, they are cut about nine inches in length and tied into bunches four and one-half inches in diameter. Two thousand bunches to the acre is a good jdeld, but this number is often exceeded. Twenty cents a bunch is a fair average price. The asparagus beetle is the most destructive insect pest. In small plantations it is best controlled by setting coops of young chicks near the plot. Arsenate of lead is effective and is often used in young plantations and in old plantations after the cutting season. Air-slaked lime will also kill the larvae. Rust is practically the only disease to be feared. If it appears anywhere in the patch, the affected plants should be cut and burned before the foliage drops in the fall. Burning the tops is not regarded as a desirable practice in plantations which are free from rust. 23 28 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Bean. — The bean occupies a most important place among the farm garden crops. All classes of beans, being legumes, possess high nutritive value and may often be served as substitutes for meats wdth satisfaction to the consumer. Improved Golden Wax is an excellent wax-podded variety. Burpee Stringless is a leading dwarf green-podded bean. Goddard is a bush variety largely grown as a green-shelled bean. Lazy Wife is a superb green-podded pole bean. Early Leviathan is one of the best early lima beans and King of the Garden is valued as a lat3 lima. White Marrow is one of the best varieties to grow for soup and baking. The bean requires a well-drained soil. Sandy loams are preferred, but it is grown successfully in all types of soils. Apphcations of phosphoric acid are usually beneficial. Extensive plantings should not be made in the spring until the ground is thoroughly warm. Chances may be taken, however, in planting bush wax and green-podded varieties for the home table before conditions are ideal, and replanting can be made if the seeds decay or the plants are Idlled by frost. The rows of bush beans should be far enough apart to be cultivated with a horse, and the seeds dropped two to three inches apart in the rows. An excellent plan is to drop four beans to the hill, the hills being eight or nine inches apart. Pole beans are usually planted in hills 4x4 feet apart. Beet. — The beet may be grown in any good garden soil. The smoothest and finest roots are grown in sandy loams. Liberal applications of rotten stable manure are always beneficial. Excessive applications of nitrogen should be avoided. Potash and phosphoric acid are often used to advantage. Crosby Egyptian, Eclipse, Early Model and Egyptian are the leading early varieties. Edmond Blood turnip is good to follow early varieties. Seed for the early crop is sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be prepared. The seed-bed should be fine and as level as possible. Drills should be made a foot apart for wheel-hoe cultivation. About ten seeds to the foot of furrow should be sown. Plants of early varieties should be thinned to about three inches apart in the row, and late sorts to five or six inches. Clean tillage is essential. An earlier crop may be obtained by starting the plants in hotbeds and greenhouses and transplanting them to the open ground after danger from hard frosts has passed by. Brussels Sprouts. — This is a member of the cabbage family which is grown for fall consumption. The seed should be sown at the same time as for late cabbage and under the same conditions. Plants should be thinned to an inch apart. They should be transplanted early in July to rich, moist soil. Clean tillage should be given. Toward the end of summer, when the plants are well grown, the leaves should be cut off along the stalk, except a tuft at the top. This will induce the growth of large buds or "sprouts" in the axils of the removed leaf-stems. Brussels sprouts is regarded as a more delicate dish than cabbage. Cabbage. — This is universally regarded as one of the most important VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 29 farm garden crops. It fits in well with the general rotations practiced on American farms, and takes the place of potatoes after clover. It returns satisfactory profits wherever good markets are available. Jersey Wakefield is the leading early variety. Charleston Wakefield, which is somewhat larger and a few days later, is also popular. Copen- hagen Market is a round-headed early variety of special merit which has recently come into prominence. Early Summer, Succession and All Heart are very good midsummer varieties. Succession is also largely grown for late use, seed being sown later than for late varieties. Flat Dutch and Drumhead are well-known late sorts. Danish Ball Head is extensively grown for winter use. It possesses better keeping qualities than any other late variety. The heads are roundish and very solid. Four Strains op Jersey Wakefield Cabbage. GrcwTi at The Pennsylvania State College, which show extreme variations in the germinating power of the seeds. Cabbage requires a very rich soil for the best results. Stable manures are used extensively for this crop. Commercial fertilizers containing not less than four per cent of nitrogen and six to eight per cent of each of the mineral elements, are also applied at the rate of one-half ton to a ton to the acre. Seed for the early crop should be sown in the hotbed or greenhouse about ten weeks in advance of planting in the field. In most northern sections the seed is sown about the first of February and the seedlings are transplanted to the cold-frame about the first of March. With proper frame management they will be well hardened and ready for the field April 10th or 15th. The late crop is usually started in May. Danish Ball Head requires a full season and it is a mistake to sow too late, though local climatic condi- tions should be carefully considered. 30 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Ordinarily, the best planting distance for Jersey Wakefield is 14 x 26, Charleston Wakefield 16 x 28, Succession 18 x 28, Danish Ball Head 18 x 30; and other late flat-headed varieties 24 x 36 inches. Close planting is conducive to small heads, and most of our markets prefer heads that are solid but not too heavy. The early crop of the South is always marketed in crates of nearly one barrel capacity. Much of the crop in the North is sold by count, often by weight and frequently by the barrel. When the early crop is shipped in barrels it is important that they be well ventilated. The late crop is stored in a great variety of ways. Although burying is troublesome, no other plan keeps the cabbage in better condition. The soil must be well drained. Windrows of cabbage, three heads side by side and two heads above, should be placed so as to drain the water away from the cabbage. The cab- bage is then covered as nearly as possible with a plow and the work finished with hand shovels. Four or five inches of soil is sufficient covering and then enough manure is added to keep out frost. In central Pennsylvania, for example, four inches of soil and four inches of manure will keep the cabbage in perfect condition, provided the location is pro- tected on the north and west from hard winds. There is no advantage in burying cabbage with the roots on. The best plan is to cut the stems with a sharp hatchet, leaving stubs four or five inches long for convenience in handling the crop. Cabbage should be grown in a long-period rotation in order to avoid losses from clubroot, and the land should be kept well limed as a preventive measure against this most dreaded disease. The common green cabbage worm is best controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. Carrot. — The carrot is becoming more popular in America every year. It is easily grown in any rich soil, but attains its best development in sandy loams. By using early and late varieties and by making successive sowings, it is possible to have roots for sale and for the home table from June until late in the fall, and then the crop may be stored for winter use. A Plant Transferred with Plenty op Earth IS NOT Checked in Growth. VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 31 There are numerous varieties of carrots, but the best known early- varieties are Early Short Scarlet and Early Scarlet Horn; for medium early, Model, Danvers Half Long Orange and Danvers Half Long Scarlet, Oxheart and Rubicon are popular. Long Orange is the leading late long- rooted variety. For the early crop, seed should be sown as early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. It is customary to allow about a foot of space between rows for the early varieties and fifteen inches for the late. The early kinds may be thinned to stand two or three inches apart in the row Strain Tests of Cabbage at The Pennsylvania State College, Showing First Cutting. Note that only two heads of cabbage were marketable at the first cutting in Row 13. while the late sorts should be four to six inches apart. Fairly liberal appli- cations of phosphoric acid and potash are considered valuable for the carrot. It is easily kept until late winter by storing in pits or in cool cellars, where the roots should be covered with moist sand or soil. Cauliflower. — Cauliflower is considered the most refined member of the cabbage family. The heads are more delicate in quality than cabbage, kale or even Brussels sprouts. It is also more difficult to grow than cab- bage. This crop has two marked tendencies: first, not to form heads; and second, for the heads to "bolt" or "button" instead of forming hard, 32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING compact heads. The failure of this crop is very frequently attributed to the use of poor seed, and there is no question but that good seed is a most important factor in the growing of a satisfactory'' crop of cauliflower. The early crop is started under glass and the plants are handled in the same way as cabbage. It is important, however, not to check the growth of the plants at any time, as this may cause "bolting" or "buttoning." Seed for the late crop should be so"wn a trifle later than for cabbage. It is important to sow thinly so that every plant will have plenty of space for its full development. Cauliflower should be planted in even richer soil than cabbage. It is especially desirable to use an abundance of rotten manure. Planting distances should be about the same as for early cabbage. When the heads are an inch or two in diameter, the leaves should be bent over them, or perhaps tied together over the heads, in order to protect the latter from rain and sunshine. The markets demand pure white heads. Celery. — Celery occupies a most important place in American gardens, though it does not receive as much attention as it should. When the methods of culture are well understood, it may be grown with great ease, and no vegetable is more appreciated when it appears on the farmer's table. An immense quantity of celery which is grown in muck soils finds its way to our great markets. The crop is also well adapted to rich, sandy loams, but any soil which is properly fertilized will grow an excellent crop of celery. The two great essentials are a liberal supply of plant food and an abundance of moisture. Stable manure is universally regarded as the best fertilizer. It should be applied in a decayed condition and worked well into the soil as a top dressing rather than plowed under. Commercial fertilizers are also extensively used for this crop. As a rule the fertilizers employed by commercial growers contain four to six per cent of nitrogen and from eight to ten per cent of each of the mineral elements. A ton to the acre, mixed directly with the soil after plowing, is a very common applica- tion, and some growers use doul)le this amount. There are two general classes of celery: First, the so-called self- blanching, best represented by Golden Self-Blanching, which is more generally grown in this country than any other sort; and, second, the green varieties, such as Winter King, Winter Queen and Giant Pascal. The dwarf self-blanching varieties are most popular among commercial growers because they are easily blanched. Green winter varieties are better in quality than the self-blanching and are grown more largely for winter use. Too much care cannot be exercised in purchasing celery seed. The grower should make certain that the stock is good, because many of the failures of celery growers are attributable to poor seed. The best seed of the self-blanching varieties is gro\\Ti in France. For the early crop, seed should be sown in hotbeds or greenhouses after the first of March. It is usually a mistake to sow earlier than this date, because the plants are likely to become crowded in the beds before VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 33 planting time in the field, a condition which may check their growth and cause them to produce seed shoots instead of marketable stock. On account of the very small size of the seed, there is always likelihood of sowing too thickly. The plants should be thinned if that happens, and in a month or five weeks transplanted one and one-half to two inches apart in flats or beds. In the latter a constant supply of moisture should be maintained until the plants are set in the field. Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System. Seed for the late crop should Ijc sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be prepared. When boards are to be used for blanching the early crop, it is customary to allow about two feet of space between rows and to space the plants three to five inches apart in the row. In most sections of the North, plants should not be set in the open ground before May 10th. The crop will stand considerable cold, but heavy frosts almost invariably check the growth 34 SUCCESSFUL FARMING and have a tendency to cause the production of seed stalks. The late crop should have more space and it is not uncommon to allow four to five feet between rows, the distance depending upon the method to be used in blanching. The mulching system of celery culture makes the early crop much more certain. The plan includes a mulch of three to five inches of fresh horse manure placed between the rows immediately after the plants are set out. • This conserves soil moisture, prevents weed growth, renders tillage unnecessary and supplies food to the plants after each rain. Boards are used almost entirely for blanching the early crop. They are placed along both sides of the rows and held in place by any convenient de- vice at hand. From ten days to two weeks are required to blanch the crop. The boards may be used over and over again; with care they will last fifteen years. The late crop is blanched by means of ridging with earth. This work should not begin until the cooler weather arrives in early September. The work of ridging pro- ceeds imtil about the middle of October and commercial growers begin to store the crop soon after the first of November. Various methods of storage are in common use. One of the best is to dig trenches ten or twelve inches wide and not quite as deep as the height of the plants. The plants are placed close to- gether in the trenches and covered with boards, which are nailed together in the form of a trough. The boards afford ample protection until freezing weather occurs and then additional covering is provided by placing Good Celery Well Prepared for Market. ^ 1 Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Peonsylvania State College. VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 35 manure or straw over them. The plants should be dry when stored and they should not be unnecessarily exposed to sun and hard, drying winds. Cucumbers. — Most farmers are familiar with the ordinary method of growing cucumbers. If hotbeds are available, it is best to start a few hills under glass. This is a very simple operation. A good plan is to fill quart berry baskets with soil containing a large proportion of rotten manure; drop about eight seeds in each basket and after the plants are up thin them to two or three. See that the boxes are not lacking in moisture at any time. The seed should be sown not more than four weeks in advance of the time suitable for planting in the field. Overgrown plants are a disadvantage. It is very much better not to use plants more than a month old. Whether the seed is sown under glass or in the open ground, the soil should be made very rich by using plenty of rotten manure. Planting distances vary, but 5x5 feet will be found satisfactory when the ground is very fertile. There are several strains of White Spine which are popular for general planting. For picklers, Chicago Pickling, Boston Pickling and Fordhook Pickling are popular. The striped cucumber beetle is one of the most serious enemies of this crop. The most thorough means of prevention is to cover the plants with mosquito netting or with wooden frames with netting over them. Air- slaked lime, sprinkled on the plants, is usually effective as a repellant. Tobacco dust may also be used. Eggplant. — The eggplant is often overlooked in the planting of the farmer's garden. This crop thrives best in a warm climate and for this reason many of the northern gardeners do not attempt to cultivate it. It may be grown, however, in all parts of the North, especially if the plants are started under glass and planted in rich, moist soil. It is also important to select an early variety such as Early Long Purple. The fruit of this variety is not as large as that of New York Improved or Black Beauty, but it will be found quite satisfactory for the home table. A high tempera- ture is required for starting the plants; therefore it is best not to sow too early. They should be transplanted into two-inch pots and later into three or four-inch pots, and then the gardener can transfer them to the field without checking their growth. Horse Radish. — There should be at least a few plants of horse radish in every farm garden. It is easily grown in any moist, rich soil. The crop is easily propagated by root cuttings, which are made when the roots are dug for market or for the home table; that is, the small lateral roots are trimmed from the large ones and saved for planting. It is customary to cut the roots intended for propagation square at the upper end and slanting at the lower end so that you will know which end to plant up when they are set in the garden. Kale. — This crop is quite successful in some parts of the South and is seen occasionally in northern districts. It requires the same cultural conditions as cabbage. The most prominent varieties are Imperial Long 36 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Standing, Dwarf German, Dwarf Curled Scotch and Fall Green Curled Scotch. Sowing should be made about midsummer in order that the plants may attain full size before cold weather. The plants are thinned to stand eight to ten inches apart, according to variety. Kohl-Rabi. — This vegetable is also called "turnip-rooted cabbage." It is easily grown in any rich soil. Plants may be started under glass, or the seed may be sown direct in the open ground and the plants thinned to about eight inches apart in the row. Green Vienna and Earliest Erfurt are the leading varieties. It is possible to have fresh roots in the garden from the middle of June until late fall, when they may be stored for winter use. Leek. — This vegetable requires the same cultural conditions as onions. It is regarded as milder and more tender than the onion. The seed should be sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked. Market gardeners often transplant the seedlings in July, so that the crop will be ready to use in the fall. It is always an advantage to clip the tops at transplanting time. Lettuce. — Most farmers are perfectly familiar with the methods which are ordinarily employed in growing lettuce. The usual practice is to sow the seed broadcast in small beds. A very much. better plan is to sow in hotbeds or in a sunny window of the house and transplant the seedlings to the open ground after it is dry enough to work. This method will insure an earlier crop than is possible from sowang directly in the open ground. If it is desired to make sowing out of doors, the seed should be drilled in rows about a foot apart, and the plants thinned to stand from six to eight inches apart in the row. This will result in much finer heads than is possible by the broadcast method. There is a long list of varieties from which to select. Grand Rapids is grown largely under glass and is also suitable for culture out of doors. Wayahead is a comparatively new but most excellent head variety for out-door culture.' Big Boston is one of the leading varieties for frame culture and for sandy and muck soils. All Heart and Sensation are also good varieties. Hanson, Iceberg and Brittle Ice are popular varieties of the "crisp-head" class. Sandy soils are selected when an early crop is desired, though this vegetable may be grown with entire success on any soil properly- fertilized. Rotten stable manure is undoubtedly the best form of fertilizer. It may be used at the rate of twenty or more tons to the acre. Commercial fertilizers are also used extensively for the lettuce crop. The early crop may be started under glass as previously explained for cabbage. Muskmelon. — The remarks made concerning the cucumber apply equally well to the muskmelon, although this vegetable requires better cultural conditions than the cucumber. By starting the plants under glass, practically every farmer could have a liberal supph^ of muskmelons. It requires more heat and a longer season than the cucumber, but plants which are W'ell started by the time it is safe to plant them out of doors should mature a satisfactory crop, especially if the soil is well enriched VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 37 with rotten manure. This vegetable will not thrive in any northern section unless the soil is well filled with organic matter. The planting distances for muskmelons should be more liberal than for cucumbers. Among the varieties which are popular throughout the country may be mentioned Rocky Ford, Paul Rose, Netted Gem, Hackensack, Osage, Emerald Gem, Eden Gem and Burrell Gem. Onion. — No vegetable is found so universally in the farmer's garden as the onion. Indeed, it is rare that the onion is omitted from the home garden. A long list of varieties is available. Among the best yellow kinds Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation.^ may be mentioned Danvers, Southport Yellow Globe and Strasburg. Weatherfield is the best known red onion and Southport Red Globe is a general favorite in many parts of the country. Silver Skin and Southport White Globe are popular white onions. The Egyptian (Perennial Tree Onion) is a valuable variety for fall planting in the North. Prizetaker is exceedingly valuable for starting under glass and transplanting in the open ground. The onion thrives best in a moist, sandy loam, but may be grown with success in any rich soil. It is important to plant the seed in ground which is practically free from weed seeds. An excellent plan is to precede this vegetable with a crop like corn or cabbage which requires clean tillage. ^ Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 38 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The soil may also be highly enriched the preceding year by the application of a large quantity of stable manure, and weed seeds should be completely destroyed by the time the onions are started. Commercial fertihzers are also largely employed for the onion. It is not uncommon to use a fertilizer containing four per cent nitrogen and six to eight per cent of phosphoric acid and potash, at the rate of a ton to the acre. The fertilizer should be well mixed with the soil before any planting is done. The bulk of the mature bulbs which are sold on American maricets is grown from seed sown in the open ground. The most common spacing between rows is a foot, and seed is sown sufficiently thick to give eight to twelve plants to a foot of furrow. Ordinarily four and one-half pounds of good seed to an acre will give the proper stand of plants. Seed more than a year old should never be used. The transplanting method, often referred to as the new onion culture, provides for sowing seed under glass and setting the plants in the open ground after danger of hard freezing has passed. Prizetaker is the leading variety for this purpose. The most common plan is to sow seed in Januarj^ or February. After the tops attain a height of five inches they are clipped back every week to about four inches, and when planted in the field they are clipped to three or three and one-half inches. Bulbs of extra size for exhibition purposes may be obtained by starting the plants under glass in the fall, clipping the tops repeatedly, as explained, until they are set in the field, about May 10th in the North. Most farmers grow the bulk of their crop from sets which are planted as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. This is the most certain method of procuring a crop, though as large bulbs cannot be obtained as from the transplanting method. Clean tillage is absolutely essential to the success of a crop of onions, and this requires a certain amount of hand-weeding and hoeing between the plants. The mature bulbs for winter use are pulled after most of the tops have turned yellow and are partly dead. The bulbs are thrown together in windrows for a few days until partly dry and then placed in crates or bags which are hauled to sheds or well-ventilated buildings. Onions may be kept throughout the winter in a room where the temperature may be controlled, or allowed to freeze and then be covered with hay and kept in a frozen condition throughout the winter. The latter plan is very satisfactory and should be more generally used by farmers. Bunching onions are most largely grown from sets, though many gardeners grow excellent green onions from seed sown in the open ground. The Prizetaker produces a particularly mild onion. Onion sets are grown by sowing the seed more thickly than is done for mature bulbs. There is no reason why every farmer should not grow his own sets. A good plan is to sow the seed very thickly in furrows which are about two inches wide and one-quarter inch deep. The plants come up so thickly that it is impossible for any of the bulbs to attain a large size. The sets are easily kept over winter in any dry room where alternate thawing and freeing does not occur. Parsley. — There should be a supply of parsley in every farmer's VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 39 garden. It is found useful as a flavoring for soups and other dishes and also for garnishing purposes. Seed may be sown under glass and the plants grown in the same way as explained for cabbage. The crop may also be started out of doors, the rows being spaced a foot or fifteen inches apart and the plants thinned to stand one foot apart in the row. Parsley thrives in any moist, fertile soil. Rapid growth may be encouraged by top-dressing with nitrate of soda. Parsnip. — Parsnips are grown successfully in various types of soil. It is a long-season crop, hence should be sown as early as possible in the spring, and the soil should be made as rich as possible by the application of rotten manure. The deep, sandy loams are preferred. Guernsey, Hollow CrowTi and Early Short Round are leading varieties. The rows should be from fifteen to eighteen inches apart and the plants should stand from six to seven inches apart in the row. The roots may be sold or used on the home table any time after they have attained full size, but the usual custom is to leave most of them in the ground until spring, because freezing improves their flavor. It is rare that the roots are damaged by the hardest winter freezing. Pea. — The pea is universally popular in American farm gardens. It is highly appreciated because it is very early and also very nutritious. This crop should be started just as soon as the ground is dry enough to work. It is not uncommon to make plantings the latter part of March. The early, smooth varieties are considered hardier than the wrinkled kinds. Alaska and Extra Early are well-known varieties of the smooth type. Gradus, Thomas Laxton and Nott's Excelsior are popular wrinkled kinds. Most farmers plant a few rows of medium or late varieties, such as Improved Stratagem and Telegraph. These varieties are excellent in quality and very prolific. The pea thrives best in cool, moist but well-drained soil. When very late plantings are made it is desirable to plant in trenches ; cover at first with about two inches of soil and, after the plants are up, gradually fill in the trenches until the ground is level. This deep covering is favorable to moisture conditions and the ground is also cooler about the roots, which is an advantage. The dwarf varieties, such as Alaska and Extra Early, do not need support, while the late kinds should be supported by means of brush or wire trellises. Pepper. — The pepper requires practically the same conditions as the tomato, although more heat is beneficial to its growth. For this reason the plant thrives best in warm, sandy soils. An abundance of decayed organic matter is a decided advantage in northern districts, which are not very favorable to peppers. Among the mild-fruited varieties may be mentioned Bull Nose, Chinese Giant and Ruby King. The Neapolitan is a very early variety that is popular throughout the North. Long Red Cayenne and True Red Chili are popular pungent-fruited varieties. The seed should be sown under glass about the time tomatoes are started. The plants of most varieties should have eighteen inches between them 40 SUCCESSFUL FARMING in the row and the rows should be far enough apart to use a horse culti- vator. Radish. — The radish is common to nearly all farm gardens. It does best in deep, rich, loamy soils. Though grown successfully when the seed is broadcast, it is better to sow in drills a foot apart and use enough seed to produce plants an inch or two apart; w^hile late varieties should have two to five inches between plants in the row. Among the early varieties which are popular with home and commercial gardeners may be mentioned Earliest White, Round Reel Forcing and Scarlet Frame. French Breakfast is a well-known radish, it is bright carmine above and clear white below. The first sowing should be made as soon as the ground can be worked and successive sowings should be made from week to week. Rhubarb. — ^Rhubarb requires a deep, rich, moist soil. It is propagated commonly by roots. Annual applications of manure should be made in order to maintain the supply of organic matter in the soil and to furnish an abundant supply of plant food. Nitrate of soda may be used to advantage as a top dressing. It is ordinarily planted 3 x 4 or 4 x 4 feet apart. Vic- toria and Linnaeus are leading varieties. Salsify. — -Salsify or "oyster plant" is not as generally grown as it should be in American gardens. This root crop requires the same cultural conditions as the parsnip. It is also a long-season crop and, therefore, the seed should be sown as early as possible in the spring. The roots are stored in the same manner during the winter as parsnips and will not suffer from freezing if left in the ground until spring. Spinach. — Spinach is more largely grown in the South than in northern districts, although it should be a most important vegetable in all parts of the country. The usual practice is to sow the seed late in the fall, and the crop will be ready to harvest the following spring. In the North, the better plan is to sow very early in the spring. A successful method is to sow broadcast on the frozen ground and then cover the seed very lightly with fine, rotten manure. This vegetable requires a rich, constantly-moist soil to obtain the best results. Late plantings should be made in drills and the plants thinned to stand from five to six inches apart. Squash. — The squash requires practically the same cultural condi- tions as cucumbers, but much more space is required. If the ground is a rich garden loam, the hills should be at least 10 x 10 feet apart, and more liberal spacing for the winter varieties will be an advantage in very rich soil. Summer squash need not be planted any farther apart than cucumbers, or even less space will meet their requirements. Early White Bush, Yellow Bush and Summer Crookneck are popular summer varieties. Hubbard, Warted Hubbard, Golden Hubbard and Boston Marrow are largely grown winter kinds. Squash must be stored in buildings w^here there is no freezing during the winter and a uniform temperature of 50° F. is most favorable to successful storage. Sweet Corn. — Sweet corn requires the same conditions as field corn, VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 41 if a good crop is expected. Among the early varieties which are popular and largely grown may be mentioned Fordhook and White Cob Cory. Golden Bantam matures somewhat later than these varieties and is supe- rior in quality. Popular midsummer varieties are Cosmopolitan and Sweet Orange. Country Gentleman and Stowell Evergreen are the best known late varieties. Experiments made at various experiment stations show that it pays to select seed for sweet corn with as much care as for field corn. If space is available it pays to start one or two hundred hills in soil under glass by sowing seed two weeks before it is considered safe to set the plants in the open ground. This will make an early crop and insure a good stand of plants. Some Commercial Ttpes op Sweet Potatoes.^ A — Black Spanish. B — A Long, C3'lindrical Type. C — Jerse}' Group. D — Red Bermuda. E — Southern Queen. Sweet Potatoes. — The sweet potato is not universally grown in the farm gardens of the United States. It thrives only in warm soils and pre- fers one which is sandy in character. There are numerous varieties of sweet potatoes, some of the most popular being Big Stem Jersey, Yellow Jersey, Red Jersey, Southern Queen, Georgia Yam, Red Bermuda, Florida and Pierson. It is propagated by slips and these are obtained by bedding the tubers in fine soil with the proper amount of heat and moisture. The tubers soon send out sprouts and produce rooted plants which are set in the field after all danger of frost has passed. Field planting should not be 'From Farmers' Bulletin 324, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ^^B^?" •^^m^P'i^s^p fc TV'. '*' 'W^ 1 I^H^^^HHwk, jmBM 1 m- ^ ^' -fi ■IP': ..^WjV *■>": V * 'P ■ '• -^ ^K^ ^ r. M ^-■;>;,7- %-A'\^.Mi^^^: ^"^ B " M WP^i' ^' ■ . '^ft "i|^"'-#5i i*^'; m f ^ w ' -, ^3:;-->^^ /^^a^i,-^.. 1 * Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. 3ooks. 42 From V.-C. Fertilizer Crop VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 43 attempted until the ground is thoroughly warm. The tubers require the same conditions for storage as squash. Tomato. — This is unquestionably one of the most important crops of American home gardens as well as commercial plantations. It does well in a great variety of soil types. The sandy loams are preferred, though very heavy yields have been obtained in clay and silt soils. Earliana is the best loiown and most widely planted very early variety. It is fair in quality and very productive. Bonny Best matures soon after Earhana and is superior in some respects. Chalk Jewel and June Pink are also popular early varieties. Among the leading late varieties may be men- tioned Stone and Matchless. Beauty and Trucker Favorite are desirable varieties of pink fruits. Good seed is highly essential to this crop and not a few of our commercial growers make careful selection from their own plantations. Seed for the early crop should be sown under glass not later than the 1st of March and, if extremely early tomatoes are desired, the 20th of February will not be too soon. The finest plants are obtained by first transplanting the plants one and one-half to two inches apart and then three or four inches apart, and finally into pots which vary in size from four to six inches. If the plants contain a blossom or two or perhaps a cluster of fruit when set in the field, a few ripe tomatoes should be available by the tenth of June and a large quantity should be available for market before the first of August. The plants should be hardened as well as possible before setting in the field, but no more water than is absolutely necessary should be applied. Such plants will stand a considerable amount of freezing in the field. Tomatoes of a superior quality may be obtained by training the vines to single stems. The usual practice is to make the rows about four feet apart and set the plants about fourteen to eighteen inches apart in the row. The plants are secured to stakes or wire trellises and the lateral branches are pinched out as fast as they appear. When a plant attains a height of four or five feet a trellis is always used and this causes the rapid development of fruit all along the stem. This method, however, should not be practiced unless there is plenty of labor to attend to the training. Turnips. — Our farmers are familiar with the growing of turnips because they are produced not only for the home table but also to be stored during the winter for the farm stock. Roots most uniform in size are obtained by sowing in drills a foot to fifteen inches apart and thinning the plants to four to five inches apart. The roots are usually preserved during the winter by burying or covering with moist soil in pits. Some of the most popular varieties are White Milan, Red Purple Top, White Flat Dutch, Purple Top White Globe, White Egg and Yellow Globe. Watermelon. — The watermelon requires the same cultural condi- tions as muskmelon. It should be planted in hills 8 x 10 feet to 10 X 10 feet apart. A bountiful supply of rotten manure should be used in the hills. Commercial fertilizers can also often be employed to advan- 26 44 SUCCESSFUL FARMING tage. Planting should not occur until there is no danger of frosts. Among the varieties which are popular may be mentioned Kleckley Sweet, Kolb Gem, Cuban Queen, Halbert Honey, Dixie and Sugar Stick. Cole and Fordhook are very hardy varieties desirable for planting in northern districts. REFERENCES "How to Grow Vegetables." French. "Garden Farming." Corbett. "Vegetable Gardening." Watts. "Sweet Potato Culture." Fitts. "Market Gardening." Yeaw. Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 137. "Cabbage Experiments." Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 196. "Tomatoes." 199. "Onions." 203. "Cabbage and Cauliflower." 231. "Vegetable Growing." Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 324. "Sweet Potatoes." 354. "Onion Culture." 434. "The Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets." 433. "Cabbage." 620 and 548. "Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes." 642. "Tomato Growing in the South." CHAPTER 3 The Farm vegetable Garden By Paul Work Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, Cornell University In the rural sections the vegetable gardens adjoining the homes of the farmers show marked differences. In some sections almost no attempt is made to supply the home table with home-grown vegetables. In other districts the gardens are of good size, well planned and uniformly well cared for throughout the whole season. Those who devote no attention to the home garden little realize the advantages missed through this neglect. The diet of these families is usually not well balanced. Meats and cereals probably predominate and the elements which are supplied in vegetable food are lacking. These elements are not so much concerned in furnishing energy and building body material as they are in supplj-ing the flavoring and mineral requirements. Moreover, man, as well as animals, requires a certain amount of more or less bulky feed. These factors in the diet are seemingly of minor importance, but are, nevertheless, absolutely essential. Just as no animal can thrive without a small amount of salt, so the absence of these dements from the table results in the weakening of the whole system and the undermining of the general health. The old-fashioned idea that one must necessarily be in poor physical condition when spring opens, is based upon the absence of vegetables and fruits from the old-fashioned winter diet. Nowadays, when canning is much more economically prac- ticed and when the products of the garden and orchard are to be had during every month of the year, the old-time spring tonic is less in demand. The value of the home garden must be further considered in its contri- bution to the joy of living and to the relish of a good table. Much can be said in praise of the endless array of delicacies which may be i^rovided by the skilful housewife w^ho is in league with the skilful gardener. The economic value of the products which the home garden offers has been investigated by a number of experiment stations. At the Illinois Station it was shown that the average annual gross return from a half acre amounted to $105 through a period of five years, with an average cost, including all labor and materials, of $30. Some contend that the ordinary- farmer cannot afford to devote the requisite amount of time and energy to the cultivation of the garden. It makes demands upon him which conflict with the demands of his fields and crops. It is true that a delay of a day 45 46 SUCCESSFUL FARMING in the planting of a field of oats may result in a very serious reduction in the yield. On the other hand, it is possible to so plan the work that both crops and garden receive the best of care. In fact, one is impressed with the correlation which exists between good farming and good gardening. It is largely a matter of management. It is the aim of this article to offer some suggestions and general hints on garden making which may be of service to those trying to meet a given set of conditions. Rules are subject to numerous exceptions depending on conditions of soil, climate and exposure. These vary so widely that each must expect to work out his own salvation. An increasing measure of success from year to year is the reward to him who is wilhng to see and to think and to do the best that he knows, even though his knowledge in the beginning be exceedingly meagre. Choosing a Site. — The gardener should carefully avoid the mistake of undertaking to cultivate a plot which is too large. A small area well kept and intensively managed will be much more satisfactory. It is safe to say that half an acre is the extreme for the ordinary family. Such a plot may be expected to yield an abundance for summer and autumn use, as well as for canning and storage. It is better to start with a garden too small than one too large. On most farms, some choice as to location is possible. The garden should be near the buildings. It should be within easy reach of the house- wife so that she may gather the products just as she is ready to use them. A distant garden seldom receives the care which is required. If the location is convenient, the hired men can make use of odds and ends of time which would otherwise be wasted. The cultivator which has finished its task a half hour before noon may loosen the crusted soil of many rows. A southeasterly exposure is earlier and ordinarily offers protection from the severest winds. Roots of trees and shade of buildings should be care- fully avoided. If it is possible to choose from different types of soil, it is best to select a sandy loam. Heavy soil, the clays and clay loams, are lumpy when dry and are sticky and unworkable when wet. They cannot be cultivated early in the spring. On the other hand, the lightest sands ought to be avoided, in spite of the fact that they are loose and friable and may be tilled even when wet. They are not retentive of moisture or fertility. Of course, high fertility is of prime importance, but a soil may be improved in this respect more readily than in physical character. Freedom from weed-seed and disease must also be sought. The Garden Plan. — Good planning is no less important in the garden than on the farm, although it is more often neglected here than in connec- tion with the broader fields. During the winter the thoughtful gardener gathers about himself a supply of catalogues, a few good garden books and bulletins, together with paper, pencil and ruler. Furthermore, he refers to the concise but comprehensive notes which he has made during the ^ THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 47 previous season and which enable him to take advantage of points which would otherwise have escaped his mind. It is better to till a garden which is smaller by a few square yards and to keep an adequate record than to neglect this most important part of the gardener's task. The returns in later years will amply repay for the time and energy involved. The first task is to decide what is wanted, making a list of crops, having in mind the likes and dislikes of the family. This should provide for an even distribution of products throughout the season and an adequate supply to be canned or stored for winter use. It should also take into con- sideration adaptation to climate, soil and space available. In most cases the rows should be laid out lengthwise of the garden, and the spacing for all but the most intensive crops should be wide enough for ~. Plowed a^red^ pla^nted in - rows 3)$^ v*itr cowberries 8ft- __^ Aspc^rovO OS 6?f Rhubd^rb Gooaebernes Curmrm 8ft. f?f\9?p berries §?t. Rr\c,pbp.rt-ifi9, ldl <^cK berries ^f^ ^ fiJAckbp^rnee) m- Grovpep) on A Farm Garpen Laid Out for Convenience in Working.* horse cultivation. At the same time, the possibility of a much smaller garden to be tilled with wheel hoe and hand hoe may well be considered. The permanent crops such as asparagus and rhubarb ought to be placed at one side to avoid interference with tillage operations. In this same section of the garden the hotbeds and cold-frames may well be placed. Early crops should usually be kept together in order that the space made vacant by their removal may be more conveniently utilized. Attention should also be devoted to the symmetry, balance and neat appearance of the garden. Fertility. — The first requirement for garden soil, as well as for farm soil, is good drainage. In case of surplus water, tile drains should be laid. Many soils which are not recognized as being especially wet are very materially benefited by drainage. The farm gardener enjoys at least one great advantage over the city J Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " Farm Management," by Warren. 