Class „_T3i3Jl^ GopyriglitN? COFffilGHT deposit; '5 il/ / ^2 ^ i^^y '-^^uA^,^y^\ju^, THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DESIGNING, CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF A MODERN ABATTOIR AND PACKING HOUSE, ACCORDING TO PRESENT AMERICAN PRACTICE, INCLUDING FORMULAS FOR THE MANU- FACTURE OF LARD AND SAUSAGE, THE CURING OF MEATS, ETC., AND METHODS OF CON- VERTING ALL BY-PRODUCTS INTO COMMERCIAL ARTICLES BY F. W. WILDER Former General Superintendent Swift & Company and schwarzchild & sulzberger company, chicago PUBLISHERS NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. CHICAGO LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two Copies Received DEC 11 1905 _ Copyright Entry CLASS c^ XXc. No. / X4,; 3 5- COPY B. /b Copyright, 1905, By NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. All Rights Reservpd. PRESS OF Ice and Refrigeration CHICAGO. PREFACE. In the preparation of this work, the first complete treatise upon the subject of the packing house business ever published, two objects. have jbeen kept constantly in view. It was determined, first, to present in a con- venient and simple form, practical suggestions, tables and formula that are needed daily in the operation of a plant and in the prosecution of the packing house busi- ness along modern lines. Second, it was determined to describe each operation in all the various ramifications of the business, from the unloading of the animals at the pens to the production of the finished product and the disposition of same, in the same order in which the different operations are actually conducted. In adopting this course, the author and the publishers have been largely influenced by the ^fact that inquiries are constantly being made asking for information re- garding the various methods pursued by packers in obtaining the results described in this work, which would seem to indicate that this arrangement of the subject matter would best subserve the needs of a very large proioortion of those operating and conducting packing, slaughtering and rendering plants, both large and small. 4 PREFACE All the various operations described and subjects treated upon have been carefully indexed at the end of the volume, so that any matter upon which it is desired to obtain instant information may be easily and readily found. In addition to this, the author has arranged the chapters and the operations described in each, together with descriptions of the machinery and appliances re- quired for same, in the order in which the various functions should be performed in the packing house, as nearly as it is possible to do so. In fact, the established packer or butcher, as well as the new beginner, if he will carefully digest the contents of this work, will find that he has ready to his hand a vast amount of valuable information of an absolutely reliable character, hither- to unattainable, the knowledge of which will aid him materially in conducting his business to the best ad- vantage. The chapters on the proper construction and arrange- ment of the various departments of the modern packing house, contain information rarely found in a work of this character, and which is usually obtained only by the expenditure of a large sum for expert advice. The author has given the reader the full benefit of his many years' experience in the construction and operation of some of the largest, most completely equipped and up- to-date packing house plants in the world. A large proportion of the contents of this work is devoted to tests showing the value and yields of the various products of a modern packing house, based on prices and conditions existing at the time they were made, in which the percentages and comparisons are PREFACE 5 absolutely reliable, and which will prove invaluable to those hitherto unable to obtain such data. The numerous formulas given for the manufacture and preservation of the various products of the packing house are those which have been proven to be the best after many years of experience in using same. In every instance they have been put into the simplest form possible, so that no mistake can be made in applying them to the requirements of the reader. The information furnished in these pages, which has been carefully compiled and arranged, is based almost entirely upon the author's own personal observation and experience, there being very little mere theorizing upon the possibilities of what may be accomplished by adopt- ing certain prescribed methods. For this reason es- pecially it will be found of great practical value to all who are interested in any way in the packing house business. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Construction of Modern Packing Houses 17-48 Introduction. Suggestions on construction of plant. Construction of packing houses in general. Insurance. Plans for hog slaughterhouse. Plans for hog and cattle slaughtering plant. Plan for small slaughterhouse. Cattle, hog and sheep slaughterhouse. CHAPTER II. Refrigeration in the Packing House 49-71 Systems of refrigeration. Theory of refrigeration. Re- frigeration for fresh killed carcasses. The packer's rule for refrigeration. Insulation. Temperatures required. Different applications of refrigeration in the packing house. " Curtain " system of refrigeration. Arrange- ment of piping in freezers. Various types of coolers. Types of coolers to be avoided. CHAPTER III. Cattle Handling, Slaughtering and Chilling 72-101 How to handle cattle before slaughtering. Knocking or stunning cattle. Sticking and heading cattle. Foot skinning. Ripping open and leg breaking. Flooring cattle. Breast sawing and caul pulling. Fell cutting. Beef spreaders. Rumping. Fell beating. Gutting. TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 Backing. Tail sawing. Splitting. Neck splitting. Bruise trimming. Skirt trimming. Beef weighing. Coolers. Care of coolers. Temperatures in coolers. Ef- fect of coolers in preserving meats. Suggestions for han- dling heef in coolers. Trimming of beef. Eibbing of beef. Loading beef. Weighing and packing beef by lots. CHAPTER IV. Dressing Yields of Cattle 102-115 Tests showing yields of meats and by-products of cat- tle. Yield of twenty-two native cattle. Yield of fifty- nine Texas cattle. Yield of twenty cattle. Yield of thirty-four cattle. Different cuts of beef. CHAPTEE V. Labor in Cattle Killing 116-123 Lists of men employed and wages paid. Cattle kill- ing department for sixty cattle per hour; ditto, seventy cattle per hour ; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. Back . cooler gang for sixty cattle ; ditto, seventy cattle per hour ; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. Tail trimmers and head boners for sixty cattle per hour; ditto, seventy cat- tle per hour; ditto, eighty-four cattle per hour. CHAPTER YL Hides 123-133 Handling of hides on killing floor. Proper storage for hides. Shrinkage of hides. Grading of hides. Grubs in hides. Salting of hides. Building of packs of hides. Trimming green hides. CHAPTER VIL Tallow, Oleo Oil and Stearine 134-165 Oleo fat. Construction of oleo oil house. Location of hashers, etc., in oil house. Grading for oleo oil. Dia- gram of oleo oil kettle. Enterprise hasher. Settling ket- tle for oleo oil. Oil house instructions. Oleo seeding 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS truck. Knuckle type oleo oil press. Oleo oil receiver. Oleo oil and stearine packages. Stearine packer. Oil house yields. Scrap vat. Tests on oil house yields. Mutton fat. Test on handling fats in oil house. Kidney and cod pickings and bones. Yields from kidney and cod fat. Test on oleo scrap. Labor in oil house. CHAPTER YIII. Preparation of Heads and Feet of Cattle 166-175 Bone department. Bone products. Horns. Cattle head splitter. Skulls. Jaw bones. Feet. Revolving rack for bone washing. Bone saw. Hoof puller. JSTeatsfoot oil. Sinew glue stock. Yield of heads and feet of cat- tle. CHAPTER IX. Preparation of Casings 176-183 Essential points in the handling of casings. Classifi- cation of casings. Yields of casings. CHAPTER X. The Tank House 184-208 Construction and operation of a tank house. Diagrams for construction of a modern tank house. Plans for the construction of rendering tank. How to cook a tank. Hydraulic lard and tallow hoop press. Pressing tankage. Hydraulic tankage and fertilizer press. Tank water. Double " stick " dr3'ers. Estimate of production and value of tankage made by evaporating tank water. Table for tank water. Test on tankage. Test on trimmings and seam fat. Test on condemned hogs. Comparative test of sheep heads and jaws to tank and bone house. Test on tripe trimmings. Test on condemned livers. Test on cattle pecks to tank. Test on cattle paunches to tank. Test on hog stomachs to tank. Test on wind pipes to tank. Test on sheep paunches and plucks to tank. Test on sheep offal. Test on neck trimming from trim- ming floor. Test on sheep feet to tank. TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 CHAPTEK XI. Beef Trimmings 209-233 Beef pickling formulas. Weasancl meat. Beef tongues. Test on freezing beef tongues. Canning tongues. Test on canning tongiies. Livers. Liver truck. Design for modern defrosting room. SAveetbreads. Beef hearts. Tails. Beef hams. Shipping beef hams. Handling and formula for curing beef hams. Smoking test on regular beef hams- Shrinkage on smoked dried beef hams. For- mulas for preservaline. Tripe. Tripe tests. CHAPTER XII. Sheep Dressing and Chilling 234-2^6 " String gang." Diagram showing arrangement for sheep killing with " string gang." Apparatus for hoist- ing sheep to sticking rail. Sheep dressing. Table of wages paid sheep butchers. Chilling sheep. Lamb tongues tests. CHAPTER XIII. Hog Slaughtering and Chilling 24:7-272 Refrigeration of hogs. The hog slaughterhouse. LTn- loading the hogs from cars. Construction of pens for hogs and sheep. Handling ,of live hogs. Penning of hogs. Shackling of hogs. Sticking of hogs. Scalding and scraping of hogs. Ham facing and gutting hogs. Leaf lard. Plan for hog slaughtering room, pens, etc. Hog killing room. Splitting hogs. Temperatures in chill room. Care in chill room. Section hog killing floor showing carrying rails, etc. Shrinkage in chill room. Tests on shrinkage of hogs in cooler. Cost of hog killing gang. Cost of hog cutting gang. CHAPTER XIV. Pork Cuts and Yields 273-303 Cutting floors. Diagram and sections showing detail of hog cutting room. Percentages of yield. Te^t show- 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS ing yield of sides. Test showing yield of different cuts. Special test on lot of mixed hogs. Percentages of cuts on hams, shoidders, sides and miscellaneous. Mess pork. Clear back port. Brisket pork rib. Loin pork. Belly pork. Back pork. Loin clear pork. Dry salt meats. CHAPTEE XV. Curing of Hams and Dey Salt Meats 304-330 Cutting and trimming of hams. Pumping hams. Ham pump. Formula for pickle where hams have been piled in salt. Formula for pickle where hams have not been piled in salt. Curing hams. Formula for pumping pickle. Sirup curing. Cost of pickle. Using second hand pickle. California hams. Sweet pickle California hams and shoulders. Skinned hams. Table showing time for curing of hams to smoke. Boiled ham. Kules for boiling hams. Shrinkage in boiling hams from sweet pickle weight to shipping weight. Eolled boneless pork loins. Dry salt meats. Cost of curing dry salt meats. Curing of English meats. Curing of long cut hams. Color of English meats. Salting of meats. Piling of meats. Overhauling of meats. Shipping ages for Eng- lish meats. Packing of English meats. Yields long cut hams and Cumbeilands. CHAPTEE XYI. The Smoke House 331-343 Handling of meats for the smoke house. Soaking of meats for the smoke house. Handling of meats in the smoke house. Temperatures in a smoke house. Shrink- age in smoke house. Diagrams showing detail of double truck for smoke house rack. Coloring vat. Formula for coloring sweet pickle meats. Formula for coloring sweet pickle sides to avoid smoking. Paper for wrapping smoked meats. Canvasing meats. Whitewashing meats. Whitewash for meat canvas. Yellowwash for meat can- vas. Smoking dried beef. Shrinkage on dried beef. TABLE OF CONTENTS 11 CHAPTEE XVII. Domestic Sausage 344-384 Preservative for sausage. Summer sausage, pork saus- age and tongues. Packing fresh beef, pork hearts, etc. Curing and preserving pork and beef trimmings. Cured products used in making sausage. Sausage fillers. Smoke house arrangement for smoking domestic sausage. Inside water color for domestic sausage. Inside dry color for domestic sausage. Outside color for sausage casings. Varnish for bologna sausage casings. Pork, bologna, knoblaugh, leona, Polish, Frankfurt, blood, tongue and liver sausages. Formulas for making the different kinds of sausage. Boneless pigs feet. Head cheese. Minced ham. Cooked pressed ham. Tests on skinned shoulders for cooked pressed ham. New Jersey ham. Berlin ham. Boneless ham. Cottage ham. Stuffed hog heads. Scrap- ple. Bologna sausage in oil. Frankfurts in oil. Smok- ing schedule for sausage. Cooking schedule for sausage. Shrinkage of domestic sausage. CHAPTEE XVIII. Summer and Dry Sausage 385-410 Air drying and smoking. Preservative for dry sausage. Preparing cases for summer sausage. Dry room caution. Formulas for eervelat. Formulas for farmer sausage, Holsteiner sausage, Swedish medwurst, Braunschweiger, D'Arles, Italian salami, Milanese salami, German salami, Hungarian salami, Thuringer salami, Mortadella, Lyon and Gothair sausages. Lehigh Valley summer sausage. CHAPTEE XIX. ^ Lard and Grease- 411-441 Lard refining. Method of using fullers earth. Tank for mixing fullers earth and lard. Fullers earth kettle. Lard cooling cylinder. Compound lard. Deodorizing cotton seed oil. Deodorizing tank for cotton seed oil. Filter press for lard or oleo oil. Care of filter press. Kettle rendered lard. Weight of lard packages. Neutral 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS iard. Tests on back fat converted to No. , 2 neutral ket- tle rendered lard and prime steam lard. Cold tests on grease. CHAPTER XX. BuTTERIiS^E AND PROCESS BuTTER 4-i2-468 Plans and sections of modern butterine factory. Han- dling of milk in making butterine. Cream ripening ap- paratus. Churns used in butterine factory. Milk and cream for butterine. " Starter " for butterine. Low ; grade butterine. Formulas for making butterine. Shrinkage and cost of butterine. Cost of equipment for butterine factory. Diagrams showing construction and arrangement of machinery for process butter factory. Milk and cream for process butter. Equiijment for mak- ing process butter. CHAPTER XXI. Minor Products 469-483 Beef extract. Making of beef extract from canning liquids. Extract from beef hearts. Formula for and machinery used in making beef fluid. Pigs feet. Ma- chinery for splitting pigs feet. Tests showing cost in detail of pigs feet put up in different size packages. Pig tongues. Test showing cost of pig tongues put up in different sizes of packages. Formula for export pig tongue pickle. Pig snouts. Tests showing cost of pigs snouts put up in different sizes of packages. Hog hair and bristles. , CHAPTER XXII. Fertilizer and Blood Albumen 484-496 Composition of fertilizer. Plan and sections for con- struction and arrangement of fertilizer room. Tankage for fertilizer. Analysis of fertilizer. Tests showing value and yield from beef blood for fertilizer; ditto, hog blood for fertilizer; ditto, sheep blood for fertilizer. Pro- duction of albumen from beef blood. Settling pan for draining serum from blood. Details of home-made blood pump. TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 CHAPTEE XXIII. Boxes and Cooperage 497-509 Specifications for boxes for pork packing department, canning department, sausage department, lard refinery ; also boxes for beef cutting, offal and freezer. Fresh pork packing boxes. Dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing boxes. Cooperage specifications for different size barrels. Government specifications for packages. Eefrigerator boxes. CHAPTER XXIV. Miscellaneous Information 510-533 Convenient devices. Calking device. Elevator hoist. Barrel truck. Hog traveler. Hand cart. Tinning hooks. Thermometers. Thermometer scales. Wire or brine pipe covering. Tests to ■ determine value of paunch manure as fuel. Fattening chickens. Formula for making paint. Hectograph filler. Refrigerator cars. Icing refrigerator cars. Canning of meats. Glue. Chemical department. Kosher killing. Inspection by United States govern- ment. Branch houses. CHAPTEE XXV. Departmental Accounting 534-554 The division of labor in large packing house plants on departmental basis. Method of assigning debits and credits to each department. Method of charging for raw material used in different departments. Method of crediting and debiting cost of labor in each department. CHAPTER I. CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES. IjSTTKODUCTORY. Probably no industry in the United States has shown such rapid growth in so short a space of time as has the packing house business. The modern packing house as it exists today may be said to be less than thirty years old since its first inception, and one naturally inquires the causes which led to the growth of this industry to its present proportions in so short a time, ranking practi- cally fifth in importance among the industries of the United States. The one main factor which has been instrumental in the consummation of this immense growth is " Concentration "^ — the watchword of the day in all large and successful industries. Before the modern packing house was inaugurated the method in vogue was to either ship or drive the live stock to the point of consumption, where it was slaughtered and put on the market in a crude and expensive way, as com- pared with the methods of toda}^ In the general evolu- tion of the business the first step toward making the modern packing house was the concentration of live stock at a few central market points where it was offered for sale. Prior to tliat time it would have been impossible for any one point to obtain sufficient stock to much more than supply its local demands. 18 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE In the earlier days of the live stock market buyers purchased their supplies where they could and shi^Dped them, alive, to the places where the animals were to be consumed. At this point Yankee ingenuity and energy interceded and devised the opposite plan, viz: that of shipping the live stock to a few central points and there changing it to dressed meats, which were then shipped to FIG. 1.— LIVE STOCK GOING TO SCALE. the various markets as required. The development of this plan inaugurated a new line of business now recog- nized as one of the most important of modern industries — central stock yards and packing house centers. One of the first and at present the largest in the world, of these central live stock depots, is the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111., U. S. A., where also are located the largest slaughter houses. Views of these great yards CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 19 are shown on pages 14, 15 and 16, preceding this chapter. Fig. 1 shows one of the places where live stock, as fast as purchased, is run over the scales and weighed, prior to delivery to the purchaser; Fig. 2, a view of the live stock pens and an alle^^way on a busy day; Fig. 3, a view of a pen containing choice yearling cattle and Fig. 4, one containing a bunch of choice Polled- Angus cattle. FIG. A BUSY ALLEY. In the development of the modern packing house plant perhaps the first radical innovation, and, doubtless, es- sential requirement for success, was the adoption of the meat cooler or refrigerator and the modern system of mechanical refrigeration ; for this, and this alone, made it practicable to promptly chill the carcasses as soon as the animals were slaughtered and keep the meats in condi- 20 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tion to stand exposure to higher temperatures without deterioration. It enabled the packer to keep up contin- uous, economical operation of his plant and yet sell his meats as the exigencies of the market might require. It enabled him also to furnish first-class meats at any and all times. Furthermore the operation of the refrigerat- ing plant enabled him to freeze the lesser parts, such as livers, kidneys, hearts, etc., and thus, in the first FIG. 3.— PEN CONTAINING CHOICE YEARLING CATTLE. place, prevent losses through the rapid decomposition of these parts when exposed to high temperatures, and, in the second place, control the market for such product, preventing an over supply at one period and a scarcity at another. The next step, and of almost equal importance, was the adoption and developing of the modern refrigerator car, by means of which the packer was enabled to ship his dressed beef to the point where it was to be consumed, CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 21 and with this and with the improved facilities offered by the railways, the business of shipping fresh dressed beef to any portion of the country, was made possible. When the pioneers of the business first broached the idea of killing cattle in Chicago and selling the dressed beef in Boston it was considered wholly impracticable and the people that started the business were looked upon as a '' little queer." There were many bitter experi- ences, before it was accomplished, in the way of losses; FIG. 4.— PEN CONTAINING CHOICE POLLED-ANGUS CATTLE. for shipping perishable articles so long a distance caused the loss of many thousands of dollars before the proper methods were discot^ered, but with the tenacity of the new beginner and the people who felt that they were on the right lines, these obstacles were soon overcome and to- day meats are delivered in eastern markets in a far bet- ter and a more healthful condition than they were ever offered to the public under the old methods. 22 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Another feature that made the biisiuess possible was the fact that on the vast plains of the west innumerable cattle were being raised at a minimum cost, whereas in the thickly settled east, in the large manufacturing districts, was found a ready market for this beef. The i^acking business of this country would practically be impossible in older countries that are thickly settled, as the cost of raising live stock would be actually about the same in all parts and the cost of shipping from one point to an- other would only add to the original cost. In this coun- try with the low cost of raising the animal on practi- cally valueless land, except for grazing purposes, the eastern farmer with his high priced land was unable to compete, hence the practice of raising live stock in the west and consuming it in the east, and the concentration of live stock at the large markets, with the improved devices of today, made the business a possibility and the money and energy expended in adopting the best methods has caused its growth to its present magnitude. Another very important feature in adding to the growth of this industry is the great saving effected by utilizing the by-products. When cattle were killed pro- miscuously throughout the country this was impossible, for a man killing a few cattle for some local point could not in any way save the by-products, consequently they were all lost. Neither could the small killer afford the necessary appliances with which to turn the material out economically and compete with one doing business on a modern scale, any more than the ancient cobbler sitting at his bench could afford the labor-saving machines and devices which we see in the modern shoe factories. Furthermore, the general health of the public has been served by having their meats delivered in a much better condition than thev could be at the time when the animal CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 23 was killed and the meat consumed without having the animal heat thoroughly removed — a matter which is conceded by scientists as being deleterious to health. That the meat is delivered to the consumer in better condition than it was formerly is generally conceded by all, and the foreigners who visit this country are in- variably impressed with the superior meats with which they are served at our hotels and restaurants. As regards the by-products which are saved in the modern plants, the value of these products, which under the older methods were almost entirely lost, is enor- mous. The heads and feet, which were ordinarily thrown away, are today worked up into various prod- ucts, all of which have a market value. The blood, tankage, etc., are all turned into commercial commodi- ties, and the saving of these different parts creates a handsome profit in the business, a profit which has been entirely lost heretofore. Further details on this matter will be given in the chapters treating on the various by-products. The next step in the development of the packing house business, and a step which was considered a few years ago as an impossibility, is the shipping of refrig^ erated beef to England. By the most careful and detailed attention, and the utilization of modern methods, it is possible to kill cattle or sheep in the i hottest months of the year in Kansas City, Omaha, or Chicago, ship the meats in refrigerator cars to the seaboard, where it is transferred into refrigerated rooms on the steamers and thence to England, the meat being sometimes four or five weeks en route from the abattoir where the animal is killed to the place where the meat finally reaches the consumer, and though the English authori- ties give it the most critical examination, it ihvariably 24 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE passes. America furnishes the largest part of the meats consumed in that thickly populated country. It is true that for man}^ years we have supplied foreign markets with cured and canned meats, but the fresh meat trade in England is a business developed within a compara- tively few years and has today grown to an immense magnitude. The reports of the Bureau of Statistics of the government of the United States show that for the fiscal year ending in June, 1904, there were exported from the United StatQs a total of 57,468,338 pounds of canned beef and 299,579,671 pounds of fresh beef. Of the latter 298,117,225 pounds were sent to the United Kingdom. Of the canned beef 45,155,744 pounds went to the United Kingdom. There were also exported in the same year a total of 76,924,174 pounds of tallow; 249,665,941 pounds of bacon; 194,948,864 pounds of ham; 9,479,312 pounds of canned pork; 18,633,820 pounds of fresh pork ; 112,225,176 pounds of salted or pickled pork ; 561,302,643 pounds of lard, and 52,605,545 pounds of lard compounds. The total value of the meat and meat products exported from this country in 1904 is given in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture as over $174,000,000, not including hides, glue, grease and scrap, of which over $5,000,000 worth was exported. The bulk of all these exports went to England. Germany, France and other European countries could also be supplied in the same way, as they undoubt- edly will at some future day when their tariffs are i'evised or reciprocity treaties are made so as to allow the importation. SUGGESTIONS ON CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT. This is so voluminous a proposition that it is rather difficult to cover thoroughly the many points which may CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 25 come up, but the following may serve to give those con- templating building, or changing, some valuable infor- mation. In the building or the starting of a packing house plant it is only within the last few years that this matter was studied from a practical standpoint so as to get the best results for the least expenditure in operating same. Formerly it was considered proper to build the killing house and coolers on the ground level, excavating for a cellar for the storage of some of the products ; the power house, tank rooms and other buildings for the dis- position of by-products were put anywhere without reference to convenience or to economy in operation. Later experience has proven that it is economical to slaughter cattle on the upper floor of the building, and instead of spreading out on the ground and covering a large area, to build higher with a correspondingly smaller area, and utilizing the floors below for various purposes. With a proper incline cattle will make an elevation of 40 or 50 feet without detriment to condition, and it is much cheaper to walk the animals up to this elevation than it is to kilhthem on the ground floor and elevate the different products to their respective departments. Gravitation is the cheapest force which we have at bur disposal, hence it is conceded to^ be the best way to have the cattle killed on tlje upper floor, and pass the carcass and the offal of the animals by gravity to a lower floor, where it is all treated and made ready for the respective departments. This floor should be on a level with the top of the tanks for the purpose of rendering the material ; also the other departments, such as the oleo, or the bone house for handling heads and feet, etc., should be, as nearly as possible, on this level, although it is 26 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE always considered advisable to have them disconnected, as they are the departments in which is generally found the greatest liability of fire. Fig, 5 gives a cross section of one of the largest plants built on this idea, and the reader will note that the cattle are slaughtered on the upper floor, the offal being passed by gravity to the floor below, where it is worked up. Heads and feet are sent FIG. 5.— CROSS SECTION THROUGH MODERN PLANT, SHOWING DEPARTMENTS. from there to the bone house; all fats go directly to the oil house; on this floor casings are cleaned and packed ready for shipping; tripe is cleaned, ready to be sent to the curing cellars; livers, tongues, hearts, etc., are trimmed ready for the respective coolers. Thus it will be seen that all this material, which amounts to many tons per day, on an average killing, has found its way to places specially provided at a nominal cost for labor. CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 27 Floors below can be readily utilized for storage and the handling of the products, storage space in a packing- house being something that is never found wasteful. From the killing floor the beef finds its way into the coolers, which in this particular case were double- decked, the beef necessarily^ being lowered when being sent to the lower cooler. Fig. 6 shows a cross section of a double-deck beef cooler. FIG. 6.— CROSS SECTION DOUBLE DECK eSeEF COOLER. Economy is the first consideration of building in this matter. The economy of operation is obvious to any practical packer and while this idea might not be ada]3t- able for a very small business it can be adopted to good advantage in many places where it is not in use today. The next consideration is to have the buildings in which the by-products are to be handled situated con- 28 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE veniently and at the same time not connected directly so as to increase fire hazard. In constructions of this kind, insurance companies generally require seventy- five feet of space between buildings ; less than that means an additional cost of insurance on account of exposure. Even at this distance, however, they require iron doors on openings and either iron shutters or metal frames with wire glass windows on all wall openings. However, comparatively little need be said on in- surance conditions of a packing house, as these vary largely at different points and in the construction of a plant one must be governed very largely by the local requirements. Another and very important consideration is the locating of the power house nearest to the building which uses the largest amount of steam. For instance, in pack- ing house practice the tank house, bone house and oil house are the largest consumers of live steam, hence it is obvious that the power plant should be situated as near them as possible, with less regard for other build- ings, such as killing floors, coolers, etc., using little or no steam. Another point which is rarel}^ given the considera- tion it deserves, and in many cases it is impossible to improve it, is the track service. When goods are ready to load and large and expensive load gangs are on the pay-roll, delay in furnishing cars, switching, etc., is very expensive and in planning a plant this is a very vital point. How to secure the greatest economy in shipping out the products should be studied at all times, hence it is advisable to have as many tracks as possible entering the buildings and about the buildings : aiming to classify and load different products on different tracks, so that the shipment of one class of goods will not interfere with CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 29 that of another. Where x>larLts are being remodeled, the facilities at hand are generally the best to be obtained, but where it is the intention to build anew this is a point that should be studied carefully; it is poor policy to do all the business on one or two tracks where it is possible to obtain more. CONSTRUCTION OF PACKING HOUSES IN GENERAL. The author will not attempt to go into extensive details, as space will not permit. The larger plants are always open for inspection by visitors, and people desir- ing detailed information in this line are generally en- abled to obtain it by personal inspection. There are, however, many questions which arise with people who anticipate the necessity of building and it is the author's intention to give, in a general way, some details which may be useful for the guidance of those wishing to build a packing house. Butchers supply houses, and packing house ma- chinery dealers or manufacturers, are frequently asked, '' Where can we get information regarding the best method for building a packing house ! " ' ' What is the best plan for construction of a packing house? " This is a hard question to ansAver, as there are so many different conditions to be met at each local point that it is impracticable to answer the question specifically, and hence only general principles can be laid down and the de- tails must be adapted to the local conditions in order to make the project practical and successful. The author proposes to give general plans, first, for a plant for the killing and curing of hogs only; second, for a house de- signed for killing cattle mainly, and a few hogs; and third, for a plant designed for killing hogs and a few cattle; and he hopes that the ideas thus submitted may be of such a nature that they can be enlarged' upon or 30 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE curtailed to such a degree as will make them valuable where new buildings or changes are contemplated. About 75 per cent of the money expended in convert- ing the raw into a finished product in a packing house, is for labor; the otlier 25 per cent is for interest, insur- ance, administrative expense, supplies, etc. ; hence, a plant that is so designed as to provide for operation in the most economical manner and at the same time pro- vides for economy of construction is apparently the acme of perfection. These two objects the designer of any kind of a plant should have continually before him. There are other points to consider as well, namely, that the plant is laid out so that each department or building can be enlarged to advantage, and that no buildings are in any way hemmed in so that they cannot be enlarged, to care for future growth. In some instances the growth may exceed the expectations of the builder and he may find himself unable to enlarge certain departments, to the great detriment of his business. INSURANCE. Another point in the line of economy is to make due provision in the design for the underwriters' require- ments. Building in such a manner as to bring the insur- ance rates to a minimum is certainly desirable. It is an advantage, too, to have the plant divided so that in case of fire the spread of the flames can be retarded and the fire confined to the building where it originated, or if some of the buildings are burned the balance can be saved. Fires invariably rei'jresent, to a well managed business, a far greater loss than is collectable on the insurance policies. PLAN FOE HOG SLAUGHTER HOUSE. The following plan (Fig. 7) gives the ground floor of a small, compact packing house, with a capacity for CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 31 handling 800 to 1^000 hogs daily and also the by-prod- ncts. The main cold storage building, in which are located the hog coolers and three floors of cold storage, is 112 X 80 feet, with a hanging capacity of 2,300 hogs. In general practice it is found that five times the floor space required for a hog cooler is the space required for the SPACE FOR RAILROAD TRACK ENGINE ROOM -24-0 BOILER ROJ)W 24- 0- KILLING 8r TANK ■? io H0U5E ^ ^ 3 FLOORfe COLD STORAGE TOP FLOOR HANGING ROOM •>— /G-O'-J' :A= :A=. HAM. LARa* SAUS A house: RAILROAD TRACK FIG. 7.— GROUND PLAN SMALL HOG KILLING PLANT. \ curing of the products, under ordinary conditions. If the product is to be sold promptly there may be excessive cold storage room, but if not, and it is held for any considerable length of time, this ratio will be found to be necessary. Directly south of the building described is another, which consists of three floors for cold storage, the top floor to be used as a hanging room for air-drying hogs 32 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE .L- -idwi^ -'-illi^j-is^^jJ^ '^'^^ H\ V In, CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 33 when desired, and for additional cooler space if needed, as one or two bays of tins top floor could easily be in- sulated if additional cooling space were required. Cold storage necessary for the lard or sausage room could also be provided in this building. It will be noted that there is a platform and a railroad track on the north side of the building for the convenience of car and wagon loading. There is also another platform located on the south side of the building. The next buildmg is the ham, lard and sausage house. This building is located very conveniently to the killing house for the lard, and to the pork house for the sausage trimmings and cured meats, the smoke houses being placed east of this house and at a sufficient distance to leave room for growth. This building should be the same height as the other buildings, giving ample room to handle the product from a plant of this si:^e. The killing and tank houses as shown are of ample capacity in which to handle all of the slaughtering re- quired. Next to the tank house is the boiler room, being very convenient for steam, the tank .house being the largest steam consuming department of the plant. Adjoining the tank house is the engine room for the ice machine and power plant, handy to the cold storage building for the circulation of the refrigerating medium. On the west is shown a temporary vestibule which may be of wooden construction if the dividing wall is run out 6 feet from Ihe line of the other walls. This vestibule should be put through on the top floor only, connecting the hog coolers, and consists of a balcony on the side of the building, with supporting brackets, which can, however, be put in on lower floors if desired. The growth of the two main buildings would naturally be 34 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 35 west; that for the lard refinery and tank house east; boiler and engine room being built sufficiently large in the first place to accommodate machinery for the full plant. Pig. 8 represents a cross section through lines A— B, showing the basement lowered three feet below ground level, which brings the killing house and tank house floors on a level, the tank house floor not being lowered. The tank house is of sufficient height so that the vats are high enough to draw the material directly upon the press carriage. In the same room are the fertilizer dryers, the finished product being either stored in this building or removed to a small wooden structure for that purpose. In some instances iron columns and iron girders are used, but are not considered as desirable from an insur- ance standpoint. In some cases what is known as slow burning construction is used, made by using 6 x 12 inch joists instead of 3 x 12 inch joists, spaced loractically twice as far apart as here given. Otherwise construction should be the same. Fig. 9 represents a cross section through lines C — D, This diagram shows the floors which should be used for cooler, brine chamber, cold storage, as well as the open air hanging floor. Space is left over the ceiling of the brine chamber between that and the roof to aid in pro- tecting the coolers from the sun's rays i in hot weather. Fig. 10 represents the fourth floor, showing arrange- ment of tracking, killing house, etc. It will be noted that the scalding tub Is so located that space is left for a scraping machine if in a house of this size it is deemed advisable to have one. Five tanks are shown convenient to the killing rails. The hogs, as fast as dressed, are run through the vestibule into the outside hanging room. In some climates this would be very desirable; in others. 36 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE objectionable, hence it is a consideration that must be governed entirely by the location of the plant. After the hogs have hung as long as necessary in the outside hanging room, they are run through the west vestibule, around to the end of the wall into the cold storage rooms ; from the cold storage rooms they are run east to the cutting room. No attempt is made here to go into the details of the cutting room. Suffice it to say that the space as given (48 x 32 feet) would be ample for a cut- FIG. 10.— PLAN FOURTH FLOOR HOG KILLING PLANT, SHOWN IN FIG. 7. ting room of this capacity. The meats would go through chutes to the floor below, where they would be graded, sorted, etc.; sausage trimmings could go through the vestibule to the sausage room, all lard trimmings being convenient to the lard tanks. COST OF PLAXT. Cost is rather an uncertain quantity to arrive at, as the cost of labor and material vary so greatly at differ- CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 37 kN\\N ^\N\\\\\\\S\\\'^^ ;!\\V\\\\\\\\\N\\\\\\V\\\\\\\\- ^WWWW^W'^ ooo AVMNfld 31iiV0 ^ ^ Z 03 O 38 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 39 ent points. Figuring concrete at $5.50 per cubic yard and brick at $14:.00 per 1,000, in the wall; lumber at $24.00 per 1,000 feet and intelligent labor at from 20 cents an hour for common labor to 45 cents an hour for skilled labor, this i^lant should be built, exclusive of the machinery (but all buildings ready for the installation of machinery), for $65,000.00. PLAiSr FOR SMALL SLAUGHTER HOUSE. In Figs. 11, 12 and 13 are shown plans for a small packing house with a capacity of 250 hogs and twenty- GROUND UNE o qqLD STORAGE T /r^-i6'-0 — /.tA- 16'- 0"-M--l6' -Q' - 7Vr -'6'- 0' --/A- 16' -0''-M- l6'-0"— A!\ i^ 46-0 —J— 48-0 -T"^ FIG. 13.— CROSS SECTION ON LINE C - D, FIG. 11, HOG AND CATTLE KILLING PLANT. five cattle per day. These plans contemplate wood con- struction throughout with a brick fire wall separating the tank house from the other buildings, while the brick smoke houses are^set apart from the rest of the build- ings, all with a view to reducing the fire risk to a mini- mum. On the north side of the plant is shown the railroad track and loading platform. At the extreme east end of track is the power plant; the next building west is the 40 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE o CQ : .4- ■,0:9/-- \C-9/- CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 41 tank house, in wliicli are located the tanks, presses and dryer for handling of fertilizer. The next building is of two stories and a basement. The basement is used for the salting of hides, sheep pelts, storing of tallow, etc. First floor, slaughtering of sheep and cattle ; second floor, slaughtering of hogs, runways reaching both floors. Adjoining building on the west — basement and first floor, cold storage; second floor, hog coolers and pork cutting room. Adjoining building on the south — base- ment, cold storage; north bay, first floor, beef cooler, hanging capacity sixty cattle; balance of first floor used for lard refinery and sausage room; second floor, hang- ing room for hogs, storage and agitators for lard re- finery, the north bay being used for brine chamber and for beef cooler. It will be noted that with each one of these buildings allowance is made for growth or additions and that the whole forms a very compact small plant. Fig. 12 shows cross section A — B. Fig. 13 shows cross section C — D. Fig. 14 shows the second floor plans. The brick fire wall, cutting off the tank house; has a balcony leading around the end of it on which to truck material going to the tank house, thereby making unnecessary any openings through the fire wall itself. The hog cutting room is con- venient to the sausage room, as well as *to the tanks for lard products. The pork cuts are passed through an opening in the floor into the cold storage for curing purposes. The buildings for a plant of this kind, under ordinary conditions, should be erected for approximately $20,000. Cost of machinery for equipment would be additional, the amount being very hard to estimate in advance of exact requirements, which would depend more or less 42 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 43 44 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 45 upon individual choice. A plant built on these lines could be operated very economically and satisfactorily. CATTLE, HOG AND SHEEP SLAUGHTEE HOUSE. Fig. 15 shows foundation plan for cattle, hog and sheep slaughter house, with coolers. This plant is de- FIG. 18.— CROSS SECTION C - D SLAUGHTER HOUSE, SAME AS SHOWN IN FIG. 15. signed for a commission slaughter house rather than a regular packing house, there not being sufficient cold storage to accommodate a regular packing business. The cattle-killing beds are on the second floor, the first floor being used for the handling and manipulating of the offal. The basement is used for hides. Sheep and hogs 46 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CONSTRUCTION OF MODERN PACKING HOUSES 47 48 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE to be killed outside of the main building in a one-story room built for the purpose. Dressed animals are raised on track elevator to cooling rooms. The killing house has eight beds; capacity, 700 cattle per day. Room for killing 1,000 hogs and 1,500 sheep daily is also provided. Fig. 16 is a diagram of the first floor, showing details of vestibule, etc. Fig. 17 shows cattle killing floor with killing beds, tracking, etc. Also tracking in cooler. In this plan the insulation is to consist of 2 x 6 inch studding against a brick wall with double course of in- sulating paper and 1-inch boards on outside of studding, the space between the studding and boards to be filled with dried sawdust. Fig. 18 represents a cross section, C — D, of slaughter house, showing detail of killing floors, hoists, etc. Fig. 19, longitudinal section, A — B, showing outline of kill- ing floor, location of killing beds, and detail of vestibule. Fig. 20, longitudinal section, C — D, of cooler building, the basement to be used for the storage of hides, tallow or any product for which a partially chilled room is nec- essary. First floor to be used for salesroom or addi- tional beef cooler when needed. Second floor for beef coolers, with a hanging capacity of 800 cattle. Third floor, brine chambers. Fourth floor, open space suffi- ciently high to store dressed beef, sheep or hogs in cold weather if desired. No tank house or fertilizer is shown with these plans, as they are given more to show the dimensions and size necessary for volume of business named. The buildings herein mentioned should be built, under ordinary condi- tions, for $48,000. REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 49 CHAPTER IL REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE. SYSTEMS OF REFEIGERATION". There are so many factors which enter into the ques- tion of packing house refrigeration, and so many details of construction and application of refrigerating appa- ratus, that it is almost impossible to cover this subject practically and intelligibly without devoting a separate and complete volume to refrigeration alone. The author would, therefore, recommend that the packer give time and attention to a careful investigation of the details of construction of the various refrigerating plants in use in the leading packing houses of this country", and par- ticularly to the application of refrigeration to the vari- ous processes of meat handling ; or, as a safer and more satisfactory alternative, to consult an independent re- frigerating expert, and have plans and specifications drawn up to cover every possible detail of refrigerating requirements, and secure propositions from the machine manufacturers, based on the plans and specifications submitted. There are a number of such experts avail- able, and their experience and knowledge of refrigera- tion will, in almost every instance, enable the packer to avoid pitfalls which his inexperience and necessarily im- perfect knowledge of refrigeration would lead him into. To give a fixed rule for packing house refrigeration, applicable to all conditions, would be impossible, as much 50 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE depends upon conditions and surroundings, and the re- quirements would vary accordingly, as, for instance, at- mospheric conditions, cooling water temperature, con- struction of insulation, relative exposure to cubical con- tents of refrigerated space, average tonnage of product to be cooled, time limit for chilling, cooling and storage. These and many other factors affecting the general re- sults must be taken into consideration and provided for, and as these factors vary, so also will the refrigera- tion requirements vary accordingly. The theory of refrigeration is based on the heat ab- sorbed by the melting of one pound of ice at 32° F., to water at the same temperature (the latent heat of solidification of water to ice). In freezing one pound of water at 32° F., to ice at 32° F., 142.6 British thermal units of heat must be withdrawn from the water; for convenience in practice the fractional part is ignored, and 142 B. T. U. per pound of water is universally ac- cepted as a standard on which to compute refrigeration. On this basis, if 142 B. T. U. are withdrawn from each pound of water at 32° F. to convert the water into ice at the same temperature, the melting of the pound of ice at the same temperature must re-absorb the latent heat extracted or withdrawn in the process of freezing, consequently the melting of one ton (2,000 pounds) of ice to water at the same temperature would absorb 2,000 X 142 B. T, U., or 284,000 B. T. U., which is the accepted standard for computing the heat absorbed in the performance of one ton of refrigeration. In ice melt- ing this absorption of heat is latent, not sensible to the thermometer, as no change is apparent by thermometer test in the temperature of the ice and the water, never- theless an appreciable cooling of surroundings is meas- urable by thermometer wherever ice melting takes place REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 51 in an air-tight room,, or in contact with solid substances, or with liquids, having a higher initial temperature than 32° F. Practice has demonstrated that one ton of refriger- ating effect for twenty-four hours will cool a space of from 7,000 to 12,000 cubic feet, depending upon condi- tions of exposure, insulation, temperature required, and other surroundings. This cooling would, however, merely provide against the continuous transmission of heat (or heat leakage) through insulation ranging from good to first-class in quality of construction, and would not provide for the cooling of meats, or other storage products, to be placed in the space, and the cooling of the stored products must be computed and added to the total of refrigeration required. In figuring for the refrigeration of freshly killed car- casses, for instance, or meat from which the animal heat has not been fully removed, it is customary to figure th*at one ton of refrigeration for twenty-four hours would be required for either one of the following items : From fifteen to twenty-two hogs, average weight 225 pounds. From five to six head of cattle, average weight, 700 pounds. About fifty-five calves, average weight, 80 pounds. From fifty to sixty-five sheep, average weight 60 pounds. Before the application of mechanical refrigeration to packing house purposes, all artificial refrigeration was accomplished by means of ice meltiAg alone, and at that time the packers computed ice melting requirements on a basis of cooling three pounds of meat from 80° F. to as low as the meat could be cooled b}' ice melting, for each pound of ice melted. While this rule undoubtedly was the result of practical experience with well con- structed coolers, and was in no wise based upon theo-* retical or heat unit formulas, yet it is interesting to note how close this old rule compares with modern formulas 52 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE of computing refrigeration. For example, the cooling of 100 head of hogs, averaging 250 pounds dressed, by the packer's rule, would require — 100x250 „ „„„ ^ := 8,333 pounds, or 4.16 tons ice melting. And on a heat unit basis, cooling the same number and weight of hogs from 80° to 32° F. would require — ^ 284^00 ~ =4.22 tons refrigeration. The above comparison shows that theory and practice approach very closely to a common line, although in the calculation the factor of specific heat of the meat is ignored, and in practice this may well be left out, as specific heat of meats at varying temperatures has by no means been accurately established. In lard cooling the rule of three to one appears to check up nearly or quite as close as for meat cooling, and may be taken as a safe basis for calculating refrigerat- ing requirements. For cold storage rooms, where meats which have al- ready been chilled or cooled are stored and held for a greater or lesser period, the refrigeration requirements are not so great as in chill and cooling rooms, as the animal heat has been removed and the meats cooled down to a low temperature, and consequently but little more refrigeration is required than that necessary to take care of the heat leakage through the insulation, and possibly the recooling of the meat through a range of a few degrees, when the meats may have gained a little in temperature in the cutting rooms. Where meat freezing is desired the refrigerating re- quirements are necessarily greater than for either chill- ing or cooling, and the surroundings must be adapted to the conditions of extra low temperature, by more perfect insulation and by extra pipe surface allowance, as well REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 53 as extra refrigerating capacity, for it is much more dif- ficult to produce and maintain sharp freezing tempera- tures than either chilling or cooling temperatures. Pickle cooling requires consideration, as pickle should always be cooled down to within four degrees of the temperature of the meats before the meats are put into the pickle. All of the above factors must be considered in the calculations for refrigerating requirements, and it is best to make allowances for a considerable factor of safety over and above the actual maximum, as well for the eco- nomical operation of the plant (it never pays to crowd a plant to its limit of capacit}^) as to guard against emer- gencies and possible abnormal demand for refrigeration. The plant should be constructed as far as possible in duplicate, not only as regards the machinery but also in the apparatus, as a safeguard against accidents and total cessation of refrigeration. With two machines and duplicate apparatus one-half the maximum refrigeration is always available, and the preservation of the product in storage is assured, even if it be found necessary to stop killing for a sufficient period to make the repairs on the broken machinery and apparatus, while with one machine only available, a breakdown might result in very serious loss and considerable damage to the stored products. \ With regard to insulation, it may be said that the best is the most economical in the long run. There is no such thing as absolute insulation — some heat leakage must occur through the very best insulation, and the re- duction of this heat leakage to the minimum should be the chief object or factor for consideration. First-class insulation costs high in original investment, but as it creates a continuous saving and economy in refrigera- 54 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tion, while poor insiilation creates a continuous waste of refrigeration through constant maximum heat leak- age, the best will always pay a good dividend on the in- vestment, while the poor will prove a constant drain in cost of refrigeration. First-class insulation should be, first, as nearly air-tight as possible; second, impervious to moisture; third, as near as possible fireproof; fourth, stable and permanent in character of construction, avoid- ing possibility of insulating fillers settling and leaving unfilled space (all fillers should be both light in weight and elastic in character), and fillers should never be of a character subject to decomposition or fermentation. Air circulation, particularly in chill rooms, should receive proper attention. Where freshly slaughtered meats, containing animal heat, are exposed to a cool temperature, rapid evaporation of moisture from the meat results, especially when the meats have first been washed with comparatively warm water, and this rapid evaporation produces heavy vapors, which, if not quickly removed from the chill rooms, will condense on the walls and ceilings, and eventually on the surface of the meats, when the animal heat has been withdrawn. This condensation on the surface of the. meats pro- duces a slimy appearance and lowers the quality of the product, as the vapors contain foul gases which promote decomposition, and also have in themselves a most dis- agreeable smell and taste. Chill rooms should, there- fore, be so constructed as to facilitate the removal of the vapors as rapidly as they are formed by the evapora- tion from the meats. This may best be accomplished b}^ constructing lofts or chambers above the chill rooms and connected to them, by means of warm air ducts leading from the highest point in the chill room to a level above the refrigerating REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 55 surfaces located in the lofts or chambers, with cold air openings leading from the lowest level of the lofts or chambers to the chill rooms below. With such construction a difference of a few degrees in temperature between the refrigerated lofts or cham- bers and the warm meat in the chill rooms will produce a natural gravity circulation of the air in the latter. The heavier cold air will fall through the cold air open- ings down to the chill rooms, spreading entirely over the floor surface and below the warm meats, and grad- ually filling upward. On the other hand the warmer, vapor-laden air will pass upward through the warm air ducts to the highest level of the lofts or chambers, above the top of the refrigerating surfaces, and coming in con- tact with the cold surfaces of the refrigerators the con- tained moisture is condensed on these cold surfaces, leaving the air practically free from moisture and foul gases. This air thus purified and cooled and which has become more dense in cooling, will again fall downward by gravity, through the cold air openings to the floor line of the chill room, producing and maintaining a constant regular circulation by the force xof natural gravity alone, at the same time insuring a pure, dry air. Forced circulation is sometimes employed in connec- tion with chill rooms, but this means of air circulation is by no means as desirable or efficient ae natural gravity circulation. The fan circulation directs the air currents in straight lines, the currents are deflected by every ob- stacle which they encounter, and are thrown upward, downward or sidewise, in every case to the points of least resistance, consequently the moisture and foul gas thrown off by one carcass may be forced directly upon the surface of the next carcass, and there condensed to remain and contaminate the product. Again as fan cur- 56 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE rents are deflected, one carcass may receive the direct effect of a cold current of air and the adjoining carcasses be protected from the cold current by its deflection through meeting with obstruction of the first carcass. In this manner uniformity of circulation is prevented, and there is no regularity of conditions of temperature and air currents, while with the natural gravity circula- tion the conditions, and consequent results, are uniform and regular throughout the rooms. Meat chilling must be done intelligently, opportunity must be afforded for the gradual withdrawal of the an- imal heat from the carcasses, without any stiffening or solidification of the outside surfaces. Too rapid chilling of meats containing animal heat results in hardening the outside surfaces, forming an insulation at the surface, and locking in the animal heat, which produces eventual souring of the product. The chilling process should be sufficiently graduated to permit of the absolute with- drawal of all animal heat before any attempt is made to attain low temperature chilling. The meats should never be subjected to sudden, contracting, low temperature ef- fects, but a gradual, regular, tempering effect should be attained, that will carry the meat through the range from blood heat down to the desired ultimate tempera- ture, without abnormal shocks in temperature gradua- tion. This effect can only be attained through scientific construction and operation of the chill rooms. A visit of inspection to the various packing plants throughout America will impress one with the fact of the existence of a wide variation of opinion and prac- tice with regard to the methods of applying refrigera- tion for packing house purposes ; not only does the size of pipe used vary materially, but a variation would also be found in both the system and the application; some REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 57 plants being equipped with piping for direct ammonia expansion, with size of pipe varying from 1 inch to 2 inches in diameter; others being equipped for brine cir- culation, with variation in pipe size from 1 to fi/o inch diameter; still others equipped for exposed brine circu- lation, with either trough or curtain arrangement. An equally varying practice seems to prevail with regard to the amount of surface adapted or required in various packing house rooms, particularly in reference to pipe surface, the chill rooms of one house being equipped with 1 square foot of pipe surface for each 3 cubic feet of space to be cooled, while others may be found which contain an average of 12y2 cubic feet of chill room space for each square foot of pipe surface exposed. That there must be a variation in pipe surface re- quirements, based upon the varying conditions as to in- sulation, climatic influences, and other conditions or sur- roundings, the author will freely admit, but that such variation should be apparent under practically the same conditions cannot be other than the result of want of knowledge of the requirements, or of a misconception of the economies in refrigeration, and the packer may well give these matters mature consideration and study before jumping at, or being led into, an investment along these lines that may cause him both annoyance and expense. ^ Because of his long experience with the various ap- plications of refrigeration to packing house chill rooms the author feels warranted in expressing a preference for the system of exposed brine circulation, equipped with the curtain arrangement, patented by Mr. H. C. G-ardner, of Chicago. Fig. 21 represents this system as put in operation in one of the large plants in Chicago. It recommends itself for three reasons, first, economy of 58 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 59 installation; second, perfect distribution of the brine, thereby insuring good results in the chill rooms, and third, the slight cost of maintenance. Another feature of this system which will commend itself to the engineer as well as the proprietor is the fact FIG. 22.— PLAN OF CURTAIN " SYSTEM OF REFRIGERATION SHOWING TROUGHS IN COOLER. that if at any time repairs are necessary in the expan- sion tank, one needs simply to close the return valve from the cooler and pump the entire contents directly into the bunker pans. Whenever it is necessary to do this it can be done very quickly, and it is often advisable to do it for the sake of getting the extra amount of re- 60 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE frigerating forces into the cooler at once, when it is desired to shut down the plant for repairs or over holi- days or Sundays. CURTAIN SYSTEM OF REFRIGEEATION. For this system a refrigerator or curtain room is provided, directly above the meat coolers, and of same length and width, in which is fixed an open xDan or brine d'i=>:*. FIG. 23.— CROSS SECTION COOLER BUNKER OF REFRIGERATION. CURTAIN " SYSTEM distributing trough, located directly beneath the ceil- ing and fed with chilled brine by means of li/4-inch pipe. This distributing trough feeds twelve other troughs located immediately below the feed trough and running laterally (see Fig. 22) across the cooler, from each of which is suspended a cloth or curtain, extending from the lateral troughs to the floor, as shown in Fig. 23, which REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 61 presents a cross section of cooler bunker. The brine fed into these lateral trouglis overflows through the saw- tooth front, trickling down over the cloths to the bunker pans below, thereby giving an excellent exposure of the cold brine to the warm air coming up from the meat cooler. The moisture, as well as the foreign gases in the air, readily condenses and is taken up in the flowing brine, thus returning a very dry and pure as well as chilled air to the coolers. The cloths suspended from the troughs are drawn out to an angle of about thirty degrees, so that all brine which overflows from the troughs comes in contact with the cloth and finds its way to the bottom of the bunker pan. The cloth should ex- tend 6 inches on either side beyond the ends of the dis- tributing pans, so that there is no possible chance for the brine to overflow and not come in contact with the cloth, for if it should fall directly to the bunker pan, it would cause a spatter and the spray would find its way down through the cold air chute to the beef or product below. It is very essential that there should be good insula- tion between the bottom of the' bunker pan and the top where the pan is exposed to the cold brine ; without this insulation moisture will condense on the under side of the pan, as it rises from the hot meat in the chill room below, causing a condensation on the ^hill room ceiling, and eventually the formation of mould, which would prove very detrimental to ,the quality of the meat in the chill room. Another feature that is always desirable is to have the bunker pans inclined so that there are no pockets or places to hold the warm air as it rises, or to prevent its free passage and access to the warm air ducts without meeting with any obstruction whatever, and so that the 62 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE warm air will pass readily and rapidly up through the warm air ducts to the top of the refrigerator, where it will fall over the refrigerating surfaces. It may be noted in the illustration that the brine headers lie on the floor. The author believes that this is a great advantage over the former methods of having the brine header on the ceiling, as the condensation on the header forms an ever increasing accumulation of frost, which, if not re- moved, becomes so burdensome that the pipes are some- times broken down, causing damage and inconvenience. Pipes located as shown in this view are always spattered more or less from the falling brine, keeping the header entirely free from ice. The pipes rising from this header feed the main supply trough, which in turn feeds the twelve distributing pans and the cloths, as above indi- cated, the brine being discharged into a weir on the side of the pan. From this weir it runs into the main pan and finds its way through the different holes into the distributing pans. In each one of these holes an ad- justable nipple should be located, the one nearest the weir, or brine supply, being the highest, and each suc- ceeding nipple decreasing in height gradually toward the end of the pan, in this manner equalizing the flow of the brine into the distributing pans. The distributing pans are set diagonally so that the flow of the warm air toward the cold air duct necessarily brings the air in contact with the exposed brine flowing down over the cloth curtains, and it does not pass between the different curtains without being somewhat retarded, thereby giv- ing ample opportunity for the moisture in the air to be deposited on the refrigerated surfaces. In using the curtain system it is advisable to adopt galvanized iron pipes throughout. There being an ex- cessive accumulation of brine from the constant conden- REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 63 sation of the moisture in the air, this accumulation, which would otherwise be lost, can be utilized (provided the brine is not colored by rusty pipe) by drawing off the excess brine from the sj^stem and boiling it, thereby purifying it, adding salt to bring it to the desired strength and using it for pickling purposes throughout the plant. It will therefore be seen that it is possible to overcome the objection that is often raised to the ex- posed brine system. In order to get the best results from this system it is necessary to have at least a 7-foot space in the brine chamber. Where old buildings are being remodeled and the required space is not available, probably the next best system is brine piping. When installing this kind of a refrigerating system, the author would suggest the use of galvanized spiral riveted pipes, 3 inches in diam- eter. These pipes will cost about the same per lineal foot as 114-inch black iron pipe; but having twice the area, only one-half as much of this pipe is required for the same refrigerating duty, hence the economy. The pipe is bought in lengths, generally of 10 feet each, and these are slipped together like stove pipe and soldered, putting on the number of lengths for the required length of the cooler. The brine header is connected into the bottom pipe through hose connections into each line of pipe, and finds its way into the return header from the top pipe. This pipe, being so thin, absorbs heat very rapidly. The life of this pipe is much longer than that of the 114-inch black iron pipe. A case came under the author's own observation where this pipe has been in use for upward of fourteen years, while the 114-inch iron pipe that was installed at the same time was com- pletely eaten out and replaced with the 3-incli galvanized spiral riveted pipe. The iron pipe lasted approximately 64 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE REP^RIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 65 about eight years. Fig. 24 shows the end view of one bay with the pipe located and connected. Fig. 25 shows the end view of the cooler with the detail of the hangers on which the pipe rests. This same system is applicable to cold storage build- ings, where two pipes to each 16-foot bay is found ample to hold the temperature to from 36° to 40° F. for curing cellars; note refrigerating pipe in Fig. 24, hung to the ceiling of the room with wooden supports, the supports FIG. 25.— END VIEAV OF COOLER, SHOAVING DETAIL OF THE HANGERS ON WHICH PIPE RESTS, being so constructed that a drip pan can be hung directly under the pipes to prevent the drip frc^m falling upon the meats in process of curing, when the refrigerating agent is shut off. In brine pipe refrigeration for cattle the author would recommend to each 16-foot bay eight series of 3-inch galvanized spiral riveted pipes, with six pipes in each series, making a total of forty-eight pipes, for the fore- cooler, or the first cooler into which the cattle are run, and where the largest amount of refrigeration is needed 66 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE to take up the animal heat. For the next, or second cooler, forty-two pipes, or seven series of six pipes each, are ample, for same sized room. It is always advisable in piping brine chambers for warm material to arrange them so as to have one or two sets of pipes from which the brine can be kept turned off, in order that the frost may melt off the pipes. In the cold storage buildings, such as curing cellars, etc., where there is good insula- tion, two 3-inch pipes will be found ample in each 16-foot bay, as above stated. In freezing rooms, where direct expansion is used, one lineal foot of 2-inch pipe to each 5 cubic feet of space will be required to hold a proper temperature for sharp freezing. "Where brine circula- tion is used in freezing rooms, one lineal foot of 2-incli pipe to each 3 cubic feet of space to be held at freez- ing temperature is required. These suggestions will be found useful in ordinary packing house practice. The usual practice of construction for a refrigerator or beef cooler is a 16-foot construction each way, viz., bays of 16 feet and posts 16 feet centers. The height of chill room or coolers should be 11 feet 9 inches in the clear and for the curtain system, or exposed brine cir- culation, the lofts or chambers above the chill rooms vshould be 10 feet in the clear without considering the in- sulation of the bunker pans. It is sometimes preferable to use pipe for circulation of brine in the air cooler rather than the curtain system. Whenever pipes are to be used the use of 3-inch galvan- ized iron spiral riveted pipe, as described heretofore in this chapter, is strongly recommended, or where this is not readily obtainable 3-inch galvanized iron crimp- joint and soldered seam pipe may be substituted, which, while not quite so substantial as the spiral riveted pipe, will, with ordinarv care and attention, last a long time, and REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 67 furthermore can be replaced at an extremely low cost. This galvanized pipe is recommended for the following reasons: First, for its economy, as it costs about the same per lineal foot as li/l-inch black iron pipe, but only requires about one-half as many feet. Second, for its lasting qualities, it lasting, as proved by experience, fully twice as long as the ordinary black iron pipe. This would hardly seem possible when first considered by anyone not having had the experience, and would natu- rally seem contrary to his judgment. To the author's personal knowledge there was installed in 1890 over 100,000 lineal feet of this light galvanized pipe in a Chicago plant, all of which, if it has not been removed by alterations, is still in use with practically no expense connected with it for maintenance. Iron i)ipe which was put in at the same time was nearly all rusted out eight years afterwards. Samples of the galvanized pipe that had been in use for upward of ten years were found to have a very slight coating or deposit of rust on the inside of the pipe, less than ^V^-iiich thick, and adhering very tightly to the surface; by removing this rust with a sharp instru- ment it was found that the galvanizing was as clear and bright as when originally put on. Ten different pieces of this pipe 10 feet long were capped on either end and submitted to a hydrostatic pressure tetet; the bursting pressure average of the ten pieces was found to be 146 pounds to the square inch, some of the samples standing a pressure of over 180 pounds to the square inch. In actual practice the pipe used for this purpose is never subjected to a pressure exceeding forty pounds to the square inch. The pipes are put together with rubber hose, using a three-ply cheap grade of hose for this purpose. (See 68 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Fig. 26 for detail of the end pipes with fittings for the iiose connections.) The pipes are usually furnished in 10-foot lengths, riveted and soldered, and are slipped to- gether like an ordinary stove-pipe joint, all of these slip joints being carefully soldered, perfectly brine tight, and a sufficient number are slipped and soldered together RETURN CONNECT(ON. FIG. 26.— DETAIL OP END PIPES SHOWING THE DIFFERENT FITTINGS FOR HOSE CONNECTIONS. in this manner to make runs of the required length to suit the length of the pipe chamber. At the end of the runs one of the three hose connection fittings shown in Fig. 26 (viz.: feed connection, intermediate connection and return connection) is put on for the purpose of con- necting the runs together by means of the rubber hose. REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 69 For making this hose connection a composition is used made according to the following formula: Stockholm tar 5 pounds Rosin 6 pounds Gutta percha chips 9 pounds The above is put over a fire and melted, and after it is all melted and mixed together and sufficiently cool to handle, it is taken in small handfuls and put into water to chill. It is then rolled into sticks and used in this form for the above-mentioned work. While a like mate- rial can be purchased, it is very much more expensive and does not do the work any better than the above prep- aration. This composition is put on the nipple of the fitting connection quite warm, the hose being slipped over at once and a wire clamp then put around the hose very tightly, when the connection is complete. On the top of the outlet of the return pipe an i/s-inch pet cock should be inserted, which can be opened when necessary in order to let out the air from the coils, as the coils will sometimes become air-bound, the air rising to the top of the coil and preventing a f recv circulation of the brine. If, however, the pet cock is opened, allowing the air to escape, the brine will circulate freely. In putting up this kind of pipe for brine service, it is very essential that the pipe should rest on wooden hangers or bearings ; if iron supports are put in, the pipe very soon rusts through at the point of contact with the support, and is ruined. However, if put up on wooden supports, as shown in Fig. 25, the life of the pipe will be greatly in- creased. In Fig. 27 is shown a very simple, inexpensive and effective method of supporting brine pipes in cold stor- age rooms, or in rooms used as curing cellars, etc. In 70 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE these places it is always necessary to put some kind of a protection under the brine pipes, so that when the frost is melted off, the water therefrom will not drip down npon the meats. Many make the mistake of put- ting in galvanized iron drip pans, in which case the condensation of moisture on the bottom of the pans pro- duces as bad a result as the dripping from the pipes. In Fig. 27 is shown a dripboard trough which is nailed together in sections and slushed with tar on the inside. FIG. 6LU.SHED WITH T^R -SIMPLE METHOD FOR SUPPORTING BRINE PIPES AND DRIP BOARD TROUGH. After the tar has had time to thoroughly chill and all the odor has evaporated, the trough can be taken into the warehouse in sections and nailed to the supports, slant- ing in the desired direction, and connected with a down- spout to a gutter, making a very economical as well as effective protection against the dripping of the pipes. In Fig. 28 is shown a type of cooler that is sometimes used, and those using it wonder why they cannot get good results. There may be the same amount of refrig- REFRIGERATION IN THE PACKING HOUSE 71 eration applied in this coolei' as there is in one properly designed and built, but the one here illustrated is abso- lutely wrong in principle. The warm, moist air arising from the fresh meat put in a cooler of this kind naturally rises to the top of the room. Not meeting with any re- frigerant to remove the heat and moisture, the latter ■,.S PIPES 60C J J FIG. 28.— TYPE OF COOLER ARRANGEMENT TO BE AVOIDED. condenses on the ceiling and on the sides or walls, thus making an ineffective and unsatisfactory cooler; and while it might work with a fair degree of satisfaction where the meats require but two days of chilling, and are then immediately sold, if that meat is subjected to any great change in temperature, it will quickly become mouldy and out of condition. This type of cooler should always be avoided. ^ 72 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER III. CATTLE HANDLING, SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING. HOW TO HANDLE CATTLE BEFORE SLAUGHTER. In this chapter practical detailed suggestions for the handling of cattle will be considered. Before animals are slaughtered the first essential point is to see to it that they are in condition to be slaughtered, namely, that they are not over-excited, fevered, out of condition, under fed, or, in other words, that they are as near their normal condition as possible. Cattle should be allowed to rest over night before they are slaughtered, if they have been driven or " carred " any distance; for if the animal is tired or excited it will not bleed properly when slaughtered, and if killed in this condition the meat has a red, fiery appearance and is generally unwholesome. It is a condition which the practical eye of the tradesman will take cognizance of very readily, and he will not be slow to use it to his advantage. Fig. 29 is a view of suitable resting pens at a Chicago packing house plant, After the animals have rested a sufficient length of time to be in normal condition they should be driven to the killing pens carefully, and without undue violence, such as striking them across the back, or with heavy sticks, or prodding them unnecessarily while in the pens, as this abuse shows on the meat very readily when the hide is removed. The damage thus inflicted by careless lian- CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 73 dling is invariably done on the loin and rump of the animal, and as this is the high-priced part of the meat, it will readily be seen that the loss is quite considerable. With stubborn or wild cattle it is often necessary to be quite severe, but a practiced handler of live stock will do it in such a manner as to avoid injuring the car- cass at all. FIG. 29.— CATTLE RESTING IN PENS BEFORE BEING DRIVEN INTO SLAUGHTER HOUSE. In this connection attention is called to Fig. 30, illustrating a wooden knob for the end of a prod pole which will prevent a great deal of bruising and conse- quent discoloration of the meat. When penning cattle from overhead, the penner invariably prods the animal in the loin, oftentimes using his pole as a harpoon, the force of the blow thus inflicted, coming on so small a 74 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE part of the back, invariably making a bloodshot spot, whereas, if the force of the blow were distributed over a portion three times that diameter no ill effect would be noticed, hence the use of the knobs on these poles will do away with the bruising of loins in handling and penning i 1 1 1 .\/2. J^ 1 ■* 1 1 1 1 FIG. 30.— DIAGRAM FOR WOODEN KNOB ON END OF PROD POLE. cattle. Care should also be taken that the pens are not overcrowded, especially in hot weather. KNOCKING OR STUNNING CATTLE. This represents really the first act in the slaughtering of cattle. After they have been driven into the narrow pens provided for the purpose, as shown in Fig. 31, the knocker follows and with a four-pound hammer strikes tlie animal a stunning blow in the middle of the forehead. In former times cattle were speared, which was ac- complished by walking over the top of the runways and with a long, sharp-pointed spear, severing the spinal cord. This method of killing, however, had the effect of CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 75 preventing the free bleeding of tlie animal and another bad feature was that the blood settled in the neck, neces- sitating trimming of each neck. This old method, how- ever, has now been superseded in all the large abattoirs of the United States by the method of knocking as shown in the view. FIG. 31.— VIEW ILLUSTRATING THE MODERN METHOD OP KNOCKING OR STUNNING CATTLE. Immediately after the stunning a sliding door is hoisted and the stunned, animal rolled out to be hoisted for sticking, heading, etc., as shown in Figs. 32 and 33. STICKING AND HEADING. In sticking great care should be taken that the throat is well opened, thereby giving the blood a free flowl Fiir- 76 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tiiermore, that the man who does the sticking severs botii arteries and veins otherwise the beef will purge on the back and look discolored when finished. He should also be careful not to stick cattle through, for if this is done, when the bullock is thrown on its back, the blood flows FIG. 32.— STUNNED CATTLE BEING HOISTED FOR STICKER. onto the chime bones, causing a bad discoloration. In heading, great care should be used to see that all the fat possible is left on the tongue, leaving it perfectly smooth on the outer surface. Also see that as little hide as pos- sible is left around the horns. Further, that the header, in cutting around the side of the head, leaves all the fat CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 77 he can on the hide, and that he keeps as close to the side of the tongue as he can without injury to same; when this is done, the hide dropper can leave a full shaped neck, otherwise considerable weight which should be left on the beef comes onto the head, where it is afterward FIG. 33.— HEADING AND SKINNING CATTLE. trimmed and only worth tallow price. In taking the tongue from the head the trimmer should cut close to the jaw-bone, so that all the meat possible may be left on the tongue. For convenience in handling the carcasses on the beds, a pritch is used (shown in Fig. 34). This is sim- 78 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ply an ordinary stick with a spike in one end and a fer- rule on the other, nsed to hold the animal when rolled on its back. Formerly pritches were made with spikes at both ends. At present there is no spike used on the end of the pritch coming in contact with the beef, as such spike often has the effect of puncturing the hide. The end of the pritch, which is to rest upon the floor without FIG. 34.— PRITCH TO SUPPORT ANIMAL WHEN TURNED ON BACK. slipping, should have a spike inserted. The other end, which is to support the carcass, should simply have a fer- rule of ly^-inch pipe, the end being roughened like a saw tooth, which is sufficient to prevent it from slipping and at the same time does not injure the hide. FOOT SKINNING. Foot skinning is the term applied to taking off the front feet. In doing this the workmen should cut around the hoofs closely so as to give all the weight possible to the hide. They should not open the hide any further back than is absolutely necessary to unjoint the feet, for, if the shank is uncovered more than necessary, it is likely to become bloody, and it is impossible to get it clean again, as the tissue becomes stained. They should also be care- ful to see that none of the cords from the front part of the shin-bone are left on the hide. The same men doing this work also raise the gullet. In doing this they must be careful to oj^en the neck straight from where the stick- er left off. They must also guard against cutting the weasand. Great care should also be taken that the gul- let is not raised too high with the knife when clearing, for if this is done, it allows the blood to run back on the CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 79 80 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ribs, producing the same effect as if the bullock had been stuck through. KIPPING OPEN AND LEG BREAKING. In this particular operation, care should be exercised to see that the first cut is made exactly where the sticker left off, opening the breast and hide in the center the full length of the animal. Leg-breaking consists in taking off the hind feet. G-reat care should be used to uncover the gam only sufficiently to get at the joint, leaving the hide over balance of shank to protect it. If this is done it will be possible to get very much better shanks than if skinned too low. Care should be taken to see that all hide possible comes off around the feet, but that none of the cords are left on the hide. Part of a modern killing floor is illustrated in Fig. 35. Fully one-half of the work in slaughtering cattle is done while they are lying on the floor and the other half while they are hung upon the hoists, consequently it is feasible and economical to work double beds. Fig. 35 is a view representing the work as it is done in a modern double- bed house. On sixteen double beds 150 cattle can be han- dled per hour. FLOORING CATTLE. This work consists of rimming over and siding the bullock. The special object of this operation is to attain: First, a smooth hide without scores or cuts, and next, smooth work done on the bullock, which consists in sav- ing the fell very carefully tliroughout, clearing the rose on shoulder fully, also the saving of the fell back of the elbow and the forward shoulder. The latter part is a very particular point, as no fat is there, and if the fell CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 81 is not left it shows black when coming from the cooler. BREAST SAWING AND CAUL PULLING. In sawing the breast, care should be taken to see that it is sawed in the center, holding saw at same angle as that at which the animal is lying, otherwise saw works from under side, and makes a very bad-looking brisket on one side of the beef. Care should also be taken to saw where marked, otherwise it will become necessary to trim off meat from the neck, if the right marks have not been followed. Caul pulling consists in taking out the caul in a tidy, cleanly condition, keeping same off the floor, and getting FIG. 36.— DOUBLE HOIST FOR LIFTING CATTLE FROM THE KILLING BEDS. it into the box, as this is the best part of the fat for the oil house. Care should also be taken not to cut or tear the intestines, and if so, that they are imi^ediately skew- ered up. For hoisting the killed animal either a double or sin- gle hoisting apparatus^ may be used. A double hoist is shown in Fig, 36, and a single hoist in Fig. 37. In the double hoist shown, size of paper friction is 12x12 inches j speed of shaft, 250 revolutions. Larger pulley 52 inches in diameter, with 10 x 18 inch drum. Smaller pulley, 40 inches in diameter, 10 x 18 inch drum. The smaller pulley 82 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE is used for hoisting the gates of the knocking pens when used on heading bed hoists, and is used for lowering cat- tle from the heading rail when used on cattle bed hoists. FIG. 37.— SINGLE BEEF HOIST. The single hoist is a type of the kind of apparatus gen- erally used in the smaller plants. FELL CUTTING. Fell cutting consists in skinning the hide off the hind legs when animal is on the first hoist. The points to be carefully looked after in this work is to see that smooth work is done both on the hides and on the beef itself. BEEF SPREADERS. In slaughtering cattle it was formerly the custom to use an ordinary spreader as shown in Fig. 38, which CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 83 spread all carcasses, large or small, a certain distance and kept them spread from the time they were hung un- til finished splitting. The spring beef spreader, illus- FIG. 38.— ORDINARY BEEF SPREADER. trated in Fig. 39, is a great improvement over this old spreader. When the cattle are first hung on this appli- ance the center piece is raised up, allowing the hooks to FTG. 39.— SPRING BEEF SPREADER. hang in a normal condition proportionate to the size of the animal which is hung on them. Hanging in this shape, the rumper is given a chance to do his work when the bullock is held hanging in a normal position and is not 84 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE spread so far as to be wrinkled and pulled out of its nat- ural form. Tail sawing is also improved by the use of this ap- paratus. If the carcass is spread unnecessarily the bone will break before being sawed, leaving the bone on one side or the other of the carcass, not being sawed in the center as it should be. In splitting the loins, if the bul- lock is spread more than it should be, the bones part and break ahead of the chopper, instead of being split. With the spring spreader, however, the carcass hangs in a normal condition and is spread out regularly as the beef is parted. When splitting the chuck it is customary to pull down the lever between the two hooks, spreading it to its max- imum distance. It also holds the animal in that condi- tion while being hung over upon the rails with trolleys. RUMPING. This operation requires very skillful work, and calls for a great deal of attention. Points to be attained are : First, a smooth hide free from scores or cuts, and next, smooth work on the beef. Care must be used in this work to see that the rumper keeps very close to the hide on outside of the leg, in order that the fell-beater may do a good job. If the rumper is careless and breaks through the fell, it is impossible to curry this down smoothly. In working around the tail, great care must be taken not to get into the lean meat, especially on thin cattle, where there is comparatively little covering. FELL BEATING. If the floorman and rumper do their work properly^ it is comparatively easy to do a good job at fell beating. These two workmen should be followed closely, however, CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 85 to insure a smooth, even job. The fell-beaters should then use extra care to see that they do not tear through, and, in marking with the chopper, to mark in such a way that they tear back instead of catting off. GUTTING. The objects sought for in this particular work are: First, cleanliness, and next, to save the fat smooth and without tearing it around the edge-bones. The liver should be taken out smoothly without tearing, and thrown into the truck. Special care should be taken in opening kidneys, to open in the center without cutting tenderloin. Also be very careful to leave all tenderloin in the bul- lock, for, if any comes out with the ' ' pluck " it is wasted. The workmen should also be careful about cutting intes- tines or weasands. BACKING, The objects to be attained in this particular work, are : First, smooth hides, free from scores or cuts, at the same time leaving no fat on the hide, and next, particu- lar care should be taken in the work required in the drop- ping of the hide to see that the fat is not removed from the loins. TAIL SAWING. \ The point in this work is to see that the saw is abso- lutely in the center, and that the first bone is sawed cen- trally. Better work can doubtless be done by sawing the tail from the rear, " popping " it twice. SPLITTING, Great care should be exercised in this particular work, especially on western and ' ' hard-bone ' ' cattle. As 86 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 87 the house grinds and furnishes choppers, great care should be exercised to see that these are in the very best condition to do the work. The}^ should be ground as thin as possible and have them hold, and if the splitters do not break a chopper once in a while, it is evidence that these are not ground as thin as they should be, and, un- less they are, it is impossible to do good work in split- ting. The workmen should, however, have choppers ground different thicknesses for different boned cattle, and never use thin-ground choppers on cows or hard- boned steers. The men look out for this themselves, gen- erally speaking. They should split the bone down central- ly, the entire length of the carcass. Great care should be taken to see that they split the short fin-bone in the neck, thereby giving the neck-splitter a chance to start centrally with his work. Fig. 40 is a view in same house as indicated in Fig. 35, showing the cattle after having been split, hung on trolleys and run back ready to be fin- ished. It will be noted that the carcasses are now sep- arated into two pieces and are being thoroughly washed and scrubbed with fountain brushes to insure absolute cleanliness in every part. The fountain brush in general use is illustrated and described on page 89. CLEARING OUT AND HIDE DEOPPING. In clearing the shanks the workmen ^hould look care- fully to see that thej do not score the hide, or make any miscuts in the meat. They should also save the veins in the under side of forward shoulder, for when these are cut they continue to purge, making bad-looking shanks. In hide dropping care should be used to see that the work- men do not score or cut hides, make miscuts in the neck, or leave any unnecessary fat on the hide. They should also skin hides as low down as possible on the necks, 88 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE which is regulated altogether by the manner in which the heading is done, as first described. NECK SPLITTIISTG. This should be done carefully, splitting the neck fair- ly in the center. The last bone, or " deacon " joint, in the neck should be broken centrally, in order to give equal weights and appearance to the beef. BRUISE TRIMMING. This is a very essential feature in the dressing of cattle, and one in which good judgment must be exer- cised. It is, therefore, very hard to lay down any set rules further than the following: The object of trim- ming bruises is to take off all blood accumulations, and at the same time leave all the fat possible on the hips, etc., to be bleached out by using hot water and thorough wiping. The great danger, generally speaking, is that they are trimmed too much and scrubbed too little. These are points which require very careful attention. SKIRT TRIMMING. Skirt trimming consists in cutting off the edge of the skirts evenly on native cattle without exposing the lean meat. On western cattle and thin stock, the skirts should be trimmed high enough so that they will expose the lean meat, which gives a chance for all moisture which has gathered under the film to escape, making the beef dryer than if otherwise trimmed. BEEF WASHING. In the washing of beef the work should start at the hind legs, the step-ladder men being the first to use water on the beef after it is split. Next come the back washers CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 89 and wipers; after these come the neck and rib washers, the policy being to start at the top and clean the beef as they go along; The washers should be kept close up, handling the beef promptly, running it into the cooler as fast as it is dressed. A convenient apparatus for washing carcasses is the fountain brush, already referred to under the heading of " Splitting." It consists of an ordinary brush with a spray attachment on the front of it, as shown in Fig. 41. To this is attached a hose which supplies hot water from the vat above. When the men are ready to scrub the beef a valve is turned on, the water gravitating through the hose to the meat. In wetting it continuously FIG. 41.— THE FOUNTAIN BRUSH, the blood or discoloration whichx may be gathered on the meat is rapidlj'^ taken off, leaving it in a bright, clean con- dition. The beef is then wiped with a cloth made of ten or twelve thicknesses of very coarse cheese cloth which rapidly absorbs the moisture. \ COOLERS. Beef should be run into the coolers just as fast as fin- ished. It is desirable to maintain the temperature in the preliminary or fore cooler at about 40° to 45° F., and it should not go above 50° F. These conditions can be controlled by the length of time beef is kept in the fore cooler, ordinarily, but in extremely hot weather, when 90 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE there is lieavy killing, coolers are liable lo go as high as 48° to 50° F. and it does not necessarily follow that there will be bad results, providing the coolers are at a tem- perature of 38° F. twelve hours after being filled. The following day after beef is killed, it is pushed along into the main coolers, leaving room for the day 's killing in the FIG. 42.— VIEW IN BEEF COOLER. rear. The temperature of main coolers should be from 34° to 36° F. In extremely cold weather the tempera- tures are quite often lower than those, or in extremely hot weather somewhat higher, but those given are prefer- able and safe. The necks are trimmed in the coolers and great care should be taken not to cut off any more than is abso- lutely necessary to give the neck a neat, square appear- CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 91 ance. An interior view of a i^ypical beef cooler in a Chi- cago packing house is shown in Fig. 42. CARE OF COOLERS. That it is necessary to keep coolers sweet and clean is self-evident from the conditions, and it is always advis- able to use a liberal amount of sawdust on the floors, so that the drippings from the meats may be rapidly ab- sorbed; the sawdust should be changed at least once a week, keeping the coolers sweet and clean. The workmen's clothes should never be allowed to hang around the coolers, nor anything else that in any way might litter them up. Doors where beef comes in and goes out should be washed daily, as they get more or less grease and blood on them, and if this is allowed to stand it will soon be- come sour and to an extent decomposed. In all packing house plants where a comparatively large volume of business is done there should be one man whose sole duty it is to look after the refrigerators. As soon as the filling of the coolers is begun he turns on a little brine, just enough to keep ,the temperature in the coolers at the desired point and not more than enough to keep them at that point. This is a matter which neces- sarily needs constant attention and care. When the cool- er is filled with warm meat and the dooij-s are shut it is his duty to turn on the refrigeration and see that the meat is brought down to the required temperature in the Inquired time. While" this man is attending to the re- frigeration of the coolers it is advisable to have the tem- perature taken by someone else at least every three hours, partly that the attendant may know that close tab is kept on his work and partly to serve as a record for the superintendent or owner. Such a record is a great pro- 92 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE lection. From the above it is apparent that the position of the man attending to the refrigerators is one that should receive careful consideration, and in which only a man of intelligence, and one who is known to be reli- able, is placed. TEMPEEATURE IN COOLERS. This is a point that cannot be watched too closely, and lack of experience in this particular has been very expensive in many cases. When beef is run into the cooler, it should first be held in what is called the fore cooler (by some, the back cooler), which consists of one-third of the length of the cooler cut off by a partition. As fast as this cooler is filled the beef should be pushed through into the front or main cooler, but as they are left in the fore cooler for an hour or two, a chance is given for the quick evapora- tion of a very large amount of the moisture and animal heat that is left in the carcass. When killing choice cat- tle it is advisable to have the temperature of the fore cooler as near 45° F. as possible; above 48° F. is not detrimental. Heavy cattle, however, should hang at least 18 inches apart in order that the cool air may circulate freely around the carcasses; lighter cattle can be hung much closer. When the cooler is being filled the refrigeration should be partly shut off in order to allow the tempera- ture to run up to 45° to 48° F. As soon as they have fin- ished filling the cooler the refrigeration should be turned on full force with a view to having the temperature brought down to 38° F, in twelve to fifteen hours after the cooler is shut up. Wliile it might be possible to bring it down in much less time it is not advisable; neither should it be longer than this. The reason for this is to CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 93 avoid what is called " bone-sour " beef, which it is im- possible to prevent at all times, but 99 per cent of it can be avoided if handled in the coolers judiciously. The explanation for this particular trouble lies in the fact that when the animal is put into a cooler where it is cooled quickly it chills on the outside, which practically forms an insulation, holding the heat next to the bones. If the beef is in a cooler where the temperature is too high, decomposition starts in before the animal heat is all taken away. This particular trouble, '' bone-sour,'^ is always found, however, in the hip- joint and is due to the decomposition of the joint water. If some joint water is taken from a freshly killed animal and put in an open bottle and set in the sun for two hours, it will be found to be thoroughly decomposed and have an offen- sive odor, the chemical properties being such that decom- position sets in immediately when it is exposed to the air. As there is a large amount of this water in the hip- joint, failure to remove the animal heat quickly enough, or refrigerating too quickly so that the animal heat is re- tained, causes decomposition of the joint water to set in, hence the trouble. ^ A great deal of difficulty has been experienced in Australia and South America in trying to slaughter cat- tle and freeze them immediately. They were successful in freezing them but when the beef was thawed out ready for use it was found unfit to eat in many cases. The above will readily explain the conditions they complain of. If the beef was thoroughly chilled for forty-eight hours before freezing they would have no trouble with bone-sour or '^ bone-stink " as it is sometimes termed. As stated before, the coolers should be brought to a temperature of 38° F. in twelve hours after they are filled, and from that point be brought down gradually to 34° or 94 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 35° F., never allowing the temperature to drop to 32° F., as this is too low a temperature for shipping pur- poses. It is true that in extremely cold weather it can- not always be avoided, and oftentimes in transit it gets much lower than that in the cars, but it is not well to permit beef to reach that temperature if it can be avoided. If coolers are properly handled and have a good dry circulation, and beef is put in at the above tem- perature and allowed to remain forty-eight to seventy- two hours, it will be found to be in excellent condition and the chances of '^ bone-sour " will be practically elim- inated, although it is impossible to always prevent it; but, as stated above, the proportionate amount affected should be small — less than 1 per cent. All export beef which is shipped to England is han- dled in accordance with these instructions, and the fact that it arrives there in good condition certainly corrob- orates the correctness of the statement. Beef should always be run into the cooler immedi- ately after it is killed and never allowed to hang out- side any longer than necessary. "While it may take a little more refrigeration to handle it this way than to have it partially chilled by the outside air, the general appearance of the beef will more than repay for the additional cost of refrigeration EFFECT OF COOLERS IIST PRESERVIiSTG MEATS. Decomposition of meats is only |)ossible where there is moisture: For instance, in the mountainous regions of the west, where it is extremely dry and the air is pure, beef can be hung up out of doors and dried as hard as though house-dried. This is on account of the ex- treme dryness of the atmosphere. Meat at the sea level, however, where the air contains a large amount of hu- CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 95 midity, will quickly decompose, showing that the moist- ure aids decomposition. Such being the case it will be readily seen that the cooler giving the best results must necessarily be the one which is the dryest and if the moisture which arises from the beef on account of being- run into a low temperature is immediately taken up and carried away, the meat will necessarily become dry. If, however, it is a cooler which is damp, and the moisture instead of being carried off is simply deposited, it will dry the beef only so long as the air, or cooler, is in a condition to take up moisture. When it will take no further moisture the balance remains in the meats and as soon as this meat, which is not thoroughly dried in the coolers, is exposed to the air it becomes slippery and slimy and is at once considered out of condition, hence the appearance of the meat long after it has left the cooler is attributable to the treatment it received when first slaughtered and put in the cooler. SUGGESTIONS FOE HANDLING BEEF IN COOLERS. When the beef is ready to go into the coolers it is supposedly well dressed and at)solutely clean. Such being the case, care should be taken to see that the car- casses, as they are moved along the rails, are kept bone to bone, or back to back, for if they are thrown in pro- miscuously (as more or less blood will run out of the kid- neys if run together, one front against another back of beef) they will certainly become discolored. Further- more, the beef should be handled as speedily and with as little yanking and throwing around as possible, as the veins when handled this way will purge more or less and the beef, even though clean, will be highly colored. The carcasses should be placed at least a foot apart ^ in the preliminary or fore cooler where they are al- 9(j THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Jowed to stand until partially chilled, and then run into the main cooler, where the temperature is somewhat low- er. They should be placed so that under no condition one side of beef touches another, for if put in this way it always shows an unchilled and scalded spot on the beef, which greatly disfigures it. Beef should always, if possible, be hung a foot apart the first twenty-four hours; later it can be hung closer without detriment, although it should not be allowed to touch. After beef has hung in the proper temperature for forty-eight hours it is ready to be ribbed. It should not be ribbed prior to that time, unless absolutely necessary, as it has not sufficiently set or hardened, and hence the outer layers of beef will slip and give the beef a bad appearance. Beef can be held in coolers for months before it will decompose if the temperature is kept near 33° or 34° F., but of course in actual practice it is never necessary to keep it in to exceed four or five, or at the outside six days before it is taken from the cooler and started on its way to destination. Meat which is intended for freezing purposes should be thoroughly chilled before being sent to the freezers, as it not only aids in the freezing of the beef, but it has a much better appearance when it comes from the freezer if it is properly chilled before being frozen. TRIMMING OF BEEF. While this is an item of which little can be said, it is one which merits consideration where one is doing a large volume of business. Nearly all butchers will trim the necks of cattle before they are sent out in order to make them look smooth and even, trimming oif the CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 97 ragged, jagged ends. On large cattle there are two or three pounds of brisket fat in each animal. When oleo oil is high and beef is low it is advisable to cut this fat out; when the conditions are different it is profitable to leave it in. On export beef it is advisable to trim out at least part of the skirts and in some cases all of them, as usually the skirt in the beef is the first place where moisture will accumulate. If the skirt is removed entirely, this accu- mulation is prevented, and if it is left in the English buyer invariably tests the condition of the beef by run- ning his hands along the skirt to see if it is mouldy. Hanging tenderloin is supposed to be cut out on ex- port beef, and if the man cutting it out cuts it from the kidneys, slanting toward the backbone, on a hundred cattle he can easily leave in quite an amount of weight which sells at beef price; if cut out it would be worth only sausage price. These are points and suggestions which are well worth consideration. ElBBIlSrG OF BEEF. Probably no other work about the packing house is more important, or needs more attention, than ribbing of beef. If the beef is ribbed properly it shows up to the best advantage; if improperly ribbed it does not, and the buyer's opinion of its value depends largely upon its appearance. Eibbing shows the quality of the beef to a large extent, hence it is very essential that it should be done properly. The secret of ribbing is to follow close, without uncovering the top part of the lower rib on the plate, following down gradually between the two ribs to the point in the backbone where the vertebra is the thinnest, bringing the knife across perfectly level, 98 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the object being to show as much meat as possible when the beef is ribbed and as little backbone. The exact place to go probably is not to exceed ^2 i^ich wide, hence it will be seen that it requires skilled work to do it rap- idly and do it properly. LOADING BEEF. In common practice about the packing house there is a certain department which requires a great deal of at- tention, not only to see that the work is done properly but to see that the conditions existing are favorable; namely, the loading and shipping department. For in- stance, the cars must be properly iced prior to loading and the temperature in the cars brought down to the right point. It is generally customary to ice the cars one day before loading, as a car should never be loaded that is not 38° F. or lower when the doors are opened. In the loading, if it is a warm day, the temperature will creep up much higher, but the beef coming out of a tem- perature of 34° or 35° F. carries a great deal of cold with it, so to speak, and even though the cars may be 50° to 60° F. the refrigeration given off by the beef, combined with the refrigeration from the ice compart- ments of the car, will bring the temperature down very rapidly. Cars, of course, should be all thoroughly cleaned and aired out prior to the icing, so that when they are open they are perfectly sweet and clean as well as of the proper temperature. Beef should be put into the cars as fast as it comes from tlie coolers, not allow- ing it to hang on the rails and be exposed more than is absolutely necessary before being placed in the refrig- erator car. Great care should be used in hanging the beef — that it is hung perfectly solid and wedged in tight, otherwise with the swing and motion of the car CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 99 the beef will become chafed and a bone from one quarter of meat will mangle and tear the meat on the quarter FIG. 43.— LOADING INTO REFRIGERATOR CAR. hanging next to it, often very seriously injuring its ap- pearance. Fig, 43 illustrates a typical beef loading scene at a large American packing plant. WEIGHING AND TAGGING BY LOTS. In order to keep a close watch on the business and to know exactly what each and every purchase realizes it is necessary to keep an account of each purchase sep- arately, and this is invariably done in up-to-date estab- lishments. Cattle are killed in lots in which they are 100 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Ijurcliased, whether there be one or 500 in the lot ; every- thing in a particular purchase is kept absolutely sep- arate, the weight of the beef, hide and tallow being kept separate and turned into the office in the evening as soon as through with killing. Night clerks usually figure these tests, as against the cost of the live cattle, and when the day force comes on in the morning, the actual cost of all the live stock killed the day previous is before them for their guidance in the day's shipments. As fast as the cattle are dressed the beef is run over a track scale going to the cooler. Here the weight of each individual carcass is caught and tagged, showing the lot to which it belongs for guidance in shipping, the tag also having the grading of the particular carcass. Any lot of cattle will run uneven, or in other words there are some that are better than others. As they go to the scale an ex- perienced man looks them over and grades them as No. 1, No. 2 or No. 3, considering only this particular lot of- cattle, as a No. 2 of one lot may be much better than a No. 1 of another lot; but they are graded by taking into consideration the whole of this particular bunch of cat- tle, as purchased. They are graded according to weights and quality. Any cattle that are badly bruised or dam- aged or discolored are thrown out and sent to some other department where they are cut up and trimmed out, or treated to the best advantage possible. As fast as the cattle are graded and tagged they are put into the cooler, each siDecial grade going on a rail by itself, irrespective of the lot to which it belongs, so that when the shipping clerk in the office gives his orders to the loading gang to have the beef taken out of the coolers, he will order so many No. 1 cattle off such and such a rail, lot, etc. As all cattle of that particular grade are on this rail it greatly facilitates getting the beef out of the cooler and CATTLE SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 101 avoids running around promiscuously to get the particu- lar carcass wanted. A great deal depends, in the expense of loading as well as the speed at which it is possible to be done, upon having the beef put into the cooler in such a way that it comes out readil)^ and without a great deal of handling and overhauling to get odd cattle. 102 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER IV. DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE. TESTS SHOWIiSTG YIELD OF MEATS AND BY-PRODUCTS. Tlie following are carefully prepared calculations made from data obtained in practical operation, showing yields of the different products on several different bunches of cattle slaughtered. The reader will readily see that these were choice cattle in each instance and that the average yield of the products is generally larger than would be the case with the ordinary run of cattle slaughtered. A careful perusal of the different tests given in the following pages, however, will give the reader the average yield in different lines from the cattle han- dled, together with the value of the different items at time tests were made. YIELD OF A BUNCH OF TWEISTTY-TWO NATIVE CATTLE. The following tables show the yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of twenty-two native cattle, the first one in each test showing the weight and percent- age of yield of beef, hides and tallow : Product Weight, lbs. Averages Weight, lbs. Per cent Live weight . . Dressed " 23,700 14,239 14,162 1,755 1,391 Average 1,077.00 646.00 63.25 60.08 Shipping " Hides " .. Shrinkage Average 0.54 7.40 Total fat " .. Average per head 5.80 DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 103 The following table shows the yield in trimmings of twenty-two native cattle: Product Pounds Value Total Value 22 tong'ues 149 248 56 40 88 16 7 11 $0.55 each .35 .07 .03K " .03 per lb. .03 .03 .03 ^ " $12.10 22 livers 7.70 22 hearts 1.54 22 tails Cheek meat .77 , 2.64 . Head meat .48 Fine meat .21 Head trimming's . .33 Total value ... ... $25.77 The following table shows the yield in casings of twenty-two native cattle : Produ(;t Per cent used Value Total Value 20 sets round guts 8 sets middles 91 36 100 91 86 36 $0.14 set .50 .1] each • OlJi " .05 per pee. .30 perdoz. .01 per lb. $2.80 4.00 22 pes. bungs 20 pes. bung gut skins .... 19 pes. weasands 8 pes. bladders ... 14 lbs. weasand meat 2.42 !25 .95 .22 .14 Total value $10.78 The yield in sweetbreads of twenty-two native cattle was twenty-two pieces, weighing 6 pounds, valued at 20c per pound, total value, $1.20. The yield in tripe was twenty-two pieces, weighing -4-20 pounds^ valued at i/oc per pound, total value, $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $3.30. The yield in the tank room of twenty-two native cattle was 1,675 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 76.14 pounds. In figuring the value of the offal in the different tests the materials sent to the tank room are not taken into consideration. 104 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The following table shows the yield in heads and feet of twentv-two native cattle: Product Total Wt. lbs. Wt. per head, lbs. Price Amount Value per head Skulls 88 4.00 glS.OO per ton. ^0.79 $0.03.590 Jaws 43 63 1.95 2.86 18.00 18.00 .39 .56 01772 Knuckles .02545 Dark hoofs .... 39 1.77 22.00 .43 .01954 No. 1 r"nd shins 26 .1.18 42.00 .54 .02454 Flat shins 19 .86 30.00 " .29 .01318 No. 1 tallow . . . 145 6.59 .06% per lb. 9.78 .44454 Neatsfoot oil. . 23 1.05 .64 per g-al. 1.93 .08773 Tankage 110 5.00 16.00 per ton .88 .04000 Total ^15.59 $0.70860 The yield in blood of the above twenty-two native cat- tle was as follows : 8 pounds per head of dry blood ; total, 176 pounds; value, at the rate of $33.00 per ton, equals $2.90. The yield in sinews of the above twenty-two native cattle was as follows : 1.93 pounds per head ; total weight, 42 pounds; value, at the rate of $19.00 per ton, equals 40c. The fat from these twenty-two native cattle showed the following yield in stock: 1,391 lbs. tallow ( 1,122 lbs. No. 1 stock = 80.00 per cent. = -I 193 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.88 " 76 lbs. waste =5.46 " } 100.00 per cent. The above 1,122 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine : Product Per cent Weight, lbs. Price per lb. Value No. 1 oil 79.77 19.52 .71 895 219 8 |;o.ioi.< .13j^ $94.37 No. 1 stearine "Waste in pres^ng. . . . 29.56 Totals 100.00 1,122 $123.93 DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 105 The total value of the otTal of twenty-two native cattle, including the tallow, was $182.67, an average per head of $8.30. YIELD OF A BUNCH OF FIFTY-NINE TEXAS CATTLE. The following table shows tlie yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of fifty-nine fed Texas cattle : Product Weight, lbs. Averages Weight, lbs. Per cent Live weight Dressed .weight. . . Shipping weight. . Total fat Hides , . 64,260 39,609 39,365 3,896 4,946 Average Shrinkage .... Average per head 1080. 671. 66.03 83.92 61.64 .63 6.00 7.70 The following table shows the yield in trimmings of fifty-nine Texas cattle: Product Weight, lbs. Value Total value 59 tongues 59 livers 59 hearts 418 744 160 88 227 37 18 V 24 ^0.55 each .35 " .07 " .03>^ " .03 per lb. .03 .03 .03 $32.45 20.65 4.13 59 taiJs 2.06 Cheek meat 6.81 Head meat, 1.01 Fine meat Head trimmings .54 .72 Total value $68.37 The following table shows the yield in casings of fifty nine Texas cattle : Product Per cent used Value Total value 52 sets round guts 20 sets middles 59 pes. bungs 46 pes. bung gut skins 50 pes. weasands 43 pes. bladders 24 lbs. weasand meat 88 34 100 78 85 73 i0.14 per set .50 .11 per pee. .OlJi .05 .30 per doz. .01 per lb. $ 7.28 10.00 6.49 .57 2.50 1.07 .24 Total value $28.15 106 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The yield in sweetbreads of fifty-nine Texas cattle was as follows : 59 pieces, weighing 20 pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value, $4. The yield in tripe was 59 pieces, weighing 1,080 pounds, valued at %c per pound; total value, $5.40. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $9.40. The yield in the tank room of fifty-nine Texas cattle was as follows : 4,466 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 75.70 pounds. The following table shows the yield in heads and feet of fifty-nine Texas cattle : Product Total Wt. lbs. Wt. per head lbs Prict Amount Value per head Skulls Jaws 247 130 161 112 73 61 43 527 57 55 215 4.19 2.20 2.73 1.90 1.24 1.04 .73 8.93 .97 .93 3.64 $18.00 per ton 18.00 18.00 22.00 20.00 " 42.00 30.00 .06% per lb. 200.00 per ton .64 per gal. 16.00 per ton $ 2.22 l!l7 1.49 1.23 .73 1.28 .65 35.56 5.70 4.69 1.72 $0.0377 .0198 Knuckles Dark hoofs Piths .0245 .0189 .0124 No. 1 r'nd shins. Flat shins No. 1 tallow .... No. 1 horns. . . . . Neatsfoot oil ... . Tankage .0218 .0109 .6027 .0970 .0793 .0291 Total amount $56.44 $0.9566 The yield in blood of fifty-nine Texas cattle was as follows: 8 pounds per head of dry blood; total 472 pounds ; value, at the rate of $33 per ton, equals $7.78. The yield in sinews of fifty-nine Texas cattle was as follows : 1.87 pounds per head ; total weight 110 pounds ; value, at the rate of $19 per ton, equals $1.04. The fat from the fifty-nine Texas cattle showed the following yield in stock : 3,896 lbs. tallow = 3,169 lbs. No. 1 stock == 81.34 per cent. 539 lbs. scrap tallow =13.84 " 188 lbs. waste =4.82 " 100.00 per cent. DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 107 The above 3,169 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine : Product Per cent Weight, lbs. Price per lb. Value No. 1 oil 80.75 18.49 .76 2,559 586 24 SO. 11 .13K $381.49 79.11 No. 1 stearine Waste in pressing. . . . Totals 100.00 3,169 $360.60 The total value of the offal of fifty-nine Texas cattle, including tallow, was $531.78; average per head, $9,103. YIELD OF A BU;NrCH OF TWEKTY CATTLE ( EIGHT NATIVE HIDES AND TWELVE " SPKEADIES ") . The following table shows the yield in beef, hides and tallow, and the value of offal, of twenty cattle, eight hides classified as natives and twelve as spreadies: Product Weight, lbs. Averages Weight, lbs. Per cent Live weight Dressed " Shipping " Hides " (eight natives and twelve spreadies) Total fat 34,650 15,894 14,914 1,731 1,553 Average 1,233 758 86.5 77.6 Shrinkage Average per head 61.64 1.84 7.10 6.20 The following table shows the yield in trimmings of same twenty cattle: Product Pounds Value Total Value 30 tongues > . . . 30 livers 173 361 64 33 95 16 10 15 $0.55 each .30 .07 .03>^ " .03 per lb. .03 .03 .03 $11.00 7.00 30 hearts 1.40 30 tails .70 Cheek meat Head meat 3.85 .48 Fine meat .30 Head trimmings .45 Total value $34.18 108 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The following table shows the yield in casings of same twenty cattle : Product Per cent used Value Total Value 19 sets i-oiinds 7 sets middles 95 35 100 75 40 45 $0.14 per set .50 .11 each •OlX " .05 .30 perdoz. .01 per lb. $2.66 3.50 20 pes. bung's 2. 20 15 " bung- gut slcins . . 8 " weasands 9 " bladders .19 .40 02 11 lbs. weasand meat .11 Total value $9.28 The yield in sweetbreads of above twenty cattle was as follows: 20 pieces weighing 7 pounds, valued at 20c per pound; total value $1.40. The yield in tripe was 20 pieces weighing 420 pounds valued at y^c per pound; total value $2.10. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $3.50. The yield in the tank room of above twenty cattle was 1,626 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 81.3 pounds. The following table shows the yield in heads and feet of same twenty cattle: Product Total wt., lbs Wt. per head, lbs. Price Amount Value per head Skulls 84 46 69 43 25 20 165 32 72 4.20 2.30 3.45 2.15 1.25 1.00 8.25 1.60 3.60 $18.00 per ton 18.00 " ■ 18.00 22.00 42.00 " 30.00 .Oe^/ per lb. .64 per gal. 16.00 per ton $0.75 .41 ,62 .47 .53 .30 11.13 2.72 '.58 $0.0375 .0205 Knuckles Hoofs . No. 1 r'nd shins Flat shins No. 1 tallow. . . Neatsfoot oil. . Tankage .0310 .0235 .0245 .0150" .5568 .1360 .0290 Totals $17.52 $0.8760 The yield in blood of same twenty cattle was as fol- lows: 8.35 pounds per head of dry blood; total 167 pounds ; value at the rate of $33 ]3er ton, equals $2.75. DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 109 The yield in sinews of same twenty cattle was as fol- lows : 2 pounds per head, total weight 40 pounds ; value at the rate of $19 per ton, equals 38c. The fat from these same twenty cattle showed the following yield in stock : ( 1,265 lbs. No. 1 stock = 81.51 per cent. 1,553 lbs. tallow = -! 215 lbs. scrap tallow = 13.85 73 lbs. waste =4.64 " 100.00 per cent. FIG. 44.— SIRLOIN BUTT. The above 1,265 ]30unds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine : Product Per cent Weight, lbs. Price per lb. Value No. 1 oil 79.37 30.08 .55 1,004 354 $0.11 .14 $110.44 No. 1 stearine Waste in pressing 35.56 Totals 100.00 1,358 $146.00 110 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The total value of the offal of above twenty cattle, in- cluding the tallow, was $203.61, an average per head of $10.1805. ^^--" YIELD or A BUNCH OF THIKTY-FOUK CATTLE. The following table shows the yield in beef, hides and tallow and the value of offal of thirty-four cattle : Product Weight, lbs. Averages Weight, lbs. Per cent Live weight Dressed " Shipping " Hides " 43.350 25,563 25,067 3,027 2,666 Average Shrinkage .... 1359 751 " 89!00 78.41 60.36 1.98 7.10 Total fat Fat per head 6.30 FIG. 4.5.— SIRLOIN STRIP. The following table shows the yield in trimmings of same thirty-four cattle : Product 34 tongues . . . , 34 livers , 34 hearts 34 tails Cheek meat . . . . , Head meat Fine meat Head trimmings Total value. Weight, lbs. Value Total Value 263 $0. 55 each $18.70 435 .35 11.90 173 .07 2.38 49 .03>^ " 1.19 185 .03 per lb. 5.55 33 .03 .96 19 .03 .57 36 ,03 .78 $43.03 DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 111 The following table shows the yield in casings of same thirty-four cattle: Product Per cent used Value Total Value 34 sets rounds 100 38 100 94 88 74 ■m $0.14 set .50 " .11 each .OlJi " .05 " .30 perdoz .01 per lb. $4.76 13 ' ' middles 6.50 34 pes. bungrs 32 " bung gut skins 3.74 .40 30 " weasands 1..50 25 " bladders .63 10 lbs weasand meat .20 Total value $17,73 FIG. 46.— BEEF RIB. The yield in sweetbreads of same thirty-four cattle was 29 pieces weighing 9 pounds, valued at 20c per pound ; total value $1.80. The yield in tripe was 34 pieces weigh- ing 710 pounds valued at i^c per pound ; total value $3.55. Total value of sweetbreads and green tripe, $5.35. The yield in tank room of same thirty-four cattle was 2,665 pounds green weight to tanks, the average per head being 78.38 pounds. 112 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The following table shows the yield in heads and feet of same thirty -four cattle : Product Total weight Wt. pel head lbs. Price Amount \ Value per head Skulls Jaws 119 71 100 73 37 31 371 33 184 3.50 2.09 2.94 2.15 1.09 .91 10.94 .98 5.41 $18.00 per ton 18.00 18.00 22.00 42.00 30.00 .06% per lb. .64 per gal. 16.00 per ton $1.07 .64 .90 .80 .78 .47 25.04 2.82 1.47 $0.0315 .0188 Knuckles Hoofs No. 1 r'nd shins Flat shins No. 1 tallow. . . Neatsfoot oil . . Tankage .0264 .0236 .0238 .0136 .7384 '".0836 .0433 Totals .... $33.99 $1.0019 FIG. 47.— BEEF TENDERLOIN. Yield in blood of same thirty-four cattle was as fol- lows : 8.6 pounds per head of dry blood ; total 292 pounds ; value at the rate of $33 per ton, equals $4.82. The yield in sinews of same thirty-four cattle was as follows : 1.44 pounds per head ; total weight 49 pounds ; value at the rate of $19 per ton, equals 46c. The fat from these thirty-four cattle showed the fol- lowing yield in stock: 3,666 lbs. tallow 3,189 lbs. No. 1 stock = 83.11 per cent. 383 lbs. scrap tallow = 14 37 94 lbs. waste = 3.53 100 00 per cent. DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 113 The above 2,189 pounds of stock showed the following yield in oleo oil and stearine : Product Per cent Weight, pounds Price per lb. Value No. 1 oil No. 1 stearine 78.04 31.06 .90 1,708 461 20 $0.11 .14 $187,88 64.54 Waste in pressing Totals 100.00 2,189 $252.42 The total value of the offal of these thirty-four cattle, including the tallow, was $356.80; an average per head of $10,497. FIG. 48.— BEEF ROLL. The foregoing records of tests will show the reader the actual value of the by-products figured at the time these tests were made. Owing to changes in the market condi- tions, of course, these figures are more or less valueless, but the percentage of yield and different items are abso- lutely correct, and the reader can take one of these tests and by substituting the market prices of today find out what the offal is worth from different lots of cattle killed. These tests also give the percentage of the hide and tallow. The latter as will be noted is quite high, as it will 114 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE be seen that the tests were made on a fairly fat grade of cattle. PEECENTAGE ON DIFFEKENT CUTS OF BEEF. Nearly every large city has its special ways and pecu- liarities of cutting meats, consequently the percentage of the different cuts varies largely. The following table is FIG. 49.— BEEF LOIN. a record of results from a cutting test and shows the per- centage of ' ' Chicago cut ' ' meat with square cut chucks : Chicago Cuts— Per Cent. Chucks 28.00 Rounds 23.00 Navels 8.00 Flanks 2.00 Flank steaks 50 Kidney 25 Ribs 10.00 Loins 15.00 No. 2 suet 50 No. 1 suet 3.00 Shanks 4.00 Brisket 5.00 Necks 75 100.00 The following table shows percentage on cattle cut Chicago style, with the exception of a " Kosher chuck," DRESSING YIELDS OF CATTLE 115 the latter consisting of five-rib, four-quarter cut-off from the side of the beef : "New York Cuts (Natives) — Per Cent. Ribs 9.55 Loins 15.74 Flanks 5.55 Navels 8.61 Suet 3.62 Rounds 23.27 New York chucks 33.66 100.00 The following table shows the percentage on cattle cut Philadelphia style: Philadelphia Cuts — Per Cent. . Rump and round 34.00 Rattler (chuck, plate, brisket and shank) 44.00 Ribs and loins 22.00 100.00 The following table gives the result of tests and shows in detail the percentages in cutting canner cattle. As will be understood, for canning purposes, a light grade of animals is always used, cattle that are too light or too thin to be used for other purposes. In such cases the meats are always boned-out and the different cuts of the meat are here enumerated, showing their percentages : Packing House Cuts — Per Cent. Sirloin butts 3.903 Strips ^ 4.204 Tenderloins 2.552 Boneless chucks 13.813 Rolls 2.552 Plates ; 12.162 Insides 7.957 Outsides 5.555 Knuckles Ji 5.555 Clods 5.105 Rump butts 2.402 Flank steak 600 Hanging tenderloin 450 Front shanks 7 7.207 Hind shanks 4.650 Soft bones 6.906 Trimmings 8.108 Tallow 1.200 Kidneys 600 99.980 The illustrations presented herewith (Figs. 44 to 49) show the principal packing house cuts. 116 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER V. LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING. LISTS OP MEN EMPLOYED AND WAGES PAID. The number of men necessary in different sized beef killing gangs and the wages paid are given in the follow- ing tables. While these lists would not always be ap- plicable to the exact number of men required in every house, owing to local conditions, it conveys accurately to the reader the number of men necessary to handle the given number of cattle per hour. The wages as quoted are those that were paid in all of the principal Amer- ican packing centers at the time these lists were com- piled. There have been some changes, some have been advanced and others lowered, but on the average they are very close to those in actual practice. CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. AVages per hour. 1 man knocking and helping drive up $0.22% 2 men shaclding, hoisting and helping drive up each .20 2 headers each .30 1 sticker 30 1 man pulling heads and squilgeeing floor 16 1 man dropping down and pritching up cattle 17% 1 man taking off and carrying over shackles 16 2 front leggers, raising gullets and cut out sweetbreads, .each .20 3 hind leggers and rip open their own cattle each .22% 1 boy picking up feet and letting down cattle 16 4 floor men each .471/2 1 caul puller 25 1 breast sawer 25 1 crotch splitter and wash bellies 16 1 hooking on 16 3 fell cutters and cut off cords each .25 1 rumper and drop bungs 37% 1 shank washer 16 LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING 117 CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR (continued). Wages per hour. 1 tail puller and cut off tails 20 1 fell puller 171/2 1 fell beater 20 1 backer 42i/^ 1 man working between backer and rumper 42i/^ 1 gutter 25 1 man working between gutter and caul puller 25 2 tail sawers each .25 2 splitters each AIV2 1 man splitting two, backing one, dropping one hide on each run .47% 1 man hanging off 22^/^ 1 man pushing over to hide dropper 16 1 man putting up hooks 17% 1 man squilgeeing fat 16 1 shank turner and cut off cords 20 1 paunch puller 17% 2 hide droppers each .30 1 chuck splitter 27% 1 bruise trimmer 20 1 skirt trimmer 20 1 scribe sawer and pull spines 20 1 ladder man 22% 2 back washers each .16 1 rib washer 16 1 shank washer 16 2 hide truckers and spread their own hides each .16 1 man scraping 16 1 kidney washer 16 2 wipers each .16 1 man putting in neck rags and skewering up necks 16 1 man putting on hind shank cloths 10 1 boy running wringer 10 1 man pumping shoulders 16 CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 1 knocker ?0.22% 1 penner 17% 2 men hoisting and shackling each .20 1 sticker and help header 30 2 headers each .30 1 man dragging heads 16 1 boy squilgeeing blood 10 1 man dropping and pritching up cattle 17% 1 taking off and carrying over shackles 16 3 on front feet, raise gullets, cut out sweetbreads and cut open breasts each .20 3 hind leggers and rip open their own cattle each .22% 1 foot trucker 16 5 floormen and back three cattle on each run each .47% 1 caul puller 25 1 breast sawer 25 1 crotch burster 16 1 man hooking on . . . . ; 16 3 fell cutters each .25 1 tail burster, cut off one cord and drop bungs 25 118 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR {continued). Wages per hour. 1 tail puller, cut off one cord 20 1 rumper 37% 1 shank washer 16 1 back washer 10 1 fell puller llYz 1 fell beater 20 1 backer 421/2 1 man working between backer and rumper 42% 1 gutter 25 1 man working between gutter and caul puller 25 3 tail sawers and beat out six fells per run each .25 3 splitters and back nine cattle per hour each .47% 1 man hanging off .22% 1 man pushing over 16 1 hook hanger 17% 1 paunch puller 17% 1 man squilgeeing fat 16 3 hide droppers and cut off cords each .30 1 chuck splitter 30 1 scribe and split twelve chucks per hour .30 1 bruise trimmer and trim two on ladder on each run 22% 1 skirt trimmer 20 1 ladder man .22% 1 front shank washer 16 3 back washers each .16 1 rib washer 16 1 hide spreader 16 2 hide truckers and pull spines each .16 1 man scraping 16 1 kidney washer 16 2 wipers each .16 1 shoulder pumper and push over cattle to washers 16 1 man putting in rags and .skewering up necks 16 1 boy running wringer 10 1 boy putting on shank cloths 10 CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 1 knocker . $0.22% 1 penner 17% 1 bolster 20 1 shackler 20 2 headers each .30 1 sticker, and helps head 30 1 boy squilgeeing blood and setting cattle 10 1 man dragging heads 16 1 man picking up feet 16 1 man pritching up cattle 17% 1 man dropping cattle 17% 1 man taking off and carrying over shackles 16 3 front leggers raise gullets and cut out sweetbreads. .. .each .20 4 hind leggers and rip open their own cattle each .22% 6 floor men and split nine cattle per hour each .47% 2 caul pullers each .25 1 breast sawer 25 1 man bursting crotches 16 LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING 119 CATTLE KILLING DEPARTMENT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR (^continued) . Wages per hour. 1 man hooking on cattle 16 3 fell cutters each .25 1 tail burster and cut off cords 25 1 tail puller and dropping bungs 20 2 rumpers each .37% 2 backers each .42% 1 end man, backs nine cattle, saws twelve breasts and cuts fells on nine cattle per hour 42% 2 fell beaters each .20 1 fell puller 17% 1 paunch puller 17% 1 shank washer 16 1 back washer 10 3 tail sawers each .25 3 splitters each .47% 1 man hoisting cattle for the hang off 16 1 man hanging off 22% 1 man pulling over 16 4 hide droppers, turning shanks and cut off cords each .30 1 chuck splitter 30 1 scriber splits twenty-four chucks and scribes sixty cattle per hour 30 1 bruise trimmer 20 1 skirt trimmer .20 2 ladder men trim eighty-four and scribe twenty-four cattle per hour each .22% 1 man pulling up hooks 17% 1 man squilgeeing fat 16 1 man spreading hides 16 2 men picking up hides each .16 1 man pumping shoulders 16 1 man pulling spines and pushing cattle back to washers 16 4 back washers each .16 1 man scraping cattle 16 1 man wiping forequarters ^ 16 1 front shank washer 16 1 kidney washer and wetting ribs 16 1 rib washer 16 1 boy rinsing inside of cattle 10 1 man wiping hind quarters 16 1 boy putting rags on hind shanks 10 1 man wiping beef on floor ) 16 1 man putting in neck rags and skewering up necks 16 1 boy putting in kidney rags and skirt skewers 10 BACK COOLER GANG FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 1 switching on beds and pushing on scales $0.17% 1 taking off scales and running elevator 17% 1 running hot line 17% 1 switching in cooler 15 1 pushing back in cooler 15 1 setting and wiping in cooler 15 1 skewering backs . .07% 2 rag boys each .07% 120 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE BACK COOLER GANG FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR. Wages per hour. 1 switching on beds $0.17i/^ 1 pushing on scales l?]^ 1 running elevator 15 1 running hot line 17i^ 1 switching in cooler 15 1 setting and wiping 15 1 skewering backs 07^ 2 rag boys each .OTY2 1 pushing back 171^ BACK COOLER GANG FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 1 switching on beds $0.17% 1 pushing on scales llVz 1 running elevator 15 1 running hot line 17% 1 switching in cooler 15 1 pushing back 15 1 setting cattle 15 1 wiping cattle 15 1 skewering backs 15 2 rag boys each .07% TALLOW TRIMMERS AND HEAD BONERS FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 1 livers and hearts $0.17% 4 tripe men each .20 1 pecks and reeds 20 1 plucks 22% 1 short guts 20 1 dumping paunches 20 3 truckers each .15 1 trimming bed fat and gut ends 17% 1 scaler 15 1 tongueing and sawing off horns 20 1 pulling jaws 22% 1 cheeking 30 1 trimming cheeks 17% 1 washing tongues 15 1 trimming jawbones 12% For seventy cattle per liour the same as sixty, with the exception of there being one extra trncker at 15c per honr. TALLOAV TRIMMERS AND HEAD BONERS FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 1 livers and hearts $0.17% 4 tripe men and helping paunch dumper each .20 2 pecks and reeds each .20 2 plucks each .20 1 short guts 20 1 boy helping short guts 15 1 dumping paunches 20 LABOR IN CATTLE KILLING 121 TALLOW TRIMMERS- AND HEAD BONERS FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR (continued) . Wages per hour. 1 trimming bed fat and gut ends 17i/^ 4 truckers each .15 1 scaler 15 1 picking up fat , 10 1 taking out tongues and sawing oft horns 20 1 pulling jaws 22i/^ 1 cheeking 30 1 trimming cheeks IT^/^ 1 washing tongues 15 1 trimming fat 12% 1 trimming jaws 12% CASING DEPARTMENT FOR SIXTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 2 gut runners and cutting out bungs each $0.25 1 ruffle puller and help strip middles 25 1 stripping middles 25 4 fatting middles (2c per set) each .30 1 turning middles 15 2 turning rounds each .15 5 machine men and take from fatter each .20 1 fatting and skinning bungs 22% 1 stripping rounds 15 2 measurers and salters each .20 2 bung gut slimers, turn and carry over their guts each .20 2 round gut inspectors each .15 1 middle gut and bung inspector 12% 1 v/easand man 25 1 bladder man .17% CASING DEPARTMENT FOR SEVENTY CATTLE PER HOUR. 2 gut runners each $0.25 1 cutting out bungs and help pull ruffle 22% 1 ruffle puller and help strip 25 1 stripping middles and throwing up to fatter 25 5 fatting middles and bungs (2c per set for middles) each 28c; (40c per 100 for bungs) each 5c 33 1 fatting and skinning bungs 22% 1 turning middles 12% 3 turning rounds each .15 5 machine men and take from fatter each .20 2 measurers , each .20 2 bung gut slimers, turn and carry over their guts each .20 2 round gut inspectors each .15 1 middle gut inspector and inspecting bungs 12% 1 weasand man 25 1 bladder man .'^ 17% CASING DEPARTMENT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR. 2 gut runners each $0.25 1 bung cutter 22% 1 ruffle puller 25 2 stripping middles and handing up to fatter each .20 5 middle gut fatters (2c per set) about 32 1 fatting bungs 22% 1 skinning bungs .' .15 2 turning middles each .12% 122 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CASING DEPARTMEXT FOR EIGHTY-FOUR CATTLE PER HOUR {continued). Wages pel' hour. 3 turning rounds each .15 1 helping machine man 15 1 stripping rounds 15 5 machine men and tal?;ing from fatter each .20 2 measurers each .20 2 bung gut slimers each .20 2 round gut inspectors each .15 1 middle gut inspector 12% 1 weasand man 25 1 bladder man 17% 1 bung gut inspector 10 1 Salter 15 HIDES 123 CHAPTER VL HIDES. GENEEAL HANDLING OF HIDES ON KILLING FLOOR. In slaughtering cattle, next in value to the beef comes the hides, and the handling, curing, etc., of this particular part of the animal, until it is ready to be delivered to the tanner, is a department in which a great deal of careful attention is required to obtain the best results. For con- FIG. 50.— HIDE TRUCK FOR CARTING BEEF HIDES. venience in handling, a special hide truck, as shown in Fig. 50, is usually employed. The platform of the truck is 31/4x51/^ feet, with a li/^-inch hardwood plank 8 inches high on one side and on front end. The Wheels are about 18 inches in diameter. The weight of the truck is about 260 pounds. The first consideration, of course, is the condition of the hide and in no branch of the packing house industry is there more marked improvement of recent years than is shown in the handling of hides. Formerly where un- skilled workmen were killing only a few cattle daily, or weekly, they did not become proficient in the removal of 124 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE hides and, as cattle dressing requires skilled workman- ship, the hide was more or less damaged by scores and cuts. But when cattle are killed at one central point, in large numbers, it is necessary to make a division of labor, and instead of one man doing many parts of the work, he simply does one small part continuously, and hence be- comes very skilful ; the ' ' take-off ' ' of the hide, particu- larly, is improved. That this condition is appreciated by tanners is evidenced by the difference in price paid for country and packers hides: the tanners paying from %c to Ic more per pound for packers hides for no other reason than that the hide has been properly taken off in the packing house, whereas a country hide, which has been taken off by unskilled workmen, has been cut and scored, the scores being i^articularly objectionable. A score in a hide is made by cutting into the hide, when removing it, far enough to damage the grain of the leather, and when it comes from the tannery, scores show very plainly and in many cases one-half of the thickness of the leather is lost by this defect. Hides taken off prop- erly should show none of these imperfections whatever and, in fact, should be as smooth as though taken off the animal with a plane instead of a knife, and with skilled workmanship such is the case. By a division of labor, one man doing one particular operation continuously, the ^' take-off " of hides has been so improved that less than ten hides out of a thousand are found to be No. 2 hides when taken out of the cellar in a well-regulated house. The " take-off " of the hides particularly should be watched by the killing foreman and the men's attention called to the slightest defects continuously, if found, as a great deal depends upon the reputation which a house may have for its general workmanship. Many of the small scores which are found to materially damage the HIDES 125 hide when coming from the tannery are invisible when the hide is taken out of the packers' cellar, as owing to the discoloration, salt, etc., it is impossible to see many of them, but they are all visible when the leather is turned out. Consequently, if a house has the name for bad " take-off," buyers usually aim to buy the hides coming from that plant on a basis that will make them whole, taking into consideration the damaged ones which they are likely to find. Hence it will be seen that in this par- ticular department it means a great deal to have a good reputation for the product. Outside of the '' take-off " there are several other points which should be watched carefully on the killing floor in the handling of this particular article. First, that the hides should not be damaged with the prod pole by the men handling the cattle in the pens. This is fully explained in a former chapter. Second, the floor should be kept as clean as possible, especially on the heading beds where the cattle are thrown out of the knocking pens, as it is very objectionable to have blood on the hides, especially in the summer time. It is liable to cause a rotting or decomposing when the hide is in pack, and if it does so sufficiently for the hair to slip on the hides, it forms a No. 2. Another bad feature is that a bloody hide will discolor the flesh side of the skin next to it in the pack, and it is always advisable to get the hides out as bright and clean as possible, as the buA^'ers prefer them that way.. Another reason why they should be kept as dry as pos- sible is that the hides, as stated in a previous chapter, are weighed as fast as taken off and the report of the weight of the different lots of hides taken from their respective lots of cattle is turned into the office, not only for general record, but also that the test clerk can arrive at the cost 126 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE of the beef. If the hides are allowed to get wet they will take up four or five pounds per hide, which if figured with the beef will represent a false credit of 40c or 50c per head on the cattle. It is true that a general shrinkage could be allowed that might work in the opposite direc- tion in the figuring of the beef, making it cost really more than it should if the hides had not taken up the water, but it is alwaj^s best to keep them as dr}^ as possible, so that the weights used for figuring and record purposes may be accurate. Another point is that if the hides go into the packs wet, with this amount of water in them, when they are shipped out they will necessarily show an excess shrinkage from green to cured weights, causing confu- sion as to actual shrinkage. While it is advisable to have the hides carry as much moisture as Is acceptable to the buyer, it is not profitable to have them too wet, as the buyers are necessarily close figurers, and if a lot of hides from a certain house do not show the yield in leather at the tannery which they should, purchases made after that from such a house, credited with an excess moisture in their hides, are made proportionate to the yield, hence the additional weight that may be gained is more than lost in the price realized. The reader, therefore, will see that there is a happy medium to be sought in this matter, where the seller gets all that he is entitled to and the buyer is satisfied with the yield he obtains. PROPER STORAGE FOR HIDES. This is a point which is not given the consideration that is its due, in many cases some packers reasoning that as long as their hides are in a building, little else is to be considered ; excess shrinkage, also, is not taken into consideration as it should be. The following figures, HIDES 127 wliicli are accurate, will give the reader an idea of the loss that lack of attention in this particular matter may repre- sent. It will be noted that the test extends over a period of one year, representing a test on a total of 198,341 hides. SHRINKAGE OF HIDES FOE YEAR ENDING AUG. 1, 1903, IN HOUSE NO. 1. Kind Number Green weight Cured weight Shrinkage, lbs. Shrinlc- age, per cent Free of brands. Butt Side Spreadies Texas 41,870 6,087 13,190 2,376 11,385 8,029 3,759 1,991 3,328,133 507,684 1,078,959 215,676 871,573 592,338 150,995 128,269 2,842,543 432,722 927,835 190,286 731,165 500,935 127,108 107,563 485,591 74,962 151,124 25,390 140,408 91,403 23.887 20,706 15.59 14.77 14.06 11.79 16.11 15.43 15.82 16,14 Hy native cows Light " Branded " Totals 87,587 6,873,627 5,860,156 1,013,471 14.74 SHRINKAGE OF HIDES FOR YEAR ENDING AUG. 1, 1903, IN HOUSE NO. 2. Kind Number Green weight Cured weight Shrinkage, Ib.s. Shrink- age, per cent Free of brands . Butt Side Spreadies Native bulls.. Branded " H'y native cows Texas 34,192 14,279 17,302 3,969 1,362 252 8,222 5,247 14,895 11,034 a,692,615 1,174,093 1,451,850 363,233 137,910 25,885 576,313 395,620 841,481 694,503 3,262,426 97^7,943 1,198,925 307,410 103,263 21,761 472,938 334,100 709,181 574,669 430,189 196,150 252,925 55,833 34,627 4,124 103,375 71,520 132,300 119,834 15.98 16.71 17.43 15.37 19.27 15.93 17.94 18.08 L't native cows Branded ' ' 15.73 17.25 Totals 110,754 8,343,503 6,952,616 1,390,867 16.67 A total of 87,587 hides were cured in house No. 1, which consists of a cellar under refrigerated rooms. While no attempt was made to refrigerate this room there was a natural radiation to the floor above which held the temperature at from 55° to 60° F. in the hottest weather. 128 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE There being but two openings in the cellar there was nat- urally little circulation of outside air, hence the moisture of the cellar was retained and the hides show a shrinkage of 14.74 per cent from the green weight on bed to the ship- ping weight. A total of 110,754 of these hides were cured in house No. 2. This was on the first floor of the building and no refrigeration was used in any of the departments. There were several openings into this room, permitting the outside air to circulate through the building and a great deal of moisture naturally absorbed. It will be noted by comparing the reports that the shrinkage in this cellar was 16.67 per cent from the green weight to the shipping weight, showing an excess of 1.83 per cent, which would show a loss of 154,686 pounds. This, at an average price of 10c a pound, would indicate a loss of $15,468.60 sustained by having this number of hides in this particular cellar, as against what would have been realized had they shown no more shrinkage than those in house No. 1, so that it will be readily seen that it is of vital importance to the owner to see that the hides are stored in suitable storage, that there is as little circula- tion as possible of outside air through this department, and that all doors and openings are kept closed as much as possible. GRADING OF HIDES. This is a question which must be governed largely by the local conditions. Many comparatively small killers find it profitable to sell their hides flat, that is, without making any selections, irrespective of grade, rather than to try to make the different selections with a compara- tively limited number to select from, whereas, where cat- tle are killed in large numbers it is advisable to make just as many selections as is profitable to the seller, being HIDES 129 governed, of course, at all times by the market quotations and demands. The usual grades of hides are termed as follows : Natives. — Native steer hides are hides from native steers which are free of brands. Another selection of natives is what is called " spreadies," which are hides taken from native cattle free of brands, cuts, scores, or grubs and must be 6 feet 4 inches wide at the shoulders. Texas. — This is the term used to designate all hides taken otf southern cattle where the hide is very thick and heavy. Brands are not taken into consideration on these selections. Butt Brands. — These are either natives or western hides which are branded on the butts. Colorados. — These are hides from the western cattle, which are too thin for Texas and are branded on the sides. . A distinction is also made in all these hides as to weights, sixty-one pounds and up being heavy, sixty pounds and below being light and fifty pounds and below being extra light. Cow hides are selected as natives and branded cows ; bull hides as natives and branded bulls. While all bull hides are not sold as such, hides with a thick neck or pate are sold under this term. GEUBS IlSr HIDES. ^ There are two cattle ^' bot-flies " or " warble-flies," as they are often termed. One of these {Hypoderma lineata) is found in the United States, being found more frequently in the southern part of the country. The adult is about the size of a honey bee. The female de- posits her eggs in summer in the region of the Jieel of the animal, causing very much discomfort. In licking the irritated spot the eggs are taken into the mouth of the 130 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE animal and are there hatched, the larvae entering the esophagus or gullet and finally working their way into the cellular tissue beneath the skin of the back. In early spring they develop, forming lumps known as '' war- bles," and become what are known as " grubs." After working their way out through the skin they drop to the ground, into which they burrow and pupate, finally emerging as adult flies. The damage caused by these insects to the hides amounts to millions of dollars per year, as in general practice five grub holes constitute a No. 2 hide, on which there is a deduction of one cent per pound. According to the rules of the trade, Texas and branded cows are grubbed from November 1 to June 1, Colorados are grubbed from December 1 to June 1, native steers, native bulls and native cows are grubbed from January 1 to June 1. No allowance is made after June 1 for grubs in hides taken oif after that date. SALT TO BE USED IN SALTIISTG OF HIDES. The general appearance and shrinkage of hides is largely determined by the salt used. The kind of salt generally used in large plants for this purpose is a rock salt, which is a mined product run through crushers and screens. Large lumps are more or less objectionable and if allowed to be used will injure the looks of the hide. Hides in a pack weigh very heavily per cubic foot and the lower hides are subject to a considerable pressure, or weight. Large lumps of salt between the hides in the pack make bad looking indentations, although they do not necessarily injure the hides for tanning purposes. Three parts of rock salt and one part of fine salt make a very good combination. The fine salt quickly forms a moisture which the hides will absorb, preventing quite a perceptible shrinkage, as shown by careful tests. HIDES 131 When a pack of hides is taken up the " second salt " is thrown to one side and by mixing one-third new with two- thirds of old salt it can be nsed again, until it is entirely gone. It will be found that this addition of new salt about makes up for the loss in salt that is dissolved in the pack during the curing process. Salt for the hides should be kept as clean as possible, for if there is a great deal of manure and dirt mixed with the salt, it discolors the hides, injuring their appearance in the eyes of the buyer. When the salt is found to be dirty and out of condition it is always advisable to screen it, using a screen same as is used for screening sand, placed at an angle. The salt is thrown up against the screen, when the finer salt will sift through and the coarser salt, dirt, etc., will gather at the bottom of the screen. Salt that has been through the screen will be found comparatively clean and ready for use ; that which has not gone through the screen should be thrown in a pile and washed with a stream of water. While this will dissolve a considerable amount of it, it will, at the same time, wash out most of the impurities. If handled in the above manner, a careful workman should be able to salt hides with from thirty-one to thirty- five pounds of salt per hide, on an average. BITII.DING OF PA.CKS OF FimES. Packing hides is an operation which should receive very close and careful attention. In the building of the pack, the outer edges should be kept the highest all the way round, so that the center of the pack will hold the liquor and moisture, and when the pack is finished it should be leveled off at the top so that it will be as near even as possible. The natural moisture in the hides, to- gether with the dissolving salt, will form a liquor which the hides readily absorb, and if the pack is built slant- 132 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ing, so as to shed water like the roof of a house, it will be found that the hides are continuously seeping on the sides, and when they are taken up the shrinkage from green weights will be considerably in excess of those from packs properly built. TRIMMING OF GREElSr HIDES. Before the hides go into the pack they should be ex- amined for brands, etc., and be distributed to their proper packs, according to assortment made at this point. The switch is cut off from the tail, any loose ends of the hides are trimmed off and the butt of the ears split. This is necessary, for if the hides go into the pack without this being done, it makes the pack very uneven on account of the thickness of the ears; furthermore the salt does not have a chance to penetrate the ears and they are liable to spoil. Any loose pieces of meat that the butchers have carelessly left on the hide should be taken off, as well as any excess amount of fat. The hides after being trimmed should be allowed to lie for three to five hours simply folded, in order to give the animal heat a chance to escape. If the hides are put into the pack before this is done, it is likely that, when the pack is taken up, some hides will be found on which the hair has slipped; these necessarily are No. 2 hides, and as the uniform rule is Ic per pound less for No. 2's than for No. I's, it will show a loss of approximately 50c to 60c per hide on the average, an item well worth saving. Another bad feature of hav- ing ' ' slip-hides ' ' is the fact that if the bu3^er finds them at all, he is always suspicious that there are others in the pack which are out of condition, that he has not seen, and that they will come out of the tannery with unsatisfac- tory results. When hides are put in the pack, extreme care should be used to see that every part of the hide is exposed to HIDES 133 the salt. All tlie leggings should be straightened out flat and the pates thoroughly spread, so that the salt may reach every part. Hides should lie in pack and salt for from twenty-five to thirty days before they are fully cured. At the expiration of this time they are ready for shipment, and are then taken out of the salt, inspected and each one rolled into a bundle and tied. The switches should be spread out on the floor and given a thorough chance to cool off, when they are thrown into a pack by themselves and heavily salted. They should be watched closely, as there is unavoidably consid- erable blood and moisture in them, and if any sign of heating is found they should be overhauled and resalted. The average cost in the hide cellar for the labor, where it is done on a large scale, should be from 5c to 5^2^ per hide for the trimming and salting and about 6c per hide for the taking up, loading and shipping. Other expenses, such as steam, power, electric lights, etc., are not included in these figures. AVEKAGE SHEINKAGE OF HIDES. No set rule can be made as 'to how much hides will actually shrink, but if the foregoing directions are fol- lowed closely and intelligently the shrinkage may be kept at the minimum, which will usually range from 12 to 15 per cent. This is governed largely, as before stated, by the amount of water which the hides take up on the kill- ing floor, which if weighed with the hide will nearly all seep out when put into the packs and cause an ex- cess shrinkage from the original green weights. Further the storage has a great deal to do with it, but if proper care is taken the shrinkage should be kept within the figures given. 134 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER VII. TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE. TAI.LOW. As is readily understood the largest item of value in slaughtered cattle is the beef. As already stated, the second largest item is hides. The third item in value is tallow, and owing to its many uses it is one worthy of a great deal of careful consideration. It has been one of the world's staple articles of trade for centuries and is made use of in the manufacture of edibles and toilet articles too numerous to mention, hence a great deal of importance in the ordinary handling of a packing house is attached to this particular department. Prior to 1871 tallow was used almost exclusively for soap making and other manufacturing purposes, com- paratively little of it being used for food purposes. Dur- ing the siege of Paris by the Germans, a large reward was offered to anyone who would find a substitute for butter. An eminent French scientist reasoned as follows : Careful observation teaches that a cow that is fat and in good health makes better butter and more butter than one of the same quality that is poor and emaciated, hence it must follow the cream of the milk, or the ^' butter fat," is in reality nothing more or less than Nature's surplus fat in the animal, and that in all beef cattle, whether steers or cows, that are fed each day more than the re- quirements to build up the broken down tissues, a surplus TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 135 fat is deposited. This fat, the cliemist decided, was as much a natural butter as though it had been skimmed from milk, and starting on this theory, worked out a plan, which has meant millions of dollars to this country in returns that have been made from the sale of fats that have been treated for this purpose, instead of being ren- dered for tallow purposes only. Hereafter to designate the difference between tallow and oleo oil, we will use the terms, '^ rendered tallow," and ^' melted oleo," as these terms describe the differ- ence between two distinct articles. In the rendering of tallow it is ]}ut into a tank and there subjected to about forty pounds pressure of steam, which is equivalent to a temperature of .about 280° F. Being thus cooked for eight or nine hours, the tissues which hold the fat cells, which look very much like honey- comb under a microscope, are thoroughly disinte- grated and burned, thereby giving the oil which is ex- tracted from them a high color, as well as a strong taste, thereby making it practically unfit to use for edible prod- ucts. Melted oleo is the product bf the fat which is put through the oleo house and is used in making oleomar- garine, or imitation butter. In this case the fat is first put through a hasher, which thoroughly disintegrates it, mangling as much as possible all the little cells and tis- sues, so that the heat readily gets at the oil cells. It is then dropped into an open kettle, around which is a jacket containing hot water. The temperature of the kettle is brought up to 150° to 155° F,, the mass being agitated during the jDrocess, and the oil is thus released from the cells. This temperature is not sufficient, however, to burn the tissues, consequently there is no bad flavor de- veloped and the oil, when properly treated, has a rich 136 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ereamy flavor, and is very palatable. The foregoing re- marks are inserted in a general way, so that the reader may readily understand the difference between tallow, as commercially quoted, and oleo oil, althongh both products are made from the same original material. OLEO FAT. Under this heading is designated all the fat that comes out of the animal when slaughtered which is saved in a FIG. 51.— CROSS SECTION OF OLEO OIL HOUSE. clean and wholesome condition. It is reasonable to sup- pose that all the fat in the animal, when killed, is abso- lutely of the same quality, but in the handling of this daring the course of slaughtering and treatment thereof, some of it necessarily becomes unfit for oleo oil purposes, and is therefore run into the rendered tallow. The amount which goes to the rendered tallow, or to the oleo fat, is regulated by the care and intelligence of the men TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 137 having this operation in cliarge, and if properly handled a very small percentage of the fat in the animal should find its way to the tank house, as it nets much better re- sults when put into oleo oil, as will be noted from the tests hereafter submitted. Fig. 51 represents a cross section of the top floors of an oil house, showing the location of hashers, melting and settling kettles, together with vats for chilling fats, and FIG. 52.— LOCATION OF HASHERS, ETC., IN OIL HOUSE. oleo presses. Fig. 52 shows plan of location of hashers and kettles, the dotted lines indicating location of chill vats on floor below for the reception of fresh fat after it has been run through the fat cutter where the fat is held until the animal heat is entireh^ taken out. The fat, as fast as taken from the animal, sho]ild be handled with care and cleanliness and put into cold water, 138 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE where it is thoroughly washed before going to the ice water to be chilled. Thorough chilling of the fat is a very essential feature in making oleo oil. In order that this may be done it is necessary that the fat be cut up so that the ice water can get at every part of it. The machine illustrated in Fig. 53 is used for cutting the fat while it is still warm, before it goes to the ice water. It is the most economical plan to have the chilling vats for the fat as close to the melting department of the oil house as pos- -OLEO FAT CUTTER. sible. There are a number of these vats used generally, according to the requirements of each particular plant, and they are set up side by side. Along the end of these vats should be placed the washing vat, or vat into which the fat first comes from the killing floors. The fat goes into this water, where it is thoroughly washed b}^ con- tinually immersing it in the water, when it is forked across to one of the permanent vats, which is either equipped with brine coils on the inside, or contains ice. Here the fat is graded, according to the quality of the dif- ferent oils it is to be used for, and is allowed to stand for TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 139 at least five hours, or until it has become thoroughly chilled. Every precaution should he taken to see that no fat goes to the hasher, or melting kettle, until all the animal heat is thoroughly removed. Failure to do this is not particularly noticeable in the oleo oil when made, but very soon afterward results in a deterioration of the oil. It is never objectionable to hold the fat from twelve to twenty hours, if necessary, in the iced or cold water, although five hours is all that is necessary to remove the animal heat. As the different kinds of fat have more or less dif- ferent flavors, it is wise to make careful selections in order to get the best results, it being impossible to make a grade of all No. 1 oil, 10 or 15 per cent of the total being- No. 2. The balance of the product, eliminating the 10 or 15 per cent, should be strictly No. 1 oil, but if the whole output is made into one grade, it would not be acceptable as No. 1. Hence it will be seen that it is the better part of wisdom to make two and sometimes three grades of this product, as indicated above. GRADING FOR 0LE5 OIL. Of all the oleo oil made in this country, 75 to 90 per cent is shipped to Holland, where it is made into butter- ine and distributed throughout the continent and Eng- land. The requirements of these consumers seem to have changed within the last few years and the melters of oleo oil strive to get the oils in the condition to best suit the Hollanders' demands. A¥hat they seem to require is, first of all, a very neutral oil, or in other words an oil with as little flavor and smell as possible, whereas only a few years ago just the opposite was the case, and the whole endeavor at that time was to get an oil with as much flavor as could be made. In grading the fats a 140 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE neutral or No. 1 oil is obtained from the following parts : Caul fat. Ruffle fat. Caul piece of gut end. Briskets trimmed from the bed pickings. Crotch trimming from the bed pickings. Paunch trimmings. Pluck trimmings. Reed trimmings. Heart casing fats. For a No. 2, or second grade, wliicli, though it may realize nearly as high a price as the first oil, is an oil of high flavor, the following parts are used : Gut ends — small fat. Chipped fat, which is taken off of the middle guts. Machine fat, which is fat taken oft of round guts by the fatting machines. Heart trimmings. Pluck trimmings. Miscellaneous bed pickings of the second grade. Kidney fat. Clean trimmings from cattle which are being cut up for can- ning or sausage purposes. Skimmings from scrap vat of No. 1 oil. A third grade of oleo oil, which will be quite inferior to either of the other two named, but for which at times there is a good demand, often netting more than the same product would, if made into rendered tallow, is made from the following trimmings : Head fat. Fat trimmed from cattle heads when cheeking. Plucked sweetbreads trimming. Liver trimmings. Bladder trimmings. Fat from chilled beef tongues, when they are trimmed. Miscellaneous fats from other departments, which is kept clean. The first washings from the oleo press cloths before soda has been used. Scrap vat skimmings from the second grade of oil. If fat is graded as above suggested, and handled properly in the different departments in the oleo house, satisfactory grades of oil should be made. The accompanying illustration (Fig. 54) shows the kind of kettles originally used for the making of oleo oil, TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 1-11 and their arrangement. These kettles are made of cast- iron, one kettle placed inside of another, and the space between filled with boiling water. Owing to the thickness of the metal the radiation from the jacket is more or less sluggish and is easily controlled. The hasher most generally used, as per accompany- ing view (Fig. 55) is what is known as the '' Enterprise " hasher. It is the same style of machine as is used in the manufacture of sausage, but is of a special pattern to the FIG. 54.— DIAGRAM OF OLEO OIL KETTLE. extent that it is jacketed on the outside, it being necessary to use steam in the jacket in hashing cold* tallow, other- wise the hasher would be clogged up and the tallow would not go through. The first kettle is called the '' melting kettle," the mid- dle kettle the " clarifier," and the other kettles the '' small kettles." It will be noted that in this method of handling, the two small kettles are required to hold the contents of one clarifier. As stated before, this is the first type of kettle put into practice and is still in opera- 142 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tion in many plants, and altliougii the author does not recommend this particular type he considered it advis- able to describe it in detail. A LATEE STYLE OF OLEO KETTLE. A more modern style of oleo kettle very extensively used in all the large melting establishments, is illustrated in Fig. 56, The advantage of this kettle over the other is its economy of operation as it takes no more of the man's '- ' I FIG. 55.—" ENTERPRISE " HASHER FOR OLEO OIL MAKING. time to melt a kettle holding 5,500 pounds of stock than it does the old style kettle shown in Fig. 54, holding 1,500 pounds. Further, the kettles known as the claritiers and the small kettles are, by this method, combined into one settling kettle, shown in Fig. 57, the settling kettle being practically the same size as the melter, and is placed directl}^ under it. When the fat is melted it is siphoned into the settling kettle, the same as in the other method described, but is held in this kettle longer, and is tlior- TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 143 FIG. 56.— MODERN KETTLE FOR MELTING FATS FOR OLEO OIL. 144 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE oughly settled before being drawn into the seeding trucks. In this operation the melted fat passes through a pipe J y~3 PIPE. VERTICAL JOINTS DOUBLE ! WIVETB D STAGGERED. FIG. 57.— SETTLING KETTLE FOR OLEO OILS. which is somewhat enlarged or funnel-shaped, and over the end of which is fastened a screen consisting of three or four thicknesses of bags made from canton flannel. TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 145 The stock, when drawn into the truck, has to pass through this flannel, which strains it, taking out a great deal of tissue or other foreign matter which may be in the oil. In the general handling of these kettles, it requires about thirty-five minutes to hash a kettle of oil weighing about 5,500 pounds. It takes about one hour to melt (the temperature at the time of melting should be about 150° F.), about one hour to settle in the melting kettle, and two hours and thirty minutes to settle in the receiving kettle, drawing off same at a temperature of about 120° F., into the seeding trucks. This particular style of kettle is not only more economical in operation but also to in- stall. The results in yield are the same with either style of kettle. No. 2, or flavored oil, is handled in the same manner, except that it should be melted at 155° F. No. 3, or the low grade oil, is handled the same as above, except that it is melted at 165° F. OIL HOUSE INSTEUCTIOlSrs. First. — See that the fat comes to the house in good condition, properly trimmed, all pieces of meat, lungs, guts, etc., being completely removed, and that the fat is handled promptly, without allowing it to lie around and become partially stale and sour before it is received at the department. * Second. — When it is received, don't allow the fat to l^ile up in the vats ; see to it that the ice water has come in contact with all parts of it and thoroughly chilled it. When caul fat is extra heavy it is well to examine all the largest pieces closely and see that they are all thoroughly chilled through. Third. — Arrange to have no ice or cooling pipes in the vat where the fat is received, it simply being thrown in 146 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE here to give it a thorough washing. The next vat to which it is thrown, however, should have cooler pipes. The reason for this is to save refrigeration. The water in the vats into which the fat is first thrown must be changed daily, but in the vat in which the fat is chilled, the water need not be changed more than twice a week, if kept cold continuously. Fourth. — Do not begin hashing until the fat is prop- erly cooled, and the animal heat all removed. It will take from three to five hours to accomplish this, under or- dinary conditions. Fifth. — It is wise never to begin hashing until there is fat enough ahead to either finish the day's work, or at least to keep the house running and to hash a kettle full regularly, as it is impracticable to stop in the middle of the operation of hashing a kettle of fat, for when once commenced it must be continuous. Sixth. — In the beginning turn sufficient steam on the hasher to facilitate the cutting, having the material come through as cold as possible. If too much steam is used it partially melts the fat in the hasher and disintegration is not perfect. Seventh. — For melting kettles which hold about 1,400 pounds of hashed fat about half an hour should be re- quired to do the hashing. While the capacity of the hasher might be much greater it is well to have the fat partially melted during the course of hashing, so as not to have too large a body of unmelted fat in the melters. Eighth. — The time for melting, settling and letting down the stock into the clarifiers from the melting kettles should not exceed two hours and twenty minutes. As soon as hashing is begun, the agitator should be started revolving. When through hashing, the man over- seeing the melting, after allowing the agitator to run five TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 147 or ten minutes, should lift it out of tlie kettle and clean it off thoroughly with a paddle, and then drop it back into the kettle. In doing this the fat that has accumulated around the center of the kettle, where no heat is avail- able, will find its way to the outer surface where it comes in contact with the hot sides of the kettle and is melted. If this is not done several times during the course of hashing, unmelted fats will be found in the bottoms when they are ready to drop to scrap vat. The steam should be turned on in the jacket of the ket- tle as soon as hashing is started. Keep the steam on until the fat shows a temperature of 140° to 142° F. The steam should then be shut off and the surplus heat in the kettle will run the fat up to 150° F., which should be the maximum melting point for No. 1 neutral oil. No. 2, or the flavored oil, may be melted at 155° F. No. 3, or low- est grade of oil, may be melted at 160° F., and in some instances 165° F. As soon as it is evident that the fat is thoroughly melted the agitator should be stopped and pulled out of the oil, and it should stand at least an hour, the steam being shut off from the jacket, giving it a chance to settle. On this particular process depends the entire result of the making of oleo oil, as the fat being so thoroughly dis- integrated in the hasher when it is melted, a great deal of tissue from this fat is held in suspensiorl in the oil and it must have very careful handling in order to get it thoroughly settled out. Jf it is not all removed from the oil, the latter will turn strong from the decomposition of the tissues. After the oil has settled throw in about fifteen to twenty pounds of fine salt, scattering it thoroughly over the surface of the oil, the salt having the effect of carry- ing with it any unsettled tissues which may still remain 148 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE in the oil. The top of the oil should then be carefully skimmed for, as will be noted, there is quite a scum float- ing on the top when it is settled. After this is done the siphon pipe (see Fig. 56) is dropped down into the oil and the oil is taken off very carefully from the top of the scrap. It is very essential in drawing this with the siphon pipe that as little scrap and water as possible be taken with it. After the oil has been taken off as far as pos- sible with the siphon the bottom valve of the melting kettle is opened, dropping the contents into the scrap vat. The kettle should be thoroughly washed and cleaned be- fore it is used again. Ninth. — The oil is now in the clarifier and should be kept at a temperature of about 140° F. It should be al- lowed to remain in the clarifying kettle about an hour, and during this time should lose about ten degrees in temperature, perfect settling being possible only by low- ering the temperature of the material. It should also be lowered about ten degrees in the settling or small kettles. While oil is in the clarifier, sprinkle about four pounds of salt on the top of the stock. As soon as it is settled skim immediately, and again a second time before the oil goes into the smaller kettles. Skim the oil in the small kettles before letting same into seeding truck, if re- quired. It should not require to be skimmed in the small kettles if handled properlj^ in the clarifier. It should be drawn off into the seeding truck at a tem- perature of 120° to 125° F., care being taken at all times in siphoning the oil from the different kettles to see that no water has gotten into the oil. As it is impossible to draw the oil all out of the different kettles with the siphon, the oil that is left in the bottom of the kettle each time should be taken back and put into the melting kettle and allowed to run through with the next melting of fat. TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 149 Tenth. — Be particular to have the kettles washed each time after being emptied and see that they are kept at proper heat to receive each lot of fat when ready. Eleventh. — See that all water, siphon pipes, and draw- ing-off pipes to the seeders be thoroughly scalded and steamed out before drawing, as there is invariably an accumulation in these pipes, which if allowed to go un- cared for will turn rancid and injure the quality of the oil. SEEDING TEUCKS. The seeding truck plays a very important part in the handling of oleo oil and is one of the points where a great FIG. 58.