48 SUCCESSFUL FARMING A — Transplanting Board and Dibble in Use. gardener. He has available an ample supply of stable manure. This material is the main reliance for the maintenance of fertility. Manure supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, the only chemical elements which are frequently lacking, and if the quantity applied is sufficient to maintain the humus content of the soil, there will be an abundance of these three elaments. Manure that has been in the pile for several months is ordinarily preferred, but fresh material may be plowed under each fall with the assurance that it will be fairly well decayed and ready to aid the plants by spring. In case the garden soil is of a refractory character, special treat- ment will be necessary. Heavy soils may be improved by hauling sand or gravel, by the addition of ashes, by the use of lime and especially by lib- eral applications of manure. The lime content of the soil must in any case be maintained. Applications of air-slaked lime or finely pulverized limestone at the rate of a ton per acre every two to four years, are usually sufficient. If hydrated or quicklime be used the quantities may be reduced by ap- proximately a quarter and a half respectively. Tillage. — Every farmer realizes the clanger incident to the plowing of the soil when it is wet. If such an error is harmful in ordinary farm practice it is doubly disastrous in the garden. Vegetable plants insist upon favorable growth conditions. In case the soil is shallow, it ought to be gradually deepened from year to year. The plowing should be done in the fall and the soil should be left in furrows to benefit from exposure to the frosts of the winter. In the spring it may be gone over with the disk harrow and worked down, making use of such other tools as are best adapted to the type of soil involved. It is wise to prepare a few raised beds or ridges in the autumn for the earliest plantings. These will be ready to work much earlier in the spring, although they will dry out more rapidly in midsummer. Their direction should be such that they will gain full advantage of the warm southern sun. Garden Seed. — Few problems connected with the garden are more bewildering than the choice of varieties to be planted. Each seedsman B — Planting the Seedlings. Grow- ing Early Plants. THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 49 lands his own productions and impartial descriptions are seldom to be found. A variety well adapted to one locality may be utterly unsuited to another. Experience alone will enable one to meet this problem in a satisfactory way. Selections ought to be made and orders placed early in the season, in order to avoid disappointment and to allow time for testing. Many well-known seed houses are striving to supply good, clean, viable seed that is true to type. Packet seeds found in grocery stores may be more or less unreliable. Many local seed houses carry excellent stock, however. To the gardener who is able to devote a bit of extra time to his plot, no hobby is more fascinating than the selection and saving of seeds from his own plants. There is always wide variation in excellence and these differences are inherited to a greater or less degree. By careful attention for a series of years, remarkable progress may be made in increasing the returns from a given area. Selections should be made on the basis of the individual plant rather than that of the individual fruit. The amateur plant-breeder should first clearly establish in his own mind a definite ideal. If he changes his ideal from year to year, no progress will be made. Con- siderable care should also be exercised in the harvesting, curing, labeling and storing of his seed crop. Seed that will not start growth will certainly not produce a crop and such should be eliminated before the garden is planted by means of careful germination tests. A definite number of seeds may be counted out and planted in a small box of soil which should be placed under good growing conditions as regards moisture and temperature. Other tests which are less thorough may be made by the use of blotters, cloth, porous dishes and the like. These, however, indicate only whether seed will sprout or not. They do not afford knowledge as to whether the seed is able to establish in the soil a plant that is of sufficient vigor to grow independently of the supply of food material which is stored within the seed coats. The final test con- sists in growing the crop to maturity. Growing Early Plants. — Every gardener is anxious to mature his crops at the earliest possible moment and to this end he is willing to employ special equipment and special methods. He selects the varieties which grow most rapidly and sows the seed long before outdoor planting is pos- sible. He aims to have plants of such vigor and hardiness that they will make steady gro"wi;h in spite of unfavorable conditions which they may encounter. These early plants enable him to more fully utilize the space of his garden, to care for both soil and plants more easily, to secure a better root system and in some cases larger yields. Early plants may be started in window boxes in the house and may later be set directly in their permanent place, or the seed may be sown indoors and the seedlings transplanted to the cold-frame for hardening before they go to the garden. Whether in greenhouse or hotbed and cold- frame, the temperature should be relatively low, ventilation free, watering not too heavy and sunshine unimpeded. These conditions make for stock- 50 SUCCESSFUL FARMING iness, hardiness, good root systems, vigor and freedom from disease. Conditions which are unfavorable in any of these respects encourage a soft and spindhng growth and result in plants which do not yield as satisfactory results as plants from seed sown in the open. Small greenhouses adjoining the farm home should be more common. The cost need not be heavy, as the construction may be exceedingly simple. The farmer may do the work himself at odd times. Old or second-hand pipe may be used for heating. The heating arrangement may be exceedingly simple, perhaps, using ho pipe at all and merely setting a small stove in the middle of the house. In case it is not feasible to have a greenhouse, a hotbed may be used to excellent advantage. Cold-frames and hotbeds are described in the next chapter. Seed Sowing. — Each vegetable has its own peculiarities as to time and manner of planting, and these peculiarities vary greatly with different climates and soils. Definite information upon these points, as well as upon many others, can be best secured from neighboring gardeners who have enjoyed long experience. The requirements for germination are moisture, warmth and air. Light is not necessary, although, of course, it is required immediately after seedlings break the ground. If the best results are to be obtained, the soil must be in excellent physical condition, especially for the smaller and more delicate seeds. These must also be sown a little more thickly than the more vigorous sorts, as is also the case when plant- ings are made very early in the spring when soil conditions are not strictly favorable and when damage by insects or diseases is feared. The skilful gardener should know his soil and his seed in order to sow just right both as regards thickness of sowing and depth of planting. Extreme thickness of sowing results in weak seedlings and requires much tedious work in thinning. Nevertheless, it is better for the novice to plant moderately heavily and to thus insure a good stand, even though some thinning is necessary after the plants have come up. Particular attention must be devoted to the covering of the seed after it has been sown. The miniature plant enclosed within the seed coat depends upon the capillary movement of water in the soil for the moisture necessary for its growth. This movement is favored by thoroughly com- pacting the soil, and there is little danger of getting it too firm except in the case of heavy soils and of those which are rather moist at the time. Sowing in drills is preferred to broadcasting because it is easier to sow the seed at uniform depth. The seedlings help each other in breaking ground, and thinning and other work are more easily performed. In the smaller gardens, seed is usually sown by hand. An envelope sealed at the side and cut squarely across the end is an excellent aid in this work. It is held the flat way and gently shaken with a movement length- wise of the row, so manipulating it that the seed will drop evenly from the edge. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use the unaided fingers, working the seed over the second joint of the index finger by means of the thumb. I THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 51 Mechanical drills are much more widely used in home gardens than ever before. Where fairly long rows are the rule, these implements are great time savers and in addition they may be depended upon to distrib- ute the seed uniformly both as to thickness and depth. The drill requires as much skill for its adjustment as does the finger or envelope method. The scale on the machine which shows the approximate rate of sowing for the different seeds can be used only as a general guide, as there is wide variation in the size of seed of each vegetable. Transplanting. — A seed consists of a miniature plant with its temporary food supply enclosed in such protecting covering as is necessary to insure safe removal to a situation far distant from the parent plant. This tiny plant is accordingly well adapted for a shift. However, the gardener in his eagerness for early fruition is not satisfied to let nature have her way. He must remove a plant which has discarded its protecting coat and which has already established its roots in the soil and begun to spread its branches in the air. This modification of nature's plan makes it necessary to exercise special precaution if he is to succeed. The soil should be in good physical condition and contain a reasonable amount of moisture. If possible, the work should be done on a cloudy day or in the evening so that the plant may recover from the shock before it is exposed to the un- broken rays of the sun. The little plants may be protected by special shading if it seems neces- sary. Care should be exercised to remove a good-sized ball of earth with the plant, thus establishing the foundling in its new place without serious disturbance of the roots. Plants should ordinarily be set just a little deeper than they stood in their previous place. It is not wise to set warm-blooded plants like tcmatoes and cucumbers exceedingly early, as they may be seriously stunted by cold weather, even though there be no frost. Nevertheless, some gardeners set out a few plants very early, expecting to replace them if necessary. Cultivation. — The word cultivation is a general term used in two or three different ways. As here applied, it refers to the maintenance of a thin layer of loose soil upon the surface of the garden throughout as much as possible of the growing season. This mulch is of great value in retaining moisture, in keeping the soil in good phj^sical condition and in checking the growth of weeds. In small gardens the hand hoe and hand weeder will serve every purpose without undue labor. Even more universally used than Sowing from Seed Package or Ex-\t:lope. 52 SUCCESSFUL FARMING the mechanical drill is the man-power wheel hoe, with its diversity of tools adapted for all sorts of soil stirring. Such implements are found useful, even though the rows be no more than forty feet long. In larger gardens, horse implements should be used as far as possible. In either case, it will be necessary to employ hand tools for maintaining the mulch between plants in the row. There is available a wider variety of tools and implements for cultivation than for any other type of garden work. These must be selected in accordance with the character of the soil, the crops, and the indi- Wheel Cultivator and Attachments.^ vidual fancy of the gardener himself. There are a number of crops which spread over the ground comparatively early in the season and prevent cultivation from that time on. An increasing number of gardeners are securing the same results by means of a mulch of fresh, strawy manure, distributed between the rows. This conserves moisture and prevents weed growth as effectively as cultivation. Irrigation. — In spite of all these precautions, gardens often suffer from lack o f water. It is not always possible to irrigate the rural garden, 1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses. Vol. II. THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 53 but in some cases the plot may be so located that the water of a little stream may be so diverted as to flow between the rows when needed. An increas- ing proportion of country homes have water supply systems of their own. When this is the case, a line can be run to the garden for hose or overhead irrigation. There is great danger that watering be done superficially, only the upper surface of the soil being moistened. This does more harm than good, as it dries out before it reaches the roots of the plants and at the same time it destroys the mulch which was fairly effective in conserving the moisture already present. Pest Control. — No garden is free from the ravages of insect enemies and plant diseases. Each malady and each insect must be treated in its own way. Information as to methods must be sought in spray calendars or in special treatises upon such subjects. However, certain general principles must be borne in mind. As in the case of human ailments, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. The most important preventive measure is thorough cleaning up every fall. This removes from the garden the dormant forms of both insects and fungi, and so reduces the danger of infestation the next year. Crop rotation, or rather the refusal to grow the same crop on the same ground two years in succession, means much in the prevention of certain diseases. Plants which are making strong and vigorous growth are considerably less susceptible to attack than weaklings. Cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale and kohl-rabi are all sub- ject to clubroot. This disease is caused by a slime mould which lurks in the soil and which attacks the plant through the roots. When the roots are thus affected, they are unal)le to secure either plant food or moisture, and the plants soon die. The plants wilt slightly at first and more seriously as the disease progresses. The roots become swollen, knotted and misshapen. There is no clear-cut method of control, but rotation, liming, thorough cleaning up each year and care to avoid the introduction of the disease by means of manure, tools and purchased plants is advised. With beans, special precaution must be exercised against the rust or anthracnose. It is well to save one's own seed, choosing only pods which are naturally free from spot. Cultivation should be avoided when the plants are wet. For insect enemies, plant diseases and their remedies, see chapters on same in Part II of this book. Quality of Vegetables. — Quality in many vegetables depends to a large extent upon the stage of maturity. Peas and beans are more pala- table, tender and digestible if gathered at a rather early stage of maturity than if allowed to get too large. As a rule, the protein content will be higher and the loss in actual nutritious value is more than counterbalanced by the good qualities above mentioned. Few people realize how rapidly sweet corn deteriorates in value after it has been removed from the plant. It should go directly from garden to SUCCESSFUL FARMING kettle. Garden beets, in like manner, lose considerable of their sweetness if allowed to stand long between time of pulling and cooking. Many of the garden vegetables suffer loss in a similar way. Storage of Vegetables. — The character of storage that will give best results depends on the nature of the vegetable. Most vegetables, such as cabbage, root crops, potatoes and apples, keep best when stored under fairly dry conditions with some ventilation and a low temperature. The tempera- tm"e cannot be too low so long as freezing is avoided. Low temperatures prevent the development of most fungous and bacterial activities which are directly responsible for various forms of decay. There are a few of the vegetables, such as sweet potatoes and squash, that keep better at a temperature of about 50° F. Literature. — The skilful gardener is always on the lookout for new ideas and new suggestions that will enable him to improve his garden from year to year. Many books have been published and a number of the experiment stations have issued bulletins dealing with the home lot. The following are a few references: "Home Vegetable Gardening," bv F. F. Rockwell. "The Home Garden," by Eben E. Rexford. "The Vegetable Garden," by Ida D. Bennett. "Vegetable Gardening," by R. L. Watts. " How to Make a Vegetable Garden," by Edith Loring Fullerton. " Book of Vegetables," by Allen French. " Manual of Gardening," by L. H. Bailey. " Vegetables for Home and Exhibition." Beckett. " Garden Making." Bailey. " Principles of Vegetable Gardening." Bailey. " Farm and Garden Rule Book." " The Home Vegetable Garden." Farmers' Bulletin No. 255. " The Home Garden in the South." Farmers' Bulletin 647., " Hotbeds and Cold-frames." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 30. " Home-Garden Planning." Cornell Readmg-Course Bulletin No. 34. " Planting the Home Vegetable Garden." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 58. "Summer Work in the Home Garden." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 92, and others. " The Home Vegetable Garden." Illinois Circular No. 154. " Farmer's Home Garden." West Virginia Bulletin No. 122. "The Farmer's Vegetable Garden." Illinois Bulletin No. 105. CHAPTER 4 Vegetable Forcing By C. W. Waid Extension Specialist, Michigan Agricultural College Vegetable forcing is a term applied to the growing of vegetables in such a way that they mature or become suitable for use in a shorter time or at a different season than when grown under normal conditions. Cold- frames, hotbeds and greenhouses are used for this purpose. Cold-Frames. — Cold-frames are wooden or concrete structures covered with glass or cloth. They are entirely dependent upon the sun's rays as the source of heat and serve as a protection against cold winds and too rapid radiation of the heat at night. The frames are usually built to run east and west with the south side about a foot above the surface of the ground and the north side a foot or so higher than the south side. They are about six feet in width and of any desired length. When glass is used as a cover the panes are fastened in sash. The standard size of the sash is three by six feet. It is not possible to maintain a uniform temperature in cold-frames auring very cold weather. Their use is, therefore, confined to relatively mild climates or to short periods in the colder climates. They are best adapted to the growing of cool-season crops, the starting of plants for late transplanting or the hardening off of plants started earlier in the greenhouse or hotbed. A cloth cover is sometimes used in the place of glass as a matter of economy. Hotbeds. — Hotbeds are similar in construction to cold-frames. The chief difference is that in addition to the heat secured from the sun's rays other means are used to supply heat in the hotbeds. The common source of artificial heat is fermented horse manure. Hot-air flues and steam or hot-water pipes are also used for this purpose. When steam or hot water is used to heat a greenhouse or residence the same system can be used to advantage in heating the hotbeds. Hotbeds are more satisfactory than cold-frames for the growing of early crops or the starting of early plants in a cold climate, as the temperature can be made more uniform. To prepare a manure hotbed, the dirt is removed from inside the frame to a depth of from one and one-half to two and one-half feet. Horse manure from grain-fed animals should be placed in a compact pile at least three weeks before it is to be put in the pit. As soon as the manure begins to ferment it should be forked over and thoroughly mixed. All lumps should be broken. A second forking over may be needed before it is ready for the 56 SUCCESSFUL FARMING pit, when it should be a steaming mass. Care must be taken not to let it overheat and burn, as this would reduce its value. When the pit is dug and the manure ready it should be placed in the pit a few inches at a time and evenly tamped. From one to two feet of solid manure is essential for best results; the greater amount being needed for the growing of heat- loving plants and for other plants as well in the colder sections of the country. Rich garden soil, preferably from a compost heap, should be placed over the manure to a depth of about six inches. The sash should be placed on the frame as soon as the manure and soil are put in to prevent the heat escaping too freely and to keep off the rain or snow. If the manure is well prepared it will raise the temperature of the soil so high at first that it will not be safe to sow seeds until several days later. The temperature of the soil should not be over 85° F. when the seeds are sown. ^ :: ^M«f«..S:^m» A Double Sash Steam-Heated Hotbed. The Greenhouse. — Greenhouses are glass-covered structures, so built that the person who grows crops in them can work inside with ease. They are heated with hot-air flues, hot water or steam. When properly con- structed it is possible to grow many kinds of crops to maturity in them at any season of the year. They are even more satisfactory than hotbeds for the starting of plants for early crops outside. It is possible for the gardener not only to give the plants better care in bad weather in the greenhouse, but he is not so much exposed, and thus can work more comfortably and to better advantage. The combination of a greenhouse, hotbeds and cold- frames is desirable when possible. Growing Plants Under Glass. — The growing of plants under glass is very different from growing them in the open. To the inexperienced, it might seem easier to grow them inside than outside, because conditions are more nearly under the grower's control. This is not true, however, as the VEGETABLE FORCING 57 comparatively high temperature, excessive humidity and artificial condi- tions in general encourage the development of tender plants which are sub- ject to attack by various insects and diseases. Vegetable forcing is perhaps the most exacting of all lines of intensive gardening. To be successful in this line of work when it is followed as a business, an individual must be able to apply himself and must have a knowledge of the needs of the crops to be grown. If he is in love with this particular line of work, his chances of success are much greater than when he forces himself into it because he thinks there is money in the business. This need not discourage the man who wishes to have a small greenhouse and a few sash to assist him in getting more money from his outside crops. Many successful greenhouse men have started in this very way. A Greenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants. One of the most important things to keep in mind when starting in the forcing business even in a small way, is to try to supply as nearly as possible the needs of the crop to be grown as to temperature, ventilation, plant-food and water. If these demands are met there will be much less trouble from diseases than when they are not properly looked after. The following is a list of cool plants which require a night temperature of from 45° to 55° F., and a day temperature of from 65° to 70° F. on clear days : Lettuce Peas Onions Radishes Beets Celery Rhubarb Asparagus Parsley Cauliflower Carrots The warm plants demanding a night temperature of 55° F. or above and a day temperature of 75° F. or more on bright days are tomatoes, egg- plants, peppers, cucumbers, muskmelons and beans. Too much importance cannot be placed on " ventilation. In cold- 58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING frames and hotbeds poor ventilation is almost certain to induce the disease known as " damping off," while careful ventilation and watering will prevent it to a great extent. In a greenhouse such diseases as mildew and others which flourish in a moisture-laden atmosphere and high temperature will be much more liable to give trouble when the ventilation is insufficient than when it is given proper attention. Watering is another important operation. As a rule, it is best to water only on bright days, and preferably during the forenoon to give time for the plants to dry off before night. The overhead system of watering is being used very commonly by progressive gardeners in the greenhouse and in hotbeds and cold-frames. The most common source of plant-food in vegetable forcing is well- rotted stable manure. When this can be secured in sufficient quantity, little in the way of artificial fertilizers will be needed. In some cases the use of liquid manure or nitrate of soda in small quantities will produce good results. Wood-ashes, especially from the burning of hardwood and ashes secured from the burning of tobacco stems, can be used to good advantage. It is not customary to make frequent changes of- soil in the vegetable forcing business. Some soils have been in use for forty years and are still producing good crops. In some cases steam sterilization has been necessary to overcome certain soil diseases. A brief treatment of this subject would not be complete without calling attention to the importance not only of good varieties but of good strains of vegetables for forcing. There is no line of gardening in which this matter is of greater importance. Much time and expense is incurred in the growing of plants under glass. It would certainly not be profitable to put so much expense upon varieties which even when well grown are inferior. Well- grown vegetables of good varieties and strains will demand the highest market prices. The forcing of vegetables is a profitable and pleasant line of work when properly done by the man who knows his business and delights in his work. REFERENCES "The Forcing Book." Bailey. Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 184. "Tests with Sodium Nitrate for Early Vegetables." Farmers' Bulletin 460, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Frames as a Factor in Truck Growing." Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 224. "Greenhouse Construction." CHAPTER 5 Mushroom Culture By H. M. Ware Practical Mushroom Grower, Delaware Over 5,000,000 pounds of the common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) are grown annually in the United States. Besides these, in 1914 we imported from Europe 9,188,177 pounds in cans, 30 per cent more than in 1910. Practically all of the $3,000,000 worth of mushrooms grown or imported by this country in 1914 were sold in a few of our larger cities. Hundreds of smaller cities and towns throughout the country offer unde- veloped markets for this product, a fact which does not indicate that the supply will soon exceed the demand. The uncertainty of mushroom growing as a business was eliminated when Dr. B. M. Duggar discovered the "Tissue Method " of manufacturing spawn in 1902. As a direct result of discarding the "Chance" spawn imported from England and France, the American industry has developed rapidly. While it is true that the bigger the operation the lower will be the cost of production, nevertheless mushroom culture is adapted as a side line to many farms. When sold, mushrooms enter the same channels, wholesale or retail, as do other fancy products. Labor can be profitably employed in winter. The manure used in the houses is in ideal condition for applica- tion on the land. This point is better understood when it is considered that the compostmg of the manure is almost identical with the methods employed by market gardeners — that the fresh mushroom contains 90 per cent water and analysis has shown that, ton for ton, mushroom manure is more valuable than fresh stable manure, having lost little beside weight, water and weed-seeds. It should be understood that much hard and some unpleasant work is unavoidable in mushroom culture. But that, with intelligent care in supply- ing the few essential details, success and a legitimate profit are assured. The most common causes of failure are: 1. Poor spawn. 2. Heavy watering. 3. Unfavorable temperature, 4. Poor or improperly composted manure. Houses. — The place in which mushrooms are to be grown must permit easy control of temperature, moisture and ventilation. While proper conditions may be afforded by caves, cellars or unused buildings, it will 27 59 AV . *' '. ■ -..5 J"« * ■ . ' ' > ;» :.' ^ o p o Ph o pq 1 Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin S5, B. P. I. (60) MUSHROOM CULTURE 61 generally be found advisable to build especially for the purpose. But no one should build a mushroom house without first inspecting the plant of a successful grovv^er. Permanent walls can be made of hollow tile or other material that will not readily decay. Air space in the wall must be provided to maintain even temperature. When grown in ^dnter mushrooms require artificial heat. Hot-water heating, the system most economically and easily run, is in general use by all large growers. Five hundred square feet of pipe surface (1000 feet of l|-inch pipe) should be allowed to every 20,000 cubic feet of air space. Preparation of the Compost. — The best material is fresh horse manure, which contains plenty of the more resistant cereal straws. Care should be exercised to see that no disinfectant has been used. Build the pile with straight sides 3 or 4 feet deep throughout and 8 feet wide. This makes turning easy, and leaching of plant-food is pre- vented. In five days the pile should be turned; thereafter at weekly intervals, until rapid fermentation has stopped; usually in three or four weeks. Water the compost when turning and keep it moist. Heavy watering at first will do little harm, but when ready for the beds compost should be in such condition that when squeezed in the hand water will not readily drop from it. Some growers cover the piles with three inches of dirt before and after the first turning. Equally successful growers, however, use no dirt in the compost. Dirt seems only to shorten the time necessary for composting. When ready for the beds the manure has lost all objectionable odors, and the straw has changed from yellow to dark brown. Filling the Beds. — The beds in common use are flat, 8 inches deep and 6 feet wide, built in tiers of shelves five or six beds to the tier. The boards used are generally chestnut, 1 inch by 8 inches by 12 feet. These are lapped loosely so they may be easily dumped. The bottom beds should be filled first, so that the operator will have head room. They should then be firmed {i. e., leveled by light pounding with back of fork); if not wet, the manure may be tramped. Firming Turning the Compost. 02 SUCCESSFUL FARMING lessens cvajjonition and prevents burning during the secondary heating. When filled the house is closed, and in a day or two the tenijMTature rises, sometimes to 120° F., thi-n slowly drojjs to nonual. One ton of manure will fill approximately ()5 square feet of bed 8 inches (h'ep. Spawning.- Only the best American brick spawn should Ix? usi-d. A Typical Kanoe uf Mvsuroom HorsES. (^f the several varieties, the White and Cream are most desirable; white is more salable, cream more prolific and iiardy. Spawning should begin wIk n the temjx'rature of the beds has (lroi)i)ed ;o 70° F. The bricks should U' broken into eight or ten pieces 1^ to 2 inches square and placed evenly on SuTiNfi THK Casinc; Dikt. the lx?ds. The pieces should then be inserted vertically one inch below the surface of th<' manure, .\fter spawning, the beds should be firmed again. Spawn .should be kept in a cool, dry i)lace. One brick costs from twelve to fifteen cents anil will i)lant 8 square feet of bed. MUSHROOM CULTURE 63 Casing the Beds. — Two weeks after spawning, a piece of spawn should be dug up; if the mycehum appears as a mould running into the manure, the beds are ready to case. Casing consists in covering the beds with a layer of sifted loam 1 to 1| inches deep. The loam causes the mushrooms to head, acts as a mulch and is the best medium for picking. The average farm wagon load of sifted loam will cover 250 square feet of bed. Temperature. — Temperature is important because it regulates the competition of mushrooms with insects and with other fungi. It has been found that at 53° to 58° F. mushrooms grow slowly but strongly, while other growths are held in check. Even at freezing temperatures mush- rooms lie dormant without apparent harm. Too much heat causes rapid Types of Fancy Packages, development, not only of mushrooms, but also of any other organisms present, so that the spawn soon "runs out." The temperature should be kept near 56° F. and sudden changes should be avoided. Water. — Water should be applied to the beds only as a spray. The surface should never be allowed to dry out, nor should it be soaked. It is better to apply a little water every day than to water heavily at longer intervals. The air should be kept as moist as proper ventilation permits. Ventilation. — Ventilation is of great importance, but must be accom- plished without draughts. Draughts quickly dry out the beds and cause the mushrooms to crack and darken, especially after watering. Overhead ventilators give the most uniform ventilation with the least danger. Picking and Marketing. — The first mushrooms appear six to eight weeks after spawning. When in full bearing they should be picked every day. Picking is an art. The yield and returns may be materially reduced by lack of j udgment in this single operation. Experience only can teach one to pick properly. It should be remembered that mushrooms gain no weight (U SUCCESSFUL FARMING iihrr the veil hopiins to break and tliat an open mushroom is a third-t'lass article on the market. Mushrooms are a (Ustinetly hi^h-fiirade prochict. 'J'hey desen'e the most careful gracHn^ anil care in the selection of a package. The standard grades in the New York market are Fancy, Choice, Buttons and Seconds, Too few growers use a lalxl, their packages being knowii only by a number given in a commission house. The ventilated pound box will n-eonniimd itself for the retail trade. The four-pound s])lint l)asket is the standard wholesale package; these arc tied in buntlles of six for shipment by express. After i)icking, delay and high temperatures are to Ix' avoided. Even in cold weather some ventilation in the package is d?sirable. The lM)LL()\vi.\(i AUK thk Most Thochlesomk Enemies. DISEASE.S. Enkmt. Whbn TRouBLEsomi. 1 Ijuwrt. 1 TnuTmirr. FoKgiiigoff. Wann weather. Young mushrooms turn brown. Lower tampcnturc. Ventila- tion. Black spot. Improper watering and [ Diacolorcd caps, ventilation. { Proper conditions. Infected spawn or com- ! Alimirniai tirowthH, niii«iha|)cn, IMwt. 1 uosalttblc, hiiibly iufectiuiu. Careful Ranilation. Formaid^ liydc gaf fumigutiun. INSECTS. Mites. High temperature. | Troublesome; may affect spawn. { Springtaib. Carelessness in cleaning' Similar to fogging off. | Fumigation with carbon bisul- house. I phide. Larva of 8ios. PiKir manure. Warm i Bore into mushrooms; umul- Carlwn bisulphide. Low tcm- weathcr. able. pcraturc. Mushroom Enemies. — By providing sMit;il»lc growing conditions and exercising ihc utmost can- in cleaning the hou.se after a croj) has been grown, little troul)le from insects or fungous enemies will be experienced. Jlvery speck of old compo.st must be brushed out. The Ix'd boards and every part of the house should then be whit<>washed and if possible fumigated. Yield and Returns. — The profitable life of a mushroom l)ed averages tlu-ee to four months. A yield of one half jxtuml ]>er .square foot will pay lal>or and expenses, but one pound per square foot should be produced under proper conditions. The average wholesale price is 25 to 2G cents per pound. Mushrooms retail throughout the .season from 35 to 75 cents iK>r pound, deix'nding alike on season and (piality. The co.st of production deix^nds mainly u|>on the yield and the cost of labor and materials in a given section. The large growers estimate the cost at 15 to 25 cuuts ix;r pound. MUSHROOM CULTURE C5 REFERENCES "Mushrooms: How to Grow Them." Falconer. Ohio Expt. Station Circular 153. "Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 127. "Micogene Disease of Mushrooms." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 85. "Principles of Mushroom Growing." Farmers' Bulletin 342, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. " Mushroom Growing and Preserving Wild Ones." CHAPTER 6 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Hv \\ . W . .Stockukk(^eu Physiologist in Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigaiions, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture The lu.irkit (Icinand for the products of medicinal and aromatic plants wlion compared with the dcnuind for staj^lc j)rodiicts such as cereals, fruits or venetahies, is relatively very small, and is not sufficient to make them promisiuK crops for general cultivation. Many such plants which can be grown and |)repared for market with little difficulty, bring but a small return, and hence their cultivation olYers little jjrosjxct oi i)r()fit. A number of high-priced metlicinal plants nmst be given care for two or more years Ix'fore a crop can be harvested, and, since expensive equii)ment is usually required for their successful culture and ])reparation for market, the production of such crojis offers littl*' encouragement to inexperiences! growers who are looking for (juick returns and large i)rofits from a small investment of time and money. Requirements for Medicinal Plants. — Several medicinal and aromatic plants, for which the demand is fairly constant, have been jirofitably grown on a commercial basis, but the success of the growers has been due largely to the care which they have taken to jiroduce a uniform jjroduct of high quality. However, the production of drugs of high quality requires skilled management, experience in spt'cial methods of plant culture, actpiaintance with trailc recpiirements and a knowledge of the iiiHuence of time of col- lection and manner of pre|)aration on those constituents of the drug which d(;tcrmine its value. Small quantities of drugs i)roduced without regard to these conditions are apt to be poor in quality and so unattractive to dealers and m.anuf.icturers that the ])roduct will not be salable at a jirice sufficient to make their production i)rolitable. The agricultural conditions generally i)revailing in the I'nited States and in ('anada are far more favorable to the growing of medicinal and aromatic plants a.s a special industry for well-equip|)ed cultivators than as a side croj) for general farmers. The growing of medicinal plants in the I'nited States has hardly IKUssed beyond the exi)erimental stage, and although si'veral of these plant,s j)romi.se satisfactory profits in suitable localities, any general attempt to grow them on a commercial .scale would soon result in over-stocking the market. However, the demand for such jilants as ani.s<', belladonna, car- 0«) MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 67 away, coriander, digitalis and sage is at present large enough to make them worthy of consideration. Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is an annual plant grown for its aromatic seeds. It is cultivated on a small scale in Rhode Island, and is suited for localities similar in climate to that state. The best soil for anise is a light, moderately-rich and well-drained loam. The plant is very sensitive to unfavorable weather conditions, but in a good season the yield of seed should be from 400 to 600 pounds per acre. About 2000 acres should produce the average quantity of seed annually imported into this country. The price usually ranges from 6 to 8 cents a pound. Belladonna {Atropa belladonna) is an important drug plant for which there is a steady demand. It has been cultivated in New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania and California, although not very successfully from a commercial point of view. It is apparently better adapted to the warmer states than to the colder regions where it is likely to winter-kill. Belladonna thrives best in deep, moist, well-drained loam containing lime. Sowing seed in the field usually gives very poor results, but sowing seed in the greenhouse and transplanting like tomatoes is usually successful. The cost of growing belladonna is high, owing to the large amount of necessary hand labor. Five hundred pounds of dry leaves per acre is considered a fair yield. At the end of the second year about 1000 pounds of dried root per acre may be harvested. The prices in the wholesale drug markets have been from 14 to 25 cents a pound for the leaves and from 9 to 18 cents a pound fcr the roots. Prices to growers have been proportionately less. Caraway (Carum carui) is an annual, cultivated for its aromatic seeds, which are used medicinally and for flavoring. It grows and fruits well over a considerable portion of the United States, especially in the north and northwest, but its cultivation in this country has never a^-sumcd commercial proportions. Soil of a somewhat clayey nature and containing a fair proportion of humus and available plant-food is particularly suited to caraway, but the plant generally grows well in any good upland soil which will produce fair crops of corn or potatoes. The average yield of seed per acre is about 1000 pounds. At this rate about 2700 acres would be required to produce the quantity of seed annually imported. Anyone undertaking the cultivation of this plant might well consider growing dill and fennel also. Caraway seed is valued at about 6| cents a pound. Coriander {Coriandrum sativum) is also grown for its aromatic seeds and in its requirements and method of culture is very similar to caraway. The yield of seed is quite variable, but from 500 to 800 pounds per acre may be expected. If the average yield were 650 pounds per acre, 2000 acres would be required to produce the quantity of seed annually imported. The seed is valued at approximately 3 cents a pound. Digitalis or Foxglove {Digitalis purpurea) is an important drug plant for which there is a constant demand. The leaves are used in medicine. Although widely grown in flower gardens as an ornamental, it has not yet (;.<^ SUCCESSFUL FARMING Lr'cii grown on a large scale in this countr>' as a drug crop. Tiiis plant thrives best in ordinary well-ilrained garden soils of open texture. Sowing the seed in the field is usually unsuccessful. For g<) liardened oil and transplanted to the field. Digitalis does not flower until the second year, when the leaves may be collected. Probably GOO j)ounds of dry leaves per acre may \)C obtained under favorable conditions. The wholesale price of leaves ranges from 8 to 40 cents a i)<)und, averaging about IT) cents. The Common Sage Plant {Salvia offirinalifi) is easily cultivated and will grow in almost any wrll-drained fertile soil. There is a good demand for American leaf sage, which sells at a considerably higlier price than the inii)()rt('(l article. The dry herb or leaves of a number of aromatic plants form marketable products for which there is a small demand, but as a rule these i)lants are grown for the essential oils which they yield. The jmncipal essential oils produced in the United States from cultivated jilants are: p ])ri('e of im- ported sage is 3 to 5 cents a pound. American sage is usually a little higher. Ginseng {Panax quinquefolium) is a fleshy-rooted herbaceous plant native to this country and formerly of frecjuent occurrence in shady, well- drained situations in hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota and south- ward to the mountains of CJeorgia antl the C'arolinas. It has long been valued by the Chinese for medicinal u.se, though rarely creditetl with cura- tive properties by natives of other countries. Under cultural conditions, ginseng sluaild be shielded from direct sunlight by the shade of the trees or by lath sheds. The soil should be fairly light and well fertilized with woods earth, rotted leaves or fine raw bone meal, the latter aiijiliiHl at the rate of one pound to each square yard. Seed should be planted in the spring as early as the soil can be worked to advantage, placed G inches apart each way in th<' jxTinanent beds, or 2 by G inches in seed-beds, and the s<'edlings transplanted to stand G to 8 inches ai)art when two years old. Only cracked or i)artially germinated seed should be u.s(hI. Ginseng needs little cultivation, but the l)e(ls should he at all times kei)t free from weeds and gra.ss and the surface of the soil slightly stirred win-never it shows signs of (•.•iking. A wintrr n)ulch over the crowns is usually essential, but it should not be ai)i)liid until freezing weather is innninent and should Ije removed in the spring before the first shoots come through the soil. 'i'he roots do not reach marketable size until about the fifth or sixth year from seed. When dug, they should be carefully washed or shaken free of all adhering soil, but not scraped. Curing is U'st elTected in a well- ventilated room heated to about 80" F. Nearly a month is requin^d to properly cure the larger roots, and great care nnist be taken in order to prevent moulding or souring. Overheating must also be avoided. When MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 69 well cured the roots should be stored in a dry, airy place until ready for sale. A market may be found with the wholesale drug dealers, some of whom make a specialty of buying ginseng root for export. The price of cultivated ginseng root, as quoted in wholesale drug lists, has ranged during the past few years from $5 to $7.50 per pound. A detailed account of ginseng culture is given in Farmers' Bulletin 551, entitled ''The Cultivation of American Ginseng." Peppermint (Mentha piperita) is frequently found growing wild throughout the eastern half of the United States, and can be grown under cultivation on any land that will produce good crops of corn. It is grown commercially with most success on the muck lands of reclaimed swamps in southern Michigan and northern Indiana. On good land the average yield of oil per acre is about 30 pounds, but as the yield is variable, approxi- mately 15,000 acres of land are required to produce the annual market demand. It is valued at about $2.50 per pound. Spearmint (Mentha spicata) is very much like peppermint in its requirements, but can be grown successfully on a wider range of soils. On ordinary soils the yield of oil varies from 10 to 20 pounds per acre, but on muck lands the yield is usually only a little less than that of peppermint. The annual market requirement for spearmint oil is about 50,000 pounds. The oil has an average value of about $3.30 a pound and the dry herb 3 to 4 cents a pound. Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is a hardy plant which grows well on almost any good soil, but rich and rather heavy soils well supplied with moisture favor a heavy growth. The yield of oil varies, but about 20 pounds per acre is a fair average. The annual market requirement of this oil probably does not much exceed 3000 pounds. It is valued at about $2.60 a pound. Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is a hardy plant which can be grown almost everywere, but commercially it is usually grown on fairly rich, moderately moist loams. It is cultivated on a small commercial scale chiefly in Michigan and Wisconsin, The annual production of oil is about 2000 pounds, which is apparently sufficient to satisfy market require- ments. It is valued at about $2.40 per pound. American Wormseed (Chenopodium anthelminticum) is a coarse weed which grows well in almost any soil. The yield of this oil varies, but about 30 pounds per acre is a fair average and the annual production is about 5000 pounds. It is gaining in importance largely through its use as a remedy for hook-worm. The price ranges from $1.40 to $5.50 a pound. Additional Equipment. — In addition to the usual agricultural equip- ment the producer of essential oils must provide a suitable distilling apparatus, since such oils are usually derived from plants by steam distilla- tion. The cost of setting up a still will depend upon what facilities are already at hand and the size and efficiency of the apparatus installed. It may easily range from a small sum to several thousand dollars. 70 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Whore succossful production of modicinHl i)l:ints has not been dcnion- stnitcd it should i)o dctcriuinod on small cxpcrinu'ntal plats before under- taking commercial i)lantinKs. REFERENCES Michigan Expt. Station Hullotin (S|H-cial) 72. "Some GinftsenR Troubles." U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 2G. "American Medicinal Flowers, Fruits and Seeds." Farmers' Hulletin.s, V. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 531. "Lark.spur or Poison Weed." !i'A. "Cultivation of American flin.'^ong." (U.S. "(loldcn.scal I'ndtT Cultivation." 094. "The ('ultivation of I'ci)perniint and Spearmint." 663. "Drug Plants Under Cultivation." CHAPTER 7 Principles of Fruit Production, with Special Reference to THE Home Plantation By M. G. Kains Professor of Horticulture, The Pennsylvania State College The establishment of home orchards is as important as ever, especially in sections where fruit is not now grown but is shipped in. With the wealth of information available through government and experiment station publications, no one who owns land suitable for growing general farm crops need hesitate to plant fruit for home needs. Even for the cold sections hardy varieties are available. The Main Factors to Consider. — Temperature decides as to the species, and sometimes the variety, that may be grown. That of a region and even of an orchard is determined mainly by latitude, altitude, physical character of the country and distance from large bodies cf water. In the spring, lakes and rivers keep the air cool because they are cold. Thus, they hold back bud development and aid the plants in escaping late frosts. In the fall they continue warm and thus lengthen the season. Other sections even nearby, but beyond the reach of breezes from the water, are more likely to be frosted. Moisture in the soil may be secured through rainfall or by irrigation. In the East enough rain generally falls to care for the fruit interests, provided proper tillage methods are practiced; in the West, irrigation has largely solved the water supply problem. Of more importance is the rela- tive humidity of the air; for where the air is dry, crop growdng is more diffi- cult than where it is fairly moist. In the northern prairie states, where the winter air is both cold and dry, many fruits fail because the air sucks moisture out of twigs and branches while the ground is frozen. In the East, where the cold spells alternate with moist weather, the twigs have a chance to secure moisture either from the soil or from the air. Soil. — In general, currants and European pears usually do best on heavy soils; peaches and strawberries on Ughter ones. But there are countless successes on soils of other character. Because of this, it is evident that the distinctions drawn between soils adapted to certain varieties are perhaps too fine; and yet there are varietal preferences that should be considered for commercial orchards. For home and local market planta- tion these distinctions are of less importance than for big business orchards. Subsoil is of even more importance than surface soil in fruit culture, especially of tree fruits. Many good business orchards are on thin soils 71 SUCCESSFUL FARMING that must be foti to keep the trees vigorous and productive. The secret is a deep, porous subsoil which insures pood drainage and deep feeding; lienee the abihty of the tre<'s to withstand seasonal vagaries. Since no business orchard should be planted without determining the nature of the subsoil, the prospective phmter of a home orcliard may well follow this prac- tice. The Parasite factor is mainly controllable. Not that there are no difficult enemies to handle, but l)reventive or remedial measures are available and mostly effective where j)roj)erly applied. Site for tlw home farm orcliard is as important in its degree as location is to the commercial fruit grower. Site jx-rtains to the i^ositionof the orchard on the farm, as a gentle eastward or northern slope. Much of the success of the ])lantation may be in choosing a welUlrained, elevated site i)rotected from stro;ig winds. Such a site allows the cold air as well as the ground water to drain away, thus jm'- venting frost injury to buds and blossoms. It ;dso favors holding fruit by tlie trees, wlureas a site exposiHJ t o h i g h w i n d s would favor drojijiing. Aspect formerly at- tracted far more attenti(»n than today. It was believed that southern and eastern sloi)es favor earlin«'ss — and they do — but tin* effect is less than conunonly believed. Business fruit growers plant on all sloix»s and get good re>ults from all. Windbreaks may or may not be a benefit. No one should plant a > Courtesy of Moloney Brothers und Wclla Company, DaoaviUc, X. Y. CJoui) Nl ItsKKY Stijck.I fXoti" tlic extent i)f roots :ii»(l form of topsi PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 73 windbreak without first studying the problem from all angles. Often the best windbreak is the outside row of fruit trees, especially if of a variety that grows large and holds its fruit tenaciously. Nursery Stock is nowadays so low priced that no one should consider growing his own trees. Fruit trees need special care as to propagation, and also require too much time to grow to orchard planting size; so when the best standard varieties can be bought for thirty cents or less, why run the risk of failure in growing one's own? In buying stock, it is wise to insist upon getting straight, clean trees without Y-crotches, free from insects and diseases, and in plump, robust condition when received. Under no condition should fruit trees older than two years be considered. Peach trees should never be over one year. Trees older than these do not produce fruit sooner or make better orchard trees than young ones. Most commer- cial fruit growers prefer one-year trees of all kinds because these can be trained more easily than can older trees. The trees also make better progress because they have not lost so many roots. Southern vs. Northern Grown Nursery Trees. — In the South "June budded" trees are popular. There they may be planted in the fall; but for northern fall planting they do not mature early enough to get a start before winter sets in. Therefore, in the North they should be bought only for spring setting. They are not inferior to northern trees when j^lanted in spring. Time to Plant. — Fall planting has decided advantages over spring planting. There is a far better chance to get the varieties ordered because nurserymen are not then sold out; if four or more weeks will elapse before winter sets in, the trees may be planted and thus the work done when time is not so precious as in the spring; nurserymen usually charge somewhat less for stock delivered in the autumn. Whether or not planting can be done in the fall, it is a good plan to have the trees delivered before winter so as to have them on hand for spring planting at just the proper time, thus avoiding possible delays of shipment in spring. Such trees may be "heeled- in" until spring. To Heel-in Trees dig or plow a trench a foot or more deep, preferably running east and west. Make the north side vertical and the south with a long slant. Unpack the trees, prune the mangled and broken roots, and lay in the trench with their trunks on the slanting side. Bury both roots and tops with soil packed around the roots. Remove all litter that might favor mouse nests. In spring dig up and plant the trees as if just received. Marking Out the Field. — This may be done by sighting, plowing or any other handy way that will get the rows straight. For convenience in handhng it is a good plan in the home orchard to choose some unit measure that will suit all kinds of fruits. The rod is perhaps as good as any because peaches, sour cherries, plums, quinces, dwarf pears and apricots may be set that distance apart. Sweet cherries, standard pears and the smaller 74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING growing ai)i)l(' varieties require two rods, and the wide .si^rcading apple varieties tiiree rods. Mixed Plantings are not considered wise by commercial orchardists. Each kind of fruit is kept in a block by itself. This favors uniform treat- ment. In home jilantinps, however, such a plan is not always feasible; so that by giving a little extra attention the general farmer maj- have all his fruit crops together in one area. Bush fruits and strawberries will not do well after the trees come into bearing, but up to that time they may be grown between the trees. Where the rod is the unit of measure, two rows t>f bush fruits may b<' jjjaced between the tree rows live feet three inches from the trees, thus making them six feet ajjart and allowing for the planting of one row of strawberries or truck between them. The strawberries will give one good crop, perhaps two, before the bushes will need the space and the bushes will give two to jx-rhaps four crops before they will have to be removed to get best results from the trees. If desired one row of grapes may run between the trees, thus leaving eight feet three inches between it and the trees. But since grapes do well for ten or more years, they had better be placed at the side of the orchard. Besides strawl)erries, various vegetables may b<' planted between the tree rows for two to five or six years. It is a gootl plan to j^lace the V)ush fruits in checks so cultivation may be given in two directions from the start. The Operation of Planting offers no difficulty. The holes should be dug large enough to take in the roots without serious bending, though bending is not of much consequence. I'he largest roots should be turned toward the prevailing wind. AVhen the holes are dug the top soil should be laid in one jiile and the subsoil in another. Then when the tree is placed in the hole — never more than two inches deeper than it stoc^d in the nursery row — the top soil should be worked among the roots and tramped down hard. Finally, the subsoil should be placed on top, tramix'd down and a few shovelfuls of soil scattered loosely on top to check evaporation of W'ater from the grotmd. First Pruning. — After the trees have been planted they should be pruned. All l)uny, inferior twigs should be removed, only three to five well-placed ones being left at least a hanil's breadth ai)art on the trunk. If these are two hand-breadths apart, so much the better, because there will Ix) less danger of si)litting when loaded with fruit or ice. The frame limbs should be cut back a half or more. I'sually, the leader should be cut out to make the tree ojien-headed. The lowest limb should be iifteen mches to two feet from the ground to favor low heading with all its advantages of easy pruning, spraying, thinning and harvesting, to say nothing of lessened wind damage. I'Aten- sion tillage tot)ls will cultivate close to the trunks when the trees get large. Until then, ordinary harrows and cultivators will serve every j)uriK>se. During the first year, leaves should nev<'r be pulletl from the trunk and branches. The tree needs them to ripen its wood. If removed the trees PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 75 will develop longer limbs to get more leaves and these limbs -^vill have to be cut off later to bring the tree within bounds. If there are twigs among the trunk leaves, they should be cut off the following spring. How Fruit Buds are Borne. — Much of the success of fruit growing depends on intelligent pruning, and this on a knowledge of the way each plant produces its fruit buds. Apples and pears produce theirs mostly on short twigs in alternate years with leaf buds. These fruit spurs become gnarly as they grow old, but as long as they continue to bear they should be allowed to remain, unless the tree is producing too heavily. Then some may be cut out. Other trees that produce fruit more or less on spurs tip;: Before and After Pruning. ^ are cherry, plum, apricot, almond, currant and gooseberry. Some produce their buds on the sides of the shoots, not on spurs. Of these the peach is the leader, though almonds, Japanese plums, and apricots also do this more or less. All these trees develop fruit buds one year and blossom the following spring. These fruit buds may be distinguished from leaf buds during winter because they are round-topped and plump instead of pointed and thin. There is another group, the plants of which develop blossom buds in the same season as they blossom and bear fruit. Quince and medlar each bear blossoms on the ends of short green shoots developed in early spring. Raspberries, blackberries, dewberries and oranges produce their blossoms more or less terminally on lateral summer shoots. Grape, mulberry, olive 1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "The Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey. 28 76 SUCCESSFUL FARMING and persimmon i)nKluce strong shoots or canos from branch buds which have wintered ovi-r. On these the blossom buds are borne. The loquat bears its ])l()ssoiii buds at the tips of terminal shoots of the same se:\son. Pruning for Fruit. — In pruning for fruit, it is evident that the plants in these various gi-oups nuist l)e i)runed difTerentiy. A])]il<'S, j)ears and other i)lants whicii iiold tlicir bloom l)uds over winter may be encouraged to bear by summer pruning about the time the shoots have ceased to extend. This tends to develop blossom buds. Pruning of these plants during the dormant season, on the other liand, tends to imxluce wood at the expense of fruit production. (Consult bulletins of the Tennessee Experi- ment Station on "Sunnuer Pruning.") Plants in the second general group are usually pruned in spring, when the number of buds left will indicate approximately how many fruits or clusters of fruits will be j^roduccd — one for each quince bud, two or three clusters of grapes for each grajjc bud, and so on. Pruning of tlu^se jilants, therefore, is equivalent to thinning, for it limits the number of fruits to be set and helps imjirove the size and quality of the s]XK'imens. Pruning Older Trees. — In i)runing trees great care should be taken to make tiic wounds close to the main trunk or limbs. If a limb to be cut off is large, the saw should first be used beneath it a foot or so away from the crotch. \Vlien the saw sticks, a second cut should be made al)ove so the limb will droj) off easily. Then the stub may be cut off close to the trunk without danger of s])litting or t<'aring the tree and making an ugly, slow- healing wound. Beyond the removal of branches that cross each other young trees pro})erly started and trained should need little or no pruning unless they break down. Tillage. — ( )rchards in sod have in commercial practice practically given i)lace to tilled orchards. AVhere success attends sod treatment, some other factor is usually evident enough upon study of the situation. The experiment station at Geneva, N. Y., has reported that a sod-mulched orchard under t<'n-year ex]KTiment yielded higher colored, earlier maturing fruit than a tilled orchard of the same variety and otherwise handled the same way, but that the tilled orchard yielded heavily and uniformly, gave fruit of bett<'r quality, larger size, longer keeping, less dead wood in the trees and better foliage and growth. Sod lowers the water supply and soil t<'mperature, decreases certain i)lant-foods. reduces humus and air supply in soil, inii)airs work of soil bacteria, and forms substances that impair trelants remain profitable. The advantage of this is that the roots are encouragecl to g<» de<'ply and thus withstand dry weather as well as escape the plow. Ivich year oix^rations should Ih> U>gun as early as the land can Iw worked and continue until the twigs have reached th(>ir full length about midsunuuer. iiitween mid and late sunmier, tillage PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 77 should stop to give trees or shrubs a chance to ripen their growth to with- stand the winter. Unless this is done, growth may continue too late in the fall, and the plants suffer during winter in consequence. Fertilizing. — While it may be true that land which will grow any farm crops will grow fruit without manuring, yet most money is made from fruit crops fed to get higher quality, larger size, better color and the other points that make for higher prices. How much and what kind to apply will depend Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon. i upon the character of the soil, the kind of crop and so on. Many farmers and fruit growers put the question to the land itself by trying experiments with various combinations of fertihzers until they find out the one best suited to the desired end. In general, it must be remembered that nitro- genous plant-food tends to be lost by seepage and also to produce wood rather than fruit; hence, it must be handled with greater caution than either potash or phosphoric acid, neither of which is lost to any serious extent from the soil ; nor does either jeopardize the ability of the plants to withstand winter injury. 1 Courtesy of Portland Commercial Club, Portland, Oregon. 78 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Thinning is stemlily RiiininR popularity in the East, mainly l>ccaust' it tends to i)rocluce larger, finer six>cimens, to make the trees more hardy and to establish regular annual hearing. Even the liaklwin apple, perhaj)s the most notorious biennial cropjxr, has been made to produce i)rofital)le crojjs fifteen out of seventeen consecutive years. Spraying has now become so general that no one thinks of ])lanting fruit without counting upon it. The first point to rememlx^r is that it must be d()n<> with discrimination; for a jilant disease cannot be combated with an insecticide nor vice versa. Second, sj)raying for ])lant diseases must Ik? preventive; no n^medy is known for diseast^s which have gained entrance to the plant tissues. Third, sprays for insects must be suited to the kind of insects. Those that bite off and swallow pieces of plant tissue mu.st l)c poisoned internally, and tliose that merely suck the juice from the plant killed by some substance which chokes, burns or otherwise destroys them through their skins. Experiment station literature is rich in information on methods of control. Harvesting and Marketing are rai)idly becoming more ])usines.slike. Clrowers are recognizing the advantages from grading their fruit and selling each grade for what it is. They are also learning that the laws which si)ecify standard sizes for packages are steps in the right direction, so are adopting the new standards with i)r()fit to themselves and their cdMimunities. The Value and Importance of the Home Fruit Garden to the general farmer lies mainly in the variety of pleasures as well as in the addition to the (Uet supplied. Such a plantation should contain all kinds of fruits so the table may be supplied from the time strawberries first ripen till the last winter apples are used the following year wlun strawberries come in again. Two or three rows of strawberries one Inmdred feet long, one each of black, red and purple ra.s])berries, one of dewberries, and one or two of blackberries or loganberries should suj)ply an average sized family through- out the year with fresh and canned fruit, jelly, jam and pres(>rves. Twenty- five i)lants each of gooseberries and ciuTants should sufhce. By chsing early and late maturing grape varieties, such a family should Ih» able to eat the product of twenty or thirty vines, ]K'rhaps more. A dozen or a score of plum, peach and cherr>' trees, early and late, a,s many each of dwarf and standard jx-ars, perh;ii)s half a dozen (juinces, and forty or fifty apples trees begiiuiing with a few sununer a])ples, continuing through fall varieties and ending with at least half or perhaps two-thirds of the trees of varieties that reach their best between Cliristmas and May Day will supi)ly the needs of the .average familw Quality First for the Home.— In .all cases the choice of varieties for the home sliould fall on fruits of l)est cjuality, citluT for de.>i.sert. for cooking or preserving. For local markets fewer varieties, preferably the Invst known kinds of the section, should be given preference. N<'Ver choose for business puriJObCb varietiea that have not been fully tcbted locally, no matter how PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 79 famous they may be elsewhere. They may fail to come up to their standard estabUshed in some other sections. REFERENCES "Principles of Fruit Growing." Bailey. "Popular Fruit Growing." Green. "How to Make a Fruit Garden." Fletcher. "Fruit Growing in Arid Regions." Paddock and Whipple. "Beginners' Guide to Fruit Growing." Waugh. "Propagation of Plants." Fuller. "Fruit Harvesting and Storing." Austin. "Nursery Book." Bailey. Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Experimental Results of Young Orchards in Pennsylvania." Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 211. "Fruits Recommended for Planting." 212. "An Orchard Survey." CHAPTER 8 Small Fruits By Phofkssou L. C. Corbett In charge of Ilorticullural and Pomological Investigations, United /States Department of Agriculture The small fruit interests of the United States are made up of a diversity of fruits adapted to a wide range of territory' and conditions. The cash value of these crops approximates $20,000,000 annually, two-thirds of which is derivetl from the strawberry', the most cosmopolitan of the small fruits. The second place is contested })y the rasji])erry and the hlacklH-rry, both of which are imjxjrtant money crops, and the fourth crop of imix)rtance is the cranberrj', which is restricted both by climate and by soil require- ments. Each of the important small fruits is here given a brief but, it is hoped, clear and concise treatment. THE STRAWBERRY The garden strawberry is an American product. It atlapts itself to a wider range of latitude and to greater extremes in en^^romnent than any other cultivated fruit. It is universally liked and is cosmopolitan in its adaptations. Selection of Soil. — The soil Ix^st suited to the cultivation of the straw- Ix'rry in the nort lua-stern part of the United States is a sandy or gravelly loam. A warm, quick soil, although naturally poor, is to Ih> preferred to a heavy, retentive soil well suj>plied with plant-food. The lacking plant- food can easily be sui^plied l)y the addition of fertilizers, while the j)hysic;U characteristics of the .soil can Ik* modified only with great difficulty by culti- vation, drainage and the addition of organic matter. Congenial soil and exjM)sure are, therefore, important considerations. Preparation of the Soil. — The land to Ih^ devoted to strawl>^rries should, if ])os>ilil(', !>(' i)lante dcM^ply plowed in order that all organic matter t)f whatever nature on the surface may i>v comjjletely turned unchr. Immediately following the plow the land .should Ix' thor- ouglily pulverized by the u.s<' of the harrow, and the surface should be reduced to a condition which would form an ideal seed-bed. 80 SMALL FRUITS 81 Fertilizers.^ — If the soil is not rich, for best results it should have a dressing of at least twenty cartloads of well-decomposed stable manure per acre, either plowed under or incorporated ^dth the soil by surface culture after plo^o-ing. If stable manure is not available, plant-food should be supplied by a liberal use of fine-ground bone and chemical manures rich in nitrogen and potash. The use upon the plants at blooming time of highly nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda, at the rate of about 100 pounds per acre often proves of great value. If it can be applied in solution it vnll give quicker results than if put on in the form of a salt. A Spray of Good Stra'W'berries. Uniformity in size and form increases the market price. Selecting and Preparing the Plants. — Plants with small crowns, i. e., a moderate growth of leaves, and with an abundant development of fibrous roots, are most desirable. If the cro^Ti and the roots of the plant are in good condition, the success of the plantation is assured, provided the ground has been well prepared and the work of planting is done with care. Perfect and Imperfect Flowered Plants. — Strawberries occur with imperfect (or pistillate) flowers as well as with perfect flowers (those containing both stamens and pistils). It is important to give careful attention to this point in planting a plantation, as a patch made up of pistillate sorts alone will be unproductive, while many such sorts when 82 SUCCESSFUL FARMING propt'rly intiTspcrscd witli ixTfect-flowcred varii-tics have j)rovtd to be the largest fruit^^d and iiio.st prolific sorts. A common practice is to set evor>' fourth or fifth row with a jHTfcct-flowircd sort which Mooms at the same jicriod as the i)istillat(' variety of which the i)lantation is chiefly composed. When to Set the Plants. — The time to i)laiit depends, in humid regions, more upon the rainfall t haii ujxtn any other factor. If there are not timely rains at the jilaiiting season to give the i)lants an o])j)()rttinity to estaMish tiiemselves, the stand will he uneven, \\ith the result that more work will i>e required to keep the land free from weeds and more trouble will be neces- Plantin(; a Strawberky Runner. On tho right a plant rnrrcctly iilanfod, showing roots sjiroad out; on the left a plant put in in the wronii position with roots crowded toRother. sary to fill the blank spaces with runners from the i)lMnts that survive. The plants that withstand the drought are checked and dwarfed. Tliey seldom recover so jvs to nuike eitluT satisfactory croi)|>ers or plant producers. It is most satisfactory and most economical, therefon*, to choose that sea.son which ofTers most advantages at ])lanting time, other things being ('(jual. It is imi)ossible to specify the s<'as(»n for each locality or even for large areas, as l(K'al conditions of soil and climate necessitate different practices in localities only a short distance apart. In general there are only two .«?ea.'*ons for planting — spring and auttnnn — l>ut in some localities spring ])lanting should be done in Ai)ril or .May by the use of the i)receding season's plants, while in others it may be donr in .lunr from the crop of runners of the sjune season. SMALL FRUITS 83 In irrigated regions planting can be done at whatever season the work will give best results in future crop production. In humid regions rainfall is a determining factor. How to Set the Plants. — Success in transplanting strawberry plants depends, first, on the quality of the plant, and, second, upon the time and manner of doing the work. If the plants are good, the stand, other condi- tions being favorable, depends upon care in setting them. The success of this operation is measured by the degree of compactness of the soil about the roots of the plant. If the plant has many roots and these are thrust into a hole made by an ordinary dibble, it is more difficult to get the earth in contact ^vith the roots than when the plant has fewer roots. The plant with the greatest number of feeding roots is, however, the most desirable if properly handled. Such plants should be set in a broad, flat hole where the roots can be spread out in natural form. By giving the crown of the plant a whirl between the thumb and finger to throw the roots out like the ribs of an umbrella and quickly putting it in place while the roots are still thrown out from the crown, the normal position of the root system can be closely approached. Another very satisfactory method is to open a broad wedge-shaped hole by thrusting the blade of a bright spade into the soil and moving the handle forward. The roots of the plant are then spread in fan shape and placed in the hole back of the spade. The spade is then withdrawn and inserted about six inches further forward, and by a backward movement of the handle the earth is firmly pressed against the roots of the plant. Two persons — a man to operate the spade and a boy to place the plants — can set plants very rapidly in this manner. This practice is particularly well suited to localities with sparse rainfall, as it thoroughly compacts the earth about the roots of the plant and allows the roots to extend full length into the moist soil. Plants set in this way have their roots more deeply inserted in the soil than when the roots are spread out in umbrella fashion and as deeply as when set with a dibble. They also have the additional advantage of being spread out so as to have a larger percentage of their surface actually in contact with the soil than when set with a round dibble. Depth to Set the Plants. — No plant which the gardener has to handle is more exacting in regard to depth of planting than the strawberry. As the plant is practically stemless, the base of the leaves and the roots being so close together, care is required to avoid setting the plant so deep that the terminal bud will be covered or so shallow that the upper portion of the roots will be exposed, either being a disadvantage which frequently results in the death of the plant. Planting in Hills. — For the hill system of culture plants are set singly either 3 by 3 feet apart, or with the rows 4 feet apart and the plants 2 feet apart in the row, depending upon the character of the soil and the length of time the plantation is to be maintained. In Florida a common practice is to lay the land off in broad beds 8 to 12 feet wide, the rows of plants to R4 SUCCESSFUL FARMING run lengthwise of the beds, the rows 24 inches apart, with the i)lants 18 inches apart in the rows. Such beds afford sufficient drainage and hold the iiuilch better than narrow beds or raised rows, and the space between the plants admits li^ht to all sides of the j)lant — an advantage in eolnring the fruits which can not be s<'cured by the matted row system early in the season in the; climate of Florida. A common jiractice is to set the plants in single tows 4 feet apart, with the plants 12 inches apart in the row. The runners which develop from these i)lants are then allowed to take possession of the area for 6 to 9 inches on cither side of the original plants, thus making a matted row 12 to 18 inches wide; this leaves 30 inches between the rows, which allows ainjile space for cultivation and gathering the fruit. This space can be reduced from 30 inches to as little as 18 inches where land is valuable and it is necessary to secun^ maximum returns; on tliin soil, however, the greater distance is most satisfactory. Renewing Old Beds. — There is one advantage in the narrow cultivated space. Al'tei- 1 he second cro]) has been harvested the runners can l)e allowed to take i)ossession of the cultivated middle, and when the young j)lants become thoroughly established the original rows can be broken uji with a narrow turning plow or a sharp cultivator. In this way a patch can be very satisfactorily and clicaj)ly renewed, and by a lil>eral use of suital)le fertilizers the rotation can be kej)t up on tiie same soil for several yeai-s. Some planters ])refer to set the j)lants for the matted row in a double row at planting time. The practice is to establish two rows 12 inches ajjart, 6 inches on each side of the center of the matted belt, setting the plants 2 feet apart in each row and alternating the jilants in the row, so that the plants actually stand a little over a foot ai)art as shown in the accompanying diagram : Cultivation. — Clean and sliallow culture are the watchwords of success- ful cultivators. By conserving moisture, cultivation tends to coimterbal- ance tiie evil effect of drought. A l)ett(>r stand of plants can be maintained during a dry i)eriod on well-tillecl ground than ujjon ground that is poorly cultivated. The mechanical effect of grinding the .soil ui)on itself during cultivation reduces it to smaller particles, thus exjwsing more surface to the action of soil moisture, and, as a iv.sult, increasing the available plant-food of the soil. The l)enelit fronj i)reserving a soil mulch, with its con.st^quent economy in the use of soil moisture, is sufficiently imiwrtant to justify thorougli tillage. Objects of Mulching. — Covering the surface of the soil with dead or decaying veuetal»Ie matter is the meaning of the term nnilching as here used. Mulching serves different purixises, dei)ending upi>n the h»cality SMALL FRUITS 85 in which the plants are grown. A mulch acts as a protection from cold, prevents freezing and thawing and the consequent lifting of the plants ("heaving out"); it retards growth in cold regions by shading the crowns and maintaining a low soil temperature longer than in soil not mulched; it acts as a conserver of moisture, discourages weed growth by smothering the young seedling, and finally protects the fruit from contact with the soil. Materials for Mulch. — Whole or cut straw free from grains, strawy manure from the horse stable, and pine straw from the forest are among the more common mulching materials. In certain sections marsh hay, either from fresh or salt water marshes, is a common and very satisfactory mulching material. When to Apply the Mulch. — At the North where the soil is likely to freeze and thaw several times in the course of the winter, it is the practice American Quart Boxes of Well-Graded Strawberries.* "Fancy" on the right, "No. 1" on the left. to put on the mulch as soon as the ground is sufficiently frozen to allow driving upon it with a loaded cart or wagon. Where the freezing of the soil is only superficial or only temporary, if at all, the mulch serves the purpose of a protection from wind more than from frost, and in such sections the mulch is put on as soon as active growth ceases, usually early in December- and is allowed to remain until after the crop is harvested. Harvesting and Shipping. — The time of gathering the fruit, as well as the manner of handling, is governed by the use to which it is to be put. If intended for a local market, much riper fruits can be handled than when they are to be shipped long distances. The most progressive growers of strawberries for local markets not only give particular attention to the ripeness of the fruit, but to assorting 1 From J'armers' Bulletin 664, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 86 SUCCESSFUL FARMING and gnulinn iu> well, only large, perfect berries being placed in the first gnidt' and :dl Mnall or soiled fruits in the second. Receptacles. — Whether it is to lie shii)ped in crates or refrigerator carriers or to i>c carried to the local market, for best results the fruit should not 1)C rehandlocl after it is picked. 'J'he j)ickers should l>c trained to do the ncces.sary assorting and grading iia they i)i(k the fruit in the receptacles in which it is to be marketed. The light splint-wood basket, holding one (iii;iii,is the most pop- ular and most universally used. Many ditTcrent forms of box or basket have been designed, and various materials other than wood have been used in their construction, but up to the i)resent none lias met with general adoption. THE RASPBERRY The name raspberry, as used in the I'nited States, embraces four distinct species of i)lants, three of which are of American origin, thus placing to the credit of our native plants three imi)oi-tant and widely cultivated culinary fruits. The two types of fruits represented by these species are known jiopularlj' as vvd raspberries and black nusjiberries or "blackcaps." The red-raspberry group, as k presented in cultivation, includes not only the native; red ivispberry but the iMiropean red ras})l>erry, or bramble, and a tyjw intermediate between the native red and black rasjjberry, which bears a purj)le fruit and is frequently spoken of as the *'i)uri)le-cane'' rasjiberry or as the "Schafer grouj)." The red-raspberrj' group, Ixjsides having varieties which produce the characteristic red fruits, has another set of varieties which i)r()du('e amber or yellow fruit. These horticultural varieties are recognized and are considereil tiistinct sorts, but are not separated botanically into difTerent siK'cies. The black raspl)erry is distinct both in habit of growth and in the makeup of its fruit. It is recognizcHl botanically as a species distinct from the three which enter into the red-rasi)berry group. The habits of this plant and the quality of its Ix'rries are such that it has gained an imjwrtant place in certain sections of this country as a commercial fruit. The fact that the varieties of the red-berry type have to l)e marketed from the bushes as .soon as ripe confines their cultivation to the vicinity of large centei-s of consumption, where climatic and soil conditions favor their development. The black-ra-sjiberry industry, however, can he [irofitably and successfully carried on in regions more remote from the centers of consumption, because of the fact that a large proportion of the fruits are evaporated and are .sold in a dry state, there being rcady sale for them wlicn liaiidU'd in this way. Red Raspberries. — The red-raspl)erry grouji includes varieties which lM\'ir fruits of various shades of red, amU'r, yellow and imrple. the last- named division being a hybrid between the red and the black tyix^s. SMALL FRUITS 87 Selection and Preparation of SoiL — The soil upon which red rasp- berries thrive best is a sandy or clay loam of a glacial drift formation. They thrive well upon moderately rich, deep soils and yield largest returns under these conditions. The preparation of the soil for red raspberries should be the same as for any small fruit, preferably one or two seasons' preparatory tillage in a "hoe crop," which will to a very large extent rid the land of weeds. Such crops as potatoes, beans, cowpeas and plants of this nature are good preparatory crops. Planting. — The distance to plant will depend very largely upon the purpose for which the plantation is intended. If it is a commercial plan- Land that will Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Fruits.^ tation upon soil which is not especially valuable, the plants should be 3 feet apart in the row, and the rows not less than 6 feet apart. This will allow of cultivation in both directions for two or three years, and will permit the use of horse-power implements, and consequently will lessen greatly the cost of tillage. On city lots or in a home fruit garden, where it becomes desirable to combine in the same plantation raspberries and other fruit-bearing plants, the distance can be somewhat lessened, but even under these conditions the plants should not be set closer than 2 feet apart in the row and the rows not less than 4 feet apart. In home fruit gardens small holes can be opened with a spade, the plant roots spread in the ordinary fashion for jalanting larger plants, and the 1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 8.S SUCCESSFUL FARMING eurtli n'tiirne*!; but in all ciisoh it. hIiouIcI l)c the aim to firm the earth well over tlic mots of the |)lantH !is tlicy arc set. Cultivation. — (Iran cultivation is ncceasar>' with rod ra.spl terries, because, as above stalecl, they are iheniseives of a weedy nature, and, in order to hold them within bounds, implements which cut all the superllue accom- plisluMJ in two directions. Later, however, as the |»lantation grows older, it. will be found advantanoous, b(»t li in yield of fruit, and for economy, to allow t he j^lants to form a hedne or jnalted row, and to jiractice cultiva- t ion in one direction only. The si)ace between the licdges should be plowed at le/ist once each year, and whether this shall bo done in the spring or in the autumn will depend upon the locality. Fertilizers. — The liberal use (»f stable niMnure (20 tons per acre) will l)roducc large yielfls of fruit, but the use of a ct)mplctc fertilizer, containing nitrogen 4.5 i)er cent, phosphoric acid (available) 7.7 per cent, pota.sh V.iM per cent, at the rate of otX) poun- berries, consists in to|)ping the young shoots when they have attained a height «»f from 18 to 120 inches. This induces tin- development <»f side slnKits and the production of additional sprouts from the ixkA. Hoth these tyjK'S i I 1 1 I ^ \>^ ryTy \^ N j \ ^ » "1 " •\ SMALL FRUITS m of growth are desirable in order to insure us large a growth ol' wood ;i.s 11,(! plants can carry to advantage. The winter pruning is a jjrocoss of elimination. All can(^s which have served their ])uri)os(; as fi'uii produ('(!rs are niuioved, as ai'(! all dead <,i' diseased canes, thus reducing the demands up(;n the r(;ots of tl;e ].lant and directing the energy to the wood intended for fruit production. Harvesting the Fruit.— l*>(H*ause of tlu; soft (!hai-act(T of this fruit, it can t)(! su(tc(ssfully harvesi(!d only by hand ])i(!king. Hniall nscc^i.taclcs liolding not rnor(! tlian a ])int, and preferably thos(; inade of wo(;(l, ar(! hcst suit(!d for luuidling this crop. Under favorable con(liti(;ns, the yield emed inade(piate, additional jirotection may be provi(l(>d hy a layer of .straw, strawy mamire or corn fodder. Fertilizers. — Stable manure in moderate cjuantities, supplemented by a fertilizer carrying; 4 to 5 per cent of nitrogen, 10 to 12 per cent of phos- phoric acid and from G to 8 per cent of j)otash, will j)rove beneficial. Such a fertilizer, if apj^lied at the rate of from 300 to P>()i) pounds i)er acre, should so increase the yield as to make its use profitable. Pruning. — Hecause of its manner of fruit bearing, the black raspl^erry requires care in annual pruning; in fact, j)runinp; nnist be done at two .^sea- sons of the year in order to accomi)lish the best results. The young shoots as they appear from the roots in the spring should be tipped or disl)udded when they reach the lieight of 18 inches. It is better to go over the plan- tation fre{|uently, making three or four ir'ips in all, in order to tip the canes when they are al)out the height mentioned, rather than to delay the ojxjration until some of them have reached a height of 2 to 2J feet. The early pincliing or disbudding induces the development of more numerous lateral branches. Shoots which liave been allowed to harden and to grow 2 or 3 feet in height will form few lateral branches. If tipped wlien IS inches high, a cane should ])roduce four, five, or six lateral branches. If allowed to attain a height of 3 feet and then cut back to 18 inches, it is probable that not more than two or three lateral branches will be formed; and, since these lateral brandies form the fruit-bearing wood of the succeetling season, it is very desirable that tlie greatest ptissible number of branches be secured to insure a heavy croj) of fruit. It is evident, therefore, that summer pruning predetermines the crop for the succeeding year more than does any other single cultural factor. The .scc(jnd pruning, which is also important, consists in removing the canes which bore the last croj) of fruit. This work can be (k)ne at any time after the crop has been harvested, but jireferably during the spring following the crop. If the work is done in the si)ring the lateral branches borne by the canes which developed from the roots of the mother plant should at the .same time 1k> shortened to about S to 12 inches in length. From each bud of these siiort l)ranches annual growth will he made which will terminate in a fruit cluster. Harvesting. — Black raspberries to h>e mark(>ted as fresh fruit for imme- diate consumption are always hanil picked and placed in either pint or quart boxes similar to those used for strawberries. Those to be dried or SMALLFRUITS 91 evaporated, or to be marketed as dried raspberries, may be either hand picked or harvested with a mechanical contrivance called a "bat." This consists of a frame of light lumber a few inches deep backed up by strong cloth against which the ripe fruit strikes as it is jarred from the bushes by tapping them gently with a light stick or "bat," while the cloth-covered frame is held under the plants in such a position as to catch the fruits as they fall. Such fruits, after drying, are run through a fanning mill to sepa- rate leaves and stems, after which they are hand picked in much the same manner as beans, to remove all imperfect and green fruits, as well as those which still hold the receptacle. THE BLACKBERRY The blackberry in the United States is a native bramble of wide distri- bution over the eastern and northern part of the country. The fruit of the wild blackberry was an important factor in the supply of condiments provided by the early settlers. The esteem in which this fruit was held led to the cultivation of some of the wild plants producing berries of supe- rior size or flavor, or those ripening in advance of the main crop, or such as lagged behind and thus extended the season for the fresh fruit. Such selections from the wild blackberries and their seedlings furnish the culti- vated sorts of today. What may yet appear is suggested by some of the remarkable hybrids which have already been produced in this genus such as the Logan berry. The chief considerations in the selection of a location for a blackberry plantation are the facilities for harvesting and marketing the crop and the moisture condition of the soil. The fruit of the blackberry is highly perishable and will not endure rough handling in harvesting or long journeys over rough roads. Few crops are more adversely affected by a lack of adequate moisture during the period of development and ripening than the blackberry, but an excess of moisture during the dormant period is equally as detrimental. Soil. — The blackberry is not exacting as regards the general type of soil and will do fairly well on a clay, clay loam or sandy loam. The largest yields are on deep, rich soils which provide an extensive feeding area for the roots of the plants. The preparation for blackberries should be such as to provide a deep, mellow root area and the best possible protection against rank growths of annual weeds. A hoe crop such as corn, beans or potatoes, if properly tended, leaves the area in the best possible condition for the small fruits. While the roots of the blackberry are perennial, the canes or branches are practically biennial. The shoots spring up and grow one season from the fruiting canes of the following season, after which they die and should be removed to make room for the new growth of the following year. The fruit is borne only on wood of last season's growth in the standard high bush blackberries and dewberries, but the Himalaya and ever-bearing 29 92 SUCCESSFUL FARMING t>iK*s havp jHTciuiial canes and do not tluTcforo lend themselves to tliis ty|>e of renewal. Propagation. — 'I'lie ])lantation of llic standard l)lackl)erries can be incr(':us('d in citlicr or hotli of two ways, as follows: Tlic plants, in addition to tlirowinji; up stronj; shoots or canes from the crown, throw up suckers or root sprouts, which may be allowed to develop and later l)e lifted as inde- pendent plants, or lateral roots of strong plants may be dug durinR the autunm or early si)rinj>; and ])laced in sand nuich the same as are ordinary cuttinu;s, excei)t that blackberry root cuttings are cut to jiieces 2 to 3 inches in lenj;th and should be entirely coveretl with sand or light s(jil to the depth of 2 to 3 inches. Nui-serymen propagate their supply of j)lants largely by the root-cutting method. In one season root cuttings of this s.)rt should jjroduce strong jjjants for transplanting. The dewberry and certain blackberry hyi)rids take root at the tips, the same as do black ntspberries, and new ])lants are secured l)y covering th.e tips of each jjlant v/ith earth toN/ards the enrries are for the most part rank-;;r,>wiiii; i)laiits and i('(|uire lilxTal distances in and between tl:e rows. A cj:n:n )n i)lanting j)lan is 4 feet in the row and 8 to 10 feet between the rows. In general, the best time for establishing a blackberry' plantation is in the spring and, as.grow'th normally starts early, the work of planting should !)(' d )ne as early as soil conditions will |--ermit. As the blackberry ])lants will not fully occujjy the land the first .season, it is customary to use some inter-crop, such as potatoes or beans, to ccn- tribute t )war(ls the cost of maintenance. The tillage of the blackberry ])lantation siiould be such as to hold weeds and suckers in check and maintain niaxiinuni mcisture anrry i^Iantation has been established api)oars to re(|uire fertilizer, exjjerience dictates that the best results will in general be sicuretl by the use of liberal applications of .stable manure. Pruning and Training. — The blackl crry plant normally pnihues long, slender, non-branching shoots. These, where the soil is strong, grow long and j)roduc(! less fruit than those which have been pruned. A ccmnion practice is to pinch the terminal bud of each shoot as .soi.n as it readies a height of 2.^ feet with moderate growing varieties, or 3 feet with n.bust growing .sorts. This induces the formation of lateral branches which increjuses the munber of buds from which fruit-l)earing twigs will develop the following spring. The ])runing causes the main stem of the sho«)t to thicken and stilTen and con.se(juently make it better able to carry a large crop of fruit without a trellis. The lateral branches which are induced to develoj) on the pinched-back shoots should be shortened to 10 or 12 inches Ixjfore growth starts in the spring. Harvesting. The fruit should be harvested as .soon as well colored. SMALL FRUITS on and only firm, sound beiTies should be sent to market. A few over-ripe fruits in a box will shorten the marketing period of the whole box, as will rough handling in picking cr transporting the fruit to market. Quart boxes are as large a receptacle as blackberries can be successfully marketed in, but the crates may run frcm 12 to 36 quarts capacity. THE CURRANT There are three general groups of currants cultivated to a greater or less degree in various parts of the United States. In general, however, the culture of the currant is confined to the northern half of the country, Currants Should Find a Place in Every Home G.'Uiden.i as none of the forms are able to withstand heat as well as they do cold. Of the three types represented by the common red, the Black and the Crandall, the Red is by far the most important from a commercial stand- point and is the form most generally cultivated. The other two are spar- ingly grown for special purposes. As currants are in little demand as fresh table fruits, but are almost universally used for the preparation of jellies, jams, preserves or for canning in mixture with sour cherries or red rasp- berries, they are restricted commercially. This should be borne in mind in planning a small fruit plantation. While the currant should be found in every home fruit plantation throughout the northern tier of states on ' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 91 SUCCESSFUL FARMING account of its hardiness, and oar ly and pprsistoni fruit production, it would l)c an easy matter to carry tlic coiiiiucrcial jjroduction beyond i)ro(ital»Ie limits. 'I'lieii. too, the currant is a fruit that is relatively expensive to J)ick, ua the work must all he done hy hand. Soil Requirements. — The currant thrivc^s hest on a deep, moi.st, yet wcll-draine(| loam or sandy loam, hut will thrive and produce on a sreat variety of soils, j)rovide(l they are arable and neither too wet nor tit of the plant should be carefully observed and the later ])runing carri«'d on in such a way as to pro- vide as nnich U-aring wiiod as the plant will carry and yet not overburden it or allow ws and diseases. Stable manure, bone meal or otlier higii grade fortihz(!rs sliould be used to maintain the plants in a high state of growth and vigor. Enemies and Diseases. — If the plants become infested with the currant woi'in, as th(; nui soils an; almost certain to be, the; plants should bo thor- ouglily s|)niycd witii a soluti(m of Paris greeu, 5 ounc(!s to 30 gallons of \vat(;r, or dusted with white hellebore. If mildew is troublesome, liordeaux mixture should be used. As a rule, however, currants are not as -seriously aff(!ct(!d by mildc.w as aix; the goos(;bcrri(!S. Harvesting the Fruit.