— OLEO SEEDING TRUCK. deal of trouble can be developed if not properl}^ watched. When the oil is drawn from the small kettles into the seeding trucks there should be no signs of m\j water. If there is any water left in the oil it naturally goes to the bottom of the seeding truck, the water being the heaviest. The oil being at a temperature of 120° to 125° F., and it being three and sometimes four days before it is taken out, the heat thus held in the oil, together with the water 150 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE that may be in the bottom, causes a decomposition and the result is " sour bottoms," which are very offensive. If any of this sour material has gotten into the press, the stearine will be spotted and out of condition. The oil will also show it more or less, so that it is absolutely nec- essary that this particular point be given very close and careful attention. It has for many years been considered necessary that the seeding truck be lined with galvanized iron, and in fact many of the large melters today are using this style of truck. The seeding truck, however, which gives the best results is a plain wooden truck (see Fig. 58), with- out any lining, made of basswood, or whitewood, which are odorless, and can be readily cleaned and kept sweet. The objections to a truck lined with galvanized iron might be summarized as follows: In the first place, as will have been noted in reading the instructions, considerable salt is used in the material, more or less of which is left in the oil. Now when the melted fat is drawn off into the seeding trucks and is left to stand for three or four days, this salt attacks the iron, and if not watched very carefully small pin-holes will be eaten through the iron, the result being that the gal- vanized iron pan will leak into the wooden box proper. Again, every time the seeding trucks are emptied, they are thoroughly washed and steamed out and more or less of this water for washing finds its way in between the lining and the wooden box. ^Hien the seeding truck is filled with oil, the weight of the oil causes this water, which is held between the iron and the wood, to ooze into the oil, causing '' sour bottoms " and the manager is at a loss to know why his oil is not as good as it should be. This particular point has caused the loss of a great many thousands of dollars in the manufacture of this TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 151 product, even though it is apparently a very unimportant matter. In handling wooden seeding trucks, the reader's atten- tion is called to a very important item to be considered, and if not carefully looked after the results will be unsat- isfactory. As shown, the oil is drawn into seeding trucks at a temperature of about 120° to 125° F., a temperature of itself which will shrink wood very rapidly, therefore the trucks should be made out of thoroughly kiln-dried lumber, which should be extra kiln-dried, because the heat of the oil will cause further shrinkage. The bottom and sides of the truck are bolted together with a bolt running through them and one on either end, so that any shrink- age of the wood can be taken up. The same is true of the sides of the truck. In each of the joints, after they are perfectly made, a strand of wicking should be put in be- tween the edges, so that when it is drawn down it forms a perfect packing. As is well understood, the shrinkage of wood is mostly crosswise of the grain, there being very little lengthwise; thus it will be seen that the wood in these trucks, both at the sides and at the ends, must be put in so that it will all shrink uniformly. And now comes the point which must be watched closely. The bottom of the truck will naturally shrink sidewise and if the bolts are drawn up it stops the opening, while if the sides of the truck shrink, the bottom bolts can be di^awn up, readily stopping the leak. The ends of the truck must have the grain running up and^down instead of crosswise, for if the bottom of the truck joins sidewise and the end pieces are running crosswise of this grain, it will be impossible to draw the bottom up tight, on account of lack of shrink- age of the ends where the grain runs lengthwise of the end. The grain, therefore, of the end pieces should run up and down and be thoroughly bolted together, then 152 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE when the truck shrinks, as it naturally will, the shrinkage can be immediately taken up, all parts alike, and the truck kept perfectly tight. The room into which the seeding trucks with their contents are run should be held at a temperature of 85° to 90° F. The material in the seeding trucks, which is now called ^' stock," should be pressed at a temperature of from 78° to 84° F., according to its quality, as well as to the percentage of stearine which it is desirable to make. The lower the temperature at which the oil is pressed the more stearine will be retained in the cloths. After the stock is chilled to above temperature it will be found that a granulation has taken effect and a very fine oil will be observed on the top of the truck, whereas the heavier and granulated parts of the fat will be at the bottom. This should be thoroughly mixed up before it is sent to the press by a man simply running his hands into the fat and pulling it up from the bottom, care being used to see that he does not scrape the bottom of the cooler. If there is any moisture in the bottom of the truck he would spoil the condition of the stock by mixing it thoroughly. Whereas, if it is not agitated, when it is taken out of the truck the bottom can be examined, and, if it is good, it can be used; otherwise it should be sent to the tallow tanks. After the stock is thoroughly broken up or mixed it is ready for the press, it first being wrapped in cloths. Fig. 59 shows an oleo press of the " knuckle " type. This is the type of press generally used in all oleo oil factories at the present time, being found preferable to the hydraulic presses. The cloth used in connection with this press is a medium weight piece of ducking canvas, which is cut in the proper sized pieces, about 18 inches square. The cloth is first put on the "'former," which is filled with a TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 15: dipper full of stock; the attendant wraps it up carefully and the man filling the press as it conies around in the wheel, takes the wrapped stock and lays it on the plate, using eight bags of stock on each plate in the press, generally using sixty steel plates for each press. FIG. 59.— KNUCKLE TYPE OLEO OIL PRESS. When the press is full the power is turned on. The slow speed should be used almost exclusively after the press is started in order to give the oil sufficient time to seep out through the canvas. The oil as it comes out of the press should run to a receiving tank, as many of these tanks being used as is 154 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE necessary to keep the different grades of oil separated. AVliere oil is being made in large quantities it is always advisable to have the receiving tank hold sixty tierces, or a car load of oil, for if smaller receivers are used the oil is liable to run irregular. The quality of oil varies, as does the quality of cattle ; for instance, choice native cattle, which are very fat, make a finer, better oil than western cattle which are not in good condition, and as the killing is always liable to run irregular, if the oil is not assembled in large quantities, ■12-0 1L '"'"'-'^'-'^M -^ THICH OUTLET. CAP/AC/TV owe: carload FIG. 60.— OLEO OIL RECEIVER. makes from the different grades of cattle will show dif- ferent qualities of oil, and if this is often perceptible, manufacturers soon acquire the reputation of making ir- regular oil. When that reputation is once established buj^ers scrutinize closely before making purchases. The receivers for the oil, above mentioned, should be either jacketed or have a boat bottom; that is, one vat placed inside of the other (see Fig. 60), so that the tem- perature of the oil in the receivers may be regulated, but under no conditions should steam pipes be used in connec- TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 155 tion with oleo oil ; all heating should be done by radiating surfaces with hot water. In having the vat made with a boat bottom it is simply necessary to fill up the space with water and turn on steam, holding the water at the desired temperature. The oil in the receiver, when ready to be tierced, should be raised to a temperature of from 116° to 118° F., and then drawn off, the tierces being filled through a side bung. After the tierce is filled it should be rolled away and left undisturbed in a temperature of 50° F. for at least four days. The oil thus handled will show a granulation, which is very desirable. If the oil is not allowed to stand until it has thoroughly granulated, or " seeded " it will come out smooth or pasty, and pasty oil is very objectionable to the purchaser. If the oil is not drawn off at this temperature it will be found difficult to have it seed properly, as it chills too quickly for a good granulation to take efifect. It is not wise to draw the oil into a temperature lower than 50° F. After the oil has been seeded it can be kept in any storage that is available below 60° F., but it must be put into the refrigerating temperature for the first three or four days in order to get the best results. STEAKINE. Stearine is the product which is left in the cloths after pressing the stock from the seeding trucks. This product is used for many purposes, but largely for the manufac- ture of compound lard on account of its " titer " test, which is the method of determining the hardness of fats. Ordinary tallow will run 413/2 to 43, titer ; oleo oil runs 40 to 42, titer; oleo stearine should run 50 to 52, titer. After the oil is thoroughly pressed out, the press is run up and the stearine taken out of the cloths. The 156 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE stearine should be thrown into a bin where there is an abundant circulation of pure air, in order to thoroughly take the heat out of the stearine ; for if it is put into the FIG. 61.— STEARINE PACKER. package too warm, a mold will form which deteriorates it and reduces its value. After it is thoroughly chilled it is put up into packages, either by pounding it, or by TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 157 means of a machine, recently invented, which is being used very generally and which saves a great deal of labor and puts more material into the package. An illustration of this machine is given in Fig, 61. Stearine, after being put in packages, can be held for thirty days in almost any kind of storage. If held longer than that, it should be put into a room kept at a tempera- ture of from 40° to 45° F, and which is perfectly dry. Stearine, generally speaking, is a very unsatisfactory article to carry any length of time, for, in pressing, any moisture which may be in the stock is left in the stearine, and if carried for some time this moisture produces a dis- coloration, which is known to the trade as " spotted stearine." It also causes a moldy or musty smell, which injures it for edible purposes, and while it is often car- ried for months for an anticipated rise in the market, it is quite as often regretted that it was not sold when it was in good condition for the market. OLEO OIL AND STEAEINE PACKAGES. Stearine is always packed in slack packages, the regu- lar package being 34 inches high, 90 inches in circumfer- ence at the bilge and 23% inches across the head, with eight patented hoops. Oleo oil is always put into a special tierce which is 34 inches high, 81 inches in circumference at bilge and 21 inches across heads, with six iron hoops. OIL HOUSE YIELDS. i The yields of oleo oil and stearine from stock are reg- ulated largely by the prices of the ditferent articles, as, for instance, when oil is low and stearine is high it is advisable to press the stock at a lower temperature, mak- ing all the stearine possible. Reverse the conditions and it is advisable to press the stock at a high temperature, making all the oil possible, hence the general yield of oil in stearine is largely regulated by the price of the two 158 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE articles, but the yield of stock from the raw tallow is something which interests all melters, and it is of vital importance that the fats be purchased by melters on a safe basis as to yield. As will be noticed, fat gains very materially in weight when put into water, as it absorbs a large amount, and in purchasing fat for melting purposes this must be taken into consideration. SCRAP VAT. Another vessel which requires a great deal of atten- tion and in which the yield in the oil house can be very materially increased and improved by proper handling is the scrap vat. After the fat is melted and the oil si- phoned off, the balance or residue in kettle is drawn out of the bottom into the scrap vat, which is located directly under the melting kettle. This kettle should be kept full of hot water at a temperature of about 130° F. and when the scrap is dropped in the oil will immediately come to the surface ; this should be skimmed off promptly, for if it is allowed to lie in the scrap vat a bad flavor will result and it will then have to be sold as an inferior grade of oil ; but if skimmed as stated this strong flavored feature may be avoided. When through melting for the day, the steam should be turned on the scrap vats to bring them up to a tem- perature of 190° to 200° F. This will release any fat yet remaining in the scrap, which should be skimmed and used for a lower grade of oil, as it will have a strong flavor. The balance of the scrap is then sent to the tank house, where it is cooked under pressure and the remain- ing oil taken out. TESTS OlSr OIL HOUSE YIELDS. The following are from actual tests showing the pounds and percentages of yield of different kinds of fat when made into oleo oil. The tables, as will be noted, TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 159 only show the percentages of fat in oleo stock, this con- sisting of the oleo oil and stearine before it has been pressed : TEST NO. 1. Caul fat run to No. 1 oleo oil: Hot weight from beds (dry) 1,505 lbs. Chilled twenty hours, net weight 1,937 lbs. (^ain from hot weight 28.70%= 432 lbs. Weight of chilled fat to oil house 1,937 lbs. This fat, hashed into melting kettle, cooked one hour and five minutes, settled one hour, drawn into receiver, settled two hours, and drawn into coolers, gives following: Yield of oleo stock. . . .1,238 lbs. = \ ?|-ff2'/'°'^ T?-n J^^^-^L I 63.91% from chilled weight Ruffle fat ru7i to No. 1 oleo oil: Hot weight from beds (dry) 1,518 lbs. Chilled twenty hours, net weight 1,735 lbs. Gain from hot weight 14.29%= 217 lbs. Weight chilled fat to oil house 1,735 lbs. This fat, hashed into melting kettle and cooked one hour, then settled one hour fifteen minutes, after which drawn into receiver and again settled for two hours, and drawn into cooler, gives following: Yield of oleo stock. . . .1,018 lbs. = \ ^IfJ^^ .^^^ I'^l, Z^'-^\, I 58.67% from chilled weight TEST NO. 2. The second test is very similar to the first, except that it is made on the " peck and reed " fat, which is always used in a No. 1 oil. Peck and reed fat to oleo oil: Hot weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,082 lbs. Through small wash vat to wash (weight from water). 1,211 lbs. Gain in washing from hot weight 11.92%r= 129 lbs. Weight to chill vat 1,211 lbs. Chilled sixteen hours, weight \ 1,255 lbs. Gain from washed weight 44 lbs. Gain in chilling from hot weight 15.90%= 172 lbs. Weight chilled fat to oil house 1,255 lbs. Handled in the usual way gives following: ( 67.19% from hot weight Yield of oleo stock 727 lbs = -| 60.03% from washed weight ( 57.93% from chilled weight TEST NO. 3. The third test is chipped fat used for No. 1 oleo. This is a fat which is cut off the middle gut, when being fatted. 160 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Chip fat to No. 1 oleo oil: Hot weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,500 lbs. Through small vat to wash (weight from water) ... .1,639 lbs. Gain in washing from hot weight 9.26%^ 139 lbs. Weight to chill vat 1,639 lbs. Chilled eighteen hours, weight 1,760 lbs. Gain from washed weight 7.38%=; 121 lbs. Gain in chilling from hot weights 17.33%= 260 lbs. Weight chilled fat to oil house 1,760 lbs. Handled in the usual way, gives following: /•65.40% from hot weight Yield in oleo stock. . .981 lbs. = J 59.85% from washed weight (55.74% from chilled weight TEST NO. 4. Test No. 4 is made on the gut end fat, which consists of miscellaneous trimmings from the gut, ends, etc. No. 1 gut end fat to oleo oil: Net weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,347 lbs. • Through small vat to wash (weight from water) ... .1,514 lbs. Gain from hot to washed weight 12.40%= 167 lbs. Weight to chill vat 1,514 lbs. Chilled twenty hours, weight 1,532 lbs. Gain from washed weight .1.19%= 18 lbs. Gain to chilled from hot weight 13.73%= 185 lbs. Weight of chilled fat to oil house. 1,532 lbs. Handled in usual way gives following: (61.39% from hot weight Yield of oleo stock 827 lbs.= \ 54.62% from washed weight (53.98% from chilled weight TEST NO. 5. This was a test to determine the value and yield of caul and ruffle fat from 165 cattle. Test on caul and ruffle fat: Total weight 5,252 lbs., av. wt. per head, 32 lbs. Yield "A"' oleo oil 52. 38%=2,751 lbs. at $8.15 per cwt. $224.21 Yield No. 1 stearine. .22.92%=!, 204 lbs. at 8.65 per cwt. 104.14 Yield skimmings to No. 3 oil 1.71%= 90 lbs. at 6.40 per cwt. 5.76 77.01% Yield scrap to tank 421 lbs. Yield tallow 19.24%=81 lbs., at $ 4.60 per cwt. 3.73 Yield tankage (dry) 3.80%=16 lbs., at $17.50 per ton .14 $337.98 Value per cwt. of fat $6.43 Value per head of fat 2.05 TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 161 The prices per 100 pounds on oil, stearine and skim- mings are the market prices at time test was made, less department expense for 60c per 100 pounds. The price on tallow is market price less 40c per 100 pounds, depart- ment expense. TEST NO. 6. The following is a test of tripe fat made into No. 1 oleo stock: Tripe fat to oleo oil: Hot weight from trimming bench (dry) 1,639 lbs. Through small vat to wash (weight from water) .. .1,860 lbs. Gain in washing from hot weight 13.48%= 231 lbs. Weight to chill vat 1,860 lbs. Chilled twenty hours, weight 2,009 lbs. Gain from washed weight 8.01%z=: 149 lbs. Gain in chilling from hot weight 22.57%= 370 lbs. Weight chilled to oil house 2,009 lbs. Handled in the usual way, gives following: ^65.28% from hot weight Yield in oleo stock, 1,070 lbs. = < 57.53% from washed weight (.53.45% from chilled weight MUTTON FAT. The fat derived in the killing of sheep is often used to good advantage in making mutton oleo oil. There are times when there is a ready sale for this oil, in which event it is run in the oil house by precisely the same rules as those laid down for the melting of beef tallow. The yields on mutton fat are considerably less, however, than on beef fat. When it is not advisable to put it into mutton oleo, it is nearly always advisable to make a mut- ton tallow, providing there is sufficient amount of the raw stock on hand to^ warrant it, as mutton tallow in- variably brings a better price than ordinary commercial tallow. Mutton tallow runs considerably higher in titer than ordinary tallow. It is also much whiter and is often used in the manufacture of cosmetics, etc. When made of the oleo oil it should be made separate from beef fat, 162 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE as the titer qualities of mutton oleo and stearine are much less than they are in these products made from beef, both having the tendency to become rancid if held for any length of time. Man^^ lard refiners have discovered that where a complaint was made regarding the quality of their lard it was traceable to their oleo stearine, in which mutton fat had been used, this fat having a tendency to turn the lard rancid much earlier than where beef oleo stearine is used. COST OF HANDLING FATS IN OIL HOUSE. The following memorandum will cover in a general way the expense of handling fats in the oil house : Per 100 lbs. Labor $0.20 Ice or refrigeration .06 Salt 01 Tierces for oil 17 Tierces for stearine 06 Total cost raw fat per 100 lbs $0.50 KIDNEY AND COD, PICKINGS AND BONES. Kidney fat yields the largest percentage of stock of any fat in the animal. The fat in this particular part seems to be richer in oil and in the general handling of same it rarely goes into the water to absorb additional weight, as it is generally purchased from the retail butch- er after the carcass has been cut up. This in itself is a large branch of the business, in many places inciters making a practice of collecting from the butchers their bones, tallow and fat. The following test will give an idea of the yield of the different products brought from a butcher's shop, when used in an oleo factory or tank room. The prices quoted are those that were paid at the time tests were made. The percentages, however are accurate. TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 16^ STOCK YIELD FROM 649 POUNDS OF KIDNEY AND COD FAT. Stock 507 lbs., or 78.12%, at Oi/aC per lb.=$ 48.16 Expense Pkgs., $1.45; labor, $1.27= 2.72 Net value $45.44 Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of fat, $7.00. STOCK YIELD FROM 2,004 POUNDS OF PICKINGS. Stock 1,124 lbs., or 56%, at 9%c per lb. =$106. 78 Expense Pkgs., $3.83 ; labor, $5.01= 8.84 Net value $ 97.94 Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of fat, $4.89. TALLOW YIELD FROM 10,787 POUNDS OF BONES. No. 1 tallow 1,513 lbs., or 14.02%,, at 6%c per lb.=$ 98.34 Stock of tankage. 1,750 lbs., or 16.22%, at $16 per ton= 14.00 Waste 7,524 lbs., or 69.76%. Expense, labor 2.25 Net value $110.09 Value per 100 lbs., based on weight of raw bones, $1.02. SUMMARY. Per 100 lbs. Net value kidney and cod fat $7.00 Net value pickings , 4.89 Net value bones 1.02 Net value kidney, cod and pickings combined 5.40 Net value kidney, cod, pickings and bones combined 1.89 The above is based on green weights. No deductions for steam power and administrative expenses. The following is the percentages of products used in above test: Per cent. Kidney and cod ^ 4.83 Pickings 14.91 Bones 80.26 100.00 TEST ON OLEO SCRAP. The following is a test on the scrap from foregoing test after all the oil had been extracted, which was put into a rendering tank and cooked for twelve hours with forty pounds pressure: Scrap to tank Produced tallow 1,195 28.14 Produced pressed tankage 434 10.33 164 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The following is an analysis of the tallow and pressed tankage : Per cent. Tallow, titer test 43.70 Free fatty acids 2.50 Pressed tankage, dry basis — Nitrogen 9.I6 Phosphoric acid 4.77 Ammonia 11.13 Bone phosphate 10.41 Grease 15.54 LABOR I:N^ oil HOUSE. Oleo Melters. — Under this heading are classified ali men in the oil house necessary to handle the raw mate- rial, run the hashers, operate the melting kettles, and draw the oil into the seeding trucks. The number of men named in appended table in a well-regulated oil house should handle some 75,000 to 80,000 pounds of fat per day. The cost of this labor is $3.16 per hour, or $31.60 13er day of ten hours ; the cost per 100 pounds of handling fat to this point, $0.0405. LIST OF OLEO MELTERS AND WAGES PAID. No. men Position Rate per hour Total 1 Foreman (^33.08 per week- time charged) -one-half ^0.19 .30 .17^ .30 .12>^ .35 .17;^ .33>^ .17 ) .30 i ^0.19 1 Chill vat sub foreman .30 7 2 1 1 1 1 2 Chill vats. Hashers Hasher chute boy Melter Melter helper Settling kettle Oil drawers j one } one 1.33>^ .40 .13^ .35 .17;^ .32>^ .37 17 ^3 16 Oleo Presses. — Under this heading is placed all the men necessary for handling the stock, pressing the oil, TALLOW, OLEO OIL AND STEARINE 165 tiercing oil, packing stearine, and doing miscellaneous work about the house. The number of men specified in the list below should be able to handle 50,000 pounds of stock per day of ten hours. Cost of gang, $3.65 per hour ; cost of gang per day of ten hours, $36.50 ; cost per 100 pounds of material handled, $0,075. Wages given are those in vogue in the large packing centers at the present time. WORKMEN AT OLEO PRESSES AND WAGES PAID. No. men 1 1 8 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 Position Foreman (^23.08 per week — one-half time charged) Clerk (^13.50 per week) Assistant foreman Wheel men Shaking out Oil drawer Scraping coolers Scrap vat Stearine packer Piling tierces Stock breaker Janitor and truck washer Rate per hour Total go. 19 go. 19 .32>^ .32^ .22;^ .23>^ .ll'A 1.40 .12>^ .37>^ .18% .18K .V.Yz .17K .llYz .11% .riYi .llVz .ny. .11% .viYz .ii'A .iiYz .11/2 g3.65 166 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER VIII. PREPARATION OF HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE. BONE DEPARTMENT. The bone department in the modern packing house is where the bones from slaughtered animals are cared for and prepared for commercial purposes. Nearly all bones that are of any value come from cattle, and to this department are generally sent the horns, skulls, jaws, feet, shank bones (from cattle that are cut up), thigh bones and blade bones. Other bones from the animals, when cut up in large quantities, are cooked for tallow, and afterward for glue purposes. Bones thus handled are over-cooked, are unsalable as a hard bone product and are sold under the head of " steam bone," which is generally used in fertilizers, and their value is cal- culated on a bone phosphate basis. Hard bones consist of those that are not cooked sufficiently to extract the glue, but enough to remove all grease. These bones are used for various manufacturing purposes and it is under the designation of ' ' hard bones ' ' that all the bones from this department are sold. They are cooked in open vats at a temperature of from 190° to 200° F. Excessive boil- ing brings the bones out in what is known to the trade as a " chalky condition," and greatly injures the value. BONE PRODUCTS. According to Prof. P. T. Austen, small bones are also converted into bone charcoal, which is largely used HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 167 for the purpose of bleaching sugar and m various medic- inal preparations. Bones are used for a great variety of purposes, in- cluding the manufacture of bone charcoal for bleach- ing, empyrheumatic oils ; tallow ; black pigment for paint- ing, shoe blacking and tilling sheet rubber for over- shoes; bone dust for manure; sulphate of ammonia; cupels; vitrified bone for use in making opal glass, and in the manufacture of knife-handles, combs, fans, but- tons, etc. Bones also furnish gelatine and glue, and are the starting point for the manufacture of phosphorus. HOKNS. This is the first product of the bone department which we will mention, as it is one of the most valuable. Owing to the dehorning of cattle as well as the breeding of polled cattle on the range, the supply of horns has been greatly diminished, and whereas twenty-five years ago horns were worth $20 a ton they are now worth from $280 to $300 per ton if they are of the proper selections, hence it will be seen that careful and in- telligent handling is necessary to save this particular product in the best condition. The method for so doing is as follows : The horns after being sawed off the head are thrown into a vat of water that is held at a tempera- ture of from 140° to ISC F. After^ being exposed to this heat for ten or fifteen minutes they are taken out and by hammering the horn across some solid substance, or by laying it on a^ block and pounding it with a weight or mallet, the pith slips out. The piths are then sent to the dry room, where they are dried, and later used for the manufacture of glue. The horn itself should be put into a room where there is plenty of outside air circula- tion and not too dry. Artificial heat will cause them to 168 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE break, which injures their sale. Horns are used for the manufacture of combs and various other ornamental articles. In the course of manufacturing the tip is sawed off to the hollow part of the horn. It is then split open and put under hydraulic steam pressure, flattened out, and the articles manufactured from it when in this con- FIG. 62.— CATTLE HEAD SPLITTER. dition. Any checks or flaws in the horn damage it for manufacturing purposes. If they are submitted to ex- cessive heat in drying or if they are stored in a room that is warm and dry they are sure to become damaged. It is therefore advisable to dry them in a room where there is circulation of air from the outside. When in storage they should be placed in a cellar or room where there is more or less moisture, but not enough to cause them to mold. ' In Fig. 62 is shown a machine which is used exclu- sively to split cattle heads for the purpose of taking the HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 169 brains out whole. With this machine the heads are split after the jaws are pulled. The head is laid on the table with the teeth up. This knife is made with a semi-cir- cular space in the sharp edge which comes down over the brain without touching same as the balance of the blade is forced through the skull, leaving the brain intact while separating the skull bones. Where a large number of heads are handled in this way it saves a great deal of labor. It is always desirable to remove the brains be- fore cooking the skulls, as the bones become discolored if the brain is left in the skull. SKULLS, After the cheek meat has been trimmed from the head, the jaws pulled out, the head split and brain re- moved, the skull is ready for the cooking vat. Before being cooked, however, it should be thoroughly washed, as there is a large amount of clotted blood usually ad- hering to the skull, and if not well washed the grease which is derived from the cooking is discolored and in- jured. For the same reason the brain is removed. In connection with the washing, it i,s always well, when the vat is filled, to turn on the steam and bring the water up to a point where the grease does not begin to melt, and draw this water off. It will be found to be discolored. The parboiling greatly adds to the appearance of the fat or butter stock. The vat is then filled with water sufficient to cover the skulls and the steam turned on, bringing the temperature up to 190° to 200° F. After that the steam should be graduated so as to hold the temperature at above point eight and one-half or nine hours, when the heads will be found to be cooked suffi- ciently, so that all meat and grease will fall off. The skull is then put through a revolving washer with a 170 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE spray of warm water which will wash off all the meat and refuse left hanging to them, and they are then ready for the dry room. They should be dried for about twelve hours at a temperature of 110° to 120° F. accord- ing to the facilities for drying, when the bones are ready for shipment. JAW BONES. Jaw bones should be handled practically in the same FIG. 63.— BONE SAW WITH IRON FRAME. way as skulls, except that they should be cooked from nine to ten hours. FEET. In the handling of the feet the first consideration is to see that they are not allowed to become dry on the killing beds. They should be removed from the beds as fast as cut off, as there is always considerable blood and dirt accumulation on them. It greatly adds to their appearance and to the facility with which they can be HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 171 handled if they are put through a revolving washer and all the manure and dirt thoroughly washed off. The next operation is to skin off the cords on the front and back of the legs, this being used for glue purposes, care being used not to cut too deep into the heel of the foot, it being preferred to leave some glue stock on the foot rather than to cut too deep and remove the fat which goes to make up the neatsfoot oil which is much more valuable than the glue stock. After the glue stock has FIG. 64.— BONE SAW WITH WOOD FRAME. been removed the foot goes to the bone saw (see Figs. 63 and 64), where the knee end of the l^eg is first cut off, cutting back just far enough to expose the marrow. The piece thus cut otf goes in with the bones known as the knuckles. The shin bone is next cut off from the foot near enough to the joint to barely expose the marrow. The front shin bones are termed " flat shins," and the hind bones " round shins." These are used in the manu- facture of bone ornaments and articles. Round shin 172 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE bones should be cooked five hours at a temperature of from 180° to 190° F. ; flat shin bones should be cooked six hours at a temperature of 190° F. After they are thoroughly cooked they should be allowed to stand for about an hour and the grease which is used in the neats- foot oil should be carefully skimmed off into an ordinary tank. After the bones are thus cooked they should be thoroughly washed, and are then ready to be dried. Where this work is done in sufficient volume, a very practical device may be used which is a revolving rack, FIG. 65.— REVOLVING RACK FOR BONE WASHING. illustrated in Fig. 65, into which the bones are placed and tumbled for about an hour. Any loose pieces of meat that may adhere to the bones are thus removed and by sprinkling them continuously with hot water while re- volving it has the effect of polishing the bones and they come out of the tumbler in a very smooth condition, look- ing much better than if they were hand-washed. After this the bones should be placed on racks on the floors to be air dried, a room with a temperature of 70° to 90° F. being sufficiently warm. If excess heat is used on HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 173 these bones they will ' ' check ' ' which damages them ma- terially. After they are thoroughly dried they should be FIG. 66.— POAVER HOOP PULLER. stored in a bin, in a room where the temperature does not exceed 80° F. The balance of the foot, after the shins are cut off, next goes to a scalding vat, the temperature of the water FIG. 67.— HAND HOOF PULLER. being from 150° to 170° F. After they are sufficiently scalded the hoof is pinched off, either by hand, or by a machine designed for that purpose. Two practical ma- chines for this purpose are shown in Figs. 66 and 67. 174 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The feet are then put into a vat and cooked, the bones thus obtained being classed as ^' knuckle bones." They are cooked at a temperature of 200° to 210° F. for nine hours. After they are thoroughly cooked they should be given an hour to settle, when the oil is taken off and the bones put through a revolving washer where they are thoroughly cleaned and sent to the dry room to be dried, after which they are ready to be marketed. NEATSFOOT OIL. This is a product which requires very careful hand- ling and thorough drying out, as any moisture left in this oil tends to injure it and cause an excessive amount of free fatty acid. The oil, after being skimmed from the vats, should go into a receiving tank which is jack- eted ; the steam should be turned on and the oil brought up to a temperature of 210° to 215° F. and ten to fifteen hours allowed for settling. The bottom should then be drawn off, as all the water and impurities will settle, after which the steam should be turned on again and the oil brought up to a temperature of 240° to 250° F. and held there for one or two hours, this having the effect of drying it, evaporating all the moisture. After it has been iillowed to stand until it has cooled down to a temperature of 80° to 90° F. it can be put in tierces. The drying feature in handling this oil is very essential to its production in a satisfactory condition for the trade. SINEAV GLUE STOCK. This part of the product, after having had plenty of time to drain the water out of it as much as possible, should be taken to a cool, although not necessarily re- frigerated room, and thoroughly salted. It is often found necessarv to overhaul it and resalt it in order to HEADS AND FEET OF CATTLE 175 keep it from " sweating." After it has been cured ten days or two weeks it is ready for the glue department. The following test shows the average yield from head and feet of 130,470 cattle, same based on the market prices prevailing at the time the test was made. While prices vary the percentages given are accurate. AVERAGE YIELD OF HEAD AND FEET ON KILL OF 130,470 CATTLE. Product Yield per cent Market price Value per ton per gal. per lb. per head Skulls 4.079 2.289 2.641 1.744 .147 .456 1.198 .956 .518 1.061 3.580 .698 1.072 1.899 1.730 1.160 .650 1.068 $18.00 18.00 18.00 22.00 50.00 21.00 42.00 30.00 200.00 19.00 16.00 $0.03 .03 .03 "!o6k "!62k .OQH $0.0367 Jaws $0 .64 0206 Knuckles.. 0237 Hoofs .0191 Hoofs, white Piths Round shins Flat " , . Horns .0036 .0047 .0251 .0143 .0518 Neatsfoot oil .0905 Cheeks 1074 Head meat 0294 Fine " .0321 Sinews 0180 Tallow 1167 Tankage Brains .0092 .0146 Head oil .0726 Total value \ 1 $0.6901 176 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ^ CHAPTER IX. PREPARATION OF CASINGS. DESCRIPTION OF CxVSINGS. Casing is a product made from the intestines of cat- tle, sheep and hogs, when they are slaughtered in quan- tities sufficiently large to warrant the care and attention required. Before the advent of the modern packing house this was one of the products which was entirely lost where animals were slaughtered on a small scale. It is a product worthy of a great deal of consideration and careful attention must be given to its production in order to have it turned out in a good, marketable con- dition. Casings consist of round or small guts, middle or large intestines, bungs, weasands and bladders, these being the different descriptions of casings that are ob- tained from slaughtered cattle. THREE ESSENTIAL POINTS IN HANDLING CASINGS. First. — Good, clear water. Second. — That they be handled promptly and not al- lowed to accumulate and lie around, as they become dis- colored, and the color of casings has much to do with their value. Third. — That the man cleaning them does not use water too hot so as to injure them, and that they be turned out with as many whole pieces as possible. These PREPARATION OF CASINGS 177 points being followed closely will aid greatly in the gen- eral results. ;, As fast as the casings are cleaned they should be measured into sets of 108 to 110 feet each. A standard set of rounds is supposed to measure 100 feet, but the larger measure is alloX^red as in the salting and curing they shrink so that when measured, as above given, they will not exceed 100 feet when salted. A set of rounds should not have to exceed five holes, or consist of more than live pieces, the less the number of either holes or pieces the more desirable. After they are thus measured they are thrown into a salting box, where they are shaken up by hand so as to make all the salt possible adhere to them; the casings being wet the salt adheres readily. They are then thrown into an old barrel which is bored full of holes, or else piled up in an open truck, so that all the water possible will drain off. After \ymg in this condition for a day they are taken up and resalted and packed into tierces, 210 sets to the tierce, ready for shipment. It is necessary, in order to get in this amount of casings, to use pressure and press them ip very tightly, glucose packages being used for this purpose. Casings are put up for export and domestic purposes, the export rounds being reasonably narrow and abso- lutely free of knots. The knots referr^ed to are small abrasions on the sides of the intestines which are often found in the entrails of native cattle, or cattle that have been highly fed, these knots being looked upon as objectionable in the foreign trade. The color of the casing, if properly handled, should be of a reddish tinge, and the smell absolutely sweet. The casings, after they are packed, should be put in cold storage, where the temperature ranges from 38° to 45° F., and should 178 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE PREPARATION OF CASINGS 179 be watched occasionally to see that the liquor is not al- lowed to leak off, as it injures them to become dry, CLASSIFICATIOlSr OF CASINGS. Ronnd Casings. — These are first run off from the ruf- fle or fat, care being taken in running them that they are not cut and that as little fat is left on them as possible. This casing should be taken out in two pieces, it being impracticable to leave full lengths on account of the danger of tearing it in removing the contents. After they are cleared of the contents, they are put through the fatting machines (Fig. 68), or if no machine is used are scraped by hand, removing all the fat that adheres to them. It is essential that all the fat on the casings should be removed, as it is much more valuable than the casings themselves and is detrimental if left on. After they have been " fatted " they are put into a vat of water and '' turned," which process turns them wrong side out, exposing the internal part of the intestine. This is then put through the sliming machine, which removes all the membrane. This operation is sometimes done by hand. "When this work is completed it is only the muscu- lar portion of the intestine that remains. After they are thus finished they are measured, inspected, tied into bundles and put into the first salting. After remaining one or two days in the salt they are resalted and packed into tierces. Domestic Rounds. — These are rounds used for do- mestic trade in this country. They are wider and heavier than those exported and it is not considered essential that they should be absolutely free from knots. They are handled the same, however, all the way through, and are packed from 150 to 170 sets to the tierce, the differ- ence in the number of the sets indicating that they are 180 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE wider casings and not as carefully selected as the ex- ports, which are packed 210 to the tierce, the number of sets indicating, to some extent, the quality of the goods. Beef Middles. — After the ruffle has been pulled off from the intestines on the gut bench, the middles are pulled out, leaving on all the fat that will adhere to them. The contents of the intestine is washed out and the gut then goes to the fatter, who cuts off all the fat with a knife. It is a very important part of the work to see that no fat is left on the casing, as the next operation is to turn it inside out; any fat which may be left on the casing cannot then be removed, and will detract very much from the appearance of same when used for sausage purposes. After these casings are thoroughly cleaned they are measured 62 feet to the set, allowance being made for shrinkage in salting, so that after they have been salted they will measure 57 feet, this being the commercial length required. These are handled on the salting benches, etc., the same as rounds. They are selected as follows : They must be of prime quality, properly cleaned, slimed and salted, closely fatted, free from holes, good color and smell, no piece to be less than 3 feet in length, not more than one such piece in a set, and the thin end of the gut must be cut off. They should be assorted in accordance with requirements into — Narrows packed 140 sets to the tierce Wides " 95 " " " Regulars (which means the run of the house) " 110 " " " " Beef Bungs. — These consist of the end of the large intestine, which is cut off an average length of about 4 feet, which will vary according to the size of the cattle. The opening where the small intestine connects with the large should be in the center. These are han- PREPARATION OF CASINGS 181 died and packed the same as tlie casings heretofore described. Bungs, handled practically the same as the pre- viously described casings, must be of good quality, full length, jDroperly cleaned, slimed, salted and fatted, free from holes, reasonably free from scores and cuts and of good color. The regular run of these casings should be packed 400 pieces to the tierce, tied in bundles of five each. Beef Bladders. — Bladders should be cut with a long neck and after they have been fatted should be blown up as large as possible and hung in a dry room to dry. After they are blown and dried, the necks are cut off and they are flattened out and packed in bundles of twelve each. The first grade consists of bladders 14 inches in length, with or without necks. The second grade consists of bladders from 11 to 13 inches in length with the neck. The third grade consists of bladders, with or without necks, not under 9 inches in length. Beef Weasands. — After the meat has been trimmed from the outside the weasand is turned wrong side out, washed, both ends tied, and blow*n full of air. After they are blown with air pressure they are hung in a dry room, which should have a temperature of 110° to 120° F., and left there until thoroughl}^ dried. They are then taken out, the ends cut oif , the weasands ^put into bundles of twenty-five each, twenty bundles tied together into a large bundle, five or ten of these large bundles constitut- ing a case. Regular weasands must be of prime quality, properly dried, entirely free from worms, and at least 24 inches long, allowing not over four pieces of shorter (same to be at least 18 inches long) to the bundle of twenty-five. Two of such short ones will be counted as one full weasand. 182 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Narrow weasancls are those which, while being dried have a weight of about four pounds hung on the end, drawing them out as long as possible, which has the tendency to make them narrow. These should not be blown as full of air as those that are not thus handled. After they are dried they must be at least 26 inches long and from 2 to 2y-_> inches in width when flattened out. Other conditions same as the regular weasands, except that they must be entirely free from skin worms and skin-worm marks. Bung Gut Skins. — From the bung gut is often re- moved the outside membrane, known as the " bung gut skins." These are used by gold beaters. They are handled as follows : The bung gut skins should be started at the cap end, being careful to remove the skin for about 4 to 6 inches from the end of the cap, then re- move same around the bung end, back of the cap end first, and next take off toward the open end, after the bung is skinned back as far as possible beyond the small intestine. These skins are very thin and difficult to re- move; there is no difficulty experienced, however, in get- ting them 30 inches or over in length, if properly han- dled. After the skin is removed it is placed in a pail of ice water, and, when well chilled, is salted thoroughly in the cap and outside. The object of putting the skin in ice water is to facilitate handling. After they are thoroughly salted they are hung over a bar covered with a piece of burlap and allowed to hang for one or two days, until they are thoroughly drained, or dried. When dry each skin is separately handled, the loose salt shaken off and examined for holes and fat and ragged ends. Holes near the edge of the skins can be cut out without materially injuring them. All fat on the edge and ragged ends should be cut off. After the PREPARATION OF CASINGS 183 skins have passed this inspection they should be spread full length and width on a table, one over the other, gathered in bunches of fifty, tied in the center and packed in a tierce. Care should be taken in handling the skins not to let them come in contact with any iron that will produce rust or discolor them. Many casing- men object to removing the bung gut skins, believing that it injures the casing. If they are handled care- fully, however, the injury will not be more than 5 per cent. YIELD OF CASINGS. Beef Rounds. — The length of these varies in the an- imal from 90 to 130 feet. In the finished product, under proper management, they should run about 102 or 103 sets of rounds per 100 cattle. Middles. — The length of these in the animal varies from 18 to 35 feet, the former measurement in young cattle, the latter in old. Tlie average should be from thirty-eight to thirty-nine sets of middles per 100 head of cattle. Bungs. — Bungs if handled carefully should yield from 95 to 98 per cent. Weasands and bladders the same. The average cost per head for labor of cleaning and handling beef casings should be about I31/5C to 14c per head of cattle killed. The salt used for salting casings is a medium fine grain evaporated salt. 184 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER X. THE TANK HOUSE. coisrsTRUCTioisr and operation of a tank house. This department is almost an innovation which came in with the modern packing house. When packing was done promiscuonsly throughout the country, sufficient offal was not collected at any one point to necessitate a tank house, and consequently, in a small way, open ket- tles were used with either a fire under them, or jacketed for steam, and the best of the tallow was thus rendered, while all of the offal was thrown away, it being impos- sible to render offal to any advantage under these con- ditions. For this reason the tank, or ' ' digester " as it is called by many, was evolved. It consists of a very strong, tight tank, which is usually operated under forty pounds steam pressure, giving a temperature of nom- inally 280° F., this high temperature having the effect of thoroughly disintegrating all the parts that go into the tank, and liberating all the grease. The residue from cooking in this manner, after being thoroughly pressed. is dried and sold as fertilizer. The effectiveness of this process is shown, for instance, by the fact that if a hun- dred cattle heads are put into a tank, after the cooking nothing is found of them except the teeth, the bones being entirely disintegrated. Probably few departments of the packing house need closer attention than the tank house. It is not an THE TANK HOUSE 185 inviting place and consequently does not ordinarily re- ceive the attention necessary to get the best results. After the material has been cooked and allowed to settle, the greases are drawn from the side of the tank, as far as possible, and the remaining contents dropped into a vat where the mass is as thoroughly skimmed as possible of all grease. It is then put into the hydraulic presses where what grease is left is pressed from it. It is only within the past few years that much atten- tion has been paid to tank house construction, but it is PIG. 69.— LONGITUDINAL SECTION MODERN TANK HOUSE. found that a building properly designed for this purpose saves a great deal of expense and labor,^ and as the labor in this department is expended largely on the less val- uable material, such as the fertilizer, it is found advan- tageous to build correctly. Figs. 69 and 70 present sec- tional views of a modern tank house. It will be seen that the tanks are high enough from the floor to give sufficient room for the scrap vats, and under the scrap vats ample room is left to run the press carriages, so that the ma- terial can be drawn directly from the scrap vat into the 186 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE presses. It was formerly allowed to fall to the floor and was shoveled into the i^resses. In Fig. 71 is given a sectional view presenting details of a rendering tank and the method of supporting same with iron construction. Tanks for this purpose have to be put up very rigidly as the tank is very heavy in it- self and contains upward of 20,000 pounds weight when iilled. The tank shown in the illustration is known as the ' ' drop gate ' ' type and the segments which form the false 'bottom of the tank are put in in such a way that FIG. 70.— CROSS SECTION MODERN TANK HOUSE. their own weight holds them in place, as may be noted in the view shown. The false bottom put in is perforated and the steam for cooking the contents is admitted at the bottom of the tank under the plate, thereby giving the steam a chance to permeate the entire mass. With- out a device of this kind the steam is liable to find its way up on the side of the tank, heating the tankage in some places and leaving it cool in others, in which case the material sours. This false bottom also aids in draw- THE TANK HOUSE 187 FIG. 71.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF REJ^DERING TANK. 188 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE THE TANK HOUSE 1S9 ing the water out of the tank during the process of cook- ing, preventing the solid matter from stopping up the outlet. Fig. 72 presents an outline view of a scrap vat, to-' gether with valves, gates, etc., such as is now in general use in modern packing house plants. A feature which is of great advantage to the life of the tanks, is the cast iron head (Fig. 73). It was for- merly the practice to put in the tank a head made either with segments or dished, extending from 4 to 12 inches FIG. 73.— DETAIL OF CAST IRON HEAD FOR RENDERING TANK. above the floor. In order to work with any degree of comfort around these tanks it was necessary to have the floor fit tight to the side of the tank, which being the case, the water and residue worked in between the tank and the floor and invariably damaged the tank all the way around where the floor came in contact with it, so that it was rendered unsafe long before it was otherwise worn out. If a space is left between the floor and the side of the tank, the water and refuse will run down on the tank and cook onto the sides until it becomes very offensive. 190 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Therefore on the side of the head is placed a flange, which goes completely around the tank, having a dis- charge at the lowest point, so that any water which may FIG. 74.— DETAILS OF MAN-HOLE HEAD AND CRAB. seep through between the floor and the tank is caught in this gutter and runs off into the vats, thereby leaving the tanks perfectly clean and avoiding the offensive THE TANK HOUSE 191 odor which would otherwise be developed in the tank room by the continual seepage on the hot tanks. It also saves the tanks very materially from the wear and tear which is caused by rusting. In Fig. 74 is shown details of the man-hole head and crab used with this cast iron head. HOW TO COOK A TANK. After the tank has been thoroughly cleaned, draw in about two hogsheads of water, for a 7 x 14 foot tank, or a proportionate amount for tanks of other sizes, turn on the steam, bring the water to a boil and then begin filling the tank. Allow sufficient steam to enter to keep the tank boiling continuously. When the tank is two-thirds full, shut off the steam, draw off the water and put in about as much more cold water; again turn on the steam, bringing the contents to a boil the second time. Do not fill the tank to exceed three-fourths full, as the cooking is better done if sufficient room is left at the top for the '' roll." After cooking for a half hour, draw off the water a second time. It will be found, especially ii\ cooking freshly killed matter, that the water thus drawn off is very dark col- ored, as it carries with it a large amount of blood and dirt that has accumulated on the tissues. If this is not drawn off it has the effect of darkening th^ lard or tallow very materially. After the water has been drawn off the second time, put in the tank head afid turn on the steam, the conden- sation from the steam being sufficient to cook the mate- rial; no more water is needed. See that the blow-off and escape pipes are shut and the pet-cock is open. Con- tinue cooking in this manner until a moderate pressure is secured on the tank, then set the safety valve at' forty 192 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE pounds, open the blow-off valve leading to tlie safety valve wide, open the escape valve just enough so that you may know the gas is escaping, and shut the pet- cock. At the completion of this operation the cooking of the tank begins. A tank of tallow should cook thor- oughly in from nine to ten hours with forty pounds pressure. Oftentimes freshly killed material will be found to lie closely together and a " cold spot " will be found in the tank — a spot where the material has become partially solidified and the steam has not penetrated. In such case, if the tankman will shut off the steam, draw off all the water, and then turn on the steam, the cold spots will disappear. " Cold spot " has the effect of souring lard and tallow; in other words before the heat has pene- trated into the solid mass, the heat surrounding it will have caused it to sour. This is a point that should be closely watched, especially in tanking lard. Tankmen should try the pet-cock on the tank each half hour to find out if the tank is " flush." If the tank is ^ " flush ' ' or foaming, the foam will come out in- stead of steam. In this case shut off' the tank ten min- utes, then draw off the water, but see that no grease is drawn off with it. The cause of the flushing, or foaming, is that the tank is too full, or that there is too much water in it, consequently it is necessary that the tank- in an should try his pet-cock very often during the opera- lion of cooking to see that the contents is being properly cooked. The material from catch basins (which consist of pockets in the sewers where any grease or fats may be caught that otherwise escape through the sewer) and partially cooked stuff from different departments should be handled very promptly and gotten into the THE TANK HOUSE 193 tank as soon as possible, as the stuff quickly decomposes if allowed to lie about, and the longer it is out of the tank, and the more decomposition takes place, the more free acid it will develop. After the tank has cooked about ten hours, shut off the steam and open the pet-cock of the tank for about ten minutes, then open the escape valve, being careful i3ot to give it too much escape at first, or the tank will '^ roll." By this is meant that the extreme heat of the material will generate steam, which, as soon as the press- ure is relieved, will cause the material to ' ' raise ' ' or boil very violently, but if the pressure is removed from the tank slowly, this condition will not appear. When a tank has ' ' rolled ' ' it takes a great deal more time to settle it, the grease being thoroughly mixed up with the residue of the tank. As the pressure dies down the tankman can increase the blow-off. When the pressure is off the tank, take out the head and use about a water-pail full of fine salt in settling the tank. This salt thrown in and scattered around in the tank has the effect of carrying with it sediment and tissue which may be held in suspension. The tank should stand about two hours before running off the fat, which gives it a chance to become thoroughly settled. Draw off the fat from the side valves of the tank, as clean as possible, into coolers. It is often necessary, in doing this, to raise the contents of the tank, as there may be considerable tallow or lard below the lowest draw-off valve. Such being the case run water into the bottom of the tank sufficient to raise its contents so that all the ren- dered fat will have a chance to escajie through the low- est valve. In places where the tank water is saved, it is always advisable to have some of this water in a vat above the 194 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE FIG. 75.— HYDRAULIC LARD AND TALLOW HOOP PRESS. THE TANK HOUSE 195 tanks, so that when they need raising, it can be done by simply drawing this tank-water into the bottom of the tanks. When handled in this manner, it saves putting additional fresh water into the tanks, which will later on have to be evaporated. After the fat is drawn out of the tank, the residue is dumped into the scrap vat. Anything that has not been thoroughly cooked will float on top in the vat. These floaters should all be skimmed off and put back into the tank to be re-cooked. The tankage, after being thor- oughly agitated with a pole or rake, should be cooked for about ten minutes with live steam, then it is allowed to settle and the grease is skimmed off the top. The skimmings thus obtained all go back into the tank for the next cooking. In taking off the skimmings take as little water as possible with them. As soon as the oper- ation of the skimming of the vat has been thoroughly accomplished the contents are in the proper condition to be pressed and should be handled while still hot. PKF.SSING TATifKAGE. Different types of presses are used in dift'erent methods; for instance, many small killers, where their offal is not saved, will use an open kettle, either fire or steam heat, in which to render their tallow and lard. In material thus treated, when thorougMy cooked, the scrap will rise to the top of the oils and is very hard and crispy. A hoop press is used for this material, into which the scrap is forked and pressed, the oil or grease oozing out through the perforations on sides of the press (see Fig. 75). Where the material is cooked in a tank, under pressure, the residue is left in an altogether dif- ferent form, it being entirely disintegrated and so mixed with the water that it has to be pressed in cloths between 196 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE press racks, for which an entirely different press is re- quired (see Fig. 76). In the latter case when the material in the vats has been thoroughly skimmed it is handled in press cloths, FIG. 76.— HYDRAULIC TANKAGE AND FERTILIZER PRESS. which consist of a very heavy grade of burlap made especially for this purpose. In building such a press a rack made of 1 x i/j. inch material, usually elm, thor- oughly riveted together, is first laid on the press head. Next a frame of the size and depth required to handle THE TANK HOUSE 197 the different plates is used. The press cloth is then spread over them and the material drawn onto the press. After sufficient material has been drawn to make the plate 4 or 5 inches in thickness and well spread out, the cloth is carefully folded over the top of it. The form is then lifted off the press, another press rack is put on top of the plate already made, and the process repeated. Ten or twelve plates are generally used to a press. Plates should not be made too thick, for if the}^ are it is impossible to press the grease out as thoroughly as it should be. After the press is filled it is run into the hydraulic press proper and pressure applied. This should be done slowly at first, giving the water ample time to run out of the press. If the pressure is run up too fast the tendency is for the material to slide out on one side or other of the press, but if the water is pressed out slowly the material adheres better or gets a good " bond," so that it will not slip. After the press has run until the cakes are about one-half of their original thickness turn on a hose with hot water, thoroughly washing off the sides of the press. Then turn on more pressure until this reaches about 300 tons on a 5 X 5 foot plate. It will be found that it is the last pressing which brings out the grease. Where tankage is properly handled it should run from 11 to 14 per cent of residual grease on a dry basis, Where improperly handled it will oftentimes run from 18 to 20 per cent, the excess being lard or tallow which should have been saved, but worthless if left in tankage. When the fat is drawn from the tank it should first be run through a catch basin, which will retain any floaters or pieces of tissue which may come out with the fat from the tank. It then overflows to a receiving vat, 198 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE where it is allowed to settle. It is unwise to have any coils in receiving vats for either lard or tallow, as it in- terferes with the cleaning of the vats, and when steam is turned into the coils it has a tendency to discolor the fat. If receiving vats are simply set on the coils, sufficient heat will be obtained in the vat to warm the material at any time and at the same time not burn it. The vat should be set sloped toward one corner. From this corner the draw-off pipe, through which the fresh prod- uct is drawn out for tiercing or other use, should extend from 2 to 3 inches into the vat, thus avoiding the draw- ing of au}^ bottoms. Another opening should be just level with the bottom of the vat through which all water and residue can be drawn off and sent back to the tank to be re-cooked. Before drawing off the grease all water and residue should be drawn out of the lower pipe, and what is left in the vat after it has been drawn out of the pipe extending through the bottom should always be taken back to the tank and re-cooked. TANK WATER. In the cooking of different materials in tanks under pressure, the tank water is really the condensed steam used in the cooking, and is very rich with the sediment and the juices of material cooked, running as high as 8 and 10 per cent solids. The sediment obtained by evapo- rating this tank water is known to the trade as " con- centrated tankage," which runs from 15 to 16 per cent ammonia and is consequently a valuable by-product when saved. Under the head " How to Cook a Tank," attention is called to the advisability of using tank water '' to raise the tank " when drawing off the tallow or greases, THE TANK HOUSE 199 tlms avoiding an unnecessary amount of fresh water, as the fresh water must all be evaporated if put in with the tank water. After the tankage has been dumjoed into the scrap vats and all the grease skimmed off, the tank water should be drawn off into a separate vat ; it is then ready for treatment. The '' press water," which is the water from the pressing of the tankage, should also be caught and placed in the same vat. The material at all times, however, should be kept hot, for if it is al- lowed to cool off a decomposition sets in which renders it unprofitable to handle. The temperature should never be allowed to go below 160° F. There are several methods of utilizing this product. It being of a peculiar nature, the animal salts, which are left to a large degree when it evaporates, soon draw moisture unless neutralized. For instance, it may be evaporated and dried to a powder, but unless it is prop- erly treated it will turn to a liquid form in storage, or when exposed to the air, becoming about the consistency of coal tar. In that condition it is valueless. One method of converting this product into a mer- chantable article is to reduce the tank water in vacuum pans to a consistency of about 28° to 30° Baume, as it comes from the vacuum pans. It is then pumped into a '^ mixer " made of cast iron, equipped with heavy cast iron paddles, and to 800 pounds of this evaporated water, or " stick," as it is now called, are added 175 pounds of cooked and pressed beef blood, 25 pounds of raw 60- degree sulphuric acid, and 120 pounds of chemical. The chemical referred to is made as follows : Take a lead-lined vat holding about 200 gallons ; into this put about 160 gallons of 60-degree sulphuric acid, adding water enough to make the solution about 12° Baume. Into this solution throw old scrap iron of any descrip- 200 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tion and allow it to stand until the solution will dis- solve no more iron. It is then pumped into a shallow lead-lined vat with lead coils, and evaporated to about 40° Baume. It is next drawn off into barrels of fifty gal- lons each and to each barrel forty pounds of black oxide of manganese are added and thoroughly mixed. After the tank water has been thoroughly treated with this chemical, and the other materials mentioned, in the mixer, it is ready to go to the drying ovens. These consist of ovens through which heat is forced artificially, the ' ' stick ' ' being put into pans about 14 x 20 inches in size and 4 inches deep. Into each pan is put about ten pounds of this wet " stick." After it has been dried for about twenty-four hours the pans are dumped, the '' stick " going through a breaker, and it is then ready to be ground and shipped. The above method of drying ' ' stick water ' ' has been largely superseded in the last few years by using instead a roller heated with steam (Fig. 77), Much greater economy in operation, for labor as well as for repairs, is secured by means of this machine. The acids used in neutralizing the animal salts in the water are very detri- mental to all kinds of wrought iron, the pans and ovens eating out very rapidly. This machine is made of cast iron rollers, revolving at about eight to ten revolutions per minute. The evaporated stick is put on the roller at a consistency of about 30° Baume, a thin film of this material sticks to the roller and before it gets around to the scraper the internal heat of the cylinder has dried it and the scraper at the bottom of the roller scrapes it off. ' When dried the product is known to the trade as '' concentrated tankage " and sells on an ammonia basis. In arriving at a value of products thus sold, an THE TANK HOUSE 201 analysis is made showing the unit or percentages of anunonia in the product. The price of the product per ton is then regulated by the price per unit according to the analysis. Example: — Blood analyzing 16 per cent ammonia, and selling at $2.00 per unit, would mean that the blood was worth $32.00 per ton. A higher or lower analysis would increase or decrease the price. Concentrated FIG. 77.— DOUBLE " STICK " DRYER. tankage sells usually from fifteen to twenty-five points less than blood on this basis. It should run between 1414 and 16 per cent ammonia. Another method of treating the tankage, and one more generally used, is to mix the tank water directly with the tankage, after the former has been reduced to 25° Baume, the mass being dried in regular steam dryers. The addition of the tank water, of course, has 202 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the effect of increasing tlie ammonia in the tankage, thereby enhancing its value. Before the tank water can be used in this manner, however, it is essential that it be treated with chemicals, otherwise when the tankage containing this " stick " is dried it will, very soon after exposure to the air, become pasty and unsalable. The method of treatment is as follows : The tank water, after being run off from the tanks, is held in a large vat or vats for from ten to twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 180° F., for the purpose of getting all the grease possible out of the water. It will be found that after allowing the water to stand for some time at this temperature, quite an amount of grease will rise upon it. The different vats of tank water are then tested with a Baume hydrometer and for every 2,000 gallons of tank water at indicated degree, Baume, ordinary commercial copperas should be added as follows : Water testing 5° Baume 166 lbs. dry copperas 41/2° " 150 " " 4° " 133 " " 31/2° " 117 " " 3° " 100 " " These varying amounts of copperas are put into a barrel of hot water and thoroughly stirred until dis- solved. The solution is then poured into the vat of tank water, the mass allowed to stand six or eight hours, and then skimmed off before being pumped to the evaporat- ing machine. It is there reduced by evaporation to a densit}^ of 30° Baume, when at a temperature of 180° F. It is next pumped into a storage vat so situated that it will gravitate onto the feeder of the dryer. After the tankage has gone through the picker the ^' stick " is admitted to the regular tankage, the two going into the dryer together. The " stick " at this point, which is about the consistency of cold molasses, THE TANK HOUSE 203 mixes readily with the ground tankage. In ordinary practice not to exceed 70 per cent of the '^ stick " pro- duced from the tank water may be utilized in the fer- tilizer in this manner. If either of the above methods is used, a great saving is effected by thus handling this particular product, instead of letting it run out to the sewer, as is generally the case, especially in the smaller packing houses. In order to realize the value of this product the reader is referred to the copy of a test, made by an ex- pert, on a plant handling about 5,000 cattle and 5,000 hogs per week, as follows : ESTIMATE OF THE PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF TANKAGE MADE BY EVAPORATING TANK WATER. TEST FOR AMOUNT OF WATER DRAINED OFF VATS BEFORE PULLING TANKAGE. Tank Product Gallons Av. gallons No. No. 1 1 o 2 3 3 4 6 9 10 10 11 11 Prime tallow (cutting room bones, etc.) . . Prime tallow (bed fat, etc. ) . 1,445 1,734 1,589 No 1,645 1,365 1,426 1,827 No No (I i( (1 It No, it 1 ( a a ^ 1,566 No No, 2 tallow (catcbbasin stuff) 668 905 562 624 847 No Pluck tank No. No. No 735 No r ■ Prime steam lard 1,382 1,248 No. 1,315 TOTAL NUMBER OF TIMES TANKS FILLED AND COOKED. Product. No. Tanks Prime tallow with cutting room bones 6 Prime tallow with bed fat, etc 10 No. 2 tallow 6 Pluck tanks 13 Prime steam lard 6 Total .41 204 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE BASIS FOR ESTIMATE OF PRODUCTION. No. of Tanks Average contents gals. Total con- tents gals. Solids per gal. lbs. Total solids lbs. Per cent Ammonia Units of Ammonia 6 10 6 13 6 1,589 1,566 668 735 1,315 9,534 15,660 4,008 9,555 7,890 0.88 1.03 .399 .763 .0481 8,390 16,130 1,599 7,390 380 16.76 16.89 14.59 16.85 16.00 1,406 3,734 333 1,338 61 46,647 33,789 16.73 5,653 Total units of ammonia per tank, 5,652. Average units of ammonia per tank, 16.73. 8 per cent of moisture, dry basis. This production at $1.66 per unit would be worth $27.77 per ton, or the yearly production would bring $24,396.32. Figuring the production of tankage to be 66,000 pounds per week and that with this could be mixed through the dryer 600 pounds or 107.3 gallons of " stick," 25° Baume with each ton of dry tankage — then thirty- three times 600 pounds, or 19,800 pounds, would be the limit of production from the tank water. The regular tankage runs on an average of 10 per cent ammonia and 16.4 bone phosphate, and as shown above the production from the tank water with 8 per cent moisture would run 16.73 per cent ammonia. The product would therefore consist of the following: Materials Weight pounds Per cent Ammonia Units Ammonia Per cent Phosphate Units Phosphate Regular tankag-e Evaporated tank wa- ter 66,000 19,800 10.00 16.73 6,600 3,313 16.4 10,834 Total production .... 85,800 9,913 10,834 Analysis, ammonia 11.55%, bone phosphate 12.62% Value per ton $19.93, or for the yearly production, $44,459.84. THE TANK HOUSE 205 Should there be added worthless material sufficient to reduce the percentage of ammonia to 10, the follow- ing formula would apply: Materials Weight pounds Per cent Ammonia Units Ammonia Per cent Phosphate Units Phosphate Regular tankage Evaporated tank wa- ter 66,000 19,800 13,320 10.00 16.73 6,600 3,312 16.4 10,824 Worthless material. . . . Total production .... 99,120 9,912 10,824 Analysis, ammonia 10%; bone phosphate 10.92%. Value per ton $17,251^, or for the yearly production $44,468.32 RECAPITULATION. Debit. Credit, Value of total production for one year. . $44,468.32 Value of tankage for one year $30,030.00 6 per cent interest on $10,000 investment 600.00 15 per cent depreciation on $10,000 in- vestment 1,500.00 Additional labor, five men, "full time"... 2,340.00 34,470.00 Net profit on investment $ 9,998.32 It will be noted from the recapitulation of this test that a depreciation of 15 per cent was allowed as well as 6 per cent interest on the investment, and at the same time it shows that $10,000 could be saved annually on a product which prior to that time had be^n running into the sewers. After a careful study of the tables and recapitulation as given above, any packer can compute the loss that he is actually sustaining by comparing the figures given with the volume of business which he is doing, and it will read- ily be seen that here is a product that is wasted in many cases that would yield handsome returns if handled as described. 206 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The percentage of solids and liquids, as well as the respective weights in tank water at different degrees Baume, are shown in the following table: TABLE FOR TANK WATER. Degrees Per cent Per cent Weight of Weight of Baume solids water cubic foot gallon 1 1.90 98.10 62.14 8.30 2 3.83 96.17 62.46 8.34 3 5.77 94.23 62.79 8.39 4 7.77 93.23 63.11 8.43 5 9.85 90.15 63.43 8.47 6 11.93 88.07 63.91 8.54 7 14.04 85.96 64.41 8.60 8 16.19 83.81 64.89 8.67 9 18.38 81.62 65.38 8.73 10 20.60 79.40 65.81 8.80 11 22.71 77.29 66.39 8.87 12 24.84 75.16 66.92 8.94 13 26.97 73.03 67.44 9.01 14 29.11 70.89 67.97 9.08 15 31.27 68.73 68.49 9.15 16 33.55 66.45 69.05 9.23 17 35.88 64.12 69.61 9.30 18 38.22 61.78 70.17 9.37 19 40.59 59.41 70.72 9.45 20 42.98 57.02 71.28 9.52 21 45.11 54.89 71.89 9.60 22 47.24 52.76 72.79 9.68 23 49.37 50.63 73.09 9.77 24 51.50 48.50 73.70 9.85 25 53.63 46.37 74.30 9.93 26 56.31 43.69 74.95 10.01 27 59.04 40.96 75.60 10.10 28 61.80 38.20 76.25 10.19 29 64.61 35.39 76.90 10.27 30 67.54 32.46 77.55 10.36 31 70.34 29.66 78.35 10.46 32 73.27 26.73 78.94 10.55 33 76.24 23.76 79.64 10.64 34 79.25 20.75 80.33 10.73 35 83.21 17.79 81.00 10.83 SERIES OF TESTS OlST TANKITSTG. The following is a series of tests showing yield of various materials cooked in tank: TEST ON TRIMMINGS AND SEAM FAT. Trimmings and seam fat taken from 327 pieces of tripe (2,060 pounds finished plain tripe) to determine value to tank. THE TANK HOUSE 207 Weight to test tank 1,300 pounds, value $1,273 per 100 pounds. Cooked in test tank four hours at forty pounds pressure. Yield of No. 1 tallow. .21.92%; 285 lbs. @ $5.60 per cwt. $15.96 Yield tankage 5.15%; 67 lbs. @ 17.50 per ton .59 Total value $16.55 TEST ON CONDEMNED HOGS— YIELD OF GREASE. Condemned hogs to tank 954 lbs. Yield of white grease 467 lbs. 48.95% Yield pressed tankage 173 lbs. 18.13% Yield dry tankage 86 lbs. 9.01% On the above the leaf lard was left in and heads off. COMPARATIVE TEST OF SHEEP HEADS AND JAWS TO TANK AND BONE HOUSE. 325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks off) to tank 765 lbs. Yield to tallow 73 lbs. @ $ 0.06 per lb. $4.38 Yield dried tankage 150 lbs. @ 19.00 per ton 1.42 Total value $5.80 Value, per head, $0.0178; tallow, 9.54%; dried tankage, 19.47%. 325 sheep heads and jaws (cheeks off) to bone house. .... .765 lbs. Yield to tallow 51 lbs. @ $ 0.07 per lb. $3.57 Yield dried bones 177 lbs. @ 18.00 per ton 1.59 Total value $5.16 Value, per head, $0.0159; tallow, 6.66%; dried bones, 23.14%. TEST ON TRIPE TRIMMINGS. Green weight to tank ^ 1,206 lbs. Yield prime tallow , . 356 lbs. 29.52% Yield tankage 53 lbs. 4.39% TEST ON CONDEMNED LIVERS. Green weight to tank 1,010 lbs. Yield No. 2 tallow ^ 42 lbs. 4.16% Yield pressed tankage 206 lbs. 20.38% Yield dry tankage 103 lbs. 10.19% TEST ON C.i.TTLE PECKS TO TANK. Green weight to tank 1,306 lbs. Yield No. 2 tallow 16 lbs. 1.22% Yield tankage 95 lbs. 7.27% TEST ON CATTLE PAUNCHES TO TANK. Green weight to tank 1,056 lbs. Yield prime tallow 94 lbs. 8.90% Yield pressed tankage 106 lbs. 10.04% Yield finished tankage 53 lbs. 5.02% 208 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE TEST ON HOG STOMACHS TO TANK, UNTRIMMED. Killed, 240 pigs and 836 hogs, a total of 1,076. Green weight to tank 2,845 lbs. Yield prime steam lard 1,275 lbs. 44.81% Yield finished tankage 188 lbs. 6.60% TEST ON WINDPIPES TO TANK. Green weight to tank 880 lbs. Yield No. 1 tallow 141 lbs. 16.00% Yield tankage 33 lbs. 3.75% TEST ON SHEEP PAUNCHES AND PLUCKS TO TANK. (Trimmings from sheep house.) Green weight to tank 1,150 lbs. Yield No. 1 tallow 105 lbs. 9.13% Yield pressed tankage 89 lbs. 7.73% Yield dry tankage 45 lbs. 3.86% TEST ON SHEEP (OFFAL). Green weight to tanks 28,680 lbs. Yield tallow No. 1 4,538 lbs. 2.28 lbs. per head Yield tallow No. 2 730 lbs. .37 lbs. per head Yield tankage 2,893 lbs. 1.46 lbs. per head TEST ON NECK TRIMMINGS FROM KILLING FLOOR. Green weight to tanks 880 lbs. Yield No. 1 tallow 397 lbs. 45.11% Yield dry tankage 49 lbs. 5.56% TEST ON SHEEP FEET TO TANK. Green weight to tank 1,170 lbs. Yield No. 2 tallow 40 lbs. 3.42% Yield dry tankage 148 lbs. 12.65% BEEF TRIMMINGS 209 CHAPTER XL BEEF TRIMMINGS. PICKLING FORMULA. In the slaughtering of live stock in large numbers there is a great accumulation of trimmings which has to be cured for the sausage room or canning department, as the case may be. The following formula will serve for the curing of beef, pork and sheep cheek meat and hearts, hanging tenderloins and other meats for sausage and canning purposes. To 1,100 gallons of seventy-degree pickle dissolve seventy-nine pounds saltpetre. Use this pickle for the curing of beef cheek meat, pig s^iouts, pork cheek meat, sheep cheek meat, ox-lips, beef hearts, etc. This ma- terial is usually cured in vats and should be overhauled in five, fifteen and thirty days after being packed. (The above pickle costs about three quarter^ of a cent per gallon.) WEASAND MEAT. This is a meat which is taken off the weasands. It is a low grade of meat and is at times ^' tanked " rather than saved, when trimmings are cheap. When saved it should be packed in tierces, and to a tierce of 400 pounds sprinkle thoroughly through same, when packed, a mix- ture of twenty pounds of salt and one pound of saltpetre. 210 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The goods should be held in storage at from 37° to 40° F. during the process of curing. BEEF TONGUES. This is a part of the animal which it is very essen- tial should receive careful attention from the time it is taken out of the head, until it is cured. The tongue should be left perfectly smooth on the bottom, leaving on all the fat. When it is taken from the head it should be cut close to the jaws, taking off with it all the fat pos- sible, as it is worth much more on the tongue than if left on the head. After the tongue has been thoroughly washed in water of from 70° to 80° F. (washing off all the blood and saliva), it should be hung in a cooler on a small hook at the point where it is cut off from the jaw, the point of the tongue also being put on the same hook. This gives the tongue a compact appearance, but if it is hung up by the point alone when warm, its own weight stretches it out of shape, and it never looks as well as when hung as described. Tongues should be hung in a temperature of from 34° to 38° F. for forty-eight hours, after which they are trimmed, according to size and demand, into either long or short cuts. " Long cut tongue " means that the gul- let and about two joints of the windpipe are left on. In •'short cut tongue •' the gullet is entirely cut away. Long cut tongue should average not less than five pounds in weight. When thoroughly chilled they are ready for curing. They should first be put into a plain pickel, eighty degrees strong, at a temperature of 38° to 40° F. for twenty-four hours. This is done to remove all the saliva from the tongue, which has the effect of making the pickle '^ strong," if the tongues are put direct into the curing pickle. BEEF TRIMMINGS 211 After treatment with plain pickle they are put into a sweet pickle to be cured, the sweet pickle consisting of 280 pounds of salt, English salt being preferable, to which is added ten pounds of saltpetre and twenty-four pounds of sugar to each 160 gallons of water. This should be stirred well to insure thorough dissolving of the ingredients. The tongues are then put into barrels, hogsheads or vats, as the case may be, and sufficient pickle put on to submerge them. At the end of tive days they should be shifted from one package to another, and at the end of fifteen days they should be re-handled, this being done to bring the pickle into thorough contact with the different pieces. Tongues should be fully cured at the end of thirty days, ready to smoke, or for ship- ment. When tongues are packed in barrels, after being fully cured, they should be packed, 202 pounds to the barrel, filling the package up with the same pickle in which they were cured. They are then ready for ship- ment. The trimmings from the tongue, after being chilled, should be retrimmed, as there is considerable fat on these trimmings that makes good No. 2 oleo oil. As there is an increased demand for tongues in the warm months over any other part of the year, where they are produced in large quantities, it is very advantageous to hold them frozen until the demand for them develops. In freezing them it is necessary that the}^ should be put in a very low temperature and frozen quickly, as if han- dled otherwise it has a tendency to give them an unde- sirable color when cured. In some instances it is advisable to freeze tongues, holding them in this condition until there is a demand for them, when they can be thawed out, cured, and smoked as required. The following test will give an ac- 212 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE curate yield of tongues thus handled, showing the per- centage of shrinkage, freezing, curing and smoking: TEST ON FREEZING BEEF TONGUES. Lbs. Per cent. Weight of twenty-five 5%-lb. beef tongues to freezer. .140 In freezer one week — weight 138 Freezing shrinliage 2;= 1.43 Tal^en from freezer to leacher — weight 138 Leached twenty hours in city water — weight 144 After leaching, drained twelve hours — weight 142 Gain leaching from frozen to drained weight.... 4= 2.90 Gain leaching from green to drained weight 2:;= 1.43 After leaching — pickled — weight to pickle 142 Rubbed in salt and packed in bbls. with seventy-deg. pickle to remain for forty-five days; overhauled in forty days, and five days later dumped at forty-five days weight 141 Drained eight hours — weight 139 Shrinkage from green to cured — drained weight. 1= 0.71 Shrinkage from leached to cured — drained weight 3= 2.11 Weight from cellar to smoke house 139 Smoked fifteen hours — average temperature, 116° F. — smoked weight 117 Shrinkage to smoked from green weight 23=16.43 Shrinkage to smoked from leached weight 25=17.60 Shrinkage to smoked from cured weight 22=15.82 CANNING TONGUES. Canning tongues are tongues usually taken from light cattle, and from which all the fat is trimmed. The bones are removed from the gullet, leaving nothing but the lean part of the tongue for canning purposes. The following tests will show the cost of converting '■^ long cuts " into " short cut tongues " and " canning tongues," indicating that the heavier the tongues the less they are worth for canning purposes, for in trimming, the depreciation is less on light tongues than on heavy ones. As will be noted, in each instance the trimmings are worth less than the original tongue ; therefore it increases the price of the trimmed product, as shown in the second line of each test: BEEF TRIMMINGS 213 TEST NO. 1. Converting long cut tongues, average four pounds, into short cut tongues: Ten long cut tongues 40% lbs. @ $0.09% $3.9731 Ten short cut tongues 34% lbs. @ .1127 Lean trimmings 3 lbs. @ .02^4 .0675 Fat 1 lb. @ .021/2 .0250 Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO^^ .0100 $0.1025 Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0470 $0.0555 Cost per pound of short cut tongues, $0.1127. The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues: Ten short cut tongues 34% lbs. @ $0.1127 $3.9163 Ten canning tongues 23% lbs. @ .1573 Lean trimmings 4i/^ lbs. @ .02% .1012 Fat 5 lbs. @ .021/2 .1250 Bones li^ lbs. @ .OO14 .0075 $0.2337 Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0530 $0.1807 Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.1573. TEST NO. 2. Converting long cut tongues, average four and one-half pounds, into short cut tongues: Ten long cut tongues 451/2 lbs. @ $0.09% $4.4362 Ten short cut tongues 38 1^ lbs. @ .1137 Lean trimmings 3 lbs. @ .02% .0675 Fat 1^ lb. @ .021/2 .0250 Bones 3 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0150 $0.1075 Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0470 $0.0605 Cost per pound short cut tongues, $0.1137. The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues : Ten short cut tongues 38i^ lbs. @ $0.1137 $4.3774 Ten canning tongues ^ 26% lbs. @ .1578 Lean trimmings 41/2 lbs. @ .02% .1012 Fat 51/2 lbs. @ .021/2 .1375 Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0100 $0.2487 Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0530 $0.1957 Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.1578. 214 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE TEST NO. 3. Converting long cut tongues, average five pounds, into short cut tongues: Ten long cut tongues 501/^ lbs. @ $0.10i4 $5.1762 Ten short cut tongues 43 lbs. @ .1191 Lean trimmings 314 lbs. @ .02i^ .0631 Fat 1 lb. @ .021/2 .0250 Bones ^Vz lbs. @ .OOyg .0125 $0.1006 Cost of trimming tongues and meat $0.0526 Cost per pound short cut tongues, $0.1191. The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues: Ten short cut tongues 43 lbs. @ $0.1191 $5.1213 Ten canning tongues 10 lbs. @ .1633 Lean trimmings 414 lbs. @ .O214 .1012 Fat 614 lbs. @ .021/2 .1563 Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0100 $0.2675 Cost of trimming tongues and meat. 0530 $0.2145 Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.1633. TEST NO. 4. Converting long cut tongues, average five and one-half pounds, into short cut tongues: Ten long cut tongues 541/2 lbs. @ $0,111/2 $6.2700 Ten short cut tongues 46i/4 lbs. @ .1340 Lean trimmings 3 lbs. @ .02% .0675 Fat 114 lbs. @ .021/2 .0312 Bones 4 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0200 $0.1187 Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0470 $0.0717 Cost per pound short cut tongues, $0.1340. The same short cut tongues converted into canning tongues: Ten short cut tongues 46i4 lbs. @ $0.1340 $6.2000 Ten canning tongues 33 lbs. @ .1800 Lean trimmings 4% lbs. @ .02% .1068 Fat 61/2 lbs. @ .021/2 .1625 Bones 2 lbs. @ .OO1/2 .0100 $0.2793 Cost of trimming tongues and meat 0540 $0.2253 Cost per pound canning tongues, $0.18. BEEF TRIMMINGS iil5 LIVERS. There is no edible part of the animal which becomes stale and out of condition as quickly as the liver, it be- ing, naturally, a very large percentage water, and only by the most careful attention will they keep a very great length of time unless they are frozen. The vital point in handling livers successfully is to keep them dry. In all large houses where many cattle are slaughtered a special truck is used for conveying livers promptly from the killing beds. Complete details of the truck described above are shown in Fig. 78 on the following page. As soon as they are taken from the animal they should be trimmed, care being taken that in cutting the gall bag from the liver they are not contaminated with the gall, and that they are placed in a cooler as quickly as possible. This is the only piece of meat, in the author's estimation, that should be subjected to an arti- ficial circulation of air. They should be allowed to hang in the air current for twenty-four hours at a temperature of from 33° to 36° F. and, before being exposed tq the outside temperature, should be thoroughly wiped, removing any moisture that may be left on the outer surface. If the livers are thus carefully treated it will be found that they will stand exposure and keep in good condition piuch longer than they otherwise would. At certain times of the year it is profitable, when there is a limited demand for livers, to freeze them for the winter trade. AVliere this is done it will be found that if they are first properly dried and chilled, they freeze in much better condition than if put into the freezer when they are full of moisture. They should be frozen at a temperature as near zero F. as possible, for 216 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE /= M i; ^ -J << C3 U. \^ O iO L M BEEF TRIMMINGS 217 if frozen quickly they retain tlieir natural color, where- as, if they are put into a higher temperature and the freezing is delayed, they will have a dark appearance when thawed out. Many packers make a practice, in ship- ping livers, to sprinkle them with powdered borax, this having a tendency to prevent them from becoming wet and out of condition, but it greatl}^ injures their appear- ance, and if they are handled properly in the first place it is generally an unnecessary precaution. DEFROSTING EOOM. Wherever meats are frozen in order to hold them for future use it is ver^^ important that the best method possible be used in thawing out or defrosting them. If the meat is simply placed in a warm room without any special air circulation, the frost, as it comes out of the meat, condenses the moisture in the air upon its surface, leaving it wet and giving it a very unattractive appear- ance, the meat turning dark; whereas if the meat is thawed in a room properly equipped for this purpose, it comes out with a bright, attractive appearance, and only the trained eye of an expert could tell whether the meat had been frozen or not. ^ An approved design for a modern defrosting room is shown in Fig. 79. Above the room where the meats are stored is a brine loft for the refrigerant, which may be either ice and salt, exposed brine, brine pipes, or direct expansion. In the thawing room proper is built a skele- ton table, the top being covered with galvanized iron. Beneath this table should be located pipes through which steam may be admitted. The heat, rising, comes in con- tact with the metal top of the table, which, being an excel- lent conductor, imparts it to the meat placed thereon. "With the refrigeration above and the heat from the steam coils below a very rapid circulation of air is produced in 218 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the cooler. The warm, moist air rising from the meats deposits its moisture on the pipes, leaving the surface of the meats dry. This room should be held at a tempera- rRknc Ta5lC W/TH GalvX ^TCAn COV^RCP xMiz^D Iron C0ILS> 1^ )6 - O' -^ FIG. 79.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DESIGN FOR A MODERN DEFROSTING ROOM. ture of 42° to 46° F. Eibs and loins can be defrosted in a room of this kind in from eight to twelve hours, and will come out looking bright, firm and fresh and as there is always a difference of from one cent to three cents a BEEF TRIMMINGS 219 pound, according to the demand either for frozen or fresh meats, it is obvious that it greatly enhances the values of the meat if it is properly frozen and properly de- frosted. It is only within the last few years that the great advantage of handling frozen meats properly has been realized. SWEETBREADS. This is a delicate piece of meat and practically the only one in the packing house that improves by being kept in water. The sweetbread should be cut out when the animal is stuck, thereb}^ avoiding the danger of their becoming bloody and discolored. After they have been washed and all fat trimmed otf , they should be put in ice water in the coolers and there held over night; the next day they are ready for shipment and should be packed in cracked ice. If they are to be frozen they should be allowed to drain properly before placing them in the freezers. A low temperature is very essential for the preservation of sweetbreads, as well as for livers, in order to have them come out with the best possible appearance. When frozen quickly they retain a bright, clean appearance when thawed out. If they are frozen slowly they turn to a slate color when thawed out and have a very unde- sirable and unwholesome look, which materially operates against their being disposed of to advantage. Western or range cattle yield a ver}^ small proportion of sweetbreads, they being undeveloped by the animal when living in their natural state. Cattle which have been fattened in feed lots, howev^er, yield very much larger sweetbreads. BEEF HEARTS. This piece of meat is of small value and is generally used in sausage and canning, largely in the former. The 220 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE hearts after being taken from the animals are trimmed and washed and should be hung in a cooler where there is a temperature of from 34° to 38° F. After they are thoroughly chilled they are used for sausage purposes, either fresh or cured. TAILS. There is little to be said on the handling of tails, except that they should be kept clean, for if handled carelessly and allowed to become stained it is impos- sible ever to get them clean afterward, and it is always preferable not to wash them, as this has a tendency to discolor them when chilled. If they are to be frozen they should be put into the freezer under a low tempera- ture in order to have them come out in the most desir- able condition. BEEF HAMS. "Where cattle are cut up in large quantities it is nearly always impossible to sell the rounds fresh, there being comparatively small demand for round steak. It is, therefore, necessary to work up this particular part of the meat into some other product, which is done by mak- ing what is known as " beef hams," whenever the rounds are of proper weight. The very lightest rounds, or rounds out of canning cattle, are generally used for can- ning purposes, they being too light to suit the trade for '' beef hams." STRIPPING BEEF HAMS. In preparing '* beef hams " the rounds are cut off from the cattle by what is known as the ' ' packing house cut," which leaves a larger piece of meat from the rump on the round, as compared with the ordinary cut. This piece is what is known as the " knuckle " piece of the rounds. Eounds cut this way are considered regular. BEEF TRIMMINGS 22 L When rounds are stripped that were cut for market they are known as short knuckled rounds and are not accepted by the trade as regular. From the knuckle of the round, before it is stripped, is removed the fell, or covering, this being skinned off, and the seam of the knuckle followed around by the knife, cutting clear to the bone. The round is then hung on a hook and an incision made just .above the stifle joint and the knuckle piece peeled otf from the bone. The round is then turned on the hook and opened clear to the bone, making what is known as the " inside-and-outside piece " of the round. In opening the round what is known as the '' kernel fat " should be equally divided. The round is then stripped off, leaving the coarse meat on the shank. These three pieces are what is known as regular beef hams when packed in sets. When separated thej are known as " insides," " outsides " and " knuckles." These hams, before being marketed, are cured and smoked and are sold at retail for what is known as dried beef, the largest sale for this particular kind of meat being in warm weather. ^ On the manner in which beef hams are cured depends, to a great extent, their sale, as the object in curing is to have them not too salty, thoroughly cured through, and of a bright and attractive color when smoked. There are different methods of curing but the following method and formula are used in the largest plants in this coun- try for the curing of this product. METHOD OF HANDLING AND FORMULA FOR CURING BEEF HAMS. The hams when cut from the cattle should be either spread out or hung up in a room held at a temperature of from 33° to 35° F., for twenty-four hours, thereby in- 222 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE suring the elimination of all animal heat. They are then best cured in vats holding 1,000 pounds each; many, however, cure them in tierces or barrels. The formula for the pickle used is as follows: For 1,500 gallons of SO-degree strength pickle, add 300 pounds granulated sugar, 105 pounds saltpeter and twenty-five pounds borax. Where a smaller amount of pickle is wanted make it proportionate to above. When the meat is packed in vats, as it is being thrown in sprinkle in a little fine salt. The vat should then be filled with above pickle and a rack or weight j)ut on the top to keep the meat submerged. The hams should be overhauled three times, first in ten days, again twenty- five days later and again forty days after the second overhauling. Beef hams should be considered fully cured in from seventy-five to eighty-five days. If cured in tierces or barrels, these should be rolled at the same periods as in the case of the vats, giving the pickle a thorough chance to get at all parts of the meat. Another formula which is used very extensively by some of the largest packers where beef hams arc packed and cured exclusively in barrels, is as follows : Dissolve 150 pounds of saltpetre in hot, 88-degree pickle, made from Ashton or '^ Perfect " dairy salt, a sufficient amount of pickle being used to make fifty-two gallons when dissolved. It is necessary to heat the pickle in order to dissolve this amount of salt. Add 450 pounds of granulated sugar and sufficient cold 88-degree pickle to make 200 gallons of the finished solution. This is then chilled to a temperature of 40° to 45° F. One gallon of this solution is put into each barrel before commencing to pack the meats. When packing the meat in barrels, use twenty-three pounds of Ashton, or " Perfect " dairy salt, sprinkling BEEF TRIMMINGS 223 same between the layers as they are put in. When the barrel is packed and coopered, fill with water at a tem- perature of 40° to 45° F., barrels to be rolled in ten, thirty and fifty days after being packed. They should be stored in a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. if they are to be used in ninety days. If they are to be held for five or six months they should be kept at a temperature of 35° to 39° F. for the first thirty days and thereafter at a temperature of from 28° to 29° F. until used. Meats cured with this formula will be found to have a very good color and flavor and at the same time will not be too salty. In putting the meat in packages, pack 215 pounds green weight per barrel. The following is a smoking test on regular beef hams : REGULAR OUTSIDES FOR SHIPMENT. Packed Wt. lbs. Per cent. Twenty-three tcs. dry packed 449 lbs. each, marked weight 440 lbs. each. 1,127 pes. 10,327 Twenty-three tcs. dumped to smoke, actual weights 1,127 pes. 10,215 Pounds loss while in storage 112 Per cent loss while in storage .0128 Culls not smoked 44 pes. 235 Actual weights to smoke 1,083 pes. 9,980 Smoked weights 1,083 pes. 7,099 Shrinkage in smoking 2,881 Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2887 Smoked 108 hours, temperature 112° to 128° F. REGULAR INSIDES FOR SHIPMENT. Sixteen tcs. dry packed, 449 lbs. each, \ marked weight 440 lbs. each 497 pes. 7,184 Sixteen tcs. dumped to smoke, actual weights 497 pes. 7,027 Pounds loss in storage 157 Per cent loss in storage .02119 Culls not smoked 8 pes. 73 Actual weights to smoke 489 pes. 6,954 Smoked weights 489 pes. 5,351 Shrinkage in smoking 1,603 Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2304 Smoked ninety-six hours, temperature 112° to 124° F.' 224 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE REGULAR KNUCKLES FOR SHIPMENT. Packed. Wt. lbs. Per cent. Eight tcs. dry packed 408 lbs. each, marked weight 400 lbs. each 389 pes. 3,264 Eight tcs. dumped to smoke, actual weights 389 pes. 3,190 Pounds loss in storage 74 Per cent loss in storage .0227 Culls not smoked 1 pc. 4 Actual weights to smoke 388 pes. 3,186 Smoked weights 388 pes. 2,388 Shrinkage in smoking 798 Per cent shrinkage in smoking .2505 Smoked ninety-four hours, temperature 112° to 128° F. A great deal of dried beef is put up in glass jars under a vacuum, as well as in tin cans. Beef handled in this manner is cured b}^ same formulas as given hereto- fore, but in smoking it is handled somewhat differently, being smoked less and dried more, it being necessary to have all the pickle and moisture evaporated from the meats in order to insure keeping. After the meat has been handled as described it is generally put in smoke houses equipped with steam coils, the heat brought up to 110° to 120° F., and left to dry from three to four days. It then shows a shrinkage any- where from 35 to 42 per cent. It is absolutely necessary to dry beef in this manner in order to make it keep sat- isfactoril}^ when put in cans. The following test will show the shrinkage of this product when smoked in tlie manner described above for canning purposes : SHRINKAGE ON SMOKED DRIED BEEF HAMS. Packed. Wt. lbs. Per cent. Thirty-two tcs. beef hams four months old, weight to smoke 1,461 pes. 12,542 Smoked weight 1,461 pes. 7,254 Shrinkage in smoking 5,287 Per cent shrinkage in smoking 42.15 Smoked eleven hours; temperature 112° to 139° F.; hanging in house to dry, seventy-two hours. BEEF TRIMMINGS 225 PLAIIST PICKLE FOEMULA. The following formula will be found to turn beef out in very nice shape and with a good color. This is for plate beef, rump butts, briskets, clods, and all trimmings of a similar character : To 1,500 gallons of 100-degree strength pickle add ninety-eight pounds saltpeter. It will be found neces- sary to dissolve the saltpetre before putting it into the pickle. FORMULA FOR PRESERVATIVES. The following formula for a preservative is used very successfully on fresh meats to prevent mold. It can also be used in boxing fresh meats for freezer, to aid in preserving: 7 pounds salt. 251/^ pounds sulphate soda. 55 pounds borax. 12y2 pounds boracic acid. This should be thoroughly mixed, in a powdered form. For cheek meat or other trimmings, which it is desired to hold fresh as long as possible, use two and one-half pounds to 100 pounds of meat. Eight ounces of the mixture to 100 pounds of meat, in pork sausage, will greatly aid in the keeping. Beef cuts which it is desired to keep fresh, if dipped into a solution of this mixture, equal to two pounds of the powder to each gallon of water, wilL be found to re- tain their fresh appearance. It will also aid in the pre- vention of mold. TRIPE. Tripe is an article for which there is a large demand in the eastern and New England states, comparatively little of it being consumed in other states, while there is not a very great foreign demand. It is made frpm the 226 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE stomachs of cattle and is a very wholesome and nutri- tious dish. Fresh tripe is often ordered by doctors for patients convalescing from typhoid fever, on account of its being so nutritious and easily digested. The stomach, after being emptied of its contents and thoroughly washed, is put into a small kettle, or vat, and scalded, the temperature of the water being from 140° to 1G0° F. After a few minutes immersion the in- side lining of the stomach may be easily removed. When sufficiently scalded it is scraped, leaving a clean, white surface. After the scraping it is put into a boiling vat and boiled for about three hours, or until it is tender. It is then put into cold water and after being chilled, the fat from the seams is all removed and the '^ finishing process " begins by first scraping off all the loose fat v/ith a sharp scraper and then removing a membrane on the outside of the stomach, which, when worked care- fully, comes off, leaving the " tripe " perfectly clean and free of any fat, etc,^ — the tripe being the muscular part of the stomach. The tripe, after being thoroughly cleaned, is ready for the pickling cellar. It should first be put into a 45- grain white wine vinegar pickle for ten to fifteen hours. After it has been submitted to the first pickling it is ready to be put into barrels and the vinegar in which it was first pickled should be strengthened with full-strength vinegar, making it again 45-grain, when it is packed in barrels and should be held in a temperature of from 45° to 50° F. There is a remarkable gain in tripe if it is properly handled. A barrel of tripe packed at 135 pounds, at the end of three weeks, will weigh out 200 pounds and some- times as high as 215 pounds. This is because the tripe absorbs the vinegar, and it is very essential in storing BEEF TRIMMINGS 227 tripe that it be kept at a temperature where this absorp- tion can take place, for if it is kept in too cool a tempera- ture it will not take up the vinegar as it should, conse- quently the gain will not be found when the package is opened. The following test will show the gain in a bar- rel of honey-comb and a barrel of plain tripe, one barrel of each being packed in 45-degree vinegar and one barrel of each in 60-degree vinegar: TEST PACKING TRIPE HOT DIRECT FROM FINISHING TABLE. Lbs. Per cent. One barrel honey-comb, 45-degree vinegar, 95 pes. packed weight 125 Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight 227 Gain 102 = 81.60 Drained over night on racks, weight 183 Loss draining from pickled weight 44 := 19.38 Gain to drained weight from packed weight 58 = 46.40 One barrel honey-comb, 60-degree pickle, ninety- three pes. packed, weight 125 Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight 227 Gain 102 r= 81.60 Drained over night on racks, weight 194 Loss draining from pickled weight 33 ^ 14.53 Gain to drained weight from packed weight 69 — 55.20 One barrel plain, 45-degree pickle, thirty-nine pes. packed weight 125 Held in cellar for two weeks and unpacked, weight. 193 Gain 68 = 54.50 Drained over night on racks, weight 182 Loss draining from pickled weight. . 11 = 5.70 Gain to drained weight from packed weight 57 =z 45.60 One barrel plain, 60-degree pickle, thirty-eight pes. packed weight 125 Held in cellar two weeks and unpacked, weight.. 201 Gain 76 = 60.80 Drained on racks over night, weight 184 Loss draining, from pickled weight 17 = 8.45 Gain to drained weight from packed weight 59 r= 47.20 Temperature all pickle when put on tripe 65° F. Tempera- ture cellar, from 50° to 52° F. The following test shows the cost of 100 tripe, in- cluding packages and vinegar: 228 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE TEST ON 100 TRIPE FINISHED. 100 regular bellies 2,053 lbs. average weight 20.53 lbs. Honey-comb 400 lbs. " " 4.00 lbs. Plain 1,653 lbs. " " 16.53 lbs. Debits: 5 barrels .$0.80 each = $4.00 75 gallons 45-grain vinegar... .02^/^ per gallon = 1.88 100 bellies 1309 each = 13.09 Labor and expense 1.08 per cwt. finished = 7.13 Total '. $26.10 Credits: Scrapings to tank 312 lbs. Yield tallow 15 lbs. $0.0525 per lb. $0.79 Yield dry tankage 75 lbs. 14.00 per ton .53 Trimmings to tank 200 lbs. Yield tallow 8 lbs. .0525 per lb. .42 Yield dry tankage 5 lbs. 14.00 per ton .04 Seam fat — finishing bench 83 lbs. Yield oil 25 lbs. .1035 per lb. 2.59 Grease from cooking into oil 75 lbs. .6850 per lb. 5.14 $9.51 Total cost $16.59 Cost per barrel, 135 lbs., $3.31; per cwt., fresh, loose, $2.51. Green weight, 1,653 pounds; scraped, 1,333 pounds; cooked, 933 pounds; finished, 660 pounds. PRESERVATIVE PICKLE FOR FRESH TRIPE. Oftentimes there is a demand for fresh tripe and comparatively little for pickled, in which case the tripe is kept fresh by a preservative made as follows : 100 gallons of water. 20 pounds boracic acid. 6 pounds of borax. 5 pounds of fine salt. Mix thoroughl}^ until ingredients are all dissolved; chill to a temperature of 45° F. Use same as vinegar. Fresh tripe thus handled will keep perfectly for two or three weeks in temperatures ranging from 40° to 50° F. A dry solution is often used on tripe where it is to be shipped or held fresh without a pickle, consisting of: 12 ounces boracic acid. 12 ounces borax. 16 ounces fine salt. BEEF TRIMMINGS 229' All thoroughly mixed and sprinkled on the tripe. This amount of powder is sufficient for 100 pounds of fresh tripe. Tripe handled properly will keep in this preserva- tive for two or three weeks. TRIPE TESTS. The following tests show the cost of tripe in different packages, the cost of packages and vinegar being figured at the market prices at the time tests were made : FRESH REGULAR TRIPE. 1,500 pieces tripe at 75c per 100 $11.25 Labor, scalding 3.15 " scraping 15.00 cooking 1.71 inspecting 3.42 finistiing 25.61 " inspecting 1.00 " weighing 83 miscellaneous 3.50 General expense, consisting of administrative cost, steam, power, electric light, etc., at 49c per 100 lbs 62.74 Total cost $128.21 Finished weight, 12,805 pounds; cost per pound, Ic. FIVE TIERCES PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 1,425 POUNDS. 1,425 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $14.25 Five tierces at $1.12 ' 5.60 Packing 30 Pickle 1.50 Coopering 13 Miscellaneous labor 10 Total cost ) $21.88 Cost per cwt., $1.46; cost per tierce, $4.37. FIVE BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 1,000 POUNDS. 1,000 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $10.00 Five barrels at 80c 4.00 Pickle 45 Packing 13 Coopering 08 Miscellaneous labor 10 Total cost $14.76 Cost per cwt., $1.48; cost per barrel, $2.95. 230 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE FIVE HALF-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 365 POUNDS. 365 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 3.65 Five half-barrels at 36c 1.80 Pickle 30 Packing , 09 Coopering 06 Miscellaneous labor 08 Total cost $ 5.98 Cost per cwt., $1.49; cost per half-barrel, $1.19. SIX QUARTER-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 216 POUNDS. 216 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 2.16 Six quarter-barrels at 20c 1.20 Packing 06 Pickle 14 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 08 Total cost $ 3.68 Cost per cwt., $1.54; cost per quarter-barrel, $0.61. TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 180 POUNDS. 180 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 1.80 Ten eighth-barrels at 18c 1.80 Packing .06 Pickle 20 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 3.96 Cost per cwt., $1.98; cost per eighth-barrel, 40c. TEN KITS PRESERVATIVE REGULAR TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 140 pounds tripe at Ic per pound $ 1.40 Ten kits at 14c 1.40 Packing 03 Pickle 15 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 3.08 Cost per cwt., $2.00; cost per kit, 31c. FRESH HONEY-COMB TRIPE. 820 honey-comb tripe at 15c per 100 $ 1.23 Labor, scalding 27 scraping 2.05 cooking 29 finishing 2.20 inspecting 50 miscellaneous 27 General expense, consisting of power, steam, electric light, etc., at 49c per cwt 4.90 Total cost $11.71 Finished weight, 1,000 pounds; cost per cwt., $1.17. BEEF TRIMMINGS 231 FIVE TIERCES PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 1,425 POUNDS. 1,425 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt .$16.67 Five tierces at $1.12 5.60 Packing .44 Pickle 2.75 Coopering 19 Miscellaneous labor .09 Total cost $25.74 Cost per cwt., $1.72; cost per tierce, $5.15. FIVE BARRELS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 1,000 POUNDS. 1,000 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $11.70 Five barrels at 80c 4.00 Packing 26 Pickle 45 Coopering 08 Miscellaneous labor 09 Total cost $16.58 Cost per cwt., $1.65; cost per barrel, $3.32. FIVE HALF-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 365 POUNDS. 365 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $ 4.27 Five half-barrels at 36c 1.80 Packing 09 Pickle 27 Coopering 06 Miscellaneous labor 08 Total cost $ 6.57 Cost per cwt., $1.64; cost per half-barrel, $1.31. SIX QUARTER-BARRELS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 216 POUNDS. 216 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $ 2.53 Six quarter-barrels at 20c 1.20 Packing 09 Pickle 13 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 08 Total cost $ 4.07 Cost per cwt., $1.70; cost per quarter-barrel, 68c. TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PRESER^'ATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 180 POUNDS. 180 pounds tripe at $1.17 per cwt $ 2.11 Ten eighth-barrels at 18c 1.80 Packing 06 Pickle .20 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 4.27 Cost per cwt., $2.13; cost per eighth-barrel, 43C. 232 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE TEN KITS PRESERVATIVE HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 140 pounds tripe at |1.17 per cwt $ 1.63 Ten kits at 14c 1.40 Packing 03 Pickle 15 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 3.31 Cost per cwt., $2.31; cost per kit, 33c. TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PICKLED REGULAR TRIPE, 200 POUNDS. 200 pounds tripe at $0.0113 per pound $ 2.26 Ten eighth-barrels at 18c 1.80 Packing , 06 Pickle 20 Coopering .04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 4.42 Cost per cwt., $2.21; cost per eighth-barrel, 44c. TEN KITS PICKLED REGULAR TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 140 pounds tripe at $0.0113 per pound. $ 1.58 Ten kits at 14c 1.40 Packing .03 Pickle .15 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 3.26 Cost per cwt., $2.17; cost per kit, 33c. PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE. 820 pieces honey-comb tripe at 15c per 100 $ 1.23 Labor, scalding 27 scraping 2.05 cooking 29 finishing 2.20 inspecting 50 Miscellaneous labor 27 Curing charges 2.25 General expense, consisting of power, steam, electric lights, etc 4.97 Total cost $14.03 Cooked and finished weight, 1,000 lbs.; cured weight, 1,100 lbs. Gain, 10 per cent; cost, '$0.0128 per lb. nVE TIERCES PICKLED HONEYCOMB TRIPE, 1,425 POUNDS. 1,425 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $18.26 Five tierces at $1.12 5.60 Packing 30 Pickle 2.75 Coopering 13 Miscellaneous labor 10 Total cost $27.14 Cost per cwt., $1.81; cost per tierce, $5.43. BEEF TRIMMINGS 233 FIVE BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 1,000 POUNDS. 1,000 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $12.80 Five barrels at 80c 4.00 Packing 15 Pickle 43 Coopering 08 Miscellaneous labor 10 Total cost $17.56 Cost per cwt., $1.76; cost per barrel, $3.51. FIVE HALF-BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 365 POUNDS. 365 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 4.67 Five half-barrels at 36c 1.80 Packing 09 Pickle 30 Coopering 06 Miscellaneous labor .08 Total cost $ 7.00 Cost per cwt., $1.75; cost per half-barrel, $1.40. SIX QUARTER-BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 216 POUNDS. 216 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 2.77 Six quarter-barrels at 20c 1.20 Packing 06 Pickle 14 Coopering .04 Miscellaneous labor 08 Total cost $ 4.29 Cost per cwt., $1.71; cost per quarter-barrel, 71c. TEN EIGHTH-BARRELS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 200 POUNDS. 200 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 2.56 Ten eighth-barrels at 18c .^ 1.80 Packing 06 Pickle 20 Coopering . .04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 4.72 Cost per cwt., $2.36; cost per eighth-barrel, 47c. TEN KITS PICKLED HONEY-COMB TRIPE, 140 POUNDS. 140 pounds tripe at $0.0128 per pound $ 1.79 Ten kits at 14c T .' 1.40 Packing 03 Pickle 15 Coopering 04 Miscellaneous labor 06 Total cost $ 3.47 Cost per cwt., $2.31; cost per kit, 35c. 234 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER XII. SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING. THE STRING GANG. The increased consumption of mutton has been very marked in this country in the last fifteen years. Prior to that time, while there were many sheep raised unsys- tematically, mutton, except in the large centers, was comparatively little used. The packers by being able to obtain sheep in large quantities at the local live stock centers, and with their superior distributing facilities, soon created a demand for mutton at points where pre- viously there had been very little demand for it. xls a consequence there has been a large increase in the pro- duction of sheep and the consumption in this country has in all probability more than doubled during the last ten years. It is a meat for which many must acquire a taste, but it is very healthful and nutritious. At the central abattoirs, where government inspection is in force, com- paratively few diseases, or few diseased sheep, are found, this particular kind of live stock proving to be much healthier than either cattle or hogs. The people of Eng- land, as compared with those of all other civilized nations of the earth, are the largest consumers of mutton and a notable lack of cancerous troubles among them is attrib- uted by the medical profession generally to the fact that SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 235 they consume individually a greater proportionate amount of this meat. ONE TRUCK H0LD5 TWO 5HECP. BLEEDING RAIL - CUT THROAT HERE 13-0 I CUT 5KIN OPEN ON NCCK AND TORE LEGS HERr fL06ENING|OF THE FRONT PART OE 5KIN). ■^HEIGHT e-y " ^"^^ HEIGHT 9-5' ^ \ \\Ljl20 UJ at o INSERT MOCKS O.tM SPREADER IN FORELEG AT THIS POINT. TAKE HOLD OF ROPE IN TACKLE AND PULL UP SHEEP SO IT HANGS IN HORIZONTAL POSITION AND FASTEN KNOT IN SLOT 'g'. CUT OPEN THROAT^OSEN SKIN AROUND NECK ^C UT OFF.FORELEG AT FIRST JOINT CUT SKIN FROM BREAST LOSEN SPREADER AND APPLY DOUBLE HOOKED TRUCK TO HIND FOOT THAT IS CUT. ALLOWING SHEEP TO HANG ON C R/ ,IL ^ CUT THE REMAINING HINDLEG OFF AT CUT OPEN SKIN ON BOTH HINDLEG5. SEPERATE SKIN FROM HEAD 20'-Q- ^-^ DRESSING RAIL fe -Q HIGH. -FINISHING RAILS- FIG. 80.— DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT FOR SHEEP KILLING WITH " STRING GANG." THE STRING GANG. In the economic distribution of labor about the mod- ern packing house, probably no other department can 286 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE show the benefit accruing from same to greater advan- tage than has been found in sheep slaughtering. The effects of this division of labor in any department are first, economy, and second, better workmanship. It is natural that a man performing one particular operation day after day becomes more expert than if he were doing FIG. 81.— HOISTING SHEEP TWO AT A TIME TO STICKING RAIL. various kinds of work. Formerly sheep were slaugh- tered largely on a piece-work basis, one man dressing the sheep throughout. With the modern method each man does one particular part of the work, becoming very quick and expert in his line, consequently in dressing sheep by what is known as a '' string gang," the im- provement, as compared with the old method when each man dressed his own sheep, is very marked. SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 237 In Fig. 80 is shown in detail a sheep killing arrange- ment where a string gang is operated. In a space 80 x 32 feet in size 2,000 sheep per day can be handled readily by means of this method. The sheep are hoisted with a double shacklC;, two at a time, and the work is continuous from there on until they are dressed, the sheep never touching the floor again, which means a great saving of labor over the old way of handling sheep by hand entirely. This diagram illustrates the different processes in the arrangement; also gives height of rails, trucks, spread- ers and hooks used on the different rails. Wherever a volume of thirty sheep per hour or over are being slaughtered a saving can be effected by adopting this method of handling. In Fig. 81 is shown how the sheep are handled by means of a hoist, two at a time, and hung on the stick- ing rail. Where sheep are killed in large numbers, it is advantageous to hoist two at a time as shown. The men shackling become very expert and can shackle two in prac- tically the same time that they can one, and if a gang are running on a capacity of five hundred per hour, it will be seen that considerable time is gr.ined by doing it in this manner. In Fig. 82 a string gang at work killing and dress- ing sheep is shown. A gang sufficient to handle 300 sheep an hour should have at least thirty-six to forty sets of hooks, or, in other words, facilities for working on thirty- six to forty sheep at one time on the dressing rails. As will be noted in the-table of wages given on page 241, the work is divided up into a great many different parts, which is very necessary, as in slaughtering animals so rapidly one man has time to do but comparatively little on each animal; hence the necessity of having a sufficient number of carcasses hanging up at one time to, allow the 238 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 239 different men time to do their respective parts. The numbers above given are found to be the most advanta- geous, as, if there are but a few carcasses on which to work at one time, the help is crowded and unable to do the work satisfactorily. If there are too many carcasses at one time, they show a tendency to become too dry and discolored before being washed ; hence it is necessary to get the best results as to workmanship and quantity of work performed, to have the right number of carcasses lianging all the time. Another important feature in the working of a string gang is the economy of space obtained, a room 32 x 100 feet in size being ample in which to kill 250 sheep an hour, whereas under the old system when each man slaughtered and dressed his own sheep, this space would not accommodate to exceed seventy an hour. SHEEP DRESSI]S^G. In the dressing of sheep the following suggestions will prove advantageous in turning out work with the best results, whether the sheep are dressed by day work, one man dressing them throughout, or whether they are handled by a string gang. ' Legging. — This consists in opening up the skin around the legs and center of the body. In doing this work care should be taken that the skin be opened up as little around the necks and butts as possible, for wlierever the skin is removed in the legging there is more or less stain on the meat, which it is impossible to wash off. Pelting. — In removing the pelt from the carcass care should be taken that the '' fell " is not broken in any part, for wherever this is broken, the meat will show the effect of age, and will present a very unsightly appear- ance. 2-40 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Methods of Dressing. — This is a part of the work which is very hard to describe, as the dressing at differ- ent points varies to such an extent that there are hardly two large cities where the methods are alike, especially in the case of lambs. Generally speaking mutton is round dressed, using no back sets and not using the caul. Lambs are dressed according to localities, some round dressed, same as mutton, others with double back sets and the caul on, others with single back sets and the ribs broken and still others with inside sets, in every in- stance the caul being left on. In general, however, the point to be watched in all this work is that it be done in a neat and workmanlike manner, neatness in all cases being extremely essential. When the mutton is run immediately into a well-built refrigerator where the proper circulation and tempera- tures can be maintained, there is no danger in using an excess amount of water in the washing. A wash cloth made of ten to fifteen thicknesses of very loosely woven cheese cloth, quilted together, makes an excellent cloth with which to wash sheep. This, in connection with plenty of hot water, will give a bright and attractive ap- pearance to the meat. Where the dressed mutton is not run into a cooler, and outside air is depended upon for chilling, very little water should be used, the meat simply being wiped with a rag, made as heretofore described, wringing same out in hot water. Sheep should always be kept in dry pens before kill- ing, for if their fleece is allowed to become dirty, it is practically impossible to prevent the meat from becom- ing stained. Where the sheep get wet and muddy it is found of great advantage to hold them for a time in pens with two to four inches of dry sawdust on the floor, this SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 241 sawdust having the effect of cleaning and drying the legs and under part of the body so that after slaughter- ing, when the pelt is removed, the meat may be kept much cleaner than otherwise. The rates of wages paid sheep butchers in Chicago is given in the following table: TABLE OF WAGES FOR SHEEP BUTCHERS. No. men Rate per hour Total per hour Foreman ($23.00 per week) Sealer Driving up Shackler Hoister (also marks joints) Sticker (also breaks joints) Forequarter hoister Forequarter legger (also skins joints) Shoulder puncher Brisket pullers (also helps leggev) . . . Scalper (also helps jaw skinner). . . Cutting down " " ... Hind leggers (also punches cods) .... Swinger off Shoving sheep (also hangs to ring). . Ripping down Pelters Rumpers (also pull backs heel up) . . . Header Scrubber Breast splitter .^ Gutter Neck trimmer Caul puller Dressers Rib cutter Setting up Legger Pick up guts and pelts Rack men Set and skewer boys Scrubbers and wipers Pinning up legs Cooler men Gut fat pickers Scrap vat .38% .333^ .12}4 .18K .23Ji .35 .30 .30 .30 .21 .30 . 27 ^-o .20 " .20 .34 .37J.2 .36 . 33I0 •17K . 27 ^-ty . 22H' .171-2' .361-3 .331^- .421^ .37K .20 .17H .17 V .171-3 .I2I3 • I'i'V .1.5 .10 $0.38>i .32X .13}^ .18% .32% .25 .20 .27% .20 .60 .21 .20 .82% .20 .20 .24 1.12% .78 .22% .17% .27% .33% .17% .26% .65 .43% .37% .30 .35 .35 .25 .70 .12% .17% ■ .31% .10 51 $10.80% Average kill, 150 sheep per hour; average cost, $0,072 per head. 242 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 243 When dressing sheep with the "string gang," on this basis of wages, with skilled help, they should be dressed, including all expense of foreman, offal work, etc., for 7c per head. CHILLING. As fast as sheep are slaughtered they should be run directly into coolors, where they are hung on racks as shown in Fig. 83. If they are left out, and partially air-chilled, it has the effect of discoloring them about the legs and thin parts of the carcasses, causing these to look dark and less attractive than they do when placed in the cooler immediately after slaughtering. There is little or no danger of chilling sheep too fast, as long as the temperature is above 32° F., as the dressed car- cass is not of sufficient thickness at any part to prevent the animal heat from escaping before decomposition can set in, and the colder the room into which they are put, as long as it is above the freezing point, the better will be the appearance of the mutton when it comes out of the cooler. Sheep chilled for twenty-four hours in proper coolers, and thoroughly dried and hardened, are ready for shipment or the cutting block. In many places, especially in Australia and South America, they are frozen; some few being frozen, of late, in this country for export. In such case, however, they should first be thoroughly chilled in a dry cooler wher^e there is a good natural circulation of air, for twenty-four hours, after which they may be put into the freezers at a tempera- ture as near zero as~ possible, so that the freezing will not be delayed. If they are frozen quickly they retain a clear, bright appearance when thawed out. Sheep Pelts. — The handling of sheep pelts, especially in hot weather, requires careful attention. The pelts, as soon as taken off, should be spread out in a room where 244 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE it is as cold as possible without being refrigerated, and allowed to cool off for at least twelve hours before salt- ing. This is especially necessary when the animal slaughtered has a very heavy fleece; with shearlings there is little or no necessity for taking this precaution. Fleece skins, however, hold the animal heat, so that when put into a pack and salted, if not properly cooled, they soon begin to get warm and decompose, and as soon as the wool slips, the leather of the skin is ruined. After the pelts have been spread out and allowed to thoroughly chill, as suggested, they should be salted in piles not to exceed thirty inches high by putting one skin on top of another, flesh side up, and using a fine solar salt, care being taken that they are thoroughly salted around the heads and leggings. After they have been in salt for a week, it is well, especially in warm weather, to overhaul them, shifting the packs so that when through, the top pelts are on the bottom and vice versa. After they have lain in salt for two weeks they are ready for shipment. Lamb Tongues. — All tongues from sheep come under this head. After they have been cut out of the heads they should be thrown into ice water, washed and spread out on a table, or in jjans, in the cooler at a tempera- ture of from 34° to 38° F. for twenty-four hours. Fol- lowing that they should be trimmed, cutting otf the extra pieces of fat and the gullet. They are then ready for cur- ing. They should be cured in a plain 75-degree strengi;li pickle with six ounces of saltpeter to 100 pounds of meat, holding them in this pickle for a week or ten days. They are then ready for use, either in sausage or for cooking. Pichled Lamb Tongues. — When tongues are pickled they are put up with a white wine vinegar and are han- dled as follows : After they are thoroughly chilled they SHEEP DRESSING AND CHILLING 245 are scalded sufficiently to take off the outside film or skin on the tongue. This is then scraped off with a hand scraper, or knife, and the tongue is trimmed, cutting off any parts that are discolored, or any loose pieces of fat. The tongues are afterward cooked until they are soft enough for the bone to pull out readily. No special time can be fixed upon for this work as the cooking varies greatly, according to the condition of the animals from which the tongues were taken, and it is well in cooking them to keep the sheep and lamb tongues separate. After they are cooked and the bones are pulled out at the root of the tongue, they are ready for pickling. They should first be pickled in 45-degree vinegar for at least twenty-four hours, when they are ready to be packed in packages for shipment, using 40-degree vinegar by add- ing full strength fresh vinegar to the pickle they were first put in. In packing them in small packages especial- ly, they are generally seasoned with coriander seed, bay leaves and sliced lemon. LAMB TONGUES TESTS. The following tests show yields of pickled lamb tongues at values prevailing at the time they were made : TEST ON 1,000 PIECES OR 320 POUNDS LAMB TONGUES. Cost of 1,000 pieces lamb tongues at %c each..? 7.50 Scraping, 10c per 100 pieces 1.00 Snouting, coolving, etc., one and a half hours, at 18c 27 Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces 50 Pickling, 10c per 100 pieces \ . . . 1.00 Miscellaneous labor .17 General expense, 42c per cwt. on 143 lbs. pro- duced 60 $11.04 Produced: Green weight 320 lbs. Cooked weight 143 lbs. Shrinkage 177 lbs. or 55% Credit 23 lbs. trimmings at l%c per lb $ .35 Cost of 143 lbs. of lamb tongues 110.69 Cost per pound, $0.0747. 246 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE COST OF ONE BARREL OF LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT 100 POUNDS NET. 190 pounds lamb tongues at $0.0747 per poiind $14.19 One barrel 78 Packing, one hour at 17^20 18 Pickle, eleven gallons at 2I/2C 28 Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c 04 Miscellaneous labor 03 Cost of one barrel $15.50 COST OF TWO HALF-BARRELS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT SEVENTY-THREE POUNDS NET. 146 pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $10.91 Two half-barrels at 35c 70 Packing, three-quarter hour at 17V2C 13 Pickle, nine gallons at 2i/^c 23 Spices at 2c each 04 Coopering, one-twelfth hour at 25c 02 Miscellaneous labor 02 Total cost $12.05 Cost per half-barrel 6.03 COST OF THREE QUARTER-BARRELS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT THIRTY-SIX POUNDS NET. 108 pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $ 8.07 Three quarter-barrels at 20c 60 Packing, one-half hour at 17%c 09 Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c 19 Spices at 2c each 06 Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c 04 Miscellaneous labor 02 Total cost $ 9.07 Cost per quarter-barrel 3.02 COST OF FIVE EIGHTH-BARRELS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT EIGHTEEN POUNDS NET. Ninety pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $ 6.72 Five eighth-barrels at 18c 90 Packing, three-quarter hour at 17%c 13 Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2i/^c 19 Spices at 2c each 10 Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c 04 Miscellaneous labor 03 Total cost $ 8.11 Cost per eighth-barrel 1.62 COST OF THIRTY KITS LAMB TONGUES PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET. 420 pounds lamb tongues at $7.47 per cwt $31.37 Thirty kits at 14c 4.20 Packing, one and three-quarter hours at 17i/^c 31 Pickle, thirty gallons at 2i/^c 75 Spices at 2c each 60 Coopering, two-thirds hour at 25c 17 Miscellaneous labor 18 Total cost $37.58 Cost per kit 1.25 HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 247 CHAPTER XIII. HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING. INTRODUCTOEY. In no department of the packing industry has the progress, as well as the evolution, been so extensive as in pork packing. Only a few years ago, comparatively, it was considered impossible to kill hogs for packing purposes, except during the winter season, and the vari- ous packing plants located throughout the country worked during the winter months in their crude way, jjacking as many hogs as conditions would permit, turn- ing out the cured meat in the spring, ready for delivery, in a very inferior condition and at a far greater cost to the consumer than is the case today. Under the conditions then , existing there was com- paratively little of the hog that was sold fresh, for being killed as they were, in isolated places, there was little opportunity for handling fresh product quickly enough to make it available for general consumption, conse- quently fresh pork was sold only in the immediate vicin- ity of the slaughtering place and it was necessary to cure the balance. Under present methods, fresh pork product is shipped to England from Chicago and west- ern points, and delivered in good condition to the con- sumer. Wlien one stops to consider the advancement that has been made in the past decade in this particular line it seems almost impossible that a like progress could 248 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE be made in the future, although doubtless, as is often said, the packing house business is still in its infancy. EEFEIGERATION OP HOGS, The first important step in the evolution of '^all-the- year packing " from ^' winter packing " was the intro- duction of the ice machine, and in the best managed packing houses today little or no regard is paid to the outside temperature, as the hogs when killed are run directly from the killing floor to the chill room. It is cheaper and safer to handle hogs with mechanical re- frigeration than to depend on the outside air for chilling, for when they are partially air dried, or chilled, they may be over-chilled, or under-chilled, according to at- mospheric conditions, whereas, if they are put into the cooler, the chilling and removal of the animal heat is under absolute control, and where it is thus handled the percentage of " sour " meat is reduced to a minimum — - practically nothing. Under the older methods, where hogs were chilled with ice, with the most careful man- agement, from 5 per cent to 15 per cent of the hams and shoulders soured, whereas under modern methods this will not average one-tenth of 1 per cent in well managed houses ; it is therefore readily understood how the intelligent application of the modern refrigerating machine has caused an evolution which is astounding. Another great advantage over old methods is found in the transportation facilities that are now available. When killing hogs in large quantities the fresh pork prod- uct is practically all sold fresh, and a much greater revenue is derived from the hogs handled in this man- ner than when salted as formerly and sold in the shape of cured meats. "With the present facilities for distribu- tion the public at large can buy fresh pork at any time HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 249 of the year, handled in the most approved and hygienic manner, while a few years ago it was impossible to obtain it at any price, unless the purchaser was located in the immediate neighborhood of the place when the animals were slaughtered. THE HOG SLATJGHTEE HOUSE. The outlay for buildings for pork packing is very much greater than for beef packing, for in slaughtering FIG 84.— UNLOADING HOGS FROM CAR. cattle there is comparatively little left behind that re- quires storage, but in slaughtering hogs fully 70 per cent of the carcass goes into the curing department, to stay there anywhere from thirty to ninety days ; consequently a much larger and more expensive set of buildings is required than in the slaughtering of cattle. For in- stance, in the matter of chill room it is customary to 250 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 251 252 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE figure cold storage for five times the. hog hanging capacity; in other words, if a plant was to be built to kill a thousand hogs a day there should be hanging ca- pacity for 2,500, and five times the hanging capacity should be in ordinary practice sufficient for curing the product, providing it is sold promptly as cured. If it is to be carried for any length of time a greater ratio than five to one should be used. This, of course, does not refer to any of the auxiliary departments of the plant but only to the cold storage, or chill room department. In general practice it is considered essential that the killing should be done in the same building with the rendering department, thereby keeping all the offal near the tanks and reducing the labor to a minimum. It is always best to confine the chilling and curing to one building. It is cheaper in construction, if building anew, and it is of great advantage in the matter of insurance, which is always a very important item ; and it is in keep- ing down the expenses in all lines that the profit of the business is realized. It is always advisable to liave the chill rooms for the hogs on the top floors, as gravity is the cheapest force that can be employed to move the products from floor to floor for delivery to their vari- ous destinations. HANDLING OP LIVE HOGS. More care should be used in the handling of hogs than any other live stock as the hogs are much the heaviest for their size and strength and are, therefore, more easily injured. Special pens should be provided for their re- ception, details of a pen being shown in Figs. 85, 86 and 87. Hogs should never be killed until they are thoroughly rested and in as normal a condition as it is possible to have them. In taking them to the killing HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 253 pens they should be handled carefully, and crowding and piling np avoided as much as possible. Many hams are injured by the hogs being driven roughly, causing them to pile on top of one another, spreading the lighter ones and thereby causing what is known to the trade as a -.I-I-/4B0LT. IH^ mt Hz n((0 (9 Ul. i*- 2-2 ■lO/d) 4-* rCEKZ 9 "nI^ -w kj BOLT c 2*2i *-|M '•n^ A^ ■-k H'llh- rr Li- 3^ ^ H a BOLT. FIG. 87.— DETAIL OF HINGES FOR MODERN HOG PEN GATE. " face bruised ham." Men driving hogs should not be allowed to use a whip, as they soon become careless and mark the hogs more or less. A better method is to use a paddle shaped stick about 18 inches or 2 feet long with a piece of canvas sewed onto it. With this canyas they 254 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE can strike the hogs, and as it makes a noise it will do more toward driving them without injury than a whip, which marks them and injures the meat. At most of the large packing houses located in the great hog killing FIG. 88.— HOGS RESTING AND COOLING OFF BEFORE BEING TAKEN TO THE SLAUGHTER HOUSE. centers of the United States cooling pens are provided, directly adjoining the killing rooms (a good idea of which may be obtained from the view shown in Fig. 88), where the animals may rest after being driven from the storage or receiving pens. By permitting the animals to rest in HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 255 these pens for a sliort period the abnormal amount of heat caused by excitement and fear is gotten rid of leaving them in much better condition for killing before they are taken to the slaughter house. FIG. 89.— HOISTING HOGS OX A HURFORD REVOLVING WHEEL. PENNING. In handling hogs in the cooling pens, men should never be allowed to use sticks or clubs, but they should be provided with the canvas covered paddle already referred to and described in these pages, to urge on the hogs without bruising them. All gates and openings into 25G THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE closed pens should be large enough, so that the hogs will not crowd, or climb upon one another. SHACKLING. Men shackling should always be made to shackle the hind leg next to the revolving or Hurford wheel, so that FIG. 90.— STICKING AND BLEEDING HOGS. when the hog is raised, it is done with as little twisting effect as possible. As fast as the hogs are hoisted by tlie wheel, which operation is shown very clearly in Fig. 89, and run on the rail, they are stuck and bled, as shown in Fig. 90. A small hoist, lifting but one hog at a time, as shown in Fig. 91, is often used and is not only a very useful HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 257 and labor saving device but is also very economical from the fact that it does not jar or injure the hogs when being hung up, as is often the case with an ordinary hand hoist. This particular machine is adapted for small slaughter houses rather than where business is done on a large scale, in which case a double machine will be FIG. 91.— HURFORD SMAtL . HOG HOIST. found to be almost indispensable. It is therefore gen- erally in use in all large houses. STICKING. Men sticking hogs should be made to keep up close, sticking them just as fast as hung up. They should 258 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE be instructed to make a good large opening in the neck, 3 or 4 inches long, in order to give the blood a good free How. They should also be careful to see that they sever the veins and arteries ; at the same time that they do not cut into the shoulder, as in that instance the blood settles there, and it becomes necessary to trim at con- siderable loss. It is advisable to have a daily report FIG. 92.— HOG SCALDING. made out from the cutting floor of all shoulder stuck hogs, having the sticker sign it daih^, thereby showing him what kind of work he is doing. This quite frequently has the effect of making him more careful in his work. SCALDING. A great deal depends on this work, as to speed ob- tained, as well as to general appearance of the hogs when HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 259 260 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE dressed. Care should be used to see that water is kept at an even temperature, and that the hogs are thrown into the tub evenly. The scalder will sometimes become careless, and throw out hogs whether they are ready or not, or when rough ones are thrown in, which should re- ceive careful attention, throw them out in their turn, instead of holding them back until properly scalded. FIG. 94.— HOG SCRAPING GANG AT 'WORK. These are points which should be followed very closely in hog dressing. The operation of hog scalding as it is done on a large scale is illustrated in Fig. 92. SCRAPIXG. Pulling the bristles is shown in Fig. 93. From the bristle bench the carcass should be promptly put into the scraping machine, shown to the right in Fig, 93. All hair left on the hog after it comes through the machine HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 261 should be scraped off as much as possible, instead of being shaven, as is often done. AVhen it is left on the hog, and is shaven off after the meats are cured and smoked, the rind of the meat shrinks, leaving the hair sticking out in a rough, unsightly manner, disfigur- ing the meats. After having been scraped as well as possible, the skin should then be shaven, care being FIG. 95.— CLEANING HOG CARCASSES. \ used to see that all hair is taken off without scoring the hog. Fig. 94 shows the scraping gang at work, and Fig. 95 the operation of cleaning the hog carcasses. HAM FACHSTG AND GUTTING. In ham facing care should be used to see that the workmen cut off the fat down to the lean meat, and at the 262 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE same time that they do not break the striffin. In gutting great care should be taken to see that the hams are opened centrally; also that the intestines are saved care- fully, and that the work is done in a cleanly and tidy manner in every particular. LEAF LAKD. Pulling the leaf lard, which is done just before the splitting (Fig. 96), is a part of the work that should be FIG. 96.— SCRAPING LEAF LARD. done with considerable care in order that the leaves may be pulled as clean as possible. If this operation is performed in an indifferent and careless manner, a considerable amount of the leaf lard will be left in the carcasses and it is afterward scraped HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 263 264 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE [L. 'vD g 'J 5 jl HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 265 out, whereas if given careful attention at first, it is made into neutral. What lard is left, however, after pulling the leaf, should be scraped out, as it is often worth more if taken as lard than if left as side meat. Besides its presence greatly disfigures the meat. SPLITTING. This should receive careful attention, splitting through the center of the back so as to leave a smooth pork loin. TEMPEEATURES IN CHILL EOOM. Hogs should be run into coolers at a temperature of 28° to 30° F. In filling the tunnels, the temperature will run as high as 45° to 46° F., but should be down as low as 36° F. in the first twelve hours, and from that brought down gradually to a temperature of 32° F. by the time the carcasses have been forty-eight hours in the cooler. Fig. 97 shows the manner in which hogs are run into the chill room. The usual construction is six rails to a 16-foot bay, which will nominally figure about 414 feet of floor surface per hog. A fairly good idea of the relative or proportionate size of cooler and hog slaughtering rooms may be obtained from a study of the floor plan shown in Fig. 98. Fig. 99 (see following two pages) shows a section through a hog killing floor, designed for a modern pack- ing house, showing carrying rails, scraping benches, sticking pens, etc. CARE IN CHILL EOOM. As before stated, it is in this particular part of the house that the greatest changes have been made, and it is also in this particular place where the most careful 266 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE and minute attention to details is necessary in order to turn out meats in the best marketable condition, as only a few degrees deviation in temperatures from carefully set rules in the handling of chill rooms shows excess per cent of sour meat found thirty to sixty days after- ward when the meats are brought from the curing cellar. This, therefore, is a department that should receive the most careful attention, A wrong start here can never be righted afterward. FIG. 99.— SECTION THROUGFI HOG KILLING FLOOR, SHOAVING It was formerh^ considered an absolute necessity to have an open-air hanging room where hogs could first be left to dry after slaughtering, in many cases allowing them to hang over night in the outside air; the object being to save refrigeration. It is the author's opinion that the economy thus obtained is anything but economy. Past experience has proved that there are certain condi- tions which must be adhered to closelj^ in the safe han- dling and curing of pork products, and proper tempera- tures are among the most important of these. It is very rare that these temperatures prevail in the outside atmos- phere, and hogs that are left on hanging floor over night are either insufficiently chilled or over-chilled the HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 267 next morning. Many packers feel it advantageous, how- ever, to run hogs into a hanging room, allowing them to dry out for one or two hours prior to putting them in the chill room. While this has no deteriorating effect on the CATJEYING RAILS, SCRAPING BENCHES, STICKING PENS, ETC. product, the expense of handling them and the cost of labor incurred is much more than the saving would be in refrigeration, if they are ppt directly into the chill room. The first essential feature in a chill room is that it be properly constructed and have sufficient refrigeration so that the temperatures can be controlled precisely as de- sired. It is advisable that the coolers be partitioned off on each line of posts lengthwise, making separate bays or tunnels. Into this^the hogs are run as fast as they are killed, providing that in so doing the temperature is not run up too high. If the temperature goes above 50° F., the carcasses should be run into another tun- nel, and sent back to the first one as the temperature goes down. A full head of refrigeration should be put 268 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE on to prevent the cooler from going higher than 50° F. It should remain between 44° to 50° F., while be- ing filled, and held at that temperature for about two hours after filling. It will be found by this time that the vapor has passed away, being taken up by the refrigerant, and that the carcasses show signs of drying. Then more refrigeration should be turned on and in twelve hours from the time this refrig- eration is put on the temperature of the cooler should be 86° to 37° F. A higher temperature would mean delay in removing the animal heat and consequently a tendency to decomposition. A lower temperature chills the out- side surface too rapidly, thereby retaining the animal heat next to the bone, with a similar result. The first twelve hours of the chilling of all kinds of meat contain- ing animal heat is the most important part of it, the after chilling being of much less importance. When the carcasses are to be cut after being forty- eight hours in the chill room, the cooler should be brought down gradually to a temperature of 28° F. If they are to be cut when seventy-two hours old, which from the author's experience is preferable, the cooler should be brought down gradually to a temperature of 30° F. ; this would mean that they should be brought from 36° to 30° F., a lowering of six degrees in temperature, in prac- tically fifty-eight hours. It would mean about one degree each eight hours, and held in this condition, not the six degrees in two hours, for in that case the meat would be frozen. With a cooler properly equipped, and a careful attendant, these instructions can be carried out in detail, and when thus followed the safe curing of the product will be found to be practically assured. While there are other matters which need careful at- tention, if the chilling is not done properly, the rest of HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 269 the operation will never save the product. The cooler should at all times be kept dry and clean with a sprinkling of dry sawdust on the floor, this having a tendency to absorb drippings, clots of blood, etc., from the carcasses, and keep the cooler clean and sweet, whereas if this accu- mulation is allowed to drop and remain on the bare floor it soon becomes soured and is a menace to the product being handled. SHRINKAGE IN CHILL ROOM. The question is often raised how much the hogs will shrink from dressed warm weight to chill weight in the cooler, and many people figure that this shrinkage repre- sents a loss. While it may mean a loss in the weight of the product sold, if the cooler is so handled that the meat will not shrink, then there is trouble ahead for the pro- ducer, in the fresh as well as in the cured product. The excess moisture of the meat must be taken out in the process of chilling to handle them successfully after- ward. The following figures will give an idea of the actual shrinkage of hogs run direct into the cooler. It will be noted the tests were made on light hogs used for shipping purposes. The percentage of shrinkage would not be as great on heavier carcasses : TEST NO. 1 ON SHRINKAGE OF HOGS IN COOLER. Forty-five hogs weighed in cooler direct fi^om killing floor — Warm weight, 6,892 pounds; average, 153 pounds; temperature of cooler, 51° to 48'' F. Weight after hanging in cooler forty-eight hours, 6,682 pounds; shrinkage of ^10 pounds or 3.04 per cent; temperature of cooler, 35^ to 36" F. Weight after hanging in cooler seventy-two hours, 6,570 pounds; shrinkage of 322 pounds or 4.67 per cent; tempera- ture of cooler, 31° to 32° F. Weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four and one-half hours, 6,552 pounds; shrinkage of 340 pounds or 4.93 per cent; temperature of cooler, 32° F. 270 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE TEST XO. 2. Forty-five hogs weighed into cooler direct from killing floor — Warm weight, 6,970 pounds; average, 155 pounds; tempera- ture of cooler, 54° P. Weight after hanging in cooler forty-six hours, 6,660 pounds; shrinkage of 310 pounds or 4.45 per cent; " temperature of cooler, 36° F. Weight after hanging in cooler seventy-two hours, 6,623 pounds; shrinkage, 347 pounds or 4.97 per cent; temperature of cooler, 32° F. Weight after hanging in cooler ninety-four hours, 6,613 pounds; shrinkage, 357 pounds or 5.12 per cent; temperature of cooler, 32° F. LABOE AND WAGES IN HOG HOUSE. The following is a list of wages and the number of men required in a well regulated house to handle a given number of hogs per hour. The wages paid are those in vogue at the present writing at the principal American packing centers. The first table gives a list of men required and the wages paid same for handling hog heads: COST OF HOG HEAD GANG HANDLING 400 PER HOUR. No. men Position Rate per hour Total Foreman scaler $0.20 .2.5 .20 .17M .18 V,' .221^ .1.5 .17>^ .18 .1.5 .16K $0.20 Tong"uer . . , .25 Head skinner ..... .20 Templer. . . •. .17J^ Chisler .18)^ Jaw bone puller. .17K Jaw bone trimmer , .1114 Cheeker Cutting out head meat .22M .15 Cheek meat trimmer AlYi 2 3 2 Snouters (average 360 at .^Oc) Saving brains -j *'^'° Laborers 1.80 !■ •■- .163^ Truckers .35 19 $4.72K Cost per head, $0.0118. HOG SLAUGHTERING AND CHILLING 271 COST OF HOG KILLING, AVERAGE 400 HOGS PER HOUR. No. men Position Foreman ($24.00 per week). Scaler ($12.00 per week) Driving up hogs iShacklers . . Sticker Operating levers Dropping in tub . . , Scalder Holding down backs Foot pullers Ham scraper Hooking on hogs Tripper Header String cutter Hanger off Ham scrapers Shoulder " , Belly " Ham shavers Belly " Shoulder " Brisket opener Belly " Eich " Rimmer, Snatcher Dropping off heads Ham facer Lard pullers. . Kidney boy ^ . Splitters Neck washers Belly shavers in run Caller to scale Cooler men Leaf lard truckers Pluck and paunch trimmers Gall puller Gut cutters Ruffle pullers Rate per hour :::;} Fat washers r Janitor Truck oiler (also works on gam sticks) .40 .20 .llli .21 }4 .35 .20 .20 .35 .173-2 .20 .17K .321^ .16X .32>i .20 .321-.^ .17}-^ .16>i .17M .16>^ .25 .22X .25 .22>.^ .25 .25 .27}^ .20 .273^ .21 H .15 .35 .17K .22>^ .17K .17K .17K .22>i .173^ .223-2 .15 .17K .173^ .173^ .173i Total $0.40 .20 .173^ .55 .35 .20 .30 .35 .35 .40 .173-^ .323^- .16 .323-^ .20 .323^ .35 ■ .34 .33 .75 .45 .75 .25 .273^ .20 .27>^ .55 .15 .70 .35 .45 .173i .70 .35 .45 .173^ .45 .323i .523^ .173^ .173^ $15.01 Cost per head, $0.0375. 272 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE COST OF HOG CUTTING. AVERAGING 450 HOGS PER HOUR. No. men Position Foreman ($34.00 per week) Cooler foreman Cooler men Cutting down Ham sawyers Cutting off hams ] Shoulder sawyer Shoulder helper Ham foot sawyer Ham trimmers Tail trimmer Passing to boners Shoulder boners , Pnssing to shoulder sawyer Shoulder sawyer Passing from sawyer Butt pullers Pork trimmer Shoulder trimmers Scribers Placing sides Loin pullers Loin passers Loin trimmers Skirt trimmer Ribbers Back fat trimmers Dry salt belly " Passing to belly press Feeding " " Taking from " " Belly trimmers On trucks and gam sticks Laborers Laborers . . . . Rate per hour Total 1.40 .20 .17.V .n}i .20 .25 .2.5 .ITVo .20 .3.5 .25 .15 .20 .17K .20 .20 .30 25 .17}-2 . 27 V .171.0 .25 .20 .30 .22K .25 • 17K .173i .171^2 . 27 i-o" .17>^' .17}-2 .163-2' $0.40 .20 .70 .17K .QTM ■ .45 .25 .173i .30 1.40 .17 H • 17>^ .75 .15 .20 .20 .20 1.20 .50 .35 .55 .35 .50 .20 1.20 .45 .50 .17J^ .171'^ 1.10 .20 .523^ .33 69 $15.83 Cost per head, $0.0352. PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 273 CHAPTER XIV. PORK CUTS AND YIELDS. CUTTING FLOORS. As soon as the hogs are thoroughly chilled they are ready for the cutting room. To be safe, however, the hogs should show a temperature of from 34° to 36° F. inside of the hams and shoulders. If this temperature in the meat has been reached by gradual chilling for about the time specified in previous chapter, very little trouble should be experienced in curing the meats. The proper cutting of the hog carcass is one of the most important items in the economical handling of hogs. The great variety of cuts and the percentages of yield of the vari- ous cuts are given on succeeding pages. For cutting and trimming economically it is essential that suitable facil- ities be provided. As a guide there are presented in Figs. 100 and 101 diagrams of one of the most mod- ern pork cutting floors on which are used movable benches, power saws, etc. Fig. 100 \ gives the floor plan and Fig. 101 cross sections on lines A — B and C — D of same plan. This cutting room, it may be noted, occupies three different floors, one above the other, mak- ing use of the cheapest of all mechanical forces, gravity. The hogs are first laid on the bench on the top floor, where the hams are cut off, after which the remainder of the carcass is carried to the chopping block and the shoulders cut off, going through their respective chutes to the bench 274 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE on the floor beiow. Here the loins are pulled, sides made into their respective cuts, hams and shoulders trimmed, the finished meats, as well as the trimmings, passing jdes8,back chute BELLY CHUTE -sides chute -Shoulder chute FIG. 100.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DETAIL OF HOG CUTTING ROOM. through a chute to the floor below. The meats are graded from there to be put into the various assortments, the trimmings going on to a large bench. When the lean PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 275 276 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE trimmings have been removed, the lard trimmings are thrown behind the operators on to a conveyor which takes the trimmings directly to the tank house. A care- ful study of this plan will be interesting, and while it may not be adapted, in full, to any one particular house, some of the features can be worked to advantage almost any- where. The equipment here shown represents a cutting capacity of 500 hogs per hour. PERCENTAGES OF YIELD. The variety of cuts into which a hog can be divided are many and the tables following indicate the percent- ages of yield of the different cuts, based on the live weight of the hogs. The percentage of yield of lard includes both prime steam lard and leaf. It should be understood that the total yield of the various cuts mentioned will vary slightly in different markets, and in the same market at different seasons of the year, according to the quality of the hog. These variations will not be more than 2 per cent, probably, on the total yield. The percentages here given are about an average, or ]:>ossibly a little under the average, and are based on hogs averaging from 240 to 275 pounds live weight. Extra short clears, extra short ribs, pork loins, fat backs and bellies are made out of mixed packing hogs, averaging 220 to 300 pounds ; at some seasons of the year averaging twenty-five to thirty pounds heavier. A hog cut into extra short clears will yield the follow- ing percentages of live weight: Per cent. Extra short clears 26 Loin 9 Ham 121/2 Shoulder 9 Lard 13 Total 69y2 PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 277 A hog cut into extra short ribs will yield the follow- ing percentages of live weight : Per cent. Extra short ribs 26^^ Loin 9 Ham 121/2 Shoulder 9 Lard 13 Total 70 A hog cut into pork loins, belly and short fat backs will yield the following percentages of live weight : Per cent. Loin 9 Belly 12 Backs 12 Shoulders 9 Hams 12% Lard 13 Total 671/2 Regular short ribs and rough ribs are made from mixed heavy packing hogs, ranging from 300 to 350 pounds, or even a little heavier. Hogs cut into regular short ribs will yield the following percentages of live weight : Per cent. Ribs 37 Hams 121/2 Shoulders 8 Lard 141/2 Total \ 72 A hog cut into rough ribs will yield the following per- centages of live weight : Per cent. Rough ribs 371/2 Hams 121/2 Shoulders 8 Lard I41/2 Total ,... .721/2 278 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Regular short clears are made from mixed and rough heavy packing hogs, and will yield the following per- centages of live weight: Per cent. Short clears 36 Hams 121/2 Shoulders 8 Lard 141/2 Total 71 Mess pork is made from rough heavy packing hogs averaging about 300 to 350 pounds, and hogs cut into mess pork will yield the following percentages of live weight : Per cent. Mess pork 38 Hams 1214 Shoulders 8 Lard I41/2 Total 73 Cumberlands are made from smooth light hogs, either barrows or good fair sows, and will yield as follows for the different average live hogs : 120-lb. LIVE HOG. 145-lb. LIVE HOG. Per cent. Per cent. Cumberlands 87 Cumberlands 38 American cut hams. .... .14 American cut hams 14 Lard 10 Lard 11 Total 61 Total 63 170-lb. LIVE HOG. 190-lb. LIVE HOG. Per cent. Per cent. Cumberlands 39 Cumberlands 40 American cut hams.... 14 American cut hams.... 14 Lard II1/2 Lard I21/2 Total 64 Total 661/2 English long clears usually made from hogs that will average 185 to 200 pounds alive, are about the same qual- ity as Cumberland hogs, and will yield as follows: Per cent Long clear 38 American cut hams 14 Lard I21/2 Total .64% PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 279 In the percentages given it is estimated that the offal, such as hair, blood, fertilizer, casings, blade bones, etc., will cover the cost of killing and cutting and in figuring these tests prices of green meat should be used. In figur- ing boxed meats from these green prices allowance must be made for shrinkage from green weight to cured, cost of boxing, labor, etc. The percentages given are accurate on hogs made into these cuts. The following tables are -based on tests where one side of the hog, weighing forty-four pounds, was made into the different American cuts, showing the weights of FIG. 102.— HAKD SHORT RIB. same, and the prices at time tests were made, also show- ing the variations of the same piece or side meat in dif- ferent cuts. A careful study of these tests will show that it is of the greatest importance ^ to figure and cut the hogs to the best advantage. Taking into considera- tion the current prices of the different cuts and to see that they are converted into the cuts for which they are best adapted. TESTS SHOWING YIELD OF SIDES. Hard short ribs are made the same as standard cut short ribs, except that the back bone is left in. Hard 280 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE short cut ribs cannot be delivered as ^' regular " on the Board-of-Trade, but it is a cut that is made very exten- sively for southern sale, there being practically no waste to the meat cut in this manner : Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Hard short ribs 43 $0.09675 .07 .065 .13 $4 1603 Lean trimmings .0175 Fat " .0335 Tenderloins .0325 Totals 44 $4.2428 PIG. 103.— REGULAK RIB. Yield of standard short ribs, which is the standard Board-of-Trade cut: Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Standard short ribs 41^ % 1 $0,097 .07 .065 .13 .015 $4.0498 Lean trimmings Fat " .0350 .0325 Tenderloins .0325 Back bone ... .0150 Totals 44 $4.1648 PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 281 Short clears same as short ribs with the spare rib removed : Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Short clears Lean trimmings Fat " 39X y^ % 1 2 $0.10025 .07 .065 .13 .015 .055 $3.9497 .0350 .0325 Tenderloins .0325 Back bone . . . .0150 Spare ribs .1100 Totals 44 $4.1724 Clear back, same as short clears, with the exception of the belly cut off: Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Clear back 21 X 17/3 % 1 2 $0.10075 .1045 .07 .065 .13 .015 .055 $2.1914 Clear bellies (dry salt) 1.8288 Lean trimming's .0525 Fat " .0488 Tenderloin .0325 Back bone .0150 Spare ribs .1100 Totals .... .... 44 $4.2790 This test same as preceding one, excepting the bellies are ribbed instead of leaving in the spare rib. Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Clear back ". 31^ 19/ Va Va 1 $0.10075 .102 .07 .065 .13 .015 $2.1903 Rib bellies (dry salt) 1.9890 Lean trimmings . . .0525 Fat " .0488 Tenderloin .0325 .0150 Totals .... 44 $4 3281 282 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Tliis test is the same as the previous one, except clear bellies made for sweet pickle instead of dry salt : Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Clear backs Clear bellies (sweet pickle). Lean trimmings 31% 15J^ 1 3% 1 2 $0. 10075 .105 .07 .065 .13 .015 .055 S3. 1903 1.6013 .0700 Fat " .1788 Tenderloin 0335 Back bone 0150 Spare ribs .... 1100 Totals 44 $4 1979 FIG. 104.— SHORT CLEAR. Extra ribs same as extra clear, with the exception that the pork loin is taken out : Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Extra ribs 34K 8K $0.0965 .105 .06635 .0965 $3.3393 Pork loin .9031 Lean trimmings .0175 Fat " .0344 Totals 44 $4.2743 PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 283 Extra short clears same as extra ribs, except spare rib is taken off the belly. Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Extra short clears 33>^ Vi % 1 $0,097 .10675 .07 .065 .055 $3.2495 .9031 Pork loins Lean trimmings 0175 Fat " Spare ribs .0488 .0550 Totals 44 $4 2739 Dry salt fat-backs and dry salt rib-belly constitute the cuts in the following test: Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Rib bellies (dry salt) 16% 34- 2 $0.10275 .09525 .10675 .07 .065 $1 7203 Fat backs " 1 5716 Pork loin „ . . . . 9031 Lean trimmings 0175 Fat " .1300 Totals 44 $4.3435 This following test is the same as the previous one, except that the belly has been cleared of the spare rib: Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Fat backs (dry salt) r 16 >2 15% 8}i 2 1 $0.09525 .10275 .10675 .07 .065 .055 $1 5716 Clear bellies " Pork loin 1.6175 .9031 Lean trimmings .0175 Fat " .1300 Spare ribs 0550 Totals 44 $4.2947 284 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The following test is the same as the previous one, except that the belly is cleared and used for sweet pickle : Yield Fat backs (dry salt) Clear bellies (sweet pickle) Pork loins Lean trimmings Fat " Spare ribs Totals Lbs. Value 16>^ 14 8-^4 % 1 44 fO.09525 .105 .10675 .07 .065 .055 $1.5716 1.4700 .9031 .0525 .211.3 .0550 L2635 FIG. 105.— CLEAR BACK. The following test is the same as for dr}^ salt fat- hacks and dry salt rib-bellies, except that fat backs are sent to tank for lard : Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Fat backs, tank 15% 8hi 1 2 16% $0.07975 .10675 .07 .065 .102 $1.2561 Pork loins .9031 Lean trimmings .0700 Fat " .1300 Rib bellies (dry salt) 1.7085 Totals 44 $4.0677 PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 285 The following test indicates fat backs to tank and the belly clear of spare ribs : Fat backs, tank Pork loins Lean trimming's Fat " Clear bellies (dry salt) Spare ribs Totals Lbs. 15% 8>i 1 3 15% 1 41 .07975 .10675 .07 .065 .10275 .055 Value $1.3561 .9031 .0700 .1300 1.6175 .0550 $4.0317 FIG. 106.— CLEAR BELLY. The following test is the same as previous one, excepf, that the bellies are cleared for sweet pickle : Yield Lbs. Per lb. Value Clear bellies (sweet pickle) 14 8K IH' 3J€ 15% 1 $0,105 .10675 .07 .065 .07975 .055 $1.4700 Pork loins ... Lean trimming's ... .9031 . 1 0.50 Fat " .2113 Back fat, tank . 1.3561 Spare ribs ~: . .0550 Totals 44 $4.0005 The following recapitulation will show the value of the different cuts into which one side of a hog can be made the same day. There is not always this variation, 286 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE possibly, but there is always a great advantage in having hogs cut into the cuts for which the carcass is best adapted, as well as in watching the market closely and having on hand the cuts for which there is the greatest demand. It will be noticed from the foregoing tests that FIG. 107.— EXTRA SHORT RIB. the same weight side of meat made into different cuts varies in value all the way from $4.00 to $4.34: RECAPITULATION. Product Value Hard ribs $4.2488 Standard ribs 4.1648 Short clear 4.1724 Baclt and dry salt bellies 4.2790 Back and dry salt rib bellies 4.3281 Back and sweet pickle bellies 4.1979 Extra rib 4.2743 Extra clear 4.2739 Dry salt fat backs and dry salt rib bellies 4.3426 Dry salt fat backs and dry salt bellies 4.2948 Dry salt fat backs and sweet pickle clear bellies 4.2635 Fat back (tank) and dry salt rib bellies 4.0677 Fat back (tank) and dry salt clear bellies 4.0317 Fat back (tank) and sweet pickle clear bellies 4.0005 TESTS ON YIELD OF DIFFERENT CUTS. There being such a variety of cuts into which hogs can be made, and the prices on the various cuts varying PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 287 at all times, it requires very close attention to see that the hogs are cut to the best advantage consequently a thorough knowledge of the yield of each kind of cut is desirable. While it is not possible at all times to carry the ]3ercentages in one's mind, it is wise to have them available. The following tests show five sides of hogs of dif- ferent weights, with the back bone and tenderloin in, cut into various cuts, the percentages in this case being figured on the weight of the sides of meat : FIG. 108.— EXTRA SI-\ORT CLEAR. Five rough ribs, weighing 260 pounds, tenderloin in, made into extra short clears (Fig. 108) : Yield Lbs. Per cent. Per lb. Value Five extra short clears Spare ribs .189 5 57 8 1 260 72.69 1.93 21.92 3.08 .38 100.00 $0.09875 .08 .1075 .0625 .0775 $18.66 40 Five pork loins 6.13 Fat trimming's .50 Lean " .08 Totals... $25.77 Value, $9.91 per 100 pounds. 288 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Five rough sides, weighing 260 pounds, with the ten- derloin in, made into extra short ribs and pork loins : yield Lbs. Per cent. Per lb. Value Five extra short ribs. Five pork loins Fat trimming's Lean " 194 57 8 1 74.62 21.93 3.08 .38 $0.09875 .1075 .0625 .0775 $19.15 6.13 ,50 .08 Totals 360 100.00 $25.86 Value, $9,946 per 100 pounds. Five rough rib sides, weighing 365 pounds, made into short clears : ' Yield Lbs. Per cent. Per lb. Value Short clears , Spare ribs Tail bones 330 K 16 3K 8 5 o 90.55 4.38 .96 3.19 1.37 .55 $0.10135 .08 ,03 .02 .19 .0625 $33.46 1.28 .10 Back bones .16 Tenderloins Fat .95 .12 Totals 365 100.00 $36,07 Value, $9.88 per 100 pounds. Five rough ribs, weighing 365 pounds, tenderloin in, made into regular ribs : Yield Lbs. Per cent Per lb. Value Five regular Back bones . ribs .... 350 8 5 2 95.89 2.19 1.37 .55 $0.0980 .03 .19 .0625 $34.30 .16 Tenderloins .95 Fat . . .12 Totals 365 100.00 $35.53 Value, $9,734 per 100 pounds. PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 289 Five rough sides, weighing 280i/^ pounds, made into pork loins, clear bellies, from which have been taken out the spare ribs and fat backs : Yield Lbs. Per cent. Per lb. Value Five pork loins Five clear bellies 63 K 101 8K 85 18K 3Ji 22.64 36.01 3.03 30.30 6.59 .18 1.25 $0.1075 '.1025 .08 .09 .0625 .0775 .07 $ 6.82 10.35 Spare ribs ... Five fat backs .68 7.65 Fat trimmings 1.16 Lean " .04 Blade bones ... 34 Totals 280}4 100.00 $26.94 Value, $9.60 per 100 pounds. FIG. 109.- RIB BELLY. Five rough ribs, weighing 280^^ pounds, with the tenderloin left in, made into rib bellies, pork loins and fat backs : Yield Lbs. Per cent. \ Per lb. Value Five pork loins Five rib bellies - Five fat backs Fat trimmings Lean " 63 K 1093^ 85 18 K 332 22.64 39.04 30.30 6.59 .18 1.25 $0.1075 .101 .09 .0625 .0775 .07 $ 6.82 11.06 7.65 1.16 .04 Blade bones .24 Totals 280 1<2^ 100.00 $26.79 Value, $9,614 per 100 pounds. 290 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Five rough ribs, weighing 268 pounds, made into short clear backs (by removing spare rib), leaving pork loin on back, and leaving the spare ribs in bellies : Yield Lbs. Per cent. Per lb. Value Five short clear backs Five rib bellies . 128 112 4 9 3 5 47.76 41.79 1.49 2.42 3.36 1.12 1.87 .19 $0.0975 .101 .19 .08 .0625 .07 .02 .0775 $12.48 11,31 Tenderloins .76 Ribs . . Fat trimming's .52 .56 Blade bones Back " Lean trimmings .21 .10 .04 Totals 268 100.00 $25.98 r' Value, $9.70 per 100 pounds. '"^'^mmm^m^ FIG. 110.— SHORT FAT BACK. Same except removing spare rib from bellies, making them clear bellies : Yield Lbs. Per cent. Per lb. Value Five short clear backs Five clear bellies Spare ribs Tenderloins 128 105 7 4 9 3 5 47.76 39.18 2.61 1.49 2.42 3.36 1.12 1.87 .19 $0.0975 .1025 .08 .19 .08 .0625 .07 .02 .0775 $12.48 10.76 .56 .76 Eibs .52 Fat trimming-s Blade bones .56 .21 Back " .10 Lean trimmino's . . .04 Totals 268 100.00 $35.99 Value, $9.70 per 100 pounds. PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 291 RECAPITULATION. Value per cwt. Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into extra short clears $9,910 . Five rough sides with the tenderloin in, made into extra short ribs and pork loins 9.946 Five rough sides made into extra short clears, this cut being the same as the previous one, except that the spare rib is removed from the side 9.880 Five rough ribs, tenderloin in, made into regular ribs. . . 9.734 Five rough sides made into pork loins, clear bellies, which consist of taking out the spare ribs and fat backs 9.600 Five rough ribs with tenderloin in, made into rib bellies, pork loins and fat backs 9.614 Five rough ribs made into short clear backs by removing spare rib on loin and leaving spare ribs in bellies. . . 9.700 Five rough ribs made into short clear backs, removing the spare rib from the bellies, making them clear bellies 9.700 In the foregoing tests the prices were those that were in vogue at the time the tests were made. The percent- ages, however, are accurate. It will be noted that the different cuts vary in value from $9.60 to $9.91, a varia- tion of 31c per hundred pounds on the different cuts made. From this will readily be seen the advantage of cutting hogs into the most desirable cuts, according to the market variations. SPECIAL TEST ON 1,265 MIXED HOGS. AVERAGE LIVE WEIGHT 245 POUNDS. In all well-regulated packing houses^ a test is made at least weekly, carrying everything through separately, to determine the actual profit or loss. These weeklj^ tests are of great value -as a guide to the purchaser when buying hogs of a quality best adapted to the require- ments of his trade and in making the different cuts and weights that are selling to the best advantage. The following tests on 1,265 live hogs, averaging 245 pounds, shows the method in use. It will be noted that this test is 292 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE carried through carefully, taking the market price on all the various cuts. The recapitulation shows the actual re- sults at the time the test was made. All percentages of cuts of meats shown in the following tables are figured on the live weight of hogs : FIG. 111.— AMERICAN SHORT CUT HAM. HAMS. FIG 112.— SKINNED HAM. Product Average Wt. Lbs. No. of Pieces Green ^\'eight Lbs. Average Price Per lb. Value Amer. cut hams Special hams . . 10 and under 11—13 14—16 18 and over (skinned) 11—13 14—16 14 and under 15 and over 68 143 6.58 590 415 223 337 9 63 34 616 1,740 . 9,965 11,114 7,, 503 3,892 5^187 145 933 288 $0.11375 .0975 .0925 .0925 .1035 .10 .095 .085 .0935 .0875 $ 70.07 169.65 931.76 1,038.04 769.06 289.20 492.77 Face and cushi bruised tiam No. 3 hams . on 3. . 12.33 86.30 No. 2 " 25.30 Totals 3,530 40,383 $0.0957 $3,864.48 PORK CUTS AND YIELDS SHOULDERS. 293 Average 'Wt. Lbs. No. of Pieces Green Weight Lbs. Average Price Per lb. Value N. Y. shoulders. . Rough Skinned Three rib California hams. . 5M and under -10 and over Clear plates Boneless ham butts Jowl " Rough " Boston " Barrel pork 77 8 283 18 929 856 32-1 45 Totals. 3,530 680 202 2,731 2.50 4,705 5,838 2,532 458 890 382 214 245 6,703 1.110 26,940 3.0675 .07375 .075 .08 .06125 .05775 .075 .0425 .07675 .075 .06025 .$0.0664 45.90 14.90 204.83 20.00 828.90 51.40 28.65 9.10 18.07 .502.73 66.88 $1,791.36 «««w^aL.. ^^ FIG. 113.— NEW YORK SHOULDER. MISCELLANEOUS. Product Green Weight Lbs. Average Price Per lb. value Spare ribs Tenderloins -> Tails Neck bones , 1,474 75 96 1,012 296 7,383 4,803 $0.04 .15 .02 .01 .04 .04 .01 $.58.96 11.25 1.92 10.12 Blade " 11.84 Trimmings Feet 295.32 48.03 Totals 15,139 $0.0289 $437.44 294 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE SIDES. Product Dry salt fancy bellies. . . . Sweet pickle clear bellies it a a a it II ( i n Dry salt clear bellies .... Regular short ribs Extra " " Fat backs Back pork Back fat (fifty K. R. lard) Brisket pork Regular loins. Totals Average Wt. Lbs. 4— 6 6— 8 8—10 10—13 13—15 18—20 25—30 60—70 30—40 10—12 25—30 No. of Pieces 85 53 252 274 67 144 135 116 1,404 110 10 2,414 Green "Weight Lbs. 383 275 2,158 3,059 893 2,803 3,711 7,731 52,600 1,246 260 3,330 5,100 245 27.268 Average Price Per lb. D.ll .1075 .1025 .095 .0875 .07775 .076 .072 .069 .057 .065 .0585 .057 .08 .1025 Value S 42.13 29.56 221.19 288.70 78.13 217.93 282.04 556.63 3,629.40 71.02 3 6.90 194.80 290.70 19.60 2,794.97 5,064 111,042 .0787 ?, 733.70 FIG. 114.