- ('uirants should l)e carefully picked so as to maintain the little gi'apc-likc clusters of fruit intact. Berries torn or strii)ped from the stems do not keep or ship as well as those carefully handled. The most popular receptacle for shipping currants is the quart strawlKiiTy box, but (uinifuily })icked curi-ants will carry well in 4 or 10- pound climax baskets with scale l)(Kird covers. GOOSEBERRY The gooseberry of I'^urope was early brought to this country by the colonists, but, like the grap(!S whi(-h they brought, it was not suited to the now conditions. An accei)tal)l(! substitute was found in the wild gooseberry of the realm, and from those wild [)lants, or th(!ir seedlings, have developed tiie most valuable of the sorts adapted to eastern United States. The ICuroi^ean sorts liave proven better suited to the extreme northwest condi- tions in the UnitxHl Stat(!S and are there cultivated to a liinited extent. In general, howev(!r, the basis of the commercial gooseberry industry is the American varieties. The cultural range of the gooseberry coincides in general with that of the currant, but it is able to withstand a slightly higher temperature than the currant and its southern limit of cultivation extends somewhat farther than that of the cui'rant. Soil. — The gooseberry thrives well on a considerable diversity of soils, but rich, moist, well-drained loams or clays offer the most congenial condi- tions for the ])lant. Under a favora})le environment thc5 plants should continue in good condition long enough to produce seven to ten crops of fruit, aftei- which the i)lants will be well spent. Preparation of Land. — The area to be planted in gooseberries should receive at least one season of preparatory treatmcint if practical)le, before the plants are set. This should consist of a crop which is well tilled and ke[)t free of wcicds, or one which, by reason of its density and rank growth, will smother the weeds. Plants for Setting. — While the gooseberry can be propagated with a fair degree of succ distances are (5 feet l)ct\vcen the rows and i to 5 or (i feet between the j)lants in the row. Plant- ing can i)e facilitated by opening a dead furntw along the line of tlie row and by marking the field in the opjusite direction so as to indicate the points in the row where the plants are to stand. Well-set Buancu of Gooseuekiues.' Cultivation. (looseberries form their root system luwv the surface of th(^ ground. Cultivation should conform to the habits of the plants and be shalloU- enough not to be injurious to them. The main purpo.sc of cultivation should be to conserve moisture, i)articularly early in the se;is(>ii while the fruit is forming and ripening. Fertilizers. Few tests have been made to determine the f(>ililizer requirem(!nts of the gooscl)erry. In general well-composted stable manurt^ will prove to l>e a satisfactory fertilizer. On exten.sive plantations where fertilizers are evidently refjuired it will 1)C l)est to inaugurate a simple t(!st to defermin*' the combination and amount Ixjst suited to the ncctls of the j)arli. At least seventy-five per cent of the entire grape output of the Tnited States is from fruit of the vinifera varieties. Nearly one hundred per cent of the raisin and grape brandies and about eighty per cent of nil other grape products pro- duced in this coimtry come from California. (2) The American Native grape regions in which improved varieties GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 99 of American Euvitis are grown for table grape, wine and unfermented grape juice purposes. This is scattered over the entire United States east of the Rockies and west of the Alleghany Mountains, but carried on extensively in the States from the Hudson River west and north of the Ohio River and that border on the Great Lakes and in the more centrally located States of the Mississippi Valley. The great bulk of American champagnes and dry wines and unfermented juices come from this region, (3) The Muscadine region, in which improved varieties of Rotunde- folia and Munsoniana are grown for commercial purposes. This region is found in the South Atlantic and Gulf States and along the lower Mis- sissippi Valley, extending from Maryland, south to Texas on the west, thence north along the Mississippi River to Southeast Missouri and Tennessee. There are more native grape species in this country than in all the other countries of the world combined, and America in her native grapes has not only given to the world new fruits, but by judicious use of such species will make it possible to successfully grow varieties of some of them in all parts of the United States. Soil. — Soil, location and site will differ greatly with the object in view. Some varieties of grapes may be grown on almost any soil. Usually those lands are selected that can be prepared and planted with the least labor, that are the easiest to cultivate and which produce the largest crops. Quality and quantity, however, in most cases do not go hand in hand. The best soils for Vinifera and American Euvitis is a gently sloping, well-drained, calcareous loam, of sufficient depth, with porous subsoil; gravel or small stones in a so'l are not a detriment. Some prefer a sandy soil with a gravelly substratum. The best soils for Muscadine grapes are the well-drained, siliceous soils found bordering the coast and river banks throughout the Atlantic tidewater section, known as sandy ridges, as hammock and trucking soils. It should be open and well drained, but not necessarily very deep, provided the subsoil is not too heavy, as Muscadines have a shallow spreading root system. Whether it be intended to grow Vinifera, American Euvitis or Mus- cadines, the place should have a good water supply, be of easy access to market, and free from late spring frosts. The cellar, pasteurizing or packing house should be centrally located on the place, preferably so that the grapes can be hauled down grade, or at least on a level. Preparation of the Soil. — The soil should be well prepared, cleared of large stones, stumps and other obstructions. When a thin hardpan occurs closer than 33^2 feet from the surface, it should be broken by blasting. Any wet spots should be carefully drained. If it be a virgin soil, raising a crop of grain on it the season previous to planting helps materially to put it in good shape. The soil should not only be thoroughly and deeply plowed, but subsoiled as well, then thoroughly harrowed and the clods crushed with a drag or roller. 100 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Fertilizers. — On partially exhausted or poor soil, such manures and fertilizers should l)e apphed as will sui)i)ly the deficient ingredients. A liberal ai)|)li('ation of l)arnyard manure is usually advisable. If the soil lacks in fruit-proiiucinR qualities, potash is neeoses in this coimtry are Alex.-mdria, Alicante, liouschel, lilack HMml>urg, Burger, ( "abernet, Sauvignon, Carignaiie Chju^sclas de Kont.'iinebleau, Cinsaut, Dodrelabi, Emperor, Flame Tokay, Green Ilungarien, CJrenache, GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 101 Listan, Malaga, Mission, Mondcuse, Mourastcll, Mus(;adcllc du Bordelais, Olivette blanche. Olivette noir, Pedro Ximines, Petit i-^yrah, Pinot de Chardonnay, Purple Damascus, Saint Macaire, Sauvignon Vert, Simillon, Sultana, Sultaiiina, Sylvaner, Traminer, Valdepcnas, Velt-liner, Vermen- tino and Zinfandel. As vinifera varieties are not phylloxera resistant and no way has been found to eradicate it from vineyards, it is conceded the only way to successfully combat the phylloxera in all soils which can- not be cheaply and sufficiently flooded to kill it, is to establish vinifera vineyards on phylloxera resistant stocks. Of American Euvitis varieties. At present nine-tenths of the plant- ing are of Concord. The next most imi)ortant variety is the Delaware. A Typical Vinifeka IIillsidk Vinkyakd in California Other varieties, grown more or less extensively, are Agawam, Barry, Brighton, Brilliant, Campbell, Carman, Catawba, (yhampenel, Clevener, Clinton, Cynthiana, Diamond, Diana, Dutchess, Elvira, Eumcilan, Goethe, Her})em()nt, Herbert, Isabella, Ives, J(!ff(!rson, Lenoir, Lindley, Moores, Missouri Riesling, Montefiore, Niagara, Noah, Nortons, Pierce, Salem, Wilder, Winchell, Wooden and Wyoming. Of Muscadine varieties. The Scuppcrnong is today more extensively grown than any other variety. The otluir catalogued varieties being J*]dcn, Flowers, James, Memory, Mish and Thomas. Propagation. — In ordinary practice, grape vines are propagated from seed, from cuttings, by layering or by grafting. Seedlings should only be used when it is desired to originate new varieties. Cuttings should always be made from young, well-matured wood and preferably from medium-sized, short-jointed wood. To make cuttings, cut close below the lower bud, making the cut somewhat slanting, and leave about an inch of wood above the upper bud. If a small piece of the old wood or a whorl of buds can be left at the butt end of the cutting, so 102 SUCCESSFUL FARMING much the better. The lonj^li of the cuttings may \ary from eight to twenty inches, depending on the cHmatie and other conditions of the locality in which they are to be planted. Keep dormant until they are planted. Plant in sjjring after the ground htis become warm enough. Layers.- Ml varieties of vines may be j)roj)agated by hiyers. Mus- cadines are nearly always propagated in this manner, but with other sjx^cies layering is only resorted to with varieties which do not root easily from cuttings. In layering, choose canes of last sea.son's growth, pref- (T:il)ly those that start near the base of the vine. Canes may be layered cither in fall or in spring. Grafting. — Bench nursery and vineyard grafting are resorted to in American Euvitis Pruned and Trelused general vineyard practice. Bench grafting is done on benches or tables, usually indoors during the winter. Cuttings of resistant varieties that root easily or good young jilants are usually bench grafted. The grafting of vines growing in the nursery is called nursery grafting. This is usually resorted to with varieties resistant to phylloxera, that do not grow readily from cuttings. They are grafted with vinifera or non-resistant varieties .•md the resultant vines planted in the vineyard. In vineyartl grafting, the vines growing where they are to remain are grafted. Some of the important practical advantages of grafting are: (1) Changing worthless vines into valuable ones. (2) Insuring non-resistant varieties by grafting them on resistant stocks. (3) Obtaining quickly plenty of wood for gr.ifting purposes, by grafting new or scarce varieties on strong vines. (4) Producing resistant vineyards, by grafting valuable resistant direct producers on roots of growing vines to make roots of their own. Planting, Plowing and Cultivating. — In California, where most of GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 103 the Vinifera regions of the United States are located, the practice has been to plant the vines seven feet apart each way, no trellis, but simply stakes being used as supports. This enabled the growers to plow and cultivate lengthwise and crosswise. Now the tendency is to plant farther apart, some planting 8x8, others 6 x 10, others 9x9, others 8 x 10 and 8 x 12 feet apart. Since the Sultana and Sultanina grapes for seedless raisins and some of the choicer varieties of table grapes are extensively grown for shipping purposes, better results with such being had by growing them on trellis, trellis are coming into general use with them. The vineyards are all plowed twice each year. In the first plowing, the soil is usually thrown away from the vines and in the second plowing it is thrown up to them again. The vineyards being cultivated frequently early in the season, the cultivation being abandoned after the spring rains are over. Typical Rotundifolia Arbors The American Euvitis varieties grown in the States east of the Rocky Mountains are usually planted in rows 8 feet apart, with the vines 8, 10, even 12 feet and more apart, in the rows. A plain trellis of posts, 24 to 30 feet apart, is used, the end posts being firmly braced, to which sometimes only two, but generally three strands of No. 10 or 12 wire are fastened, the first, second and third wires being 24, 40 and 56 inches, respectively, from the ground. Of late years many use a modification of the Munson trellis. In this, pieces of 2x4 inch joist or their equivalent 20 inches long are firmly spiked to the side or on top, when posts are sawed off at the right height (43^ to 5 feet above the ground) for the purpose. The two outer wires are stretched on the ends of the cross joist and the lower wire is either stapled against or run through the posts at the desired distance below (about six inches). The vine- yards are plowed twice and cultivated frequently. Too late cultivation, however, is apt to keep the vines growing too late in the season, caus- ing unnecessary growth, which does not ripen. In growing Muscadines for commercial purposes the system of train- 101 SUCCESSFUL FARMING iiiK almost oxrlusivcly ft)ll<)WO(l is an overhead arbor. When i)hiritey estahlisliing them on resistant stocks. Picking Grapes. — Clrapes for all purposes, except those converted into raisins ami dried p;rapcs, are i)icked in boxes or trays and taken either to the winery, syruj) juice or canning; j)lantH or j)ackinK house. For wine, syrup and unferniented juice purposes, the vintage Ix'^ina when the grajies have about reached the ri])ening stage and continues until all are harvested and those picked last are overrij)c and beginning to shrivel. The higiier the sugar cont(^nt of the grapes, tlu; richer the unfermented juice and the finer the quality of the wines made from them. Talkie grapes for shipping purposes and grajies for canning and other culinary jiurposos are picked at the stage of rij)eness, which the purposes they are used for demand; in each instance, however, earlier than for wine, SjTup and juice puri)oses. In the packhig houses, table grapes for shii)j)ing purposes are care- fully picked over, all decayed and inferior berries being carefully removed. In the American Native grape region, they arc then i)acked, shipjxid and sold in grape baskets. In California, there arc two distinct lines in tlie table grape l>usiness, namely, grapes that are packed, shipped and sold in crates and sold as generally are those from the American Native graj^e regions, without being stored and as soon as the shipments reach their destination. The other line of California table grajx\s are the late rij)ening storage grapes, which are packed with specially j)repared retl wood sawdust into either drums or small barrels, holding from .30 to 50 pounds of gra|x?s. These may be shipped and sold directly, or after being picked, are some- times placed in cold st(jrage in California l)efore shipment in refrigeratee u.seful. For the home orchard or local market, a nnich wider range an«l greater number of varieties are desirable and generally available than for the com- mercial orchard. Among the early varieties, named in the order of rii>en- ing, the Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg and Wealthy are among the l>est, and they thrive ])ractically across the continent. They aic chiefly valuable THE POME FRUITS 111 for culinary use, and are all early bearers. For dessert use, the Early Harvest, Benoni, Maiden Blush, Gravenstein and Jefferis cover about the same season and are almost as widely adapted, at least for home orchards. For the later varieties, more attention should be given to the section in which they are to be grown. In the general belt from New England to Ontario and Michigan, the Mcintosh, Hubbardston, Northern Spy, Tompkins King, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury are the lead- ing sorts, although many others are also grown. This is known as the Baldwin belt. The varieties in it and those later are named approximately in order of maturity. In the next area south, extending roughly from New Jersey and Vir- ginia to Kansas and Oklahoma, the leaders are Grimes, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Stayman Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Black-twig or Paragon, and Winesap. It is known as the Winesap belt. The first two or three varieties used in it are also frequently valuable in the Baldwin belt, and vice versa. The Red Astrachan, Primate, Summer Ramljo, Fall Pippin, Smokehouse and Delicious also do well in many parts of both of these regions. Still farther south, from North Carolina to Texas, the White Juneating, Red June, Horse, Kinnard, Buckingham, Terry, Buncombe and Shockley are the principal sorts. In the Colorado-Utah section, the leading varieties are much the same as those in the Winesap belt, with the Summer Pear- main, White Pearmain and Yellow Bellefleur in addition. In the central northwest, or the general district including Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas and their immediate surroundings, only the harcUest varieties will succeed. For this district the first three early varie- ties named above are among the best. Others available are Tetofski, Borovinka, Charlamoff, Alexander, Hibernal, Gideon, Peerless, Okabena, Plumb Cider, Northwestern, Newell and Patten. This is rather a formi- dable list, both in names and quality, but in the latter respect the Wealthy, Peerless and Patten are best. For the favorable mountain valleys of western Montana, Idaho, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and Nevada, the following varieties are prominent in one or more sections: Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Ortley, Mcintosh, Grimes, Jonathan, Banana, Esopus, Wagener, Rome Beauty, Stayman Winesap, Delicious, Winesap and Yellow Newtown. In California and northward along the coast, the more valuable sorts are the Red Astrachan, Red June, Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Grimes, Jonathan, Esopus, Tompkins King, White and Blue Pearmains, Wagener, Yellow Bellefleur, Missouri Pippin, Gano, Yellow Newtown and Winesap. These lists, supplemented with state and local inquiry to fit the immedi- ate places concerned, should enable one to make satisfactory plantings almost anywhere in the apple-growing region of North America. Purchase and Handling of Nursery Stock. — After deciding upon the varieties, the best way to get the trees is by direct order from responsible 112 SUCCESSFUL FARMING nurseries. It is iinniaterial where the nursery is located, provided the trees it furnishes arc true to name, thoroughly heahhy, entirely dormant, fully matured before dijminp;. anil free from all evidence of faulty storage or imj^rojier handling of any kind. The wood should not show any conspicu- ous blackening at the heart, and the roots should show entire freedom from woolly aphis, crown-gall, hairy root or borers. One-year-old trees of good medium size are usually lx?st, and in no case should they be older than two years from the bud or graft. One-year trees usually cost le.ss, are more easily shipped and trans])lanted and their heads can l3e ]iroperly formed, which is not always the case with older trees. It is well to order early, although the trees may be held at the nursery subject to shipment at planting time. Fall planting is often advisable where the winters are not too severe; otherwise, i)lanting should Ijc done in the spring as soon as the soil is fit. When received the trees should be examined and "heeled in" if jiracticable, with the dirt packed closely alx)ut the roots and the to|)s sloping toward the south or southwest to reduce the danger of sun-scald. Ik'fore ])lanting, the roots should i)e shoi-tened i)ack to about six or eight inches anil tho.se broken or brui-setl should l>e removed with a smooth cut above the point of injury. Laying Out the Orchard. — The orchard may be laid out either on the square or the iicxagonal plan. The latter gives al)out loj percent more trees to the acre at the same distance apart, or loj i)er cent more space for each tree at the same number per acre. The former, however, is rather better for inter-crojjping, sprajing, etc., and in general is rather more simple to care for. A good planting distance is 40 by 40 feet for the permanent trees, with a semi-permanent or filler set in the center of the square. In the case of the smaller-growing varieties, the central trees may often remain indefi- nitely, without disturbing the general jilan of the orchard. Where inter- cropping is sirc(l, tjic ])cnnanents ma>' be set at 82 by 48 or therea!)outs, and then have the .semi-j)ermanents j)laced in the centei'S of the long sides, with very satisfactory results. The latter plan allows two more trees to the acre than the square at 40 by 40, or a total of 50 trees, including both fillers and permanents. Th(^ innnber of trees allowed ]ier acre for any distance in the square or rectangular arrangement may be readily found by determining the num- ber of square feet in the square or rectangle formed by the nearest four trees, and then using this number to divide 48. '^(iO, the mnnber of square feet in an acre. To find the numi)er needed in the hexagonal arrangement, find the numi)er allowed i)v the square plan at the sjxjcificd distance and then incre:ust^ this number by 15.47 per cent. The square or rectangular arrangement can be laid out readily by plowing straight, deep furrows for the rows and then drawing a chain or other drag across them at the distances reipiiri'd for the tnvs. The hex- agonal plan is best laid out by means of a couple of light wires or chains, with THE POME FRUITS 113 one end of each fastened to a single 25-inch ring and with a similar ring attached to the free end of each. These chains or wires must be exactly equal in length, and they should just reach over stakes set at the distance desired for the trees. Planting the Trees. — The avoidance of all unnecessary root-exposure and thorough firming of the soil about the roots are the principal secrets of success in tree planting. The soil on the immediate surface, however, should be left rather loose. If the trees or soil are inclined to be dry, the roots may well be soaked in water for several hours before planting, but water is seldom or never needed in the holes themselves. Set the trees from one to three inches deeper than they stood in the nursery. Little or no fertilization is needed at planting as a rule. A good mulch of strawy stable manure, however, will often help greatly. It or any other mulch should be accompanied by proper protection against mice, and a screen of galvanized wire with two meshes to the inch and about eighteen inches square will probably prove most satis- factory for this in the long run. Forming the Heads. — If one-year "whips" are used, the only pruning needed at planting time is to cut them off at the height of twenty to thirty inches. As soon as possible thereafter, four or five branches should be selected to form the general frame- work. The lowest of these limbs should be about 25 to 30 inches above the ground, as the original height of this limb is the permanent one. The other three or four frame-work limbs should be selected above, at intervals of six or eight inches, if possible, and "with an even distribution around the trunk so as to balance the top properly. This selection is probably best made in the early part of the season's growth, at which time the extra hmbs should be rubbed off. In the open-center type of tree, which is preferable for most varieties and localities, the central leader should be eliminated at this time and should be kept from reforming later. This is usually sufficient for the first season or two, unless some of the limbs get too long or begin greatly out-growing the others; in which case they should be headed back. At the beginning of the next season some of the frame-work limbs will need heading back to keep the tree in balance and avoid too rangy a growth. Each of the primary limbs should develop two good branches during the season following their selection, and all the others should be rubbed off » Courtesy of The Macraillan Company, N. Y. From "The Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey. A Properly Prtjned Young Apple Tree.i m SUCCESSFUL FARMING early. Those branches in turn should produce not more than two branches each for the pcncral frame-work, after which the tree-head may be con- siilercd formed. Later Pruning. — The above work should be completed usually by the middle of tiie tliird !what earli(>r in the southern sections. depiMiding upon the time of emergence of the (((dhng moth. With the third and fourth > Court«sy of Penn Sut« Fanner, Sut« Collrgr, Pa. THE POME FRUITS 119 applications well made, this one is rarely needed, although much depends on the locality and season. This schedule of sprays is all that is needed in the worst infested orchards, and it is seldom that more than those numbered 1, 3 and 4 need be given. Thinning. — Whenever the crop on a tree is too large for normal matu- rity, it should be thinned. This should be done as soon as the June drop is largely over, or when the fruit has become about an inch in diameter. All defective fruit should be removed first and then the remainder thinned to a distance of at least four or five inches between fruits, unless they are on opposite sides of the limb and the limb as a whole is not well loaded. Grape shears or similar implements are sometimes used for this, but with a litte practice and by using the proper twist the work can probably be done faster without them and with as little damage to fruit spurs and fruit. Fruit Picking and Storage. — The highest color and best eating quality in apples are generally secured by letting them ripen on the tree as far as possible. This can be done with the early apples and especially with those to be used at home. Too much ripening, however, interferes seriously with long keeping, and hence with the later varieties the best time for pick- ing is when they are ''hard ripe," ^. e., when they have reached their full size and redness, but have not yet begun to soften nor to show the yellow colors, except possibly in occasional specimens. In many cases two or more pickings are desirable to permit the immature fruits to develop. Other ways of improving the keeping quality are to avoid bruises and broken skins and to transfer the fruit at once to cool conditions. Leaving the apples in piles in the sun is exceedingly hard on keeping quality. In storage the best temperatures range from about 30° to 35° F., though a range up to 40° or 45° F. usually does little or no damage. Well insulated cellars or storage rooms fitted with a good system of ventilation, which can be opened at night and closed in the daytime, are likely to be very serviceable except possibly in the southern third of the apple region. In that territory it may be necessary, to make use of commercial storage, at least tempo- rarily, in order to insure satisfactory keeping of the fruit. THE PEAR Origin. — Practically all the present varieties of pears have come directly from the wild Pyrus communis of Europe and Asia. This fruit has been grown probably as long as the apple, but it was not until the great work of Von Mons of Belgium, in the early part of the nineteenth century, that any important dessert varieties were produced. The better varieties are now among the most delicious of fruits. The other ancestor involved in a few of the commercial sorts is the Japanese or sand pear {Pyrus sinensis) of Asia. It is of no value in itself except for hardiness or ornamental use. Crosses between it and communis, however, have resulted in the hardy hybrids, of which the Kieffer, LeConte 120 SUCCESSFUL FARMING and Garbcr arc most important. Although low in quality, they arc usually vory produt'tive and arc much used ft)r canninK- A})OUt 2.'i()0 names of pear varieties have ajjpeared in American publications between 1804 and 1907. (See Bulletin 120, Bureau of Plant Industry.) Propagation. — The jiear is propagated in the same ways as the apple, but till- stocks are dilTerent. In stocks, the ])ear has a very wide range of affinities. Those Peau Tuef. in Blossom. Note iinusually pproadinK form of this tree. This is desir- able, although difficult to secure in iiianj- varieties. chiedy us<'d arc the seedlings of the small Snow pear (Pyrus 7} i ml is) of Europe. This stock results in trees of the normal size. Dwarf pear trees are i)roduced by bud- ding on to quince stocks. The latter are secured from the Angers quince by mound layering. Some varieties, and particularly the An- gouleme, arc much benefited by this pro- cess. Such varieties are often planted with the stock below the surface to reduce in- jury from the round- headed borer, which attacks the quince, but rarely the pears, and they are "double- ajianese (juiiice is not Some varieties do not unite well with the (luiiut worked" by first using one that does. The satisfactory as a stock for anj' variety. In the South, cuttings of the KiefTer pear arc u.'^ed to some extent, and in the more rigorous sections, tlu' mountain ash (Sorfms) and even the shad bush (AtiKhinrfiicr) have been u.^'d as stocks with fair success. Cultural Range. — The pear resists cold about as well as the apple. Its great susceptibility to fire blight {lincilhis aniylovorus), however, greatly restricts its i)r()fitalil(' growth. In general, it does best in the lialdwin and Wine.sap belts in the I'^ast, and in the general territory from Colorado west and northward to the Pacific Coast. Varieties. — The leading varieties in the eastern section, named THE POME FRUITS 121 approximately in order of ripening, are: Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Seckel, Sheldon, Anjou, Angouleme, Kieffer, Lawrence and Winter Nelis. In the West, the same varieties are used, excepting the Kieffer, and with the addi- tion of Flemish, Comice and Easter Beurre. In the South the three hybrids mentioned above are about all that have shown any profit. Very few varie- ties will succeed on the rich soils of the Mississippi Valley, but the LaMotte, Seckel, Dwarf Angouleme and Kieffer are most likely to succeed. It is always best to use more than one variety and to mix them somewhat in the planting, in order to insure satisfactory pollination. Further advice can Good Specimens of Winter Nelis. The fruit, however, appears more nearly round here than it really is. be secured from local and state sources, and from Farmers' Bulletin 208 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Location, Soil and Culture. — Since blight is its worst enemy, the pear orchard should be located where the trees will not grow too rapidly. A fairly high and airy situation, with a well-drained and moderately fertile, clay or clay-loam soil, is therefore most desirable. For the same reason the amount of tillage and fertilization should be kept low or be eliminated entirely if the blighting becomes severe. The mulching method is often used with especial success on the pear, if not applied too heavily. Trees, Planting and Pruning. — These are largely'the same as described above for the apple. Pears, however, are planted closer. A distance of 122 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 20 l)y 20 foot is about right for the staiKJard-sizod troos, and 12 l)y 12 feet for the dwarfs. In forming the toi)S, it is rustoniarj' to leave a central leader with most varieties of i)ears. Severe attacks of hliglit, liowevcr, are likely to Ix; more serious in such trees than in those with three or more leaders, as in the oi)en-centered tree. It is also im]x>rtant to keep all fruit sj)ui's and sapjjy sprouts off the main branches, and to avoid any large amount of i)runing at any one time. Si)ecial i)ronii)tncss is needed in pruning out and disinfecting blighted twigs whenever they apix^ar. Protection and Spraying. — The same general j>lans as stated for the ap])lcwill take care of tlieix'ur. The scab is csiK'cially bad on some varieties, e. g., Flemish, but it can be readily controlled l)y limc-sulj)hur or liordeaux mixture (4-4-50) a])i)lied just wlien the blossoms are showing pink. Most apple insects are less serious on the i)ear, but it has another important enemy in the pear psylla. This insect attacks tlie buds and young leaves, sucking out the sap and blackening and often killing them. It is a very tiny insect, and when magnified looks like a minute cicada. It can be controlled by thorough spraying early in the spring, with nicotine solution and soap, at the rate of an ounce of the former and three or four ounces of the latter to five gallons of water. The rough Ijark should bo scrai)ed away before making this application. Lime-sulphur, at winter strength, just as the buds are swell- ing, is also effective in killing the eggs. Picking the Fruit. — The i)ear is one of the few fniits that are improved by ripening olT the tree. Both the grittincss and softening at the core are much reduced by this jirocess. The "hard rij^e" stage described for the apple is therefore especially api)licable in i)icking the j^ear. After i)icking it should be stored at once in a cool place, free from drafts and jjreferably dark, to avoid wilting and bring out the full flavor of the fruit. THE QUINCE The quince has come down from the wild Cydotu'a tnilgarist cf Asia. It is still closer to the original ty])e than any other orchard fruit. It is practically inedible raw, but has been used for at least 2000 yeai-s in marma- lades and jellies. It is also used largely in i)reserves, canning and in flavor- ing other fruit i)roducts. It is especially adapted to liome phmting, as it is grown very little in n commercial way. Cultural Range and Varieties. — The quince is le.ss resistant to cold than the jM-ar and is al)out e(|ually suscejjtible to blight. Hence it is available in the less severe i)ortions of the jiear range. In general, the leading variety is the Orange. The Champion is probably next, \nth the I?ea, Missouri and Meech often useful. In the South the Chinese does best and in California the IVar is i)referred. Soil and Cultural Methods. — A heavy, retentive clay loam, with good drainage of bdlii air and surplus water, is a))parently best for the (|uince. Two-year-old trees arc probably best, and they arc set from twelve to fifteen THE POME FRUITS 123 feet apart. The quince is very shallow rooted; hence all deep tillage must be avoided, and winter covers are always desirable. The general method of culture and fertilization suggested for the pear are also advisable for the quince. Pruning. — Quince blossoms and fruit are produced on the ends of twigs of the current season's growth. These twigs are developed largely from the terminal buds of spurs or branches, or from buds near the tips of the latter; hence too much cutting back may readily remove all the fruit- bearing wood of that season. The pruning of the quince, therefore, should be confined largely to the removal of dead or inferior wood, thinning out the dense places and heading back the extra vigorous shoots, to promote the development of fruit spurs and keep the trees in balance generally. Blight- ing twigs also need as prompt attention here as in the case of the pear. Enemies. — The worst insect enemies of the quince are the quince curculio and the round-headed apple-tree borer. The latter can be con- trolled as described for the apple, although more attention is likely to be needed. The former is the chief cause of the "wormy" and knotty fruits. It is very difficult to control, but the best methods are: (1) thorough spraying with lead arsenate, at the rate of one ounce of the paste to a gallon of spray, when the first injury appears and again a week later; and (2) picking and destruction of all infested fruit about a month before the normal picking time. The chief diseases are fire blight, leaf blight (Entomos'porium macula- turn) and rust {Gym7iosporangium germinale). The first is controlled as in the pear, the second by spraying as for apple scab and the third by removal of all red cedars, or at least all diseased specimens, for a distance of at least one-half mile of the quince trees. REFERENCES "Productive Orcharding." Sears. "Horticultural Manual," 2 vols. Budd & Hansen. "The Pruning Book." Bailey. "Systematic Pomology." Waugh. Pennsylvania Agi-ic. Expt. Station Bulletins 115, 121, 128 and 141. New York (Geneva) Expt. Station Bulletin 406. " Dwarf Apples." Canadian Dept. of Agi-i culture Bulletins: 176. " Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince Trees." 194. " Apple Orcharding in Ontario." Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 401. "Protection of Orchards from Spring Frosts by Means of Fires." CHAPTER 11 Stone Fruits By F. C. Sea us Professor of Pomology, Massachusetts Agricultural College Sites and Soils. — As a cK^uss tho stono fruits do ])ost on relatively high lands, i)rincii)ally on account of the etrects of elevation on temperature. When peaches are injured by cold it is usually either by extremely low temperature in the winter or by frosts during the blossoming i)eriod. Witli cherries and plums the damage almost always comes at blossoming time. As all of these fruits bloom early, they are particularly liable to frost injury and it becomes necessary to guard against it. Both these types of injury can be lessened and often largely prevented by jjlacing the orchanls on sites which are higher than the surrounding lands, thus allowing the cold air to drain away onto the lower levels. Occa- sionally the lower sites bring their crops through in better shape than the high ones. An instance of this kind was the winter of 1913-14 when extremely low temperatures were accompanied by very high winds. This combination did mucli more damage to orchards on high lands than to those on low lands. But on the average higher sites are much to be preferred. As to the direction of the slope, two points are worth considering. A northerly slojie retards the blossoming and so helps to escaj)e spring injury. But, as just suggested, it may incretisc the danger from severe winter temperatures. Consequently, if one is in a section where the former type of injury is most likely to occur a northerly slope is to be preferred. But if the damage is generally done by low winter tempera- tures, a southerly slope is best. For soils the stone fruits are not very exacting. Peaches prefer rela- tively light soils, but will do well in almost any soil up to a moderately heavy clay loam. Plums and cherries, especially the former, do best on medium to fairly heavy soils, heavy sandy loams to medium clay loams. CJood soil drainage is absolutely essential. Nursery Stock. — .Medium grades of nursery stock of the stone fruits, from four to six feet tall, are to be preferred. This is especially important in peaches, for these are always set at one year old and where one wants to head them at all low and start a new top, the very heavy trees do not give JUS good results. Plums and cherries may ho set at either one or two years from the bud. Where the soil is fertile and has \ieon well prepared, one-year-old trees arc to be preferred, particularly if one wants to head 124 STONE FRUITS 125 them low. But if the soil conditions are not good, then two-year trees are to be preferred, as the one-year trees will not usually form as good heads under poor soil conditions. Locally grown trees are always to be preferred if one can get good stock. They come fresher, the freight is less and it is easier to adjust differences with the nurseryman. On the other hand, there is probably nothing in the idea that either northern grown or southern grown stock is to be preferred. Southern stock will do just as well in the North, or northern grown in the South, if it can be landed at the orchard in good condition. Varieties. — The variety question is always important and always difficult to decide. It can generally be decided best by referring to local authorities, but a few general considerations are worth keeping in mind. A Typical Peach-Orchakd Site, Allegheny Mountain District, Morgan County, W. Va.^ Good air drainage and proper exposure are important. With peaches the important considerations are color of flesh, color of skin, quality, juiciness, whether they are clingstone or free, hardiness of fruit buds and season of ripening. There is a very strong prejudice (it is nothing more) in favor of yellow-fleshed peaches, especially for canning. It is best to respect this prejudice if possible, but many varieties which are leaders in all other respects have white flesh. It is often possible to educate consumers locally on this matter of color and convince them that in many cases the white varieties are to be preferred, but in the general market one is almost certain to be most successful with yellow sorts. Quality and juiciness are always desirable, though from the commercial standpoint the latter can be overdone, as very juicy peaches do not ship as well. Clingstones are never as popular, but some of the best commercial sorts among the early varieties are clings or semi-clings. Hardiness in the fruit * From Farmers' Bulletin 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 126 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 1)11(1 is all-iinportaiit in soctions subject to low winter temperatures, and there is a very marked dilTerence in tins resjK'et umonK dilTerent varieties. (Jreensboro, for example, will come throu^ii witii a full crop when the fruit buds of Elberta will be larj^ely killed and those of Crawford entirely so. As a class, the so-called Chinese Cling group, which includes such varieties as Greensboro, Carman, lielle of Oeort^ia and Klberta, ha.s much more hardy fruit buds than the Persian group, which includes such varieties as ]"]arly and Late Crawford and Old Mixon. As to sea.son of ripening, it is well, of course, to have somewhat of a succes- sion, particularly for local trade, but the very early and still more the late sorts are likely to l)e morei)rofitable than mid- season varieties. With plums one should consider the (juahty, the uses (whether for jelly, canning, preserving or eating in a fresh condi- tion), the size and the color. With cherries the all- important question is whether to grow the sweet varieties or the so- called sour cherries. As a cla8s, the sour cherries are much more generally successful. In addition, there are the (juestions of size, (juality .and ct>lor. With any of these fruits the numlxr of variotios set must depend very largely on whether they are to go to local or distant markets. If the latter, then it is vciy important to restrict the number of varieties sullicicntly to allow of shipping in car lots. While realizing, as already suggested, that the variety quc-^tion is very strongly local, thr following lists may Iw heli>ful, including as they do those varieties which are most generally successful and popular: Tyi'IcaIi Sweet Cheiuues. STONE FRUITS 127 Peaches Early Crawford Greensboro Carman Champion Hieley Plums Belle of Georgia Elberta Burbank Abundance Lombard Wild Goose Reine Claude Red June Cherries (Sour) Bradshaw Shropshire Damson Early Richmond Montmorency English Morello Black Tartarian Yellow Spanish Napoleon (Sweet) Windsor Bing Schmidt's Bigarreau Gov. Wood Planting. — Spring planting will be found most generally successful, particularly in those sections subject to variable winter climates. On the other hand, where soil conditions are ideal (soil well prepared and well drained both on the surface and beneath), planting in the autumn will give excellent results. A serious difficulty, of course, is getting the nursery stock in time to plant in the autumn and still have it well matured before it is dug by the nurseryman. Peach trees are set all the way from 13 to 20 feet apart. A good aver- age distance is 18 feet. The type of land and the variet}^ will determine the best distance. Plums can, on the average, be set closer than peaches, because they are more upright growing trees, but such sprawling growing varieties as Burbank will need fully as much room as any peach. Sour cherries average about the same as plums, and sweet cherries somewhat larger. In pruning the trees at setting there are two general methods used: In the case of one-year trees, they are simply cut back to the desired height, which varies with different growers from 6 to 30 inches, on the average perhaps 24 inches. With two-year trees, the head being already established, it is necessary to cut back the main branches rather severely. Generally from one-third to two-thirds of the last year's wood is removed. Soil Management. — Stone fruits rarely succeed well in sod. Peaches practically never do, and cherries very seldom. Plums can be grown in sod, but are usually much better under cultivation. There is much less chance for discussion as to the relative merits of sod and cultivation in the stone fruits than with apples and pears. An additional reason for cultivating peaches is the fact that borers are much more troublesome where grass and weeds are left about the trees. If the orchard is to be cultivated, the season's campaign would be to plow it as early in the spring as possible, and for this work nothing is more 128 SUCCESSFUL FARMING satisfactory than one of the "orchard Rang" plows (usually a nanR of three small plows). After plowing the soil is "fitted" in Rood shai)e with the cUsk aiul other liarrows, and then is kept in good condition with some t>7)e of cultivator up to about July 1st. The essential points of such a cultivator are that it shall cover enough ground to do the work cheajily, that it shall leave the soil in Rood condition and that it shall work well under the trees without necessitating; that the team Ret close to them. This latter ])oint is particularly important with stone fruits, since they are almost universally headed very low. About July 1st the cover croji is sown in the orchard and the season's work on the soil is finished. The date of sowiuR this crop varies Rreatly with tlilTerent Rrowers and under tliJTerent conditions. Where Block ok Young Peach Trees with Strawberries as an Inter-crop. trees arc carr\inR a larRc crop of fruit and the soil and season are dry, cultivation may i)ro(itably be kept up considerably later in order to con- starve the moisture, but it must always Ik* borne in mind that moisture is saved in this way one season at the expense of the next .season, because the loURer the sowiiiR of th«> cover crop is delayed the less Rrowtli it will make, and conseijuently the less humus it will add to the soil the followiiiR year. The chief functions of this cover crop are to prevent washing (and this is especially important in peach orchards, since they are usually on high and rolling lands), to check the growth of th(» trees in autumn and to add hunnis to the soil. If the cover crop is a legume, a large part of the recjuired nitro- gen may be .secured. One of the lK\st crops for this j)urix).'er acre: 1. The formulas given are -Usually 100-200 pounds 2. 2oO pounds hiRh-RTHdo sulphate of potash. 4(N) r>(N) pounds basic slag. Nit rati- of .soda as needed to produce proper growth- jHT acre. KM) pounds nitrate of soda. 100 pounds dried blood. 350 pounds slag. 10(>-2(K) pounds high-grade sulphate of potash. 3. 25- 50 pounds dried Mood. 40- SO i)ounds tankage. 90-1 SO pounds bono meal. 130-200 pounds l)asie slag. 80-100 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash. Thi.s i.s a more complicated formula than the others, hut is used by a very succe.s.sful grower. Pruning. — The most intelligent pruning of any kind of fruit tree requires that one should understand thoroughly the manner in which the fruit is borne by that tree. This is perhaps more emjihatically true of the peach than of any other fruit, but is certainly a .safe general principle. We will therefore consider tliis ix)int first. The jieach l)ears only on last season's wood, the l)U(ls occinring normally in dusters of three on such shoots, the center one jjcing a leaf bud and the two out- side ones fruit buds. Shoots of medium size give the best results. If, for any reason, a ])oa('h tree makes a very rank growth it will be found tiiat fewer fruit buds are produced on such wood and they are a])t to be less hardy. In seasons when a large j)art of the fruit buds are killed by severe cold it almost always liappens that the few buds which come through .safely are on the smaller branches. The i)runing of the peach, therefore, ought, fir.st of all, to aim at keeping up a supply of new wootl, and, except when one is trying to grow a new top on the tree, it should never be so severe as to give a very rank growth. The following will Ix* found a fairly satisfactory out- line for the pruning of a bearing i)each tree: 1. Do not allow the jinming of the tree as a whole to be .severe enough to start a very strong wood growtli. 