— REGULAR DRY SALT SHOULDER. LARD. Product Green Weight Lbs. Average Price Per lb. Value Prime steam lard (killing) " " " (cutting) 16,075 17,059 Totals 33,134 $0.07125 $2,289.55 Leaf lard 7,965 $0.07 $ 557 55 PORK CUTS AND YIELDS OFFAL,. 295 Cheek and head meat Tongues Hearts Kidneys Brains Plucks Heads Ears Snouts Totals No. of Pieces 600 Green Weight Lbs. 1,664 9.50 335 380 46 "io2 25 985 4,48"; Average Price Per lb. Value ).03 .055 .01 .01 .03 .03 .035 .03 .03 $ 33.38 53.35 3.35 3.80 .93 13.00 3.57 .,50 19.70 $129.37 Estimated value of blood and casings at fie per head, $77.10. Added to $129.37, the value of the offal, makes a total value of $206.47. FIG. 115.— SQUARE SHOULDER. RECAPITULATION. Product Per cent Yield. Lbs. Weight \ Average Price Per lb. Value Hams Shoulders Sides Prime steam lard Leaf " Miscellaneous Offal ($0,167 per head). No. 1 grease 13.04 8.70 35.86 10.38 3.57 4.89 Total yield • 75 44 40,383 36,940 111,042 33,134 7,965 15,139 1,381 334,884 .0957 0665 .0787 .07135 .07 .289 .07125 $3,864.38 1,791.36 8,733.70 2,289.55 557.55 437.44 206.47 91.37 $17,971.72 296 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE NET RESULT: 12G5 hogs — Net live weight 309,925 pounds at average $0.0533 per lb $16,518.90 — Killing expense 642.50 13 condemned for No. 1 grease, weighing 3158 lbs. and 7 condemned for No. 2 grease, weighing 1908 lbs. at average, $0.0150 per lb 75.99 Total $17,237.39 Gain, $733.33, or 58c per hog, or 23c per 100 pounds alive. BARREL PORK. This is a part of the packing house business which is becoming of less importance year by year. Under former methods it was necessary to cure nearly all parts of the FIG. 116.— BOSTON SHOULDER AND CALIFORNIA HAM. animal, owing to lack of facilities for handling it fresh. At that time a great deal of the product was cured in packages and disposed of to the consumer in this man- ner. But with the increased facilities for handling the material fresh, and for getting the meats to their destina- tion in a more palatable Eind salable condition, the bar- reled part of the product has grown materially less and will probably continue to do so. There are, however, for certain trades, some cuts, still put into barrels. MESS PORK. Mess pork (Figs. 117 and 118) is a standard Board- of-Trade cut, and although there is comparatively little PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 297 of it made, it is quoted daily in the market quotations and according to its rules and regulations, mess pork packed during the season from October 1 to March 31 is known FTG. 117.— MESS PORK. as " new pork," until the first of January the following year. After that date such pork is known as '' old mess pork." Mess pork is made from the sides of very fat FIG. lis.— PRIME MESS PORK. hogs, usually the heaviest and roughest animals being- used for this purpose. The hog is split through the cen- ter of the backbone and after the shoulders and hams are 298 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE removed, the sides are cut into strips crossways of the backbone, about 6 inches wide, and are packed 190 pounds to the barrel, but it is supposed to weigh 200 pounds when sold, the gain of pickle making up the difference in weight. When it is six months old, it will weigh more than 200 pounds, and if repacked will make 104 to 105 barrels per 100 barrels when packed, and should be repacked at 200 pounds. When number of pieces is not specified, mess pork is packed from eleven to fifteen pieces per barrel. Short cut mess pork is made from the sides of hogs split through the backbone, the bellies having been re- moved. It is cut into i^ieces 6 inches wide and packed FIG. 119.— CLEAR BACK PORK. four tiers to the barrel. This pork consists of the loin and fat back and is generally sold for family use. This cut is also known as ' ' New York family pork, " " family back pork " and '' regular back pork." It is packed as follows : Heavy grade 25 to 34 pieces Next grade 35 " 47 Medium liglit grade 48 " 55 Extra light grade 56 " 65 CLEAE BACK PORK. Clear back pork (Fig. 119) is made from the fat backs of prime hogs, being free from lean and bone and even in thickness. Pieces are cut 6 inches wide at each end PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 299 and packed four tiers to a barrel. Among the trade in some sections this particular cut is called " clear fat backs ' ' and ' ' short clear fat backs ' ' and is a very popu- lar cut of fat back pork. It is packed as follows : Extra heavies 30 to 35 pieces Heavies 41 " 50 Medium 51" 65 " Lights 71 " 90 A second grade of fat back pork is made from the shoulder and from the fat backs with the blade bone and lean removed, trimmed smooth on the edges. It is some- what similar in shape to " Keystone " and is packed as follows : Extra heavies 19 to 35 pieces Heavies 36 " 45 Medium 46 " 60 This same cut is also used when a California ham has been cut from the shoulder, leaving the blade bone on the ])ork and making a very desirable piece of meat. It is graded practically the same as second grade fat back pork. BEISKET POEK EIB. Brisket jDork rib is made from the briskets of medium weight hogs. The pieces are cut 5 inches in width and have the rib left in, and is usually packed fifty pieces to the barrel. This pork is generally sold for family use and is made at times when light bellies sell at a premium over heavy ones, the first cut being taken off heavy bel- lies, reducing the average weight, thereby increasing the value, the piece cut off being used in making this pork. It usually runs fifty pieces and upwards to a barrel. LOIISr POEK. This is made from the end of the pork loin next to the hams, having a portion of the tail bone left on it.' It is 300 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE generally packed fifty pieces and upwards to the barrel. This cut is also known as " rump pork " and " ham butt pork." This is the cut that is taken off the end of very heavy pork loins to reduce their average weight, thereby enhancing their value. BELLY POEK. Belly pork is made from a heavy quality of bellies and has the ribs left in. Pieces 5 inches in width are packed fifty-one to sixty per barrel. Heavy rough bellies are used for this at times when they will net more in this manner than when sold as dry salt bellies. There is comparatively little demand for this cut. BACK POEK. Back pork is made from clear fat backs from hogs that are free from lean and bone pieces. It is cut 5 inches wide and packed five tiers to the barrel, as follows : Heavies 35 to 50 pieces Mediums 51 " 65 LOIISr CLEAR POEK, Loin clear pork is made from the sides of hogs with the loin and backbone removed and the belly ribs left in, in other words an extra short rib cut into 5-inch widths and packed five tiers to the barrel. In the New England trade this is known as '^ clear pork." Packed as follows: Extra heavies 19 lbs. to 23 lbs. Heavies 24 lbs. to 30 lbs. DEY SALT MEATS. Short Ribs. — This is a regular Board-of-Trade cut and is quoted on the market daily. The price of same is used as a basis of value for other cuts of dry salt meats. PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 301 Short ribs are made from the sides of the hog between the ham and shoulder, having the loin and ribs in, and the backbone removed. Graded usually as follows : 40 to 45 lbs. average 55 to 60 lbs. average 45 " 50 " " 60 " 65 " 50 " 55 " Prices vary according to weight. This cut is known as " regular short ribs " and is delivered on Board-of- Trade transactions. Hard Ribs. — These are the same as regulars, except that the backbone is not removed. This cut cannot be delivered on the Board-of-Trade without the removing of the backbone. This is a cut sold largely in the south and is made out of the heaviest, roughest hogs. Short Clears. — These are the same as short ribs, but have the spare ribs and backbone removed. They are cut square at each end and graded as to average weight, same as short ribs. Short Clear Backs. — These are made from the backs of hogs with the loin left in, the ribs and backbone re- moved. This cut is also known as " lean backs " and '' loin backs." Values vary according to average weight as follows : ^ 14 to 16 lbs. average 20 to 25 lbs. average 18 " 20 " " 25 " 30 " Extra Short Clears. — These are made from sides of hogs between the ham and shoulders with the rib and loin taken out. They are sold on an average from — 35 to 40 lbs. average 45 to 50 lbs. average 40 " 45 " '■ - Extra Short Ribs.- — These are the same cut as extra short clears, in every respect, except that the spare ribs are left in the belly. Short Fat Backs. — These are made from back pork of prime hogs, being free from lean and bone, properly 302 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE squared on the edges. They are generally quoted as follows : 10 to 12 lbs. average 14 " 16 " 18 " 20 " 20 " 25 " 25 to 30 lbs. average 30 " 35 " 35 " 40 " These cuts may be used for tlie domestic trade and are usually under twenty-five pounds average in weight. The heavier backs are, however, in general practice used mainly for the export trade. FIG. 120.— LOXG CLEAR. Long Clears. — These are made from the sides, hams being cut off, backbone and ribs removed, shoulder blade taken out, the leg cut off close to the brisket; being the entire side of the hog, with the ham and the bones re- moved. Extra Long Clears. — These are trimmed the same as long clears, except that the loin is cut out. PORK CUTS AND YIELDS 303 Bellies. — These are cut with the sides squared and well trimmed on all edges. Graded generally, as follows : 10 to 12 lbs. average 14 " 16 " 20 to 25 lbs. average 25 " 30 " 18 " 20 " They are cured in sweet pickle, plain pickle or dry salt. FIG. 121.— EXTRA LONG CLEAR. Regular Plates. — These are made from the end of the shoulder when this is cut into California hams, and have half of the blade bone with a facing of lean left on. The usual weight averages six to eight pounds. FIG. 122.— JOWL (DRY SALT BUTTS). Clear Plates. — These are the same as regulars except blade bones are never trimmed out. Dry Salt Butts. — This is a cut made from the fat cheek or jowl, trimmed to average from three to four pounds each and is a uniform cut of the hog. 304 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER XV. CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS. CUTTING AND TEIMMING OF HAMS. As shown by the tests given on a previous page, Amer- ican hams rnn from 12 to IS^/o per cent of the live weight of the hog. In the handling of the product there is no part of the animal that requires as close and as skillful attention as does the ham during the curing process. One reason for this is that it is a thick, compact body of meat and it takes considerable time to chill it properly; the stifle joint, having a large amount of joint water, be- comes tainted very soon if the animal heat is not prop- erly removed. Another reason is that even if the heat is removed, and the curing agent does not get to the in- terior of it promptly, decomposition sets in. As before stated the first chilling of the carcass has everything to do with the curing of this meat. If hams are properly chilled in the cooler, the balance of the process is com- paratively simple. If they are only partially chilled from lack of proper attention or because of improperly con- structed coolers, no curing agency in the world will bring the hams out in a satisfactory condition. When hogs are cut, tho bone of the ham should be sawed. In some packing houses they are cut off with a cleaver, but the general practice is to saw them, on ac- count of the danger of splintering the main bone when they are chopped. The foot is next cut off; this opera- CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 305 tion should also be done with a saw, the bone being sawed so as to expose the marrow. On the long cut export hams the loot is disjointed. The ham is next trimmed, and it requires very skilled labor to trim them evenly and regularly. The error that is too often made in trimming is that an insufficient amount 01 flank is left on, the result being that when the ham is brought out of the smoke-house the heat will have shrunk the flank, thus greatly injuring its appearance. From one-quarter to one-half per cent can be made in the trimming of hams if the flank is left long, and the fat is left on the ham instead of being cut off and sent to the lard tank. The same is true of the cushion of the ham. The knife should be carried around on an angle, taking off as little fat as possible so as to make a prop- erly shaped ham and at the same time make it look as lean as is possible. The hams should then be graded for average and quality, after which they are ready for the curing cellar. Several methods are adopted for curing. In some instances where hogs are chilled seventy-two hours in the cooler, hams go directly from the grading bench into the curing vats or tierces. This is not gener- ally done, however, as there is always more or less chance taken that the cure will not be satisfactory when handled in this way, because the hams after being in the chill- room seventy-two hours are hard and firm, still they are so thoroughly chilled that the pickle cannot penetrate quickly enough to prevent decomposition, and the frac- tion of one per cent, of sour meats in a house where a large volume of business is done runs into money rap- idly, causing pecuniary loss, also a loss of reputation. Another method, and one which is very generally in use, is to shelve hams in a chill room which is held at a temperature of 33° to 34° F. and kept there for forty- 306 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE eight hours to fully eliminate all the animal heat. They are then taken from this room and put into vats or tierces and the curing agency applied. Better success is attain- able in this manner, to the author's knowledge, than in the method previously described. In some instances they are handled successfully by pumping the hams with a pickle before it goes into this chill room. The pickle used for this purpose is made by taking 150 gallons of plain pickle, adding fourteen pounds of saltpetre and four gallons of sirup, or its equivalent in sugar, making the x'ickle a gravity of 95 degrees. In this case it being believed that the process of curing should start immediately after the meats are chilled. PUMPING HAMS. On the question of pumping hams there are a variety of opinions, but on one point everybody seems agreed, namely, that the very highest grade of hams should not be pumped, and the author believes it is universally ac- knowledged in all packing houses that the special, or leader, brands are cured without pumping, with a cor- respondingly increased percentage of damaged meats. A pump similar to that shown in Fig. 123 is used, the pickle being inserted around the joint by means of a hol- low nickel needle. The needle is put in where the pickle is wanted, and with one stroke of the pump the pickle is forced into the inside of the ham. It is advisable to use a strong pickle, getting as much of the curative properties as possible into the ham with a minimum amount of water. The following formula is used : 80 pounds sugar, 15 pounds saltpetre, 5 pounds boracic acid, 5 pounds glycerine, with just enough full strength plain pickle added to dissolve these ingredients, making the mixture about the CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 307 consistency of thick molasses. The hams are pmnped with about five strokes of this, viz. : Three round the joint, One in the body of the ham, One near the aitch hone. It will be noted from this formula that there is very little liquid matter and that nearly the whole amount pumped into the hams is of a curing nature. FIG. 123.— HAM PUMP. In pumping hams care should be used not to pump them heavy enough to burst the tissues, and to get as much as possible of the ingredient pumped in around the stifle joint, as this is the point where decomposition first sets in. Each day's cutting of hams should be tested in- ternally with a thermometer made especially for this purpose to find the internal temperature. Light hams 308 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE averaging from twelve to fourteen pounds should run from 33° to 34° F., heavy hams from 35° to 37° F. Tem- peratures higher than those designated are not safe, from a curing standpoint, and should be reduced to these points before the hams can be safely cured. What is meant by '^ safely cured " is the minimum percentage of sour, which should run less than one ham in 1,000 pieces. If previous directions as to refrigeration, handling, etc., are followed closely this condition is possible. Another, and in the author's opinion, a very satis- factory method of handling hams, before beginning to pickle is (providing the hogs have been properly chilled in the cooler for from sixt}^ to seven- two hours), as soon as they are inspected and graded, to spread them on the floor, piling them up carefully, shank down, about 2i4 to 3 feet high, salt each ham slightly with fine salt, and let them lie packed over night in the cooler at a tempera- ture of from 36° to 38° F. The next day they are put into process of curing. When hogs are properly chilled in a dry cooler, they come out more or less dried, and the surface of the ham, as well as the rind, is not sufficiently porous and open to absorb the pickle promptly, the meat being cooler than the curing room. When, however, it comes in contact with the fine salt, this causes moisture to form on the meat, which opens up the pores, in which condition the ham readily absorbs the pickle. FORMULA FOR PICKLE WHERE HAMS HAVE BEEN PILED IN SALT. Inasmuch as the hams have been salted on the floor, the pickle should carry correspondingly less salt in cur- ing. Otherwise the meat will be too salty. A 75-degree plain pickle is as strong as should be used for hams thus handled. CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 309 To a tank holding 1,680 gallons, filled with 75-degree pickle, should be added: 475 pounds granulated sugar, 90 pounds saltpetre, 25 pounds bicarbonate of soda. This makes a very safe and effective cure. The hams when being put down should be ]iumped as follows : Five stitches in the siiank; Gne on the shank joint; One on the aitch bone; One on top of the shank; Two in the body; making a total of ten stitches per ham. The meat should be overhauled from one vat to another at the end of five days, second overhauling ten days later, pumping at that time with three stitches, One in the shank, One in the body, One in the aitch bone. It adds greatly to the certainty of the cure of meats to be thus pumped. FOEMULA FOR HAM PICKLE, WHEflE HAMS HAVE NOT BEEN PILED IlSr SALT. To a vat containing 1,500 gallons of 78-degree plain pickle add: 400 pounds sugar, 88 pounds saltpetre, 25 pounds borax. The foregoing formula is used where hams are chilled before going into the vats, but are not subjected to an}^ salting before being put in pickle. If hams are packed in a fine sprinkling of salt, a great deal of the salt ad- heres to the ham and this will materially strengthen the pickle. This must be taken into consideration in making 310 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE pickle for curing tiie liams, otherwise tliey would be too salty ^ CUEING HAMS. There are a variety of " cures " as well as methods of handling hams while in course of curing, one of them being to put the hams in a tierce and when filled, to add the following mixture : 25 pounds salt, 4 4/10 pounds sugar, 12 ounces saltpetre, 4 ounces bicarbonate of soda. The tierce after being headed is filled with water at a temperature of 38° F. and rolled at least a hundred yards before being piled. It should be rolled every five, fifteen and thirty days thereafter. While this method has been used quite extensively, the best results have not been obtained by handling meats in this manner. In the first place, tierces are not used to the extent that they were a few years ago, curing vats having been substituted for them. The vats largely in use today are made as follows : For 1,500 pounds capacity, 42 inches high, 42 inches in diameter at the head, 48 inches in diameter at the bilge or center of vat. Thickness of stave 1 inch. Heads li/^ inch yellow pine; five galvanized iron hoops, 2 inches wide, made from No. 12 iron. Breads to be set flush with tlie chime, so that the weight of the contents comes directl}^ on the floor. Vats of this kind seem to last indefinitely and are much cheaper to handle than tierces, saving a large expense in coopering, and making it possible to use the space in the curing houses to better advantage. Cold storage houses should be sufficiently high under the joists, so these vats can be double-decked, one setting on top of the other, CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 311 leaving about 20 inches of space. When handled in this manner the space in the cellar is used to much better advantage with vats than tierces. Into a vat of the dimensions named, should be put 1,450 pounds of meat. It will take practically sixty-eight gallons of pickle to fill the vat on a basis of twenty one and one-third pounds of meat to be cured, to each gallon of pickle, A safer method of curing hams and one which turns out the product in a more even and satisfactory manner is to make the pickle in large receiving vats, where the volume of business will warrant, thereby having an even and regular pickle and cure. FOKMULA FOR PUMPING PICKLE. To a vat holding 1,500 gallons of 80-degree pickle add: 400 pounds granulated sugar, 80 pounds saltpetre, 12 pounds borax, 12 pounds boracic acid. The sugar has the effect of toning down the brash salt effect in the meat, giving it a more palatable flavor, also to a certain extent it aids in curing, although it is of small value in that respect. The saltpetre aids in curing the meat, and gives it a bright, attractive color. Meat which is cured withou.t the use of sali^petre has a dead, slatish appearance, which is very unattractive. The borax and boracic acid act as adjuncts in this case, the borax having the tendency to whiten the meat, giving it a bright, attractive appearance. The boracic acid has the effect of preserving the pickle, preventing it from becoming ropy or out of condition. In making the pickle in this manner the vat should first be filled with a 78-degree brine by a salometer test. 312 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The other ingredients should be dissolved in a small vat with the same strength brine, it being necessary to heat the pickle to dissolve proper!}^ the different ingredients. When thoroughly dissolved the contents should be emp- tied into the vat of brine, as above stated, and thoroughly stirred before using. The pickle should then be chilled down to a temperature of 40 degrees F., when it is ready for use. Care should be taken in making the pickle, to see that the required strength on the salometer is in the salt pickle and not in the total strength of pickle. After the other ingredients are in, for instance, a 78-degree salt pickle with the above ingredients will show 85-degree strength, whereas if it were a 78-degree pickle which was desired, and the test on the pickle was made after the other ingredients were in, there would be, practically, only a 71-degree salt pickle, which would be too light for safe curing. The ingredients added in making the pickle have com- paratively little preserving properties, the salt being the real preservative. SIRUP CUEING. The best flavored meats are produced with sirup, in- stead of sugar, but meats handled in this way have not the keeping qualities that meats have when cured with a granulated or light sugar. The sirup also has a ten- dency to discolor the meat, making it look less attractive, and this, coupled with its tendency to cause fermenta- tion, has made the curing of meat with sirup, in large concerns at least, undesirable. A formula for the use of sirup in a 1,500-gallon vat would be as follows : 88 gallons sugarhouse sirup, 75 pounds saltpetre, 25 pounds borax. CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 313 This will make a dark-colored pickle. Hams turned out in this manner are of a very delicate flavor. COST OP PICKLE. Plain pickle, 78-degree, contains nominally two and one-half pounds of salt per gallon, therefore a 1,500-ga]- Ion vat of pickle would contain: 3,750 pounds of salt, at $3.10 per ton (figured time test was made) $ 5.81 400 pounds sugar at 5c per pound . 20.00 75 pounds saltpetre at 41/2C per pound 3.38 4 25 pounds borax at 7^c per pound 1.85 Total cost $31.04 Cost per gallon, $0.0207. Changing prices for the ingredients will, of course, alter this cost. USING SECOND HAND PICKLE. A very wasteful practice in all packing houses, which has been done for years, is to throw away pickle as soon as the meat is cured. A pickle which will show 78-degree strength, to which has been added five to seven degrees of sugar, saltpetre, etc., making it 83- to 85-degree when used, if tested after meats have been cured, will still show a strength of from 52 to 58 degrees, the meat hav- ing absorbed the balance of the curative ingredients. The remaining ingredients in this pickle, ajre, however, just as good, when purified — salt and sugar being the same under all conditions — hence when meats are fully cured the pickle should be pumped into a vat, in the bottom and sides of which are galvanized iron coils. Steam should then be turned on these coils heating the pickle by the radiation from the pipe. After the pickle has been thoroughly boiled for an hour or so, it should be allowed to settle, when the par- 314 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tides of grease, as well as all the albuminous parts, which the pickle has drawn from the meat cured, will rise to the surface in the form of a thick heavy scum ; this should be carefully skimmed off and the pickle again boiled, when a second skimming is necessary, after which it should be drawn off and cooled and sufficient fresh in- gredients added to give it its original strength, when it is as useful as ever. For instance, to a vat of 1,500 gallons of old pickle, 50-degree strength, add: 200 pounds sugar, 38 pounds saltpetre, 15 pounds borax. Figuring on about 2,200 pounds of salt necessary to bring the pickle back to its original strength, on the basis of the figures in the former test, this pickle will cost a little over Ic per gallon, hence it will be seen that, where large amounts are used, it is advisable to use the pickle over and over until it is used up. CALIFORNIA HAMS. This is a style of cut made from the shoulder of a hog and on the live weight the percentage of shoulder meat is about 814 to 10, this being a less valuable part of the hog than the ham. It is generally handled in a somewhat cheaper pickle; for instance in a formula for ham pickle using 400 pounds of sugar to 1,500 gallons, 300 pounds of sugar would be ample for California ham curing. It is a very difficult piece of meat to cure, especially if the hogs are not properly chilled. As the shoulder is one of the thickest parts it is the last to chill through. It is the general practice to pump California hams before curing and in so doing the}^ should be pumped very heavily in the veins and under the shoulder blade, this being the two places where the meat first shows symptoms of CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 315 trouble. Otherwise the chilling and general handling is practically the same as with other hams. SWEET-PICKLE CALIPOKNIA HAMS AND SHOULDERS. A successful method of handling and formula for curing sweet-pickle California hams and shoulders is as follows : When green, leach forty-eight hours with sprinkle of salt. Pump three times, once in shank, once on top of blade, and once below blade. Pump on second overhaul- ing with two stitches, once in shank and once in body; overhaul same as other hams. For making the pickle for California ham use the following formula. To 1,500 gal- lons of pickle 75-degTee strength, add : 300 pounds sugar, 88 pounds saltpetre, 25 pounds borax. COST MAKING ABOVE PICKLE. Salt $ 6.84 Sugar 13.50 Saltpetre 3.86 Borax 1.93 Labor 50 Total cost of 1,500 gallons \ $26.63 Average cost per gallon, $0.0178. SKINNED HAMS. These are hams usually made from^very heavy hogs, which are undesirable on account of their weight and ex- treme fat. The fat is skinned off these hams, reducing the weight and making them more desirable. Generally speaking, hams shrink from 14i/^ to 17 per cent in skin- ning. In deciding to do this, of course, the price of heavy hams, skinned hams and lard, enter into the question, consequently only a careful test, figuring the different values of the three items, as well as the weight of hams 316 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE to be skinned, can determine the x>rofit to be made in skinning them. The following table shows the ages, in days, at which different kinds and weights of sweet pickled hams and sides are cured sufficiently to smoke; also at which dif- ferent kinds of barrel pork are cured sufficiently to be sold; also the cuts which should and should not be pumped : S. p. hams skinned. fancy fancy skinned, export . . . . ' California hams. ' N. Y. shoulders. Bellies rib . . . Bacon backs Belly pork Bean " Loin '• Fat back pork Short cut " 8. P. pork trimmings. Brisket pork Averag-e wt. lbs. 1 and under 10)^—14 14 —18 18 —23 24 14 —16 18 11 —13 and over and over 14 —16 10 —14 14 —18 —10 —14 and under and over —10 —12 — 14 —16 Days to Davs to smoke ship 30 30 35 35 50 50 70 70 80 80 50 50 70 70 60 60 65 65 30 30 35 35 30 30 35 35 50 50 50 50 55 55 20 30 oo 22 25 25 30 30 35 35 25 20 30 30 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 Pumped Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Y"es Yes Y'es Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No BOILED HAM. Boiled ham is one of the finished products or, in other words, products that are ready to be used without addi- tional manipulation by the consumer. There is nothing CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 317 that determines tlie cost of the finished product as much as the shrinkage, hence the method that will produce the least loss in weight from original to finished product is the process desired. There are two methods of cooking hams, one is to steam them in a retort or some receptacle where they are cooked by the heat generated by steam; another is to cook them in water. The latter process, from careful observation, seems to be the one that gives the best re- sults as regards the shrinkage, although steaming makes the ham more palatable. Many people wrap the hams tightly in cloths or sacks for this purpose, feeling that this prevents, in a measure, some of the shrinkage. How- ever, the results thus obtained are thought by many not to warrant the extra labor and the maintaining of the cooking sacks. The hams before being cooked should be bound and wrapped with twine, which holds them in shape. A form is also used successfully, made of gal- vanized iron or tin, having round plates which are put into a press, with the ham tightly clamped on the inside. The ham is cooked and chilled in this mold. The cure of the ham has mu^ch to do with the shrink- age and it is therefore preferable to use fully cured hams instead of old cured hams, as the shrinkage is much greater on over-cured meats. It is also advisable to sort the hams as to size, having each vat or t;ank of hams uni- form. If not uniform in size there is an excessive shrink- age on small hams which are overcooked, if put in the same vat with large hams. In all cases the hams should be soaked, thereby removing the surplus salt. The length and time of soaking depends altogether on the age of the meats. The hams should be thoroughly washed and if they are to be branded this should be done before they are boned or cooked. The method most commonly 318 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE adopted is to cook the hams first, then smoke very little. Some smoke first, boiling afterwards, which is a very ex- pensive method owing to the excessive shrinkage. RULES FOE BOILING HAMS. When hams are boned (if desirable) and wrapped, they should be pnt into a vat of water, temperature about 70° F., and the steam turned on slowly until it reaches 160° to 165° F, The hams are held at this temperature until they are cooked, which requires somewhat longer time than when they are cooked by steam at a higher tem- perature. A twelve-pound ham will require from four and one-half to five hours cooking in this manner. After the hams are cooked they should be allowed to cool off in the water in which they were cooked; not taken out, or drained, or set in the cooler, for in the water in which they are cooked are many of the juices of the meat, which are again absorbed by the hams as they cool, and the shrinkage is much less than if taken out immediately. The hams should then be taken to the smoke house, laid on racks and given a very light smoke. SHRINKAGE IN BOILING HAMS FROM SWEET PICKLE WEIGHT TO SHIPPING WEIGHT. Hams taken out of pickle and drained for twelve hours will show the following shrinkages under favor- able circumstances : Per cent. Hams not boned, smoked after cooking 9 to 12 Hams with bone out, including the shank bone, skin on, not fatted 12i^ to 18 Hams with bone out, sldn lifted, fat removed 18 to 23 Hams with bone out, the skin and fat removed 33 to 40 Hams skinned, fatted, bones left in 28 to 35 Skinned shoulders, bone out 30 to 35 ROLLED BONELESS PORK LOINS. Use loins cut from stags or heavy loins, the tail bone being taken out without cutting through the layer of tis- CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 319 sue and fat. They should be tiimmed and all bones re- moved. Cure. — For 400 pounds of meat, use fifteen pounds of Deacon salt, four pounds sugar, four pounds borax, one pound saltpetre, to one and one-half gallons old ham pickle. Have the loins rubbed lightly with the above powder and packed in a tierce as tight as possible; the one and one-half gallons old ham pickle referred to being- sprinkled over each layer of loins as the tierce is filled. Loins should be held until they are forty-five days old and should be kept at a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. Wrapping. — From two to three pieces of loins (ac- cording to size) should be wrapped together. They are wrapped with seine twine No. 39, with same size double hitch as is used for boiled hams. Smoking. — Loins are smoked from two and one-half to three hours at a temperature of 140° to 180° F. Cooking. — Loins are cooked for three hours at a tem- perature of 165° to 175° F. They are then placed in the cooler, where the temperature is held at 36° to 38° F. for twelve hours, after which they are ready for use. DEY SALT MEATS BELLIES. S This particular part of the animal is cured either in dry salt or sweet pickle, according to the requirements of the trade and the grade or quality of the meat. The highest class bacon used in this country is generally ''dry salt," being specially handled and prepared to make the most attractive appearance. A much sought for point in bacon is to so prepare it that when fried it is of a light color. The only way to obtain this color is to 320 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE use less sugar in curing, as it causes discoloration in cooking; but at the same time it greatly adds to the flavor, hence curing by the dry salt method adds to the looks, but detracts somewhat from the flavor. AVhen it is cured in this way it should be dry packed in air-tight boxes lined with galvanized iron, or other material, the meat being put down with a fine salt combination, thor- oughly mixed as follows : 75 pounds English salt, 25 pounds sugar, 6 pounds saltpetre. The meat should be held in this cure about twenty days. The meats are packed with the rind down, and thor- oughly salted, the salt being spread between the layers, the top layer being put on with the rind up and the box closed, keeping the air from it as much as possible ; meat must not be overhauled. It should be fully cured in thirty-five days. Meat handled in this manner, as stated before, when fried cooks white ; it also has a very bright appearance when smoked, but lacks, from an Anierican standpoint, at least, the flavor which is obtained in sweet pickled bacon. In sweet pickled bacon the cure is practically the same as for hams, the bellies being put into vats or tierces, the ingredients of the pickle being practically the same. Heavy or ribbed bellies are cured in dry salt by being stacked on the floor, the salt thoroughly rubbed about the edges and put on sufficiently heavy for the protection of all parts of the meat in the course of curing. Meats dry salted should be overhauled in five, ten and thirty days after being put down. The following table shows the age, in days, at which dry salt meat should be cured in order to smoke safely; CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 321 also at which to siiip safely; also the cuts that should and should not be pumped : Product Extra short clears Short clears Extra short ribs . . Short ribs Bellies ' ' fancy English bellies Shoulders " English Cumberlands Dublins Long cut hams Fat backs Jowl butts— 10 days in brine [ 10 " " salt S Backs , = .... Plates Averasrc wt. lbs. 45- 45— .50 50—80 15—17 18—21 18 — 23 and over 4— 6 Days to smoke 50 25 55 75 25 30 35 20 15 30 25 20 20 20 20 20 25 10 Days to ship 15 40 20 55 70 25 27 32 20 20 30 30 30 20 20 10 Pumped Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Meats put into a smoke house before they are suffi- ciently cured develop a condition known to the trade as ' ' puffy, ' ' which means that the meats being insufficiently! cured when submitted to the heat of the smoke house, de- compose and a gas forms which produces the condition referred to. COST OF CUKING DEY SALT MEATS. The following basis was arrived at after the handling of several million pounds of product, the market values of the year 1900 regulating the price : Labor cost for all dry salt meats handled, ten cents per 100 pounds ; curing materials, five cents per 100 pounds; insurance taken into consideration at $1.50 per $100 on 80 per cent of valuation ; interest at 5 per cent on total valuation. The various shrinkages taken into consideration on each cut of meat, the cost on the foregoing basis is as 822 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE follows on the different cuts held the number of days shown : Dry salt short ribs clears extra short clears. . . Cumberland bellies. fat backs . . . . clear plates. regular " neck fats . . . Average wt. lbs. Days held 60 60 60 50 (heavy) 14-16 35 25 30—3.5 35 18—30 35 30 35 15 Cost per 100 lbs. ).2864 .3039 .1119 .3337 .1355 .0480 .0539 .1734 .0524 Oftentimes in shipping pickled hams in bulk, where they are to be for some time on the road, it is advisable to use a preservative of some nature to prevent their turning slippery or moldy. The following will serve for this purpose : 75 pounds rice flour 25 pounds powdered borax Thoroughly mixed. The hams should be rolled and rubbed in this powder and afterwards brushed off with a large varnish brush. Sufficient of the powder will adhere to the meats to pre- vent their becoming slippery during any reasonable length of time necessary for shipment. CURING OP ENGLISH MEATS. There is, at times, a great demand in England for American pork products, and the English cuts, as well as their methods of curing in many cases, vary from the American methods. Comparatively little sweet pickle meat is shipped to England, the English taste preferring meat cured in dry salt. The following instructions will be found useful in curing and preserving diiferent cuts of English meats : For a pumping pickle use a plain salt brine 100-de- gree strong, containing three ounces of saltpetre to the CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 323 gallon. In pumping Cumberlands (Fig. 124) and shoul- ders pump into the blood vein and under the blade, using one and one-half to two ounces of pickle in each place, and exercising care to lodge the pickle near the bone and away from the fat on the side of the meat. CURING OF LONG CUT HAMS. It is unnecessary to pump long cut hams from Octo- ber 15 to March 1. From March 1 to October 15, pump under the shank and in the top. Use care to lodge the pickle near the bone and away from the fat on the back FIG. 124.— CUMBERLAND CUT. side of the ham. Views of hams that are included intliis heading are shown in Figs. 125, 126 and 127. ' ■ \ COLOR OF ENGLISH MEATS. As a great deal depends upon the color of English meats, and the trade demands a bright, attractive ap- pearance in same, considerable saltpetre is necessary. Therefore, from four ounces of saltpetre to the 100 pounds of meat on cuts weighing from three to five, pieces per 100 pounds, to as high as six ounces per 100 pounds 324 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE FIG. 125.— LONG CUT HAM. FIG. 126.— MANCHESTER HAM. FIG. 127.— STAFFORDSHIRE HAM. CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 325 on smaller cuts, should be used. The salt and saltpetre should be thoroughly mixed before applying. FIG. 128.— WILTSHIRE SIDE. SALTIlsrG. On meats not to be overhauled not less than four and one-half nor more than five and one-half pounds of salt 326 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE to the 100 pounds on all cuts excepting long cut liams, should be used. On the latter from five to six pounds of FIG. 129.— YORKSHIRE SIDE. salt per 100 pounds of meat should be applied. In the summer months the maximum amounts heretofore de- scribed should be used. FIG. 130.— STAFFORDSHIRE SIDE. On meats overhauled three to three and one-half pounds of salt per 100 pounds when putting down, and CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 327 three pounds per 100 pounds when overhauling, should be used. Kub salt in well under the sides of shanks of shoulders, and use plenty on the top of shanks of both. In salting sides (this applies to all the various cuts shown in Figs. 128 to 134 inclusive), salt the heaviest on FIG. 131.— DUBLIN CUT. the shoulder and along the loin, rubbing the edges of all cuts carefully, seeing that the salt adheres to all parts of the meat before it is piled, for if there are places where there is no salt on the meat, it will discolor and event- ually become slippery and out of condition. >, ^ FIG. 132.— ANTWERP BACK CUT. In stuffing the pockets of long clears and long ribs, do not use more than one and one-half times the amount of salt on the same area of shoulder or loin. Too much salt used in the pockets of the sides gives the meat a burned salty appearance and condition. In rubbing the, salt into 528 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the ]30ckets with the hand, be careful to put the salt into every part, otherwise meat will spoil in places missed before the pickle reaches them. FIG. 133.— SQUARE EXPORT SHORT RIB. PILING. Use extra care to pile meats closely and exclude the air, for they will not develop a desirable color when they are exposed to the air. After the meats are all piled ■""tjwaiJiv FIG. 134.— SQU.\RE SHORT CLEAR. evenly, the edges should be gone over, and any exposed parts covered with a fine sprinkling of salt. CURING OF HAMS AND DRY SALT MEATS 329 OVERHAULIlSrG. English middles weighing from twenty-three to thirty pounds average, and long cut hams from twelve to four- teen pounds and heavier, should be overhauled at from eight to twelve days old, salting them as before described. Do not overhaul English meats unless necessary in order to hold them after they are cured. SHIPPING AGES FOR ENGLISH MEATS. The following table shows the ages at which English meats can be safely shipped during the seasons from October 15 to March 1, and from March 1 to October 15 : Product Bellies Boneless backs Cumberlands Long clears Dublms and long ribs Long cut hams Average wt. lbs. 20—24 24—30 30—40 under 30 over 30 10—14 14—18 Oct. 15 to March 1 Days 15 to 25 15 to 25 30 to 25 20 to 25 25 to 30 20 to 25- 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 25 to 30 March 1 to Oct. 15 Days 15 to 25 15 to 35 20 to 25 25 to 30 25 to 30 30 to 25 25 to 30 20 to 25 20 to 25 25 to 30 These ages for shipping should be followed closely, but when necessary the following exception may be made without detriment. From October 15 to «March 1, shortest shipping age may be reduced five days. * PACKING or ENGLISH MEATS. Meats to be packed in borax, cured as above, should be put in a plain cold pickle 100-degree strong, then scraped on the skin side and wiped with cloths wrung out of hot water. If the meats are old and have a slippery appearance, they should be scrubbed with a brush in warm pickle and wiped afterwards. They should then 530 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE be rubbed in borax with the rind placed upon a grating and the surplus borax brushed off the skin side of the meat, using a fine brush for so doing. It is customary to use from five and one-half to six and one-half pounds of borax per 300 pounds of meat. Meats to be packed in salt should not be washed. The skin and edges of the meat should be thoroughly scraped and then rubbed in fine salt before being put in the boxes. For sizes and styles of shipping boxes see Chapter XXIII — "Boxes and Cooperage." YIELDS LONG CUT HAMS AND CUMBERLANDS. The following table shows the percentages of yields of different weight hogs made into long cut hams and Cumberlands, also average weights : Av. wt. Per cent live Average weig It Per cen( Cum- Per cent Per cent hogs, cuts, lbs hams ber- miscellaneous total lbs. lands 190 j Long cut, I Cumberlands 16- 36- -18 [ -42 f 18.37 40.43 ( P. S. lard •] Eaw leaf ( Trimmings 9.86 ) 3.59 - 1.92 ) 73.97 168 ( Long cuts ( Cumberlands 14- -16) -38 \ 18.66 39.17 P. S. lard ■I Raw leaf 7.42 3.30 ]- 70.47 ( Trimmings 1.92 ) 136 j Long cuts I Cumberlands 13- 24- -14) -28 f 18.4.5 37.48 1 P. S. lard -} Raw leaf ( Trimmings 8.48 3.38 [ 1..5.5 ] 69.34 THE SMOKE HOUSE 331 CHAPTER XVL THE SMOKE HOUSE. THE HANDLING OF MEATS IN THE SMOKE HOUSE, The smoking of bacon meats is the last process through which they are put before placing them upon the market, the term '^ bacon," applied to any brand of meat, meaning that it is smoked. The smoking of meats is a very ancient method adopted for their preservation for future use. All meats which are smoked are more or less impregnated with saltpetre. The saltpetre lies dormant to a certain extent after penetrating the meat, but as soon as the latter is exposed to the warm temperature in the smoke house its curing properties become active. This, in connection with the tannic acid which is developed in the smoking process and deposited on the meats, forms a preserving agency which prevents decomposition for a considerable period, varying according to the temperature and con- ditions to which the meat is subjected. The methods used in smoke houses are practically unchanged today, except in a mechanical way, as compared with former ti-mes. SOAKING MEATS FOR THE SMOKE HOUSE. When meats are ready for the smoke house, they are first soaked in fresh water. This is done to remove the surplus salt, making the meat more palatable, and also 332 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE to give it a better appearance, for if it is not properly soaked the salt leaves a white crust on the surface. Meat over-soaked has a water -logged condition and often be- comes water-sour when exposed to the necessary heat for smoking, also moulds quickly after smoking, hence it is essential that this part of the work receives careful attention. The best results from soaking are obtained by using soaking water at a temperature of 65° F., for at this temperature the salt is dissolved to the best advantage, without unduly softening the meat. A soaking schedule that will be found to give excellent results is as follows : TIME REQUIRED TO SOAK MEATS. Hams at full cured age. .2 hours (3 min. for each day older) Bellies, 8-10 lbs., 20 days IVs " (3 " " " " " ) Bellies, 10-12 lbs., 25 days 11/2 " (3 " " " " " ) Bellies, 12-16 lbs., 30 days 11/2 " (3 " " " " " ) Dry salt meats 1/2 " (except bellies, two hours) If meats still show salt after smoking change water once, as the fresh water will take up salt rapidly. It will be found better to change water than to soak longer. METHOD OF HANDLING MEATS IN A SMOKE HOUSE. After the meats have been soaked and hung in the smoke house, they should be allowed to hang from three to seven hours, or until they have stopped dripping, for if the smoke is applied while the meats are still drip- ping, wherever one piece of meat is subjected to the drip- ping of another, the smoke fails to take effect, giving the meats a striped and discolored appearance. After the meat has had time to thoroughly dry, fire should be built in the smoke house with either maple or oak wood (par- tially green being preferred) and the temperature brought up to from 112° to 118° F., and maintained until the surface of the meat has become thoroughly dried and has THE SMOKE HOUSE 333 a partially glazed appearance. As soon as this effect is noticed, which will be in five to eight hours, hardwood sawdust should be added, which will form a dense, pene- trating smoke. At the same time the temperature should be gradually increased in the smoke house, or brought up to from 115° to 120° F. A pile of sawdust, quantity depending upon the size of the smoke house used, should be raised in the center of the house and a few burning brands of wood laid around it. These will cause the sawdust to ignite and a small fire, producing a great deal of smoke, will result therefrom. If the sawdust is put on a fire already burn- ing much of the sawdust will go up through the house in the form of a light ash, which is deposited upon the meat, injuring its appearance. A house of sweet-pickle meats should be smoked for about twenty-four to thirty hours, to get good results, and afterwards be allowed to stand for twelve hours with the ventilators open, to give the meat a chance to thor- oughly cool off. TEMPEEATURES IN SMOKE HOUSE. The following temperatures will be found to give very satisfactory results in smoking and while it will be found impossible to adhere to them absolutely, it is advisable to do so as closely as possible during the smoking period : 3 hours in smoke. . .107°F. 18 hours in smoke. . .118°F. 6 9 12 15 .114=^. 21 .116°F. 24 .118°F. 27 .119°F. 30 .120°F. .118°F. .119°F. .115°F. It should be the aim to have the house at a temper- ature of 118° F. after twelve hours, and it should be held at that if possible. Meats thus handled will be found to have a light am- ber color which indicates a light smoke, whereas a dark 334 r THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE rr -37- \\-- ff ASSEHBlY VIEW OF RACK l";X4"x,2!- 't' 'i' IVibHOIt. .lH0Ld M4"C ,C 1 J 4^-^ NCOUT CFNTeFhOLE. T -4 i. lis I 6PflcbOLE5^n£CM T r LEflUINOOUT CENTEI? H ie 5^ ^ XXjIf V ^Ir 4 5y4CHANNEL 2 Pes pe r Rack 7'4" .1 J,0«'l r!i :■ |«i I2-I4 ^ I ^ t' PLANS OT THREE. 5TYLE5 OF RAC KS FIG. 135.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DETAIL SMOKE HOUSE RACK. THE SMOKE HOUSE 335 amber would indicate a heavy smoke. The color of the meats should be regulated by the requirements of the trade. AVlien the meats are smoked, the fire should be put out, the house opened up, giving it a free circulation of air, and the meats allowed to thoroughly dry and cool before being removed. Smoked meats should be handled as little as possible, for every time they are handled or piled on trucks, it detracts somewhat from their appear- ance. They become greasy and soon lose their bright, attractive appearance. Intelligent and up-to-date smok- ers, recognizing this condition, are fitting their houses largely with what is known as a ^'trolley system"; the meats being hung, when soaked and washed, on a rack which is operated by this system, and are run from there directly into the smoke house. Fig, 135 illustrates a conveniently arranged smoke house rack and Fig. 136 gives details of a double truck for smoke house racks where a heavy load is to be car- ried on trolley. After being smoked and cooled, the meats are run to the packing bench, and are never handled from the time they are washed, ready for smoking, until they are in- spected and packed ready for shipment, thereby preserv- ing a very desirable appearance, as well as greatly re- ducing the cost of labor in operation. SHKINKAGE IN SMOKE HOUSE. Shrinkage is a matter which requires a great deal of attention. The aim is to smoke out the meat as near green weights as possible, the amount of shrinkage depending largely upon the requirements at points to which meats are to be shipped and the conditions to which they are to be subjected. For instance, hams and shoulders which 336 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE are to be used for immediate consumption should smoke out 98^ to 100 per cent green weight, whereas meats which are to be held for some length of time after being smoked, or which are intended for a warmer climate, will smoke out from 95 to 97 per cent of the green weight. Meats, which are to be shipped south or to a warmer FIG. 136.— DIAGRAM SHOWING DETAIL OF DOUBLE TRUCK FOR SMOKE HOUSE RACK. climate, or are to be held for a considerable length of time before being consumed, should be smoked dark, with a correspondingly heavy shrinkage. Excess shrink- age merely means the evaporation of an additional amount of moisture, thereby preventing early decompo- sition. THE SMOKE HOUSE 337 Meats, which are to be consumed immediately and not shipped to a warm climate, may carry more moisture and hence show less shrinkage. At the same time they have a much finer and more attractive appearance. This is a matter to which an owner or manager of a smoke house must necessarily give minute and close attention in order to obtain the best results. In many cases, where meats are to be used immedi- ately and consequently a light shrinkage is desired, they are colored, giving them an appearance of a heavy smoke, whereas they are smoked comparatively little. In this I'-S'TeAi^ PIPE — * .i ^ ^COLORINO WATER L WET \^ I ... I COLORING VAT. FIG. 137.— OUTLINE SKETCH OF COLORING VAT. case the meats are dipped in a colored water composed of the following ingredients : FORMULA FOR COLORING SWEET PICKLE MEATS. 2 ounces boracic acid, 2 ounces alum, ^ Vz pint alcohol, 8 ounces carbon. Mix in thirty gallons of hot water. Use sufficient to color immersing water the desired shade for the meats to be dipped. By simply immersing the meat to be smoked in this water before it goes to the smoke house, gives it the ap- pearance of having been heavily smoked, thereby saving 338 tHE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the shrinkage whic?i would ottier-wise follow. The color- ing water should be used according to color desired for meatSj by putting a small amount of it into a tub of clear water and immersing each x^iece of meat in the tub be- fore hanging it in the smoke house. Do not allow the meat to soak or lie in the water ; immerse it and hang it up immediately. FOBML'LA FOB COLORING SWEET TICKLE SIDES TO AVOID SMOKI3fG. TTjis formula is used for coloring skins only, con.se- fiuently is used almost exclusively on bacon, sides and bellies: 2 fiuarts alcohol, 10 ounces Massaka E. ilix well and let stand twelve hours, then cook well and add — 3 quarts; glycerine, .50 gallons* water. About two quarts of this mixture is required to a col- oring vat or tub that will hokl three barrels of water, the water being held at a temf^erature of 00 - F. by using a steam coil in the tub. ITie vat shown in Fig. 137 consists of a shallow basin a foot deep with a j>erf orated steam coil in the bottom. Tlie coloring water which is used to color the rind of the meat, comes about an inch above the wor^den rack shown in bottom of vat. Tlie meats are laid on this rack and only the rinds of the meat come in con- iar;t with the coloring water. SHRINKAGE TX SMOKE TfOrSE TEST. Tlie following table shows the result of actual tests on 1,1'i^il ponrKl'-; of meat hung In smoke house for seven THE SMOKE HOUSE 339 conseeutive days, temperature of smoke lionse about 9<>^ F.: Weight when fully smoked 1.1S6 24 hourii later 1.129 24 " • 1.121 24 " " 1.114 24 " " i.::-> 24 -^ -^ ia05 24 laoo Thirry-s;ix pownds shrinkage in seven days' hansrinar. rAPKK FOR WRAPPING SMOKED MKATS. Another very important item is the paper used for wrapping smoked meats. A desirable paper is one which will keep out the air and moisture, thereby preventing molding and at the same time will not absorb the grease from the meat, whioh would cause shrinkage — ^nor should it stick to the meat when taken ol¥. Papers having thei^e qualities can be bought in sheets, 2S x 82 inches in size, desirable paper generally running about seven sheets to the pound. Where meats are wrap\>ed they are sold gross weight, paper and meat. C AX V AStX G M EATS. The methods employed in the process of canvasing cured meat requires careful suvH^rvision in order to pre- serve it in a satisfactory manner, bleats which are to be shipped a long distamv, or which are to be used in a warmer climate, or must necessarily l>e exposed to a high temperature for some time before Wing used, should in all cases be protected by a covering. If not they will mold or become tly-blown and thereby become valueless. .\ method has therefoiv been adopted of covering the meat with canvas, and either yellow- or white-washing same. Many experiments have been tried in late years to make a g\>latine sohitiou into which meats can be dipped 340 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE after being canvased, thereby forming an absolutely air- tight encasement, but these experiments have not re- sulted satisfactorily and the use of the older and well tried remedy of white- washing, or yellow-washing, is still followed. WHITE WASH FOR MEAT CANVAS. The meats to be white-washed should be thoroughly cooled and dried after coming from a smoke house. They are then wrapped in regular ham paper, next in white parchment paper and then sewed up in a cheese cloth covering (using a strong cheese cloth for this pur- pose). Canvasing cloth should be 36 inches wide and weigh one-quarter pound per yard. The hams are then dipped in a solution composed of the following: 1,200 pounds floated barytes, 90 pounds flour, 140 pounds water, 63 pounds white ham wash glue, 1 teaspoon blueing. The glue should be cooked and strained through a piece of cloth before being added to the solution, as there is liable to be more or less sediment in the glue, which should be removed, after which mix with the flour; let stand about twelve hou:rs, then add the barytes, using hot water in mixing. After it is mixed add the blueing. This material should be put in a tub, held at a tem- perature of 90° to 100° F., into which the canvased meats are to be immersed. After being dipped they are hung up over the tub while an attendant rubs his hand over them, taking off the surplus material which has adhered to the package, and at the same time forcing the open- ings in the cloth full of the wash. They should next be brushed over witli a heavy paint brush, smoothing off the surface, and then hung in a dry-room to dry. THE SMOKE HOUSE 341 After being allowed to hang for eight to ten hours, nntil the wash is thoroughly dry and has hardened, they are ready for shipment. This method is adopted in the largest packing houses for the handling of hams, shoul- ders, and bacon, for shipment to the Philippines and the far east, and has been found to be the safest and most satisfactory one yet discovered. YELLOW WASH TOR MEAT CANVAS. This is practically the same as white wash, except that a chrome yellow color is used, and the mixture will have a yellow instead of a white shade when finished. Handle same as white wash for meats. A formula for yellow wash is given as follows : 1,200 pounds floated barytes, 210 pounds whiting, 195 pounds water, 114 pounds lemon yellow, 35 pounds joiner's glue. This is used at a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. As all meats canvased are sold gross weight, the barytes is added to give an additional weight to the meats which are canvased. The following tests will show the cost -and gain in yellow washing: CANVASING 1,031 HAMS. 325 yards sheeting at 4%c |15.84 3% yards Andover twine at 30c 1.12 274 yards paper at l%c 4.32 One man three hours at 17%c per hour 52 Sewing at $1.10 11.34 Cost of canvasing $33.14 445 pounds wash ^at 2.1c $ 9.34 1,031 labels at $1 per 1,000 1.03 Eight men tv/o hours twenty-eight min., seven men thirty-five min 4.11 $14.48 Total actual cost $47.62 Weight before canvasing 10,550 lbs. Weight after canvasing 11,041 lbs. Weight after washing 11,^86 lbs. 342 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE It will be noted from the previous test that there was a gain of 936 pounds in canvasing these hams, at a cost of $5.09 per 100 pounds. As hams always sell at a much higher price than this, the difference would represent the profit in this operation. SMOKTNG DRIED BEEF. Dried beef is an article which has to be smoked heavier, consequently dried more, than pork hams, and unless the moisture is well evaporated the time it may be kept will be short. An approved method for handling dried beef is as follows: Steam coils should be placed at the top and also at the bottom of the smoke house. The steam should be turned on until the temperature of house is between 130° and 140° F. After the meat has hung in this tem- perature about thirty hours, a light fire should be started, by using two or three sticks of wood, and plenty of liard wood sawdust scattered close to the fire, so as to form a dense smoke. It is very essential that dried beef should have a strong smoked flavor. Steam should be kept on the house all the time the beef is being smoked and it will require eighty to ninety hours under these conditions to bring the beef out in the best condition. Beef can be smoked in a regular house, but it takes much longer and it cannot be handled as satisfactorily as with steam heat in connection with the smoking process. After the meat is sufficiently smoked the house should be allowed to cool off, and the meat to hang for about twenty-four hours before being handled. It is then ready for packing and shipping. Dried beef thus handled will shrink about 28 to 33 per cent from the cured weight to the smoked weight. THE SMOKE HOUSE 343 The following test will show the shrinkage on 100 pieces of dried beef hams, also the shrinkage each twenty-four hours after: SHRIXKAGE ON DRIED BEEF. 100 pieces, cellar weight 1,184 lbs. After smoking 85 hours 812 lbs. 24 hours later 806 lbs. 24 24 24 24 24 793 lbs. 781 lbs. 762 lbs. 755 lbs. 750 lbs. 344 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER XVII. DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. INTEODUCTOEY. There is probably no department in the packing house where there is more diversity of methods followed than in the sausage room. The business of sausage making is a very old one, and was largely developed in European countries, where on account of the extremely low wages and the high prices for meats it was necessary for the poorer classes to make the cheaper meat products into an edible article. A good sausage maker is much like the frugal wife, both make very palatable dishes out of scraps that would otherwise be useless. In the handling of animals in large numbers, many wholesome meat products are left which are not palat- able in their original condition. Cheek meat, hearts and various trimmings are as wholesome as a porterhouse steak, but not so palatable, at least, in their original condition; hence, the art of sausage making consists in taking these low priced products and making from them a palatable, wholesome and at the same time economical article. It is the author's intention to go into this depart- ment in detail, giving the most minute and practical in- structions in the general handling of all kinds of sausage, including the curing and handling of the fresh products and also the preservatives that are used in their manu- DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 345 facture, as well as formulas giving the different kinds of meat, seasonings, etc., and the most modern devices for the economical and profitable handling of the product in this department. PRESERVATIVES. One of the most important items entering into the preparation of sausage meat is the addition of some pre- servative or preventive of decomposition or fermenta- tion, which, while it serves to keep the meat in a whole- some condition, is at the same time perfectly harmless, tasteless and odorless. Preparations for this purpose are known under the general term of '' preservatives." There are mam" opinions as to the ingredients which should be used in |)reservatives, and there is no doubt that, at least in some cases, ingredients are used which are detrimental to health, but generally speaking, those used for purposes of this kind consist of borax, boracic acid and common salt, and many i)reservatives which are offered for sale on the market are nothing more than the mixture in various degrees of these three ingredients. The use of improper ingredients is a serious detriment to the sausage, and the formulas hereinafter given are some that have been compiled after years of careful study and experimenting. In order to prepare preservatives special care should be taken to obtain pure chemicals. A great saving can be made, and better results usually obtained from one's own compositions. ^ The following is a ver^^ reliable formula for a preservative for all kinds of cooked sausage, including New England pressed ham: 72 pounds powdered borax, 10 pounds boracic acid, 18 pounds very fine salt. ' 346 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The foregoing formula should be mixed thoroughly and four to six ounces used to 100 pounds of meat. PRESERVATIVE FOR PORK SAUSAGE. One of the best preservatives for pork sausage known is prepared by using one and one-quarter ounces of sul- phite of soda, mixed with the salt required, to 100 pounds of sausage meat. It not only preserves the meat, but also the color, and prevents the sausage to a greater extent than any other preservative from turning dark inside or near the casing. In buying this article, it should not be purchased in large quantities and should be kept in air-tight packages, such as a screw-top jar, for if ex- posed to the air, it will turn to sulphate of soda and produce the opposite eifect upon the meat. There are many pork sausage preservatives sold on the market that are nothing else than the above under a fancy name. This preservative is used for pork sausage only and should never be used for cooked sausage. PRESERVATIVE FOR PACKI]SrG FRESH BEEF, PORK HEARTS, ETC. A preservative for packing fresh beef and pork hearts, liead meat, beef and pork cheek meat, giblets and weas- and meat is made according to the following formula. For one tierce, or 400 pounds of meat, use the following ingredients, thoroughly mixed : 15 pounds salt, 2 pounds sugar, 4 pounds borax, 1 pound boracic acid, 11/^ pounds saltpetre (no pickle). The beef and the pork hearts and other meats men- tioned above should be thoroughly washed in a mild pickle so as to remove the blood and slime before pack- ing in the tierce, as the above formula is used for dry DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 347 packing only. Head, cheek and giblet meat should not be put into ice water when cut off on the killing floor, but should be promptly removed to a cooler where the temperature is 36° to 40° F., and spread or hung up on racks made for the purpose, to refrigerate. Care must be taken not to allow these meats to accu- mulate in any bulk while warm. All dry packed meats should be packed tightly enough in the tierce to entirely exclude the air regardless of weight. This is a very particular point and should be observed closely. After the trimmings or offal have been washed and chilled, the preservative or mixture, as described above, should be mixed thoroughly with the trimmings. This is accomplished more satisfactorily by mixing them in a box or on a table where fifty to one hundred pounds of meat can be handled at a time. When this quantity has been mixed with the preservative, the trimmings should be put in a tierce (first seeing that both tierce and trimmings are absolutely dry), and pounded down as tightly as possible with a mess pork pounder and the op- eration continued until the tierce is as full as possible, allowing for the head to be put on. Before heading up spread a cheese cloth or thin cotton cloth over the top to protect the trimmings from the head and also from any air that might leak through from poor coopering. The tierce is then headed up and removed to cold storage, where the temperature must be kept as near 40° F. as possible from thirty to forty-five days, when the trimmings are ready for use. If it is desirable to keep the product four to six months, after it has been in the temperature above mentioned for thirty to forty- five days, remove to a lower temperature; 32° to 34° F. If trimmings are properly handled in the above manner, 348 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE they can be kejDt from one season to another without spoiling. PEESEEVATIVE FOR PORK AND BEEF TRIMMII^GS. For one tierce of 400 pounds use the following mix- ture : 15 pounds salt, 4 pounds sugar, . 4 pounds borax, 1 pound saltpetre, 2 quarts old ham pickle, which must be sweet and in good condition. Pork and beef trimmings should be fresh, and if they have been packed in barrels, the blood should be allowed to drain off before being packed in the preservative, as above mentioned. They should not be washed in pickle before being used, but should be handled dry if possible and packed the same as described in the foregoing form- ula for other trimmings and handled the same in re- gard to temperatures, etc. The two quarts of old ham pickle mentioned in the above formula should be sprinkled through as uniformly as possible when pounding the trimmings down into the tierce. CURED PRODUCTS USED IN MAKING SAUSAGE. The following products are used in sausage making after they have been pickled or cured. They have little value except in the cured condition, hence it is neces- sary, in order to make use of them and put them in a marketable condition, to first cure them: Pork snouts. Pork ears. Pork hearts. Pork tails. Pork cheeks, Beef hearts. Pork skins. Beef cheeks. Pork heads. Ox lips. Pork hocks. Sheep hearts. These products should be thoroughly chilled by spreading them out on racks and placing them in a chill DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 349 room having a temperature of from 35° to 38° F. They should be turned over while being chilled, so that the animal heat has a chance to get out of them. After being thoroughly chilled for from twenty-four to thirty- six hours, they should be put into vats or tierces with an 80-degree plain pickle, sprinkling the meats with about eight ounces of saltpetre to the 100 pounds, A wooden frame or weight is placed on the product in order to keep it immersed in the pickle. It is cus- tomary to cure these meats in vats or hogsheads, using the following quantities of pickle : 1,400 pounds of meat will require 54 gallons of pickle 1,000 " " " " " 42 800 " " " " " 36 The meats should be kept in a cellar during the pickling process, with the temperature ranging from 38° to 40° F., and overhauled every five, ten and fifteen days in order that all the pickle may thoroughly penetrate the meats. The different kinds of meats will be found to be sufficiently cured after being in pickle the following number of days : Pork snouts ^ 25 to 30 days Pork hearts 25 to 30 " Pork cheeks 25 to 30 " Pork skins 10 to 15 " Pork heads 35 " Pork ears 10 " Pork hocks ^. 25 " Pork tails 10 " Beef hearts 25 to 30 " Beef cheeks 25 to 30 " Ox lips 20 " Sheep hearts T 25 to 30 " SAUSAGE FILLEBS. This is a very important factor in the manufacture of sausage. The province of '' fillers " is to absorb water, thereby preventing shrinkage, and while this is 350 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE advisable to an extent, if it is overdone, it detracts from ihe quality of the product. The luain base ingredients for tillers are rice flour, corn flour and potato flour. There are many sausage fillers on the market but the foregoing ingredients are most frequently used. Potato flour or starch is not used to any extent today, manufacturers finding that there is a great deal of trouble attached to the manufacture of sausage containing these ingredients, on account of the liability to sour and spoil. Corn flour is the best filler that can be used, being less liable to ferment, while it absorbs the water quickly. Some of the best known fillers are nothing more or less than corn flour under another name. While fillers are used to a great extent, the sausage manufacturer should remember that the quality of sausage is deteriorated proportionately to the amount of water that is worked in. Hence fillers should be used with discretion by man- ufacturers who aim to make a reputation for their goods, SMOKE HOUSE AEEAISTGEMEISITS FOR SMOKING DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. The smoking of sausage cuts a very important figure in its manufacture. A great deal of bad sausage on the market is so because it is injured in the smoking and it is particularly essential that this part of the work be given careful attention. There are some mechanical im- provements which have been adopted of late years which aid materially in reducing the expense of manufacture, but the original principles involved are not in any way changed. The methods in vogue today for the econom- ical handling of the smoke house are illustrated in Figs. 138, 139 and 140. The arrangement of the smoke house used for smok- ing domestic sausage is, of course, the first important DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 351 feature. The liouse should "be constructed so that the sausage can be smoked with a great deal of heat or with FIG. 138.— DIAGRAM SMOKE HOUSE SAUSAGE STACK. cold smoke. However, in the manufacture of this prod- uct the major part of the sausage is smoked with a mod- erate heat. 352 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The modern smoke houses that are used for this pur- pose are built so that the sausage can be removed from the house, as necessity requires, on a track system of rails sufficiently far apart as not to interfere with the hanging of the different lengths of sausage. These sections or tracks are generally about twenty- eight inches apart. The lower track, or section nearest to the fire, should not be closer than eight feet and the house should be built high enough so that there will be sections of tracking which can be used for cold smoke, which should be from fourteen to eighteen feet above the fire. This, of course, necessitates a very high smoke house. The modern houses are built of brick, about 54 inches in width, which will allow, in the clear, over the track, 42 or 44 inches, the usual length of the smoke stack. In depth the houses vary and can be from 10 to 16 feet. In height the houses also vary, but for the ordinary packing house the height of the smoke house compart- ments should be from two to three stories, and should be built exclusively of brick, as it has been shown by numer- ous exioeriments with sheet iron and iron lined houses that these are not a success for smoking all kinds of sausage. The draft of the houses is, of course, regulated by ventilators at the top. In smoking domestic sausage, it is always preferable to use hard wood and never to put green or unsmoked sausage into a cold smoke house. In other words, the house should be warmed b}^ first building a fire in it, in case it has not been recently used. In hot weather or in the summer time this is not so important, as smoke houses then are sufficiently warm at all times. In cool weather or during the winter, the smoke house should either be kept warm by constant usage or by warming up DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 353 before using, in case the house is empty and has be- come cold. If this is not strictly adhered to, the Bologna or other sausage, which is usually wet before it is hung in the house, Avill come out of smoke with a dark ring- around the inside next to the casing, which is extremely detrimental to its appearance and keeping qualities. The smoking and handling after smoking of the dif- ferent kinds of domestic sausage are described under their respective formulas. DEVICES FOR EUISTlSriXG SAUSAGE INTO SMOKE HOUSE. All domestic sausages, except pork, are cooked and smoked. This necessitates a considerable amount of FIG. 139.— DEVICE FOR RUNNING SAUSAGE INTO SMOKE HOUSE. handling, as the sausage, as fast as stuffed, is hung on stacks and each stack must be run separately into the smoke house, from tliere on to the trucks and into the cooking vats, cold storage, etc. The stack, as shown in Fig. 138, is used to hang the sausage on as fast as it is stuffed or linked. It is then run to the smoke house, where the sausage is smoked; from there to the cooking vats, which are set even with the floor, and, with either 354 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE liand or power hoist, the stack is lifted off the rail and lowered into the vats. Wlien cooked it is again hung on the rail and run into the chill rooms. When the sausage is chilled and ready for shipment it is run to the packing room, and the stack, when empty, is returned to the sausage department again to be filled. This equip- ment is a great labor saving device and worthy the con- sideration of all sausage manufacturers doing a large volume of business. In Figs. 139 and 140 is shown a simple device for running sausage into the smoke house, by means of which ^i PIPE FIG. 140.— DETAIL OF SMOKE HOUSE CARRIAGE. the smoke house is used to the best advantage, as the smoke can be left on the house continually and the dif- ferent kinds of sausage run in and out as desired. This smoke house carriage is made of angle irons and is run on a track which is supported l^y vertical columns. The outside tracks can be raised to any height desired to match the tracks in the smoke house. The sausage is hung on this carriage and run into the smoke house, and when it is sufficienth^ smoked the carriage can be drawn out on the movable rails, the sausages taken off, others put in their place and the operation repeated. This de- DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 355 vice necessitates a carriage for each set of tracks in the smoke house, it is not as easy a method as the one first explained, that is, hanging them on stacks, but is better adapted to houses of small capacity. For detailed plan of double trolley truck, such as is used for sausage stacks, ham house racks and any other purpose where heavy weights are to be run upon over- head rails, see Fig. 136. In hanging a heavy weight on a single truck there is always a jerking or unsteady motion when being pushed along the rail. The double trucks, made as shown in the illustration, run evenly and smoothly, one man being able to push a very heavy load. INSIDE WATEE COLOE FOE DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. In order to give sausage an attractive appearance a coloring is used in the meat before stuffing. The formu- las which follow will indicate its use. The first item in a coloring mixture, ' ' W. Maroon, " is a vegetable col- oring, manufactured in Germany, and to the best of the author's knowledge can be purchased only from Messrs. Kuttroff, Pickhardt & Co., 209 Michigan St., Chicago, 111. While the price for this is vquite liigh, namely, $2.50 to $3.00 per pound, so small a quantity is used that it is of little consecjuence. While there are several differ- ent colors offered for sale a consumer will find it cheaper to buy this coloring and prepare his own mixture. The formula referred to is : 3 1/3 ounces "W. Maroon," 2 pounds granulated sugar, 8 ounces saltpetre, 2 ounces of boracic acid. Mix thoroughly and dissolve in forty-five gallons of water. This mixture must be stirred until all particles of tlie ingredients are thoroughly dissolved. The solution 356 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE is known as '' color water." and it is advisable to keep it in a cool place. It will be found in Bologna and other sausage formulas hereafter given and referred to as ^' color 'water," which means this formula, and should be handled accordingly. INSIDE DRY COLOR FOR DOMESTIC SAUSAGE. Many sausage makers prefer a dry color for the in- side of sausage. When such is the case the author recom- mends the following: 72 pounds borax, 10 pounds boracic acid, 18 pounds fine salt, 1 pound and 4 ounces W. Maroon. This combination makes not only an excellent color- ing, but makes the preservative and- coloring combined, and is used in the same proportions as preservative, namely, four to six ounces per 100 pounds of meat. OUTSIDE COLOR FOR SAUSAGE CASINGS. There are a number of excellent carbons used for coloring sausage casings, the purpose for using these colors being to give the sausage a heavy, smoked ap- pearance, at the same time leaving it dry and wholesome appearing. Among the principal carbons used are those known to the trade as '' Zanzibar " carbon, '' Zulu " carbon and " French " carbon. Any of these may be purchased from reliable butchers supply houses, the di- rections for using being very explicit. It is advisable to use an outside coloring for casings, as this also acts as a preservative from mold. These carbons have been exhaustively examined chemically and found absolutely harmless. VARNISH FOR BOLOGNA SAUSAGE. This is a very important feature in the manufacture of sausage, both as intended to improve its appearance DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 357 and to insure against shrinkage. As considerable water is used, in addition to the natural moisture in meats composing the sausage, there is, after it is manufactured, considerable shrinkage, and if it is allowed to hang for any length of time, the casings become wrinkled on ac- count of the evaporation of this internal moisture. The varnishing of the sausage creates a cuticle on the out- side which prevents this wrinkled appearance, thereby improving its looks, and retarding or preventing the evaporation of moisture from the sausage. The formula is as follows : 6 pounds white shellac, 1 pound boracic acid, 2 pounds aqua ammonia, 14 pounds of water. This mixture should be put into a vessel and heated to a point where the shellac is well dissolved. When this is accomplished, add four gallons of water. This var- nish, in order to be ready for use at any time, must be kept lukewarm. It should, therefore, be kept in a jack- eted pan, surrounded by either hot water or steam, to hold it at the proper temperature. The sausage should simply be immersed and immediately hung up to dry. This varnish can be used without any detrimental effect whatever on all kinds of smoked Bologna sausage or smoked cooked pressed ham. It preserves the sau- sage, also keeps it from molding, and i^ especially effect- ive where it is necessary to pack Bologna in boxes for shipment long distances. Where the dippilig pan is used, it is only necessary to dip the sausage in the above solution a few seconds before hanging on racks to dry. The sausage is usually ready for shipment in one hour after it is dipped, if the preparation is properly made, and where a large amount of Bologna is being dipped it is, of course, neces- 358 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE sary to have a larger dipping pan and a larger quantity of varnish. Therefore, the proportions should be in- creased according to the quantity desired. It is also important that, after the varnish has stood from one period of dipping to another, care should be taken to skim the grease off the top of the varnish before again using it, and the Bologna should always be dipped immediately after it is taken from the cooking vats; in other words, while hot. ' POEK SAUSAGE. This is a sausage which is generally considered the finest domestic sausage made and upon the quality of which all manufacturers pride themselves. It is possible to use many adulterations in the making of this sausage and still have it passably good, but generally speaking, tliere is less chance for manipulation of this sort in this kind of sausage than in many of the others. The best pork sausage is that which is made of clear pork trim- mings Avitli little water added, and properly seasoned. Various formulas are made by using this as a base and adding cheaper articles to reduce the cost. The following formulas make a cheap and palatable pork sausage: FORMULA A. FORMULA B. 75 pounds pork trimmings, 90 pounds regular pork tnmmings, 19 pounds potatoes, 10 pounds tripe, 6 pounds beef suet, 6 pounds corn flour, 13 pounds water, 15 pounds water, 2 pounds, 5 ounces salt, 2 pounds, 3 ounces salt, 4 ounces sage, 4 ounces sage, 11 ounces white pepper, 11 ounces white pepper, 3 ounces sugar, 3 ounces sugar, 1 pound, 3 ounces color water. 1 pound, 8 ounces color water. The above formulas are for sausage meat, which is often sold loose or without stuffing, also for sausage stuffed in hog casings. Many sausage manufacturers grind their pork trimmings through a moderately fine plate on an Enterprise chopper and mix the seasoning DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 359 and water mechanically. Many nse the '' Buffalo Silent Gutter." Either way is proper and gives good results. The following formula is for an extra choice pork sausage: Select moderately lean ham trimmings. To 100 pounds of meat use one pound eight ounces of cracker meal and two pounds of water, three pounds of salt and fourteen ounces of Oxford seasoning. There are many different kinds of pork sausage sea- soning on the market and many that are manufactured ready for use. One of the principal seasonings and one that is used quite extensively is known as " Oxford seasoning." This is especially good for high grade sau- sage, and at the same time a very economical one. Pork sausage should be stuffed in large sheep casings. When possible the sausage meat should be chopped on a steam rocker, which gives it a better texture than is secured by grinding. BOLOGNA SAUSAGE. Bologna is one of the most common and generally used types of sausage manufactured. It derives its name from the town of Bologna in Italy, and is used very extensively by the people coming from that country, as well as by other foreigners. It is very palatable and in nearly every locality in good demand. In the modern manufacture of Bologna, ingredients are used which are not in themselves palatable, but are wholesome and nu- tritious. The seasoning of Bologna * is what makes it palatable, and it is at the same time an economical diet. The formulas which follow, if they are accurately followed and fresh and wholesome material carefully prepared is used, will make a sausage which is very acceptable to the trade and to the consumer and will sell equally as well as Bologna which is made solely from fresh pork and beef trimmings. In the formulas given 360 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tripe and potatoes are used. These, as will be under- stood, are used to cheapen the product, although they are both wholesome and nutritious. Both are thoroughly cooked before being used and the potatoes should in all cases be peeled. Both the tripe and the potatoes are then ground through an Enterprise machine with the beef or beef trimmings that are to be used in the sausage. This process mixes them thoroughly with the meats. The ideal formula for Bologna sausage is : 60 pounds of pork trimmings, 30 pounds of beef trimmings, 10 pounds of porls: fat. Other formulas are simply a modification of this, in which the object desired is to make a good sausage at a lower cost. It is not intended to give a long list of form-ulas, as the variation of the values of the differ- ent products might make them impracticable when it was desired to use them. A few formulas, however, will be presented, to indicate the different products that can be used to make a satisfactory sausage, and at the same time cheapen the cost. These formulas will show the different kinds of pork and beef trimmings that may be used to advantage. The seasoning, color water, pre- servative, etc., can be used in connection with any formula. FORMULA A. 100 pounds beef cheek meat, 80 pounds warm bull's beef, or beef trimmings, 20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 6 pounds corn flour, 40 pounds water, 1 pound, 2 ounces black pepper, 1 pound sugar, 5 pounds color water, 4 ounces coriander, 4 ounces saltpetre, 1 ounce cloves, % ounce cinnamon, 1 ounce allspice. FORMULA B. 180 pounds fresh beef cheek meat, 20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 8 pounds corn flour, 30 pounds water, 1 pound, 2 ounces black pepper, 1 pound sugar, 4 pounds color water, 4 ounces coriander, 4 ounces saltpeter, 1 ounce cloves, 14 ounce cinnamon, 1 ounce allspice. DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 361 FORMULA C. 30 pounds cooked tripe. 30 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings. 20 pounds pork head meat, 20 pounds pork hearts, 15 pounds fat pork trimmings 70 pounds meat. fresh beef cheek 10 pounds potatoes boiled. 10 pounds corn flour. 40 pounds water. 1 pound 1 black pepper. 2 pounds salt. 4 pounds color water. 2 ounces saltpetre. 3 ounces coriander. 1 ounce allspice, 1 ounce cloves, FORMULA D. 15 pounds potatoes boiled, 65 pounds fresh pork hearts, 20 pounds pickled pork trim- mings, 80 pounds beef cheek meat, 20 pounds fat fresh pork trimmings, 9 pounds corn flour, 20 pounds water, 4 pounds color water, 4 pounds, 4 ounces salt, 1 pound, 4 ounces black pep- per, 8 ounces sugar, 2 ounces saltpetre, 1 ounce allspice, 2 ounces mace, iy2 ounces cloves. 14 ounce cinnamon. FORMULA E. 65 pounds fresh pork hearts, 35 pounds fresh beef cheek meat, 80 pounds fresh pork cheek meat, 20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 8 pounds corn flour, 30 pounds water, 1 pound, 2 ounces black pepper, 1 pound sugar, 5 pounds color water, 4 ounces coriander, 4 ounces saltpetre, 1 ounce cloves, % ounce cinriamon. The above formulas can be used for long Bologna, round Bologna, large Bologna and bag Bologna, or for Bologna stuffed in beef middles. The modern way of manufacturing Bojogna is to grind the meats, with the exception of fresh pork trimmings and possibly fresh lean pork cheek meat, through an En- terprise grinder or hasher, being usually a 7/64th-inch plate. The meat is then put into the bowl of the " Buf- falo Silent Cutter," where the seasoning, color, and most of the water is added, when the pork trimmings, or pork cheek meat, as the case may be, is added and chopped until the required fineness and consistency is obtained. 