2. Take out altogether any very high and v' high if the.se leaders are allowed iNo Aim.^N.iKMKNT ^,, remain. Less rank leaders mav be headed back less or Leak a.nu liujti- . • BOM Bui>s. beveriy or allowed to remam entuely. STONE FRUITS 131 3. Take out all dead or injured branches. It is sometimes a question whether one can afford time to take out all of the many small dead branches which are always to be found in the center of the tree, but as many of them as possible should be removed. 4. Thin the balance of the top as needed, taking out preferably no branches larger than one's thumb. The amount of this pruning is going to depend, of course, on how much has been taken out in other ways and on the type of tree. The amount of pruning should be varied somewhat according to the outlook for a crop that season. If the fruit buds are all killed it is a good opportunity to cut back rather severely and lower the tree down if necessary. If part of the buds are killed, it may be best to prune very lightly in order to save as much of the crop as possible. On the other hand, if there are plenty of live fruit buds the pruning may be fairly severe, as this helps to thin out the fruit. Plums and cherries bear essentially alike, the fruit being produced on short lateral spurs and small twigs, and also to a considerable extent (especially with the sour cherries and the Japanese plums) on the last year's wood as with peaches. These spurs bear for several years, perhaps three to six, and then die away and need to be replaced by new wood. The pruning of such trees therefore should be moderate and should aim to keep the trees fairly open to encourage new growth. The following outline may serve as a guide for most trees of these two fruits: 1. They require relatively little pruning. 2. Cut back leaders if too high. This is especially important with cherries, since the picking of high trees is more expensive than with any other fruit. 3. Cut out dead, broken and diseased branches. This is particularly important with plums which are often badly attacked by the black knot. » From Farmers' Bulletin 632, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. A Properly Pruned Peach Tree.^ l.-.J SUCCESSFUL FARMING (^ ffH 4. Take out crossing branches. 5. Thin the balance of the top slightly. The following outline may be taken as reasonably accurate for prun- ing young trees of stone fruits — say trees two to four years old: 1. Ivxaniine critically the head of the tree. It should have three to six main branches and no shaii) forLs. 2. Shorten leaders that are running too high. Only ver>' high leaders that throw the tree out of shape, or such as have made an cxcei)tionally long growth the i)ast season, need to be cut back. 3. C\it out bad (sharp) forks on all main l)ranches. 4. Save all small shoots. 5. Take out only very large cros-sing branches. 6. Prune strong-growing trees less and weak-growing ones more. In pruning these fruits, especially the peach, a large i)air of hand shears will be found most satisfactory. A ten-inch jiair of the French wheel-sjiring shears will lie found equal to almost any emergency, and much of the work can be done more rapidly with shears than with a saw. The o])erator will need a saw, however, f(jr the heavier work and one of the following dimensions Avill be found very satisfactory: Length 20 inches Width at butt 2,' " Width at point j " .Seven and one-half teeth per inch. Pruning Tools. A — Waters' Tree-Pruner. B — PruriiiiK Shears. C — T\v<)-<-dn<'d Pruning Saw. I) — {^aUfoniia Pruning Saw. E — Pruning Knife. Such saws may have to be made to order. Any hardware mamifacturer will make them and they should always be of the best steel. Probably the ideal time to ])rune these fruits is about a month or six weeks before they start into growth. Biit where one has mucii i)runing to do, it is often necessary to greatly extend the time. It is largely a que.stion of the economical use of farm labor. There are usually few export pruncrs on the farm in comparison to the pruning to Ih^ tlonc and it becomes nece.ssary to keep these men at work over a relatively long i>i'rii>d. Diseases, Insects and Spraying. — Since the matter of disejises and insects has been treated fully in the general chapters on these subjects, it is necessary here only to give a very brief sununarj- of the subject. STONE FRUITS 133 Among fungous diseases, the following are deserving of special consideration : 1. The brown rot which attacks all of the stone fruits and is to be dreaded far more than anything else. It attacks not only the fruit but the twigs as well, spreading to the latter from the former, and hence dis- eased fruits should be removed from the tree as soon as possible. It can be controlled largely by spraying. 2. Peach leaf curl, often serious but thorough spraying before the buds swell will practically eradicate it. 3. Black knot of plums and cherries. Often very serious but can be controlled by spraying and by cutting out and destroying the knots. 4. Peach scab. Often a troublesome disease, sometimes seriously so, but thorough spraying will usually control it, even in the worst seasons. Among insects three are worth mentioning: 1. The plum curculio, which attacks both plums and peaches and is often a very serious menace, not only for its own attacks, but because it helps the spread of brown rot. 2. The peach borer, an ever-present pest where peaches are grown at all extensively. Digging out is the most commonly accepted method of combating. 3. The cherry aphis, often a serious pest and, like all aphids, difficult of control. There are a nmnber of other pests in both classes that are sometimes troublesome, occasionally very seriously so, but the above mentioned are the real standbys. Thinning the Fruit. — A prerequisite to harvesting a satisfactory crop is thinning the fruit. Nothing is simpler to do and few things connected wuth fruit growing are more important. Cherries are not thinned, but peaches and plums ought always to be. The best time to do this is after the ''June drop" has occurred, that is, after all the fruits which wall fall "naturally" have fallen. The fruits will then be about the size of the first joint of one's thumb, and a safe rule, and one easily followed by those doing the thinning, is to thin so that no two fruits touch. In practice this works out so as to bring the fruits a good distance apart and the oper- ator does not spend any time in wondering whether he ought to take off another fruit in order to bring them the required distance apart. Thinning will help the crop wonderfully in several ways. Probably the most important is that it gets rid of all the small, defective fruits, leaving a crop which it is an inspiration to pick and a pleasure to sell. The work of sorting is reduced to a minimum because there are really veiy few poor fruits left. Moreover, one gets almost as much fruit in the aggre- gate, sometimes quite as much. The trees, too, will bear more regularly because they are relieved of the burden of maturing these extra fruits. And lastly it reduces greatly the loss from brown rot, because the rot can spread from one fruit to another where they are touching, and moreover 31 1^4 SUCCESSFUL FARMING an outbreak of it frequently starts wliere the moisture is lieid between the fruits at their jioints of contaet. It requires a good deal of "hustle" to make a good "thinner/' but boys who have tliat requisite will thin fully as well as, and more cheaply then, men. Go over the trees systematically. Take off all defective fruits whether they touch or not. Don't be afraid of the cost. It will l)e paid back many times over in the better fruit and is really a small item. Peach trees that will bear four or five baskets can be thinned for not over three or four cents each. The writer has had this done in his own orchard. Harvesting and Marketing.— ^To Ix'gin with, one must decide on the projM'r (Icgicc of iij)('n Ntti^m wm^^ Jmsm m^jUlg Picking Peaches.^ allowed to ripen fully on the trees. Peaciies ought to be picked for local markets as soon as they show signs of ripening on the shady side, that is when they begin to look edible. A little j)ractice will soon teach one. Plums can be somewhat soft before |>icking, while cherries are ])i(ked just before they are fully ripe. Color and taste (of a few samples) shouhl he the guide. All the above are for local markets. The more di.stant the market the greener the fruit must be when picked. Ilavcconvenientreceptaclesinfowhichtopick. For jilums and {M^aches the ordinary round Delaware |)each ba.sket holding sixteen tpiarls is good. A strap with a hook at each end can be thrown over the shoulders and hooked into the rim of the basket so that it will hang just in front of the picker, leaving both hands free to pick. Cherries are often picked in the same way or may be picked directly into quart baskets if they are to be sold that wav. ' Court«sy of Dcpartmont of ExporimrntAl Pomolog>', Pcnnsylvanim Experirornt Sution. STONE FRUITS 135 Do not allow the pickers to bruise the fruit in handling. This is a very important rule and one difficult to enforce. In handling the larger fruits like peaches and large plums, take the fruit in the hollow of the hand and grip it firmly with the entire hand. Never take it between the thumb and finger. With plums and cherries always have the stem attached. This means that the stem must be gripped by the finger and thumb. Never pick these fruits when wet. This rule has very few exceptions. Fruit which is picked while wet looks badly and keeps worse. Brown rot is almost certain to develop in it. So much for picking. Next for packing. Have a convenient packing room. If possible have the fruit brought in on one side, packed in the middle and delivered for marketing on the other side. There is then less confusion. Have a table for the packers and seats if they want them. They can work just as fast sitting down. See that the sorting is done rigidly. Nothing discourages customers like finding a few poor number two peaches in the middle of a basket of firsts. Be extremely careful that the best fruits do not gravitate to the top of the baskets. It is probably legitimate to turn the blush side up on the face, but this is as far as it is wise (not to mention honest) to go in facing. Plums and peaches are sold for the wholesale market in the round Delaware basket of various sizes, and, for a more select trade, in the six- basket Georgia carrier or crate. The latter will not pay for cheaper grades on account of the greater cost of packing. To a limited extent these fruits are also sold in the Climax baskets. For strictly local trade both these fruits may be sold in the little baskets of the Delaware type with wire bails, holding two and five quarts. Cherries are most commonly sold in strawberry baskets and crates, also in Climax baskets and for the large and finer sorts in boxes or cartons. The desirability of roadside marketing where there is any great travel past the orchard should not be overlooked. The stone fruits lend them- selves especially well to this type of traffic and one who has never tried it will be agreeably surprised at the amount of fruit which can be turned into cash in this way. Moreover, it offers an outlet for the over-ripe, soft grades which would not stand transit to market. REFERENCES "Plums and Plum Culture." Waugh. Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin (Extension) 1. "Peaching Growing in Virginia." New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 284. "Packing and Shipping Peaches." Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 201. "Peach Growing, Peach Diseases." 226. "Plum Culture in Ontario." 230. "Cherry Growing." Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 426. "Canning Peaches on the Farm." 440. "Spraying Peaches for Brown Rot, Scab and Curcuho." 631, 632, 634. "Growing Peaches." CHAPTER 12 Citrus Fruits and Their Cultivation By Herbert J. Webber, Ph.D. Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, University of California History. — The various species of the genus Citrus are natives of linVm and llie Malay Archipehigo. The date of the iinj)ortation of citrus fruit.s to Ainrrica is not known. They were ai)parently introduced into Brazil and the West In(hes at a very early date, probal)ly some time in the latter part of the sixteenth century. They were brought by the Simniards to Floritia at a coniparativi'ly early date and were ai)i)arently sjjread by the Indians over the state. The conimereial cultivation of oranges in Florida began in the early part of the nineteenth century; while in California the conunereial planting cannot be considered to have started much prior to 1880. The first car- load of oranges was shipjx'd from California to St. Louis by William Wolf- skill in 1S77. Citrus Species and Varieties. — The genus Citrus belongs to the family Ruiacea;, which is represented in the United States by the prickly ash Xanthox Ilium), the liojMree (Ptclca) and the like. The rejiresentatives of the family are mainly natives of tropical and sulMropical countries. Following are the princii)al sj)ecies and varieties cultivated in tke Unitetl States. The Sweet Orange (Citrus sinen.^i.s). — This is the sjMJcies most generally cultivated throughout the world, and is the fruit commonly referred to jus the orange. It has given rise to numerous cultivated varie- ties and e.vhibits a very wide range of variation in form, si/e, flavor, season of maturity and the like. Certain varieties have luul marked influence in building up the industry in dilTerent .sections. This is particularly true of the Wa.shington Navel in California. This variety originated in Brazil about 1S20 near Bahia. It gradually l)Ocame known for its good quality and .seedles.sne.ss. and in 1S70 twelve budded trees were imported into the I'nited States by William Saunders of the I'nited States Department of Agriculture. Other trees were propagated from these; and sent to various of the onuige-gnnving states for trial. The majority of the.sc trials were apparently failures or attracted no notice. Two trees, however, were .sent to Mrs. Luther C. Tibl)et, at Hiverside, Cal., in 1873, and were carefully cared for by her imtil they came into liearing. The stock of this variety in the world lias been mainly taken from dcsccud- 13G CITRUS FRUITS ants of the Tibbet trees. It has been sent from California to Australia and South Africa, where it has become an important variety. The next most generally grown orange in California is the Valencia, a late-maturing variety that can be held on the trees until July and August in interior sections of the state and until October or November in cool sections near the coast. This variety is also grown extensively in Florida as a late-maturing >-, Ever-bearing Orange Tree. sort, but requires to be shipped con- siderably earlier than in California. The orange plantings in Cali- fornia are made up 1 a r g e 1 y o f AY a s h i n g t o n Navels and Valen- cias with a few trees here a n d there of other varieties, such as M e d i terranean Sweet,St. Michael, Blood, J o p p a , Nugget, Ruby, etc. In Florida a much larger number of varieties are grown, no two standing out as prominently as do the Navel and Valencia in California. The following are the leading sorts in their class in Florida, though other sorts are almost as extensively grown: Early varieties — Parson BroM^n, Boone, Early Oblong; mid-season varieties — Pineapple, Homosassa, Jaffa, Majorca, St. Michael, Ruby, Maltese; late varieties — Valencia, Bessie and Lue Gim Gong. The Sour Orange {Citrus aurantium) . — The sour orange is grown in the United States mainly as a root-stock on which other varieties are budded. A few varieties are cultivated to a limited extent for their fruits. Certain varieties are grown in some countries for manufacturing purposes. The Lemon {Citrus limonia). — The lemon is grown extensively in California and to some extent in Florida. The commercial production in Florida has in recent years almost disappeared, primarily due to the damage caused by the disease known as scab. The principal varieties of the lemon are the Eureka, the Lisbon and the Villafranca. Of these, the Eureka, a nearly seedless variety that originated in California, is much the most extensively planted. The Pomelo or Grapefruit {Citrus decumana or Citrus grandis). — 138 SUCCESSFUL FARMING This fruit is urown oxtonsivoly in Florida and the West Indies and to some extent, in California. Whil(> the pomelo has been known for many years, it was first ^r^J^vii on an extensive eonimercial scale in Florida, first being int roduced as a commercial fruit alK)ut lS8o. The varieties most conmionly grown are selected Florida scedlinjis, tliouf^h one or two varieties, as the Pernaml)Uco and the Royal, are inii)ortations resjx'clivel}' from Ikazil and Cuba. Probably the most witlely planted varieties in Florida are the Duncan, Jo.sselyn, Walters, Pernambuco and Marsh. The Marsh, which is a nearly seedless variety is the most extensively i)lanted of any variety in ( 'alifoi'nJM. The Lime {Citrus limc(ta). — The lime is grown throughout the citrus regions of the United States and the West Indies, but is produced commercially only in southern Florida and the West Indies. The demand for these fruits has rapidly increased in recent years and is assuming some importance. The princij)al varieties grown are the Mexican and the Tahiti. The Mandarin Orange (Citrus nobilis). — This fruit, referred to fre- quently as the "kid glove orange" because of its loo.se, easily removable skin, is grown to a considerable extent in certain regions of the United States, It is in general rather more cold-resistant than the common orange, and this has led to its propagation to considerable e.xtent in the Gulf states. The Satsuma or Unshiu, an early maturing sort of fair size, is grown rather extensively in northern Florida and southern Ceorgia, Alabama, Mississipi)i, Louisiana and Texas. The Dancy tangerine is grown to some extent in Florida and California and occaiout 78,0(K) carloae drilled in rows. It is a good i)lan to cover the seetl about one-half inch deep with clean river sand. It is ilesirable in most j^laces to cover the seed-i)ed with a i)artial shade of some sort, as of cheesechjth or a lath shed. The seedlings arc usually dug when they are about a foot high and trans])lanted tossible at the same relative height it occujjied in the seed-bed. The soil must be well firmed arovmd the roots, and the ])laiits should be watered as rapidly as l)lanted. Small seedlings and those with imjierfect roots should never be i)lanted. Only the best and largest seedlings should be used. The nursery should be thoroughly cultivated, and the trees must be pruned occasionally to lead them to develoj) a single trunk for G or 10 inches above the ground. It usually requires from IG to 18 months to grow trees to the right size for budding, an ideal size being a diameter of from tliree-eighths to one-half inch at about ii to 5 inches above the soil. Budding the Nursery Stock.— Trees should be budded from 4 to 8 inches above tlu^ ground. Budding is done mainly in the s])rinK or in the fall. In the latter case, it is expected to kec^p tluMrees dormant until spring. Budding is almost universally done by the su-cailcd e\c-liudding method, ^From Farmcra' Bulletin S30, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Shield Budding with Angulaji Wood.' A — Cutting tho hud. B— Bud cut ready to in- sert. C — Bud showing rut face. D — Bud inserted, bark on right side only being rai.s<'d. CITRUS FRUITS 141 using a cut of an inverted T shape and pushing the buds up, being careful to have the leaf-scar of the bud downward. In citrus propagation, espe- cially in the dry, arid sections of the Southwest, it is desirable to use strips of waxed cloth to wrap the buds, covering the buds entirely with the wrapping. The wrapping must remain on until the buds are thoroughly healed on, which will require about three weeks. The California method of forcing the buds is to cut the tops entirely off about an inch or so above the bud. In Florida the trees are cut half off above the bud and lopped over into the row, being allowed to remain until the sprout is a foot or so high. Care of the Nursery Stock.— As the buds develop into sprouts, stakes must be set beside them, and the sprouts tied to the stake at frequent inter- Shield or Eye Budding. ^ A — Incision on stock. B — Incision with lower ends of bark raised for inserting the bud. C — Bud partly inserted. D — Bud inserted ready to wrap. E — Bud wrapped with waxed cloth. vais to insure straight trees. A single sprout is usually allowed to grow until it is about three feet high, and then it is headed back to about 30 inches or slightly lower. In forming the crown, three or four main branches are allowed to grow, and it is important for the strength of the tree that these should be on different sides of the young tree and 3 or 4 inches apart. Trees are set at one year or two years from the bud. In California and Arizona, owing to the dry conditions, nursery trees designed for shipment are usually balled. A trench about a foot wide and 14 inches deep is dug alongside of the row of trees, and the tap-root cut and the trees lifted with a ball of earth remaining around the roots. The ball and roots are then iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 142 SUCCESSFUL FARMING wrapped in burlap to hold the soil in place. When trees are to Ik; removee taken for the lemon and the slightly colder regions for the orange and pomelo. In California, the sloping sections next to the hills arc usually considered the bust and warmest, ub tliey give g<«jd air drainage. In Florida lands in the soutliern i)art of the; state or with water l)rotection to the north arc usually the warmest. The selection of a goo' common di.stance, gives 00 trees to the acre. The land to be jilanted nnist be laid Shield or Eye Buds' A — Method of cutting Itiul from round twijj. H — Hud cut ready to insert. C — Fiiee of l>ud Khowin^? llie rut Hurfiiee. > From Fartncra' BuUctio A30, U. S. Dcpt. of Agrirulturo. CITRUS FRUITS 143 out accurately and the location of each tree staked. Before digging the holes a notched board with stakes or some other device should be used to insure the exact location and level of the tree in setting. The holes are dug of the size and depth necessary to accommodate the trees. The trees to be set should have their tops cut* back severely and all but a few leaves removed. In arid regions, if the trees are not balled, it is not a bad practice to remove all of the leaves. In planting the trees care should be exercised to plant them at nearly the same level as they were in the nursery. To insure this they must be set about 4 inches higher ordinarily to provide for settling. Many growers prefer to plant five or six inches higher than the level of the gi'ound, having the trees on a slight ridge. This the writer believes to be a good practice. Balled trees are usually planted with the sacks surrounding the roots, these being opened at the bottoms and the strings cut. The sacks rot away in a short time. When trees with free roots are planted, the soil must be well sifted in around the roots and firmly pressed down. Thorough watering must immediately follow the planting. The watering of young trees is facilitated by forming small basins around the trees into which the water can be run. It is important to protect the trunks of young trees from the sun in order to prevent sun-burning. This is usually accomplished by loosely wrapping several thicknesses of newspapers around them or by means of regular protectors that may be piu-chased for this purpose. Cultivation. — Young orchards must be thoroughly cultivated around the trees. It is a common practice for two or three years to grow a strip about ten feet in width of alfalfa, beans or some other crop between the rows of trees, keeping a cultivated and irrigated strip immediately around the trees. As the grove comes into bearing, the normal cultivation of the whole area is taken up. Many different systems of cultivation are followed in different places. In Florida the common practice is to grow a leguminous cover crop, such as beggarweed or cowpeas, in the grove dm'ing the summer, this being plowed or disked in, in the fall, followed by more or less frequent, shallow cultivations until the early smiimer when the cover crop is again sowed. In California the most common practice is to grow a cover crop of some legume in the grove during the winter, from September to the first of March. The plants most commonly used for this purpose are the bitter clover {Melilotus indica) and the vetch iyicia sativa). Of these the bitter clover is much the best. The purple vetch (Vicia atropurpurea) , recently imported, is far superior to the ordinary vetch for this purpose, and will doubtless be much used when a sufficient supply of seed becomes available. The cover crop is plowed under to a depth of seven to ten inches during the early part of March before the trees begin to bloom and while the ground is still in condition and moist from the winter rains. Following this the land is harrowed and disked both ways. Very thorough working with the disk 144 SUCCESSFUL FARMING is believed to be iircfeniblc to plowing both ways across the Krove, jis is sometimes done. After this thorough disking the lanout every month. Following each of these irrigations, the land should be harrowed as soon as drj' enough and about a week later cultivated both ways with some narrow, shoveled cultivator, running to a dei)th of 4 to 6 inches. The.se alternating ixniods of irrigation followed by cultivation are continued during the sunnner until the winter cover croj) is sown in the fall. In both Florida and California, the ])racticc of mulching a jwrtion or all of the land in the grove is gaining in favor. Irrigation. — In the citrus regions of California and Arizona, irrigation is necessary and is one of the most expensive and ilifficult of all the various grove operations. Water in these sections is, however, the limiting factor of production, and an ample supply must be provided, ^^'ater is taken directly from flowing streams, is punij^ed from un«lerground b:i.sins, or is taken from large, artificial storage reservoirs, filled mainly during the winter rains. DifTerent locations and soils recjuire diiTerent anxtunts of water. A porous, gravelly soil nnjuires more water than a heavy day or adobe .soil, the latter l)eing more retentive of moisture although more difficult to wet. Groves near the coast where there is more moisture in the air retjuire less water than those in the drier interior regions. In general, enough water must be jirovided to be e(iual, when coml)ine a depth of about three inches. The supi)ly of water usually provided for citrus orchards is our. miner's inch to every four to eight acres.* In the furrow method of irrigation the water is distributed over the grove by means of several furrows, usually four to six, between each row of trees. These furrows, which are made by a s])ecial furrowing tool or ])low, should have a uniform fall, j)referably not exce(>ding a grade of one-half of one to three per cent. The water should run through them slowly to give the lH\st results. While these furrows are usually run .straight, not infre- quently they arc curved in lietween the trees to water the middles. The * Thn niini-r'n inrh moul commonly uiw>tM-iiiiiK hioIit u l-iiirh pri-Muro hraU. This i*qiinU I) gnllnim |mt iiiiuuto. Thp s(atut« iach i» m gaUuua per luiuutc. CITRUS FRUITS 145 length of the furrows or of the ''run" ordinarily ranges from 400 to 700 feet. While 600 and 700-foot runs are common, this is too long to give the best results. In the basin system of irrigation, square or round basins, about eight to twelve inches deep, are formed around the trees, into which the water is run either by means of a single central furrow, from which it is turned into each basin successively, or by means of steel irrigation pipes fitted together like joints of a stove-pipe. In making the basins the soil should be left for a radius of about two or three feet around the base of the tree, so that the water will not come in contact with the trunk. The water is brought into the grove usually either by open cement flumes or by buried cement pipes. These are run across the rows along the upper edge of the grove to be irrigated. With the open flume, gates are put in at intervals to discharge the water wherever a stream is desired. With the covered cement pipe flumes, a standpipe is placed at the end of each row of trees in which several gates are inserted according to the number of furrows or streams desired to be taken from it. The lengih of time necessary to run the water is determined by the rapidity of penetration. The application should be continued until the water has penetrated to a depth of three or four feet. Fertilization. — The great majority of soils on which citrus trees are grown require manuring to maintain the fertility, and yet no subject is so little understood as the fertilizer requirements. If the soil fertility is sufficient to provide for good growth in the beginning, then the addition of the materials removed by the crop, it would seem, should be sufficient to maintain the fertility. The folloAving table shows the average percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in orange and lemon fruits and the pounds of these materials removed by a ton of fruit. Fertilizer Analysis of the Fruit of Oranges and Lemons. (Computed from Bulletin No. 93, University of California Agricultural Experiment Station.) Nitrogen (N) Phosphoric Acid (PaOs). Potash (K2O). Per cent. Pounds per Ton. Per cent. Pounds per Ton. Per cent. Pounds per Ton. Oranges 0.190 0.151 3.80 3.02 0.058 0.058 1.16 1.16 0.219 0.253 4 38 Lemons 5.06 Such a table as the above is suggestive only as a guide to fertilization, and the same may be said regarding soil analyses. The test of a fertilizer on the soil and the crop is the only safe guide. In Florida a fertilizer containing about 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen, 6 to 8 per cent of phosphoric acid and 8 to 12 per cent of potash is commonly used. In California the proportions commonly recommended are 4 per 140 SUCCESSFUL FARMING cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 4 per cent potash. In general, young trees are thought to require more nitrogen and a relatively smaller proi)<)rtion of phosphoric acid and potash. lu Florida there is a tendency to avoid so far as possible the use of organic manures, such as stable manure, blood, cottonseed meal and the like, o^ving to the effect such ma- terials apparently have in the pro- duction of the disea.se "die-back" or exanthema. Sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of potash and superphosphate are very largely used. In California, on the contrary*, the tendency is to use organic sources to sup])ly the various elements .so far as possible. Experimental results in- dicate that organic matter and nitrogen are the most important elements to be added in the fertilization of citrus soils in California and minimize the importance of potash and phosphoric acid. Eight-year ex])erimcnts show no gain over checks by the use of sulphate of potash with oranges and very slight gains with lemons. Similar experiments with sujierphosphate show but slif^ht gains over check plats, while nitrogen ])lats give marked increase in growth and yield. California growers in general prefer stable manure to any other fertilizer and are also using large quantities of alfalfa hay and bean straw, both plowed under and as a mulch to supply nitrogen and organic matter. The use of leg\nninous cover crops in citrus orchards to suj)iily nitrogen and organic matter is recognized as good practice, both in California and Florida (.see above under "Cultiva- tion"), and a considerable amount of the ncrcss.-iry nitrogen can be i)roduce(l in this way at very slight exj>en.se. Pruning. — Ordinarily orange trees are pruned very little beyond the moval of dead brush and wat(>r-sprouts. \n\t this results in the formation a very dense tree with the fruit distributed over the surface. The intc- PuUNINf, AND RoOtTuIMMINC. OK CiTOU.S Tkkk at Timk ok I*I.A.NTI\(!. CITRUS FRUITS 147 rior fruit is in general superior, and the removal of some of the interior limbs keeping the tree somewhat open is probably a desirable practice. Lemon trees are generally pruned regularly. They should be cut back severely from the first and allowed to develop but slowly. The tendency of the lemon is to throw out long branches, which fruit at the end and are likely to bend over and break off or to be in the way. The principal purpose should be to cut back this rapid growth and develop a strong, stocky tree that will be open enough to bear considerable fruit on the interior branches. The lateral, crooked branches are much more fruitful than the upright, straight branches. Trees are pruned at almost any season of the year, but the best time is in the spring after the danger of freezing is passed. Frost Protection. — Many citrus-growing sections are occasionally visited by severe freezes that may cause a loss of the crop and even severely damage the trees. It has thus been found desirable, particularly with lemons, to provide some form of artificial protection. In California this protection has been secured by the use of orchard stoves, burning crude oil, abundant quantities of which are available from nearby oil fields at reasonable prices. The principle of orchard heating, recognized as the most desirable, is to get the greatest amount of heat possible with the least soot and smoke. Direct, radiated heat is desired rather than a smudge. In Florida oil heaters have been used to some extent, but there the burning of wood piled in the grove and other devices are also used. Diseases. — The number of diseases affecting citrus trees is probably as great as those affecting any other similar group of plants. For many of these satisfactory treatments are known, but there are several maladies which are serious that are not as yet thoroughly understood. Only a few of the most important diseases can be mentioned. The general group of gum diseases is important in most citrus-grow- ing regions. Lemon gummosis, caused by the brown rot fungus {Pythia- cystis citrophthora) causes considerable damage in California and is also present in Florida. This disease, which causes the exudation of gum and the decay of the bark on lemon trunks, is effectively controlled by cutting out the diseased parts and painting the injured surface with Bordeaux paste. Maldigomma or foot-rot, a closely related disease that occurs mainly in Florida, is controlled by use of the sour orange stock which is resistant to the malady, and may be cured usually by removing the dirt from around the crown roots, cutting out the diseased areas and painting them with Bordeaux paste. Another type of gummosis is the scaly bark, common both in California and Florida mainly on the limbs and trunks of orange trees. This disease is not understood at present, but is checked by cutting out and sterilizing diseased areas with Bordeaux paste. Exanthema or die-back, a disease common in Florida and occurring to some extent in California, is apparently due to malnutrition, but is not 148 SUCCESSFUL FARMING undorstootl. When caused by use of organic nianuro, such as hlood, stable manure and the hke, it is cured by st()i)|)infj; fertiUzaticjn and cultivation for a period and mulching the tree. When caused by lack of drainage, tile drainage of the area frequently results in a cure. Mottle leaf, a very conunon and injurious malady in California, is an oi>scure disease, the cause of which is not yet known. \'ery extensive investigations of this disease are now in progress. Citrus canker, a very serious malady caused by a bacterium (Psendo- monas cilri), has recently become epidemic in Florida and the (lulf states. It is now knoNXTi to occur in Jai)an and the Phiiijipine Islands and was apl)arentl3' introduced into Floritla from one of these sources. An extensive campaign is now being waged to eradicate this disea.se by burning ail infected trees. Verrucosis, or scab, and melanose are two important fungous disea.ses occurring in Florida that iiave not a])])eared as yet in California. Wither- tip, caused by the fungus Colleiotrichum ylocosporioides, is conunon both in California and Florida. It is controlled by jiruning accompanied by spray- ing with Bordeaux mixture. Many fruit rots caused by such fungi as the cottony mold (Sclerotima liber tint ana), brouTi rot {Pythiacystis ciirophlhora) , l)lue mould {Pcuirilliiim italicum) and green mould (PcmiciUiuni diyilalum), cause considerable loss in the packing-house and in shipment. These are controlled I)y careful handling, l)y the use of disinfectants in the wash water and tin* i)roper sterilization of the fruit boxes and packing-house machinery and the like. (For other diseases see Part II.) Insects. — Insect pests arc very numerous in all citrus .sections and require the systematic use of control methods to insure the financial success of the industry. Wy far the most serious pests are the scale insects of which there are numerous kinds. In California the most common scale irLsects are the black scale (Sais- sdia olcce), the citricola scale {Coccus citricola), the red scale (Chrysomphalus auranlii) and the puri)le scale {LcpidosdplKs hcckii). The control of these scale jjests is aided to some extent by various para.sites, but fumigation with liydrocyanic acid gas about once every two years, or more often if necessary, is almost universally practiced. The cottony cushion scale (Ictrya piirchnfii), wliich at one time was .so serious as almost to threaten the life of the citrus industry in California, has been so thorouglily controlled by the introduction of the Australian ladybird beetle that it has cea.sed to lx> considered a .serious pest. In Florida the most common .scale in.sects are the pur])le scale (Lepido' saphc.s bcchii), the long scale {Lcpidosaphes gloim'i), the Florida red scale (Chrysumph(dus aonidutn), the chalT scale (Parlaton'a pcryandii), the soft brown or turtle-back l)eetle {Coccua hcsperidum), the black scale (Saissvtia oIc(t) an-< )])erative organization of the j^rowers known as the California P>uit Growers' l^xehange. This is probably the most successful co-operative organization of growers in the world. REFERENCES "Citrus Fruits." (V.rt. "Citrus Fruits and Their Culture." Hume. "California Fruit.s and How to (Irow Tliern." Wickson. " r. S. Dept. of .\nriculture liulletin (>."}. "Shipment of Oranges from Florida." Farmers' liulletin.s, U. S. Dept. of .Vgrieulture: MS. "Sile.s, Soils and \'.iricti('8 for Citrus CJroves in the Gulf States." M9. " I'roi)anation of ("itrus Trees in tlie (lulf States." 542. "Culture, Fertilization and Frost Protection of Citrus Groves in the Gulf States." CHAPTER 13 Nuts and Nut Culture in the United States By C. a. Reed Nut Culturist, United States Department of Agriculture THE PRINCIPAL NUTS The group of trees which bear edible nuts of commercial importance in this country includes a considerable number of species, some of which are important in both hemispheres. The most important of the world's nuts are the cocoanut, the peanut, the Persian (incorrectly called the English) walnut, the almond, the Brazil nut, the pecan, the hazelnut (filbert), the cashew, the pinon, the chestnut and the pistachio nut. Of these, with the exception of the Brazil nut (nigger-toe. Para nut, cream nut, castanea, etc.), which is strictly tropical in its requirements of culture, all are being grown to a greater or less extent, in continental or insular United States. The pili (pe-lee) of the Philippines and East Indies, charac- terized by its reddish-brown (artificial) color, its triangular form tapering to a point at each end, its very thick, hard shell and its single kernel, is now becoming fairly familiar in our principal nut markets. The pili nut is said to be very nutritious and pleasing to the taste when properly matured, but as it commonly appears in this country, it is inferior in quality to the majority of the better known nuts. A choice nut occasionally seen in the American markets is the Paradise nut, a near relative of the Brazil nut, which also is indigenous to the low- lands of northern Brazil. Paradise nuts are somewhat longer than are Brazil nuts, but in the main are triangular in form. They are of a light buff color, irregularly grooved lengthwise, and have a close-fitting cork-like shell which encloses a single, delicately flavored kernel of fine texture. Both the pili and the Paradise nuts are like the Brazil nut in that their tropical natures apparently preclude any likelihood of their ever becoming commercially important in any part of the United States proper. The culture of the cocoanut, together with the drying and shipping of its dried flesh or copra, forms one of the leading industries throughout all tropics. The cocoanut produces the world's most important nut food supply. To some extent the cocoanut palm is grown in southern Florida, but thus far more largely as an ornamental and a curiosity than for commercial purposes. During the winter season cocoanuts are locally in lively demand as souvenirs among the tourists, who place postage and the addresses of northern friends on the smooth outer surfaces of the thick 151 ."■1 Hl.l.\ J 1.1 \ ^ I nil.. In its seventh year und beginning tu l)eur. Cairo, Ga. IS:^ NUTS AND NtJT CtJLTtJRE , 153 husks and send the nuts through the mails. The expense of removing the husk from the nut has thus far made commercial cocoanut growing in this country in competition with the cheap labor of the tropics practically out of the question. Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the devising of special machinery will soon overcome this problem, and that a more or less thriving industry will develop in the marshy borders of southern Florida. A few commercial cocoanut plantings recently set may be found off the Florida coast from Miami and near Cape Sable in Monroe County; but it appears altogether unlikely that the growing of cocoanuts will ever be of importance to American farmers outside of the southern parts of Florida, Texas and California. The cashew nut likewise is of tropical nature. Trees of this species are rarely seen in the United States except in experimental plantings in Florida and in California. The nuts are borne singly at the apex of fleshy, pear-shaped fruits which form in clusters and which are known as cashew apples. The nuts are of much the shape of lima beans, but are both larger and thicker. In color they are between a purplish and an ashy-gray. They have a thin but stout, smooth-surfaced shell, within which is a secondary shell, also thin, and which encases the kidney-shaped kernel. Between the two shells of this cashew nut there is a thin dark-brown fluid of an extremely caustic property similar to that of poison ivy and sumac, to which the species is closely related. Roasting entirely dispels this poison, and as the nuts are invariably prepared in this manner before being placed on the market, the consumer is in no danger of being poisoned. The kernels are among the most palatable of all nut products now found in our markets. For the present, the cashew can hardly be said to be of commercial promise in any portion of this country. The pistachio is much more hardy than is the cashew. To a considera- ble extent the two are now being grown in sections of southern California and west Texas, and single trees have been known to survive for a number of years in climates where zero temperatures are by no means uncommon. Thrifty trees are reported from Kansas and one tree several years of age near Stamford, Conn., was in a thrifty condition when seen by the writer in 1914. However, it is essentially a dry-land tree suited to the milder por- tions of the temperate zones. The nuts, which are encased in a thin leath- ery covering, form in loose clusters. They have thin but very stout, smooth shells which usually split open on one side of the suture while being roasted. To a considerable extent, the kernels, which are of greenish color and delicate flavor, are consumed with no preparation other than that of roasting and salting, but more largely they are ground and used in ice creams and other confections. The pistachio tree is a slow grower, requiring several more years to come into bearing than is the case with almond, Persian walnut or pecan trees. Propagation is by budding and grafting. The Peanut. — The peanut is probably a native of tropical America. 154 SUCCESSFUL FARMING It does well in light-colored, fertile, sandy loanis in the waniior portions of the United States. Its |)ririt'ipal coiitcrs of production in this country are in \'irginia and the C'arohn;us, aithoufiii it is coniinon in the entire South, west to California. The peanut is eonunon in the markets both in the shell or shelled and salted. Peanut butter and peanut oil are now among the most valual)le of our common nut products. An average yield of peanuts is about 'V\ l>ushels an acre. The Pinon (Pin-yon). — The seeds of a niuulter of pines of western and southwestern United States, variously known as pinons, Indian or Pine nuts and pignolia, form a very important article of food for the Indians Fu.vNyLLrrE Walxut Orchard, near Santa Rosa, C.\uit)iiMA. Tliis ia the famous Vrooman Orchard. and the Mexicans of the Southwest, who gather the nuts in enonnous quan- tities. In this country' the pines boarinp; edible nuts are not cultivated; the entire crop lx»ing obtained from the native trees in the mountains, which usually appear at altitudes of from 5000 to 7000 feet. The home pnxluct is largely consumed by the gatherers, and in tlu^ local markets of the West. Tlu! nuts are brownish in color, usually mottled with yellow, from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in length and have a thin but strong hard sli(«ll. The kernels arc vcr>' fine in texture, rich in quality, of ple!u^\nt flavor and highly nutritious. The shelled seeds of the stone pine of southern Kuroix*, greatly resembling puffed rice in form and color, form an irniM)rtant prcnluct in the nut markets of our l-lastern cities. The Persian Walnut. — For many centuries this nut, a native of Persia, NUTS AND NUT CULTURE 155 has been under cultivation in southwestern Asia and in Europe, but with approximately a half century of serious cultivation in this country it has attained its greatest degree of perfection on our Pacific Coast. In the Old World, and until recently in the United States, propagation has been by seedage, but modern American orchards are comprised exclusively of budded or grafted trees. For its best development the species requires a deep, fertile, loamy soil, moist but well drained. However, it readily adapts itself with proportionate results to conditions less favorable. At the present time the chief centers of production in the United States are southern California near Los Angeles, the Sacramento Valley in northern California and the Willamette Valley of western Oregon. Varieties suit- able for general culture in the southeastern quarter of this country have not yet appeared. In that area of the Eastern states lying between lower New England and the Potomac River on the Atlantic Coast and extending west to the Mississippi River, local varieties originating with trees reputed to be hardy and prolific bearers of desirable nuts are being given a fairly general trial. These are being propagated by budding on the black walnut stocks. To date, the chief eastern varieties are the Rush, Nebo, Barnes, Potomac, Holden, Hall, Lancaster and Boston. Thus far none of these have been given sufficient trial to determine their commercial value. For the present, planting should be limited to experimental numbers. The most popular varieties of walnuts in southern California are the offspring of the Santa Barbara type, established during the late sixties by Mr. Joseph Sexton of Santa Barbara, with seed supposed to have come from Chile. Southern California walnuts are not sold under variety names, but under such trade appellations as ''budded," "numbers one," "two," "three," etc.; the term "budded" applying to the large sizes which will not pass through inch squares of a wire mesh. The leading varieties of northern California and Oregon are from French stock first introduced into this country by Mr. Felix Gillet of Nevada City, Cal., whose work closely followed that of Mr. Sexton, and these to a large extent are sold under their variety names. At present the more important are the Franquette and Mayette, direct introductions, and the Concord, San Jose and probably the Chase, seedlings of original introductions. The Pecan. — The pecan is by far the most important nut indigenous to this country, and although at present its annual production is less than one-half that of the Persian walnut, the increased attention now being paid to the native bearing trees and enormous number of planted orchards in the south Atlantic and eastern Gulf states combine to make it fairly certain that this will soon become the leading nut grown in America. Its native range includes much of the lowlands of the Mississippi River and its tributaries from Davenport and Terra Haute on the north, south to near the Gulf and a large area extending southwest across Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas to near the Rio Grande. Its requirements Major, Bliikett, WAiuiicK, Havens and Owens Pecans.' ' Ycar-Iiook. 