362 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE It is always a good plan to mix the corn flour, salt and other seasoning before using. Also work in the water from the start by degrees, and the color water im- mediately after the seasoning. After the Bologna is chopped, it is a good plan to allow the meat to stand in a cooler where the tempera- ture is from 40° to 42° F. for twenty-four hours. The meat should be spread on tables or benches or left in movable trucks made for that purpose. To insure the prevention of mold to a great extent in Bologna and other sausage stuffed in casing, it is a good plan to soak the casing in a solution of lukewarm water the required length of time, say thirty minutes, with a proportion of eight ounces of powdered borax and one ounce boracic acid to fifty gallons of water. The sausage casings in all cases should be prepared at least twenty-four hours before stuffing, and in all cases the casing should be thoroughly cured with salt before using. After the Bologna is stuffed, it is customary, in some cases, to allow the sausage to stand in the casings a few hours before being smoked. In fact, in some cases, it is absolutely necessary to do this, especially where it is impossible to take care of the sausage in the smoke houses as fast as it is smoked. It is, therefore, best in this case to remove the sausage from the stuffing room immediately after it is stuffed to a cool place or a cooler where the temperature is between 42° and 4S° F. A lower temperature, or a ver}^ cool temperature after the sausage is stuffed (if it is allowed to remain in this tem- perature very long), will cause a dark ring to form inside of the casing, which is very detrimental to the appear- ance and sale of the product. Smoking Bologna Sausage — A smoke house for this purpose must be in proper condition to receive the DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 363 sausage, which means that the house should be warm. A moderate fire sliould first be started, sufficient to dry the casing, after which hard wood sawdust should be used, so as to give the casings the proper color. The sausage should be hung far enough awaj^ from the fire to avoid blistering. In any case the fire sliould not be closer than from 6 to 8 feet. For time required for smoking long Bologna, see " Cooking and Smoking " schedules at the end of this chapter. After Bologna is smoked, it is immediately cooked, the time and temperature required in cooking being given in schedules referred to. After the Bologna is cooked, it should be varnished. ( See instructions in formula for Bologna varnish.) Bologna should hang several hours after it has been varnished before being packed into boxes for shipment (if packed warm it soon molds), and it is always a good plan to use straw paper or veneer be- tween each layer of sausage. Large Bologna — Formulas A and B are the most de- sirable to use in making what is known as large Bologna. Beef bungs are used for casings. Process of manufact- uring and handling is the sam^e as in long Bologna, ex- cept as to smoking and cooking. (See Cooking and Smoking schedules.) Round Bologna — Formulas A, B, C, D and E can be used for round Bologna. Beef rounds are used as casings. Making and handling is same as for long Bologna, ex- cept in smoking and cooking. (See schedules.) Bag Bologna — Formulas A and B can be used for this Bologna. However, the quantity of water must be re- duced at least 50 per cent. Strong cloth bags are used as casings. Process of manufacturing and handling is the same as for long Bologna, except as to cooking and smoking. (See schedules.) 364 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Weasand Bologna, or Bologna Stuff ed in Beef Weas- ands — Formulas A, B, C, D and E can be used for this Bologna. Beef weasands are used as casings. Process of manufacture and handling are the same as for long- Bologna, except the weasands are skewered with wooden skewers instead of being tied. For cooking and smoking see schedules. KNOBLAUCH SAUSAGE, FORMULA. 30 pounds pork knuckle meat, 5 pounds salt, 65 pounds very lean pork trim- 1 pound white pepper, mings, 3 ounces mace, 50 pounds back fat trimmings 2i/^ ounces saltpetre, or moderately fat trimimngs, 12 ounces sugar, 22 pounds pork neck fat, 2 ounces grated onions, ^V2 pounds corn flour, 3 ounces garlic, 55 pounds water, 8 ounces color water. Stutf in beef rounds and tie with twine every tive inches. Knuckle meat may be ground through a mod- erately fine plate. Balance of pork should be chopped in a '' Buffalo Silent Cutter." Corn flour and season- ing should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the Buffalo chopper and the machine has made two or three revolutions. JVlanufacture and handle the same as Bologna, except do not cook in color water. The casings should not be colored. Cooking and smoking as 23er schedule given. LEON A (long) sausage. FORMULA. 30 pounds pork knuckle meat, 65 pounds lean pork trimmings, 50 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings, 22 pounds pork neck fat, 8% pounds corn flour, 55 pounds water, 5 pounds salt, 1 pound white pepper, 8 pounds color water, 3 ounces mace, IVz ounces saltpetre, 12 ounces sugar, 2 ounces grated onions, % ounce garlic. DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 365 Uniform beef middles are used as casings. Knuckle meat may be ground through a moderately fine plate. Balance of pork should be chopped in the " Buffalo Si- lent Cutter." Corn flour and seasoning should be added to the knuckle meat after it is put into the Buffalo chop- per and the machine has made two or three revolutions. This product should be manufactured and handled in the same way as Bologna, except that it should not be cooked in color water. The casing should not be col- ored. Smoking and cooking as per schedule. LEONA (large) SAUSAGE. The same formula as that of Leona long applies. Beef bungs are used as casings and this sausage is also wrapped with twine. Manufacture and handle same as Leona long, with the exception of smoking and cooking, which is done as indicated in the tables. POLISH SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 100 pounds beef cheek meat, 50 pounds dry ^alt or pickled pork trimmings, 50 pounds pork trimmings, 9 pounds corn flour, 30 pounds water, 1 pound wliite pepper, 1 pound salt, 3 pounds color water, 6 ounces saltpetre, 6 ounces coriander, 3 ounces garlic. ^ Beef rounds are used for casings. Grind the beef cheek meat through a 7/64th plate, add corn flour and seasoning, work in as much water as possible and then add the pork trimmings. This is a very coarse chopped sausage and the pork trimmings should be chopped about as fine as small dice. Beef is the binder of this sausage, and must be handled according to instructions. The 366 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE meat, after it is chopped, can be handled the same as Bologna and Frankfurt meat by putting in a cooler for a few hours before stuffing. After the sausage is stuffed, it can also be handled as Bologna and Frankfurts, if de- sired, before smoking. This sausage should be smoked carefully and strictly in accordance with the smoking schedule, as it is not cooked, this being done practically in the smoke house, during the process of smoking. After it is smoked it has a very wrinkled appearance, which is essential for this article. In fact, it is not Polish sausage unless it has this appearance. It is never advisable to varnish this sausage, or to place it in a cooler after it is smoked. A great many manufacturers color the casing before stuffing, which can be done a few moments before they are used, by soaking in a solution of carbon, which is used in the cooking vat to color Bologna and Frankfurts ; however, if the sausage is properly smoked it is unnec- essary to color the casings. FEAISrivFUETS. There are as many different formulas for Frankfurts as for Bologna. While a variety of trimmings and offal can be used in the manufacture of Frankfurts, it is not safe to use too cheap an article, as this sausage is stuffed in sheep casings and the ingredients must necessarily be of better quality in order to get the desired results in appearance and taste. Practically the same process of manufacture will appl}" to Frankfurts as to Bologna, viz., grind the beef and other material, except the pork, which is chopped in the " Buffalo Silent Cutter." It is unnec- essary to use a mixer for tliis article if properly handled and mixed in the cutter. Always add the corn flour and seasoning and as much water as possible to the mass DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 367 after it is put in the cutter before adding the pork trim- mings. FORMULA A. 57 pounds regular pork trimmings, 65 pounds beef cheek meat, 15 pounds cooked tripe, 25 pounds pork kidneys, 20 pounds dry salt or pickled pork trimmings, 9 pounds corn flour, 45 pounds water, 1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper, 3 pounds salt, 2 pounds color water. 4 ounces saltpetre, 3 ounces allspice, 3 ounces mace, 3 ounces coriander, iy2 ounces cloves. Stuff in large sheep casings. It is well to handle the meat for Frankfurts by allowing it to stand in a cooler for a moderate length of time, the same as Bologna. Also handle the stuffed product practically the same as Bo- logna, except less color is used, as is explained in the directions given for using the carbon color which it may be desired to use for this purpose. Care should also be taken in preparing the smoke houses, as for Bologna. The cooking and smoking should be done as indicated in schedules given. ^ FORMULA B. 90 pounds lean pork cheek meat, 60 pounds regular pork trimmings, 9 pounds corn flour, 60 pounds water, 5 pounds salt, * 2 pounds, 7 ounces color water, 12 ounces sugar, 3 ounces saltpetre, 1 pound -black pepper, 2 ounces mace. In making up this formula the pork cheek meat can be ground through a coarse plate, but care must be taken to work in all the water with the pork cheek meat after the corn flour and spices have been added in the ' '. Buffalo 368 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Silent Cutter " before adding the pork trimmings. To one who is not familiar with working-in a large quan- tity of water in this manner, the mass would seem very thin. In fact it will be, but after adding the pork trim- mings proper and satisfactory results will be obtained. Use large uniform sheep casings and handle the same as formula A, but use discretion about cooking them in color water. A great many manufacturers prefer to use no color water with this grade of Frankfurts, as the pork and proper smoking will give sufficient color without artificial means. The smoking and cooking is done as in- dicated in appended schedules. Vienna Frankfurts — The following is the formula for making this type of Frankfurts : 20 pounds pork knuckle meat, 60 pounds back fat trimmings or moderately fat trimmings, 70 pounds lean shoulder trimmings, 9 pounds corn flour, 40 pounds water, 1 pound white pepper, 5 pounds salt, 1% pounds color water, 12 ounces sugar, 2 ounces mace, 3 ounces saltpetre. The knuckle meat can be ground through a coarse plate if desired. Work the water in with the knuckle meat and shoulder trimmings before the back fat or fat trimmings are used. Stuff in large sheep casings and handle in every respect the same as formula B. For smoking and cooking see schedules. BLOOD SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 205 pounds shoulder fat, 54 pounds pig skins, 47 pounds Ijeef blood, 5 pounds onions, 7 pounds salt, 1 pound white pepper, 3 pounds corn flour, 8 ounces marjoram, 4 ounces cloves. DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 369 Use pickled shoulder fat and skins, cook for one hour at a temperature of 210° F. and run through fat cutting machine or cut into size of small dice. Pass the beef blood through a fine sieve in order to separate foreign matter. Cook pig skins for about two hours at a tem- perature of 210° F. and grind through a 7/64th plate. Mix the shoulder fat, skins, blood and seasoning thor- oughly together and stuff in cap end bungs. Smoking and cooking as indicated in schedules. TONGUE SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 50 pounds hog or sheep tongue, 130 pounds shoulder fat, 34 pounds hog skins, 30 pounds blood, 8 pounds salt, 1 pound, 4 ounces white pepper, 2 pounds onions, - 10 ounces marjoram, 4 ounces cloves. Use pickled shoulder fat, skin and cook for one hour at a temperature of 210° F., run through a fat cutting machine or cut into size- of small dice. Use beef blood, passed through a fine sieve in order to separate any foreign material. Cook hog skins for about two hours at a temperature of 210° F. and grind through a 7/64th- inch plate. Pickled sheep tongues are preferable to pickled hog tongues, as they are smaller and make a better appearing sausage when cut. The tongue should be cooked one and three-quarter hours at a temperature of 210° F. Before mixing the above ingredients, rinse the fat off the tongues with hot water in order to remove as much grease as possible. Mix the ingredients thor- oughly with the seasoning by hand. Wlien stuffing put about four pieces of tongue to each bung. However, 370 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE this varies according to the size of the bungs used. Cap end bungs should be used in all cases. Smoking and cook- ing to be done as indicated in appended schedules. LIVER SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 20 pounds cooked lean pork trimmings, 20 pounds cooked porl-i cheek meat, 20 pounds coolved pork skins, 10 pounds cool\;ed hog livers, 50 pounds cooked tripe, 6 pounds cooked shoulder fat, 3 pounds salt, 3 pounds onions, 9 ounces white pepper, 2 ounces marjoram, 2 ounces cloves, 1% ounces allspice. Above is all ground through a 7/64th inch plate except the shoulder fat, which is run through a fat cutting ma- cliine or cut into size of small dice. It is necessary to mix this sausage in a sausage mixer. The seasoning should be put into the mixer when starting to mix, but the shoulder fat should not be put in until about half through. Stuff immediately into hog bungs, or beef mid- dles, as desired. Cook immediately as per cooking table and then place in cooler, at a temperature of 36° to 40° F. until thoroughly chilled, when it is ready for shipping. BONELESS PIGS FEET. FORMULA. 25 pounds fresh pigs feet. 30 pounds fresh pigs skins, 15 pounds fresh pigs snouts, 15 pounds fresh pigs ears, 20 pounds fresh pork trimmings, 15 pounds fresh beef trimmings, 10 pounds white pepper, 50 pounds water in which meat has been cooked, 4 pounds, 1 ounce salt, 4 ounces cloves. Use one gallon (45-grain) vinegar to 500 pounds of the above mass. Cook all of the meats in one vat, thor- oughly, in pudding nets, and chop up same as is done DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 371 with head cheese and mix seasoning, water and vinegar with the meat in a large tub or tight-bottom truck. It is necessary to use tin molds for this sausage and they are generally of one size, shaped as a ten-pound wooden bucket or other sized packages which may be intended to be used for shipping purposes. Fill these molds with the mixed mass and put on top of each a wooden block the size of the mold and about 3 inches thick. Then remove to a cooler and press tightly by placing on top a board with a weight. In order to obtain the best results, the molds or cans should be cooled quickly, therefore a temperature of about 36° F. is de- sirable. To remove the contents from the cans or molds, submerge in hot water for a few seconds, when the meat will loosen from the sides of the molds and can be turned out readily. After the product has been removed from the molds allow it to stand for a short while in the cooler before placing in shipping packages. This sausage can be made without using wooden tops on the cans or molds and without pressing it. If the pig skins, after they are cooked, are ground through a 7/64th-inch plate and then mixed with the mass, more of a jelly formation will be produced and they will not require pressing. HEAD CHEESE. ^ FORMULA. 44 pounds cooked pig skins, 55 pounds cooked pig snouts, 33 pounds coo"ked pig ears, 55 pounds cooked beef hearts, 51 pounds cooked neclv fat, 20 pounds water in which the meat has been cooked, 1 pound white pepper, 10 pounds onions, 4 ounces allspice, 2 ounces cloves, 3 ounces marjoram, 3 ounces carroway seeds. 372 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The cooked meats are chopped by hand with a knife until reduced to the proper size, except the skins, which are ground through a 7/64th-inch plate after being cooked. The mass usually is mixed by hand and stuffed into cured hog paunches or beef bungs and cooked as per cooking schedule appended hereto. After the sausage is cooked, it is taken to a cooler and usually pressed by laying the paunches or bungs side by side with a board between each layer and a moderate weight on top of the last board. However, if properly made this is unnecessary as the gelatine from the skins and the water in which the meat has been cooked will bind the other ingredients together sufficiently without much, if any, pressing. MINCED HAM. FORML^LA. 50 pounds beef trimmings, 20 pounds pork cheek meat, 80 pounds regular pork trimmings, 7 pounds corn flour, 30 pounds water, 5 pounds salt, 8 ounces sugar, 31/^ ounces white pepper, 41/^ ounces dry color preservative, 31/2 ounces saltpetre. Use small calf bladders as casings. Many manufact- urers, especially those who are in a position to make summer sausage, chop this meat on a steam rocker and grind the beef through a 7/64th-inch plate, rocking this with the seasoning until very fine before adding the pork trimmings. However, this ham can be made by grinding the beef as mentioned and using a " Buffalo Silent Cut- ter. ' ' In fact, better results have been obtained by using the latter method than by the former, for if the steam rocker is used, the water would have to be mixed in with a mixer after the mass has been chopped. This meat DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 373 can be handled the same as Bologna and Frankfurts as to cooler process after the bladders have been stuffed. They may be left in the cooler for several hours before smoking, if desired. In tying the bladders, it is best to use a wooden skewer instead of twine and it is also preferable to use small calf bladders in place of large ones, as the time required for smoking and cooling is so long that if large bladders are used the weight of them would break the bladders where they are skewered or tied and would result in shrinkage or loss. Follow the smoking and cooking schedules closely. Cook in color water same as Bologna. COOKED PKESSED HAM, OR HAM SAUSAGE. This ham is made from preservative or " Curene " pork trimmings put down under the same formula as given under the head of preservatives for pork and beef trimmings. The best and leanest trimmings obtainable are cured for this purpose. Shoulder blade trimmings or lean shoulder trimmings are more desirable than any ether kind. After the trimmings have been cured and are ready for use, which is after they show a bright cured color throughout and are without any dark spots in the cen- ter of the meat, the trimmings are weighed up in 100 pound batches, and about 10 per cent of Curene lean beef trimmings, ground through a 7/64th inch plate, is mixed thoroughly with them by hand. Some manufacturers use a " Zimmerman " mixer and mix up from 300 to 400 pounds at a time. However, this is unnecessary and good results can be obtained in mixing by iiand. Immediately after the trimmings are mixed the mass should be stuffed into large beef bung 374 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ends, usually from 14 to 16 inches long. To obtain tlie best results a steam stuffer arranged with a large sized tiller is necessary. However, a hand stuffer arranged with a large sized filler, about 3 inches at the small end, or opening, can be used. Care should be taken to stuff the bungs as tightly as possible. They should be skew- ered instead of tied at the ends and should be wrapped with heavy twine, each piece having from four to six wrappings of the twine, which should terminate with a hanger for the ham. The pieces are very heavy and will break during the processes of smoking and cooking unless they are properly wrapped or tied. This ham is smoked five hours at a temperature of from 130° to 140° F. and the house should be moderately warm before the ham is hung in the smoke. A small tire should be started to dr}^ off the casings, after which the house should be smoked the same as for Bologna. Cook at least two hours and thirty minutes at a tempera- ture of 180° F. in same color water as for Bologna. This ham may be varnished but it is not necessary, and it is not recommended. After it has been cooked it is taken immediately to a cooler, where the temperature is from 38° to 40° F,, and put under a press made for the purpose. If no press is obtainable place the ham in layers, putting a board between each layer with a weight on the top board. Place the hams in a pile or under the press so that they can be skewered with a long, thin skewer about one-half the thickness or size of a common liam tryer in order to permit the water which is in the hams from cooking to escape. After they have been under pressure for twelve hours, take them out and hang them up so that boiling hot water can be thrown on and over them to wash off the grease. After they have been tiioroughly washed in this manner remove to a dry cooler DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 375 and allow them to remain in a cool temperature until shipped. TEST ON SKINNED SHOULDERS (HOCK AND FAT ON) FOR COOKED PRESSED HAM. Debits : 9,27G pounds shoulders at 5%c per pound ^$533.37 Labor at 20c per hour = 19.82 Total $553.19 Credits: 5,663 pounds sausage meat at 7 l/5c per pound. .... .=$407.73 2,689 pounds fat at 4%c . .= 127.72 630 pounds bones at %c .= 3.15 278 pounds trimmings at 5".4c = 14.95 Total $553.55 TEST ON SKINNED SHOULDEKS (HOCK OFF) FOR COOKED PRESSED HAM. Debits: 8,000 pounds shoulders at ^Hc per pound =$500.00 Labor at 35c per hour = 17.57 Total $517.57 Credits: 5,021 pounds sausage meat at 7 9/lOc per pound. .. .=$399.16 2,105 pounds fat at 4%c = 99.99 516 pounds bones at i/^c ziz 2.58 302 pounds trimmings at 5^/4c = 15.24 Total $516.97 RECAPITULATION. Cost of lean meat when bought hock on, per pound. . . .$0.0720/ Cost of lean meat when bought hock off, per pound .... $0.0794 Gain by purchasing hocks on, per pound $0.0074 NEW JEESEY HAM, New Jersey ham is made according' to the following formula : 60 pounds lean ham trimmings, 80 pounds lean back trimmings, 10 pounds lean beef chucks or shank meat, 4 pounds salt, 3% pounds cracker meal, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative, 12 ounces sugar, % ounce red pepper. Beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-incli plate and rocked about five minutes, when the pork trim- 376 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE miiigs are added with the seasoning. The seasoning should all be mixed thoroughly and added to the meat. The whole is then chopped about as coarse as summer sausage, or about twenty to twentj^-five minutes. It is taken to a cooler after being rocked and spread on a table, about 6 or 8 inches thick, where it is allowed to remain about three days at a temperature of from 38° to 40° F. It is then stuffed by hand stuff ers into bags, which will weigh after being stuffed and dried about five pounds. These bags are made of heavy drilled cloth and should be stuffed as tightly as possible. They should be kept very clean during the process of stuffing, as any sausage meat which ma}^ stick to the cloth will leave a bad ap- pearance after the sausage has been smoked. After the ham has been stuffed, it should be taken to the dry room, where the temperature can be kept at all times between 46° and 55° F., 50° being preferable. The room must be airy and dry and it will take at least ten days under favorable circumstances to get the ham in proper condition to smoke. It should be smoked about four hours in as cold a smoke as possible, 70° to 75° F. being as hot as it is safe to smoke it, 60° F, being nearer the proper temperature. After it has been smoked, it should be again hung in a cool temperature for three days, when it will be ready for shipment. This sausage is manufactured very extensively in New Jersey and the east. It is also manufactured in Chicago to a great extent and shipped east, as there is a greater demand for it there than in Chicago and the west, but it is becoming a popular sausage everywhere. BERLIN HAM. Berlin ham is made by mixing seventy pounds regular '' Curene " pork trimmings and thirt}^ pounds '' Cur- DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 377 ene " pork cheek meat or bone meat. Small beef bung ends are used as casings. Handle in every respect the same as cooked pressed ham, or ham sausage. For cook- ing and smoking see appended schedules. BONELESS HAM. This is made from pork shoulder butts, cured in sweet pickle and stuffed in small No. 2 beef bungs. Smoke forty-eight hours at a temperature of 120° F. The bungs may be slightly colored, the same as Polish sausage casings, before stuffing, if desired. Not cooked. COTTAGE HAM. This is made from boneless ham butts or shoulder butts, cured the same as boneless ham butts. It is not stuffed but strung from the large end of the butt and smoked thirty-two hours at a temperature of 120° F. and not cooked. STUFFED HOGS HEADS. Select a well shaped head, cut off about three to four pounds behind the ears and remove the bones. Care should be taken in entering alcove the eyes, where the skin is thinnest and lies directly on the bone. Do not remove the snout bones, but saw off the hindmost jaw bone right behind the mouth. Remove the cheek meat on either side until with the skin it is abqut % inch thick. Cut off about 3 inches square from the lower cheek at the back to make the head more shapely. Sew from the snout up to the back "bone, where the head is to be filled and cut around cover from the skin to fit the back open- ing. Prepare the stuffing as follows : Good firm young pork, moderately fat, is coarsely chopped with the required quantity of salt and allowed to stand twentj^-four hours. Use about ten pounds. 378 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE chopped fine, spiced with five and one-quarter ounces of salt, one-half ounce of ground white pepper, seventy- seven grains of finely ground mace, mixed with one pound of boiled tongue meat cut into shape of dice, one- half the size of a walnut. Mix all thoroughly and fill head with the mass. Sew the cover on and smoke for two hours until it turns to a yellow brown color. After it is smoked, tie the head up in a cloth, wrapping a string around it very evenly from front to rear. Cook in boiling water from three to three and one-half hours, and then allow to cool. The head must be a chestnut brown when thoroughly smoked, and cooked. SCRAPPLE. For making scrapple use two pig heads, two pig tongues, and two pig livers. These should be cooked in an iron-jacketed kettle that will hold about forty-five gallons. After being thoroughly cooked, the mass is taken from the kettle and is cut up the same as for head cheese. After the heads, tongues and livers are taken out of the water, skim the grease off and add forty pounds of corn meal and five pounds of buckwheat in this same water, putting in a little at a time, and handle the same as in making mush. Must cook slowly for five hours. Seasoning should be added before buckwheat and corn meal are put in, consisting of: 2 ounces white pepper, 1 ounce red pepper, 8 ounces sage, 4 pounds salt. After the scrapple has been cooked about four hours and forty-five minutes, add the heads, tongues and livers, stir thoroughly about fifteen minutes, then shut off steam and put into a pan provided for the purpose. After it is about two-thirds cooled put on about one ounce to each pan of the grease which was skimmed off the kettle after DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 379 cooking the meat. This is to give it a wholesome ap- pearance on the top. BOLOGN'A SAUSAGE IN OIL. This is a sausage that is manufactured quite exten- sively by large packers, who find the principal markets for same in the south. In fact, it is not used anywhere but in warm climates and it is usually put up in twenty- pound and fifty-pound tin packages. Much experimenting has been done to ascertain the best size for packages to put up this sausage in oil, and there has been considerable loss experienced by the different manufacturers on account of fermentation and consequent spoiling of the product. A vast amount has also been expended in fitting up processing apparatus. Secrecy has been maintained in regard to the nature of the formula used in the preparation of this sausage. Plowever, experience has proved that the more processing and secrecy obtained in the manufacture of this article, the greater the percentage of loss. The following form- ula is generally considered to be the best method for making this sausage : ■ 20 pounds fresh head pork meat, 50 pounds fresh pork hearts, 30 pounds fresh regular pork trimmings, 15 pounds fat pork trimmings, 80 pounds fresh beef cheek meat, 1 pound, 8 ounces corn flour, 3 pounds, 8 ounces salt, % ounce cloves, Yz ounce coriander, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. Stuff in different sized beef rounds. The beef cheek meat, pork hearts,^ and pork cheek meat are ground through a 7/64th-inch plate, and afterward chopped with a ' ' Buffalo Silent Cutter. ' ' the seasoning being added at the same time. Use no water in this sausage under any circumstances. After the beef and beef hearts, also the pork cheek meat. 380 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE have been chopped as fine as desired, add the pork trim- mings and chop the same as any other Bologna, It is desirable to stuff this sausage immediately after it is chopped, and if a steam stuffer is used care should be taken that no water from the evaporation of the steam is allowed to get into the sausage. The bench where the sausage is stuffed should be absolutely free from Abater or moisture. This is the principal factor in the successful manufacture of this product. It is the moist- ure that causes the trouble so frequently experienced. After the sausage is stuffed, it is smoked about three hours at a temperature of 150° to 160° F., or until it is dry clear through. This sausage is not cooked. Keep it away from all water and moisture. After the sausage is smoked allow it to cool in a dry airy room, but do not put it in a cooler. When it is thoroughly cool, pack into twenty-pound and fifty-pound packages, as desired, as follows : In twenty-pound cans, place sixteen pounds Bologna and four pounds oil. In fifty-pound cans, place thirty-six pounds Bologna and fourteen pounds oil. In order to p>ack the cans properly, it is necessary to stuff different sized beef rounds, as mentioned above, so that they will fit in nicely without breaking the casings, and without filling the cans too full. After the cans have been filled with the required amount of Bologna, crimp on the summer top, which has a 2-inch hole and a cap to fit. Fill the cans with deodor- ized cotton seed oil, which must be cold, as full as pos- sible. Allow the cans to stand for thirty minutes, then refill so that the oil runs over the top through the hole, put on the cap immediately and solder right through the oil which will accumulate around the cap and on the top of the can. This will not hinder the process of DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 381 soldering and it prevents the possibility of any air get- ting into the cans. After the caps have been secured, solder around the crimps of the summer top. This can be done before the oil is put in if desired. Extreme care must be used in soldering the cans so that no air whatever gets in, or oil leaks out, as the sausage will spoil if this occurs. The cans should also be fitted with the regular covers so as to protect the summer top. Pack in crates, the twenty-pound size, two to four to a crate ; the fifty-pound size, one to two to a crate. The crates should be large enough so as to admit of packing sawdust beneath the bottom, around the sides and on the tops. A crate large enough to permit i/4-incli space around the cans is the size generally used and there should be a partition in the crates where more than one can is packed in a crate. In freighting this class of merchandise in the south, in fact wherever it is shipped, it receives more or less rough handling and a great many freight handlers use box hooks, which they stick into the sides of the crates, and if there is not sufficient protection from the amount of sawdust put in, the cans are punctured, the oil leaks out and the sausage spoils. Sausage handled in the above manner has been known to keep two years in tempera- tures ranging from 40° to 100° F. ^ PORK SAUSAGE IIST OIL. Use the same formula as for regular pork sausage except that the trimmings must be moderately lean, and the sausage absolutely free from water. Use also the same spices. Stuff immediately after the sausage is chopped, using the same care as to moisture as for Bo- logna in oil, and smoke over a very cold smoke until the sausage seems dry all the way through. Allow' it to cool, 382 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE handling and packing in evei^y other respect the same as Bologna in oil. FRANKFUETS IN OIL. Use any cheap formula for this article except pickled pork trimmings, or meat, tripe or potatoes. Use six ounces of dry preservative in addition to the regular seasoning, but omit the saltpetre. Do not use any water in the sausage. Use the same care in stuffing as in the other oil sausages. Smoke but do not cook; handling and packing in other respects the same as Bologna in oil. SMOKING SCHEDULE FOE SAUSAGE, As pre^dously stated in this article, the smoking of sausage is a very important factor, and in the different formulas heretofore given in the instructions for han- dling, reference has been made to the *' Smoking Sched- ule." This schedule has been carefully compiled and the time and temperatures given should be closely followed in order to get the best results : Kind of sausage Long- Eologna Large " Round " Bag " Bologna in weasands Knoblauch Leona Bologna long large Regular Frankfurts. Vienna " High grade " Blood Tongue Liver Polish Minced ham Berlin Cooked pressed ham Cottage ham Boneless ham Time hours Temperature degrees Fahrenheit 3 145 to 1.50 3 145 to 1.50 3 135 to 140 1 140 to 145 4 185 IH 130 3 145 3 145 2K to 3 130 to 135 3 140 to 145 3 to3X 1.50 to 160 13 65 to 70 13 65 to 70 1 to 1 H 110 to 120 3 to 3M 150 to 160 3 to 33^ 135 5 130 to 140 5 130 to 140 33 130 48 80 DOMESTIC SAUSAGE 383 COOKING SCHEDULE FOR SAUSAGE. A very important factor entering into the successful manufacture of sausage is that it should be cooked prop- erly. The following schedule gives the time and tem- perature of cooking different kinds of sausage, forming the ^' Cooking Schedule " referred tc in many of the foregoing formulas : Kind of sausage Long Bologna Large " Round " Bag " Bologna in weasands Knoblauch Leona Bologna long " " large Regular Frankfurts. Vienna " High grade " Blood Tongue Liver Minced ham Berlin " Head cheese Cooked pressed ham Time Time hours minutes 30 2 30 2 45 20 40 o 7 7 7 2 2 30 4 o 45 2 30 Temperature degrees Fahrenheit 160 160 155 160 155 160 155 160 160 160 160 200 200 160 150 170 180 180 SHEINKAGES OF DOMESTIC SAUSAGE DURING PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. As is known to all sausage makers it is in very rare cases that 100 pounds of meat makes 100 pounds of fin- ished sausage; there is alwaj^s a shrinkage or loss, and before the cost of the finished sausage can be determined one must know the slirinkage from original weights of raw materials. The following tabulated statement is compiled from experience with very large amounts of the different kinds of sausage, extended over a year and a half of actual manufacture. The mean average of shrinkages given is 38-i THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE accurate information and may safely be used as a guide. The author has not given the cost of the foregoing form- ulas, as there is such a variation in prices of ingredients induced by the fluctuations of the market prices that any figures that were given would be misleading in the fu- ture, hence to find out the cost of these different form- ulas, figure the given weights at market value, shrink- ing them according to the table below, adding cost for labor and supplies, and a very close approximate cost of the manufactured article will be obtained : Kind of Sausage. Per cent of shrinkage. Long Bologna 8% to 11 Large Bologna 7 i/i " 10 Round Bologna 8% " 11 Bag Bologna 6 " 9 Bologna in weasands 6 " 9 Knoblauch ,. 10 " 11 Leona, long ; . 10 " 13 Leona, large 10 " 12 Regular Frankfurts 11 " 13% Vienna Frankfurts 19 " 22 High grade Frankfurts 18 " 20 Regular pork 2 " 4 Little pig pork 2 " 4 High grade breakfast 1% " 3 Blood 31 " 36 Liver 12 " 14 Tongue 38 " 40 Polish 12 " 14 Head cheese 39 " 42 Luncheon beef i . . 47 " 50 Boneless pigs feet 22 " 25 Minced ham 6 " 9 Berlin ham 22 " 27 Cooked pressed ham 15 " 17 SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 385 CHAPTER XVIII. SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE. AIR DRYING AND SMOKING. In the foregoing chapter on sausage, the author has treated entirely on the different varieties of domestic sausage, all of which, except pork sausage, are cooked and smoked. Under the head of '' Summer Sausage " he takes up an entirely different article, this being a sausage that is dried and smoked, during the time of which the ingredients used for seasoning effect a cure. This sausage will keep for months without being cooked if properly handled. It is necessary, however, that every detail be very carefully watched, as a slight omission or error in its manufacture causes immense losses at times. As this is strictly an air drie(^ sausage, weather con- ditions have a great deal to do with its successful manu- facture, and it is, therefore, necessary to have special facilities in the way of coolers, smoke houses and dry rooms, the proper arrangement of whic^h is somewhat expensive at the start. It is impracticable for any sau- sage manufacturer to presume to make this article in large quantities unless he has the proper facilities, and it is the manufacturers who do make it in large quan- tities that generally make the most profit, because they are able to keep down their cost of producing per hundred weight to a minimum in handling a large quan- tity. This is why it is more profitable for small ^manu- 386 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE facturers to buy their cervelat, especially the high grade fine article, rather than to endeavor to manufacture it themselves. PRESERVATIVE FOR DRY SAUSAGES, To manufacture summer sausage successfully there is nothing of more importance than the selection of the proper preservative. There are many kinds offered for sale on the market, some of which are excellent and others to be avoided. Too much care cannot be taken in selecting this preservative, as the manufacturer does not know the effect this material will have on the sausage until a month or six weeks after it is manufactured, and if at that time it is found that a mistake has been made it becomes a very costly one. After a great deal of ex- perimenting, covering a period of several years, the author recommends the use of the article known to the trade as " Diamond A " preservative, which may be ob- tained from all leading butchers supply houses. This preservative is compounded with a vegetable coloring matter and it therefore acts not only as an agent for pre- serving the sausage but also gives it a desirable color. Absolutely fresh material is required in the manufac- ture of this sausage and much cooler space is necessary in order to allow the meat to stand, after rocking, from twelve to forty-eight hours, as the case may be, before stuffing, as it is necessary to give the seasoning, color and preservatives a chance to properly work through the meat and also to allow the meat to become firm. If the sausage is stuffed immediately after it is rocked, it is liable to wrinkle in the smoke house, which gives it an unsavory appearance. A hanging room in which the temperature can be properly controlled should be available in which the sausage can be hung until the casings are sufficiently SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 387 dried for the smoke house. "While the sausage should be dry, it should not be allowed to become so dry that the casings are gloss}^ or hard. This is a very important matter as the sausage will not take the correct color if the smoke does not penetrate the casings, or if they are allowed to become too dry. This applies particularly to sausage in beef middles, also to sausage stuffed in hog bungs, though not to as great an extent. In preparing the casings for the smoking process by endeavoring to prevent the sausage from becoming too dry there is danger of their becoming slimy, which is even more detrimental than the over dryness. Slimy sausage will not take the smoke and will sour quickly if not properly handled. Sausage in both beef casings and hog casings should be dried before smoking, so that the outside will feel about like the back of one 's hand. In order to obtain this result it is necessary to have plenty of hanging room space so that the proper tem- j)erature can be given the entire lot of sausage which is being prepared for smoke. If the space is hung too closely with sausage, it should be moved about from the center to the sides of the room ^ occasionally so that all the sausage receives the proper ventilation. The manufacturer should have sufficient space to allow the sausage to hang after it is stuffed and before it is smoked, for from two to three days, and sometimes longer. In the winter season, which is the proper time for manufacturing high grade summer sausage, it is a good practice to allow it to hang as long as possible be- fore smoking, but it must be watched to prevent sliming or becoming too dry. SMOKING SUMMER SAUSAGE OR CERVELAT. It is necessary to smoke different grades and kinds of this sausage in different temperatures and for' differ- 388 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ent periods. Smoke houses used for smoking summer sausage or cervelat are entirely different from smoke houses used for smoking domestic sausage such as Bo- logna, Frankfurts, etc. Summer sausage has to be smoked over a cold smoke and for a very much longer period. The rail or track system is used by a great many manufacturers of this article very satisfactorily, the ar- rangement of the smoke houses being on the same prin- ciple as those for the domestic sausage, except that the tracks or sections are farther apart and the houses fitted with two or three tracks, side by side, instead of the single track system. In other words, the houses are much larger, being practically square, or 12 x 14 feet in size and in all cases they should be built of brick. The sheet iron houses which have been experimented with, especially for summer sausage, have proved to be complete failures. The bricks not only protect the house from the varying outside temperatures, but hold the heat, which is desirable and necessary in the successful smoking of this kind of sausage. The distance from the fire should be in any case, whether the track system or the ordinary smoke house with the beam system is used, 12 feet, and in some cases, such as in smoking summer sausage in bladders, or Braunschweiger in hog casings, the distance from the fire should be 20 feet or more. This, however, will be ex- plained in the formulas for making the different kinds of sausage. The main point to be considered in the construction of a smoke house for summer sausage or cervelat is to have it so arranged that the heat can be regulated to dif- ferent temperatures, also the amount of smoking, as each and every kind of sausage requires a different tempera- SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 389 ture. The ventilation of the smoke house should be per- fect and absolutely controllable, as the weather condi- tions have a great deal to do with the successful smoking of sausage and the houses should be arranged so that they can be kept at a uniform temperature and humidity during any kind of weather. As in the case of domestic sausage, no smoke house should be used for summer sausage or cervelat unless the temperature can be maintained uniform and the walls in proper condition. Since, as is well known, summer sausage of all kinds is not cooked before it goes to smoke, a cold or damp smoke house will "ring" the sausage even quicker than a cold smoke house will "ring" Bologna, therefore extreme caution should be used in this particular. Hardwood and hardwood sawdust are used exclu- sively in smoking summer sausage, and both wood and sawdust should be absolutely dry when the fire is started. In some cases, however, after the sausage is very nearly smoked, it is advisable to use a little damp sawdust be- fore completing the operation. After the smoking process is completed the sausage is taken to the dry room whete the temperature can be kept at all times between 46° and 53° F,, the proper tem- perature being 48° F., if it can be maintained. The dry room must be fitted with steam coils running underneath the sausage and around the sides of the room and under- neath the windows in order to give the necessary heat. The room must be supplied with plenty of windows for light and ventilation and should be very high so as to permit of all the required overhead ventilation. At all times the windows must be kept open a little to allow fresh air to enter no matter how cold the outside tem- perature. If the weather is damp the windows nearest 390 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tlie top or the top ventilator of the room should be opened a little way. Steam should always be turned on in damp weather to drj the air, providing, of course, the weather is not too warm and the temperature in the room can be kept as low as 53° F, The room should always be arranged in sections, so that there may be an empty section be- tween each lot of new sausage. As the sausage becomes drier it can be hung more closely. It is well, however, to have plenty of space, so as to be able to regulate this according to the weather. The sausage, in any case, should not dry too quickly and too much air will dry it near the casing, which will cause the sausage to stick to it and become dry. In tliat case the inside will not dry uniformly and the sausage will wrinkle and in some instances become sour. The different kinds of sausage require different places in the dry room. Some require an abundance of air and others, like " Holsteiner " and '' farmer " sausage, if properly smoked, can be hung where it would not be policy to hang summer sausage in hog bungs. As both of these sausages are coarse chopped, they can be handled with much less fear of being spoiled than the finer chopped sausage. However, with every description of dry sausage, a great deal of care must be exercised and constant attention given it, or poor results will fol- low. Summer sausage in hog bungs can be subjected to more draft or air than summer sausage in beef casings. Consequently beef casings are generally hung near the center of the room where they receive plenty of air but no draft. Summer sausage in both hog bungs and beef casings if properly handled can be shipped, in three stages of dryness, as follows: New, twenty to twenty- SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 391 five days old; medium dry, forty to forty-five days old; dry, sixty to seventy-five days old. The cheaper grades of summer sausage, many differ- ent kinds of which are manufactured, can be shipped in much less time than is indicated above. In fact there is sausage made which can be shipped almost immediately from the smoke house. This sausage is allowed to stand for some time before chopping and after stuffing, before being put in the smoke house. It is then smoked very hard, or with more heat than the better grades of this sausage. Some manufacturers use more heat than smoke, coloring their casings before smoking with the same Zan- zibar coloring that is used for Bologna, but it does not produce a first-class article. PEEPAKING CASINGS FOR SUMMEE SAUSAGE. In preparing casings for summer sausage of all kinds it is necessary, in order to insure good results, that casings be prepared, especially hog bungs, at least thirty days or even several months before they are used. There are always many fat bungs in hog casings and in preparing them and putting them down in salt brine for thirty days ot longer, the fat on the casings becomes dry and there is less danger of the sausage becoming sour. Summer sausage will become sour as quickly from using fat hog bungs as from any other cause, therefore these must be tlioroughly cured before using. Beef middles or rounds can be used almost immediately after they have been prepared. As they must necessarily be thoroughly fatted before they leave the preparing rooms they are generally in good condition in this respect when received, and therefore do not re- quire as much time in the curing or preparing as do hog bungs. Fat beef middles or beef rounds spoil the ap- 392 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE pearance of tlie sausage when dry as tlie fat always sliows through the casings. DRY ROOM CAUTION. Do not hang green and dry sausage in the same room. It is advisable to keep dry rooms for smoked sausage as free from mold as possible. While a slight mold does not hurt summer sausage (in fact some summer sausage requires this before it is ready for shipment), it will be found that smoked sausage drys better and quicker in a room that can be kept free of mold. Sausage that molds too much before it is dry necessarily has to be washed. This process does not hurt the sausage, and in some cases washing does it good, especially if by neglect or otherwise it has become greasy in the smoke house. Sausage will not dry as rapidly if greasy and the process of washing it quickens the drying. In washing sausage warm water, not Jiot, should be used. A little sal soda in the water is desirable. FORMULAS FOR CERVELAT. FORMULA A. 40 pounds beef chucks, very lean and entirely free from all sinews. 90 pounds porlv trimmings, trimmed in same manner. 20 pounds shoulder fat, cut into strips about 2 inches square and cut into shavings as fine as it is possible to get them. 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt. 2 ounces whole white pepper. 6 ounces formula "A" preservative for summer sausage. "W^iole white pepper is always thrown on the block five minutes before rocking is completed. The beef is first ground through a 7/64th-incli plate, after which it is placed on the rocker together with the fat and season- ing and rocked for about five minutes. Then the pork trimmings are added, the whole being rocked for from twenty-five to thirty minutes. After this operation it is taken to the cooler where the temperature is not lower than 38° F., nor higher than SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 393 40° F. It is there spread upon benches provided for this purpose, about 10 or 12 inches thick, where it is allowed to remain for three days, after which it is stuffed by hand machines into either hog bungs or beef middles as re- quired. The sausage is then taken to the hanging room and allowed to hang for two or three days, according to the weather, at a temperature of from 48° to 50° F. If the weather is damp great care must be taken to prevent the sausage from sliming and it is sometimes necessary to keep the temperature up to 55° F. in order to keep the room as free from dampness as possible. If the sausage begins to slime as stated previously, there is great danger of its becoming sour or hollow in the center. It is al- ways advisable, if it is impossible otherwise to keep the sausage from sliming, to put it into smoke as soon as the slime is detected, which puts a stop to it. When the sausage is ready for smoke, which, as stated before, is, under favorable circumstances, from two to three days after it is dried, it should be hung in a smoke house where the temperature is as near 48° F. as possible and gradually heated until the temperature reaches 70° F. It must be kept at this 'point throughout the en- tire process of smoking, or for about twenty-four hours for beef middles and forty-eight hours for hog bungs. In starting a fire in the smoke house as little wood should be used as possible, say one ^tick of ash cord wood, just enough fire to keep the sawdust smoking with- out blazing. Keep adding sawdust until there is suf- ficient fire to scatter it over the entire bottom of the smoke house, keeping the sawdust ignited only from the coals of the wood with which the fire was started and which generally lasts through the entire process of smok- ing. If the smoke houses are natural^ cold it may be 394 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE necessary to keep more fire than mentioned in order to keep the temperature up to 70° F. The smoking of this sausage requires the greatest possible care. If the temperature is allowed to rise too high for any length of time, it will sour. If the fire is too low and smoke too dense there will be a smoke ring, especially so if the sausage is not properly dried before it goes to smoke. Many manufacturers dip their sausage in hot water, especially that stuffed in beef middles, after it has been smoked, some using a light color in the water. However, this is a poor practice and is not recommended. It is advisable, however, that the sausage should not be exposed to too sudden or severe a change in temperature immediately after removing from the smoke house. If it is some distance from the smoke house to the dry room it is advisable to cover the sausage on the trucks with a tarpaulin or cover so that the cold air cannot strike it. It is a good idea not to hang the sausage up on the racks immediately, but to place it on the bottom rack, close together, so that it may cool gradually. The following are several formulas for the making of cervelat or summer sausage: FORMULA B. FORMULA C. 45 pounds beef chucks, 30 pounds pork cheek meat, 82 pounds lean pork trimmings 30 pounds beef trimmings, 23 pounds shoulder fat, 90 pounds pork trimmings, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preserv- 6 ounces formula "A" preserv- ative, ative. , FORMULA D. 40 pounds pork cheek meat, 30 pounds beef trimmings, 50 pounds lean pork trimmings, 20 pounds shoulder fat, 10 pounds pickled pork trimmings, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 395 Trim beef chucks very lean, entirely free from sinews. Pork trimmings must be lean except in Formula C, where fat pork trimmings are used. White whole pepper is always thrown on the block a few minutes be- fore chopping. Shoulder fat should be handled the same as in Formula A. Pickled pork trimmings are ground through an Enterprise i/i-inch plate. Beef chucks and trimmings are ground through an Enterprise 7/64-incli plate. Pork trimmings and cheeks are chopped on a rocker ; otherwise handled same as Formula A. FORMULA E. 40 pounds shank meat, 30 pounds pork cheek meat, 10 pounds beef cheek meat, 10 pounds pork hearts, 20 pounds pork trimmings, 40 pounds neck fat or fat trimmed from Boston butts, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 6% ounces formula "A" preservative. If neck fat is used it is cut into small pieces but not shaved. If fat from Boston butts is used it is run through an Enterprise Vi-inch plate. This fat, of course, has more or less lean in it but might be called very fat trimmings. Pork hearts, beef cheek and shank meat are all ground through an Enterprise 7/64- inch plate. Beef and fat are always put on the block with the seasoning first. Pork trimmings and cheeks are added five or ten minutes after rocking; otherwise handled same as Formulas A, B, C and D. FORMULAS FOR FARMER SAUSAGE. FORMULA A. 50 pounds shank meat, 10 pounds beef cheek meat, 30 pounds pork trimmings, 30 pounds pork cheek meat, 10 pounds pickled pork trimmings, 20 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. i 396 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Shank meat, beef cheek meat and pork cheek meat are ground through an Enterprise i/4-inch plate; shank fat is cut into small pieces but not shaved. Ground material and shank fat should be put on the block first with the seasoning and chopped five or ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added, the whole being chopped fifteen or twenty minutes. As this meat is very coarse, it should, after being chopped, be mixed in a mixer for three or four minutes and then be thoroughly mixed by hand, after which it is taken to the cooler and handled the same as cervelat. It is then stuffed by hand stuffers in beef middles about 11 inches in length, and is allowed to hang in the dry room, same as cervelat and for about the same length of time, before smoking. The same precautions should be taken with this as with cervelat, relative to slime, etc. It is smoked from six to eight hours at a temperature of from 65° to 70° F. It must be handled very carefully in smoke as too much heat will wrinkle it. A great deal of farmer sausage is allowed to dry naturally without smoking, especially in the winter months, and where there is plenty of room and a proper place. However, in damp weather and through the summer months it is always advisable to smoke it. This sausage can be made throughout the summer months, provided there are proper dry rooms, which can be regulated and kept mod- erately cool. Some manufacturers have used dry cooler space in the summer time, which could be kept at a tem- perature of 46° to 48° F., but the best results are ob- tained by drying in a room where the sausage can have the benefit of the outside air. This sausage, if handled properly according to the above directions, will be ready for shipment in twenty-five days ; it should then be in a medium drv state. SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 397 FORMULA B. 80 pounds medium fat pork trimmings, 20 pounds pork cheek meat, 50 pounds beef trimmings or shank meat, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. Beef and pork cheek meat ground tlirongli an Enter- prise 7/64th-inch plate. Put ground material with sea- soning on block first and chop five or ten minutes, then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or twenty minutes. Stuff and handle same as Formula A. FORMULA C. 40 pounds beef trimmings or shank meat, 10 pounds pickled beef trimmings, 100 pounds pork trimmings, 5 pounds, 12 ounces salt, 2 ounces whole white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. The beef trimmings or shank meat should be ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch plate. Put ground material with seasoning on block first and chop five or ten minutes ; then add pork trimmings and chop fifteen or twenty minutes. Stuff in beef middles; otherwise handle same as Formula A. H0I;STP:T]SrER SArSAGE. This sausage is identically the same as farmer sau-, sage and is handled the same except that it is stuffed in beef rounds. The same care is necessary as with the farmer from the time it leaves the block until ready for shipment, which should be in about twenty-five days. SWEDISH MEDWURST OE GOTTBERG SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 30 pounds pickled beef trimmings, 30 pounds fresh beef trimmings, 90 pounds medium fat pork trimmings, 1 povmd rice flour or corn flour, 5% pounds salt, 2 ounces coriander, 3% ounces white pepper, < 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 398 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Beef trimmings are ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch plate. Ground beef and seasoning are put on block first and chopped five or ten minutes when pork trimmings are added, the whole being chopped twenty to twenty-five minutes. This sausage is stuffed in beef middles 14 inches in length, and handled in other respects same as cervelat in beef middles. The old fashioned way of handling Swedish med- wurst was to pickle the sausage, after it was stuffed, in a vat of 50-degree strength pickle, for ten hours, when it was taken out of the vats, hung up and allowed to dry for twenty-four hours, then smoked the same as cervelat in beef middles. If this process is used, four and one-half pounds of salt to 150 pounds of meat is all that is necessary. However, as good results can be ob- tained by not pickling the sausage, and it is not gener- ally done by manufacturers of this article. BRAUNSCHWETGEE SAUSAGE. ■ FORMULA. 50 pounds selected back fat trimmings, 45 pounds selected ham trimmings, 25 pounds selected shoulder trimmings, 20 pounds beef chucks trimmed extra lean and free from sinews, 10 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 2y2 ounces white pepper (ground), 1 ounce whole white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. Beef chucks are ground through a 7/64th-inch plate. Shoulder fat is cut into strips about 2 inches square, and cut into shavings, as fine as it is possible to cut them. Ground beef, shoulder fat and seasoning are put on the block and rocked ten minutes when ham and shoulder trimmings are added, the back fat trimmings being the last to go on the block. The whole is rocked SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 399 twenty to thirty-five minutes. This is not a fine chopped sansage, however, and is not as coarse as farmer sausage hut a great deal coarser than regular cervelat. It should he stuffed into short, lean, thick hog bungs about 14 inches in length, and handled in every respect, from the block to the smoke house, same as cervelat in hog bungs. As this is a very fat sausage greater care needs to be taken in smoking than with any other summer sausage made, and it should be hung near the top of the smoke house as far away from the fire as possible. For this reason it is important that the sausage should be j)roperly dried after stuffing before smoking. Smoke at a temperature as near 65° F. as possible for thirty-six to forty-eight hours. d'arles sausage. FORMULA. 30 pounds extra lean beef chucks trimmed absolutely free from sinews, 70 pounds fresh lean especially trimmed pork shoulder trim- mings free from sinews, 30 pounds selected back fat pork trimmings, 20 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 2'/^ ounces white pepper (ground), 1 ounce whole pepper, ^ 114 ounces saltpetre, % ounce powdered borax, 1/4 ounce boracic acid. In order to use the following additional seasoning it is advisable to chop at least six blocks, of 150 pounds each, of this sausage and mix in a large truck for the purpose, as this seasoning has to be added immediately after the meat has been chopped. For six blocks of this sausage, or 900 pounds, use : — 1/4-pound package pure white gelatine, 2 quarts strong imported French red wine, 1 whole nutmeg, 1% ounces whole cloves, , Vz ounce stick cinnamon. 400 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Put the gelatine, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon in a thin bag and cook with the wine for ten or fifteen min- utes, just below boiling point. Strain the wine through a cloth to remove all particles of spice. When mod- erately cool mix the meat in thoroughly by hand, and at the same time mix in the shoulder fat, which is cut into shape of small dice and chopped on the rocker, and the beef which has been ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch plate, after which the mixture is placed on the rocker with the dry seasoning and rocked for seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes, pro- viding the speed of the rocker is from fifty-two to fifty- four strokes per minute. This is a coarse sausage but not as coarse as farmer. After the beef and pork have been rocked, the wet season- ing and shoulder fat which has been previously cut into the shape of small square dice, is mixed thoroughly by hand, when it is taken to the cooler and allowed to stand from twelve to twenty-four hours. It is then stuffed by hand into No. 1 selected hog bungs entirely free from fat, and hung in a dry room where the temperature is about 50° F., where it is entirely separate from other sausage and where it can get plenty of air but no draft. After it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight hours, if firm and the casing moderately dry, wrap the casings with No. 4 flax twine commencing at the small end, making a hitch with the twine every 2 inches the whole length of the sausage to the top or the bung end ; then hitch back every inch on the off side and back and forth again until two more hitches are made so that the strings will be about i/o inch apart when the last hitch is complete. Care must be taken to wrap the sausage tightly so that the strings will not fall off in the process of drying. SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 401 After the sausage has been wound with string it should be taken to the dry room and dried very slowly without becoming moldy too soon. If hung in a room with other sausage, this article should be hung in between so that it will not get too much air or dry too quickly. It should be moved about very frequently, from the bottom to the top, and from the middle to the front and back of the section. This is one of the most difficult of summer sausages to make and but few manufacturers are success- ful in making them. Therefore the above instructions should be followed closely to obtain satisfactory results. Do not smoke. ITALIAIS" SALAMI SAUSAGE. Practically the same formula applies to Italian salami sausage as for D 'Aries sausage, except that generally not as high grade trimmings, either beef or pork, are used. However, it is advisable for a high grade Italian salami that the same grade of trinmiings be used and the same care is taken in preparing them. Identically the same seasoning is used. and also the same procedure is followed in every respect in regard to the chopping and handling of the meat. Smaller or less expensive hog bungs are used. They are generally what are known as medium primes and the sausage is usually shorter in length. However, this is a matter of preference as this sausage is made in lengths of from 12 to 22 inches. Handling after stuffing, to the wrapping process, is the same as that for D 'Aries sausage. Wrapping, however, is much simyjler and usually the same grade of twine is Qsed, but instead of wrapping the twine both ways, it is simply wound around tightly after three or four strings have been run from the top to the bottom of the sausage. This sausage is not smoked and is tied the same as 402 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE D 'Aries, the same care being taken in every respect as regards temperatures, etc. MILANESE SALAMI SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 50 pounds fresh lean specially trimmed pork shoulder, trim- ming free from sinews, 60 pounds fresh Boston butt trimmings. 20 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed absolutely free from sinews, 20 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 2% ounces white pepper, 1% ounces saltpetre, 1 ounce whole pepper. Cliop at least six blocks (900 pounds) of this sausage and mix at one time by hand in a large truck constructed for the purpose, in order to add the following additional seasoning. For the six blocks use :— 31/^ quarts strong imported French red wine, 1/4-pound package pure white gelatine, 4 nutmegs, % ounce whole cloves, 1 ounce stick cinnamon. Prepare same as similar formula for D 'Aries sausage and mix with the meat after it has been rocked by hand thoroughly. The beef is ground through an Enter- prise 7/64th-inch plate. Shoulder fat is cut into small thin pieces but not in the shape of dice. Rock the beef and the shoulder fat together with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes, then add the pork trimmings, the whole being chopped twenty to twenty-tive minutes. This sausage is not as coarse as D 'Aries or Italian salami. After the meat and wet seasoning have been mixed thoroughly put in the cooler to stand twelve to twenty- four hours. Then stuff by hand into hog middles, as large as can be obtained. Prepare at least thirty days be- fore using. Care must be taken in stuffing as they are very tender and break easily. The only way to stuff them successfully is to arrange a board to hold the casings after SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 403 they are stuffed so that it will be just high enough from the tiller to permit the casings to be filled and not handled other than to hold them witli sufficient pressure to stutf as tightly as possible without breakage. If the middles break, which they are bound to do in many cases, patch them with a piece of hog middle when they are being wound with string. They should be lifted with care from the stuffing board, placed upon a truck and wrapped immediately with No. 4 flax twine, the same as D 'Aries sausage, the string running equidistant around the sausage from either end and being wound around it so as to form squares. As the casings are so very tender, it requires great care in wrapping and the sausage is usually not of uni- form appearance. Greater care must be used in tying this sausage than D 'Aries, salami or any other sausage known. The casings are so thin that the meat will be- come dry and hard on the outside or near the casings while the inside will remain moist, therefore too much exposure is not desirable. They should be watched closely after stringing, because, not being allowed to dry before they are strung, the handling which they get will naturally make them slime very easily. It takes at least sixty days to dry this sausage properly with best conditions. Not smoked. GEEMAN SALAMI SAUSA(^E. FORMULA. 40 pounds beef chucks or beef shank meat, 110 pounds regular pork trimmings, 5 pounds salt, 5% ounces white pepper, 1% ounces garlic, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. Beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th- inch plate, rocked with the seasoning five to ten min- utes, when the pork trinunings are added and the whole chopped fifteen to twenty minutes. This is a. very coarse 404 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE sausage, about the same as farmer sausage. It is well to mix the meat thoroughly by hand after it has been rocked, or to mix it carefully with a mixer. A " Stall- man ' ' mixer is better than a ^ ' Zimmerman ' ' for farmer sausage and coarse chopped summer sausage. However, the teeth in a " Zimmerman " mixer can be reversed so that it will not tear the meat, as it otherwise does. After the meat has been chopped it is removed to a cooler and allowed to stand the same period as farmer sausage before stuffing. Tt is then stuffed in either beef middles or hog bungs, as the case may be. After stuffing, the sausage is handled the same as Italian salami, except that it is wrapped with hitches same as D 'Aries sau- sage, there being only about one-half the number. This sausage can be very lightly smoked, but it is preferable to dry it the same as D 'Aries and Italian sau- sage. It is stuffed in beef middles and should be handled the same as farmer except that it is wrapped with string about the same number of hitches as salami in hog bungs. This latter also can be very lightly smoked. The ma- jority of manufacturers always smoke Italian salami in beef casings a very little, usually about twelve hours with as little smoke as possible. This is done to prevent sliming, as it is ver^^ hard to air-dry beef-middle sausage without the very best conveniences, or dry rooms where it can be hung apart from other sausage. hustgakiajSt salami sausage. FORMULA. 90 pounds lean pork trimmings, 35 pounds beef chuclis trimmed free from sinews, 25 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 1% ounces white pepper, 1 ounce garlic, 5y2 ounces formula "A" preservative. The beef chucks are ground through an Enter- prise 7/64tli-inch plate. The shoulder fat is shaved SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 405 into thin pieces and both the beef and the fat, with the seasoning, are rocked seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added, and the whole is rocked from eighteen to twenty-two minutes. This is a moderately coarse sausage, about the same as Milanese salami. After the meat is rocked it is handled in the cooler the same as other summer sausage and stuffed into extra large beef middle ends, which are, when stuffed, 22 to 26 inches long and weigh from twelve to twenty pounds each. Great care must be taken in stuffing this sausage to stuff it tightly and two or three lengths of string should be run from the large to the small end and vice versa, so as to prevent it from breaking, also to keep it straight, and it should be hung, of course, the small end down. This sausage is allowed to hang, before being put in the smoke house, three or four days in a dry atmosphere, and then smoked over a cold smoke at a temperature the same as for summer sausage in beef middles, for from fifty-five to sixty hours. Handle after smoking the same as summer sausage in'beef casings. It usually takes, under favorable circumstances, sixty to seventy days before the sausage is ready for shipment. This sausage is used very extensively in Germany and Austria and there is some of it used in Pennsyl- vania. However, there is not a very general demand for it in the United States. THUKINGEE SALAMI SAUSAGE. 30 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed free from sinews, 90 pounds fresh pork blade or shoulder meat, trimmed free from sinews, 30 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 1 ounce garlic, 3% ounces white pepper, / 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. 406 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE Beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch plate and rocked with the fat and seasoning, the fat hav- ing been cut into small pieces and shaved. Rock from seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and the whole is chopped eighteen to twenty-two minutes. This sausage is rocked about as coarse as Milanese salami. After it is rocked it is handled in the cooler the same as other summer sausage and stuffed in large calf bladders which have been soaked a short time before stuffing so that they will be pliable. Care must be taken in stuffing this sausage to fill the bladders as full as pos- sible. Use a skewer, also a string hanger. Allow it to hang two or three days before smok- ing, in a moderately cool temperature (50° to 55° F.), where there is no draft, and smoke over a cold smoke for forty-eight hours, the same as Braunschweiger, and Gothair, the sausage being hung near the top of the smoke house. Do not smoke at the same time with any other sausage. Unless care is taken in smoking, the bladders will come out wrinkled, which spoils the appearance and con- sequently the sale of the sausage. Hang in the dry room with beef middle cervelat and handle in every respect the same. This sausage is usually ready for shipment in forty to fifty days. MOETADELLA SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 135 pounds absolutely fresh lean trimmings, 15 pounds fresh lean beef chucks, 10 pounds slioulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 11/^ ounces saltpetre, 2'Y2 ounces white pepper. Additional wet seasoning is used for this sausage, therefore it is advisable to chop it six blocks at a time SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 407 and mix it by hand in a large truck constructed for the purpose, as the seasoning must be added immediately after the meat has been chopped. For six blocks use : — • 3% quarts strong imported French red wine, 1/4-pound pacliage pure wtiite gelatine, 8 nutmegs, 1 ounce whole cloves, 3 ounces stick cinnamon, 41/^ ounces bay leaves, 2y2 ounces split coriander. Prepare this seasoning same as for D 'Aries sausage, then mix the wet seasoning with the meat in a truck. Scatter through it twelve ounces of whole white pepper and two ounces of coriander. The beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64th-incli i3late and chopped on the block with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and the whole cho]3ped thirty to thirty-five minutes. This is a very fine sausage. After the meat has been chopped mix the shoulder fat, which is cut into the shape of small dice (same as for D 'Aries sausage), with the meat and mix in the wet seasoning at the same time. Eemove to a cooler and allow it to stand from twelve to twenty-four hours, then stuff into medium-sized beef bladders, which must be soake^d in lukewarm water a few moments before they are stuffed, in order to make them pliable, and care must be taken to stuff them as tightly as possible. Skewer, as well as tie, them and also wrap immediately with heavy coarse fl^x twine, making about two wraps the long way of the bladder and one wrap around the center, the twine terminating in a hanger. This sausag-e must not be hung by the tied end or by the same string that the bladder is tied with, for in such case they will fall in the smoke house, or when drying. This sausage should be allowed to hang for twelve hours after stuffing in a hot smoke house with more heat 408 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE than smoke at a temperature of about 90° F. ; then cook in clear water for four hours at a temperature of 150° F.; wash off thoroughly with boiling water when taken from the cooking vat and hang them up in a mod- erately cool place or dry room where the temperature is about 48° to 50° F. They will be ready to ship in four or five days. This sausage can be smoked sufficiently heavy so that cooking is unnecessary if proper facilities are available in smoke house. The house should be arranged with steam coils so that a temperature as high as 150° F. can be obtained during the process of smoking. This really is the most satisfactory way of handling this sausage. LTON SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 120 pounds extra lean selected pork trimmings, pork blade meat being preferred, trimmed free from sinews, 20 pounds extra lean beef chucks, trimmed free from sinews, 10 pounds shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 2% ounces white pepper, 1 ounce whole pepper, 1% ounces saltpetre. It is necessary to use an additional wet seasoning for this sausage; at least six blocks should be chopped so as to mix properly and the seasoning must be added im- mediately after chopping. For six blocks lyon sausage use the same formula for wet seasoning as for Milanese salami, and prepare in the same way. Grind the beef through a 7/64th-inch plate and chop first on the block with the dry seasoning for seven to ten minutes when pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped thirty to thirty-five minutes. This is a very fine chopped sausage. After the beef and pork have been rocked the wet seasoning and shoulder fat, which has been pre- viously cut into the shape of small dice, are mixed with it thoroughlv bv hand. SUMMER AND DRY SAUSAGE 409 The meat is tken taken to a cooler and allowed to stand the same period as D 'Aries or Milanese salami, when it is stuffed by a hand stuffer into No. 1 hog bungs free from fat, and hung in a dry room where the temper- ature is about 50° F. and where it can be kept entirely separate from other sausage, with plenty of air and no draft. After it has hung for thirty-six to forty-eight hours and the casings are moderately dry, wrap the sau- sage with No. 4 flax twine, both lengthwise and around so as to form a mesh about I/2 inch square. It is handled the same as D 'Aries or Milanese salami. GOTHAIE SAUSAGE. FORMULA. 20 pounds extra lean beef chucks free from sinews, 110 pounds extra lean pork trimmings free from sinews, 20 pounds pork shoulder fat, 5 pounds salt, 3% ounces white pepper, 6 ounces formula "A" preservative. The beef is ground through an Enterprise 7/64:th- inch plate and together with the shoulder fat, which has been shaved as thin as possible and cut into the shape of small dice, is mixed in mixer with the seasoning for from seven to ten minutes, when the pork trimmings are added and the whole chopped for thirty to thirty-tive min- utes, after which it is taken to a cooler and handled the same as other summer sausage. It is stuffed into short No. 1 lean hog bungs, or bungs that are free from fat. This sausage is handled in every respect the same as cervelat sausage, except smoking. It should be smoked lightly with the same temperatures and same relative po- sition in the smoke house as Braunschweiger sausage, and about the same length of time. It is handled after smoking, in the dry room, same as Braunschweiger. LEHIGH VALLEY SUMMEE SAUSAGE. This sausage is made from lean bull chucks, the meat being ground through an Enterprise i/4-incli plate, 410 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE then regronnd through an Enterprise 7/64th-inch plate and rocked on a rocker for fifteen minutes. The seasoning is mixed on the rocker and is as follows for 100 pounds of meat: — SEASONING FORMULA. 1/3-pound fine salt, 1% ounces saltpetre, 4 ounces formula A preservative, 5 ounces mace, 1 ounce ground cloves, 2 ounces allspice, 4 ounces black pepper, 6 ounces coriander, 1 ounce sugar, After it is chopped it is put into a '^ Zimmerman " mixer and mixed for about five minutes. It is then taken to a cooler and spread on tables made for the purpose, about 8 or 10 inches thick, and allowed to remain for about three days, when it is stuffed into beef bungs, sack pieces being preferable. After it is allowed to stand in a tem- perature of 48° F. until the casings become moderately dry, it is hung in a smoke house and smoked for ten days or two weeks, at a temperature of between 50° and 60° F. Great care should be taken in smoking this ar- ticle, as it requires but a light smoke. After it is taken from the smoke house, it is hung in a dry room for the purpose, where a temperature of 48° to 50° F. can be maintained, and where the sausage can be kept perfectly dry. This sausage takes from tAvo to three months to dry thoroughl^'^, and sometimes longer. LARD AND GREASE 411 CHAPTEE XIX. LARD AND GREASE. LARD REFINING. As shown by tests given in a previous chapter from 13 to 15 per cent of the live weight of the hog is fresh lard, consequently at points where large numbers of hogs are killed the manufacture of lard is a very im- portant factor in the packing business. The principal grades, as commonly made at large manufacturing points, are known as: — First, kettle rendered lard. Second, prime steam lard, Third, refined lard, Fourth, compound lard. Tallow and beef stearine al^o enter largely into the manufacture of refined as well as compound lards. The refining of lard in large packing houses dates from a comparativel}^ recent period, and many people will be surprised to know that even th^ largest packers only added lard refining to their business within the past fifteen or twenty years. Previous to that time lard refineries were operated by firms entirely independent of the packers, who bought their supply of lard in the form of what is known as ' ' prime steam ' ' at the differ- ent packing centers, converting it into the diiferent grades in their own establishments. In the natural evo- lution of the business this branch was taken up by the 412 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE packers and today forms a very important adjunct to the modern packing business. Before modern methods were in vogue, lard refining consisted in pressing from the lard about 30 to 40 per cent of lard oil, this being sold for lubricating and lighting purposes, etc., and mixing the remaining stearine "with the proper percentage of straight lard, thus making a very high grade of pure lard. At this time the method of bleaching in all lard refineries was accomplished by the use of caustic soda, pearl ash, lime, alum, or other mixtures of more or less value, the principal ingredient, however, always being caustic soda. The underlying principle is that the alkali, used in proper proportion, saponified the acid and sediments in the lard, making it lighter. This process, however, is a thing of the past, very few, if any, of the refiners now use it. About twenty years ago the method of refining lard with fullers earth was first inaugurated, and for years only imported earth coming from England was thought suitable for this purpose. Within the past five years, however, many deposits of fullers earth, of fair quality, have been discovered in the United States and American fullers earth is today used in quite a number of the lard refineries in at least three of the large packing house centers, and the indications are that with further improvements in mining and methods of grinding, and possibly also in the discovery of better beds or layers of this substance, it is safe to predict that ere long the manu- facturers of America will not have to go abroad for any of their supplies of fullers earth. An explanation of how fullers earth bleaches lard and its kindred fats would be interesting, if anyone knew the exact explanation, but so far there has been no scientific reason given that accounts for this property of this ma- LARD AND GREASE 413 terial, therefore no chemical test can be aj^plied to dif- ferent samples of fullers earth to determine whether they are suitable for refining or not. The only safe test is the practical one of heating a sample together with lard and watching the result of the bleach. During this period of development in the packing house business the consideration of color was the pre- dominating influence. In improving the color of lard it is invariably done at the expense of the flavor, and a very wholesome and sweet odor, which is natural to the lard, is sacrificed in a greater or lesser degree to the advantage of color. The tendency today is to make lard white, even though it loses in odor and taste. In compounding lard this is always intensified by the general use of tallow. The use of tallow was de- veloped after the refining process by means of fullers earth was established and where tallow is used ex- cessively it gives a strong and more pungent odor to the lard than was found to be the case before this ingredient was used. However, sharp competition has necessitated the use of different ingredients to reduce the cost of the manufactured article. Nearl3^ all samples of pure refined lard contain more or less tallow in their makeup. Fullers earth is also used for bleaching cotton seed oil and other greases and fats which are necessarily sub- jected to the bleaching process. METHOD OE USIIN'G EULLEES EAETh! First see that the lard itself is dr}^ If the lard has been steamed out of tierces, or if there is any water in it, it must be settled long enough, in order to avoid a cloudy appearance when it begins to cool. The lard to be bleached is first placed in a round iron kettle, jacketed, 414 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the most suitable dimensions being about 6 feet in diam- eter and 4 feet deep, the kettle to be supplied with mechanical agitators. A sectional view of such a kettle is shown in Fig. 141 and a smaller kettle suitable for small houses is illustrated in Fig. 142. It was formerly the practice to use compressed air for agita- tion in order to thoroughly mix the fullers earth with the lard. This, however, has been discontinued in the l4 PIPE FL/ 6 O- Burrc/f G/Pcm^ FIG. 149.— SECOND FLOOR PLAN OF MODERN BUTTERINE FACTORY. dling of these latter ingredients that the difficult part of the manufacture of butterine presents itself. Fig. 148 shows plan af modern butterine factory, location of vats and machinery, together with ground floor of refrigerator, shipping room, etc. The lower half of the diagram represents a longitudinal section, while Fig. 149 presents a plan of the second floor of the manufacturing department of a modern butterine making plant. HANDLING OF THE MILK IN MAKING BUTTERINE. The principal, and by all odds, the most important matter to be considered in the manufacture of butterine, is the quality and proper handling of the milk and cream. BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 445 If tlie milk or the cream is of poor quality, the entire product will be spoiled. Milk was formerly handled by souring before churning. When received it was put in a tin receptacle, which in turn was set in a wooden box which contained warm water, the milk being held at a temperature of 78° F., and the temperature of the room FIG. 150.— BOYD CREAM RIPENER. from 86° to 90° F. The milk was then allowed to remain in the souring vats about fifteen hours before using. The proper condition for use being reached when there is a strong acid taste to the milk, which is devel- oped when it is sufficiently sour. Fig. 150 illustrates a cream ripener which is so con- nected that either water, cold brine or steam can be used 446 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE through a center agitator, thereby insuring absolute con- trol of the temperature of the cream or milk. At this point the cream and milk are thoroughly mixed and the mixture is then drained off into a churn. (See Fig. 151.) It is next agitated until the butter is practically all separated from the buttermilk. At this juncture about one-quarter of the required amount of neutral lard is mixed in, still keeping the churn in action. When it is thoroughly mixed it is ready to be put into the mixer with the proper amounts of oleo oil, neutral lard and cotton seed oil in the proportion of each to be used, according to the grade desired. FIG. 151.— CHURN USED IN BUTTERINE FACTORY. After the different ingredients have been thoroughly agitated in the mixer, the proper or desired coloring matter is added, an article manufactured especially for this purpose. The principal manufacturers are Wells, Richardson & Co., Burlington, Vermont, and Heller, Herz & Co., New York City, the latter of whom manufacture what is known as the " Alderney Butter Color." From four to forty ounces to a batch of 100 pounds, according to the color and shade required, should be used. After the coloring matter is added the mixer should be run about twenty minutes, after which the contents are ready for the graining vats. BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 447 In regard to the coloring, the reader will understand that this is the particular point upon which federal re- strictions have been placed, and the goods today cannot be colored except upon payment of a prohibitory tax amounting to ten cents per pound. On uncolored goods the tax is one-quarter cent per pound. While the goods are equally as wholesome uncolored as colored, they are not as attractive in appearance and sales are propor- tionately curtailed. Butterine is made in two grades, viz., a " high " and a '' low " grade. High grade butterine is that which contains no cotton seed oil and in which cream is used in the place of milk. Low grades contain cotton seed oil and milk is used instead of cream. Different qualities and grades are merely subdivisions of these two, ob- tained by deducting from and adding to the quantities of these various ingredients. As before stated, cleanliness is the all-important fac- tor, since milk as a food product is most easily contam- inated by foreign flavors and germ life. Milk readily absorbs the odors given off by articles placed in the same room. Therefore, only pure and absolutely sweet milk and cream should be used, but as absolutely pure milk, though sweet, is difficult to secure, it becomes necessary to adopt some method whereby the condition of such milk can be righted. * Careless milkers care little whether hair, dirt, dust, etc., drop into the pails while milking, thinking that in straining the milk, all particles and impurities are re- moved. It does remove all particles, but the filth germs which were clinging to these particles by the million are not strained out. They remain in the milk and under favorable temperatures thrive and multiply unless ar- rested by some purifying agent. Hence a ''pure flavor 448 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE germ " is cultivated in the form of a commercial ' ' starter. ' ' Before giving the details as to the working of the ' ' starter, ' ' let us first consider the methods adopted for receiving the milk, and also making the proper tests in order to determine its value and the amount of fat it contains. This test is made as follows, and it is very essential that this be done carefully and. intelligently, as the result of the test determines the value of the product purchased. The test generally accepted by experts is obtained by using Babcock's " Acme " steam turbine test machine. This machine is made to accommodate twenty-four bot- tles at one time. Care should be taken to have the ma- chine set up well and secured and balanced exactly each time test is made. This is accomplished by placing bot- tles exactly opposite each other. For instance should a test be desired on only one sample of milk, fill up another bottle with water and place in machine opposite sample. The machine in motion makes 3,000 revolutions per minute. It will, therefore, be seen at once that a perfect equilibrium is necessary. Test bottles are so arranged that they will contain the amount of milk or cream and acid needed. A 17.6 cc. pipette is used for measuring the milk or cream and a 17.6 cc. graduated tube for the acid. First pour 17.6 cc. milk in bottle, then pour in 17.6 cc. commercial grade sulphuric acid. Do not pour the acid so that it drops on top of the milk, but hold the bot- tle sidewise so that the acid will slip into the milk at side. Otherwise a burnt taste will result and make it impossible to correctly read the test. Shake the bottle well until milk has entirely disappeared, then place in machine. After all bottles are filled in this manner and machine is balanced, admit steam, gradually increasing it, until BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 449 machine is running at full speed. Allow it to run five minutes, then stop and fill each bottle with hot water up to the lowest mark on graduated neck of bottle ; start ma- chine again and allow it to run for three minutes, when again it will be necessary to add hot water up to within one-half inch of top of neck of bottle. Then run machine two minutes longer, and read test. Use a pair of com- passes in reading the fat in neck of bottle and read it quickly as the fat recedes if left long. This test de- termines the percentage of fat in sample of milk, conse- cmently its value. MILK AND CEEA.M FOE BUTTEEHSTE. Only sweet milk should be used. Milk that is sour be- fore reaching the factory has invariably soured under conditions which cause trouble impossible to remedy, and no matter how good the ' ' starter ' ' may be that is added to the milk, it has developed germs and bacteria that cannot be destroyed, and as the milk or cream grows older the development of the proper germs or bacteria is over rapid and impossible to control. This is as true after it has been worked into the butterine as before. Hence it will be seen, that a great deal depends upon the milk and cream being absolutely sweet in developing the proper conditions with the " starter." The exact " sourness " or acidity of the milk can be determined by taste or smell, but not accurately. Hence a test is necessary to determine the exact conditions of the milk when x)urcliased, as well as when treated for the butterine. Experience has shown that when milk contains six- tenths of one per cent acid, the most desirable point has been reached, as then it imparts the best flavor to the goods. If more than six-tenths of one per cent, acid is 450 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE used the flavor is not as good. This is also the case if a lower percentage of acidity is used. Hence the milk or cream should be brought to this exact degree of sourness before using. In order to determine this accurately, it is necessary to do it by a test, as milk may be three-tenths of one per cent acid before it is perceptible to the taste or smell. Milk that would pass as sweet by taste or smell will show two-tenths of one per cent acid. The test to determine this is very simple. Any chem- ist is able to furnish an alkali solution and the necessary neutral] zer of proper strength. The usual way, how- ever, is to use what is known as Farrington's tablets, prepared by Prof. Farrington of the Wisconsin Dairy School. These tablets are dissolved in water, a conven- ient strength being five tablets to fifty cubic centimeters of water. The solution is mixed with the milk to be tested and shaken; the acid in the milk acting upon the alkali of the solution immediately turns the milk to a pink color and the amount of the solution required to produce the pink color determines the acidity of the milk. A 20 cc. pipette is used for measuring the milk or cream. Each cubic centimeter of solution is equal to two one-hundredths of one per cent acid, hence if 10 ec. of solution is necessary to turn the milk or cream a pink color, the milk would contain just two-tenths of one per cent acid and would be sweet. Any more than that would show the milk to be too sour for use. In receiving even sweet milk, it must be taken for granted that it is dirty and contains some impure bacteria, which only await the proper temperature to develop and thereby sour the milk and produce bad flavors. This is why the " starter " should be used on all milk and cream that is to be utilized in butterine. BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 451 Another great advantage obtained in the use of the * ' starter ' ' is the fact, that it permits the ripening of milk and cream at a lower temperature. Bacteriologists state, and it is proved by experience, that a temperature of about 65 °F. is most favorable to the development of the best fermentation in ripening milk and cream. This is another very valuable point to be considered in the use of '' starters." Prior to their discovery it was customary to sour the milk at a much higher temperature, which was correspondingly favorable to all the objectionable bacteria in the milk. Without the use of the '' starter " the conditions were practically beyond the control of the operator. When the milk for use in butterine has been examined and accepted it. should be strained through a double thickness of clean cloth into the milk vats for ripening, bringing the temperature on the different vats to the same point, so that as the milk is used it will all be in the same condition. In cold weather the temperature should be held at 70° F.,, while during the warmer sea- sons from 60° to 65° F, is desirable. In cloudy, murky summer weather a lower temperature will be required. It is generally known that electrical disturbances have a very marked effect upon milk and ver}^ often a thunder storm will cause milk to sour. Under such conditions the temperature should be held at from 55V to 60° F. until the storm is passed, when it should again be held at the normal temperature named. The " starters " referred to contain nothing more than the healthy bacteria always found in clean, fresh milk cultivated in such vast numbers that when incor- porated with milk containing the impure variety, minia- ture warfare is at once begun. If the ' ' starter ' ' is right, the warfare ends with the pure germs victorious, bring- 452 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE iiig the milk once more to its proper and original condi- tion. There are two ferments or " starters " on the mar- ket which are commendable on account of their uniform- ity and iDurity the year round. They are produced in eastern laboratories in what might be called vitalized air, every care being taken to see that no foreign flavor comes in contact with them. They are Keith's " Butric " and Hansen's ^' Lactic." The former is produced by Simon ]veitli, of Boston, Mass. (this culture being in liquid form and coming in four ounce bottles) ; the latter by Christ Hansen, of Little Falls, New York, which comes in the same size iDackage, but in powder form. These are the leading manufacturers and both articles give highly sat- isfactory results. PEEPAKATOKY STARTEKS HOW PREPARED. Into a bright, tin vessel, put four gallons of sweet, skimmed milk, which tests two-tenths of one per cent acid, no more. Strain through a double thickness of per- fectly clean cloth, heat the milk to 180° F., holding at this temperature for one-half hour. This '' Pasteurizes " the milk by absolutely killing all life in it. It also de- stroys all flavor. The milk should then be cooled quickly to 90° F. As soon as this temperature has been reached pour in a four-ounce bottle of '' starter " or ferment, holding the bottle close to the milk so that no flavor or odor may contaminate it. The bottle should not be opened until ready for use. After adding the ferment cool down slow- ly to 70° F., stirring all the while so as to thoroughly mix it with the milk. The bacteria grow very rapidly at this temperature. In twelve hours, if kept evenly at this temperature in a tightly closed vessel, a sufficient BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 453 quantity of the proper germs will liave been developed to produce an acidity of five-tentlis of one per cent. The milk will also have thickened somewhat. If the above conditions are found at the termination of twelve hours, cool the milk quickly to 40° F. and hold at this tempera- ture until ready to make a large or regular ' ' starter, ' ' If by careful test the milk has not grown sufficient germs to produce the above named acidity, that is, five- tenths of one per cent, reheat to 90° F. and hold at this temperature until it does. Do not stir it at this stage, as the " starter " should be kept with as little agitation as possible after the germs have been iDropagated. THE EEGULAE " STARTEE. " When ready to make the large or regular '^ starter," place twenty gallons of sweet, skimmed milk in a ster- ilizer, after having cleaned the vessel, and heat as be- fore to 180° F. ; hold at this temperature for one-half hour, then chill to 70° F. and add the four gallons of pre- paratory " starter " already described, stirring well while adding. Let this stand twelve hours as before in a tempera- ture of 70° F., when it should appear as the preparatory starter did, slightly thickened and showing an acidity of five-tenths of one per cent. When acidity test shows this to have been reached, chill to 40° F. ^(at this tempera- ture the bacteria are dormant and will not develop), and hold until ready to ripen the day's run of milk and cream for churning. Wlien the milk has been brought to the proper tem- perature distribute the larger ' ' starter ' ' evenly through it. Of the second '' starter " 3 per cent is sufficient during the summer months, while even as high as 10 X)er cent is necessary in cold weather. Stir thoroughly 454 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE and arrange vats so that they can be closed tightly while the milk is ripening, leaving only a small opening in the top for gases to escape as the acid develops. At the expiration of twelve hours, the milk should be ripened sufficiently for churning and by test it should show, as above stated, six-tenths of one per cent acid. When this acidity has been developed cool to 58° F. and place in churn. At this temperature the butter-fat will form in small, firm globules and separate nicely from the casein. If the temperature is lower than this it takes much longer to separate the fat from the casein and it is impossible to separate all of it, hence some fat is lost. At a higher temperature, the fat, when separated, will he fluffy and soft and will not produce a firm body. As texture is one of the essential points to be sought after in producing artificial butter, the churning of the milk, in order to produce the proper texture in the butter- fat, is a very important function and one which should be carefully performed. Before putting the milk into the churn it should be stirred thoroughly, as during the twelve hours occupied in ripening, the butter-fat, being the lightest, has come to the top and unless again thor- oughly mixed one churn will contain most of the fat and the others will contain comparatively little, and as each churning of milk going into the mixer constitutes a sep- arate run, the quality of the butterine manufactured will be uneven. The churn should turn about fifty revolu- tions per minute and about twenty minutes churning is necessary to separate all the fat. At the expiration of this time the milk or cream is ready for the mixer. LOW GEADE BUTTERINE. This grade is composed of cotton seed oil. No. 2 oleo oil and No. 2 neutral lard. Straight milk is used for BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 455 flavor. The oils go into agitator at the following tem- peratures : Cotton seed oil at 75° F. ; neutral lard, added next, at 95° F., and oleo oil next at 90° F. The cotton seed oil should be agitated first for about fifteen to twenty minutes, before the other oils are added, leaving the lid of the agitator open. This has the effect of removing some of the flavor from the oil and while it may be slight, it is certainly an advantage. The neutral PIG. 152.— CHURN ROOM FOR BUTTERINE. lard should be added next, care being ta^^en to see that it is free from flakes and sandy texture. In other words, it should be brought to the proper temperature, viz., 95° F. and held there long enough before going to the agita- tor to be sure that the grain of the lard has entirely dis- appeared, for if this is allowed to go in it can never be removed in the finished product. The oleo oil is next added and after these three in- gredients have been agitated for twenty minutes and 456 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE thoroughly mixed, the milk should be added last and the whole mass left in the agitator for five minutes with the lid of the agitator closed tightly. At this stage the salt and color are added. The amount of salt required should be decided by the necessities of the particular trade to be supplied, but 5 per cent will be found a medium salt. Experience has proved that it is better to add salt at this time because it is more evenly distributed in the emulsion than in the granular but- terine. After the color and salt are thoroughlj^ mixed, let the whole body run into the graining vat filled with water at a temperature of 40° F. This should be drawn through a 5-inch galvanized pipe flattened out at the end to form a spreading exit for the butterine. The butterine passes into the water vat directly behind a paddle wheel arranged so that one-half of it is above water. The wheel revolves rapidly causing the butterine to be quickly sub- merged, thereby graining it as fast as it hits the cold wa- ter. The quicker butterine is grained, the more flavor it retains, as the globules formed incase the flavor. Should the water be too cold, the butterine will be hard and dry, and is likely to crumble and mottle, besides causing a re- duction in gain. On the other hand, if the water is too warm the butterine will be soft and mushy and cannot be worked properly, although the gain will be larger. Warm water is used on very cheap grades when butter- ine is to be packed in solids and a large gain is desired. Butterine differs from creamery butter, in that the butter-fat and casein are both used in the butterine, whereas in creamery butter the fat alone is utilized. This is done in butterine to gain all the flavor possible by pass- ing the buttermilk through tire oils. It is later washed out in the water vats, but in passing through the oils, it BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 457 imparts some flavor. Butterine also requires much less working, thereby avoiding a '^ salvey " or pasty condi- tion, also preventing a loss of moisture and increasing the yield of the article. Salt being the primary cause of the " mottle," or discoloration, that danger is also avoided when goods are not over-worked. Fig. 153 shows a butter-worker and receiving tray for entering worker. By revolving the worker with tray in this position the butterine is placed on the table. FIG. 153.— SIMPLEX BUTTER AYORKER. In figuring a formula for butterine, the titre must be carefully watched, because hard, crumbly butterine, .or the soft, mushy product is often traced to poor figuring in the formula. A simple formula that may be depended upon would be as follows : 350 pounds of oleo oil at 90° F., 250 pounds of cotton seed oil at 75° P., 450 pounds of neutral lard at 95° P., , 30 gallons of milk at 60° P. 458 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE This, when mixed, will show a temperature of about 90° F. as a whole. If not, heat to that point before draw- ing into the graining vat. As fast as the butterine to be grained shows on the top of the water, it should be lifted onto a cloth in the hands of two men to a clean box truck. The butterine should then be covered with a sprink- ling of fine salt and the trucks ]^laced in the tempering room, where a temperature of 60° F. should be main- FIG. 154.— MAKING BUTTERINE PRINTS. tained, to remain twelve hours. In this time, it will de- velop all the flavor it is possible to obtain and be ready for the workers. The temperature of the tempering room is something that must be watched carefully and should never be al- lowed to go above 60° F. as the ingredients in this condi- tion contain a large amount of water, and at a warmer temperature action of the water and grease are liable to cause the goods to sour. After remaining in this tempera- BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 459 ture twelve hours the butterine is taken out to the work- ers. It should be worked as little as possible to obtain a smooth, compact body, as overworking produces a " salvey " condition. In packing the product is worked up into prints or rolls, or packed solid into tubs, as the case may be, and should be run into a cooler kept at a temperature of from 40° to 45° F., and there held twelve hours, at least, before being shipped. This gives the but- terine time to properly set. FIG. 155.— PRINT COOLER FOR BUTTERINE. HIGH GRADE BUTTEEINE. The formula for high grade butterine differs from low grade in that it does hot contain cotton seed oil and that cream is used instead of straight milk. The oils are also treated in a different manner and at different tempera- tures. Larger quantities of cream are used to improve the quality and grades. The treatment of the oils is the same in all high grades. 460 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The neutral oil should be placed in the agitator first. Before being put in, however, it should be brought to a temperature of 110° F., or enough to remove the flakes and grain. Then cooled quickly with clear ice, or by means of the refrigeration, to 95° F, and run into the agitator, in motion, with the lids open. Oleo oil should be heated just enough to remove the grain and make it smooth, about 115° F., then chilled quickly to 85° FIG. 156.— BUTTERINE SOLID PACKING ROOM. F. and run into the agitator. Let it be agitated five min- utes and then add the cream. The whole body is then agitated enough to insure mixture, ten minutes being sufficient, after which it is dropped into the graining vat, the temperature of the water being 36° F. It should be removed from the water into trucks at once and put into the tempering room at a temperature not over 60° F., tempered twelve hours and worked the same as low grades. BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 461 Milk and cream undergo many changes after being incorporated in the finished bntterine and the more cream there is in the product the lower the temperature in the tempering room should be. It is not at this stage that flavor is made. Only the flavor the product already con- tains is developed and many batches of sour or " off " butterine are traced to too warm tempering rooms, where- by the butter fat and oil because of their mixture with water decompose and become rancid. Cleanliness of all utensils is very important and live steam should be run through all pipes after each time they are used so that there is no possibility of any fats or grease adhering to the inside and becoming rancid, as it is carelessness of this kind that often causes a large amount of trouble in a butterine factory. FORMULAS FOR MAKI]^G BUTTERHSTE. The following formulas show the amount of different ingredients used and cost of finished product at time tests were made. The first is a formula for high grade, then a formula for medium grade and lastly a formula for low grade butterine. The excess of yield over ingredients used shows amount of water absorbed. FORMULA FOR AND COST OF HIGH GRADE BUTTERINE. Materials and quantities 525 pounds No. 1 oleo oil 475 " " neutral lard. 50 gallons 30 per cent, cream. 300 pounds creamery butter. . . Labor and package Salt and color Total Cost per lb. Total cost $0.0875 $45.19 .08125 38.57 .42 30.24 .28 84.00 .01 15.00 1.00 $314.00 This formula will yield 1,500 pounds of butterine, therefore cost per pound is $0.1426. 462 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE FORMULA FOR AND COST OF MEDIUM GRADE BUTTERINE. Materials and quantities Cost per lb. Total cost 525 pounds No. 1 oleo oil $0.0875 .08125 .42 .01 $45 19 475 '■ " neutral lard ... 40 gallons 30 per cent, cream 30.57 40 32 Labor and package Salt and color 12.00 1 00 Total $137 08 This formula will yield 1,200 pounds butterine, there- fore the cost is $0.1142 per pound. FORMULA FOR AND COST OF LOW GRADE BUTTERINE. Materials ana quantities Cost Total cost 350 pounds No. 2 oleo oil $0.08 per lb. .04 .08125 " .12 per gal. $28,00 250 ' ' cotton seed oil 10.00 450 " neutral lard 36.54 60 gallons 33^ per cent, milk Labor and package Salt and color 7.20 12.00 1 00 Total $94.74 This formula will yield 1,200 pounds butterine, there- fore the cost to produce and pack for shipment will be $0.0789 per pound. SHEINKAGE AND COST OF BUTTEKINE. The following table shows shrinkage and costs of dif- ferent grades of butterine, these being compiled from actual tests. It shows the different quantities of water absorbed by the butterine at different temperatures and it is readily understood that the amount of water ab- sorbed regulates the yield, although the more water that is absorbed the poorer the texture, so that, generally speaking, high yields are obtained by loss of texture and general character of the product. It will be seen at a glance that the higher the temperature of the water in the BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 463 graining vat the greater the yield, and the lower the tem- I)erature of the water the less yield is obtained, although the texture of the product is improved. The high grade shrinks considerably less than the low grade. This is explained in two ways. First there is very little loss of cream in the high grade, because one- third of the entire quantity of cream used is butter fat, or solid matter. While in the low grade only one-sixth of the milk used is solid matter, and as the emulsion goes into the graining vat the milk is lost in the water. Fur- thermore, cotton seed oil being absent from the high grade quality the mass retains more water, as cotton seed oil has little affinity for water at any temperature. A less amount of salt was used in this particular test on the high grade on account of the presence of salt in creamery butter used in the formula. A careful perusal of the following table will prove interesting: TEST SHOWING SHRINKAGE AND COST OF BUTTERINE. % "^ .c '■? ^ r '% g ^ Butterine 1 ^ £ "o 'o ^ ^ ^ 1 "^ fcjD 0) a, 01 o 1* o o C3 C o ^ a 3 2 H O ^; O S O o o o 20 o >H m m o O Low grade. 38° 350 450 250 450 60 1560 1210 350 .2243 $7.82 Low grade. 45° 350 450 250 450- 60 20 15^0 1290 270 .1730 7.36 Medium high grade 40° 525 475 300 60 20 1360 1294 66 .0485 10.59 High grade 40° 525 475 ■, 225 300 50 20 1575 1497 78 .0495 14.29 Note the excessive shrinkage where weight of milk is taken into consideration with other ingredients used, the milk being lost in the chilling water and the flavor being retained. Where natural butter is used the shrinkasfe is much less. . 464 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The following will give an idea of the amount of ma- chinery, also the different makes, necessary for a factory producing from 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of butterine daily and cost of same. To this amount should be added the cost of installation. This only includes actual machinery necessarj^. The cost of building, necessary coolers, etc., is not included: COST OF EQUIPMENT FOR BUTTERINE FACTORY. Four melting tanks, 4 feet diameter, 5 feet deep (gal- vanized lining, cone and syphon), at $125 each..? 500.00 One oval agitator, 2x4 feet (arms galvanized lined) . 100.00 One 100-gallon milk vat (Boyd cream ripener) 75.00 Two 300-gallon milk vats (Boyd cream ripener) at $150 each 300.00 One 100-gallon barrel churn 40.00 Two workers (National) at $75 each 150.00 One graining vat 4x8 feet, 2% feet deep, with pad- dle wheel 50.00 One storage water vat 6 x 10 feet, 6 feet deep, with brine connection 50.00 Eighteen graining trucks (box 4x5x1 foot), white pine, at $8 each 144.00 Three tray trucks at $10 each 30.00 One scale, tank and scale 75.00 Solid and roll scales 25.00 Milk receiving tank 15.00 Tables, benches, moulds, trays, etc 150.00 Total cost $1,704.00 PROCESS OR RENOVATED BUTTER. This is a part of the butter business which has devel- oped very rapidly in the past few years and consists in treating butter which was either handled improperly when made or that has been kept until it has become ran- cid or out of condition. These goods are generally bought up at an inferior price and taken to a factory where they are reworked and sold for a good grade of butter. The method of handling is as follows: The butter to be treated is put in a tank ordinarily about 48 inches in diameter and 5 feet deep with a cone bottom. The cone should be about 2 feet deep. This tank BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 465 fits inside of anotlier tank leaving a 3-incli space for a "water jacket between. The stock to be handled is slowly melted at a tem- perature not exceeding 160° F, Ordinarily it takes about five hours to melt about 1,000 pounds. This degree of heat should not be exceeded, as a higher temperature im- parts a bad flavor. When the stock is reduced to the liquid form about 600 of the 1,000 pounds should be syphoned off into a blower tank. This tank should FIG. 157.— DIAGRAM OF BLOWER AND TANKS FOR PROCESS BUTTER FACTORY. be practically the same size as the melter with a water jacket and cone, but provided at ^the bottom with a blower head. The blower head is a block-tin plate having about the same circumference "as the tank and fits in at the top of the cone. It is perforated with i/s-inch holes and a IVo- inch hole in the center to permit a pipe of that size to pass through it from the blower above. Through this pipe air is forced at a pressure of about five pounds, the air being forced upward through the emulsion^ thereby 466 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE removing the odors and bad flavors and thoroughly aerat- ing the product. This 600 pounds of emulsion should be blown for five or six hours, the length of time depending largely upon the stock used, at a temperature not exceeding 120° or under 100° F. At this time the milk is added and should be about three-quarters of the quantity of the stock used, /qp-rj J6«r ^Wirr/nr TiiotKrv to-o c^r^jm^j^r f-o g'-o'.-^tt* 1 FIG. 158.— PLAN OF TANKS, ETC., FOR PROCESS BUTTER FACTORY. or in a case of this kind, 450 pounds. The entire mass should be agitated about fifteen minutes at a tempera- ture of about 150° F. after the milk is added. Color and salt are added at this time. Both the tanks described here should be supplied with syphons ; the first tank or melter should have the syphon about 6 inches from the bottom of the cone. The blower tank should have the syphon just above the cone. BUTTERINE AND PROCESS BUTTER 467 Through the syphon in the melting tank the fats are drawn into the blower tank. The cnrds are allowed to remain in the bottom and are drawn ot¥ later by means of a 2-inch pipe. Through the syphon in the blower tank is drawn the finished product into the graining or crystal- lizing vat, the water being at a temperature of 40° F, The butter should be removed immediately from the crys- tallizing tank and allowed to stand long enough to thor- oughly drain ; then worked and packed in the usual man- ner. After all the fat in the form of melted oil has been run through the lower tank the bottom valve should be opened and the curd run into a '' Danish Weston " separator, which removes all the fat, and the curd is then thrown into a scrap vat, thereby avoiding the loss of any fat, MILK AND GEE AM FOR PEG CESS BUTTER. The milk and cream should be ripened as carefully as in making butterine or creamery butter, a ' ' starter ' ' being used under the same directions as given for but- terine. Milk is usually good enough for the ordinary grades. However, when something fancy is desired, or the prices permit, cream may be used to good advantage in producing a superior article. In fact this butter can be made to be indistinguishable from creamery butter. Process butter should be divided into two grades : No. 1 and .No. 2. A careful selection of stock at hand would readily determine which stock is good enough for No. 1 grade and the balance should be used in No. 2. A great deal depends upon the butter maker's judgment of the condition of the goods before blowing and after- ward, knowing when flavors are right, etc. The greatest difficulty encountered is in getting the flavor, as all the flavor comes from the milk and cream. The greatest care 468 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE must be used in their preparation. Temperature in melt- ing is also very important since a few degrees of lieat too much will fix permanently any objectionable flavor. EQUIPMENT FOR MAKING PROCESS BUTTER. The equipment consists of two tanks, the outside one of heavy galvanized iron ; the inside of No. 18 steel plate. The Danish Weston separator is considered adaptable to handling as heavy stock as is required. Wooden scoops or forks are used in lifting the crystals from the crystallizing vat, placing tubs, etc. The '^ Disbrow " churn is generally used in the working and washing of the product. The machinery and apparatus necessary for a reno- vated butter factory of a capacity of 1,000 pounds daily, as well as the cost of same, are outlined in the following table. The cost does not include the installation of these machines : COST OF EQUIPMENT FOR PROCESS BUTTER FACTORY. One No. 1 blower $ 75.00 One melting tank 75.00 One blower 75.00 One blower head 10.00 One settling tank 10.00 One crj'stallizing vat 25.00 One crystallizing scoop 5.00 Twenty tubs 35.00 One No. 4 Disbrow churn 150.00 One Danish-Weston separator 100.00 Steam and blower pipes 85.00 Total cost machinery for 1,000 lbs. daily capacity.. $ 645.00 Cost of machinery for 2,000 pounds daily capacity. .. .$1,500.00 Cost of machinery for 3,000 pounds daily capacity. . . . 2,000.00 Cost of machinery for 5,000 pounds daily capacity.... 2,500.00 MINOR PRODUCTS 469 CHAPTER XXL MINOR PRODUCTS. BEEF EXTRACT. Beef extract is a product for which there is a very general demand and large quantities are made in packing centers, especially where canning of meats is done. In the cooking and handling of meats, juices or animal salts are dissolved to a considerable extent in the water in which the meat is placed, and by evaporating this water the beef extract is obtained. It is considered a very nutritious article and recommended by many physicians for convalescing patients. METHOD OF MAKING BEEF EXTRACT FROM CAlSTlSriNG LIQUORS. Corn beef liquor should be boiled first with steam in an open vat. In boiling this, the albumen which has been dissolved from the meat and is held in suspension in the liquor is coagulated and rises to the surface. This should not be skimmed off but should be used as the fil- trant when the liquor is pumped through to filter press. After this liquor has been boiled for five hours it should be allowed to settle for about half an hour. The albumen which rises to the surface should be stirred through the water and the liquid then pumped to the evaporators and reduced to about 30 degrees Baume. When in this condi- tion it should be again boiled in an open vat, adding clear water to the amount of about one-quarter of the original 470 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE quantity of tlie liquor. The liquid is then again filtered and twelve pounds of sugar per 100 pounds of extract is added. It is again reduced in a vacuum pan and boiled down to a solid in an open kettle. The chloride of sodium or salt is taken out of the corned beef extract during the process of cooking. It drops to the bottom of the evap- orator and should be scraped off after the liquor has been taken out. EXTRACT FROM BEEF HEARTS. "Where a large sausage business is done and a consid- erable amount of beef hearts is used, it is very profitable to save the beef extract from these hearts, using the meat afterward in sausage. The method is as follows : The hearts should be first ground through an En- terprise grinder with an ]^-inch plate. The meat is put into soaking vats and covered with cold water, allow- ing same to stand from sixteen to twenty-four hours, changing the water three times. All the liquors drawn off the meat are pumped into cooking vats. Cook with open steam until the water comes to a boil; steam from twenty minutes to half an hour. At this time agitate it thoroughly, fully mixing in the coagulated albumen as this serves as the filtrant when being put through the filter press. Next, run the liquor through the filter press, evaporate in vacuum pans, and draw off and put in the finishing kettles, evaporating the contents to a solid. It should then be put in pails or kegs and allowed to stand for two weeks or more to allow the extract to work or " age." It should then be dissolved in about one-quarter the orig- inal amount of water to which is added six ounces of boracic acid, nine pounds of salt and twelve pounds of granulated sugar per 100 pounds of extract. After it is thoroughly mixed, again filter and evaporate to a solid. MINOR PRODUCTS 471 It is then ready to be put up in the packages in which it is to be offered for sale. KOAST BEEF COOK WATER AND ROAST BEEF SOAK WATER. The water in which the beef has been cooked or soaked is boiled, filtered and handled the same as beef heart liquor. Beef hearts make the best extract, the canning liquors making a less desirable article, but the different grades can be mixed according to the demands of the market and production of material. FORMULA FOR BEEF FLUID. Beef fluid is made as follows : 60 pounds No. 1 extract, 40 pounds of water, 6 ounces of boracic acid, 1 pound glycerine. Beef hearts will yield 2.41 per cent of extract; corn beef water will yield 1.65 per cent extract; roast beef cook water, 1.55 per cent extract; and roast beef soak water, 1.30 per cent extract, MACHINERY USED IIS^ MAKI^STG BEEF FLUID. The following list of machinery is used in one of the largest canning plants in the United States where the liquors are all saved for beef extract. Deductions from this can be made for the volume of business desired. Double effect evaporators for fresh liquor. Single effect evaporators for corned beef liquor. One duplex vacuum pump for evaporators. Two thirty-gallon " Wm. Dopp " extract finishing kettles. One single vacuum pump for finishing kettles, size 8 x 10 x 12 inches. One agitator 24 x 36 inches, with three paddles. Six cooking vats, capacity 800 gallons each. Two receiving vats, "capacity 600 gallons each. One soaking vat with three partitions, capacity 1,400 gallons, with heavy wire screen 12 inches from bottom. One rotary pump for use between soaking and cooking vats. One Enterprise grinder. One 36-plate filter press. One duplex pump for filter press. Ten fifty-gallon galvanized iron seeding tanks. One capping machine for jars. One capping machine for bottles. ' 472 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The room required for installation of above machinery and the proper handling of materials is about as follows : Cold storage for soaking vats, 25 x 25 feet. Cooking vats and filter press, about 35x20 feet. Evaporators, finishing kettles and receiving vats, about 50 x 40 feet. Label, packing and storage room, 30 x 25 feet. If evaporating room is high enough, cooking vats and filter press might be placed on platform to save room. PIGS FEET. Pigs feet are one of the by-products which by proper handling are converted into a very palatable diet. In pre- paring them, generally speaking, only the forward foot is used, as it is a better shaped foot to prepare than the hind foot and, besides, the hind feet are more or less dis- figured and out of condition by having the gam strings opened in order to hang the hog on the gam sticks. So that in general practice only the forward foot is used for edible purposes, the hind foot being used largely for mak- ing a low grade of glue. The method of preparing pigs feet is as follows : The feet are first scalded, after which the hoofs are removed and the feet are shaved and cleaned. After this process they should be put into a plain salt pickle, 90- degree strong by salometer test, and to this pickle should be added six ounces of saltpetre to each 100 pounds of feet. The feet should be left in this curing pickle for from six to eight days, or until they show a bright red appearance when cooked. If this red appearance does not extend clear through the feet after being cooked, it shows that they are not fully cured. They should not be left in the pickle longer than necessary to fully cure them for when they are too heavily salted before cooking it has the effect of making them break up in the cooking water. MINOR PRODUCTS 473 474 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE After the feet are properly cured in the salt pickle they should be cooked in a wooden vat (an iron vat discoloring them) which is provided with a false bottom about 6 inches above the bottom, so that the direct heat from the steam pipe does not come in contact with the feet. The water should be brought to a temperature of 200° to 206° F. and held at this temperature until the feet are suffi- ciently cooked. The water should never be brought to the boiling point, as the feet will become badly broken, which greatly injures their appearance. After they are cooked they should be split through the center, a machine for this purpose being illustrated in Fig. 159. It was formerly the practice to split the feet by hand with a knife (Fig. 160). In doing it in this manner, however, FIG. 100.— HAND PIGS FOOT SPLITTER. the knee joint was invariably lost as it was impossible to split it. By means of the splitting device shown in Fig. 159 the last knuckle is readily split, and consequently the yield of finished pigs feet is greatly increased. After the feet are sufficiently cooked and thoroughly chilled in cold water, they should be put into a white wine vinegar pickle 45-degree strong, it being preferable to pack feet which are to be used at once in open vats in a refrigerated room held at a temperature of 38° to 40° F. Where feet are to be held for some months before using it is advisable to put them into barrels or tierces after filling the tierces with vinegar of 45-degree strength. The packages should be stored in a temperature 45° to 50° F. MINOR PRODUCTS 475 When held this way it will be found that the feet have absorbed a great deal of the vinegar and a very marked increase in weight is obtained. There should be a gain of from 10 to 15 per cent in weight at the end of three months. The following tests show costs, in detail, of pigs feet put up in different sized packages, costs being figured at the regular Chicago market prices at the time these tests were made : TEST ON 483 PIECES OR 500 POUNDS PIGS FORE FEET. Debit: Cost of 500 pounds pigs fore feet at l%c per pound.. $ 5.63 Shaving, hand and machine, 32c per 100 pieces 1.55 Pulling toes, 5c per 100 pieces 24 Counting, pickling and cooiiing 20 Splitting, 2c per 100 pounds 10 Miscellaneous labor 10 Fifty-five pounds salt at %:C per pound 14 Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound 10 Administrative expense at 47c per 100 pounds on 300 pounds produced 1.41 Total $ 9.47 Credit: Pigs feet oil, 18 pounds at $5.60 per cwt $ 1.00 Pigs feet bones, 58 pounds at %c per pound .43 Pigs feet trimmings, 13 pounds at l^/ic per pound.... .13 Total $ 1.56 Total net cost of 300 pounds of prepared feet $ 7.91 Cost per pound, including administrative expense, $0,026. Green weight, 500 pounds; cleaned weight, 450 pounds; split weight, 300 pounds. \ COST OF FIVE BARRELS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET PER BARREL. 950 pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $24.70 Five barrels at nV2C each 3.88 Packing, one and one-third hours at llVzC per hour 23 Pickle, sixty gallons at 2%c per gallon 1.50 Coopering, one-half hour at 25c per hour 13 Spices, 2c each 10 Miscellaneous labor 09 Total $30.63 Cost of one barrel, $6.13. 476 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE COST OF FIVE HALF-BARRELS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT SEVENTY-THREE POUNDS NET PER HALF-BARREL. 365 pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $ 9.49 Five half-baiTels at 35c each 1.75 Packing, one-half hour at 17 %c per hour 09 Pickle, twenty-five gallons at 2%c per gallon 62 Coopering, one-quarter hour at 25c per hour 06 Spices, 2c each 10 Miscellaneous labor 04 Total $12.15 Cost of one half-barrel, $2.43. COST OF FIVE QUARTER-BARRELS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT THIRTY-SIX POUNDS NET PER QUARTER-BARREL. 180 pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $ 4.68 Five quarter-barrels at 20c each 1.00 Pickle, ten gallons at 2%c per gallon 25 Coopering, eight minutes at 25c per hour 04 Labor, packing 03 Spices, 2c each 10 Miscellaneous labor 04 Total $ 6.14 Cost of quarter-barrel, $1.23. COST OF FIVE EIGHTH-BARRELS PICS FORE FEET PACKED AT EIGHTEEN POUNDS NET PER EIGHTH-BARREL. 90 pounds feet at 2.6c per pound $ 2.34 Five eighth-barrels at 18c each 90 Packing, one-sixth hour at 17%c per hour 03 Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c per gallon 19 Spices, 2c each 10 Coopering, seven minutes at 25c per hour 03 Miscellaneous labor 04 Total $ 3.63 Cost of one eighth-barrel, $0.73. COST OF FIVE KITS PIGS FORE FEET PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET PER KIT. Seventy pounds pigs feet at 2.6c per pound $ 1.82 Five kits at 14c each 70 Packing, one-sixth hour at 17i^c per hour 03 Pickle, five gallons at ly^Q. per gallon 13 Spices at 2c each 10 Coopering, seven minutes at 25c per hour 03 Miscellaneous labor 04 Total $ 2.85 Cost per kit, $0.57. Prepared pigs feet at certain seasons of the year are a drug on the market and there are times when it is MINOR PRODUCTS 477 found to pay better to tank them or use them for glue pur- poses. The following tests on rough uncleaned fore and hind feet will show the yield when tanked. Percentages in tests are correct. The prices are those ruling at the time tests were made : TEST ON TANKED PIGS FEET, Total weight of front feet tanked 1,070 pounds cooked in' tank five hours at forty pounds pressure: Sixty pounds hock meat, 5.81 per cent, at 3c per pound.. .$ 1.80 Prime steam lard, 138 pounds, 12.90 per cent, at $9.35 per cwt 12.90 Tankage (dry basis), 125 pounds, 11.68 per cent, at $17.50 per ton 1.09 Total $15.79 Gross value, $1.47 per cwt. Weight hind feet to tank, 996 pounds, cooked in test tank five hours, with forty pounds pressure: Prime steam lard, 163 pounds, 16.37 per cent, at $9.35 per cwt $15.24 Tankage (dry basis), 13.76 per cent, at $17.50 per ton.. . . 1.19 Total $16.43 Gross value, $1.62 per cwt. PIG TONGUES. Various uses are made of this piece of meat. They are very extensively used in canning factories where they are put up and known as " lunch tongue "; they are also used in different kinds of sausage, and are put up to quite an extent in vinegar pickle. When handled in the latter manner the following suggestions will be found of practi- cal value. The tongues after being trimmed should be cured in a 75-degree plain salt pickle using three ounces of salt- petre to 100 pounds of tongue. After the tongues are fully cured, which will require from eight to twelve days, they are scalded, the outer surface of the tongue being scraped off. In some instances the scalding is done be- 478 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE fore the tongues are put in the pickle. Either way is proper. After being scraped and cleaned they are cooked as desired and afterward pickled in a white wine vinegar pickle of 45-degree strength. The following tests will show the cost of tongues packed in different sized pack- ages, the cost being determined by the cost of meat and supplies at the time tests were made: TEST ON 1,000 PIECES, OR 910 POUNDS PIG TONGUES. Debit: 910 pounds pig tongues at 6i/4c per pound $56.88 Scraping, at 15c per 100 pieces 1.50 Counting, cooking, etc., three hours at 18c per hour 54 Trimming at 5c per 100 pieces. 50 Miscellaneous labor 20 Administrative expense, 47c per 100 on 560 pounds pro- duced 2.63 Total $62.25 Credit: Green weight, 910 pounds; cooked weight, 560 pounds; shrinkage, 38 per cent. Trimming 112 pounds at l^/^c 1.68 Net cost $60.57 Cost per pound, 10 4/5c; cost handling per cwt., including administrative expense, $0,665 per 100 pounds finished. COST OF ONE BARREL PIG TONGUES PACKED AT 190 POUNDS NET. 190 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $20.52 One barrel 78 Packing, one-half hour at 17%c per hour 09 Pickle, ten gallons at 2i^c per gallon 25 Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour .04 Spices, 2c 02 Miscellaneous labor 03 Total cost per barrel $21.73 COST OF TWO ONE-HALF BARRELS PIG TONGUES PACKED SEVENTY-THREE POUNDS NET PER ONE-HALF BARRREL. 146 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $15.76 Two one-half barrels at 35c each 70 Packing, twenty-five minutes at 17i/^c per hour 08 Ten gallons pickle at 2i^c per gallon 25 Spices, 2c each 04 Coopering, one-twelfth hour at 25c per hour 02 Miscellaneous labor 02 Total $16.87 Cost per half-barrel, $8.44. MINOR PRODUCTS 479 COST OF THREE ONE-FOURTH BARRELS PIG TONGUES PACKED AT THU^TY- SIX POUNDS NET. 108 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $11.66 Three one-fourth barrels at 20c each GO Packing, twenty-two minutes at 17%c per hour 06 Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2i/^c per gallon 19 Spices, 2c each 06 Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour 04 Miscellaneous labor .01 Total $12.62 Cost per one-fourth barrel, $4.20. COST OF FIVE ONE-EIGHTH BARRELS PIG TONGUES PACKED EIGHTEEN POUNDS NET. Ninety pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $ 9.72 Five one-eighth barrels at 18c each 90 Packing, one-half hour at 17%c per hour 09 Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c per gallon .19 Spices at 2c each 10 Coopering, one-sixth hour at 25c per hour 04 Miscellaneous labor 03 Total $11.07 Cost of one one-eighth barrel, $2.21. COST OP FIFTEEN KITS PIG TONGUES PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET. 210 pounds pig tongues at 10 4/5c per pound $22.68 Fifteen kits at 14c each 2.10 Packing, three-fourths hour at 17%c per hour 13 Pickle, fifteen gallons at 2i/^c per gallon 38 Spices at 2c each 30 Coopering, one-third hour at 25c per hour 08 Miscellaneous labor 09 Total $25.76 Cost of one kit, $1.72. \ FOEMULA FOE EXPOET PIG TONGUE PICKLE. There is at times quite a demand for fresh pig tongues in Liverpool and other foreign points, in which case the trade demands that they arrive there without being salt- cured. The following formula will be found very valu- able for this purpose and also point out how to carry tongues without salting them, when it is desired to do so : Use 1.16 pounds of boracic acid, fifty-eight pounds of 480 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE borax, twenty-nine pounds of fine salt and seven and one- quarter pounds of saltpetre. The method of mixing is as follows : The boracic acid and borax is put into a vat containing sixty gallons of water. • The vat should be connected with steam supply so that it can be brought to the boiling point, cooking same slowly and stirring it well for half an hour. The salt and saltpetre is then added and should be stirred until thoroughly dissolved. x\fter the solution has been allowed to cool, add sufficient cold water to give it a strength of 21 degrees by salometer test. Chill the solu- tion to a temperature of 38° F. The tongues should be trimmed and thoroughly chilled, it being essential that they are in perfect condition. They should then be packed in a tierce, after which the tierce is filled with the pre- servative. Tongues should be shipped in refrigerator cars where the temperature is not allowed to go above 38° F. PIG SNOUTS. These consist of the snout of the hog together with the upper lips and front part of the nose. During prep- aration they are handled very much in the same manner as pigs feet. They are first shaved and cleaned, after- ward scalded, removing the outer skin or membrane of the nose. Then they are cured, using a 90-degree plain salt pickle and adding thereto three ounces of saltpetre to 100 pounds of snouts. After they are fully cured, which will require from five to eight days, they should be cooked in a wooden vat to the desired degree of ten- derness, after which they are chilled in cold water and loickled in white wine vinegar of 45-degree strength. The following tests show the cost of preparing pig snouts in different sized packages. MINOR PRODUCTS 481 TEST ON 1,060 PIECES, OR 1,000 POUNDS PIG SNOUTS. Debit: Cost of 1,000 pounds pig snouts at 2%c per pound $25.00 Shaving at 40c per 100 pieces 4.24 Labor, truclving, cooking, inspecting, pickling, etc 1.10 100 pounds salt at i/4c per pound 25 Two pounds saltpetre at 5c per pound 10 Administrative expenses, 47c per 100 pounds on 610 pounds production 2.87 Total 133.56 Credit: Trimmings, 90 pounds at 2c per pound 1.80 Net cost $31.76 Cost per pound, 5 l/5c; cost of handling, administrative expense, 85 6/lOc per cwt. Green weight, 1,000 pounds; cleaned weight, 900 pounds; cooked weight, 610 pounds. COST OF FIVE ONE-HALF BARRELS PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT SEVENTY-THREE POUNDS NET PER ONE-HALF BARREL. 365 pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $18.98 Five half barrels at 35c each 1.75 Packing, one-half hour at 17%c per hour 09 Pickle, twenty-five gallons at 2%c per gallon 62 Spices at 2c each 10 Coopering, one-fourth hour at 25c per hour 07 Miscellaneous labor 04 Total $21.65 Cost per one-half barrel, $4.33. COST OF TEN ONE-FOURTH BARRELS PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT THIRTY-SIX POUNDS NET PER ONE-FOURTH BARREL. 360 pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $18.72 Ten one-fourth barrels at 20c each 2.00 Packing, one hour at 17%c per hoitr 17 Pickle twenty gallons at 2i/^c per gallon 50 Spices, 2c each 20 Coopering, one-third hour at 25c per hour 08 Miscellaneous labor 09 Total $21.76 Cost per one-fourth barrel, $2.18. COST OF FIVE ONE-EIGHTH BARRELS PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT EIGHTEEN POUNDS NET. Ninety pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $ 4.68 Five one-eighth barrels at 18c each 90 Packing, one-third hour at 17 %c per hour 06 Spices, 2c each 10 Coopering, one-fourth hour at 25c per hour 06 Miscellaneous labor 04 Pickle, seven and one-half gallons at 2%c per gallon 19 Total $ 6.03 Cost per one-eighth barrel, $1.21. ' 482 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE COST OF FIVE KITS OF PIG SNOUTS PACKED AT FOURTEEN POUNDS NET. Seventy pounds pig snouts at 5 l/5c per pound $ 3.64 Five kits at 14c each 70 Paclving, one-fourth hour at 17i/^c per hour 04 Piclile, five gallons at 2i^c per gallon 13 Spices, 2c each 10 Coopering 03 Miscellaneous labor 03 Total ? 4.67 Cost per kit, $0.93. TEST ON PIG SNOUTS IN TANK. 475 pounds pig snouts, cooked three hours at forty pounds pressure: Prime steam lard, 120 pounds, or 44 per cent at $0.1065 per pound $12.89 Tankage, forty-four pounds, or .09 per cent, at $19.00 per ton 42 Total $13.31 Value per cwt., green, $2.75. HOG HAIR AND BEISTLES. The introduction of the Poland China and Berkshire strains of blood has practically done away with the bris- tle business in this country, as these breeds of hogs have very few bristles on them and the hair is very much shorter than on the hogs not so finely bred, and in many of the large packing centers the saving of bristles has been abandoned as it was found they could not save them in competition with foreign markets. The Russians and Chinese furnish a large percentage of the markets of the world with bristles and at this time the best bristles are obtained from these two nations. Their hogs seem to be more on the wild boar order and are more heavily cov- ered with hair, which makes verj^ much better bristles than any that are obtained in this country. The bristles are used largely for brush work — all kinds of paint brushes, clothes brushes, etc. The usual method of fitting hogs hair for the market is either to sun-dry it, curing the hair outdoors, or cooking MINOR PRODUCTS 483 it in large vats and drying it mechanically. As the hair is scraped from the hog there is a great deal of scurf or outer skin of the hog left on the hair. This must be re- moved in order to make the hair merchantable. The method usually practiced is to spread the hair out on the ground as produced and when the hot weather ap- proaches, the hair is raked and turned daily. The scurf dries from the heat of the sun and, because of the con- stant handling, falls off the hair. When the scurf is thus removed the hair is raked up and baled and is then ready for sale to mattress manufacturers, etc. It takes from two to three months for the hair to become cured in the sun-drying process. A method that is used in some of the larger packing centers is to cook the hair in large vats, when the scurf will fall off from the hair and settle to the bottom of the vat. The hair is then removed from the vats and run through large wringers and dried in dry rooms artificial- ly heated. While this iS' a very much quicker way of handling than sun-drying in the field it is also more ex- pensive. 484 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER XXII. FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN, COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZER. This is a by-product which was entirely lost before the advent of the modern packing house, and it becomes valuable only when handled in large quantities as it is possible to do where there is a concentration of slaugh- tering. A small packer killing only a few cattle could not atTord to save the material required for this product, as in a small way the cost of production would be more than the value of the finished product, but where it is pro- duced on a large scale it forms a department of consid- erable commercial value. The product from the j^acking house is only a part of the finished fertilizer. A com- plete fertilizer consists of food for plant life, and gen- erally speaking there are three primary elements neces- sary to make a complete fertilizer, as follows : 1. Ammonia or nitrogen. 2. Phospliate of bone, containing about 50 per cent free pliosphoric acid. 3. Sulphate or muriate of potash, sulphate being the best. These ingredients mixed with pure sand and water will stimulate the growth of vegetation and as the sand has not the elements that will sustain plant life the test shows conclusively that the added fertilizer supplies the necessary food. To get the best results it is essential to know the requirements of the land and the crops to be grown. A rich land has all the elements to a greater or FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 485 lesser degree, while a poor land lacks some or nearly all, and some land will have all the elements but one. The nse of any of the three primary elements on land will enrich it, for water, atmosphere and sunshine assist in supplying the other elements, and for this reason a land continually worked while the crop is growing gives better results. It has been demonstrated that some crops require richer soil than others, for example potatoes, onions and root crops need a richer solution, as they ex- haust the strength of the land rapidly, while grain and especially clover do not. Clover and some other plants draw nitrogen from the air in excess of their needs and thus actually fertilize the earth in which they grow. Again some plants require proportionately more of one of the elements; for instance, tobacco and oranges need an ex- cess of potash, while grain needs the phosphates, and cotton the ammonia. One way to determine what a plant requires is to burn it and analyze the ash, which will give the proportion of elements. While there is no fixed rule to go by in the use of fer- tilizers, as the man}^ different soils, climates, mixtures of fertilizers, etc., make conditions which must be judged by themselves, yet few soils are so rich but that the addi- tion of a fertilizer proves a benefit, increasing the yield with the same labor. The principal articles made in a poaching house that are afterwards used in producing finished fertilizers are as follows : First, blood and concentrated tankage, which are used as ammoniates. Second, ordinary tankage, being the residue from cooking and pressing the finished products. Third, bone meal or ground steam bone, comprising the bone phosphates. 486 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 487 To these are also added muriate or sulphate of potash. The above constitutes the basis of manufactured fer- tilizers. Guano and fish from canneries are other am- moniate producers. Shells and phosphate rock found in the United States, largely in the southern part, also make phosphates, the latter product being used very extensive- ly in the manufacture of fertilizer. It is only within a comparatively few years that this product was discov- ered and rock is found in the southern states today which analyzes as high as 64 per cent pure bone phosphate, the phosphate in the condition found being insoluble ; it has to be treated with sulphuric acid which makes the bone phosphate in this rock soluble, so that the plant can ab- sorb it. It is generally treated in the proportion of sixty pounds of acid to 100 pounds of rock, the mixture being allowed to stand for five or six months to allow the acid to thoroughly disintegrate it. While bone meal and steam bone are slowly soluble to the plant without acid, with the use of acid they become quickly soluble, so that the plant would exhaust the strength of the mixture in one season. The ordinary bone meal lasts about three seasons in soil. The market fertilizers contain, according to require- ments for different plants for which they are used, from 2 to 8 per cent of ammonia, from 6 to 10 per cent of bone phosphate and from 4 to 10 per cent potash, the balance being a filler, so that when a market product is mixed, about these percentages of plant food are used, with enough cheap ingredients, such as ashes or dirt, to make the required weight and bulk. TANKAGE FOE FERTILIZEK. As fast as the tankage comes from the press, the treat- ment of which was described under the head of '' Tank 488 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 489 House," it is ready for the fertilizer department, where it is put into the form of a field fertilizer, which is done by putting it through a dryer and evaporating the moist- ure. Diagrams of plan of fertilizer room, located con- venient to tank house, showing also location of conveyors for handling material to dryers and section of conveying Z2-J 21-8 FIG. 163.— CROSS SECTION THROUGH FERTILIZER ROOM. and drying apparatus are shown in Figs. 161, 162 and 163. Tankage coming from the press is from 50 to 60 per cent moistur^. The device for extracting this moisture most commonly used is a steam dryer with an agitator in the bottom. The tankage should first go through a picker, or 490 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE some device for breaking up the cakes as it comes from the press, after which it is ready for the dryer. After being dried it is ready for the market and is either sold as ground or unground tankage. When ground it is put through a disintegrator with a system of screens, etc., which thoroughly break up all the particles, reducing it to the proper degree of fineness. The largest proportion of the packing house fertilizer business is with the ^' mixers," or the people who manu- facture the finished fertilizer for the consumer. They buy the raw material and mix it, selling it to the trade direct, although some of the large packing houses today are in the '' finished " fertilizer business. Nearly all the fertilizer product produced by packing houses is sold on a basis of so much per unit of ammonia and so much per unit of bone phosphate. The price of a ton of blood for instance that will analyze 17 per cent, if the price per unit was $2.00, would be $2x17 or $34.00 per ton. Packing house fertilizer should analyze about as follows : ANALYSIS OF FERTILIZER. Blood, 16 per cent to 17 per cent ammonia, 10 per cent moisture. Concentrated tankage, 15 per cent to 16 per cent ammonia, 2 per cent to 3 per cent moisture. No. 1 tankage, 9 to 10 per cent ammonia, 10 to 14 per cent bone pliosphate, 12 to 15 per cent grease, 10 per cent moisture. No. 2 tankage, which is made largely from bones, as will be noted by the percentage of bone phosphate, is better kept separate, as it is a disadvantage to have a No. 1 tankage that runs extremely high in bone phosphate. It analyzes as follows: 4 to 8 per cent ammonia, 25 to 40 per cent bone phosphate, 7 to 10 per cent grease, 10 per cent moisture. Raw bone meal, 3 to 5 per cent ammonia, 55 per cent bone phosphate. Hoof Meal: It is oftentimes found advantageous to grind cattle hoofs, selling them on their ammonia basis. When they are thus handled they will average from 12 to 13 per cent of ammonia. Average weight of dry blood per bullock, about eight pounds. Average weight of dry tankage per bullock, about ten pounds. FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 491 METHOD OF TEEATING BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. In the handling of this product all foreign matter should be kept from it, such as water, manure, refuse, etc. If water is allowed to get into the blood it must be taken out when the blood is cooked, and then it carries away with it a large amount of ammonia, consequently in order to get the best results the blood should be kept free from all foreign substances. As fast as the animals are bled the blood should be run into large vats or recep- tacles where it can be held until a sufficient amount is ob- tained for cooking. It should then be pumped or drawn into the cooking tank. Any ordinary tank or vat may be used for this purpose. After the blood is in the receptacle live steam is turned on and the material allowed to cook until it is thoroughly heated. As soon as the steam be- gins to show through the blood fully it is cooked, the ob- ject in cooking being simply to congeal or thoroughly coagulate. Over-cooked blood is very hard to press and dry, causing waste of ammonia. The blood after being cooked should be drawn into a vat, allowing all the water to drain off. It is then put into a hydraulic press, the cakes being built very thick — from 8 to 10 inches. These are then pressed lightly, thereby extracting all the moisture possible without compressing them too hard. If blood is pressed too hard it is difficult to dry, as it will come through the dryer i in small globular balls, which if broken open and examined will be found to contain considerable moisture, but if pressed in large cakes, and lightly, the blood readily granulates. After the blood is dried it is ready for market. It is then known as " unground blood." If purchasers wish it ground it is simply put through the mill and screen and furnished as desired. The following test shows the value and yield of blood from different animals : 492 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE VALUE AND YIELD FROM BEEF BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. Yield from 100 head cattle av. lbs. per head 1,063 Weight raw blood, lbs 3,250 av. lbs. per head 32.50 Weight cooked pressed blood, 1,718 av. lbs. per head 17.18 Weight dried blood, lbs 747 av. lbs. per head 7.47 The value of seven and one-half pounds of blood per head, based on 17 per cent ammonia at $2.00 per unit of ammonia worth $34.00 per ton is as follows: 71/^ pounds blood $0.1275 Less expense for handling 0.0261 Net value per head $0.1014 VALUE AND YIELD HOG BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. 6,710 pounds raw blood from 950 hogs; live weight, 211,850; aver- age weight, 223 pounds. 950 hogs yield 6,710 pounds raw blood. 6,710 pounds raw blood yields 1,243 pounds commercial blood, 18.52 per cent. 1,243 pounds commercial blood, 17.47 per cent ammonia, at $2.00 per unit $21.65 Labor and general expenses 3.34 Net value Basis, ton raw wt.: Basis, 100 hogs: Yield lbs. blood to 100 Yield, 130.8 lbs. lbs. live wt: Yield $6.45 com. blood. . .$2,279 Green 3.17 Expense 99 Expenses 351 Commercial 59 Net value $5.46 Net value ...$1,928 VALUE AND YIELD SHEEP BLOOD FOR FERTILIZER. 886 pounds raw blood from 2,150 sheep; live weight, 19,708 pounds; average weight, 92 pounds. Yield: Commercial blood, 23.41 per cent, 207.5 \ pounds at $34.24 per ton I $3,552 Yield: Ammonia, 17.12 per cent, $2.00 per unit. ) Labor and general expenses 558 Total net value $2,994 Basis, one ton, raw wt.: Basis, 100 sheep: Yield $8,018 Yield, 96.51 lbs. com. blood . $1,652 Expense 1.259 Expenses 259 Net value $6,759 Net value $1,393 Yield blood, 100 pounds live weight: Green blood 4.49 pounds Commercial blood 1.05 pounds PRODUCTION OF ALBUMEX FROM BEEF BLOOD. This is a product, which at times is very profitable to produce, while at other times, owing to a cheap article FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 493 which is imported from Europe, there is little or no profit in it. Albumen is used very extensively in gingham mills for the purpose of setting the colors permanently in the goods. Its manufacture is a very simple process, but as there is only a limited demand for it, it is not very gener- ally manufactured. The process is as follows : The beef blood is caught from the animal in round pans as soon as the creature is stuck. If the cattle are hung up while being bled, the pan should be held close to the neck of the animal so that the blood will have as little fall or disturbance as possible. The blood from each ani- mal should be collected in a separate pan, it being un- wise to put the blood of different cattle in the same pans for settling. The pan of blood should then be carried as carefully as possible so that no agitation takes place, to some out-door jjoint and there allowed to congeal for an hour. At the end of this time it will be found in a clotted or rubbery condition, and should then be cut up into cubes about one inch square, the blood in the pan being at this time about 2 to 3 inches deep. After it is thus cut up it is dropped into a galvanized iron box about 2 feet square with a sieve (Vo-inch me^h) bottom, so as to hold the clotted blood but allow the serum to drip from it into the pan below. The first drain of the blood is of a reddish color and is used for a No. 3 or '' sugar house '' albumen. The last draining is a light colored serum which follows, and this is what constitutes the No. 1 albumen (style of i3ans and device for draining the serum are shown in Fig. 164). As soon as the lighter colored serum begins to show the pan should be placed in the receiving dish and allowed to drain until the serum ceases to drip from the blood. What is left of the blood is then removed and used for fertilizing purposes. 494 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The serum thus collected is allowed to settle in the pan for a period of from twelve to fourteen hours. By this time it is thoroughly settled and ready to be drained off which is done by means of a glass tube passing through a close fitting cork. J^j this method the serum can be drained close to the settlings, the serum being on top of the sediment or settlings. The pan should be set on a sloping rack. In its lowest corner there should be an opening with the small neck downward and tightly corked as shown in Fig. 164:. Through this cork is run a small glass tube about Vi-inch in diameter and 4 to 5 inches long. The tube when not in use extends upward through the serum; as soon as the serum is fully settled Gd >© 34X 24 X 4 ' g/ilv/\niz£:d iron pan ^t j, CORK. ^ S GLASS TUBE. FIG. 164.— SETTLING PAN FOR DRAINING SERUM FROM BLOOD. this glass tube is pulled carefully down through the cork until its top is submerged, when the serum readily drains off. The pans must be set rigidly on the racks and not agitated in any manner whatever, as the slightest move- ment of the pans would soon mix the serum and sedi- ments. The draining of the serum is the most particular part of the work in the production of beef albumen. Care should be taken to see that no settlings are drawn off with the serum. The room where the serum is drained from the blood should be kept at a temperature of 45° to 50° F. When the serum has been thus drained it is ready for drying. This is done by putting it in jelly plates, these being generally made of earthenware, the bottom FERTILIZER AND BLOOD ALBUMEN 495 496 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE of tlie plate being thinly covered, not to exceed %-incli. The pan should be in a perfectly level support, so the serum can dry evenly. When dried the product will be in the form of thin flakes of light amber color. The pans should be greased with lard oil before using to prevent the albumen from sticking to them. The plates when filled are put into a dry room where there is an artificial circulation of air with a temperature of from 100° to 120° F. When it is thoroughly dried, the plates are tak- en out and the albumen is scraped off the bottom with a small hand scraper. It is then in a suitable condition for market. The first draining or dark albumen of the blood is collected and dried in the same manner as the light albu- men above described. The average production of No. 1 albumen, per bullock, is about one-half pound per head, and of the dark or sugar house albumen about one pound per head. Cows and Texas cattle make the best albumen. The cost of producing albumen does not exceed five cents per pound for all expenses. As so little of value is taken from the blood the raw material is not worth figuring. In Fig. 165 is presented a detail of a home-made blood pump. In ordinary packing house practice much diffi- culty is encountered trying to pump blood and meat ref- use from bone house, etc., where there is a great deal of sediment and coarse stuff liable to get in and do dam- age to the valves of an ordinary pump. In this illustra- tion is shown a pump consisting of check valves and fit- tings, with the exception of stuffing box, and plunger on which there is some machine work necessary, details being shown. For anyone in need of a device of this kind it will be found to be very economical as well as effective. BOXES AND COOPERAGE 497 CHAPTER XXIII. BOXES AND COOPERAGE. SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOXES. Of the many supplies needed about a packing liouse^ one of the most important is boxes into which the fin- ished products are packed ready for shipment. Where they are used in such large numbers, it is very essential to have a box suitable for the products which will be packed into it without waste of room, sufficiently strong to withstand handling in transit and at the same time of minimum weight on account of freight charges. The kind of lumber used for packing boxes varies in different localities. Cotton wood is the best and wherever available, should be used. The packing house industry has created a very important putlet for this otherwise almost worthless wood. It has no natural flavor and is very desirable for lard, butterine boxes, etc. It is used for making the small-sized packages into which lard is drawn direct instead of using pails or ^ tubs. Boxes for these purposes are usually dovetailed and have a sliding cover. Where cotton wood is not available white pine is used, although in this case it is necessary to use thicker lumber, which as a consequence makes the boxes heavier. The following list gives the kind of boxes, inside measurements, thickness of lumber in the sides, top, bot- tom, ends and cleats, where necessary. The figures are applicable to cotton wood only : 498 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE y, k- 1 O O 1 W P^ o o o X o ■<:-:::::::::::::::::::::::::: g=« :q H PQhW cococo(McococococococoropOfO{MiMcoc^ s:[Bai;o (0 mpiAV X«|>-X^HXXXXt«i>iO'Nh ^.T-H (M (TO C O t- CX) S CJ(N(M l=ot-|QoH«Hoot'|wH«t~l«>'>!«H'-«t-i«i— ( tH t-ioot'lxiwIxifsIoot-laoH'oH^oH^H^iftlooinixinjoo mol:^oq puB dox sapig eo!COC:^XMlQ0CC|a0M|a0W|Q0CClXKl0OMlcOMl00M|00CCl00T-H T-H ».OlX(?D|XiW]XO;l00C^00M]00m|xmlX«|QOWla0M|XM|0O s i q^^daa q^PIAV iclx t-|xHxHao ccH "Ut-lx rHlxHxmMH|«i>lx H^H-* mH q;3u8T tH|X iH|-* COItP H]Ti< T-HJiM MIXHX r-flTl |>]x iHI"* rHlfl |^|ao rH|fa rHllN ,H]xff rtl^* r-t\'>1 ^\tH rH]'* Ml» WJ-t rHi-* § _ ::::::: g :::::::::::: : . . . IB ■ Cl ' (M • ^ W O O 02 ■^~ " ^ " '■ ^^:s TS fl fl CO § q-'''' lis........... .2....°? ?rii^ 0) >...... >>a:i C.... O"-"----^' QQQ. .......... O " " "■ G OOO i -2 g g cans ox tongues . . . cans lunch tongues cans roast beef . . . cans " " ^ cans English brawn cans chipped beef . cans Vienna sausag( cans " " cans veal loaf .... cans " " .... cans chipped beef, cans roast beef . . . cans chipped beef, cans roast beef . . . 3. cans chipped beef cans chipped beef, cans chipped beef, cans chipped beef, cans tall roast beef cans flat roast beef cans flat roast beef cans lunch tongue, cans lunch tongue . cans boneless ham . cans boneless ham cans boneless ham rt^MCO (M T-H C^ IC iH[Nr-H rH»N^ ^ (>1 C^l C^l ,-1 C^J Ol ^ C^l C<1 c!^ 4h i-H -ItHMH-f T)^OOG0-*CO-f^-t^-t^-i^-t-*-^^l^.^^-Tt1(M■rt^Tt^'*(^^00■-HaD-+-t 500 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE as O X O M O- " " " - - s:jB9iD JO ^W^^A\. iM X "3 o ill c £ c H spug LCloo »n|oo t^^^o >o^ t-lcc t^|oo t-Ioo iuo;:}oq puB dox M^3D«|XMlOO«|« «100 C^OO COlOO sapig MlOOW|»CC^CC!aOMlOOMlQO CCiOO c q^dsa CO lO 00 "* t^ 00 (M 1—1 mPIAV O 03 O (M T-M r-< CM q^Suaq t^ »0 l> !>• 00 o Oi CO CO -* Tti IT) CO en 03 o 1 '^ ^ 1 H-*H|^»c| ^ 1 (N (M lO lO 1>(M »0 »0 .-H CO CO CO CO t^ | ^ rH r-H T-H 1— 1 1— 1 ^^^^^^ 1 HMmIx 1 00 00 C3 oi CO 00 t^ CO CO CO CD CO o CO 1 ^ ^ ,-H rH 05 T-H ,- (M --H (M T-H (N (M f; . . 1 G -Q o- - - =« =a -§ ^ s o^ - ^ to „ s 'V c CO Oj ~- - - - TO ., Oh QJ TO 'T3 •n Ch To TO «. - - . TO • - Z c; Oi- - - - o_. O a .S .S'S- """ fi ^ ^ ^ CD 9 >^ (M 2 o2 :; ^ fl &: O ^ O HQ H TO +^-1^-1.^ -f^ tH a; a OJ :3 a> a a; bJD ^ 03 Isp.s; 3 fciC =i .'-' ae hOh ■ • • ■ -Ph 4- 4^ . sausage . sausage . sausage . sausage . sausage -lb. boxes . boneless . boneless TO 03 oS TO 0 lO lO lO ICO 05 CO Lo CO t^ 1— 1 (M T-H c^ IM rH 1 BOXES AND COOPERAGE 501 1 1 b a> Box Crat o (M s;b3pjom:>PI,W y. iO^^0 ■ • q; 73 2 u S 2.S spu3 mix wlx ic|x LOlx injx mho ic[x iftlx tn|x icjx uio:(;oq puB dox «!<»««) Mix «^X«pLCClX«lXMlXMlX«|X J3 ■" S3P!S CCIXM^CC^ CdXWiOOCOlODniQOMIOOMlXWlX _^ s qadaa C-lCOrt OOcOOOC-lOlO: - £ T-H T-H S-? H-^H-* '-'^^ th|nH« mPIAV t^ O O (MOOiOaxMOO 1— It— li— 1 .— Ii-Ht— 1 1— li— (,— 1 S.s .'H CCH 0^,11 H|N,-t-J CO «D O 1>. »0 OJ lO (N O O (M'-l'-l (M(MT-H,-HrtiM^ ■ • ■Of-' ^^ +^ -t2 ■+J mO (D JH cc tc Ti ^ OJ a; •s =^ TJ-C " a 'S 'cS .s ° •S s « s OJ Oi ^5 o --^ o o ^ CS !E 03 03 ^ "§s !/3 ;/3 f rt &-S c c ■ • 0) a; ^ OJ CD e tailed 1-in. op in. open piece s i-in. op J-in. op > " OJ ~S 1^ I' ^ o c*^ d c c Q O COC »5 o o o aj CCS bn S o3 o3 =*-r § § fi-^ c c c 5 53 bX) M S M O O g P bX) biD bJD O O O t- O O Cn. Cj 3 mme nsB ns B ans ledh sage ogna an B an B an B c5 o o . 2 =^1^ . . . cc jo jo Ti • • • -r T' -r 00 1b 2 1-1 6 1-1 6 10- lbs lbs 5 lbs 1 50- 2 20- 1 20- >— 1 i-H IC CO (N o; |..... g.... O « COi-l' Ml-t (Tilt fOt-t MH COl-1' 1-H 1-H T-H 1-H 1— t 1— H • ■ '~< xx;>ixt^x • ■ '"^ ^ i-kHxtHw-txt-txHx • • O M|-Hm|«10|XM|T!.rthl' oroooo;cocor^i>oococo T-H r^ ,-1 rH r-l ^ mix r-h* rHh* t-tX ^H^^> HN rt^K^irH rt]., ri|^ ^j^ C (M lO 05 (M (M C5 CO lO (M iM I— IrHi— IrHrHi— 1 rHi-H,— 1,— 1 o t-^»H*^mlxi-|xtHifi "irH-^brin^xH"* iOOO(MCR(MCOCOOO(NOOO (M r-l (M ^ T-H C^J rt rH (M ,-H CO ;>^ « s w O- - - - - g -+J ~- ~- ~- ■- "- "o^ ^ ^ -, ^ w _Q - - - - - K ■« Q a^ -. ^ - -, M c- - - - - <; H^ « -73:: :::::: - 0. o3- - a,:: :::::: - 02 ^ C3 - -H 73 .i: ti "^ (M ^ -V OJ ., "M s:----- >- 0-- - o ^ H G Eh • • ' ' ■ 'tj-o 02 cc:73.'73r:3" 03 03:73:72:73 o3 o3 PL, CL flc Cl<-iJ -1^ &, Oh Oh OhO, . . . cu .-1 ii;PIA\. lo CO o o ^ T-H ,-H (M q;Su9^j CO CO -H (M B O pq H g H O K 1-1 c eS C C ;- «l C :: - c o ci c 1 c c c C 1— Q- X- - ,. ^ K X- - - - 0- - "- ■* 0- - - -• C ■ • 01 |oo t-loo ^-loo t-Ioo rtlXrtlQOccla ok;o D«l00 CdX CClOO «|CO rt^aO L*]X K^ cc[oom^m|oom|qom!« p:lx«lx«|aoM[xic|xMlx l>t-.-l 10 CO '^ ^ i> CO ^H rH ^ T-H 1— 1 c^i t^ 10 1^ CO t^ IM -H ^ 1> '-' tH (M (M J CO GO CO CO CI ^ (M 1 iM (M --H C-liM (M tM (M CO CO ^0000 00- C C 00000 1:^ c c oj 53 03 S d9a q;piAV qijSaarj « m ffi .- - o . O' ■ (M (M (M ■ y, y, y, (U Ht» i^t^ ";|^ H^ H°o H^Hm wlxi i~-|oo »c|cc io|ao Hoo t^ [00 t^joD H^^ '>l^ K]co eclQO ec[oo cclGO ccloo «|qo «ico rtlao m1« cc|x «lao cc|qo cflao rt|oo ccloo w]cic ccIqo ro[ w «|qo «] a rtlGO cc|cc co|co ccl-|cc Mloo e^lx ccloo ccloo T— It— I tHt— It— It— It— It— (1— I t-H(NtHCQi— I(Mt— Ir-Hi— I iHlN r-i|!NrH[!Nr-|M C^Jt^* «M(?;!-tt< i-^iM CN(MT-((M(M(M(MT-H(MT-ir-i(MC0(MCqc^01(Mi-HT-( c ■ 3T3 2 ?3^ JK S S, St- 2^ f3 „ ill Ph 5 tc ;3 t-i g O OJ OJ OJ ■3 S bJD cc Qj (B IB O O Cj 93 (-. (B •-'•'-' •-! Cl ■ 3 — bCG-O O § lO lO O C^) S ,-1 ,-H ^ a; 03 ^ O ■M »c|x q; -c cc c^ 1— 1 IClOO rVfC cclx rtlM t^ rtlC.) C^5 t« w o Pi CD C-l z !^ : <; Ph oT ■ QJ • K -o ■ o CO . PL, ^ ■ w "-< 1^ ^' s g s to -1^ O fl^ g.T3 O C . 03 .3 a 1 o cu n fl— ' O r/3 O ^ U O Oh _^ ;h O ID CO -Q O >o 504 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE o fQ OPQ s^rap JO n;piAV (N (M (M • (M IM (M y. y-, X ■ X y, X iCiGO IC^iO tdfC • in]cX)»O|00iCiQ0 spua w|QO H^ Hoc ln^x t~^ t^lcc H'>3 in[aDin^ic|aoicIcoif5jao luoi^oq puB dox «^ f^dO K\X} i«tX MIOD M^ M^ ZrlfXt MlQO M|00«1&0C0|00«^MCC]Q0 sapig c^loo edoo rtlao »c|oo «|qO ccico cc|» «|x ecloo ^OlQCtyoOrtloowlooMioo q^daa q^PiAV q:;3U8ri (M 00 (M -+ 00 o O -(J ^ m Oi y ^^^-a'^ y 2 S S 2 c g fH--^ o3.S^ O H fo „ A! tn O ^ O P c3.0 rt, 03 ^ 03 ^ " X "^ X ri O c= O .S ^ .5 ^ . X ..S . <13 tl '^ !s 1^ O o3 O c« 03 ^ -^ .3 JD.3 I I U U t-i ^ BOXES AND COOPERAGE 505 s:jB8p JO q;piA\. « 6 c fQ pujj ■*» >^1» uio^^oq puB dox Saptg .-^o relQO M^daa HIPTAV qisuaq a o o -►^ HO o ^ ^ H^ CO CO CO (^3 ro CO ro CO CO (M (N ,-lco(^^cocoO'# (M(N(M(MC^CTt^rHoooooo^-H-^^'!*rJ^^>lOO<^^^0(^^<^^ C > REFRIGERATOR BOXES. In the shipping of fresh meats which are to be sent by express, or where small quantities are sent in insuf- ficient amounts to warrant the use of a car, thousands of refrigerator boxes are used. In such cases a good refrigerator box is made necessary in the handling of the product to the trade — a box that will stand the abuse, wear and tear in shipping and at the same time one that is not excessively heavy, adding unnecessarily to the express charges. The dimensions given below are for BOXES AND COOPERAGE 509 wooden boxes which are generally made of 1-inch clear pine lumber, the corners being securely fastened with angle iron, or with heavy galvanized iron, and the covers put on with specially strong hinges as the boxes meet with a great deal of hard usage and when filled must necessarily be strong in order to withstand the jar and strain. A galvanized iron box containing the meat is placed inside of the wooden box, leaving about 2 inches of space around it and 4 inches of spaee on top. The meat to be shipped is packed tightly into the galvanized iron box, which is then placed in the wooden box and the space around the sides and top filled with crushed ice. In this condition meat will keep fresh in hot weather for from thirty-six to forty-eight hours under ordinary conditions. The following dimensions are those generally in use for the different sized wooden boxes enumerated : Capacity. Inside measure, inches. 50 pounds 26 X 16Vs x 9 100 pounds 24 X 18 x 14 100 pounds 26 X 18 x 13 200 pounds 34x18 x 181/2 200 pounds 34 x 20 x 16 300 pounds 38 x 24 x 19 500 pounds > 42 x 28 x IS^^ 510 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHAPTER XXIV. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. CONVENIENT DEVICES. In this chapter descriptions are given of a number of apparatuses that will be found very convenient in the packing house, as proved by experience. It also includes a number of miscellaneous items in modern slaughter- house practice not directly connected with any of the de- partments treated in the foregoing chapters. These are necessarily treated very briefly partly because of lack of space and partly because they really belong to subjects indirectly connected with the packing house industry, or only in connection with the largest central houses, and yet are subjects on which there may be more or less inquiry. CALKING DEVICE. Fig. 166 shows detail of a calking machine. This is a very useful device where there is a large amount of calked floor space. Calking floors is very expensive where it is done by hand work but with a machine of this kind it is done very economically. Spun oakum should be used and simply laid on top of the crevices in the floor to be filled. The calking feature of the machine consists of a 10 or 12-inch circular saw, the teeth being ground off, and the machine being run over the crevice forces in the oakum or cotton, as the case may be, very compactly, MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 511 making a much tighter job than can possibly be done by hand work. ELEVATOR HOIST. A very essential part of the equipment of a packing house is good elevators. The machine shown in Fig. 167 makes a very useful and economical elevator, which can either be driven from shaft direct or belted from motor. It will be noticed that the drum is grooved for the recep- tion of the rope, which prevents it from wearing. The FIG. 166.— DETAIL OF CALKING MACHINE. drum is also long enough so that it is unnecessary to have the rope wrap or rise upon itself in order to bring the ele- vator to the top of the shaft, thereby saving it from a great deal of wear and tear. It is also supplied with a bal- ance wheel to aid in starting the hoist. The pulleys are 36 inches in diameter by 8-inch face. The speed on belt pulley is 240 revolutions per minute, on drum shaft sixty revolutions per minute, of elevator 150 feet per minute. The horse power required to operate this elevator is about twenty-five, while the capacity of hoist is 5,000 512 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE pounds. It requires a floor space of about 9 feet long by 61/2 feet wide and 41/2 feet high. The machine weighs 5,375 pounds. BAREEL TRUCK. A barrel truck that will be found exceedingly con- venient about a packing house and one that is easily built or prepared is shown in outline in Fig. 168. HOG TRAVELER. A very efficient hog traveler is illustrated in the ac- companying diagram, Fig. 169. It will be noticed that the FIG. 167.— ELEVATOR HOIST. flanges on the wheel which runs on the trolley are bev- eled, which causes the traveler to make turns on the overhead rail without friction and without danger of leaving the rail. The bevel prevents the wheel from catching against any slightly projecting edge of a joint in the rail and entirely obviates the trouble that is so often experienced during rush periods of having the carcasses stick on some curve. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 513 HANDY CAET. A very useful cart for packing house purposes is illus- trated in Fig. 170. Having large wheels it runs easily. l^¥ I "|lj^-<^' cOTTEF? PIG. 168.— DIAGRAM OF CONVENIENT BARREL TRUCK. In purchasing trucks of any kind the purchaser should insist that there be at least a %-inch crown on the rim of all wheels, as this obviates the trouble from 514 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE sharp edges coming in contact with the floor and the floor will last much longer where trucks are thus looked after. The size of the platform of the truck is 34 x 54 inches. FIG. 169.— DETAIL OF HOG TRAVELLER. TINMING HOOKS. About a packing house there are always a number of hooks required on which to hang meat both on the trucks and on the stationary racks; also in the cars, all of which have to be tinned in order to keep them bright and MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 515 clean, and to prevent the otherwise resulting rust, etc., from discoloring the meats. If any considerable quantity of hooks is to be tinned, it is very much cheaper to fit up an apparatus and do the tinning than to have it done outside, as the charges for this kind of work are generally exorbitant. The process recommended is as follows: FIG. 170.— FAT CART OR TRUCK FOR GENERAL PURPOSES. First submerge the hooks in muriatic acid, using a wooden vat for same, as the acid would soon eat out an iron one. Allow the hooks to remain in the acid until the rust is all eaten off, which may take from ten to forty minutes, according to the amount of rust which has ac- cumulated on them. They are taken from this bath and submerged in " reduced " acid, which is muriatic acid reduced by putting in block zinc; keep adding zinc to the acid until it stops boiling. When the zinc is first put in 516 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE it boils very rapidly, and when the boiling ceases it is " reduced " acid. The hooks are taken from this mixture and hung up, and allowed to hang from twenty minutes to half an hour to be sure that the acid has all evaporated and the hooks are dry. After they have become thoroughly dried they are again immersed, this time in a bath of pure block tin melted in an iron vat set over a fire. The top of the vat should be skimmed every few min- utes before taking out the hooks, as quite an accumula- tion of discolored matter will arise on the top of the vat, and if the hooks are pulled up through it, it leaves a scum on them. Care should be taken that the tin is not too hot, for if it is the hooks will come out a yellow instead of a bright tin color. As soon as the tin is thoroughly melted, the fire should be covered with ashes, or banked in some way so as to keep the tin at about the same temperature. As many hooks may be put into the vat at one time as it will hold. When the hooks are taken out, care should be taken to keep them as nearly level as possible, for when the hooks are taken out, the tin is in a liquid form, and if al- lowed to tip either way, a '' drop " or rough place on the hook is developed. To avoid this use two pairs of tongs. As soon as the hooks are taken from the tinning ket- tle they are put into a cold solution consisting of about one gill of muriatic acid to half a barrel of water. When the hooks are cold they are hung up. For tinning use a kettle about 3 feet long, 12 inches deep and 14 inches wide, with a flange to rest on the sides of the brick wall, fire being built under it of wood or coal, but little heat is needed. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 517 It is advisable to tin all of the hooks of the beef trucks in the same manner as above, the shanks of the beef being, kept clean more easily. THERMOMETERS. In packing house practice, as well as in many other industries, one oftentimes requires a knowledge of the three different thermometer scales used today, viz : Cen- tigrade, which is used almost altogether in laboratory work, Reaumur and Fahrenheit. It is always, to say the least, troublesome, unless the information is at hand, to convert one to the other. Much annoyance has been caused by the existence of these three different scales, especially on export business. In America and in the British Empire the Fahrenheit scale is used almost ex- clusively. The Reaumur scale prevails in Grermany. The Centigrade (or Celsius) scale is used almost exclusively in France and generally wherever the metric system of weights and measures is followed, and in all except English-speaking countries it is used to some extent in making scientific calculations. The Centigrade scale includes between its degree (freezing point of water) and 100 degrees (boiling point of water) all the temperatures generally met with in industrial activities. The Fahrenheit scale is convenient on account of its short degrees, there being 180 between the freezing point of water (32 degrees) and its boiling point (212 degrees), thus allowing more -minute calculations without the use of fractions. Its low zero point makes it possible in tem- perate climates to dispense largely with the minus sign. The Reaumur scale divides the space between the freezing and boiling points of water into 80 instead of 100 degrees, as in the Centigrade system. 518 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE COMPAEISONS OF THERMOMETER SCALES. The following table shows the relative indications of the Celsius or Centigrade, Fahrenheit and Reaumur thermometer scales. In the United States and England the Fahrenheit scale is generally used; in France and in all scientific investigations and treat- ises, the Celsius scale is uniformly used; and in Germany the Reaumur scale is the one generally adopted. C. F. R. C. F. R. C. F. R. + 100° + 212.0° + 80.0° + 53° + 127.4° + 42.4° + 6° + 42.8° + 4.8° 99 210.2 79.2 52 125.6 41.6 5 41.0 4.0 98 208.4 78.4 51 123.8 40.8 4 39.2 3.2 97 206.6 77.6 50 122.0 40.0 3 37.4 2.4 96 204.8 76.8 49 120.2 39.2 2 35.6 1.6 95 203.0 76.0 48 118.4 38.4 1 33.8 0.8 94 201.2 75.2 47 116.6 37.6 Zero 32.0 Zero 93 199.4 74.4 46 11.4.8 36.8 — 1 30.2 — 0.8 92 197.6 73.6 45 113.0 36.0 2 28.4 1.6 91 195.8 72.8 44 111.2 35.2 3 26.6 2.4 90 194.0 72.0 43 109.4 34.4 4 24.8 3.2 89 192.2 71.2 42 107.6 33.6 5 23.0 4.0 88 190.4 70.4 41 105.8 32.8 6 21.2 4.8 87 188.6 69.6 40 104.0 32.0 7 19.4 5.6 86 186.8 68.8 39 102.2 31.2 8 17.6 6.4 85 185.0 68. 