1912 U. 8. Dcpt. of Agriculture. NtJTS AND NUT CtTLTURE of soil and moisture are much the same as are these of the Persian walnut. However, it appears to be somewhat more exacting in its moisture require- ment, for although being intolerant of improper drainage, it is less able to sustain itself proportionately in drier soils. The pecan is propagated by budding and grafting on stocks of its own species. Under the most favorable conditions seedlings grown from nuts planted in midwinter may be budded when eighteen months old, and transplanted in orchard form by the end of the next season, or by the time the roots have been in the ground for three years. Thus far a total of approximately one hundred varieties have been recognized in the South. The majority of these already have been elimi- nated. At present, the principal sorts of the south Atlantic and Gulf sec- tion, including Louisiana, are the Stuart, Schley, Curtis, Van Deman, Alley, Pabst, Moneymaker, Bradley, President, Russell, Delmas and Success. The leading varieties of central and southwest Texas are the San Saba, Halbert, Colorado, Sovereign and Kincaid. The varieties of neither of these groups appear readily to adapt them- selves to the climatic conditions of the other, nor do they seem capable of satisfactorily adjusting themselves to conditions in any of the inland states. Varieties which have originated in southwestern Indiana and neighbor- hood, and which, therefore, now are thought to be well worthy of con- servative planting in sections of fairly comparable conditions, are the Major, Niblack, Indiana, Posey, Busseron, Butterick, Greenriver and Warrick. However, for the present these should not be planted in lati- tudes greater than that of Vincennes, with the expectation of regular crops of nuts. If set in suitable soil the trees should thrive and live to a great age much farther north, but crops of nuts even from the forest trees are quite irregular beyond that point. The Ahnond. — Culturally speaking, this nut is not of much interest to a great part of the United States. Its exactments for cultural success preclude its general planting over any large portion of the United States. It requires a fertile, moist, yet very well-drained soil and a dry atmosphere in a section quite free from late spring frosts. The commercial plantings of this country are in the Sacramento Valley of California, where the orchards are usually equipped with fire-pots as a protection against frost at blossoming time, and in northwestern Utah. A number of large young orchards just beginning to bear are on the highlands of Klickitat County in south central Washington near tfie Columbia River. The principal varieties are the Nonpareil, I. X. L., Ne Plus Ultra, Drakes and Languedoc. The almond is propagated by budding on stocks preferably of its own species, although peach stocks answer nearly as well. At least one variety of hardshell almond (the Ridenhower, of south- ern Illinois) is being propagated by eastern nurserymen for variety plant- ing about the home grounds in sections adapted to the more hardy varieties ^^ SUCCESSFUL FARMING of peaches. However, in no way does this almond compare witl» iUonc in the markot. Nuts of Minor Importance. — In (his class belong all of our native tree nuts, with the exception of the pecan. Our native hickories, the shaR- bark {Ilicoria ovata), the shellbark (Ilicoria lacim'osa) and the pi^ruit (Hicoria glabra), the butternut {Juglans cinerea), the American hazel {Corvlus anifj-iaina), the beech (Fagu^s (jrandijolia) nnd certain foreign nut^;, esiK'cially the Chinese chestnut {Ca.stanca inollissima), and the Asiatic walnuts (Juglans sicboldiana and Juglans mandshurica) , aflFord most inviting fields for the breeder and improver of nut trees. 'I'he most of these s])ecies are capal)le of culture in the Eastern states from lower New KriKJand south to the middle Atlantic and west to the Mississi])])!. It is quite j)robable that this grouj) also offers the most fruit- ful possibilities in nut culture in the states lying between this section and the Rocky Mountains. In general, j)r()si)ective growers of nut trees should obtain their stock from reliable nurser>' concerns, and in so far as obtainable, budded or grafted trees only should be jilanted. These are not n(jw obtainable to any extent of the group just mentioned, although several varieties of hickory and black walnut are now being propagated by a few nursery concerns. Nut trees should l)e ranked in the class with other kinds of fruit trees, and must be given the same degree of attention. Under the most favor- able conditions commercial returns may be expected with almonds in from G to 8 years from tlie time of setting the trees; witli Persian walnut trees in from 8 to 10 years; and with southern i)ecans in from 10 to 12 years. Almond trees may be set at from 28 to 30 feet apart, while walnuts and pecans should be set not nearer than GO feet. I'^ach s])ecies of nut tree has its insect pests and fungous diseases, each of which is more or less serious, ^^'ith the almond, the jiresent most serious pest doubtless is the red sjjider; with the walnut, it is the wahmt blight; and with the pecan, it is the rosette; although each species of tree ha.s its other serious enemies. I^EFERENCES GcorRia Expt. Station Bulletin llfi. "IVrans." Farmers' Hiillptin 700, I'. S. Dcpt. of A^cri(•nltllro. "Pcran Ciilturo, with Special Refer- ence to I'ropagution and New \arielie8." CHAPTER 14 Miscellaneous Tropical Fruits* The Pineapple. — As a tropical fruit the pineapple ranks second to the orange and banana. Originally a wild fruit, very small in size, it has by constant cultivation and improvement been developed into one of the choicest fruits in existence. Some varieties now produce very large fruit, weighing as much as twenty pounds. Pineapples thrive best in Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii and the tropical islands, but can be grown easily in southern Florida and even further north, if not exposed to frost. The pineapple resembles the cabbage in that it grows on a short, leafy stalk from one to three feet high. The plant is very leafy, the leaves of most varieties being edged with spines. Propagation. — Pineapples are propagated by means of ratoons, suckers, slips and very seldom, when only for experimental purposes, by the seed. A ratoon is an individual plant formed among the roots of the mother plant and appearing beside it from under the soil. A sucker is an individual plant coming from the side of the stem above the soil. A slip is the small plant that appears below the fruit on the fruit stalk. The small plants that grow on the apex of the fruit are known as the crown slips. There is no difference in the kind of plant produced by either the ratoon, the sucker or the slip. However, the sucker and the slip are to be preferred, because plants from ratoons will die easily if not handled properly. The main thing is to select a well-matured slip or sucker. Suckers have an advantage over the slips, inasmuch as they are several months older and, of course, they bear sooner. Whether suckers or slips are selected to be planted, they should be trimmed by cutting the base and stripping off the lower leaves. One inch and a half to two inches of stem should be left exposed. It is better to let them dry a little before planting. This is called curing. Soil. — The pineapple will grow in a great variety of soils, but thrives best in light, deep, well-drained, sandy soils. Damp and heavy soils are unfavorable. The plant is a gross feeder and calls for a liberal supply of nitrogenous fertilizers. Experiments carried on in Porto Rico have demon- strated that the plant responds to commercial fertilizers. A small plant, although in poor soil, has attained astonishing proportions after the fertil- izer has been applied. So, when enough plant-food is available and the roots may obtain all the air they need, the pineapple can be successfully grown on a wide range of soils. *In preparing this chapter the author was assisted by Mr. F. G. de Quevedo, formerly of Porto IUcO| OQW teacner of Spanish in I^ennsylvania State College. 159 The PiNEAi'1'i.E Plant in FiiriT. ' 1— M.'iin Ht.ilk. 2— Riitoon. 3— Sucker. 4— Ih'iul of fruit. 5— Slip. 0— Fruit 7 — Oown Hiip. S — Crown. ■Courtesy o( U. 8 Dcpt <»f Agricultiirf. I'rgm Porto lUw UuUvtiu No. S. MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 101 From one to two thousand pounds per acre of blood and bone or cotton- seed meal will improve the size and quality of the fruit, and maintain the fertihty of the land. The following summary taken from Bulletin 104 of the Florida Experiment Station, will serve as the best guide for the fertil- izing of pineapples. (a) Fine-ground steamed bone and slag phosphate are best as sources of phosphoric acid; cottonseed meal, dried blood and castor pomace are best as sources of nitrogen; high-grade and low-grade sulphate of potash are best as sources of potash. (6) Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and kainit have not proven satis- factory. (While sulphate of ammonia was not used in the experiment, this material has in general practice been found unsuited to pineapple culture.) (c) In case of shedded pineapples it has been found that it is profitable to use from 2250 to 3750 pounds per acre annually of a complete fertilizer. (d) Analyses of a large number of fruits (Red Spanish) covering a period of four years show that the eating quality of the fruit is not affected by the kind of fertilizer used. (e) The sugar content of the fruit (Red Spanish) is slightly increased by the heavier fertilizer applications. (/) The large fruits contain a slightly higher percentage of sugar than the small ones. (g) The analyses of a large number of pineapple plants show that they contain sufficient fertilizing materials, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime and magnesia to make them of considerable value as a fertilizer. (h) With an increase of nitrogenous fertilizers there was found an increase of nitrates in the soil. (i) Nitrates are most abundant at the immediate surface. After a depth of one foot is passed the amount is very small. (j) Where the surface of the ground is not protected, the nitrates are much less abmidant than where there is a covermg of plants and decaying leaves. Preparation of Soil. — The essentials for the pineapple are a limited water supply, abundance of air for the roots and plenty of available plant- food. The selection and preparation of the soil should meet these require- ments, as fully as possible. Sandy soils or sand, naturally most nearly meet the physical requirements. Such soil should be thoroughly plowed and freed from noxious weeds and grass Before starting the plantation. If the soil is level and inclined to be wet after excessive rains, it should be made into rather wide beds on which the plants are set. The plants are set in rows 15 to 18 inches apart and as many as 20 rows to the bed. The advantages of this close setting lie in economy in the use of fertilizers, the support which the plants give to each other, and the thoroughness with which they shade the ground and prevent the growth of weeds and grass after they are fully established. With this system of planting, there should ir)2 SUCCESSFUL FARMING be ample room to pass hetwoon the beds for the purpose of carrying the fruits from the tiehl when they are mature. There shoiild also Im' ruadways crossing the beds at intervals of a few hundred feet sufficiently wide to allow the piussage of a wagon. When j)lanted on heavier soils (he single-row or doul)le-row systems of ])laiiting is prefeiTCMl. This allows for horse cultivation by means of which I'l.VEAPPLKS Pl.AXTKD IX AN' OrANOB GnOVE.* This provides a revenue from the laml while ihv trees arc coining to the bczirinR age. weeds and grass arc subduecl .nid the soil kept loose to facilitate thorough aeration. Pineapple plants bear but one fruit, after which they die. The new crop is .secured from the slips and suckers from the mother i)lant. Like m southern coa-st district of California and in various sections of Florida. The geographic limits of successful avocado culture are at present undetermined. The avocado responds to julish low heads and the i)roi)er form. After well grown, trees recjuire very little pruning. The wood, being quite soft, will not stand aljuse from ]iruning instruments. All cuts should be smoothly made and, on all larger branches, should be jirotected with a covering of i)aint or wax to prev(>nt decay. The seedling trees come into l)caring between the fourth and eighth years, the average bearing age being about six years. The life of the tree in Florida and California is as yet not determined, although there are records of trees eighty or more years old in some parts of the American tropics. It will be safe to estimate the bearing life at not over twenty- five years. Like the deciduous fruits, the avocado has a tendency to fruit in alter- nate years. This is generally due to setting more fruit than can l)e properly matured. Thinning is therefore advised. This will encourage larger size and better quality of the fruits that are allowed to remain and will not over- tax the tree so as to prevent its bearing a crop the following year. Individ- ual trees of the thin-skinned Mexican variety in southern California have produced as numy as 5000 small fruits annually. Such fruits have little conmiercial value, but are of considerable value for their seeds, which are u.sed for mirsery puri)0.ses. Of course, these should all be grafted or budded before being set in orchards. All fruits that are to be placed ujion the market should be hand picked and handled with the gr<>at<'st care. Orange cli])])ers arv advised for this pur]M)se, about three-eighths of an inch of the stem being left on each fruit. The fruits, if to be shipped, should l)c carefully wrapped and packed in small packages, so that they will carry without injury. Fruits of fine quality in good condition on the large city markets in the Cnited States sell for 'M) to 75 cents each. The kind of fruits to ship will deiu-nd upon market denumds and the shij)])ing (|ualities of the different varieties. The industry of growing avocados is comparatively new and a list of the most rnia origin lufve come to notice. It is doubtful if the commercial variety of the future has yet apjK'ared. At least, none have been found that may be considered good 8hipj)ers. As a fniit the avocarlo exceeds in food value all other species. A test of the food value of twenty-six varieties gave an average (»f 0S4 calories per pound of edible fruit. This is important, iis it is more than twice the maxi- mum noted for any other fruits. The fuel value is not far from twice that of average lean meat. Of courec, they aic much lower iu protein. MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 167 The avocado is worthy of careful experimentation in those localities where climate will permit of its growth. It doubtless has great possibili- ties, although the demand for the fruit at present is limited. The Mango. — It originated in India. There it has been cultivated for many centuries and the fruit is as important to the people of that country as is the apple to the people of North America. The fruit of the mango is not well known outside of the regions in which it is grown. It is strictly a tropical fruit and under favorable condi- Fruit of the Mango. Seed on the Right. i tions the tree attains a height of sixty feet or more and produces fruit for several decades. In the United States it is grown chiefly in the southern part of Florida. When in a dormant state the trees will withstand a temper- ature of seven or eight degrees below freezing, but if growing rapidly when freezing weather occurs, the trees are killed back to the ground. It does best on fairly deep, rich, well-drained soils, but requires a liberal amount of moisture. Mango trees are usually propagated from seeds. As with any other fruit, trees produced in this way are not true to the parent stock. More iCourtesyof U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report of Porto Rico A. E. S., 1912. l«;s SUCCESSFUL FARMING recently, niethotls of grafting by inarchinp and patch grafting have come into use. The usual method of budding deciduous trees has not given satisfaction with the mango. Inarching has long been in use in India. It has l^ecn adapted in Florida with many modifications. The mango seeds are generally planted in pots four or five inches in diameter and eight to twelve inches deep. The.se may be made from cjT^ress shingles or by using the intcrnodes of rather large bamboos. The seeds are laid flatwise in the .soil and covered to a depth of about an inch and a half. The ix)ts nuist be watered at fr(»quent intervals. Be.st results are secured if seedlings are kept under ])artial shatle When they have attained a height of ten to twelve inches they are ready to be inarched. The jiots are brouglit near the tree from which scions are to lx> secured. If the tree is .so tall that its branches camiot be bent down to the ground, it will be nece.s.sary to i)rovide a scaffolding to support the pots. The tree selected for this purpose should be one bearing the best quality of fruit. Branches for inarching should be in .such condition that the bark will jM-cl freely. A strip of bark about three inches long is removed from the side of the stock. A similar strij) is also removetl from the scion and the two are brought together so that the cut surfaces will fit clo.sely and are securely held by wrapping. In about two weeks a cross-cut may be made in the stock two or three inches above the union and in the scion, just below the union. After two more we(>ks, these cuts may be (leei)ene cut e(lge ;ind keep out water. The whole stem for .several inches above and iu'low the bud should be covere(l with waxe»i cloth, leaving only the bud open to view. Budding shouKl take place when the .sap is moving freely. Alango trees should be planted about thirty feet apart each way. They should be properly care(l for so as to form low-headed trees ^\^th strong branches from which the fruit can Ik; eiusily gathereil. It is advisable to inter-till and during the early stages of growth inter- cropping may often lake place. The trees begin to bear from five to nine years of age. MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS ir,9 For immediate use the fruit should be allowed to ripen on the tree. If it is to be stored or shipped long distances it should be gathered before it fully ripens. If hand picked, wrapped in paper and packed in small packages, it will keep for several weeks. The keeping period may be lengthened by cold storage. The fruit is best prepared for eating by placing on ice, until thoroughly chilled. In this condition it may be readily peeled and sliced. The fruit is used chiefly in the fresh state, although in the tropics where grown it is fre- quently used for sauce or made into pies and lias great possibilities for various forms of preserves. The Banana. — The banana is strictly a tropical fruit. It is a large herb, with aperen- nial root stalk. The top grows rapidly and reaches a height of from ten to thirty feet, depending on variety. It requires from twelve to fifteen months from time of planting to the maturity of the fruit. Each plant bears one cluster of fruit, and upon its maturity the plant dies. Numerous shoots arise from the base of ^the original plant. Most of these are removed for use in establishing a new plantation, but some are left to take the place of the old plant. Within the past thirty years the banana has become popular in the markets of the North and is quite extensively used. It excels in the ease A Top- WORKED Mango Tree in Fruit. ^ •Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, 1913. 170 SUCCESSFUL FARMING with wliich it is handled. On the plantation a cluster of from 100 to 200 fruits, e(iual in amount to a crate of other fruits, is severed from the ])lant with one stroke of the machete. The fruits are protected by a tough skin which reatlily separates from the rather dry meat. The banana is cultivated in practically all tropical countries. Those countries leading in banana production are Jamaica, Costa Kica, Cuba and Honduras. The commercial supply for North America comes chiefly from the AW'st Indies. There are countless varieties of bananas, but v('r>- few of tliese are of commercial importance. Many of the most delicious ones are of local value only because of small size or j)oor shii)i)ing ciualities. The varieties usually met with in the markets are the large yellow fruits, and, less fre- quently, the red ones. The clusters of fruit are cut from the plant when quite green and hung up in a dark room to ripen. When shij)ped to distant markets, the fruit is sent directly from the i)lantations to the fruit steamers, and ripen while in transit. They generally reach their destination before they are sufficiently ripe to use. The banana is grown in Florida and the southern portion of the Gulf states. It is found as far north as Charleston, S. C. In the extreme northern limits it is grown chiefly as an ornamental plant. In the .southern half of Florida it has been grown commercially to a limited extent. For central Florida the Orinoco and Hart varieties are be.st. These are both early and hardy. In the southern i)art of the state the Dwarf Jamaica variety is successfully grown. If freezing weather occurs, the ba.se of the plants to a height of two or three feet may be protected with earth or straw. If the tops are frozen they should be removed by cutting just \yo\ow the frozen portion. A new growth will start almost immediately from the center of the .stalk and will mature fruit before the clo.se of the .sea.son. With few excei>tions the banana is seedless, and mu.st therefore lie propagated by planting suckers or sprouts. The.se are generally removed from the mother plant when several feet in height. By cutting the top of the sucker back to a foot in height it will keep for .several weeks. These are .set in the new plantation at intervals of ten to fifteen feet ai)art each way. The larger the variety, the greater should be the distance between plants. Bananas require a fertile, welUIrained soil, well supplied with hunui.s. They develop best in a humid climate. Their extensive and tender foliage necessitates jjrotection from strong winds. The soil between the plant^i should be cultivated to subdue weeds and grass and to conserve soil moisture until the plants are large enough to shade the grountl. The Fig. — \\'hile the original home of the fig tree is around the Persian (lulf, the tree will grow and thrive in any warm climate. It is very hardy and noted for its longevity, often remaining productive for a hundred years. The fig can be cultivated in the warmer parts of the United iStates and MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 171 will withstand considerable freezing. The young shoots are easily frosted, but, owing to its hardy constitution, a tree though severely frosted will send forth new shoots and will often bear fruit the following season. A heavy frost, however, while the sap is flowing freely, is apt to be fatal. The warm interior valleys of Arizona and Cahfornia, being dry, are much more favorable for fig culture than the Gulf states. The rainfall of the Gulf states, occurring at the time of fig ripening, often causes the fruit to burst and decay before maturity. The fresh fig is a delicious fruit, but on account of its perishable nature, has not been widely cultivated for commercial purposes. The fig tree will grow and thrive in a variety of soils. It is a gross feeder and requires much moisture for its long spreading roots. Where frosts are liable to occur, rich, moist lands should be avoided, as this kind of soil promotes a late luxuriant growth, which is very easily killed by frost. The fig is propagated by means of suckers and cuttings. Seldom is it propagated by seed, as seedlings have a tendency to revert to their wild state. Trees from seedlings require three years before beginning to bear, and several more years to come into full fruitage. Trees from cuttings may bear a few figs the first year and will be in full fruitage in two or three years. Cuttings six or eight inches long should be made from young, well-seasoned wood. These should be made in the spring before the sap begins to run, and hung inverted for a time until the ends are calloused over. The trees mature more rapidly if the cuttings are planted in their permanent position. They should be planted in a deep hole, filled in with rich compost, and liberally watered. Cuttings, transplanted after growth has begun, are often retarded two or three years in growth. Barren trees may be successfully grafted. Fig trees planted in orchards should be fifteen or twenty feet apart. This distance is sufficient for the Southern states, but in the Pacific Coast region, where the trees grow to a greater size, thirty to forty feet is a better distance. The low-branching varieties are best, as they are not so easily injured by M'inds. Except to remove dead or decayed limbs, the fig tree requires very little pruning. In young orchards the cultivation must be shallow in order to avoid injury to the surface roots. Fertilizers scattered broadcast and worked into the earth near the trees are beneficial in the early stages of growth. The Guava. — The guava, a native of tropical America, has spread to all tropical countries. In character of gro^i^h and fruit it most nearly resembles the quince of temperate regions. It is sometimes called the apple of the tropics. The plant is a shrub, seldom attaining a height of more than twelve feet. The vegetative growth is easily killed by frost, but is renewed quickly from the roots. For this reason it can be successfully grown in sub-tropical localities. 172 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The fniit varies Rroatly in size and color, ranf^n^ from an inch in (lianu'tcr to llio si/o of larKc apjjlcs. \\'lioii ripo. it is \vliit(« or yollow. with a sul)-aci(l jnilp of the same color as tiic skin. 'J'ho color sometimes (leei)ens into crimson. The fruit contains many small seeds. It is used chiefly for makiiif!; jelly and preserves. The fiuava is jjropasated from seeds and cuttinRs. Recently this fruit has received considerable attention in Florida, where it finds a j^lacc in nearly every fruit garden. Where frosts occur, the tops may be protected during the winter by laying them down and covering them with straw and earth. REFERENCES "Text Rook of Tropiral .VKriculturo." Nicholls. Culiforniii lOxpt. Station liullctins: 2oU. "Tho Lo<|ii:it." '2'A. "Tlio Avocado in California." Florida Expt. Station RuUctins: 101. "I'inoapplc Culturo, VI." 104. "Rincapplo Culturo, VII." Hawaii Hxpt. Station Rullclins. O. E. S., I^^. S. Dopt. of .Xnrindturo: 2S. "ElTcct of .MaIl^;ano.se on Pineapple I'lant.s ami Fruits." 2o. "Tlie .\vocado in Hawaii." 12. "Tlio Maiiiio in Hawaii." 20. " Shield Huddinn the Mango." 36. "The Pineapple in Hawaii." 29. "Management of Pineapple Soils." Porto Rico Expt. Station Rulietin 11, O. E. S., V. S. Dept. of .\Kriculture. "Relation of Caleareous Soils to Pineapjile Chlora.sis." O. E. S., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin S. "Pineapple Growing in Porto Rico." CHAPTER 15 The Farm Woodlot By F. F. Moon Professor of Forest Engineering, College of Forestry, Syracuse University, N. Y. Need of Forestry. — To properly solve the land problem of any nation each acre should be put to its best permanent use. Field crops should be grown upon the tillable areas and the land which is too steep or stony for cultivation or too sterile for ordinary field crops should be made to produce repeated crops of timber. That is why the practice of forestry, which is "the raising of repeated crops of timber on soils unsuited to agriculture," is necessary to secure the proper use of all the land. Forestry is not a part of agriculture. It is separate, but co-ordinate and interdependent. Agriculture has first call upon the land and selects the fertile and level areas for tillage. Forestry takes the remaining portion and raises the timber indispensable to our civilization. Both are concerned with crops, since the forester regards his timber-covered areas as fields to be sown (either by nature or artificially), tended and finally reaped, for forestry means using the products of the forest and does not mean locking up the woodlands for park purposes, as some people think. The practice of forestry upon the non-agricultural soils is absolutely essential for three reasons: (1) Timber is absolutely indispensable to our civilization. (2) There are large areas of land which can never be used for agri- culture. (3) The indirect influence of the forest in moderating climatic extremes, in controlling run-off, etc., is necessary to the success- ful practice of agriculture and to the health and comfort of the people. 1. Next to food, shelter is most important. According to Fernow, over half our population live in wooden houses, and two-thirds use wood for fuel. The same authority estimates that 95 per cent of all the timber consumed in the United States is for necessities. Our per capita consumption of wood is unusually high, and on the increase. (It is twice what it was fifty years ago.) We consume six times as much timber per capita as in Germany, and twenty times as much as in Great Britain. 2. Agriculture can never be practiced on a large part of this continent, and this land must not be allowed to lie idle. Of the 1,900,000,000 acres 173 174 SUCCESSFUL FARMING of land in the United States, 550,000,000 acres are now covered \\ith forests (05 per cent of the original forest area) and 415,0(X),000 acres are devoted to agriculture. Agricultural experts have estimated that within the next fifty years the forest area of this country will have been reducctl to about .■i()(),()(M),()(X) acres, and that the present area of forest land held in the form of farm woodlots (190,000,000 acres) will have diminished to 90,000,000 acres. So that with the exhaustion of virgin supplies of timl)er, the farm woodlot will l)e relatively nmch more important fifty years hence than it is at the i)rosont time. 3. The indirect influences exerted by forest cover are much greater than is generally supposed. Recent investigations have indicated tliat the rains in the interior of a continent are largely dependent on the presence of large bodies of timber situat(>d in the track of prevailing winds. In some parts of the Middle West tiie value of windbreaks in checking the force of hot southern \\'inds may exceed tiieir value as a source of timl)er, fuel and fencing. The influence of forest cover upon run-ofT — the dr>'ing up of sjirings, the increase in spring floods after extensive forest denuda- tion — are well known. Water experts claim that the gradual lowering of the water in the noil is flependent to a large degree upon the absence of sufficient forest area. Value of the Woodlot. — The value of a good woodlot to a progressive farmer is hard to measure in dollars and cents. It serves the following ends : (1) It furnishes timber for home construction i)uri)o.scs, fuel, fence posts, etc. (2) It should now, as in the pa.st, furnish winter employment to horses and men. Domestic timber, telejihone poles or railroad tics for the market, etc., can all be taken out during the winter months to the vast improvement of the bank account and wood- lot. (3) A good woodlot is like a bank account— it can be drawn on in ti?ne of need. After a fire, the barn may be largely rebuilt from home timbers, and in case money is badly needed, some logs or poles may be sold to tide matters over. A good farm woodlot is a fine nest egg. (4) It vastly improves the appearance of the home place and makes it more salable. Aside from sheltering the homestead and barns from wintr>' blasts, the woodlot covers the steep, rocky slopes or the marshy sjwts that would otherwise i)e most unsightly. \'iewed from every standpoint — revenue, year-round farm management, appearance, real estate value and comfort — the woodlot is a splendid a.s.sct to an up-to-' — light and heat, m<)istur(> and i)lant f»)od— available for each acn? of forest. This energj' should be confined to a few valuable trees and not scattered among the several hundred aiklitional weed trees that stand FlLLU .\.NU WUODLOT. T'pon the fcrtilo. Irvol lands fiold crops should ho raised, while the steep, rooky hillsides uii.siiilofl to auriculturc aiiuuld be made to yield curi)s of timber. iipon each acre. It should be the aim to rai-sc a crop of valuable timber and not forest weeds. Improvement Cuttings. — I'tider ordinary circum.««tanres no improve- iiiciit (•uttiii^> arc attempted imtil the material to be cut is large enough to pay the cost of removal. C'uttings to improve the comp<)sition are some- times made in very young stands where intensive management is i)ossible. Such cuttings, or cleanings as they are called, are ordinarily Iwyond the I)ale of woodlot management, as the aver.a^e farmer cannot .alTord to make the iuve^tmeut (§1.50 to S3 per acre in youug spruulb) which buch cleanings THE FARM WOODLOT 177 would cost. Therefore, it is better to postpone the cutting until the undesirable specimens reach cordwood size (say twenty-five to thirty years), when a thinning may be made. The general idea in such a thinning would be to remove competing trees which take light, food and moisture from the straight, thrifty trees of more desirable species. Every farmer loiows which trees are valuable A WoODLOT AFTER ThINNING.'' By removing dead and diseased trees and those of less desirable species, the remainder of the stand will greatly increase its growth rate. in his neighborhood and which individuals are not thrifty. In the Eastern states, for example, such trees as ash, basswood, tulip-poplar, red oak, etc., are generally favored over the slower-growing and less desirable beech, maple, black oak, horn bean, etc. Rapid-growing conifers, like pine and spruce, are to be preferred to slower-groAving and less valuable species like hemlock and white cedar. As a rule, conifers should be encouraged upon poorer soils, since they make less demand upon the site for plant food and moisture. ITS SUCCESSFUL FARMING A method of thinning a woodlot which foresters term the French method, can be used in many stands to ativantage. The idea is to select from 200 to 2.')0 trees per acre, depending on the species, soil, etc., to form your liiial croj), and to remove all weed trees or defective specimens which are in any way interfering with the growth of these selected trees. By cut- ting away the trees crowding and competing with them, all of the growing energy will ho forced into the straight, thrifty stems wliich remain, with the result that the succeeding years' growth rings will be laid on the trees of greatest value. In this way railroati tics may be secured at thirty-five years, whereas if left untouched, they would not reach sufficient size until forty-five or fifty years. For the final result, the technical quality of the species (including local demand), the growth rate and the condition of the individual tree determine whether or not it should be removed. Briefly summarized, the points to be kept in mind in making a thinning are as follows: 1. Leave straight, fast-growing, thrifty trees of most valuable species. 2. Avoid making holes in the canopy that will not be filled within five years by the natural growth of the crowns. (I*>xcessive exposure of the soil to sunlight causes dr>'ing out of the soil, a rapiil growth of weeds and diminished volume growth.) 3. In case of doubt, leave a tree, as it may be taken out at the time of the next thinning. Reproduction Cuttings. — The previously described cuttings are designed primarily to hasten growth and to improve the composition of the stand. The reproducing of the stand is not intended, although a heavy improvement cutting in a woodlot old enough to produce seed may result in a fine stand of young seedlings the next spring. This is by accident rather than by design. In certain of the Middle Western states where grazing is permitted in the woodlot as a matter of course, where fires and bad cuttings have ex- haust (>d the soils, reproduction cuttings are out of the (jucstiiHi. Only weed trees or old and dccrei)it si)ecimens of desirable varieties are still standing. The best, the only way, in cases hke this, is to cut dean and rei)lant with si)ecies suited to the region. Where the soil is in good shape and good .seed trees are found, a light cutting to i)r(>pare the soil, followed two or three years later by another thinning to give more light to the seedlings on the ground, will provide sufficient stand of reproduction. The thinnings, to \)c successful, require considerable care in removing the defective trees and specimens whose see(l is not wanted. (Ireat care should be exercised to |)revent excessive light coming in at first, as weeds may then choke out desirable seedlings. .\fter the .seedlings have gotten started the trees overhead are gradually removed, the cuttings being located where light is needed for profx^r devel- opment of the yomig growth. When the l(>aves of {ho .seedlings turn a yellowi.'ih-grecn, more light is needed and u few nearby trees should be cut. THE FARM WOODLOT 179 In regions where the sprout hardwoods are found (chestnut, oaks maples, etc.), reproduction may be secured by clear cutting, allowing the woodlot to spring up from stumps. The best time for sprout reproduction is under thirty years of age, but ordinarily good sprouting species will retain this quality until fifty or sixty years of age. This type of manage- ment, coppicing as it is called, should not be practiced too many times in succession, as the soil becomes exhausted and the vitality of the stand lowered. Pruning. — In certain parts of the East farmers have attempted to secure a higher quality of lumber by artificially pruning coniferous stands. Good Work in Piling Brush. Advocates of this plan claim that the clear lumber thus produced will bring a sufficiently larger yield to pay for the cost of this intensive process. On the other hand, men who have sawed second growth white pine, which was artificially pruned, claim that loose knots are produced by too rapid drying of the stub. If pruning is desirable to improve the looks of a piece of woodland — to open up a vista beneath the crowns — it may be done, but let the cost be charged against landscape improvement and not added to the cost of the forest crop. Planting. — Where it is desired to cover an unsightly area or abandoned pasture with trees, planting may be resorted to, as the proper species are ISO SUCCESSFUL FARMING iiniupdiatcly started at the correct distance. The question is often raised, "\\'hy is not nature's method followed and seed scattered broadcast on the soil?" The answer is this: It has been found after repeated exi)eri- monts that broadcast seeding is not only extremely expensive on account of the high jirice of seed, but the results obtained are decidedly uncertain, owing to the activity of scjuirrels or field mice anil the frequent drying out of the seed. Placing young seedlings in the ground six feet apart is more certain and clieaper in the long run. Planting six feet aj^art each way, an acre containing 1210 trees can be i)lante(l at a cost of .57 to §10, dei)ending nil price of labor and whether seedlings or transj)lants are used. If the woodlot has been very nnich run down as a result of injudicious cuttings, exces.sive grazing or repeated fires, it may be desirable to plant under the ojienings with fast -growing, shade-bearing species. In this ca.'^e it is desiral)le to first make as heavy a thinning as circumstances will permit, and then, after the timber has been removed, plant the open spaces immediately with the chosen species before gra.ss and weeds take possession of the soil. Underi)lanting a run-down woodlot of broad-leaf trees with four-year transplants of sjjruce or i)ine is a splendid way of injecting new blood. The trees will cost about one cent each in the ground, and from three to four hundred per acre is generally sufficient. Financial Results. — The best measure of the success of any farm activity is the financial yield obtained, and it is safe to say that the difficulty in marketing the forest crop and the long waits between receipts are largely re.sj)onsil)le for the slight attention i)aid the woodlot. Forest numagement must be financially profitable before it will be accejited by the farmer. At the i)resent time forest products are not sold as easily as grain, IM)tatoes or fruit, and this fact often causes discouragement. While the average farmer will scan the market reports ver>' closely to find out the prevailing j)ricc for his field croj^s, the same man is apt to sell the standing timl)er on his woodlot to the first mill owner who offers him real money. If the selling of forest i)roducts can be simi)lifieil and the farmer can Ikj jussured a reasonable return from his non-agricultural acres, it is certain that the practice of forestry by the individual owner will advance rapidly. These small holdings are 2. "Forest riantinR." I'. S. Dppt. of .\p-iculturc, Forest Service, Circulars: it?. "The Tiinlier Supply of the V. S." 117. "Preservation Treatment f)f Fence Posts." 1;}S. "Sunj;estions to W Dodlot Owners in Ohio Valley RcRion." U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, Ycax-Hook 1914. "The Natiooal Forests and the Farmer." CHAPTER 16 Beautifying Home Grounds By a. W. Cowell In charge of Landscape Gardening, The Pennsylvania State College How ridiculous would be the man who proceeded to build his house by first buying up a lot of lumber, bricks, pipes and paint, and then going ahead to put them together without first having a very definite working plan! Too often that is the way the home surroundings are arranged and ornamented — and don't they appear so? Whether of houses or homes, which is a broader term and includes the nouse and all its immediate surroundings, it is essential to good results to have a definite working plan and stick to it. If you cannot plan it yourself, you will save time and money by obtaining expert advice. The Survey. — To make such a plan for the grounds, first measure up the boundaries of the area and note all the features contained therein, including buildings, standing trees with their approximate spread, steep banks, rocks, swampy places and other natural features, besides roads and walks. Next, indicate the fine views and the views of undesirable character that should be eliminated. This accomplished, you are ready to plan changes and alterations and record your desires and ideals. Using an ordinary foot ruler, adopt an eighth or a sixteenth of an inch to represent a foot of your actual measurements and thus accurately draw on paper the survey you have made. Draw the new scheme on the same scale. It is likely that practical and ornamental considerations will be thought of together in this way. This study of the place as a whole should aim at a systematic arrangement, an effective appearance, and provide for conve- nience and comfort. Beautification should start back in the practical first arrangement of buildings, roads, paths, windbreaks and screens, and not be confined to the little patch of ornamented front lawn. Planning for Convenience. — Speaking of the farmhouse, one located upon the north side of an east and west public road will most nearly approach the ideal in matters of arrangement of parts. The house should stand not less than 150 nor more than 400 feet from the road, somewhere near the center of the farm lands; for all operations begin and end at the house, and it should, therefore, be most conveniently centered. It should face the south. Behind it at a distance of about 150 feet, or less, if fire hazard is minimized, may stand the barns and other service buildings arranged perhaps most conveniently for work around a hollow square or 183 184 SUCCESSFUL FARMING l)!irn court. A windhrcak ujx)!! tho wost and north of tliis Rroup of Itiiild- injis, wliil(^ slicltcriiin tliciii, will likewise protect the iioiise and home garden and orchard from j)revailinii; winds. To reach this court, the entrance drive wouUl pass the house, preferably upon the west side, but not nearer than fifty feet^a little spur beinp; jirovidcd from it for the house \'isitor8. For convenience, arranj^e the huiidiiifis with the chicken iiouse nearest the kitchen, and for comfort place tiie ho^ pen or other more obnoxious neces- sity farthest to tliu uortheuat. A CofTV'ENlENT AN*I> AlTUAiTlNK 1■'.Mavor to |)reserve the lower limbs. Street and roadside trees are of a different ideal. Hyacintji HkI).' Use of Flowers. — The »iso of flowers and flower ho(h in linme orna- mentation is not to be discouraged, although it harbors nuich danger in chances of introducing colors and material diflicult to place and to har- monize with most natural landscape. If the advice be confined to that type of flowers called "old-fashioned" hardy plants, the matter is simi)li- fied. They add chaiin to most shrubberies and lawns when i)lanted along in front of the shrub beds, arranged in and out among the shrubs. The other class of flowers known as "bedding i)lants," which includes gera- niums, cannas, coleus, .salvia and so forth, is more difficult to blend, more foreign to simple jilaces and moi-e predominant in its color note. Such bedding can be best used directly against the house, but never in l>eds, stars, ere.seents ;ind bologna sausage shapes, in the middle of the lawn. • Courtcay of The CQuntr>-«id«' M «gniinc, New York City. BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 1S9 and seldom in front of shrubbery, as effectively or so practically as hardy perennials of the other class. These are all principles and ideals to observe in drawing a plan for home ornamentation. As to detail, each place is a problem unto itself, to be solved with due regard to two services — convenience of use and land- scape charm. Nature is a good instructor in principles. From her exam- ples in field and wood we learn of the "open center" of lawn with borders of massed foliage, of the beauty in flowing, rounded outline, both of foliage and of ground. We cannot copy nature, but we can and should derive much inspiration and many ideas in the uses of trees, shrubs, vines, flowers and grasses, and how to combine them into good groups and masses. A few uses and combinations follow. They are merely catalogued. Perhaps they will suggest details in the comprehensive plan. SUGGESTED MATERIALS Street Trees for roadside or driveway should consist of one species upon one road, but different species upon different roads. Maples. — Sugar, Red, Norway, distances, 45-35-40 feet. Oaks. — Red, Pin, Scarlet, Mossy Cup, distances, 45-30-35 feet. Elm.— American, the ideal American tree, distances, 45 to 60 feet. Linden. — American Basswood, European or Crimean, distances, 45-35-32 feet. Plane. — European (or Oriental), distance, 35 feet. Ash. — American white, distance, 35 feet. Gingko. — Chinese Maidenhair Tree (narrow streets only), distance, 25 feet. Trees for lawn 'planting, besides those mentioned for street use : Oaks. — White, Enghsh, Golden, Pyramidal. Maple. — Weir's Cut-leaf, Purple, Norway, Cork-barked, Tartarian. Elm. — Cork-barked, Scotch, Japanese. Linden. — Silver, Weeping Silver, Broad-leaved. Mountain Ash. Empress Tree (Paulonia) . Larch. — European and Japanese. Bald Cypress. — An excellent. Magnolias. — Chinese species. Buckeye. Japanese Maples. Pine. — White, Swiss, Dwarf Mountain, Austrian. Fir. — Douglass, Colorado Silver. Spruce. — Englemann, Colorado Blue, Eastern, Norway. For screen planting, to obscure objectionable views: Poplars. — Lombardy, Bolles Silver, White. Willows. — White, Laurel-leaved. Mulberry.— White. Maple. — Weir's Cut-leaf, Water or Box Elder. Birch.— White, Red. Ailanthus. Spruce. — Norway. Pine. — Austrian, Scotch, White. Arborvitse. — Westera. Shrubs for screen: Sumacs, Privet, Nine-bark, Elder, Alders, Dogwood, Witch Hazel, Red Bud, Shad Bush, Bush Honeysuckle. 190 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Shrubs suitable for the base of the liouse: Japancso Bnrhrrry, Thunhrrps, W.-iforor's and Van Iloiittos' S|)irra, Ho(l-T\viuKJ'«l DoRwood {.('. iiUhi), Dwarf Driitzia, Hydran^fa, Kcrria, I^-siH'd«'za, St. John's Wort, HcKi'l's I'rivot, Japanese Row iliugosa), Snowlx-rry, Str|)licnandni, Mahonia, Khododendron, azaleas, EulaliuH (ornanientul ClraKses), and hardy fwrt'onials. Shrubs suitable for general border plantings: BlooniinK in early sprinp: Anielanchier, azaleas, daphne, ealyeanthus, forsythia, eercis, corniis mas, cydonia, lindera, lonieera franrantisxinia, almond. HluominK in late summer: Althea, haccharis, aralia s|)inosa, < aryopteris, eephel- anthus. clethra, hy'uard. CHAPTER 17 Window Gardening By a. W. Cowell In charge of Landscape Gardening, The Pennsylvania State College The prime requisites in raising plants in the house are proper soil, good drainage, equable temperature, the correct amount of sunlight and regular care in watering and re-potting. Contrary to superstition, no better geraniums can be grown in a tomato can than in a piece of fine pottery. So you may choose your own receptacle so long as it fits the plant it is to house — being neither too large nor too small. Drainage. — Good drainage is brought about by having an opening in the bottom of the receptacle — at least half an inch in diameter, and for very large jars or tubs, three or more openings. Over these lay pieces of broken pottery to prevent the dirt from falling through. Good drain- age allows any excess of moisture to escape and provides for free circula- tion of air through the soil. This prevents it from becoming soggy and sour. Soil and Exposure. — Good soil is often difficult to secure. Many planters take chances and use what is handiest. This is a mistake. Even the blackest woods earth is not always most suitable to use. Soil which is clayish and bakes is not good; neither is light, sandy soil. A combina- tion of the three t^qoes, however, is satisfactory, and a soil recommended by a practical florist is one made up as follows: Sldm off the sod thinly from a bit of pasture land and take the loam directly under the sod for the ground matter of your soil ; mix together 32 quarts of this loam with 4 quarts of black woods earth and 4 quarts of sharp sand. For the plant-food, mix together 8 quarts of decomposed manure, 1 quart of air-slaked lime and 1 quart of ground bone (bone meal). Now mix and mix and 7nix these two piles together, sift through a sieve of a quarter- inch mesh, and you have a soil suitable for the most "persnickity" of plant tastes. As to light, for flowering plants generally, a south or east window is best. Some foliage plants and ferns like the sunless windows or interior of a room. Their numbers are few, however, and this is unfortunate. Method of Potting. — To pot up the plants, cover the drainage material in bottom of the flower pot with an inch or two of the soil prepared as above described. Then place the plant roots flatwise into the soil, holding the stem erect while soil is sprinkled in until the pot is nearly full, and press down firmly but not too hard. Now sprinkle a light covering of soil {not 191 i:»-2 SUCCESSFUL FARMING (irined in) over top of the pot to prevent excessive evaporation and drench with water. A phiiit which has made a vigorous growili may nood more root room. It fills lip the receptacle and lu'coiiies "pot hound," as the Ihtrist says. It should he "shifted up" to a i)ot the next size or two sizes larger. There i.s failure in i)ots lar}j;er than necessary. Reverse the i)lant with tlio j)alni of tlie left hand against tlie top of the pot and the stem passing througli the fingers and with a sliglit tap the j)(»t may he re- moved. 'I'he i)all of roots should he put into the new cjuartcrs, set- ting the old surface ahout level with the top of the new pot. ( ' li i n k in new soil around the ball of roots and then water th(> plant plenteousl}'. In potting up plants from the sununer garden — g(>raniums, snaj)- dragon, ten weeks' stocks, petuni:us, scarlet sage — set them in a shaded corner for a few days and si/ritKjc the tops daily before plac- ing in the sunny win- dow. Nothing is more unsightly than a lot of "leggy" old plants or puny weak ones. (Jrow few plants and liave kinds which will Make cuttings and keej) the i)lants vigorous and shaj)ely. Cut back the old plants, remembering that flowers are on new wood, and that it is "ejisior" for an old i)lant to grow a lot of new shoots tlian to carry leaves on the tips of long, lanky branches. So cut the old jilants back vigorously <»nce in a while. In select ing plants at the florist's for home window gardening, do not be interested in th()s<> of his hottest house; choose plants from a night tempera- ture of about 50 degrees. Plants like equable temperatures a.s well as * Courteay of Tbo Countryside Mogaaine, N. Y. Removing tue Plant fuom Old Pot. thrive. WINDOW GARDENING 19.3 regularity of other conditions. Do not allow the room temperature to get above 70 degrees in daytime nor below 50 degrees at night. Watering. — The watering of plants is largely a matter of judgment. It is offered as good advice that a plant should be watered when it needs it, and contrariwise 7iot when it does not need it. Water copiously once in two days rather than a little each clay, unless the earth has become dried out. This can be determined by tapping the flower pot with the finger nail; a clear, ringing sound will indicate dryness; a dull sound shows a damp condition and water not required. Watering at the roots is not sufficient, strange to say. Plants respond also to a wetting of the leaves. This can A Well-proportioned Fern.^ be accomplished by turning them half over in a tub and syringing the tops. Do not allow the sun to play upon wet leaves; it may injure them severely. Feeding Plants. — Pot-grown plants respond to "feeding up" — the application once in a while of liquid manure — which is merely stable manure and water allowed to stand a few days and strained. Apply the liquid once a month for two successive waterings. Bone meal worked in at the top of a pot is slow in its action, but beneficial. There are prepared plant-foods which are valuable and convenient, but more expensive than these two. 1 Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y. I^t SUCCESSFUL FARMING Ferns and Foliage Plants. — Plants should fit the purpose for which they arc iiit(>ii(l(Ml. If a gnMMi and growinK plant for house decoration (huing tin- winter months, one tliat can ho nio\0(l from place to j)lace, is wanted, the aspidistra, dracirna, cocos and other palms, asparajjus plumo- sus, rul)l>er plant, auraucaria (Norfolk Island Pine), and with restrictions, the Boston, Scott's and crested ferns should be chosen. Maidenhair ferns do not Kciierally succeed with house culture, but of them all Adiautum gracilliniinn, cuncatuin, and ('(ipHlu.s-Vcncri.s are best. For the table, small ferns in a fern dish are a.s good as anything except the pots of spring bulbs as they are brought in from the cellar. The fern dish should have a porous earthen dish in which to grow the plants, regardh^ss of the ornamental character of the dish in which it re.sts. Ferns, purchitsed as '*tal)le ferns," are but baby i)ig ferns, and are good to use in a fern dish. As they become larger, they should be transplanted to larger jKjts or to a fern box and i)laced in a sunless win- dow. Flowering Plants. ■ — For the sunny window flowering plants may i)e used. A shelf on castors is the best stand, as it may be turned around occasionally. A box the length of the window and from six to eight indues deep may be usetl. Set the i)lant jars up an inch above the l)ottom of the tray in order that they may not be too wet. F'or ])lants there is a good variety: Abutilon, flowering begonias; fuchiits, swainsomia, billbergia, (>U(Mr i.sta, geraniums (especially "CMiristnuus Pink"), euphea, loi)elia, oxalis (also for hanging biusket), cyclamen (in .shaded spot), Chinese, starr>', and "Baby" jjrimroses, stevia, Marguerites, candytuft, alyssmn, agera- tum, heliotrope, i)ouvardia, balsam ("touch-me-not"), cactus, and ])Iants mentioned later which may \k\ l)rought from the outdoor .sununer gardens. Among bulbs, amaryllis, calla and the so-called "Dutch buli)s" are prol>- ably the most satisfactory' of all flowering i)lants for the house. A dozen Paper white narcissus may be grown in an eight-inch deep glass dessert- dish half full of sand, above which the bulbs rest, held lirmly in place by • Courtoay of IIoiwo nnd Ciardon, Publi»hc Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N . Y. PART II PLANT DISEASES, INSECT ENEMIES AND THEIR CONTROL (197) CHAPTER 18 Diseases of Garden and Orchard Crops; and Their Remedies By Dr. Mel. T. Cook Plant Pathologist, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station When any of the various parts of a plant are not doing their work properly the plant is said to be diseased. The disease frequently causes poor growth or poor fruit, or both; and in case of our cultivated plants, an unsatisfactory crop. The most important causes of plant diseases are fungi, bacteria, slime moulds, parasitic flowering plants, insects, mites, nematodes, unsatisfactory soil, too much or too small amount of moisture, unfavorable temperature, gas fumes and smoke. Some plant diseases occur for which there are no satisfactory explanations. Plant diseases may be detected by characteristic symptoms which readily distinguish the disease upon the healthy plants. The most common of these symptoms are: (a) a discoloration of the foliage and sometimes of the new growths; (6) wilting, frequently followed by yellowing and browning; (c) dropping of the foliage; (d) the formation of spots on foliage, stems or roots; (e) perforation of the foliage commonly called "shot hole;" (/) variegation of the foliage commonly called mosaic; (g) the "damping off" or dying which is especially common on seedling plants; (h) the blight or dying of leaves, twigs or stems; (i) the dwarfing of parts; (j) the increase in size of parts; (k) formation of galls, pustules or corky growths; (I) cankers on fruit, stems or roots; (m) abnormal fruits; (n) the formation of masses of small shoots called "witches' brooms;" (o) the curling of leaves; (p) the formation of leaf rosettes; (q) abnormal root growths commonly known as hairy root; (r) exudations of gums, resins, etc.; (s) the rotting of fruit, stems or other parts; and (t) sunburn of fruits and foliages. Some diseases of the soil, such as "damping off," are very severe in seed-beds and in greenhouses, and can be controlled by sterilizing the soil. Diseases that occur in the soil in fields are frequently overcome by a rota- tion of crops, by improved drainage and sometimes by stimulating the plants with suitable fertilizer. Many diseases are controlled by spraying, but in most cases spraying is used for the protection of plants against disease and not for curing them ; therefore, it is a kind of insurance and must always be supplied in advance of the appearance of the disease. Spraying cannot be conducted in a satisfactory manner unless the grower is sufficiently familiar with the disease 199 200 SUCCESSFUL FARMING to uiidiTstaiKl when, why ami liow to give tlic lu'ccssary treatments. In recent years it lias been found possible to overcome some (li.sea.ses bj' growing plants that are di.sea.se-resistant and, therefore, do not nectl treatments. In this chapter only the most common and important plant disea«»s in the United States and Canada are considered. Brief descriptions and conden.sed directions for treatment are given. Farmers should always rej)ort the jjresencc of di.sejise on crops to the agricultural experiment station of the state in which they reside, and a.sk advice as to treatment. The treatment of some diseiuses will vary somewhat, dei)endent upon the part of the country in which it occurs. APPLE Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot (ClomcreUa rujomaculans [Berk.], Spaul and von Schrenk;. — This rot is not confined to ripe apples and is noi always bitter. It attacks both fruit and twig and occurs in orchard and in storage. On the fruit it ap])ears as a brown, sometimes black, circular spot which gradually cnlaiges. It may be soft and wet or dry and corky, depending on variety of the fruit and age of the infection. The spore pustules start from the center of the spot and gradually sjjread over the surface, usually forming rather definite circles. They are i)inkish in color and watery and spread the disease from fruit to fruit. Large spots become dejiressed and wrinkled and the entire fruit eventually becomes rotten, then dry and shrunken, and is finally known a.s a "mummJ^" The di.seasc may be carried from year to year on these nnnnnjies and also on the stems. On tlu^ twigs and branches it causes rough spots known as cankers. These cankers are rough and vary in size with age. The fungous sjwres from these infect the growing croj). Trealnwnl. — Hemove and burn the mununied fiuit and twig cankers. Spray with lime-sulplun- before the buds open. After the petals fall, .spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixtui-e. (See spray tal)le for pear. ) Black Rot {Splurrups-is maloruni, Peck). — The rotten spot on the fruit is usually blacker and drier than the bitter rot sjjot and can l)e readily distinguished by the numerous black dots or pajjilhe from which m:Ls.ses of black spores emerge. It al.so causes a stem canker in which the twigs become swollen, rougli and black. On the trunk and larger branches it causes peculiar cankers. On young trees it cau.ses a blight which is .soniewhat similar to th(^ fire blight of the pear, but which can be readily distinguished by the presence of munerous small l>lack dots. It also attacks the leaves, causing I)eculiar spots frequently spoken of as "frog eye." Tnahnrnt. — Same as for bitter rot. Brown Rot. — I'sually not severe on the a])plc. (See Peach.) Storage Rots. — The rots which occur in storage may be due to the DISEASES OF CROPS 201 preceding fungi or to a number of others. Thorough spraying of the orchards, careful handhng of the fruit, regulation of temperature and humidity will reduce these rots to a minimum. Scab {Venturia incequalsis [Cke.], Wint.). — This is one of the most injurious diseases of the apple. It causes a dry, black spotting of the fruit which is well characterized by the name ''scab." As the season advances the seriously infected fruits become distorted and cracked. Affected fruits are es- pecially susceptible to storage rots. The disease also attacks the leaves and twigs, causing a more or less thick, velvet- like covering, varying in color from olive- green to black. Treatment. — Spray with concentrated lime- sulphur (5 quarts in 50 gallons of water) or Bordeaux mixtm-e when the pink shows, but just before the blossom opens. Blotch (Phyllosticta solitaria, Ell. and Ev.). — This disease causes dark, irregular blotches on the fruit and, when severe, causes a crack- ing. In the older spots a number of small, black, fruiting dots are formed. It also attacks the twigs, causing small tan-colored cankers. In the old cankers the bark becomes cracked and roughened. Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture. (See table for apples, pears and quinces.) Rust {Gymnosporangium macropus, Link.). — This disease attacks foliage, fruit and twig, causing a yellowish orange-colored spot which is not readily confused with other diseases. On the upper surface these spots show numerous small yellow pustules becoming black. On the Apple Scab.^ Photograph by Prof. M. A. Blake. > Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Station. 202 SUCCESSFUL FARMING under surface, in the late stages, are produced small, fringed, cup-like structures containing Rroat nuusscs of sporing red cedar trees, where they cause the formation of the familiar cedar aiij^lcs. Thtvse large brown cedar aj^jjlos of the cedar, occurring in the spring, produce gelatinous, horn- like projections, bearing nijisses of spores. These sjKjres are borne by the wind to the a])i)lo tree, which is re-infectetl with the disease. Treatment. — Remove the cedar apjilos, or still better, remove the cedar trees. Si)raying the apjile trees as for scab will re- duce the disease to some extent. Fire Blight.— Sec Pear. Other Foliage Spots and Twig Cankers. —There arc leaf spots and twig cankers due tootliercauses which cannot be enumer- ated in this brief discus- sion. These diseases arc all more or less injurious, but can l>e controlled by the regular spraying methods and sanitation. Mildew (S})harotlicea 7/ta.ssium suli)liide. Crown Gall and Hairy Root [Bacterium tumefacien^, Smith and Town- send). — These two di.seases are tlue to the same organism. The crown galls or root galls occur at the crown or on the roots and sometimes on the stems. They are more or less spherical, with irregular, roughentnl surfaces. Some are hard and others soft, but they ixn^ all probably due to the simie cause. They are most severe on red nusj)berries, are veiy injurious to jKnich > Courtcay of PcDoaylvAai* Africulturftl Eiperiinent Station, St«U> College, Pa. Ari'i-K Ti{KB wirn 'I'ypical Collar Bught.* Showing jjrojHT inctlKxl of cutfinR hack into healthy bark Ix-fori' treating with ]i:iint. DISEASES OF CROPS 203 trees and more or less injurious to apple trees, dependent somewhat on the varieties. They also occur on pears, quinces, cherries, plums, grapes, roses and many other plants. The diseased tissues extend throughout a considerable part of the plant which makes cutting off of these malforma- tions a very uncer- tain treatment. The hairy root appears under- ground as a mass of fibrous roots and above ground as warty knots on trunk and branch, and is sometimes mistaken for cank- ers, due to other causes. Treatment. — Theorganismwhich causes this disease lives in the soil for several years, and cannot be eradi- cated except by a long rotation of crops. It is unwise to set orchards, especially peach orchards, in old berry fields or other fields known to be infected or to use berries as inter-row crops in orchards. Nursery stock known to be infected should be de- stroyed. PEAR Blight {Bacillus amylovorus [Burr], De Toni). — This very familiar disease causes the leaves and young twigs to die and blacken very much as though injured by fire. .These dead leaves hang on the trees during the winter instead of falling m the autumn, as is the case with healthy leaves. The disease also attacks the branches, causing black, sunken cankers from 1 Courtesy of The Field, New York. Young Apple Tree from Nursery.^ Showing the disease known as Root Gall. 204 SUCCESSFUL FARMING which a sticky, milky fluid oozes in the early spring, and from which the discaso is si)rca(l, by moans of insects, to the oi)cninK Mossoms. If the weather conditions arc favoraljJe the blossoms and fruit spurs die and Ijlacken and very frequently considerable quantities of the young fruit are destroyed. The disease also occurs on the apple, crab, hawthorn and other related trees. Treat mint. — Prune and burn the diseased twigs on young trees; clean out the cankers on old trees, dii)ping the knife from time to time in formaldehyde (1 jmrt in 20 parts water). Paint these wounds with formal- tlehyde and th(Mi with white leatl ])aint t)r coal tar. Do not over-fertilize or over-c-uitivate the oichard. Sriuw Tahlk roH Aim-lks, Peaics a.\u Qiinx-es. Time. Materuu Pl-BTOdl. I. Before the buda swell. ('oncentrutre used for this treatment.) 3. Immediately after pet- als fall. Same as 2. Same as 2. 4. Ten days after blos- soms faU. Sanir as 2. Suncas2. Two additional sprayinKS are frequently necessary for fall and winter varieties. Arbenical iwisons for chewing insects and tobacco extracts for sucking insects may be added to treatments 2 and 3. Rust (Cymnosporarujium junipcri-inryiniamic and (!. hhiatlalcanum [I). :iM(l II. I, Kern). — Similar to ai)ple rust. Scab (, r. piirina, Aderh.). — Similar to a])i)le seal). Leaf Spot {Scptoria pyricola, Dcsm.) api)oai-s as numerous small, well- defined, angular, ashy-colored spots with minute black dots. It is not often severe. Leaf Spot (Entomospon'um fnacuhilion, I>ov.) occui-s on the leaf, causing small, ciicuiar spots with thill, red centers and dark bordei>!. ^^'hen .'^evere it cau.scs the leaves to Ijecome yellow «)r brown and fall. It al.^o attacks the fruit, causing spots which are at first red, becoming dark and in severe cases causing the fruit to crack. It is carried over the winter t)n the fallen leaves. Treatment. — This di.sease can be controlled by spraying with Hordeau.x mixture, beginning when the leaves are alwut half or two-thirds full grown and repeating at intervals of three weeks until four treatments h.ave l>een given. Rots. — The black rot and brown rot also occur on the ixjar. (Sec Apple.) Crown Gall. — Sec Apple. DISEASES OF CROPS 205 QUINCE Rust (G. clavipes, C. and P.)- — This disease is very similar to the rusts on apples and pears, but is more severe on the fruit and twigs than on either of the preceding. It also has the cedar for its alternate host. BUght.— See Pear. Leaf Spot. — See Pear. Rots. — See Apple. Crown Gall. — See Apple. PEACH Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena [Pers.], Schroet.). — This is one of the most destructive diseases of the peach. It attacks the fruit as IHH m " ^ \ — •\ < - "^ ^E? ^^ ' V L 14 0^ Hl^^. wmg i ^^^^^1 ^^^f H ''i . ^^kB "f- '' • - "V f- J Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot.^ Showing gray masses of spores of fungus. it is approaching maturity, causing it to rot, become brown, soft and use- less. The fungus produces an abundance of spores which form a dense brown, powdery mass over the fruit. It also attacks the blossoms, causing them to die, turn brown and fall soon after opening. It then spreads to the twigs, causing death of the young shoots and causing cankers on the older branches. Treatment. — See spray table for peach. Scab or Freckles (Cladosporium carpophilum, Thuem.). — This extremely common disease attacks the fruit, causing sooty, black specks or blotches iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 206 SUCCESSFUL FARMING which, when severe, may prevent normal ripening and cause the fruit to he irregular in shajx) and to crack. Tr< (itincnt. — Sec spray table for jM>ach. Leaf Curl {I'Jxod.snui (Icforfnans [Hcrk.l I'ckl.), — This very familiar and very injurious disea.se causes the loaves to curl, reduces their value to the tree and finally causes thorn to fall. With the aiii)earance of the second croj) of loavos, the growers frocjuently sui)i)osc the tree to have roi'ovorod. However, it has lost in vitality and vigor, which results in a reduction or comi)lote loss of the crop. Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur before the buds open. Shot Holes (Cercofipora circumsci.ssa, Sacc, PlujUoslieta cirnimscissa, Cke.). — 'J'li('s(i "sh(jt hole" disoasos arc quite common, but readily con- trolled by the regular si)raying treatments. Another shot hole {Bacterium pruni, Smith) is verj' common in the Southern states and especially on Ellx'rtas. It frequently cau.ses the foliage to fall in midsummer. It also attacks the fruit, causing a si)otting somewhat similar to the scab. It cannot be controlled by sjjraying. Crown Gall. — See Apiile. Mildew {Sphccrotheca pannosa [Wallr.j, Ix'v.). — Similar to the mildew of the a})i)lo. It is of little imiwrtance and can be controlled by the regular spray treat mont. (Sec table for poach.) Yellows. — The cause of this voiy destructive disease remains a mystery. In its earlier stages it causes a premature rijioning of the fruit, accompanied by a red blotching over the surface and through the flesh which is usually insipid and frequently bitter. (Prematuring may also l)e caused by lx)rers or winter injury.) In its later stages it causes the so-called "willowing" or formation of slender yollowish-gnm sh(K)ts on the trunk and larger branches. The leaves on these shoots are small, narrow and greenish- yellow. The foliage is frequently greenish-yellow, but wlien supjiliod with nitrogenous fertilizers will not show this character. In its earlier stages, one part of the tree may show the disease and the otluM* jiaiis apjKvir perfectly healthy, but in fact the entire tree is diseased. It can Ix; trans- mitted from tree to tree by contact and to young trees by budding. Buds from the ai)i)arently healthy parts of vor>' slightly disoa.'^od tro(\'< will trans- mit the disease. Healthy nursor>' stock is of the greatest imiK)rtance. Trcatnumi. — Dig and burn the trees as soon as the disea.'^e ai)|x>ars, u.sing care to prevent the tree coming in contact with others. Young trees can be set in the places from which the old ones were remove*!; the disease does not jx^rsist in the soil. The greatest care should 1x3 u.sed in the selection of bud wood, to insure its freedom from disoa.^e. Little Peach. — The cause of this disease is also unknown, but it is of the same nature as yellows. The fruit of disoa.sed trees is small, riix»ns late, is inferior in quality, frecjuently insipid and watery. The leaves are frecjuently lighter than normal loaves or ycllowi.sh-green and often rollcxl and drooping, eo DISEASES OF CROPS 207 Treatment. — Same as for yellows. Peach Rosette. — The cause of this disease of the peach in the Southern states is also unknown. It is very similar to yellows, but the leaves tend to cluster, giving the general appearance of green roses. Treatment. — Same as for yellows. Spray Table for Peach. Time. Materul. Purpose. 1. Same as first treatment for apple. (See page 943.) 2. Just as the husks fall from the small fruit. Self-boiled limengulphur. For brown rot, scab and other diseases. 3. Three weeks after 2. Same as 2. Same as 2. 4. Three weeks after 3, for late varieties. Same as 2. Same as 2. 5. Same as 2 for very late varieties. Note. — Arsenical poisons may be added to No. 2 for curculio. Tobacco extracts and soap can also be added for suck- ing insects. PLUM Black Knot {Plowrightia morhosa [Schw.], Sacc). Black Ivnot on the Cherry. ^ Photograph by Prof. J. P. Helyar. — This very common and well-known dis- ease causes swollen growths on the branches which are at first olivaceous in color, but finally be- come deep black and very hard and brit- tle. It will spread over the greater part of a tree, interfere with its growth and finally cause its death, Treatrnent. — The diseased parts should be cut out and burned and the trees should be sprayed with lime- sulphur in the spring before the opening of the buds. (See table for plum.) Mildew. — See Cherry. Yellows. — See Leaf Spot. — ^See Cherry Peach. Brown Rot. — See Peach. Crown Gall. — See Apple, 'Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, 208 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Spkay Table for Plcm. Time. Matuual. PVKPOSK. 1. Soiiif uH for upplc and peach. 2. Immi'tliaU'ly aft4T the ix't-Hk* fall. S<-lf-lioilc<(t Ump-Kulphur. For lirown rot. 3. Whrn fru.t a aUiut the Niir of Krocn pcaa. Same as 2. Sameaa2. 4. Three weeks after 3. SanMM2. Suimm2. N(rTK. — Anx'niral poisons fur control of curculio nuty be added to No. 2. Tobacco extracts and soap may be added fur coutrul of pluul lice. CHERRY Leaf Spot (CijUnflrosporiuni patti, ]\:irst.). — Tlii.s (lise;i.> ])Mcking house. Black Rot {Allrrntin'n cilri, Pierce). — This di.scase of the navel orange causes a i)remature rii)ening. It usually entei-s tiie fruit through the navel, causing an internal rot accom])anied by a reddish color. The di.seased fruit should be burned or buried. Stem End Rot and Melanose (I'lKftnosi.s cifrl, FawcettV — This dis(>ase ia most common on mature packed fruit, causing a circular patch of soft DISEASES OF CROPS 209 rot at the stem end which can be detected by a pressure of the finger even though there may be no discoloration. The presence of scale insects and warm, damp weather tend to increase the disease. This organism also causes the disease known as melanose of the fruit, twig and leaf. This form of the disease appears as a raised brownish area forming dots, lines and crosses, varying from yellow to brown and black. The cutting out of the dead wood is an important factor in the control of this disease. Other Rots {Penidllium italicum, Wehm., and P. digitatum [Fr.], Sacc). — These rots are covered by the fungus and appear as blue moulds. They are the causes of heavy losses in transportation. The fungus enters the fruits through slight wounds and therefore the fruit should always be handled carefully. Sooty Mould (Meliola camellice [Catt.], Sacc). — In this case the fungus covers the fruit with a black velvety coating which can usually be removed. It is not nearly so serious as some other diseases. It really grows on the exudations (honey dew) of plant lice and its control depends on their destruction. Black Pit of the Lemon (Bacterium citriputeale, Sm.). — This disease appears as circular or oval, well-defined, reddish-brown, brown or black spots or pits on the fruit. They are caused by bacteria which gain entrance through wounds. Anthracnose or Wither Tip (Colletotrichum glceosporioides, Penz.). — This disease attacks the young leaves, twdg tips and fruits. It causes a yellowish spotting of the leaves, a withering and dying of the new shoots and canker-like spots on the fruit. It is one of the most common diseases of the citrus fruits. Scab {Cladosporium citri, Mass.). — This very common disease attacks leaves, twigs and fruits, causing prominent warty or corky outgrowths. The leaves are frequently twisted and twigs are frequently cracked. Canker. — This is a comparatively new disease in America and there is some difference of opinion as to the cause. It is very destructive and a very vigorous campaign is being made against its spread. It occurs on leaf, twig and fruit, causing dead, circular spots which are usually raised. They are light-colored when young, but become brown and corky and fre- quently marked with small cracks. Other important diseases of the citrus fruits are the scaly bark or nail head rust (Cladosporium herbarum var. citricolum) of Florida, the citrus knot (SpJmropsis tumefaciens, H. and T.) of the West Indies, and the gummosis, which is very widely distributed. Treatment of Diseases of Citrus Fruits. — So much progress is being made in the study of these diseases at this time that it is inadvisable to attempt a discussion as to treatment. Those interested in these diseases should consult with the agricultural experiment station in the state in. which the disease occurs. 210 SUCCESSFUL FARMING FIG Rust (F\ur}incoaI fici [rast.], liutlcr). — This xory common clisoa.sc causes nuHKM'ous rusty red sjK^ts on the hjwer surface of the leaves. When severe the trees arc almost defoliated. It can be controlled by frequent sprayinp: with Bordeaux mLxture, Cankers (LibcrliUa ulccrata, Massec). — This disease is sometimes severe wlierc fi}j;s are prown under glass. It starts a,s small radiating cracks which develop into cankers, sometimes completely girdling the branch and causing the death of the parts beyond the point of attack. Another canker {T uhcrcularia fici) causes a shrinking and drying out of the tissues surrounding the fruit scars, followed by a droo])ing of the dead jjarts. Fruit Rots {Glovicrdla rufomacidans [Clint], Sacc). — This disease is due t-o the same organism a,s the bitter rot of the apple. It causes sunken, rotten s]K)ts, usually covered with a wliitish growl h and later by numennis pustules of salmon-i)ink colored spores. If the fruit is attacked when young, it lx?comes dry and hangs on the tree. Ripe fruit rots may be due to various fungous organisms. Other imix)rtant diseases of the fig are the yellow rot {Fusarium roseum, Lint), the leaf s]>()t (Cercospori fici, II. and \V. ) and tlie limb blight {Corticutm latum, Karsten), PINEAPPLE The pineapple is subject to several diseases, all of which should receive more attention. Clrowers who have reason to complain of these troubles should consult with the state agricultural e.\]Xirimcnt station. MANGO Bloom Blight (Colletotrichum glaosporioides, Penz). — This most severe disease of the mango is due to the same organism that causes the \\ithcr top of the orange. It attacks the blossoms, causing them to turn black and fall. Unfortunately, the bloonnng is during the rainy season, which makes spraying impractical. AVOCADO Leaf Spot {Colletotrichum glaosporioides). — This is due to the same organism as the wither to]) of the orange. It is fretiuently so severe a.s to cause a heavy loss of foliage. It also attacks the fruit, frequently causing a pronounced cracking. OLIVE Olive Knot (Bacterium, unvastarwi, Smith). — This disease originates aa irregular, more or les.s hemisi)herical swellings on trunk, branches and leaves. They are firm and lleshy, but finally U'come wootiy and crack. Badly infected trees frequently die aa a result of thia discaac. DISEASES OF CROPS 211 BLACKBERRY, DEWBERRY AND RASPBERRY Crown Gall. — See Apple. Leaf Spot (Septoria ruhi, West) occurs on the leaves of these bush fruits, causing small white or ash-colored spots with brown or reddish mar- gins. Close examination shows very small black dots in each spot. It is frequently the cause of considerable damage. Treatment. — Spray in the spring with Bordeaux mixture. Anthracnose {Gloeosporium venetum, Speg.). — This disease attacks the young canes of these fruits, causing small purplish spots which enlarge and become grayish or dirty white in the centers. When severe, it causes the canes to crack and die, the leaves to be dwarfed and the fruit to ripen prematurely. The disease also occurs on the leaves, causing them to develop unequally. Treatment. — Cut and burn the diseased and dead canes soon after picking the fruit. Spray with Bordeaux mixture in the spring and also as soon as possible after the berr3^ season. Orange Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis [Schlecht], Lagh.).— This disease is very abundant in the spring of the year, causing a dense coating of red rust (spores) on the under surface of the leaves. The fungus grows within and may spread throughout the entire plant. Treatment. — Dig and burn the entire plant. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will prevent the infection of healthy plants, but is not a practical treatment. Double Blossom {Fusarium ruhi, Wint.). — This disease is especially abundant on the Lucretia dewberry, the black diamond or Brazil blackberry and also occurs upon other varieties of blackberries and dewberries. The fungus lives within the buds, causing them to form witches' brooms of slender shoots with deformed or double flowers producing little or no fruit. The infection of the new buds which are forming for the next year occurs when the diseased flower buds are opening. Treatment. — The disease can be greatly reduced by picking these deformed leaf buds soon after they open and before the opening of the flower buds. Select plants so far as possible from fields free from the disease. Cane Blight {Coniothyrium fuckelii, Sacc). — This disease of the rasp- berries attacks the canes, causing them to be lighter in color, with smoke- colored patches. The foliage of diseased canes wilts and dies very much as from drought. The disease penetrates wounds, frequently those made by pruning. It is readily distributed in nursery stock and will persist in the soil for several years. Treatment. — Rotate the crops and use only healthy plants for setting. Yellows. — This disease is confined to the raspberries. It resembles peach yellows and should be treated in the same manner. 212 SUCCESSFUL FARMING STRAWBERRY Leaf Spot (l^phfrrcUn frngnria; [Tul.], Sacc). — This is the most promi- nent of t.li(; discjuscs of the strawl)orry. It causes small leaf spoils with white oi* ashy centers and purj)lc or red l)orders. These si)ots frequently unit«, forming irregular blotches. It reduces the vigor of the plant and, therefore, the (juality and quantity of the fruit. Trcalnwnt. — The soil should be well drained and rotation of crops practiced. Cutting over the beds and burning of the tops is advantageous. Spraying with I^ordeaux mixture will reduce the disease to the minimum, but there is doubt as to whether this treatment will prove profitable. CRANBERRY Scald or Blast {Cuignnrdin varrinii, Shear) — This fungus attacks the blossoms or the fruit soon after the falling of the blossoms, causing tiie iK'rry to shrivel and turn black. This form of the disease is kn(»wn a.s the " bla.st." The form known as "scald" causes small, soft, light-c;oloreil, watery spots which s])read over the entire fruit, sometimes causing a zone effect. The disease also attacks the leaves, causing irr(\gular, reddish-brown s]M)t«. The disease is likely to become worse from year to year and to prove very destructive. Treatment. — Careful irrigation, raking and burning of the dead material and sanding the Ixigs are advantages )us. Selection of resistant strains for planting, and si)raying with liordeaux mixture about five times during the season will control the disease. Rot {Acanthoshynchus vacdnii, Shear). — This fungus causes a rot ver>' similar to the scald and can ])e controlled by the same treat- ment. Anthracnose {(ilomcrcUa rufoinnculnns [Berk.] Si)aul. and von Schrenk; vacinii, Shear). — This fungus is the same as the one causing the bitter rot of the a])ple. It causes a rot very similar to and almost indis- tinguishable from the scald and can be controlled by the same treatment. GOOSEBERRY Powdery Mildew (Sphrrrotlirra tnors-urw fSchw.] Berk. an' simil.ir to the mildew on the apple and other fruits and should Receive the Bame trcutmeiit. CURRANT Anthracnose (Psmdopeziza rihrs, Kleb.). — This ver>' common disease of the currant attacks the leaves, causing many small l)rown or black siK)t.s followed by a yellowing of the entire leaf which falls ]ireniatunMy. The discjise alst) attacks the canes and the fruit, causing small black, sunken areas. It is carriecl from year to year on the canes. Trratnu'tU. — Remove the olil canes and spray with Bonieaux mix- ture in the spring just before the buds oi)cn, again after the leaf DISEASES OF CROPS 213 buds open and then at intervals of three weeks until the fruit is two- thirds grown. Note. — There are several other leaf diseases of the gooseberry and currant that may occasionally prove injurious or destructive and should be treated as the circumstances may demand. GRAPE Black Rot (Guignardia bidwellii [Ell.], V. and R.). — This very common disease of the grape attacks the fruit, causing a black rot followed by a shriveling and drying into a hard, wrinkled mummy. It occurs on the leaves and young shoots earlier than on the fruit and causes tan-colored spots with minute black dots in the centers. Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture before the opening of the flower-buds, and again after the setting of the fruit. Addi- tional spraying should depend on the weather; in dry seasons it may be necessary to spray every three weeks until the fruit is two-thirds grown. Bird's Eye or Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum, DeBy.). — This disease is not nearly so severe as the black rot. It attacks the fruit, causing brown or black spots with sunken centers and red borders. On the canes it causes similar spots, but as they approach maturity the centers become ashy in color and the edge dark. Treatment. — Badly diseased canes should be cut out and burned. Spray treatment same as for black rot. Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot. — This is the same as on the apple but its attack is confined to the ripe fruit. Treatmc7it. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola [Berk, and Curt.], Berl. and De Toni.). — This fungus causes whitish and finally brownish areas in the leaf, followed by a very perceptible downy growth on the lower surface. It sometimes causes the death of the entire leaf, shoot or vine. It is especially severe on the European varieties. It sometimes attacks the fruit, causing the gray or brown rot. Treatment. — Same as for black rot. Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator [Schw.j, Burr.). — This fungus is very similar to the powdery mildew of the apples and other fruits. It attacks all parts of the plant above ground, and occurs on both upper and lower surfaces of the leaves, causing circular, whitish, powdery spots which frequently unite and cover the entire leaf. It also attacks the fruit, causing it to develop irregularly, fail to develop or to fall. It is especially common in vineyards where the vines are too closely set and on vines grown under glass. Treatment. — Spray with potassium sulphide or when the temperature is above 75° F., sprinkle the vines with flowers of sulphur. Necrosis {Fusicoccum viticolum, Reddick). — This disease causes a 214 SUCCESSFUL FARMING dwarfing of the new slioots and leaves and wlien severe a shriveling uj) :ui.l dying. Treatment. — Dig and burn all diseased vines, and spray with Bor- deaux mixture. Crown Gall. — See Apple. N o T E . — A number of other minor diseases will be controlled by the treatment pre- scribed for the rot. ASPARAGUS Rust [Puccima asparagi, D. C). — This fungus causes the tops of the plants to redden soon after blossom- ing. The leaves turn yellow and fall, and the stems show numerous small blisters con- taining masses of rust-colored jxjwder (spores). Later in the season these pustules break and become black in color. The disease spreads rai)idly and causes hea\y losses. Treatment. — Cut and bum dis- eased plants as soon as observed. Spray with liordeaux mi.\- ture. ^ Anthracnoseof Bkan. ' Tho brown spots ornir on both tho pods jind plfint.s. TTie.r arr musod by spores coming in contaft with tho tondor phuit ti.s.suos, when* tlu'v norminatr and give ris«' tosorions daina(| plants, (.nising unsightly knott' and rot. Sets and young onions when well started are practically immune from the di.sea.se. The sp'ing with the climatic conditions, soils and varieties. In ver>' severe cases manj' of the young i)lants fail to get througli the ground. Many that do get through are dwarfed and sliow a jM'culiar crinkling of the foliage. The ])art of the stems below ground shows jx'culiar brownish or black cankere. In some cases the leaves tend to roll ujjward; many small tulK'i-s are formed just Ih'Iow the surface of the ground and just above a very jironoimced canker, and aerial l)otat<)cs along the stem alxjvc ground. The fungus can bo readily detected on the tubers; it ap]x^ars as small black spots, which do not wash off, but can 1)C readily nMuoved by rubbing. However, the presence of these spots on the tul)ers does not nece.ssarily mean a severe out- break of tlie disease. Tnatnunt. — Soak seed pota- toes in corrosive sublimate as recominoiidcd for seal). Bacterial Wilt {lina'Uus sol- anaccarum, Snnth). — Tiic ])lants wilt prematurely, U'como yellow, then black and dry. This disease atta<-ks t«»mat.o(^s, tobacco, jK'iijx'rs and eggi)lants. Trratmcnt. — Rotate crops, avoiding those that are susceptible. Tipbum. — This disea.se is due entirely to hot, dr>' weather. It causes the leaves to diy at the tii)s and margins, roll u]) and break off. NoTK. — There are a numln'r of other di.sea^es of the iwtato which cannot Ixj included in this brief discussion. A Potato Akkectkd with Russet St-.uj.' ShowinR tho russet inn and rrarkinn, asso- ciated with llic fiaigiKs Uhizoctonia. TOMATO Early Blight.— See Potato. Leaf Blight {S(/>tnri(i bjcnprrsici, Speg.). — This disease appears 88 *>'rom FaiiDcn' BuUcUjd M4, U. 6. Dcpt. of Araturc. Black Rot {Spharonema fimbrialum [Ell. anil Halst.], Sacc). — This diseas(> occurs in l)otii field and storage house. It aiJjK'ai-s as <)W(ler dusted or blown over its surface. The arsenicals have been found to be the In'st remedy for this group. The sucking insects ftn-d In' piercing the skin or epidermis of j^lnnta with their sharp beaks and sucking the saj). This group of insects is rei)resented \>y the true bugs or Ilcmiptcra, to which order l>elong the squash bug, scale insect*, plant lice and leaf hoppers. It is evident that a stomach ]x)ison on the surface of the plant would not affect insects of this class, so it is necessary to us(! what is known jus a contact in.sect icide, which should be applied as a spray or wash directly to the insect's Ixxly. Such 224 INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 225 remedies kill by their suffocating or corrosive action. The most common of these insecticides are nicotine solutions, kerosene or oil emulsions, lime- sulphur wash and fish-oil soap. In the following pages will be found listed the principal insect pests under the classification of general crop insects, truck crop insects, and fruit insects. Only a very brief description of each insect can be given, and in most cases nothing of their life histories, in the limited space devoted to the subject. The treatments which have given the best results in each individual case are indicated briefly and reference is made to publications which give a more extended account of the insects. The abbreviations which are used in the references are as follows: Bur. Ent. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Bulletin. Bur. Ent. Cir. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Circular. Farm. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin. Dept. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin. GENERAL CROP INSECTS Caterpillars (leaf-eating). — Many plants are attacked by caterpillars which feed upon the leaves. These worms are the larvae of Lepidopterous insects, or moths and butterflies. Treatment. — Spray with an arsenical, preferably arsenate of lead, or dust with powdered arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the spray gathers in drops and does not adhere well to the surface of the leaves, use a resin fish-oil soap sticker. Cutworms. — Various species of the family Noctuidce, usually feeding at night upon the roots, crowns or foliage of plants. The worms may be found in daytime lying curled up in ground about an inch below surface. Treatment. — Broadcast poison bran mash about the garden in the spring just before the plants come up. Make other applications later if the cutworms are still found. Cultivate the ground thoroughly in late summer and early in the spring to prevent the growth of grasses and weeds, thus starving out worms if present. Grasshoppers or Locusts. — A number of species feed on corn, wheat, sorghum and other field crops, also on many garden crops and at times on fruit trees. Treatment. — Cultivate the fields and stony fence rows in the fall to break up the egg masses deposited one to two inches below the surface of the ground. Broadcast Criddle mixture or poison bran mash flavored with juice of orange or lemon in fields where grasshoppers are plentiful. Leaf Beetles {Chrysomelidce) . — Crops of many kinds are injured by beetles which feed upon the leaves as adults and sometimes as larvae. Treatment. — Spray or dust the affected plants with arsenicals. Plant Lice {Aphididce). — Many species of plant lice are found attacking field, garden and orchard crops. They feed by sucking the juices of the host plant and cannot be controlled by a poison spray. 226 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Treatment. — Use sprays of nicotine or toliacco extract, kcrosenfli) emulsion (') to 10 j^or cent stronKtli) or fish-oil soap just after tiio apliids ap{X'ar and at such other times as ma}' be necessary. Spray thoroughly, being sure \* effective. Lute fall plowing and cultivatmg will help in destroying over- wintering wonii'^. The Fall Army Worm { Laphygma frugiperda, S. and .\.). — In general appearance is similar to the common army worm, but dislingaisheBur. Ent. Ck. 102. Sprat op Aspakagtjs, with Common Aspar- agus Beetle in its Different Stages.^ Asparagus tip at injury. right, showing eggs Natural size. and 228 SUCCESSFUL FARMING HUOAD-BEAN WkEVIL {Laria rufnnana).^ Adult, or beetle, enlarged. other food iilants tire known, including a few garden croi)s and a nvunU-r of weeds. Treatment. — Sjiray or dust arscnicals upon the leaves. Poison bran nia.sh may also Ix; of value. Riir. Knt. Hull. 13. Beet Leaf Beetle, The Larger {MonoxiajninciicoUis, ^a.y.). — This leaf Ix'otlc, known also locally as the alkali hug and the French bug, rescndjlcs soniowhat the clni- Icaf l)cctle. It causes considerable injury to the Bugar-lK'ct in Colorado and nearby states. 7'rcatment. — Dust or sjjray foliage with ar- scnicals. The Beet Leaf Hopper {Eidettix temlla, Baker). — The Inn-t in the Western states is often troubled with a condition known as "curly leaf," caused by the alx)ve-nanied leaf ho])])er, a light yellowish green siiecies about one-eighth of an inch long. Treathient. — S]iray the l)epts thoroughly with a 40 ])er cent nicotine sul])hate solution in water, diluted 1 part to ()(K) ; or s])ray with 5 jKM- cent kerosene emulsion. Many ho])])ers may Ix; ca])tured on a shield smeared with tanglefoot or covered with sticky fly jiajx^r if it is jnished up and down l)etween the rows. A wire or rod should 1x5 fastened in front of the shield at the ])roper distance to stir out the hopjx^rs. Bur. I'.iit. Hull. M, Pt. 4. BUster Beetles {}feIoi(l(r). — At times a Tunuber of crops are badly damaged by the insects known as l>lister beetles or "old- fashioned ])otato bugs," These Ix'etles are rather large, long-legged and are varit)usly colored, the usual colors being black, gray or striped with yellow and black. Treatment — A]iiily arsenate of lead or other arsenicals to the affected jilants as a si)ray or dust. Several treat- ments may Ix; nece.s.siiry if the beetles swarm on cn)])s from other localities. Hur. Knt. Hull. 43, pp. 21-27. The Cabbage Looper (Autographa brassica:', Uiley). — The looper is a ligiit-green worm often referred to as a nieasuring worm because of its looping movement when crawling. It feeds on the leaves of cabbage. » liur. Ent. BulL 43. Hlistek Hketlk {EpicaxUa vuirginala).* Enhirged. > Bur. Eot. Dull. 00, Pu 5. Leaf Hoppers (Eutettix, Spp.) and their Work.* Explanation of illustration on page 230. > Bur. Ent. Bull. 66. Pt. 4. 229 230 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 1 — EulcUixtiinUa: a, adult; 6. nymph; c. wing; d, c, genitoliu; /, crkh, greatly enlftrgfd; g, Krrtion of hoot stoni. pnowing frcsn cggH in plnro" h, mimo, Bhowing CRRS n'ady to hatch; i, ohi ogg-scars on Inrt hIciils; j, Hiiiall Ii-af of nunar-h<'c(, sliowinK chjiraflcri^tii; "curlv-lenf '* condition; k, cnhirKctl Hoction of hack of un cxtrt-mc ca^e of "cnrly-loaf," showinR "warty" condition of vcina. 2 — Euteitix «/roW: a, work of nymphs on BU(i!ir-l)fct.s; b, leaf cnlarRod. 3 — ExUettix scUuln: adult. 4 — Euteitix clarivida: a, wing; b, head and pronotiim; r, d, genitalia. 5 — Eutrttix nigridorsum: work of nymphs on loaf of llchantlm.s. (5 — Eutettix slraminca: work of nymphs on loaf of anotluT Ilelianthu.s. 7 — Euteitix inaana: wing. 8 — Eutettix stricta: a, b, genitalia. Trealment. — Apply arsenicals until tiio cahbage head is half grown. If spray is used, adfl resin fish-oil soap as a sticker. TlAnLEQnx C.\nBAOB Bua (Murganiin histrionica) .^ A — Adult. H — Egg ma.s.s. C — First stago of nymph. D — Second stagp. E — Third H( age. V — Fourth 8tag(\ G — Fifth stage. .Ml enlarged. The Cabbage Maggot (Pegomya brassic/r, Bouch6). — Soft white mag- gots work in the nx)ts of cabbage, turnip and cauliflower, eating away the root hairs and .scarring the surface of the larger roots. This maggot is the larva of a two-wingecr about four inches in diameter arotmd the stem of each plant, letting it lie flat on the ground to keep the I Bur. Ent Cir. 103. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 231 a o Colorado Potato Beetle {Leptinotarsa decemlineata).^ -Beetle. B — Larva. C — Pupa. Enlarged. maggots from reaching the roots. Clean up all cabbage stmnps in the fall and plow deeply. Rotate crops. The Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Say.). — With- out doubt the worst enemy of the potato is the robust yellow-striped beetle which, together with its larvae or slugs, feeds upon the leaves. The insect is too well known to need description. Treatment. — Apply ar- senicals either as a dust or as a spray. Hand picking or "bugging "may be resorted to in a small garden patch. Bur. Ent. Cir. 87, BuU. 82, Pt. 1. Flea Beetles. — Small dark-colored insects which as adults feed upon the foUage of many truck crops and weeds. The larvas feed upon the roots. The name is derived from the active way in which the insect hops about. In this respect it re- sembles a flea. Treatment. — C lean up weeds about the gar- den that may form a breeding place for the pests. Aj^ply arsenicals to plants as a spray, using Bordeaux mixture preferably, which acts as a repellent. Harlequin Cabbage Bug (Murgantia histrion- ica, Hahn.) . — This gaud- ily marked bug is easily recognized by its bright colors of red, yellow and blue. It feeds upon cab- bage, cauliflower, mus- tard and other related plants. Treatment. — Plant a trap crop of mustard or turnips in the spring and fall and when the bugs have become numerous spray with pure kerosene. Hand picking may be profitable in the spring. Methods of clean culture should be practiced, especially in the fall, tall cabbage stalks and weeds Hop Plant Borer (Hydrcecia immanis).^ A — Enlarged segment of larva. B — Larva. C — Pupa. D — Adult. Natural size. 'Bur. Ent. Cir. 87. 2 Bur. Ent. BuU. 7 232 SUCCESSFUL FARMING being destroyed in order to starve out the hug. Destroy trash where it might liibcrnatc. Bur. Ent. Cir. 103. The Hop Aphis {riiowdon humnli, Solir.). — This plant lou.se is found on tlic phiiu ill .spring, hut Hies to the liop phmt in early summer, where it turns the leaves yellow, causing them to fall. W 1.NL.LK.S.S I'U'.Jt.ii.Nv or WiNui:u lloi' AriiUAS iUuM Ahl;unate Host.' Trcnlnunt. — Wlicn ajjliids ai)}K>ar spniy thoroughly with 40 i>or rent nicotine solution diluted 1 part to 800 i)arts water, liur. Ent. BuU. HI. The Hop Plant Borer (Ilydro'cin inuiiafiii^, Oct.). — The ho]! jilant is attacked in three? ])laces hy this Injrer during the ix'riod of dovel()i)ment of the ins(!ct. llarly in the so;uson it horos int^j the tender tips, causing them to droop; after a short time it falls to the ground and lK)res into the stem at the crown. Later it Iwres out of the stem and goes ImjIow the ground, f(ieBur. Jrjit. fiulL 111. Potato Tuber Moth {Phthorimcea operculella) .^ Imported Cabbage Web WoKM A-Moth. B-Larva, lat- (Hellula undahs).^ eral view. C— Larva, dorsal A— Mature moth. B— Larva, lateral view. view. D— Pupa. E^ F— Ses- C— Larva, dorsal view. D— Pupa. All three ments of larva, enlarged. (R'-- times natural size. drawn from Riley and Howard.) Work op the Potato-Tuber Moth. 2 Exterior view of potato. iBur. Ent. Bull. 19. ^ Farm. Bull. 5«T. 233 234 SUCCESSFUL FARMING The Imported Cabbage Web Worm illdhda nndnlis, Fab.).— This worm fcods uixjij cahban*', turiiii)s and (tther similar croi)s, spinning a web under wliicli it retires when nut feetling. Treatment. — Same as for cal)bage lotjjwr. Ent. Bull. '2:\, p. M. The Imported Cabbage Worm {Pontin ni/xr, Linn.). — Of all the insects on cahhage, tiiis is the worst i)est. It is the lar\'a; of the wliitc butterfly seen fluttering alxjut over fields of cabi)age during sjn'ing and summer. Tnnttncnt. — .Same as for cabbage looper. liur. Ent. rir. 00. The Melon Aphis (Aplii.s gossjji/ii, Glov.). — This i)lant louse feeds not only on melons but on cotton, .strawberries and a numljcr of otlier ])lants. Treatment. — Before the leaves are badlj' curled spray them with nicotine solution, turning the vines over if necessaiy, so as to hit the under sides of the leaves. In .small gardens fumigate under tui) with carbon bisuli)hide, using about a tea.s]K)<>nful to above; bolow. cg^ ius .seen from Kide. (' — Ljirvii in each cubic foot of space, natural position on onbljauL' le.if. D— S.is|K'n.l.Hl ,T. 1 p 1 ohrvsalis. A, C , 13 — Arc mightlv enlarged. 13 — More lobacco fumes may al.so onlargeil. be use(l. Hur. Ijit. Cir. SO. The Potato Tuber Moth {I'/ithorinura opcrculclla, Zell.).— Potato growing is now menaced in California, Washington and southern Texas by this in.sect, which \H)rvs into the vines .and tulK'i*s of ]M)tatoes. It al.so fctids ui)on tomato, egg])lant and tobacco, and on the latter plant is known as the spWi worm. Treatment. — No satisfactory method of tix'atment is known, but the injury may l)C partly prevented by clean methods of cultivation, crop rotatif)n and fuminatio!! of infcntcd ttibcrs. The l.Mtter is by far tin' lH\> Bux. hMi. Cir. bU. Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar in Crotch of Wild Cherry Tree.' 1 Farm. Bull. 662. 237 238 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 1 this is the most serious pest of squash vines. Tlie lan'ie huro into the vines, causing them to rot arul hrcak off easily. TrcalnwiU. — llake uj) and destroy vines as soon as possil)ie in the fall. Plow deeply in the spring. Ilotatc crops; plant early squashes among other vines as a trap crop. Bur. Ent. Cir. 3S. The Striped Cucumber Beetle (Dinhrofica vi'ttnla, Fab.). — A black- |j and-yellow strijK'd hci'tk' two-liftlis of an inch long, injuring cucunilxirs, ' squiushes and melons by feeding on the young jilaiits as they come up. Treatment. — Cover tlie hills of young jilants with nets to ])rotect them from beetles. Dust heavily witli air- slaked lime and tobacco dust while the dew is on. S])ray the i)lants with ar- senate of lead 3 to 5 l)ounds to 50 gallons. liur. Ent. Cir. 31. Sugar Beet Web Worm {Loxoatcge sticticah', upon liatchinp; begin at once to hunt for the fruit, which they enter mostly through the caly.x cup. In spraying it is very neccs.sary to fill this cup with the jjoison, as it is liere that the larva} mostly take their firet meal. The time when this first and most important sjiray should he made is just after the petals have fallen and before the caljTC cup closes. In most parts of the country' there are two broods of insects, but in the South tliere may Ix) tlirec and in places even four. Treatment. — Spray with areenatc of lead, 4 pounds ts are (lei)osited in the fall on trunks of trees, on fences or wheiTver a roughened surface can Imj found. They hatch in the spring and the larva; feed on the foliage of various trees. TrcaXimnt. — liuut out the egg maescs iii winter time aud soak >nth INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 243 coal tar creosote. Spray the trees in the spring with arsenate of lead as soon as the eggs hatch, using 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water. Bur. Ent. Bull. 87; Farm. Bull. 564. The Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteana, Clem.). — A larva about Grape Berry Moth (Polychrosis viteana).''- 1 and 2— Adult, or moth. 3— Full grown larvae. 4--Pupse. Ail greatly enlarged. one-fourth of an inch long, works in the berry of grape, webbing several together. It is the cause of most of the wormy grapes in the eastern sections of the country. Treafmen^.— Spray with arsenate of lead, pounds to 100 gallons. iBur, £nt. Bull. 115. 244 SUCCESSFUL FARMING First ai)i)li("ilioii shortly after fruit sets; second, alx)ut ten daj'S later, and third, when the fruit is about half grown or when the second brood eggs are hatching. lUir. Ent. Hull. IIC, Pt. 2, Farm. Bull. 2S-J. Grape Leaf Hopper {Typhloq/ba comes, Say.). — This active little ■B ^H^^K^^^^^V^^^'^^BCS ■ ^^it*§^ '^ ^^v"^ ^^^^^^^^^H Injury to Grapes bt Larvjej op Second Brood of Grapb>- Hkuhy Moth.' Just previous to harvesting of fruit. hopi^er is known in all parts of the country where grnpc^; are pjown. It is yellowish in color, marked with green stripes. The leaves of the grapes arc injured by the puncture made by the lioi)i)er in fetnling on the under side of the leaf, cau.sing them to turn spotted and yellow and finally fall off. Trcalitunt. — Spray the vines thor()Uf!;lily about the iirst week in .luly, when tlu; maxinnnn number of young hoi)pci"s are on the leaf, with a >Bur. Eat. Bull. 110, Pt. 2. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 245 solution of 40 per cent nicotine, diluted 1 part to 1000 parts water. Clean up trash and weeds in fence corners and practice clean culture generally. Dept. BuU. 19. The Grape Vine Flea Beetle {Haltica chalybea, 111.). — A blue metallic beetle about one-fourth of an inch long. It feeds on buds and tender shoots in early spring. The grubs feed later upon the leaves. Treatment. — Spray wath arsenate of lead to kill the adults and grubs on the leaves during May and June. The beetles may be captured in sheets or pans by jarring the vines. New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 494-514. The Lesser Apple Worm (Enarmonia prunivora, Walsh). — This insect is closely related to the cod- ling moth and has very much the same life history. Treatment. — Spray as for the codling moth, but take especial pains to make the second spray very thorough, three to four weeks after petals have fallen. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. 5; Bur. Ent. BuH. 80, Pt. 3. The Peach Tree Borer {Sanninoidea exitiosa,^a,j.). — The larvae of this insect are found at the crown of peach, plum and cherry trees, boring Grape Leaf Hopper (Typhlocyba comes). ^ Adult, winter form. Greatly enlarged. Lesser Apple Worm (Enarmonia prunivora) . ^ A — ^Adult, or moth. B — Same with wings folded. C — Larva. D — Pupa in cocoon ready for transformation to adult. E — Young apple, showing at calyx end empty pupa skin from which moth has emerged. Enlarged about three times. >Dept. BuU. 19, 2 Bur. Ent. Bull. 68. 246 SUCCESSFUL FARMING ^ bcno:ith tlu> hark. Tho cxtiTnal indioationfl of their prcsoncc arc the mass of i^ap which is foiiiinonly nhii at the l)a.se of the tree and the fra.ss or worm- wood that has been worked out through holes in the bark. Preventive means that have given some measure of success are various styles of pro- t^rtors ])lace(l around the base of the trees, and coating washes applied to the trunk. Tlie latter arc not satisfaetor}\ Treatment. — I^eniovc the ground from the crown of tiie trc(> in the spring and fall and dig out the borers with a shaqi knife. Giorgiii Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 73; N. J. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 235. Pear Leaf Blister Mite (En'ophyes pyri, Pagensterher). — This small mite, only xiT-inch in Iniglh, is the cause of the rough, blistered surface of pear and apples leaves. \Vhen the attack is severe the trees Ijecome so brown that thej' have the api)ear- ance at a dis- tance of having been swept by fire. Treatment. — 8i)ray in tlic spring or fall with concen- trated coniincM- cial linie-sul])}iur testing 33° Bauni6, diluted at the rate of 1- 10 (.r 11. Plant Lice {Aphididcc). — Many si^ecies of plant lice are found upon the various fniit trees grown in this eountrj'. They feed by sucking the sap from the leaves and stems and thus do considerable injury at times. Some sjx^cies curl the leaves aVjout them so that they arc very- difficult to reach with a spray unless the treatment is made before the attack becomes severe. The treatment for all aerial forms is ])ractically the same. Treatment. — Sj)ray carefully with a 40 ]>er cent nicotine sulphate solu- tion diluted at the rate of 1 part to 800 parts of water, lx>ing sure to touch all insects with the spray. A kerosene cnmlsion spray is also good if used at the 8 or 10 per cent strength. Plum Curculio (Conotrachrhts nenuphar, Hubst.). — On apples this insect injures the fruit by defomiing or scarring it by its feeding and egg- laying pimctures. Treatment. — Spray as for codling moth, except that one additional * Bur. Eat. Cir. 17. Pka< H TuKK BnltKK (Sanninaidea exitiosa).^ A — Adult fonialo. B — .\dult malo. C — Full fjTown larva. T> — IVrnalc pupa. E — Malo i)upa. F — Pupa skin extruded jjarUally from cocoon. All natural size. > w o 02 o o O o w H o O d o 248 SUCCESSFUL FARMING spray should be given before the blossoms open or at the time the cluster buds have oixMicd out. On i)luin, ]K'a(h and chcrrj' trees most of the injury is caused by the grubs insitlc the fruit. Treatment. — For ])luni.s, spray with ai-senalc of lead, two ]xjunds to 50 gallons; first, soon after petals fall; second, a week or ten days later. For cherries, same as for ])him. For jK'achos, first, spray just as caljTces or shucks are she emi)loyed to entrap pests and would, acconhng to some entomolo- gists, exclude also simple deterrents, such as oil of citronella, us^'d to keep insects away by their offensive odors. In a general way, however, every substance employed to prevent the injuries of insects is an insecticide and in this view it does not matter whether or not they kill, deter or entrap. The insecticides most used and valued by ])ractical men either kill as poisons when eaten with food, or else destroy when brought in contact with the IxKlies of insects, in which case they are sometimes called contact insecticides. A group of insecticides of which the effective ingredient is arsenic has proved esi)ocially popular and useful in sui)i)ressing insects which feed by gnawing away and devom'ing the leaves of ])lants. Paris Green. — Of these the one best known and most used is Paris green, Schwoinfurth green, or Im})erial green, French green and Emerald green. It was first used in the arts, and l)ecau.se of its cheapness and poisonous projx^rties was early tried on the Colorado ])otato beetle (about 18(38) ]M-oving a very satisfactory means of supjiressing the pest when used either as a dry powder or when stirred into water. It contains a little soluble arsenic however, and in water this is liable to burn leaves to which it is ai)i)lied, hence care nmst be exercised not to u.se too imich. Four to five ounces of the powder in a barrel of water is commonly regarded as enough ; if more is used a jwund or two of freshly-slaked lime may Ixi added to neutralize its caustic effect. Arsenate of Lead. — Paris green has two defects: Its burning action is often hard to guard against, and its weight causes it to settle quickly when used in water, rendering the spray ])roduced uneven in strength. Stirrers connected with spray pumps obviate the latter trouble, but some- times increase the labor of operating p»nnj)s. The addition of lime, as already suggested, lessens tlie hurning action, though the lime may, if care is not exerci.sed, increase the labor of apj^lying. Arsenate of lead has neither of these defects. It is practically insol- uble in water, (]iios not burn foliage, and it is so finely siibflividod that it (252) INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 253 remains suspended much better than Paris green. It has the additional advantage of adhering to leaves longer than Paris green, and thus fewer applications are required. A single spraying with this substance, if applied at the right time, is for some plants sufficient for a whole season. The arsenate of lead paste is commonly used with water in the proportion of 2| to 3 pounds in 50 gallons. As found in the market it contains about 50 per cent of water. It requires more by weight to destroy insects than Paris green, but the cost per pound is less and hence the actual cost for materials amounts to about the same, whichever poison is used. Its advantages are so decided in other directions that it is now supplanting Paris green in popular favor. For the injuries of most gnawing insects working on foliage this insecticide may be safely recommended. To meet the objections sometimes made to arsenate of lead paste, a powdered arsenate of lead has recently been offered to the public by manufacturers of insecticides. The paste when dried out is lumpy and is not in this condition easy to mix with water. In the powdered form it is not open to this objection and may, besides, be dusted over plants without the addition of water. There are serious objections to the use of poisonous dusts, however, though in practice they have advantages that always commend them to workmen. The weight of the water to be carried when using liquid sprays increases the labor, of course, and this ought to be lessened if it can be done without diminishing the effectiveness of the applications, and also without increasing the danger to those making the applications. The inhaling of either dry Paris green or arsenate of lead is a serious matter, and if con- tinued long is certain to lead to ill health. Liquid sprays go more directly and evenly to the plants and stay there. They may be made just as promptly effective as the dusts if used when the injury is beginning. They are not so likely to be inhaled. Arsenite of Zinc. — This poison has somewhat recently been recom- mended as a substitute for Paris green and arsenate of lead, and appears to be about equally good and somewhat cheaper than either. It is a finely divided white powder as put on the market and remains in suspension about as well as arsenate of lead, having thus some advantage over Paris green. It contains a little water-soluble arsenic and has been claimed to be less injurious to foliage even than arsenate of lead, possessing at the same time about the same killing power. For use it is stirred first into a little water and allowed to soak for a time, then is stirred into the water in which it is to be used, about one pound of the powder being added to 50 gallons of water. It contains nearly the same quantity of arsenic as Paris green. Like arsenate of lead, it remains in suspension better if a little soap is dissolved in the water into which it has been stirred. It has of late been quoted by dealers at from 20 to 25 cents per pound. London Purple. — This arsenite came into use for injurious insects 254 SUCCESSFUL FARMING banl 5ive| somewhat later than Paris green (about 1878), but is less used now than formerly Iwcause of its lark of uniformity in composition and its excessi burning of foliage. Its nffertive ingredient as an insecticicle is arsenic in the form of lime arsenite and hme arsenate, of which it contains alxjut 40 per cent, nearly half of which is soluble. It is the soluble arscnious and arsenic oxides that make tiiis insecticide so injurious to the foliage and rentier neces.sary the addition of lime. 7'iie amount of pure arsenic present li;us l)ccn found to bo al-)out 'J*J jkt cent. Fe greatly diluted with water. It is customary in spraying INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 255 for San Jose scale to use one part of the solution to eight or ten of water and to apply during open weather in February or March, while the trees are still dormant. For summer use they must be diluted with from 30 to 50 parts of water to avoid injury to the foliage, but lose much of their value as insecticides when thus weakened. The concentrated solution is regarded as the most effective remedy for scale injury now in use. It should be added that there has somewhat recently appeared a so-called "soluble sulphur" which is recommended for the same uses as A LiME-suLPHm Cooking Outfit.* lime-sulphur. It promises well, but has not been tested long enough and carefully enough to justify veiy positive statements as to its merits. Tobacco Extracts. — For use against soft-bodied insects such as plant Hce there is no more useful insecticide than extracts made from the midribs of tobacco leaves. These extracts contain as their effective ingredient nicotine and differ -^ddely in the percentage of nicotine they contain. Home-made extracts or decoctions are made by placing a couple of pounds of the midribs in a wooden bucket full of boiling hot water, alloTN-ing it to stand over night. The percentage of nicotine under such treatment will probably not be more than 0.07 per cent, but it is a very useful wash for plants infested with aphides, does no harm at all to leaves, and where iFrom Farmers* Bulletin 650, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 256 SUCCESSFUL FARMING tobacco is grown and the midribs can l)c easily secured is one of the very! lx?st insecticides for uses of tliis sort. The wliole leaf makes a somewhat ' stronger extract (0.12 per cent) as detennined bj- t«sts recently made at the N'irginia Station. Soaking .seems to extract as much of tlie nicotine as boiling. When i)lants are U) l)e treated on a larger .scale it Ikvohios imix)r- tant to know just how nnich nicotine is i)rescnt in a wa.sh, and manufactured extracts, some of them containing 40 jwr cent of nicotine, are demanded. For the apple leaf louse, tlie lettuce lou.se, the rose aphis and otlier similar I^ests, these extracts arc safe and effective. For thick-skinned insects they arc not so satisfactory'. Tobacco is often u.sed in other ways as a remedy for insect injuries, but is open to some objections when so employed. Flori.sts have long used the midribs (often called "stems") for making a smudge for tlie destruction of ])lant lice. The tobacco is sim])ly liurncd in a ]H'rforatcd iron ves.scl. The smoke leaves a strong smell of tobacco on flowei-s, which is sometimes objected to by buyers. The odor can l)e avoided by using the extract diluted with water and driven off as a vapor by dropping a hot iron into a ])iiii containing it. Pyrethrum. — Under the name Persian insect powder or simply insect powder this insecticide is to be obtained from most dealers in drugs. It is a brown powder made from the llowers of a rather hand.some i)lant of the sunflower family {Compositcc). Its beauty leads florists tx) jiropagate it, though few who grow the plant know that it has any relatienetrates the breathing tubes of insects and thus by some irritating or suffocating effect overj)owers them. It is effective either dry, in water or when burned to produce a smudge, but must be fresh. It loses much of its effectiveness if kept in open jiackages. Though rather costly for use on field crops, it has a place in the household at times, and may sometimes be i)roiital>ly resorted to for limited outbreaks of garden i)ests. Unlike most other instx'ticides, this one is not hurtful to man; at any rate, not more so than snuff. White Hellebore. — This is another vegetable product, being the pulverized roolstocks of a plant {Vcratrum album) of the lily family, occurring in Ilurope and northern Africa. It is u.sed in this country for the rose slug, eitlu-r dry or in water, in the latter ca.^e alniut two heaping tablespoonfuls being stirred into a wooden bucketful (2J gallons) of water. It is a stomach poi.son and also a contact insecticide. Old .samy)les when not ke])t in airtight receiitades lose their virtue and tend to discredit this vegetable poison as a remedy for jx^sts. Coal Oil. — This oil has l>ecome well known as an insecticide in the form of an enuilsion. It is a good contact insecticide, serving the siime purpose as lime-sulphur wash in the dustructiou of scale insects, and having INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 257 the advantage of remaining effective when diluted. It can, therefore, be used on foUage in summer for both scale insects and plant lice, and being quicker in its action than tobacco extract, has advantages imder some circumstances over the extract for the prompt destruction of soft-bodied insects. It is, however, more likely to do injury to plants, especially if the emulsion is badly prepared, and this, together with the work required in making it, leads practical men to neglect it whenever they can use some- thing else. The standard emulsion is made of one-half pound of whale oil or laundry soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling hot water, this to be added to two gallons of coal oil, and the whole churned for ten minutes by passing rapidly through a force pump. As thus made it can be diluted for use, one part to ten of water. Crude Oils. — These are sometimes used for the same purposes as the refined oil, and to render them easily mixed with water are sometimes mixed with caustic potash, fish oil and crude carbolic acid, producing a so-called miscible or soluble oil, which can be diluted with water for use like the coal oil emulsion. Soaps. — Many of the soaps sold in our market can be used at times as a means of lessening the injuries of insect pests. A good soapsuds fre- quently and freely used on plants infested with aphides or scale insects has a good effect, though not a very prompt one. Stronger solutions must be used with some caution to avoid injury to foliage. When trees are dormant very strong solutions (one or two pounds to a gallon of water) are sometimes used on the trunks for scale and other insects. Whale oil soap or fish oil soap, as it is sometimes called, is to be pre- ferred to most others because of its more even composition. It is particu- larly good for use in maldng coal oil emulsion. Coal Tar. — In the early days of fruit growing in America this substance was much used on the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent in the spring of the wingless female canker worm moth. It proved to have an injurious effect on the trees after a time, and hardened on exposure, so that the insects could pass over the barrier. It was then used on bands of tin, and by frequent renewal proved a useful check on the insect. But with the intro- duction of arsenites and spraying machinery, it was given up for the more convenient treatment. It is still used as a barrier, pom'ed along the ground, for chinch-bugs which are migrating from small grains to corn. Seed corn may be treated with it before planting to deter wire worms and the seed corn maggot from attacking the germinating seeds. The corn is &st immersed in warm water for a minute or two, then a couple of teaspoonfuls of the tar are stirred quicklj^ among the grain so as to bring a little in con- tact with each seed. It dries over night so as to be ready for planting the following day. The application does no harm to the germ, as has been determined by germination tests of treated seeds. Borax. — ^This substance has often been recommended for roaches in 258 SUCCESSFUL FARMING dwellinRs, and is sometimes found with an arsenite a« an ingredient of pr()|)riet;iry roach pastes. Kocent work done with a view to destroying tlie hirviL' of liouse tiics in manure hidicates that this is one of the best of insecticides for the purpose, exceUing for this use, coal oil, pyroligneus acid, formalin and Paris green. Sodium Inirate and crude calcium Ixjrate were lx)th found elTcctive in kiUing the larva', either wlicn used dr>' or in solu- tion. It was recommended as a result of the work done that alx)ut 0.02 |X)und of borax be used in 8 bushels of manure. Larger amounts of borax are Ixjlieved to l)e injurious to plants when the manure is spread on land. The cost was estimated at one cent per horse i)er day. Other Insecticides. — Numerous other insecticides have been recom- mended, and have had a limited use, but, exccj^ting the fumigants con- sidered later, they have not Ix^en generally ado])ted by practical men. Among them may be mentioned benzene, which is sometimes applied to fal)rics to destroy clothes moth; carboiized plaster, sometimes recom- mended as a remedy for fleas about stal^les; fir-tree oil, lemon oil and oil of citronella, the latter often employed as a deterrent against the attacks of mosquitoes and also as a preventive of injury to seed corn in the soil, t^uassia, the effective ingredient of which is quassiin, is obtained from the wood of the Jamaican Picrastna cxcelsa. It is an old insecticide that has been perhaps most used in solutions for the hop apliis in the West. The extract is made from the "chips" by either soaking or boiling. Bisulphide of Carbon. — As sold by druggists and manufacturers, this is a brownish lluid wliicli quickly hide of carbon is not unpleasant. The fumes are not only Ix)isonous, but are inflammable, so that some care must l^e exercised in handling tlie fluid. It has ])roved of sjx^cial ser\'ice as a remedy for grain weevil, l)ean weevil and other insects attacking stored seeds, and fon reiised fox FUMIGATIVa WITH HYDROCYANIC GaS.' Sheet tent ready for introduction of chemicals. a time to vor>' strong fumos. Orowing plants must l>o treated cautiously with very mild doses. Some of them are very sensitive to the g:is an«l will l)e .slightly burned with any dose calculate' stock it is customary to employ for each 100 cubic feet enclosed, the following: Cyanide of pota-ssiuro 1 minre Sulphuric acid 1.2.") fluid ounces Water 3 fluid ounces 'Courtcay of U. S. Dcpt. of Asriculture. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 261 The box or house should be as nearly gas-tight as possible, with a very tight-fitting door. The water and sulphuric acid are placed in a deep open crock, then the cyanide of potassium, broken up into pieces about as large as a hickory nut, is poured into the crock and the door shut as quickly as possible. The fumes must be left about the trees not less than forty min- utes, and fifty minutes or an hour is better. Short exposures in badly con- structed houses have sometimes resulted in the sending out of living San Jose scale on trees. In the hothouse the gas must be used with very great care to avoid injury to plants. Plants of the grass family (Graminece) endure more gas than most others tested by the writer. Corn, timothy, blue grass and the like are not very sensitive. The leguminous plants, such as clover, sweet pea and cowpea, are very likely to suffer some injury with any but very light doses, and on this account it is best to use the less hurtful tobacco extract when practicable. The extract will not, however, destroy the adults of all hothouse pests, and has no effect at all on the scale insects nor on the immature white fly. FUNGICIDES When all has been said the number of fungicides approved by the experience of practical and scientific men is very small. Many have been recommended, but comparatively few have stood all the tests as to effective- ness, convenience of application and cheapness. Some are cheap and only slightly effective; some are difficult to prepare; others are too costly for extensive use. Copper Sulpnate. — At the head of the list stands copper sulphate, a cheap, effective fungicide, commonly known as bluestone. This is the active and most essential ingredient of Bordeaux mixture. Concentrated solutions of it cannot be used alone on foliage because of their caustic action. Id winter on dormant trees it is sometimes used for fungous troubles, about two pounds being dissolved in a barrel of water. A weaker solution^l . pound in 200 gallons of water — ^may be used on foliage in summer when fruit is well matured and it is not desirable to use sprays like Bordeaux mixture, which leave a residue. The bluestone may be quickly dissolved b}^ pouring boiling hot water over it. Wlien one is not hurried it may be dissolved by suspending in a loose sack in the water. It dissolves slowly if simply thrown in the water and allowed to settle. To avoid to some extent the delays involved in dissolving bluestone it is well to buy a finely powdered grade now manufactured for the making of fungicidal preparations. Bordeaux Mixture. — A standard formula for the preparation of this valuable mixture is the following: Bluestone 4'pound8 Fresh lime 4 pounds Water 50 gallons 262 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Dissolve the bluestonc in 25 gallons of water, slake the lime separately, and add water t' valuable prcser\'ative and antiseptic has been much used of late as a remedy for potato scab and to some extent for wheat smut. It is sold as a fluid containing forty per cent of formalin. In this condition it is \cry acrid, and gives olT fumes that affect the eyes and nostrils implcasantly. Used on the hands, it quickly destroys tlic outer skin. It cannot, tlierefore, be employed except wheq > Courtesy of New York Asricultural Elxperunent Station, Qeaeva, N. Y. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 263 greatly diluted. But since it retains its active fungicide and bactericidal properties even when very greatly diluted, and is not so dangerous a poison in this condition as are corrosive sublimate and other antiseptic agents, it becomes very useful in the hands of those who wish to disinfect quarters in which have been lodged people, or animals, affected with communicable diseases. The wash or spray of the dilute formalin has always seemed to the writer much better for such uses than the fumes of formalin as generally produced. On plants the action of even dilute sprays is very quickly destructive, and I doubt if it has a value for their treatment. But for seed wheat, Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut.^ likely to produce smutted heads and for potato scab it has proved very convenient and useful. A pint of the 40 per cent formalin may be poured into a barrel containing 30 gallons of water, stirred thoroughly, and the potatoes in a sack can be set in the barrel for disinfection. They should be left in the fluid for two hours and may then be removed and spread out on grass or on a clean plank floor to dry, when another sack may be placed in the barrel. The treated potatoes must not be put in barrels or sacks that have not been treated with the formalin. By having a number of barrels at hand, the work proceeds rapidly. Oats and wheat liable to smut may be treated by sprinkling the seed with dilute formalin (1 pint in a barrel of water) until every seed is moist, not wet, then leaving for several hours in a heap, finally spreading out to dry. * Courtesy of H. L. BoUey and M. L. Wilson, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. 264 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Fumes of formalin protlurcd cither by heat or by the u»c of pcrmaii- ganute of ]X)ta.sli have Ix^oii rccomnu'iidod jus a romody for jxjtuto jH-ab, but the writtM's oxiH'rioiice with tlio funics has not Ixkmj such as to warrant him in rccoiniMondiiif; lliom for tliis or for otlicr purixjscs. Bichloride of Mercury. — A ver>' i>oisonous cliomieal, vahiablo in dihitc sohitions (1 i)art in 1(XJ(J) as a disinfectant, and ])articularly RfMxl jls a remedy for iMjtato seal). The whitish, crystalline, veiy heavy material is very dangerous U) have about, since it may attract the attention of children or animals. It should of course always Ixj kejjt lalx^led an a poison. It dissolves slowly in cold water, and it is best, therefore, to make use of heat, afterward turning tlie dissolved }>oison into the larger quantity of water required, best koi)t in a barrel. CkxxI results liave Ix'cn obtained in check- ing potato scab with this disinfectant, using 4 ounces in liO gallons of water and soaking the seed potatoes one hour. Thej- were placed in the fluid in ginmy sacks and afterward sjiread out on a l»arn fl(X)r to dr>'. It is vciy essential that ]x)is()ned ]x)tat(X>s be not left where stock will eat tliem, and the ]x)isonous fluid nmst be disi)oscd of after treating tlie seed, so that it will do no harm. Lime-Sulphur Wash. — Tliis preparation of suljihur and lime has already been mentioned under insecticides. It has imdoubted fungicide value both in concentratxxl and dilute ])rei)arations. For foliage the latter must always be used. lOven the suli)hur alone thickly strewn over leaves is a fairly good remedy for mildew. A very small quantity of the sulphur dissolved in the presence of lune renders it more effective both as an insect- icide and as a fungicide. COMBINED INSECTICroES AND FUNGICmES The cost of treatment for jx^sts is greatly increased by tl)o necessity for frecjuent spraying wlien insecticides and fungicides are used sejjarately. They have been combined in some ca.scs witli no loss in the effectiveness of either, and one of the im])ortant jiroblems of l>oth entomologists and ])lant j)at}iologists at the i^resent time is the finding of ways and means of nnlucing tlu! mnnber of sprayings still further. Some work in determining the comp.atibility of different mixtures has already been done, and it may be said that the following mix without loss and in some cases with a gain in effectiveness: Arsrnato of load (nrid) and Bordeaux niixtiin'. An«'iiat<* of It'ad and tohacfo. Arsenate of lead and :icid.s. Arsenate of lead (neutral) and Ronlenux mixture. Ars«'nat4> <»f lead (neutral) and linie-.sul|>lutr. ArM-nate of lead (neutral) and tol)aec«). I'aris screen and Hordeaux niixtun-. Arsenife of lime and Horrleaux mixture. Arsenife of lime ancl tohacco. Lime-^ul|>liur and toi)aeer). Soapu und BurUeuux mixture. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 265 Soaps and tobacco. Soaps and emulsions. Tobacco and lime-sulphur. Tobacco and soaps. Tobacco and emulsions. Tobacco and alkaliea. Some dangerous combinations are the following: Arsenate of lead (acid) and soaps. Arsenate of lead (acid) and emulsions. Arsenate of lead (acid) and alkalies. Arsenate of lead (neutral) and acids. Arsenite of zinc and Ume-sulphur. Arsenite of zinc and soaps. Arsenite of zinc and emulsions. Arsenite of zinc and alkalies. Arsenite of zinc and acids. Hydrocyanic acid gas and Bordeaux mixture, REFERENCES The literature dealing with the subject is very extensive and cannot be cited at all adequately in a brief resume such as this. The few recent papers given will help the reader to an understanding of the range and character of work being done to throw light on this important subject: "The Spraying of Plants." Lodeman. "The Chemical Composition of Insecticides and Fungicides." Bui. 68, Bur. of Chem., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902. "An Investigation of Lime-sulphur Injury — Its Causes and Prevention." Bui. No. 2, Ore. Agr. College Exp. Sta., 1913. "Fumigation and Spraying," Bui. No. 172, Kentucky Agr. Exper. Sta., 1913. "Chemical Studies of Lime-sulphur — Lead-arsenate Spray Mixture." Research Bui. No. 12, Iowa Exper. Sta., 1913. "Analyses of Materials Sold as Insecticides." Bui. No. 262. New Jersey Exper. Sta., 1913. "Preparation of Nicotin Extracts on the Farm." Bui. No. 218, Virginia Agr. Exper. Sta., 1914. "The CompatibiHty of Insecticides and Fungicides." By George P. Gray, VoL III, No. 7, Monthly Bulletin, Cal. State Comm. of Horticulture, 1914. "A Report of Chemical Investigations on the Lime-sulphur Spray." Research Bui. No. 3, Oregon Exper. Sta., 1914. "Experiments in the Dusting and Spraying of Apples." Bui. No. 340, N. Y. Agr. Exper. Station (Ithaca), 1914. "Analyses of Materials Sold as Insecticides and Fungicides." Bui. No. 384, N. Y. Agr. Exper. Station (Geneva), 1914. "Experiments in the Destruction of Fly Larvse in Horse Manure." Bui. No. 118, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1914. "Quassiin as a Contact Insecticide." Bui. No. 165, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1914. "Notes on the Preparation of Bordeaux Mixtm-e." Circular No. 15, New Hamp- ehire Agr. Exper. Station. 1914. "Bordeaux Mixture.^' Technical Bui. No. 8, New Hampshire Agr. Exper. Sta- tion, 1914. "The Nicotin-Sulfate-Bordeaux Combination." By V. I. Safro, Journal of Eco- nomic Entomology, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1915. "Homemade Lime-sulphur Concentrate." Bui. No. 197, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915. "Para-Dichlorobenzene as an Insect Fumigant." Bui. No. 167, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915, 200 SUCCESSFUL FARMING "Cactus Solution aa an Adhesive in Arsenical Sprays for Insects." Bui. No. 160, U. S. Di'pt- Akt., 1«J15. "FurthtT KxiMTiinentH in tho Du.stinn unci Spraying of Applea." I3ul. No. 354, New York Agr. Lx|x.'r. Station (Ithacji), 1915. California Expt. Station Bulletin 257. "Dosage Tables;" "Fumigation Studies No. 1." Kansas Exiit. Station Rullctin 203. "Orrhard Spraying." Michigan Kxj)t. Station Hiillctin (Tcchnicil) 21. " liowCont.'ictlnflccticidoeKill." New Jorsev Kxpt. Statiund Linseed iiu'id, old proross Linseed meal, new process Cotton peed Cotton seed, roasted Cottonseed meal Cottonseed hulls Cottonseed kernels (no hulls) Cocoanut cake Palm nut meal Suiidower s<'ed Sunflower seed cake , Peanut kernels (no hulls) Peanut meal Uajx' seef 1 cake Pea meal Soy bean Cowpea Ilors*' bean V(tn\ fodder, field rured Corn stover, field cured Corn husks, field cured Corn leaves, field cureil Corn fodder, preen Dent varieties, preen Dent, kernels glazed green Flint varieties, green Flint, kernels glazed green Sweet varieties, green Leaves and husks, green Stripped stalks, green Hat from Grasses: Mixefl grasses Timothy, all analyses Timothy, cut in full bloom Timothy, cut soon after bloom. . . Timothv, cut when near ripe Orchard gra.ss Redtop, cut at difTerent stages. . . Recltop, cut in full bloom Kentucky l>lue gra.ss Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed is in milk Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed is rij>e Hungarian gra.is Meadow fescue Indian rye grass Perennial rye grass Rowen (mixed) Water. A«h. Protein. Cnidr Fiber. Nitroicrn-i Fro*. Extract. 11.5 3.4 10.2 7.1 63.6 9.3 1.5 9.9 1.4 74.9 14.0 3.3 11.8 9.5 57.4 9.5 5.0 9.9 7.7 r)3.2 9.2 4.3 2'J.6 7.1 '2A.2 8.1 4.7 21.6 7.3 27.9 9.2 5.7 32.9 8.9 35.4 10 1 5.8 33.2 9.5 38.4 10.3 3.5 18.4 23.2 24.7 6.1 5.5 16.8 20.4 23.5 8.2 7.2 42.3 5.6 23.6 11.1 2.8 4.2 40.3 33.4 6.2 4.7 31.2 3.7 17.6 10.3 5.9 19.7 14.4 38.7 10.4 4.3 16.8 24.0 35.0 8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 10.8 6.7 32.8 13.5 27.1 7.5 2.4 27.9 7.0 15.6 10.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 10.0 7.9 31.2 11.3 30.0 10.5 2.6 20.2 14.4 51.1 10.8 4.7 34.0 4.8 28.8 14.8 3.2 20.8 4.1 55.7 11.3 3.8 26.6 7.2 50.1 42 2 2.7 4.5 14.3 34.7 40.5 3.4 3.8 19.7 31.5 50.9 1.8 2.5 15.8 28.3 30.0 5.5 6.0 21.4 35.7 79.3 1.2 1.8 5.0 12.2 79.0 1.2 1.7 5.6 12.0 73.4 1.5 2.0 6.7 15.5 79.8 1.1 2.0 4.3 12.1 77.1 1.1 2.7 4.3 14.6 79.1 1.3 1.9 4.4 12.8 66.2 2.9 2.1 8.7 19.0 76.1 0.7 0.5 7.3 14.9 15.3 5.5 7.4 27.2 42.1 13.2 4.4 5.9 29.0 45.0 15.0 4.5 6.0 29.6 41.9 14.2 4.4 5.7 28.1 44.6 14.1 3.9 5.0 31.1 43.7 9.9 6.0 8.1 32.4 41.0 8.9 5.2 7.9 28.6 47.5 8.7 4.9 8.0 29.9 46.4 21.2 6.3 7.8 23.0 37.8 24.4 7.0 6.3 24.5 34.2 27.8 6.4 5.8 23.8 33.2 7.7 6.0 7.5 27.7 49.0 20.0 6.8 7.0 25 9 38.4 8.5 6.9 7.5 30.5 45 14.0 7.9 10.1 25.4 40.5 16 6 6.8 11.6 22 5 39.4 Ft her Extract. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 271 Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Continued). Crop. Hat from Grasses {Continued) : Mixed grasses and clovers Barley hay, cut in milk Oat hay, cut in milk Swamp hay Salt marsh hay Wild oat grass Buttercups White daisy Johnson grass Fresh Grass: Pasture grass Kentucky blue grass Timothy, different stages Orchard grass, in bloom Redtop, in bloom Oat fodder Rye fodder Sorghum fodder Barley fodder Hungarian grass Meadow fescue, in bloom Italian rye grass, coming in bloom . Tall oat grass, in bloom Japanese millet Barnyard miUet Hay from Legumes: Red clover Red clover in bloom Red clover, mammoth Alsike clover White clover Crimson clover Japan clover Alfalfa Cowpea Soy bean Pea vine Vetch SerradeUa Flat pea Peanut vines (no nuts) Sainfoin Fresh Legumes: Red clover, different stages Alsike clover Crimson clover AKalfa Cowpea Soy bean SerradeUa Horse bean Flat pea Water. Ash. 12.9 15.0 15.0 11.6 10.4 14.3 9.3 10.3 10.2 80.0 65.1 61.6 73.0 65.3 62.2 76.6 79.4 79.0 71.1 69.9 73.2 69.5 75.0 75.0 15.3 20.8 21.2 9.7 9.7 9.6 11.0 8.4 10.7 11.3 15.0 11.3 9.2 8.4 7.6 15.0 70.8 74.8 80.9 71.8 83.6 75.1 79.5 84.2 66.7 5.5 4.2 5.2 6.7 7.7 3.8 5.6 6.6 6.1 2.0 2.8 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.5 1.8 1.1 1.8 1.7 1.8 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.9 6.2 6.6 6.1 8.3 8.3 8.6 8.5 7.4 7.5 7.2 6.7 7.9 7.2 7.9 10.8 7.3 2.1 2.0 1.7 2.7 1.7 2.6 3.2 1.2 2.9 Protein. 10.1 8.8 9.3 7.2 5.5 5.0 9.9 7.7 7.2 3.5 4.1 1 6 8 4 6 1.3 2.7 3.1 2.4 3.1 2.4 2.1 2.4 12.3 12.4 10.7 12.8 15.7 15.2 13.8 14.3 16.6 15.4 13.7 17.0 15.2 22.9 10.7 14.8 4.4 3.9 3.1 4.8 2.4 4.0 2.7 2.8 8.7 Crude Fiber. 27.6 24.7 29.2 26.6 30.0 25.0 30.6 30.0 28.5 4.0 9.1 11.8 8.2 11.0 11.2 11.6 6.1 7.9 9.2 10.8 6.8 9.4 7.8 7.0 24.8 21.9 24.5 25.6 24.1 27.2 24^0 25.0 20.1 22.3 24.7 25.4 21.6 26.2 23.6 20.4 8.1 7.4 5.2 7.4 4.8 6.7 5.4 4.9 7.9 Nitrogen- Free Extract, 41.3 44.9 39.0 45.9 44.1 48.8 41.1 42.0 45.9 9.7 17.6 20.2 13.3 17.7 19.3 6.8 11.6 8.0 14.2 14.3 13.3 15.8 13.1 13.1 38.1 33.8 33.6 40.7 39.3 36.6 39.0 42.7 42.2 38.6 37.6 36.1 44.2 31.4 42.7 39.5 13.5 11.0 8.4 12.3 7.1 10.6 8.6 6.5 12.2 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Table I. — Percentage Composition or Agricultural Products (Continued.) Crop. Straw: Wheat Rvo Oftt Biirlev Wheat chaff Oat chafT Huckwhcat straw »Soy bean Horse bean Silage: Com Sorehum Red clover Soy bean Apple pomace Cowpea vine Cow and soy bean vines mixed Field iK-a vine Barnyard millet and soy bean. Com and soy bean Rye Roots and TrnERs: Potato Common beets Sugar beets Mangels Turnip Rutabaga Carrot Parsnip Artichoke Sweet potato Miscellaneous: Cabbage Spurry Sugar beet leaves Purn|)kin, field Pumpkin, garden Prickly comfroy Rape Acoms, fresh Apples Cow's milk Cow's colustrum Mare's milk Ewe's milk Goat's milk Sow's milk Skim milk, gravitv Skim milk, centrifugal Buft pounds. . 1(),(KK) pounds KM) pounds. . . 1470 pounds. . iioOO pounds. . 4970 pounds. . 3r).S()() pounds 92(K) pounds. . 4().(XK) jxnnids 40(X) pounds. . 10i-3 1-3 13^-2 1^-3^ y^-Ya. 1-2 y2 1-2 K-i X4 1-2 -\u 276 SUCCESSFUL FARMING Table III. — Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Nttmber or Seeds Pound and Deitu to Cover Farm Seedh {Coutiuued.) Crop. ANNtTAi. Forage Crops (Con United). Millet, common ) Milk't, HuiiKiiriun 1 Millet, (itTtuan [ Millet, Golden Wonder J Ilape Sainfoin Serradellu , Sorghum Sunflower Cereals. Barley Buckwheat Flax KafTir corn Milo Maize, shelled Maize, on cob Rice Rye Spelt Wheat Oat« Vegetables and Roots. Artichokes , Beets Carrots Mangels Parsnip Potato Turnip Rutabaga Sugar beets Sweet potato Fiber. Broom corn Cotton, Soa Island Cotton, upland Hemp •RooU. Woight nor liiwlK-l. pounds. 50 50-60 26 28-36 56 24-50 48 42-50 56 50-60 50-60 56 70 43^5 56 40-60 60 32 50-60* 50* 50-(>0* 45-50* 60 5.5-60* 50-60* 50-()0* 50-55 30-48 44 30 44 Rnt<' of Hwding. NiiniVjor <.r .s....