38 100.4 30.4 9 15.8 7.2 84 183.2 67.2 37 98.6 29.6 10 14.0 8.0 83 181.4 66.4 36 96.8 28.8 11 12.2 8.8 82 179.6 65.6 35 95.0 28.0 12 10.4 9.6 81 177.8 64.8 34 93.2 27.2 13 8.6 10.4 80 176.0 64.0 33 91.4 26.4 14 6.8 11.2 79 174.2 63.2 32 89.6 25.6 15 5.0 12.0 78 172.4 62.4 31 87.8 24.8 16 3.2 12.8 77 170.6 61.6 30 86.0 24.0 17 1.4 13.6 76 168.8 60.8 29 84.2 23.2 18 — 0.4 14.4 75 167.0 60.0 28 82.4 22.4 19 2.2 15.2 74 165.2 59.2 27 80.6 21.6 20 4.0 16.0 73 163.4 58.4 26 78.8 20.8 21 5.8 16.8 72 161.6 57.6 25 77.0 20.0 22 7.6 17.6 71 159.8 56.8 24 75.2 19.2 23 9.4 18.4 70 158.0 56.0 23 73.4 18.4 24 11.2 19.2 69 156.2 55.2 22 71.6 17.6 25 13.0 20.0 68 154.4 54.4 21 69.8 16.8 26 14.8 20.8 67 152.6 53.6 20 68.0 16.0 27 16.6 21.6 66 150.8 52.8 19 66.2 15.2 28 18.4 22.4 65 149.0 52.0 18 64.4 14.4 29 20.2 23.2 64 147.2 51.2 17 62.6 13.6 30 22.0 24.0 63 145.4 50.4 16 60.8 12.8 31 23.8 24.8 62 143.5 49.6 15 59.0 12.0 32 25.6 25.6 61 141.8 48.8 14 57.2 11.2 33 27.4 26.4 60 140.0 48.0 13 55.4 10.4 34 29.2 27.2 59 138.2 47.2 12 53.6 9.6 35 31.0 28.0 58 136.4 46.4 11 51.8 8.8 36 32.8 28.8 57 134.3 45.6 10 50.0 8.0 37 34.6 29.6 56 132.8 44.8 9 48.2 7.2 38 36.4 30.4 55 131.0 44.0 8 46.4 6.4 39 38.2 31.2 54 129.2 43.2 7 44.6 5.8 40 40.0 32.0 CONVERSION OF THERMOMETER DEGREES. °0 to °R, multiply b}' 4 and divide by 5. °C to °F, multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32. °R to °C, multiply by 5 and divide by 4. °R to °F, multiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. °F to °R, first subtract 32, then multiply by 4 and divide by 9. °F to °C, first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 519 WIRE OR BRINE PIPE COVERING. A formula for a compound such as is used by elec- tricians for covering wire work, as well as galvanized iron brine pipe connections where rubber hose is used, and also for various other purposes, is made as follows : Stockholm tar 5 lbs. Rosin 6 lbs. Gutta percha chips 9 lbs. The above is put over a fire and melted. After it is fully melted and mixed together and sufficiently cooled to handle, it is taken in small handfulls and put into water to chill. It is then rolled into sticks and used in this form for the above mentioned work. "While a like material can be purchased, it is very much more expensive and does not do the work any better than the above preparation. DISPOSITION OF PAUNCH MANURE. It is a trade rule that all live stock must be fed and watered before being offered for sale, consequently when cattle are killed the day they are bought the stomach is comparatively full and in many localities it is a serious problem to know what to do with the paunch contents. It is valueless as a fertilizer, simply being masticated hay and water. Where packing hou^ses are located on rivers, it is easily disposed of by letting it flush through the sew- ers. Where this can not be done the disposition of it is a serious problem. The most approved method, up to date, is to press it and burn it. A machine known as the " extractor " is manufactured by V. D. Anderson & Co., of Cleveland, Ohio, which is the only device made, out- side of a hydraulic press, which works satisfactorily, and as pressing it by a hydraulic press is very expensive the ' ' extractor ' ' is generally used. This manure being prop- erly pressed and mixed with screenings or very fine coal has a heat unit value. A careful perusal of the follow- ing test will show the comparative results of mixing ma- 520 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE nure with coal and burning the coal separately. This is not submitted with a view to recommending the purchase of this kind of material as fuel, but instead, to show that a refuse which is extremely hard to dispose of in some cases can be disposed of in this manner and a small revenue from same may thereby be obtained ; whereas, if it is nec- essary to load it into cars and switch it to some vege- table district it would be extremely expensive, and be- sides, the product has no value as a fertilizer. TESTS TO DETEKMIIS^E VALUE OF PAUNCH MANURE AS FUEL. Same kind of coal (screenings) used in both tests. Furnace, 7 x 12 feet : BOILER TEST NO. 1. Diameter of boiler shell, inches 66 Length of shell, feet 18 Number of tubes 187 Diameter of tubes, inches 4 Heating surface, square feet 4,000 Grate surface, square feet 84 Ratio heating to grate surface, per cent 4.76 Duration of test, hours 8 Average steam pressure, pounds 144.7 Average temperature of feed, in degrees Fahrenheit. 196 Pounds of coal burned 22,800 Per cent of moisture 9 Pounds of refuse 2,938 Pounds of combustible 17,810 Per cent of ashes 12.8 Coal burned per square foot grate per hour 34 Total water evaporated, pounds 149,850 "Water evaporated per hour, pounds 18,731 Water evaporated per square foot heating surface per hour, pounds 4.68 Water evaporated per pound coal, actual conditions, pounds 6.57 Water evaporated per pound coal from and at 212° F. pounds 7.01 Water evaporated per pound combustible, actual con- ditions, pounds 8.35 Water evaporated per pound combustible, from and at 212°, pounds 8.90 Rated horsepower 400 Horsepower from 196 feed and 144.7 pounds pressure 579 Per cent above rated capacity 44.7 Temperature flue gases, in degrees Fahrenheit 548 Force of draft in inches of water .8 Cost per thousand pounds of water .0837 Cost per horsepower per hour .0029 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 521 BOILER TEST NO. 2. Furnace of same dimensions, heating surface, grate surface, etc., as in test No. 1. Same kind of screenings used with paunch manure. Duration of test, hours 8 Average steam pressure, pounds 140 Average temperature of feed, in degrees Fahrenheit. 199 Pounds of coal burned 17,700 Pounds of paunch manure burned 5,538 Per cent of moisture 9 Pounds of refuse 3,224 Per cent of ashes 13.8 Coal burned per square foot grate per hour 26.3 Manure burned per square foot grate per hour. ... 8.2 Total water evaporated, pounds 136,500 Water evaporated per hour, pounds 17,062 Water evaporated per square foot heating surface per hour, pounds 4.28 Water evaporated per pound manure, actual condi- tions, pounds 3.6 Water evaporated per pound manure from and at 212° F., pounds 3.8 Rated horsepower 400 Horsepower from 199 feed and 140 pounds pressure. 524 Per cent above rated capacity 31 Temperature flue gases, in degrees Fahrenheit 540 Force of draft, in inches of water .8 Cost per horsepower per hour, taken as $0.0837. Paunch manure is worth $0.60 per ton. FATTEl^ING CHICKEN'S. Killing and handling of poultry has become a very large factor in the packing business at all points where meat packing is done on an extensive scale. It has always been a business that commanded a great deal of at- tention and it has been done quite generally, although it is only within recent years that it has jDcen developed to large proportions. It is not intended to go into details of the poultry busi- ness as this is a subject so many-sided that it would be impossible to do it justice within the limits of this vol- ume. The feeding of chickens has become a modern in- dustry and is certainly an interesting subject. Anybody in the poultry business soon discovers, after buying live chickens promiscuously, that they have a 522 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE '^ tail end " which is very undesirable on account of be- ing light weight and poor. In buying poultry in large quantities a great many of these birds are brought to- gether and they can, if handled properly, be fattened rap- idly as follows : The chickens are put into coops 24 inches square and 11 inches deep, six birds to the coop. These coops have galvanized iron bottoms, which can be slipped out and washed in order to keep them clean, and are provided with a drinking cup. The coops are stacked up, one upon another, in a shed consisting, for summer use, of merely a roof to keep off the rain, and which is open on four sides, the coops being piled up to the outer sides of the sheds. The shed is furnished with heavy canvas curtains on rolls painted black. When the chickens are to be fed, the curtains are rolled up, giving them daylight. They are given about one-half hour in which to eat, when the cur- tains are again dropped, leaving them in darkness. They should be fed about nine in the morning and again about five in the afternoon. The feed consists of seven parts of oatmeal, one part of raw tallow cut very fine and thoroughly mixed with the oatmeal, the whole mixture made into the consistency of dough with either skimmed or buttermilk. Chickens gain very rapidly on this food for twelve days, and at the expiration of this time, they must be taken out and killed, for if fed longer, they will begin to fall away and finally die. The chickens get no gravel, shells, etc., so necessary for the digestion of their ordinary food, and after a few days' feeding of this material their anatomy changes, the gizzard practically becoming useless. If the chickens were turned loose where they could get their customary food, they would soon die. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 523 This is very much like the German method of stuffing geese, it having much the same effect upon them. The meat of chickens fed in this manner will be found to be more tender and more desirable than that of chickens fed under ordinary conditions. The following shows the result of feeding 11,674 spring chickens for eleven days : Purchased 11,674 springs, 28,185 pounds Fed weight 11,674 springs, 34,022 pounds Gain 5,837 pounds Cost of food $273.50 Cost of labor 182.50 Total $456.00 Cost per pound of gain, $0,078. PAINT. The formula given below for making tire proof, rust proof and water proof paints in paste form to be sprayed on surfaces will be found both useful and economical. About packing houses and markets a great deal of paint is necessary in order to keep the place clean and tidy in appearance, and also to preserve the wood and iron. When it is necessary to go to the trade to purchase this article it is often expensive, and matters of this kind that should be attended to are often deferred on account of the excessive expense. A very cheap paint can be made from the following: CHEAP PAINT FORMULA. 1 barrel lime $0.45 10 pounds bolted whiting 10 25 pounds fine salt .^ 10 10 pounds plaster paris 10 10 pounds glue 70 3 pounds Altamann blue 30 25 pounds crude paraffine 1.00 Cost of material $2.75 Labor 2.00 Total .'.$4.75 • 524 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The foregoing formula will make from 500 to 600 pounds of paste color, or one barrel, and if thinned for spray will make about three barrels at a cost of less than one cent per pound. The color of this paint would necessarily be white. Any color can be produced that is desired by simply add- ing the coloring matter. This paint when mixed can be put on with a pump or brush, as desired, and makes a very satisfactory and inexpensive article. HEKTOGRAPH FILLER. In the office of any well regulated packing house much use is made of the hektograph for copying reports, orders and other miscellaneous work. The following formula for a hektograph filler is a very cheap one and gives very satisfactory results; the only expense being the pans, which cost but little and can be used for a long period : Good transparent glue 5 lbs. Water 6 lbs. Glycerine 12 lbs. This should be put into a tin pail and then set in an- other receptacle filled with hot water, holding it there until the glue is thoroughly dissolved. Pour this mix- ture into the hektograph pans, while hot, and allow it to cool. The hektograph is then ready for use. REFRIGERATOR CARS. No attempt will here be made to go into detail as to the various methods of building, equipping, insulating, etc., of refrigerator cars, as information of this kind can better be obtained from car builders, but the general care of the car for the handling of the fresh product is an item which is entitled to consideration. As fast as the cars are returned to the company, whenever possible, the doors should be opened and they MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 525 should be thoroughly aired, as the car, especially in warm weather, is close and damp. Both doors should be opened so that a full circulation of air may result. After this the car should be thoroughly washed with hot water and soap and rinsed with cold water to keep it sweet and clean. It is then ready to be iced. ICING EEFRIGERATOR CARS. In icing the car it is customary to use from 7 to 15 l)er cent of salt ; in extreme hot weather the latter amount is often used. The ice is put through a crusher, and this machine should be kept in perfect condition so that the ice may be thoroughly broken up. After the tank is about one-half full of ice the salt should be worked in. In filling the balance of the tank at least 50 per cent of the total amount of salt should be left on top, for when the salt has worked its way to the bottom of the tank it is of no further use as an aid to refrigera- tion. When the tanks are filled, if the main quantity of salt is in the middle, or bottom, of the tank, comparative- ly small results are obtained from it. The salt must be near the top of the tank, so tha|; as the ice is melted by the action of the salt and a brine is formed which seeps down through the balance of the ice, it will have a chance to melt all the ice possible before it gets to the bottom of the tank. In using this amount of s^lt, as the reader will understand, it is only done to hasten the melting of the ice, and thus produce a lower temperature within the car. In hot weather the car should be iced the day before it is to be loaded. The next morning the tank should be opened and after being thoroughly tamped, more ice should be put in, with about 7 per cent of salt. After the car is loaded, the tanks should again be filled to their 526 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE maximum capacity before the car leaves the place. In all re-icings in hot weather use 7 per cent of salt. In cold weather when there is little or no heat around the car, and on the contrary the insulation of the car serves to keep the contents from freezing, rather than in protect- ing them from the heat, as in summer, the tanks will re- quire very little ice and salt; but in icing even under these conditions, 4 or 5 per cent of salt should be used at all times, as it will aid in keeping the material in the tanks from being frozen too solidly. The icing of cars in the winter time is of comparative^ little importance. CAisrisriis^G OF meats. Meat canning is a subject which need not here be treated in detail, as with very few exceptions the can- ning business is considered an independent one from that of the packing house proper, and is carried on profitably only on a very large scale, in this country especially. In South America and Australia where cattle and labor are cheaper, it has been carried on to a much larger extent. The practice consists of partiall}^ curing the meats in salt pickle, after which they are cooked and put into vari- ous sized cans. The cans are then subjected to exces- sive heat in retorts, after which the vents are soldered or are put through a vacuum process where the air is ex- pelled from the cans and the vents then closed, in each process, leaving the meat in a vacuum. As long as this vacuum is maintained there is no chance for decomposi- tion of the contents of the cans. The canning of meats makes it possible to dispose of a good many of the cheaper cuts of meat which if not handled in this waj^" would necessarily be of small value, although equally as nourishing and healthful as better grades of meat. In the cooking of the meats a great deal MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 527 of the animal salts and juices is taken up by the cooking water and this water is afterward evaporated and used for beef extract. GLUE. Glue is an article made from many of the by-prod- ucts from slaughtered animals, but has comparatively lit- tle to do with the packing business proper. For this rea- son little more need be said in this connection than to point out the different products from the packing house from which glue can be made. In the cooking of the heads and feet a great deal of glutinous matter is left in the water, which when evap- orated produces a low grade of glue. The longer the bones are cooked the greater the yield of glue and the proportionately greater damage is done to the bones and, consequently, the manufacture of a strictly commercial hard bone and, at the same time, a large percentage of glue is an impossibility. There is, however, a happy JB|" medium at which heads and feet can be cooked and bones turned out in a satisfactory condition, at the same time producing a good yield of glue. There is, generally speaking, in the cooking of the heads and feet, from 5 to 8 cents worth of glue obtainable per head, cattle count, from the cooking water. The best glue water is obtained from the cooking of the feet, they being of a more gelatinous nature. The sinews which are removed from the feet of the cattle before the bones are cooked make a very high grade of glue, practically equal to hide glues. This material after being taken off the legs should be spread out and dry-salted as described heretofore, and when cured is sold under the head of sinew glue stock. A low grade of glue that is used for paper sizing, paper box finishing, etc., is made from pigs feet, but generally speaking the hind feet are not 528 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE saved for pickled pigs feet, but instead are used, mostly, in the manufacture of glue. HIDE GLUE STOCK. In some instances hides are sold with the pates and the leggings cut off. This, however, is not a common practice. Wherever it is done the pate and leggings are known as hide glue stock, which is considered the best part of all the products from the animal carcass- for the purpose of glue manufacture. Suggestions in regard to the handling of glue stock are given under the head of " Bone Department " in Chapter VIII. CHEMICAL DEPAKTMENT. This is a department which in all of the large well regulated packing houses is considered very essential and the information obtained therefrom, in the saving and the turning into commercial value of the by-products, as well as in determining the value of the products al- ready produced, is turned to good account. Laboratories in the larger plants are fitted up for making exhaustive tests as to the values of the products as well as for ascer- taining the most practical methods for manufacturing, and many of the departments of the modern packing house had their origin in the chemical laboratory. It is also essential that the different products turned out from a packing house be analyzed weekly to deter- mine the results; for instance, the analyzing of blood and tankage. If there should be found to be a lack of the proper percentage of ammonia the matter should be looked up at once and corrected, and if caught in time would mean the saving of a great deal of money. Lard should be analyzed to determine the amount of free acid, hardness, etc. Tallow and grease should be analyzed for the same purpose as well as for showing the amount MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 529 of impurities. The value of tallow and grease is based upon the hardness and free acid tests, as a tallow or grease which runs low in hardness or titre test and high in free fatty acids is necessarily of a lower value than if it ran high in titre tests and low in free fatty acid, the titre test determining the solidifying point of the greases and the free acid denoting the state of decompo- sition. Many useful tests are also made on food mixtures, such as soups, concentrated foods, etc., which are after- ward developed in their respective departments into ma- terials of commercial value. Small packing houses which from the restricted vol- ume of business done would not warrant the outlay nec- essary for maintaining a chemical department will cer- tainly find it to their advantage to consult chemists who are versed in this particular industry and a great deal of valuable information will thereby be obtained. There are many reputable chemists who make a specialty of looking after packing house work from a chemical stand- point. KOSHER KILLi^NG, This term designates the method of killing animals for the Jewish trade. The orthodox Jew of today abides by the same rules that were laid down m the old Mosaic laws for his ancestors. In many of the large cities this trade amounts to considerable, thousands of cattle being killed weekly in this particular way. The killer is known as the " shekter " and is appointed by the rabbi of the congregation. The duty of the '^ shekter " is to kill the animals by cutting their throats with a knife that is especiall}^ designed for this purpose and which is kept extremely sharp with a hone water-stone. 530 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE The method of killing cattle is to put a sling or chain around one hind leg, lifting them otf the floor with hand or power machinery until the animal falls on one side. The head is next turned over, stretching the neck very tightly, then the ' ' shekter, ' ' or killer, with his knife cuts the throat, severing all the veins and arteries. The ani- mal is then allowed to bleed to death. During the course of dressing a careful inspection is made of the lungs by the same man and if they are found to be in a healthy 'Condition, the animal is considered fit for food. If there is any adhesion to the ribs, or the lungs show any signs of discoloration, or disease, the meat is condemned and is known as *' trafer." According to the Mosaic law no meat can be eaten where the veins have not been re- moved, consequently only the fore quarter of the beef is consumed according to the orthodox belief, this consist- ing of five ribs of the fore quarter and the neck, which is known to the trade as Kosher chucks. The Kosher meat business is a trade that is little known of in America outside of the larger cities. ITSrSPECTION BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. In nearly all packing house plants throughout the countr}^ where business is done on a fairly large scale, government inspectors are maintained by the Federal government, their duties being to make a post mortem examination of all animals slaughtered. An ante-mor- tem examination is carried on at all of the large live stock centers. The animals after being inspected are tagged or stamped with a government stamp, showing that the animal was in a healthy condition when killed and is fit for human food. Carcasses which are found to be affected or unfit for food are condemned and put into the rendering tanks and disposed of for fertilizer. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 531 the grease from such condemned animals being consid- ered unfit for foods of any kind. This inspection by the government is not compulsory and at any time that par- ties having the inspection do not live up to its rules the inspection is simply refused them, but it is absolutely necessary that each house have the inspection, for with- out the stamp the meat is not as salable; furtherfore, it has been found that it is absolutely necessary that this inspection be maintained in order to meet competition. It is a great safeguard to the public health, and while it represents hundreds of thousands of dollars a year loss for animals which are condemned, none of the large packers would feel that they could do without this gov- ernment supervision of their products. BKAIsTCH HOUSES. The advent of the centralized killing houses and the refrigerator car for transportation brought into exist- ence the branch house. In all large cities of the United States may be seen branch houses of the large packing firms, these houses being fitted up in various degrees of elegance, and in all cases in a copipact and practical man- ner for the handling of the business at point of loca- tion. The fresh meats v/hen received are immediately run into coolers which are cooled either by artificial re- frigeration or by ice and they are ther^ offered for sale to the dealers who'ieome to look for their supplies. The managers know the qualities of meats demanded by their different customers and aim to have a variety of meats at all times for sale. One of the secrets of success of the concentration of the packing business, as seen to- day, is the fact that a careful study is continually being made of the quality and grades of meat which are in demand at different points. For instance, heayy beef 532 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 533 which would be salable in some places might be a drug on the market at other points and sell at an absolute loss, w^hereas a lighter grade of beef may be in demand at one point and practically unsalable at others. Hence a careful watch of the requirements of each locality is necessary in order to see that the grades and qualities demanded at particular points are obtainable. 534 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE CHx\PTER XXV. DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING, DIVISIOX OF LABOR. The large packing house plants are invariably oper- ated on a departmental basis, so that at the end of the month, or year (generally figuring on thirteen periods to the year), a balance can be drawn off showing the profit and loss of each department. There is a great ad- vantage in handling a large business in this manner, for it is probable that while in the aggregate the house is making money, there might be departments that are los- ing money continuoush" without being detected unless each one is put on an individual basis. The raw material used is all transferred from one department to anotlier and an account turned into the office on the regular trans- fer slips. At the end of each period, the office man- ager, or those in charge, put a price on all the different products transferred from one department to another, generally using the market price which could be ob- tained if sold to outsiders. This forms a basis of the charge for the raw material in different departments and is credited to the department from which it is received. The next important feature is the division of labor, so that each department may know just where expense starts and stops and any work that is done by one de- partment for another is credited or debited by labor transfer slips which are turned into the timekeeper's DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 535 office weekly, thereby keeping track of the proper charges for the labor in each department. A regular charge is also made for a proportionate part, in each department, of the power, steam, electric lights, etc., the same being based on the actual consumption ; also proportionate part of the administrative costs, which include supervision, interest, taxes, insurance and general miscellaneous ex- pense. Against these various debits of the department are credited the products from same, and at the end of every period, the actual results are evident as the raw prod- uct was charged to the department at the actual cost. If the department has lost money it is time for change of management or discontinuance of that particular branch, selling the raw material on the market. This is very valuable information and no well man- aged packing house is without it. The following pages give details of the general labor distribution, this being the principal expense in the department and also the one which is found to be the hardest to keep straight. If one or more plants are operated on a competitive basis it is essential that the labor distribution be exactly the same in order that an intelligent comparison may be made. DRTVIX^G AND YARDING CATTLE. \ This account includes a portion of the drivers em- ployed in driving cattle and carts — all the labor relative to the driving of cattle from the time purchased until same are delivered in the catch pen on the killing bed. The yard men at the plant are carried on the beef-beds pay roll and 90 per cent of the men's time, weighing, tending and yarding, is charged against cattle drivers, also half of the men's time driving up to the catch pen; 536 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE the balance of their time being pro-rated as noted fur- ther on under head of " Sheep and Hog Drivers." CATTLE SLAUGHTERING, This department takes the cattle as delivered by the yard men into the catch pen, the charges including half of one of the yard men's time, and from this point doing all necessary work until cattle are set on the rail in the cooler. This department also trucks caul fat and delivers to the chute leading to the tallow floor, the tails to the cool- ers and truck refuse to tank. The last item will be charged by labor transfers from the tallow trimming de- partment. In figuring the daily killing expense, the actual killing cost starts from the catch pen and ends with the men pushing over, after the cattle are hung off. The washing gang starts from this point and includes the labor until cattle reach the scale with the exception of a charge of one-half the man's time doing the scrib- ing, which half is charged to the ' ' hot line. ' ' The ' ' hot line ' ' then takes the cattle from the scale with the above exception and places them in the cooler, pulling the rags from the necks, wiping and setting them for chilling. '' Hot line " includes cost of scaler and boy stamping tags. TALLOW TRIMMING. This department takes plucks, paunches, pecks, reeds, livers and all miscellaneous fats as delivered to them through the chutes from the killing beds, trims same and delivers the products either to the tank house or oleo chill vats. As the livers are not sent down to the tal- low floor, the tallow trimming department's labor on these includes the trucking and trimming of same upon the killing floor till livers are hung in the cooler. DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 537 HEAD BONIlSrG, This department takes the heads as delivered in the vat from the killing floor, tongueing, cheeking and trim- ming same, delivering the tongues to the tongue cooler and spreading on racks ; cheeks to the beef curing, brains to the offal department and bones to the bone house. "When cleaning calves heads and feet the labor on same is charged to the offal department. This department is charged its proportion of time from the tallow trim- ming department for scaler, also its proportion of time from casings department for foreman's time. The lips after being trimmed off are delivered to the man scald- ing and scraping same. BEEF CASIKGS. This department takes the sets as delivered by the killing floor doing all necessary fatting and cleaning on same. This account also includes the stripping and blow- ing of the weasands, trimming and blowing of the blad- ders and hanging them in the dry room. After the blad- ders and weasands are dry, taking them from the dry- ing room, trimming and packing them is charged to '' casing, packing and loading' account." The salting, packing and loading of casings are carried separately on expense sheet. All fats in this department are trucked away and delivered to the fat vats by the tallow trim- ming department. * COOLER AND LOADING. This department takes the carcasses, tagging, weigh- ing and loading same for shipment. It also loads the mutton, veal and part of the heavier cutting room prod- ucts. Their pay roll is sub-divided on the percentage of weights handled for each of the above departments, mut- ton being increased threefold to place it on the same basis as beef. 538 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE This department also includes the pulling of skew- ers, trimming off necks, skirts and drops after cattle are chilled, and delivering these products to the trimming room. They also do all necessary sacking of cattle. All deliveries of cattle to be made to the wholesale market are made by this department. The foreman furnishes a weekly report to the timekeeper's office showing the weights of cutting room products loaded, also the num- ber of cattle sacked and the total cost of same. HIDE CELLAE. This department is sub-divided into " green hides," '' cured hides," and " hide loading." The labor on green hides starts with the inspection on the killing beds (but does not include the labor of trucking and spread- ing them). It includes all labor after the hides are de- livered to the cellar until salted and placed in packs. Any unloading of salt for this department is charged to green hide account. Cured hides includes the labor of taking up the hides and placing them in bundles on the floor, ready for the loading gang. Loading of hides from this point and placing them in car does not include cost of weighing for shipment. The cost of inspecting and handling of pelts, which is done by this department, is charged to ^' sheep pelt putting down account," any unloading of sheep pelts being charged to " sheep pelt loading account." Where salt is unloaded for use in salting pelts, the labor on same will be charged to ' ' sheep pelt putting down account." This department salts sin- ews and charges the labor on same against the bone house, also all labor of loading same is charged against ^' bone house loading account." A weekly report is fur- nished by this department to the timekeeper's office show- ing the number of hides and pelts loaded. DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 539 TANK HOUSE. This department is sub-divided into four accounts, viz. : ' ' Tank house cooking and pressing, " ' ' tank house loading," '^ catch basin " and " prime steam lard." All other labor, such as loading tank cars, tiercing and pumping lard, is charged to prime steam lard ac- count, on the actual cost of same. A weekly transfer is made against '' catch basin," for the men employed in this class of work. Any depart- ment, however, that received credits for the products skimmed from the catch basin must stand the labor. All loading of tallow is charged to tank house loading ac- count. All loading of prime steam lard in tierces or tanks is charged to prime steam lard account. The labor of cooking and pressing of blood is transferred weekly against fertilizer account. All washing of tank cars is transferred weekly against car cleaning account. After the above charges have been credited to tank house pay- roll the residue is the tank house cooking and preserving account which includes all labor, from the time prod- ucts going into the fat tanks or hog grease tank are de- livered to the tank house floor, until tallows and grease are run off and tierced and tankage is pressed and de- livered to fertilizer. The prime steam lard account ends with the running-off and tiercing or pumping to the re- finery of the prime steam lard and does not include any labor on the tankage from these products. A weekly re- port is sent to the- timekeeper's office of the production of prime steam lard up to 5 :30 p. m. each Saturday. BONE HOUSE. To this department is charged a sub-division from the tank house pay roll for the foreman's time. It handles all bone products from time delivered to it by the 540 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE killing floor until same are placed in the bins for stor- age, ail loading being charged to '' bone house loading account." As stated under hide cellar account the bone house is charged with the labor of salting and loading of sinews. This department manufactures all oils and tallows produced from the bones, and any scraps which are found are delivered to the tank house. FEKTILIZER. This account is sub-divided to " fertilizer cooking, pressing and drying," ^' fertilizer grinding and sack- ing," and '' fertilizer loading." A charge made from the tank house for their portion of the foreman's time, also for the cooking and pressing of blood, is carried in the fertilizer cooking, pressing and drying account. To this account is charged the cost of taking the blood from the vats on the killing floor, cooking, pressing, drying and delivering same to the storage; also of the tankage from the tank house, drying and storing same. To grinding and sacking account is charged all cost of taking the blood and tankage from the storage room and of grinding and sacking same for shipment. All labor for loading these products is charged to fertilizer loading account. The foreman of this department furnishes a weekly report to the timekeeper's office, showing the tons of tankage and blood cooked, pressed and dried, up to 5 :30 p. m. each Saturday, also at the same time the tons of tankage and blood ground and sacked. OLEO MELTING. The labor of this department starts when the fats are delivered into the chilling vats and includes the chilling of same and all labor from there until the oleo stock is DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 541 set on the seeding floor. This department includes the pressing of scrap and the manufactui'e of laundry stock. OLEO PRESSES. The men in this department take the stock from the seeding floor, pressing and tiercing the oil and stearine, and place same in storage. The clerk's time carried in this account is charged in full to oleo presses, but three- quarters of the foreman's time is charged against oleo melters. This department turns in to the time keeper's office, a weekly report showing the number of tierces of oil and stearine packed from the amount pressed, up to 5 :30 p. m. each Saturday. There is a transfer made for tiercing the oleo stock against oleo melters. OIL HOUSE LOADING. This includes the charges for labor in loading of oil house products, or delivery of oil or stearine to the lard refinery. TONGUES. This department includes all labor on trimming, pack- ing, curing and loading of beef, and calf tongues. The labor of trimming sheep tongues and pig tongues, which is also done by this department, is charged respectively to '^ sheep offal " and " hog heads " departments. The trimming of tongue trimmings and delivery of the meats to the cellar and fats to the oil house and tank house are 'made by the tongue department. BEEF TEIMMING. This department takes the necks, drops and skirts as delivered by the cooler and loading department and delivers the products either for shipment or to the next department handling same. It does not include the trimming of cutting room products. 542 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE BEEF TRIMMING LOADING. Includes the labor of loading beef drops or the trnn- ming from the necks, and Is a pro-rated charge from the trnnming loading account. CLEANING CAES. This work being done by the labor gang, the labor is charged by direct transfer for the actual cost of cleaning cars and their equipments. This department reports to the time keeper's office each week the number of cars cleaned. ICING OAKS. This department includes all labor of icing cars and hooking up same for beef loading. The cleaning of re- frigerator boxes being done by this department, a trans- fer is made against the departments using same on the basis obtained from the relative number of boxes used in each department. The repairing and cleaning of liver racks are charged weekly against the '' miscellaneous mechanical account." This department furnishes a report to the time keep- er's office each week of the number of cars iced. CALF KILLING. A direct transfer is made from the sheep killing de- partment against '' calf killing " for the actual labor of killing and skinning calves. The foreman of this de- partment reports weekly to the time keeper's office the number of calves killed and skinned. CALF CHEEKING. Calf cheeking includes the labor of saving tongues, calf cheeks and brains, and of delivering same to the offal cooler, tongue cooler or beef curing department. DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 543 CALF COOLER AND LOADING. This charge is made, as previously stated, in the beef cooler loading account on a percentage division of the pounds of veal loaded pro rata to the pounds of beef loaded. SHEEP DEIVING AND YARDING. This department takes the sheep after buying and delivers them to the chute leading up to the killing floors. Account is kept by a direct transfer covering the actual number of men employed in driving sheep from the stock yards. There is also a charge against the account of 4 per cent of the men's time, due to weighing and yard- ing ; charge being made by transfer from the beef beds. SHEEP KILLING. The labor in this department starts when the sheep are placed in the chutes and includes the dressing, weigh- ing and setting of same on the rails in the cooler for chilling. When not saving sheep casings, this account also includes the labor of stripping the fats from the cas- ings and the delivery of all fats to the oleo chill vats. SHEEP OFFAL. This includes the trimming Qf plucks and the delivery of same hung up in the offal cooler; also the saving of brains and delivery of same to the offal cooler. When not saving sheep plucks, this account will cover the trim- ming of the plucks and delivery of t|ie products from there to the next department using same. Also the sav- ing of tongues and delivery to tongue cooler. SHEEP PELTS. This charge is m.ade by labor transfer from the ' ' hide cellar " as previously stated. SHEEP PELT LOADING. Includes all labor of loading of sheep pelts; also the bundling of them if same are to be shipped in bundles. 544 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE SHEEP TONGUES. This account is covered by direct transfer from the beef curing department for the curing and packing of sheep tongues. SHEEP CASINGS. When the set of casings is delivered to this depart- ment the labor charge starts from there and includes pulling and stripping of the casings and turning and sliming of the bungs ; also, when casings are cleaned and packed, all cleaning and packing of same. When not saving sheep casings all labor of stripping out the fats, and tanking of them, is charged to ' ' sheep killing. ' ' OLEO MELTERS SHEEP. This charge is covered by direct transfer made from the " oleo melters beef account " on the ratio of the pounds of sheei3 fats sent to the oil house. OLEO PRESSES SHEEP. This account is covered by direct transfer from ^' oleo presses, beef account " on the percentage estab- lished by the proportion of sheep fats going to the oil house. COOLER AND LOADING MUTTON, As previously stated in '' cooler and loading," mut- ton is a sub-division made on the basis of pounds of mutton loaded, figuring this weight threefold in order to place it on the same basis as loading of cattle. HOG DRIVING AND YARDING. This department, which takes the hogs after pur- chase, is charged, by transfer, with the actual labor of men employed in driving from stock yards to the plant, also 6 per cent of the scale and yard master's time at the plant, which transfers are made from the killing DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 545 beds; also a transfer from the stable for man driving crip cart. Delivery is made by this department into the catch pen at the killing floor. A transfer is also made from the hog killing department for the cost of yard- ing and driving onto the killing floor. KILLING PACKER HOGS. The labor in this department starts at the time hogs are driven into the catch pen and includes all labor from there on until hogs are delivered and set on rails in the cooler ; leaf lard is delivered to leaf cooler and hung up ; plucks, kidneys and chitterlings are delivered to otfal cooler and hung up or spread; heads are delivered in chute leading to hog head gang; casings are delivered into conveyor and hog hair is delivered into chute. The man attending to hog scraper is not included in this pay roll. KILLING SHIPPER HOGS. The rule that applies to killing packers will also ap- ply to this account. Transfer is made against ' ' shipper account " from '^ packer account " for the cost of kill- ing and dressing same. ^ HOG CUTTING. The labor in this department starts with taking the chilled hogs from the cooler, cutting them and deliver- ing the cut meats to the loin cooler cellars, and all fats and trimmings to the pork trimming department. FRESH PORK PACKING, This department takes tlie cuts as delivered to them by hog cutting department, weighing, packing, mark- ing and checking same for shipment. All loading done by this gang is charged to the " fresh pork trimming loading account." The foreman reports to the time- keeper's office the number of pounds packed each week. 546 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE TKIMMING LOADIXG PORK. This account is either a direct transfer for the " load- ing fresh pork products " or else a sub-division of the regular " trimming loading account," on the ratio of pounds of fresh jjork loaded. PORK TRIMMHSTG ROOM. This department takes the fats as delivered to them by the hog cutting gang, attends to the trimming and assorting of same, delivering the lean trimmings to the sausage or curing departments, and the bones or fat to the prime steam lard tanks. The foreman of this de- partment furnishes a weekly report to the timekeeper's office of the number of pounds of pork trimmed. DRY SALT PORK CURHSTG. All meats handled by this department are delivered on its floor by the hog cutting gang, from which point the labor starts and includes all curing, packing and loading of dry salt meats. To cover this labor there is a direct transfer from the sweet pickled pork curing department. The foreman of this department reports the number of pounds of meat received from the cutting floor and from outside parties ; also all shipments and deliveries to smoke house or other departments, thus showing the total pounds handled. This report is to be turned into the timekeeper's office weekly, to include up to 5 :30 p. m. Saturday. SWEET PICKI.ED PORK CURING. Labor in this department starts after a delivery of the products by the cutting room and includes the pack- ing, curing, shipping or delivery to the smoke house or department using such products. The foreman and stock clerk's salary is charged one-third to " dry salt pork DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 547 curing accounts." A transfer is also made from this department against " barrel pork account " to cover all labor of packing, curing and loading of barrel pork prod- ucts. A transfer is made against " pigs feet account " for the curing and handling of pigs feet. The foreman of this department reports weekly, to the timekeeper's office, the number of pounds of meat received from the cutting floor or from outside parties ; also the amount of shipment or deliveries to smoke house and other depart- ments of loose sweet pickled productions, thus showing the total weight handled by the sweet pickled pork cur- ing department. He also reports actual weight of the barrel pork packed. PEIME STEAM LAED. This account was explained under head of " Tank House. ' ' PIGS FEET. Labor in pigs feet department starts with the receipt of the rough feet from the cutting floor, scalding, toeing and shaving same, also curing, packing and loading. The cost of scalding, shaving and packing is covered by the regular " pigs feet pay roll." 'The cost of curing, by transfer from " sweet pickled pork curing " department and the cost of loading by transfer from " trimming loading " department. The foreman of this department reports weekly, the number of pigs feet saved. PIGS TOISTGUES. This account covers only the curing, packing and loading of tongues and is covered by transfer from the beef curing department. IIOG HEADS. Labor in this department starts when the heads are delivered by the killing department and includes the 548 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE tongueing, trimming, cheeking, saving of brains, deliv- ery of fats and bone to the tanks, and delivery of all other products to the next department handling same. "When heads are saved for shipment and cleaned, both the product and the labor are charged to offal account. HOG CASING. This department starts with the delivery from the killing floor of a set of casings and includes pulling the small casing and cleaning same ; salting and packing be- ing a separate account. Pulling, salting, trimming and packing of the bungs is also a separate account. Load- ing is charged to each account respectively. Unloading of salt is charged to " hog casing, packing and loading account. ' ' HOG HAIE. This department takes the hair as delivered at the bottom of the chute, spreading same on the hair field, and sacking and loading same for shipment. SMOKE HOUSE. All departments make their deliveries to the smoke house by dumping their products into the soaking vats. The labor therefore starts from this point and includes all smoking, inspecting, packing and loading. There is, however, a sub-division termed " smoke house canvas- ing and whitewashing account," which covers the labor on the burlapping, or canvasing, or whitewashing prod- ucts. In making dummy hams or bacon this labor is charged to advertising account. The foreman of this department turns in weekly a report showing the total shipments, up to 5 :30 p. m. each Saturday. SMOKE HOUSE CANVASING AND WHITEWASHING. This department takes the meats after being smoked and inspected, canvases or burlaps them and delivers DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 549 tliem on racks to the drying room. From this point labor again reverts to the general smoke house account. The foreman of this department turns in a weekly report to the timekeeper's office, showing the number of pieces canvased or whitewashed. LARD EEFII^ERY, This is sub-divided to manufacturing or loading ac- counts. Manufacturing covers all labor pertaining to the manufacture of lards other than prime steam. They must go to the leaf cooler for their leaf lard and to the cutting floor for back fat or cutting fat. All other prod- ucts are delivered to their departments. Labor in this department ends after the lards have been packed and placed in storage. From this point it is considered the '' lard refinery loading account." All labor of loading and storing in cars is charged to that account. All un- loading of packages or materials to the lard refinery are charged to ' ^ lard refinery manufacturing account. ' ' Lard refinery will unload cotton seed oil or any other prod- ucts received from outside parties. The foreman of this department turns in a weekly report to the timekeeper's office at 5:30 p. m. each Saturday showing the amount of lard the refinery has produced. SAUSAGE ROOM MANUFACTURE. This department receives all products after their manufacture from other departments, with the excep- tion of blood, jowl fat and hog stomachs. It is under- stood that they are to call and get any jowls, catch any blood they may need, bring the hog stomachs from the killing floor and sliming them for their own use. This department ends with the delivery of the manufactured sausage to the packing room. Any unnecessary trim- 550 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE ming due to the fact of the pork trimmings not coming in the proper manner are charged to the pork trimming account. Same also applies to beef products which are charged to beef trimming or beef cutting accounts, re- spectively. This department chops out the knuckles and packs them and transfers to the hog cutting department for chopping out the knuckles, and to the fresh pork packing account for the packing of same. The foreman of this department turns in a weekly report showing pounds produced. Labor of curing beef cheeks, sheep cheeks, weasand meat and beef head meat when cured in sausage room is charged to " beef curing." Labor on sheep hearts and pig hearts is charged to offal department when cured in sausage room and products transferred at the cured price. Labor of curing pork cheeks and hog head meats is charged to sweet pickle pork curing. BOILED HAM ACCOUNT. The labor in this department starts after the hams have been delivered and includes boning, trimming, tying and cooking same and delivery to the packing room. The foreman of this department turns in to the timekeeper's office a weekly report showing pounds of boiled hams produced. As this account is a sub-division of the saus- age room it is handled by a labor transfer from that de- partment. SAUSAGE PACKING AND LOADING ACCOUNT. This department being a sub-division of the sausage room, the labor on same is charged by a labor transfer from the sausage room. The labor includes the cost of packing and loading of sausage and boiled ham prod- DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 551 "ucts. The foreman of this department turns in a week- ly report showing the total weight of his shipments. CUTTTXG ROOM. This department takes the carcasses where set oil the rail in the cooler, cuts up same, trims all fats and meat from them, and packs for shipment or delivery to freez- er (boxed or loose). All other meats are delivered to the curing department; fats and bones to the respective departments receiving same. All unloading done for this department is charged to '' cutting room loading account. ' ' FREEZER. This department takes all products, with the excep- tion of poultry, as delivered to them ; stores, freezes and ships out as ordered. They report, weekly, to the time- keeper's office, weight of products received and shipped. On poultry products all labor of handling in and out is charged by labor transfer against the poultry depart- ment. BEEF CURIXG. This department takes products as delivered to it, curing and loading same or delivering to next depart- ment. The cleaning of ox lips is charged to this depart- ment and transfer is made against the '' offal depart- ment " for any offal cured. Also against ^' beef tongue department " for curing, packing and loading beef tongues; also against ^' pig tongue department" for curing, packing ^nd loading pig tongues; also against ^' sheep tongue department " for curing, packing and loading sheep tongues. Calf tongues are considered the same as beef tongues. All curing of pork products is transferred against the '' sweet pickled pork curing department." On this 552 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE transfer it will be necessary to show the pounds of pork products handled. The foreman furnishes the timekeep- er's office with a weekly report showing the receipts, also all shipments and deliveries to other departments, thus showing the total number of pounds handled. 'i OFFAL. After all products are delivered, hung up, when nec- essary, or spread on racks, the handling, packing or loading of same comprises the labor of this department. The cleaning of hog stomachs for canning room is charged against the offal department, also the cleaning of calves heads and feet. The trimming of sheep tongues and pig tongues, when done in this department, is charged respectively to '' sheep offal " and '' hog head " accounts. TRIPE, This department is sub-divided into the ^ ' tripe clean- ing " and " tripe packing and loading " accounts. The tripe cleaning account covers all labor from the time the tripe is delivered by the tallow trimming account until same have been cleaned and delivered or spread on racks in the offal cooler. From this point the account is ' ' tripe packing and loading " until shipped. This department makes all deliveries of their fats and scrap to the tank house. The foreman furnishes a weekly report showing the weight of tripe cleaned, being the net drained weight. MANUFACTURED ICE. This account starts with the filling of ice cans and in- cludes all labor until ice is placed in the storage room. The foreman of this department furnishes a weekly re- DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTING 553 port to the timekeeper's office showing the tons of ice pulled. ICE LOADING ACCOIHSTT, This department takes the ice from the storage room and loads cars or wagons, as the case may be. All ice for use around the plant is to be called for by the parties requiring same. STABLE. This account includes all miscellaneous drivers and cart men. The time of the cart men being charged out by labor transfers, to the department benefited or to ^' Yard Cleaning." YAED CLEANING. Yard cleaning is charged by weekly transfer from the stable account for all miscellaneous work on the carts and for hauling refuse about the plant. BOILEE EOOM. This department includes the unloading of coal, clean- ing of boilers, attending to the fires in same, and deliver- ing the ashes to the cars or carts, all done by the fire- men. ENGINE EOOM. There are two brine tenders carried on this pay roll whose time is charged direct to refrigeration account. Three men attend mo~tors and switch board, transferred 10 per cent to '' electric light " and the balance to '^ pow- er " account. The residue of the engine room pay roll is transferred on the regular percentage basis, 69 per cent to refrigeration, 21 per cent to power, and 10 per cent to electric light accounts. 554 THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE COOPERAGE. This department attends to the receiving and coop- ering of all new and second hand packages, also the washing of all second hand packages. No deliveries are made to the departments, but when men of this depart- ment are employed in outside work, for other depart- ments, such as heading up tierces, etc., a direct transfer is made for this labor. All second hand packages re- turned from customers are turned over to this depart- ment, re-coopered, washed and issued to departments using same. The foreman turns in to the timekeeper's office, weekly, an itemized report showing the packages which have been issued from the department, his ex- penses being figured on this report. MISCELLANEOUS ACCOUNT. This account is sub-divided by labor transfer at the end of each week to the following accounts : Watchmen. Shipping office. Fire marshals. Scalers. Superintendent's office. Storeroom. Time keepers. Railroad yard master. Each of the above accounts is charged with the actual number of men employed in that special line of duty. THE MODERN PACKING HOUSE 555 PACKING HOUSE MACHINERY AND SUPPLIES. The following is a list of the leading houses in Amer- ica manufacturing and dealing in machinery and sup- plies for packing houses and butchers: Allbright-Nell Co 4019 Wentwortli av., Chicago, 111. Bechstein & Co 100 Michigan st, Chicago, 111, Brecht Butchers Supply Co St. Louis, Mo. Cincinnati Butchers Supply Co Cincinnati, Ohio. Illinois Casing Co 131 Michigan st., Chicago, Hi. Berthold Levi & Co 232 Washington st, Chicago, 111. Mechanical Mfg. Co Union Stock Yards, Chicago, IlL. S. Oppenheimer & Co 440 Wabash av., Chicago, III. Wm. R. Perrin & Co .Loomis and 46th sts., Chicago, IlL M. Waixel & Co Fulton Market, Chicago, IlL Weir & Craig Mfg. Co 2421 Wallace St., Chicago, 111. Wolf, Sayer & Heller Fulton and Peoria sts., Chicago, 111. TOPICAL INDEX 557 TOPICAL INDEX. Acidity of milk, test to determine 450 Account, beef casings 537 beef curing 551 " beef trimming 541 beef trimming loading 542 boiled ham 550 boiler room 553 " bone house 539 " cattle slaughtering • • 536 calf killing 542 " calf cooler and loading • • 543 calf tagging 542 " cleaning cars 542 " cooler and loading , 537 " cooler and loading mutton 544 cooperage 554 cutting room 551 driving and yarding cattle 535 " driving and yarding bogs 544 dry salt pork curing 546 engine room ^ 554 fertilizer 540 " freezer 551 " fresh pork packing ....■• 545 " head boning 537 " hide cellar 538 hog casing 548 " hog cutting 545 " hog hair 548 " hog heads 547 " ice loading , 553 " icing cars .-. 542 killer packer hogs 545 " lard reiinery r 549 " manufactured ice 552 " miscellaneous 554 offal 552 " oil house loading 541 " oleo melters, sheep 544 " oleo melting 540 oleo presses '. ^^1 558 TOPICAL INDEX Account, oleo presses, sheep 544 packing and loading sausage 550 pig feet 547 " pig tongues 547 " pork trimming room 546 prime steam lard 547 sausage room manufacture 549 " sheep casings 544 " sheep driving and yarding 54;3 " sheep killing 543 sheep offal 543 " sheep pelt loading 543 " sheep pelts 543 sheep tongues 544 " smoke house 548 smoke house canvasing and whitewashing 548 stable 553 " sweet pickle pork curing 546 " tallow trimming 536 " tank house 539 tongues 541 trimming loading pork 546 tripe 552 " yard cleaning 553 Air circulation 54 drying and smoking sausage 386 Albumen from beef blood 492 American short cut ham 292 Ammonia from tankage 204 Antwerp back cuts 327 Apparatus, cattle hoisting , 81 B Back, clear 284 " cuts, Antwerp 327 " pork 300 Backing cattle 85 Bag Bologna 363 Barrel truck 512 Beef after smoking, shrinkage on dried 343 bladders, casings 181 blood, albumen from 492 " bruises, trimming of 88 " bungs 180 casings account 537 cook water 471 coolers 89 " coolers, care of 91 coolers, construction of 27 " coolers, requirements of 65 " coolers, temperature in 92 " curing account 551 cutting boxes 502 extract 459 fluid, formula for making 471 fluid, machinery used in making 471 TOPICAL INDEX 559 Beef freezing 92 hams, formula for cutting 221 " hams, handling of 220 hams, shrinkage on smolied dried 224 hams, smolving test on 223 hams, stripping 220 hearts, extract from 470 hearts, handling of 219 in coolers, handling 95 loading 9^ " loin 114 middles, casings 180 packing 99 preservatives for packing fresh 346 " rib Ill ribbing 97 " roll 113 skirt trimming 88 smoking dried 342 soak w^ater 471 spreaders 82 " tenderloin 112 tongues 210 " tongues, freezing 212 trimming 96 trimming bruises on 88 trimmings 209 trimmings account 541 trimmings, preservative for 348 trimmings loading account 542 trimmings, pickle formula for - 225 trimmings, pickling formula for 209 trimmings, preservative for 348 washing of 88 weasands, casings ■ 181 weighing 99 yield in percentage on different Quts 114 Belly, clear 285 " pork 300 Berlin ham 370 Bladders, beef, casings 181 Blood, albumen from beef 492 for fertilizer, method of treating 491 " for fertilizer, tests on y 492 pump sausage .495 .368 settling pan for draining serum from 494 Boiled ham ^ 316 ham account 550 Boiler room account 553 Bologna, bag 363 large 363 round 363 " sausage 359 in oil 379 in oil, packing 380 " " smoking 362 " " varnish for '-. 356 560 TOPICAL INDEX Bologna, weasand 364 Bone department, cattle 16G house account 539 products 166 saws 170 -sour 93 washing, revolving rack for 172 Boneless ham 377 pig feet 370 pork loins, rolled 318 Bones 162 cattle jaw 170 Boxes, dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing 505 for beef cutting 502 " for canning department 498 " for freezer 502 for lard refinery 501 " for offal 502 " for smoked meat 502 " fresh pork packing 503 pork packing - 498 " refrigerator 508 " sausage packing 500 " specifications for 497 Boyd cream ripener 445 Branch houses 531 Braunschweiger sausage 398 Breast sawing, cattle 81 Brine circulation, " curtain " system for 57 pipe covering 519 " drip pan for , 70 " " galvanized iron 63 " " hangers 69 " " method for supporting 70 Brisket pork rib 299 Bristles, hog . . . . , 482 Brush, fountain 89 Buildings, relative location of 34 Bung gut skins, casings 183 Bungs, beef, casings 180 " Butric " for making butterine, Keith's 452 Butt brands, hides 129 sirloin 109 Butter factory, cost of equipment for process 468 machinery required for making process 465 " milk and cream for process 467 process 461 " renovated 464 " worker, Simplex 457 Butterine, constituents of high grade 459 constituents of low grade 454 cost of 462 factory, cost of equipment for 461 " " churn used in 446 " " modern 443 " formulas for making 457, 461 " grading of 447 " handling of milk in making 444 TOPICAL INDEX 561 Butterine, Hansen's " Lactic " for making 452 Keitla's " Butric " for making 452 " manufacture of 442 " milk and cream for 449 " preparatory " starter " for 452 " slirinkage of 462 " "starter" for making 448 " testing milk fcr 448 Calf cooler and loading account 543 killing account 542 tagging account 542 California hams 314 " shoulders 315 Calking device 510 Canning department boxes 498 of meats 526 " tongues 212 Canvasing hams, test on 341 meats 339 Capacities of buildings, relative 31 Cars, icing refrigerator 98, 525 refrigerator 524 Cart, hand 512 Casings, beef bladders 181 " beef middles 180 beef weasands 181 " bung gut skins 183 classification of '. 179 " color for sausage 356 domestic rounds 179 fatting machine for 178 " for summer sausage 391 " . handling 176 preparation of ^ 176 round 179 yield of 179 Canvas, whitewash for meat 340 yellowwash for meat 341 Cattle and hog killing plant, construction of small 37 backing 85 " bone department ) 166 breast sawing 81 caul pulling 81 chilling 72 " choppers for splitting 86 " dressing, yields of 102 " driving and yarding account 535 feet . 170 fell beating 84 fell cutting 82 " flooring 80 " gutting 85 " handling before slaughtering 72 " heading , 75 562 TOPICAL INDEX Cattle head splitter 168 hides, clearing out of 87 hides, dropping of 87 hog and sheep slaughterhouse, construction of 42 hoisting apparatus 81 hoof puller 173 hoof skinning 78 horns 167 jaw bones 170 killing floor, double bed 79 knocking 74 leg breaking 80 neck splitting 88 resting pens 73 ripping open 80 rumping 84 skinning 77 skulls 169 slaughterhouse, construction of 26 slaughtering 72 slaughtering account 536 slaughtering, list of men required in 116 slaughtering, wages paid for 116 splitting 85 sticking 75 stunning 74 tails, handling of 220 tail sawing 85 tests on yield from thirty-four 110 yield from fifty-nine Texas 105 yield from twenty, tests 107 yield from twenty-two native 102 Caul pulling, cattle 81 Cervelat, smoking of 387, 393 Cheese, head 371 Chemical department 528 Chickens, fattening 521 Chilling cattle 72 hogs 247 " lamb tongues 244 lard 418 " room for hogs 263 " room for hogs, shrinkage in 269 " room for hogs, temperature in 265 room, tests on shrinkage of hogs in 269 sheep 242 sheep pelts 243 Choppers for splitting cattle 86 Churn used in butterine factory 446 Circulation, air 54 " " curtain " system for brine 57 Classification of casings 179 Cleaning cars account 542 Clear back 284 " pork 298 " belly 285 " extra short 287 Cod 162 TOPICAL INDEX 563 Cold tests on grease 439 Colorados, hides 129. Color for sausage casings 356 of English meats 323 Coloring sweet pickle meats, formula for 337 sweet pickle sides to avoid smoking, formula for 338 vat 337 Comparison of thermometer scales 518 Compound for making pipe connections 67 lard 419 Concentrated tankage 200 Construction, cattle slaughterhouse 26 development of modern 18 early methods of 17 evolution of modern 19 of beef cooler 27 of cattle, hog and sheep slaughterhouse 42 of coolers 54 of oleo oil house. . 136 of pens for hogs and sheep 250 of small cattle and hog killing plant 37 of small hog slaughterhouse 30 of small slaughterhouse 39 of tank house 184 principle of gravitation in 25 Cooked pressed ham 373 " test on skinned shoulders for 375 Cooking a tank 191 schedule for sausage 383 Cook water, roast beef 471 Cooler and loading account 537 " " " mutton, account 544 Coolers, beef 27, 89 " care of beef 91 " construction of 54 handling beef in 95 " insulation of 55 " requirements for beef ": 65 " temperature in beef 92 type to be avoided 71 Cooling cylinders, lard 418 Cooperage 497 account 554 " specifications 506 Cost of butterine .' 462 " " construction small hog slaughterhouse 36 " curing dry salt meats 321 " equipment for butterine factory 464 " equipment for process butter factory 468 " ham pickle 313 " handling fats in oil house 162 " labor in hog slaughtering 270 " " labor in oil house 164 Cottag'e ham 377 Cotton seed oil 419 " " " deodorizing 421 " deodorizing tank for 423 Covering, wire or brine pipe / 519 564 TOPICAL INDEX Cream ripener, Boyd 445 Cumberland cut 323 Cured products used in making sausage 348 Curing beef hams, formula for 221 " dry salt meats 304 " dry salt meats to smoke 320 " for hams, sirup 312 of hams 304 " of hams to smoke 316 of hides 127 " of long cut hams 323 "Curtain" system for brine circulation 57 Cutter, oleo fat 138 Cutting, cattle fell 82 Cutting floor for hogs 273 Cutting room account 551 Cuts beef, yield in percentage on different 114 " Cumberland 323 " Dublin 327 " hard short rib 279 " hogs, test on yield of different 286 " hogs, yields of 276 " miscellaneous pork 293 D'Arles sausage 399 Defrosting room 217 Deodorizing cotton seed oil 421 " tank for cotton seed oil 423 Division of labor 534 Domestic rounds, casings 179 " sausage 344 " " inside dry color for 356 " " inside water color for 355 " " preservatives for 345 " " shrinkage of 383 Double bed killing floor for cattle 79 Draining serum from blood, settling pan for 494 Dressing, sheep 239 yields of cattle 102 Dried beef after smoking, shrinkage on 343 " " hams, shrinkage on smoked 224 " " smoking 342 Drip pan for brine pipe 70 Dryer, "stick" 200 Dry room caution, sausage 392 Dry salt and sweet pickle pork packing boxes 505 meats 300, 319 " cost of curing 321 " curing of 304 " curing to smoke 320 pork curing account 546 Dry sausage, preservative for 386 Dublin cuts 327 TOPICAL INDEX 565 Earth, fullers 413 Elevator hoist 511 Engine room account 554 English meats, color of 323 grading of 322 " " packing of 329 " shipping ages for 329 Extract, beef 459 from beef hearts 470 Extra short clear 287 Farmer sausage 395 Eat cutter, oleo 138 " mutton 161 " oleo 136 " tests on kidney and cod 163 " tests on trimmings and seam 206 Fattening chickens 521 Fatting machine for casings 178 Feet, cattle 170 Fell beating, cattle 84 cutting, cattle 82 Fertilizer account 540 analysis of 490 composition of 484 ingredients of 485 machinery for handling 485 method of treating blood for 491 press, hydraulic . 196 tankage for 487 tests on blood for 492 Filler, Hectograph 524 Fillers, sausage .\ 349 Filter press, care of 426 for lard 426 " for oleo oil 426 Flooring cattle 80 Formula for beef trimmings, pickle 225 coloring sweet pickle meats 337 coloring sweet pickle sides to avoid smoking 338 curing beef harps 221 export pig tongue, pickle 479 inside dry color for domestic sausage 356 inside water, color for domestic sausage 355 pickle for hams piled in salt 308 pickle for hams not piled in salt 309 pickling beef trimmings 209 preservative 225 pumping hams, pickle 306 pumping, pickle 311 seasoning Lehigh Valley summer sausage 410 varnish for Bologna sausage 357 whitewash for meat canvas « 340 yellowwash for meat canvas 341 566 TOPICAL INDEX Formula for making beef fluid 471 " blood sausage 36S " " " Bologna sausage 360 " " " Bologna sausage in oil 37S> " " boneless pig feet 370 " " " Braunschweiger sausage 398 " " " butterine 457, 461 cervelat 392 " " " cheap paint 523 " " " D'Arles sausage 399 " " " farmer sausage 395 " " " Frankfurt sausage 367 " " " German salami sausage 403 " " Gothair sausage 409 " " " Gottberg sausage 397 " " " head cheese 371 " " " Hungarian salami sausage 404 " " " kettle rendered lard 431 " " Knoblauch sausage 364 " " " Leona (long) sausage 364 " " " liver sausage 370 " " " lyon sausage 408 " " " Milanese salami sausage 402 " " minced ham 372 Mortadella sausage ....406 " " " New Jersey ham 375 " " " Polish sausage 365 " pork sausage 358 " " " Swedish medwurst sausage 397 " " " tongue sausage 369 " " " Vienna Frankfurt sausage 368 Fountain brush 89 Frankfurt sausage 366 in oil 382 Vienna 368 Freezer account 551 boxes 502 Freezing beef 92 beef tongues 212 Fresh pork packing account 545 Fuel, paunch manure as 520 Fullers earth 413 " " and lard, tank for mixing 414 kettle 415 Galvanized iron brine pipe 63 " versus iron for brine pipe 67 Gang, "string" 234 German salami sausage 403 Glue 527 Glue stock, hide 528 Gothair sausage 409 Gottberg sausage 397 Government inspection 530 specifications for packages 508 TOPICAL INDEX 567 Grading butterine 447 " of English ineats 322 of hides 128 " oleo oil 139 Gravitation in packing house construction, principle of 25 Grease 411, 437 cold tests on 439 " temperatures at which to chill 440 vats 43S Grubs in hides 129 Gutting cattle 85 H Hair and bristles, hog 482 Ham, American short cut 292 " Berlin 376 boiled 316 " boneless 377 " cooked pressed 373 cottage 377 " facing and cutting 261 minced 372 New Jersey 375 pickle, cost of 313 sausage 373 " test on skinned shoulders for cooked pressed 375 Hams 292 California 314 " curing beef 221 " curing of 304 " curing of long cut 323 formula for curing beef 221 " handling of beef 220 long cut 324 Manchester 324 " pickle for 308 " pumping 306 salting 325 " shrinkage in boiling of 318 " shrinkage on smoked dried beef 224 " sirup curing for 312 skinned 315 " smoking test on beef > 223 Staffordshire 324 " stripping beef 220 " test on canvasing 341 " yields long cut , 330 Hand cart T 512 Handling beef in coolers 95 " casings 176 cattle 72 " cattle before slaughtering 72 " fats in oil house, cost of 162 " meats in smoke house 331 " of beef hams 220 " of beef hearts 219 " of cattle tails .' 220 568 TOPICAL INDEX Handling of hides on killing floor 123 " of live hogs 252 " of livers 215 " of sweetbreads 219 Hangers, brine pipe 69 Hansen's "Lactic" for making butterine 452 Hard short rib, cut of 279 Hasher for oleo oil making 141 Head and feet, yield of cattle 175 boning account 537 cheese 371 for rendering tank 189 for rendering tank, man hole 190 splitter, cattle 168 Heading cattle 75 Hearts, extract from beef 470 handling of beef 219 " preservatives for packing pork 346 Hectograph filler 524 Hide cellar account 538 glue stock 528 Hides, building of packs of 131 butt brands 129 clearing out of cattle 87 Colorados 129 " curing of 127 dropping of cattle 87 " grading of 128 grubs in 129 native - 129 " on killing floor, handling of 123 " salting of 130 shrinkage of 127, 133 storing of 126 Texas 129 trimming of green 132 Hog bristles 482 casing account 548 cattle and sheep slaughterhouse, construction of 42 chilling 247 cutting account 545 driving and yarding account 544 hair account 548 hair and bristles 482 heads account 547 heads, stuffed 377 hoist 257 slaughterhouse 249 slaughterhouse, construction of small 30 slaughtering 247 traveller 512 Hogs and sheep, construction of pens for 250 arrangement of killing floor for 266 chilling room for 263 cutting floor for 273 extra short rib 286 handling of live 252 in chill room, tests on shrinkage of 269 TOPICAL INDEX 569 Hogs, penning of 255 refrigeration of 24S scalding of 258 scraping 260 stiaclvling of 256 sliort clear 282 shrinkage in chill room for 269 slaughtering room for 264 special test on lot of mixed 291 splitting 265 sticking 257 " temperature in chill room for 265 " test on different cuts 286 " test showing yields of sides 279 yields of cuts of 276 Hoist, elevator 511 for hogs 257 Hoisting apparatus, cattle 81 Holsteiner sausage 397 Hoof press, hydraulic lard and tallow 194 puller, cattle 173 skinning, cattle 78 Hooks, tinning 514 Horns, cattle 167 Hungarian salami sausage 404 Hurford revolving wheel 255 Hydraulic tankage and fertilizer press 196 I Ice account, manufactured 552 loading account 553 Icing cars account 542 refrigerator cars 98, 525 Inside dry color for domestic sausage 356 " water color for domestic sausage 355 Inspection, United States Government 530 Instructions, oil house 145 Insulation for refrigeration 53 Italian salami sausage 401 J Jaw bones, cattle \ 170 Jowl pork 303 K Keith's "Butric" for making hutterine 452 Kettle for fullers earth 415 modern oleo oil . . 142 " oleo oil settling 142 " rendered lard 427 Kidney fats, yield of 162 Killing packer hogs account 545 shipper hogs account 545 Knob for prod pole ' 74 570 TOPICAL INDEX Knoblauch sausage 364 Knocking cattle 74 Kosher killing 529 Labor, division of 534 for sheep slaughtering, cost of 241 in hog house 270 in hog slaughtering, cost of 270 "Lactic" for making butterine, Hansen's 452 Lamb tongues, chilling 244 " test on yield of 245 yield of 245 Lard 411 chilling 41S compound 419 cooling cylinders 418 filter press 426 hoof press 194 kettle rendered 427 leaf 262 neutral 431 neutral No. 2 435 oil, pressing 440 packages 430 refinery account 549 refinery boxes 501 refining 411 rendered into neutral, test on leaf 435 should be packed, temperatures at which 429 temperatures at which to bleach 416 test on chilled leaf 434 test on warm leaf 434 Large Bologna 363 Leaf lard 262 Leg breaking, cattle 80 Legging sheep 239 Lehigh Valley summer sausage 409 Leona (large) sausage 365 " (long) sausage 364 Liver sausage 370 " truck 216 Livers, handling of 215 Loading of beef 98 Loin, beef 114 clear pork 300 " pork 299 " rolled boneless pork 318 Long clear pork 302 cut hams 324 cut hams, curing of 323 cut tongues 212 Lyon sausage 408 M Manchester hams 324 Man hole head for rendering tank 190 TOPICAL INDEX 571 Manufactured ice account 552 Manufacture of stearine 155 Manure as fuel 520 Meat boxes, smoked 502 Meat canvas, whitewash for 340 " yellowwash for 341 Meat, weasand 209 Meats, canning of 526 " canvasing 339 " color of English 323 " cost of curing dry salt 321 " curing of dry salt 304 dry salt 300, 319 " formula for coloring sweet pickle 337 " for smoke house, soaking 331 " grading of English 322 " in smoke house, handling 331 " overhauling of 329 packing of English 329 " paper for wrapping smoked 339 piling of 328 preserving , 94 " shipping ages for English 329 time required for soaking 332 Medwurst sausage, Swedish 397 Melted oleo 135 Mess pork , 296 Milanese salami sausage 402 Milk and cream for butterine 449 for process butter 467 Milk in making butterine, handling of 441 test to determine acidity of 450 Minced ham 372 Miscellaneous account 554 Mortadella sausage 406 Mutton fat 161 N Native hides 129 Neatsfoot oil 174 Neck splitting, cattle 88 Neutral lard 431 No. 2 \ 435 New Jersey ham 375 Offal account 552 boxes 502 Oil, Bologna sausage in 379 " cotton seed 419 deodorizing cotton seed 421 " Frankfurt sausage in 382 grading of oleo 139 house, cost of handling fats in 162 " " cost of labor in ^ 164 " " instructions 145 572 TOPICAL INDEX Oil house, loading account 541 yields 157 " " yields, tests on 158 " kettle, oleo 140 " neatsfoot 174 " pork sausage in 381 " press, oleo 153 " pressing lard 440 " receiver, oleo 154 temperatures, oleo 151 " yellow 421 Oleo 134 fat 13G fat cutter 138 melted 135 melters, sheep account 544 melting account 540 oil 134 " filter press 426 " grading 139 " hasher 141 " house, construction of 136 " kettle 140 " kettle, modern 142 " packages 157 " press 153 " receiver 154 " seeding trucks 149 " settling kettle 142 " temperatures 151 presses account 541 presses, sheep account 544 scrap, tests on 163 Operation of tank house 184 Overhauling of meats 329 Packages, Government specifications for 508 lard 430 " oleo oil and stearine 157 Packer, stearine 156 Packing Bologna sausage in oil 380 " boxes, pork 498 " boxes, sausage 500 English meats 329 " fresh beef, preservatives for 346 of beef 99 " tripe, tests on 227 Packs of hides, building of 131 Paint, formula for making cheap 523 Paper for wrapping smoked meats 339 Paunch manure as fuel 520 Pelting sheep 239 Penning of hogs 255 Pens for hogs and sheep, construction of 250 Percentage of yields different cuts hogs 276 TOPICAL INDEX 573 Phosphate from tankage 204 Pickings 162 Pickle, cost of ham 313 for cured products used in making sausage ....... 3i9 for hams not piled in salt 309 for hams piled in salt 308 for pumping hams 30G for tripe, preservative 228 formula for beef trimmings 225 for export pig tongue ' 479 for pumping !!!!!!!! 311 Pickling formula for beef trimmings 209 Pig feet ........! 472 " account .' 547 boneless " 1 370 converted into neutral kettle rendered and prime steam lard, test on 436 splitter, hand 474 splitting machine 473 tests on 475 snouts .480 " tests on 48]^ tongues 477 tongues account .......' . [ .547 tongues, pickle formula for export .....!..... .479 tongues, tests on ' ' ^ 478 Piling of meats 328 Pipe connecting, method of 67 galvanized iron brine . . . ! 63 galvanized iron versus iron for brine ......' 67 hangers, brine 69 Piping for refrigeration ' ' 5^ Pumping pickle, formula for 311 Polish sausage .'.'....'. 365 Pole, prod ^74 Pork and beef trimmings, preservative for 348 ^^5;k , ::::::::::3oo ^f^y ••••• 300 clear back , 29S hearts, preservatives for packing 346 j°?^i ■.■;::::::::303 loin 299 loin, clear 3qq loins, rolled boneless , 318 long clear 302 ™^^s 296 miscellaneous cuts . 293 packing boxes 498 II " ^dry salt .'..'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.': '.'.505 fresh 503 sweet pickle 505 rib, brisket 299 .358 sausage sausage in oil 38 j^ sausage, preservatives for 346 shoulders 293 sides ..'.'.".' .....'.'.'.'.'.['.'.'.'.'.'.""['294: trimming room account '......'!!.' 546 574 TOPICAL INDEX Preparation of casings 176 Preparatory "starter" for butterine 452 Preservatives for domestic sausage 345 for dry sausage 386 for packing fresh beef 346 for paclting pork; hearts 346 for porlv and beef trimmings 348 for pork sausage 346 formula 225 pickle for tripe 228 Preserving meats 94 Press, care of filter 426 " for oil or oleo oil, filter 426 " for oleo oil 153 " hydraulic lard and tallow hoof 194 " water 199 Pressed ham, cooked 373 Pressing lard oil 440 " tankage 195 Prime steam lard account 547 Pritch for cattle 78 Process butter 464 milk and cream for 467 " factory, cost of equipment for 468 " " machinery required for making 465 Prod Pole 74 Production and value of tankage 203 Products, bone 166 Puller, cattle hoof 173 Pump, blood 495 Pumping hams 306 Rack, smoke house 334 for bone washing 172 Receiver, oleo oil 154 Refining lard 411 Refrigeration 49 " amount necessary 51 " insulation for 53 " of hogs 248 " piping for 56 " requirements, estimating 52 theory of 50 " theory versus practice 52 Refrigerator boxes 508 " cars 524 " cars, icing 98, 525 Regular rib cut 280 Rendered tallow 135 Rendering tank 186 head for 189 Renovated butter 464 Resting pens, cattle 73 Rib beef Ill " belly 289 " hard short cut 279 TOPICAL INDEX 575 Ribbing beef 97 Ripener, Boyd cream 445 Ripping open cattle 80 Roast beef cook water 471 " soak water 471 Roll beef 113 Rolled boneless pork loins 318 Room, defrosting 217 Round Bologna 363 " casings 179 Rumping cattle 81 Salami sausage, German 403 Hungarian 404 Italian 401 Thuringer 405 Salt meats, dry 300 Salting hams 325 of hides 130 Sausage, air drying and smoking 386 blood 368 Bologna 359 Braunschweiger 398 casings, color for 356 casings for summer 391 cooking schedule for 383 cured products used in making 348 D'Arles 399 domestic , 344 dry room caution 392 farmer 395 fillers 349 Frankfurt 366 Gothair 409 Gottberg 397 ham V 373 Holsteiner 397 Hungarian salami 404 in oil, Bologna 379 in oil, Frankfurt 382 in oil, pork 381 inside dry color for domestic 356 inside water color for domestic y 355 into smoke house, devices for running 353 Knoblauch 364 Lehigh Valley summer 409 Leona (large)^ 365 Leona (long) " 364 liver 370 lyon 408 ]\Iilanese salami 402 Mortadella 406 packing and loading account 550 packing boxes 500 pickle for cured products used in making 349 Polish 365 576 TOPICAL INDEX Sausage, pork 358 " preservative for domestic 345 " preservative for dry 386 " preservative for porli 346 " room manufacture account 549 " shrinlvage of domestic 383 " smoke house for domestic 350 " smolie house for summer 388 " smoldng Bologna 362 " smoking cervelat 387 " smoking schedule for 382 " stack, smoke house 351 " Sv^redish medwurst 397 " Thuringer salami 405 tongue 369 " varnish for Bologna 356 Vienna Frankfurt 368 Saws, bone 170 Scalding of hogs 258 Scraping hogs 260 Scrapple 378 Scrap vat 158, 188 Seeding trucks 149 Settling kettle for oleo oil 142 " pan for draining serum from blood 494 Shackling of hogs 256 Sheep casings account 544 chilling 242 " construction of pens for 250 " dressing ; 239 " driving and yarding account 543 " killing account 543 pelting 239 " pelt loading account 543 " pelts account 543 " pelts, chilling 243 " slaughtering 236 slaughtering, cost of 241 " slaughtering, wages paM for 241 tongues account 544 Shipping ages for English meats 329 Short clear hogs 282 clears, square 328 cut tongues 212 fat back 290 rib, cut hard 279 ribs, export 32S Shoulders, California 315 pork 293 Shrinkage in boiling of hams 318 " in hog chill room 269 " in smoke house 335 " in smoke house, test on 338 " of butterine 462 " of domestic sausage 383 " of dried beef after smoking 343 of hides 127, 133 " of smoked dried beef hams. 224 TOPICAL INDEX 577 Sides, hogs, test showing yield of 279 pork 294 " Staffordshire 326 " to avoid smoking, formula for coloring sweet pickle 338 Wiltshire 325 Yorkshire 326 Simplex butter worker '. 457 Sinew glue stock 174 Sirloin butt 109 strip 110 Sirup curing for hams 312 Skinned hams 292, 315 shoulders for cooked pressed ham, test on 375 Skinning cattle 77 Skirt trimming, beef 88 Skulls, cattle 169 Slaughterhouse, construction of small 39 construction of small cattle and hog 37 construction of small hog 30 " cost of construction of small hog 36 hog 249 Slaughtering cattle 72 floor for hogs, arrangement of 266 hogs 247 room for hogs 264 sheep 236 cost of 241 wages paid for 241 Smoke, curing dry salt meats to 320 " curing of hams to 316 Smoke house account 548 " " canvasing and whitewashing account 548 devices for running sausage into 353 for domestic sausage 350 " " for summer sausage 388 handling meats in 331 rack 334 rack, truck for ^ 336 " " sausage stack 351 shrinkage in 335 soaking meats for 331 temperatures in 333 test for shrinkage in 338 Smoked dried beef hams, shrinkage on 224 meat boxes * 502 meats, paper for wrapping 339 Smoking Bologna sausage 362 cervelat 387, 393 dried beef ^ 342 schedule for sausage 382 summer and dry sausage 386 test on beef hams 223 Snouts, pig 480 Soaking meats for smoke house 331 " " time required for 332 Soak water, roast beef 471 Splitter, cattle head 168 hand, pig feet '. . .474 578 TOPICAL INDEX Splitting cattle 85 cattle, neck 88 hogs 265 machine, pig feet 473 Spreaders, beef 82 Stable account 553 Stack, smoke house sausage 351 Staffordshire hams 324 sides 326 "Starter" for butterine, preparatory 452 for making butterine 448 Stearine 134 " how produced 155 " packages 157 " packer . . . . » . , , . 156 Sticking cattle 75 hogs , 257 "Stick" dryer 200 water 199 "String gang" 234 Stripping beef hams 220 Strip, sirloin 110 Storing of hides 126 Stunning cattle 74 Stuffed hog heads 377 Summer sausage, casings for. 391 smoke house for 388 Swedish medwurst sausage 397 Sweetbreads, handling of 219 Sweet pickle meats, formula for coloring 337 " " pork curing account 546 " " pork packing boxes 505 " " sides to avoid smoking, formula for coloring 338 Tail sawing, cattle ... . .................................. 85 Tails, handling of cattle. ,..,.........,,... 220 Tallow 134 hoop press 194 rendered 135 trimming account 536 Tankage, ammonia from '. . . 204 " and fertilizer press, hydraulic 196 " concentrated 200 " for fertilizer 487 " phosphate from 204 " pressing 195 production and value of 203 Tank for cotton seed oil, deodorizing 423 " for mixing fullers earth and lard 414 head for rendering 189 " house account 539 " house, construction of 184 " house, operation of 184 " how to cook a 191 " rendering 186 " water ... 198 TOPICAL INDEX 579 Tank water, percentage solids and liquids from 206 yield of materials in 206 Temperature at which lard should be packed 429 " at which to bleach lard 416 " at which to chill grease 440 " for oleo oil 151 " in beef coolers 92 " in hog chill room 265 in smoke house 333 Tenderloin, beef 112 Test for shrinkage in smoke house 338 on beef ham s, smoking 223 on canvasing hams 341 on chilled leaf lard 434 on freezing beef tongues 212 on leaf lard rendered into neutral 435 on lot of mixed hogs 291 on pig feet converted into neutral kettle rendered lard and prime steam lard 436 on skimmed shoulders for cooked pressed ham 375 on warm leaf lard 434 on yield of different cuts hogs 288 on yield of lamb tongues 245 showing yield of cattle head and feet 175 showing yields of sides of hogs 279 to determine acidity of milk 450 Testing milk for butterine 448 Tests on blood for fertilizer 492 " canning tongues 213 " grease, cold 439 " kidney and cod fats 163 " long cut tongues 213 " oil house yields 158 " oleo scrap 163 " packing tripe 227 " pig feet '475 " pig snouts 481 '■' pig tongues .^ 478 " short cut tongues 213 " shrinkage of hogs in chill room 269 " tanking 206 " trimmings and seam fat 206 " tripe 229 " yield from twenty cattle 107 " yield from twenty-two native cattie 102 " yield from thirty-four cattle 110 " yield from fifty-nine Texas cattle 105 Texas hides 129 Theory of refrigeration 50 " versus practice, refrigeration 52 Thermometers 517 Thermometer scales, comparison of 518 Thuringer salami sausage 405 Tinning hooks 514 Tongue sausage 369 Tongues account 541 beef 210 " canning : 212 580 TOPICAL INDEX Tongues, freezing beef 212 long cut 212 pig 477 sliort cut 212 Traveller, hog 512 Trimmed mess pork 296 Trimming beef 96 bruises on beef 88 " loading pork account 546 " of green hides 132 skirt, beef 88 Trimmings and seam fat, tests on 206 beef 209 " pickle formula for beef 225 " tests on tripe 207 Tripe account 552 preservative, pickle for 228 tests 229 trimmings, tests on 207 Truck, barrel 512 " for smoke house rack 336 liver 216 seeding 149 V Varnish for Bologna sausage 356 Vat, coloring 337 " for grease 438 " scrap 158,188 Vienna Frankfurt sausage 368 W Wages in hog house 270 paid for cattle slaughtering 116 " paid for sheep slaughtering 241 Washing of beef 88 Water, press 199 "stick" 199 tank 198 Weighing beef 99 Weasands, beef, casings 181 Weasand Bologna 364 meat 209 Wheel, Hurford revolving 255 Whitewash for meat canvas 340 Wiltshire sides 325 Wire or brine pipe covering 519 Wrapping smoked meats, paper for 339 Y Yard cleaning account 553 Yellow oil 421 " wash for meat canvas 341 Yield from twenty cattle, tests 107 TOPICAL INDEX 581 Yield from twenty-two native cattle, tests 102 from thirty-four cattle, tests on 110 from fifty-nine Texas cattle 105 in percentage on different cuts of beef 114 of casings 183 of cattle head and feet, test on 175 of kidney fats 162 of lamb tongues 245 of materials in tank 206 Yields different cuts hogs 276 long cut hams and Cumberlands 330 of cattle dressing 102 " oil house 157 tests on oil house 158 Yorkshire sides 326 PUBLICATIONS OF NICKERSON & COLLINS CO. PUBLISHERS OF Trade Journals and Technical Books 315 DEARBORN STREET, - - - CHICAGO 3(f? anh &frt9?rattan A MONTHLY RF.VIKW OF THE ICE, ICE MAKING, REFRIGERATING, COLD STORAGE AND KINDRED INDUSTRIES. The oldest publication of its kind in the world and the only journal which furnishes a complete and reliable record of the scientific, experimental and prac- tical progress made in the manufacture of ice and the harvesting and handling of ice, as well as a thorough exposition of the various methods adopted in all parts of the world, to produce low temperatures for preserving perishable goods in store and for use in the arts and sciences. Ice and Refrigeration is now the recognized authority the world over on all matters pertaining to refrigeration, being quoted as such by scientific men and by the press in every civilized part of the world. It has won the confidence of all classes of the trade bj^ its absolute indepen- dence and impartiality. It aims to be a thoroughly representative paper, catering to no particular class, but striving to become indispensable to all. It is not shackled by any pet theories, and no man or class of men has any private pull with it. Its columns are open to the entire trade; to any one who has anything of interest or value to say. Each number of Ice and Refriger\tion is handsomely embellished by high art engravings illustrative of the text, and of great interest and much practical value to the reader. In its general typographical appearance it is not excelled by any periodical now before the public. It is the official organ of all the active ice manu- facturers associations in the United States. Ice and Refrigeration is invaluable to any one owning, operating or in any way interested in ice making or refrigerating machinery. SUBSCRIPTION PRICE In U. S., Island Possessions, Canada, Mexico and Cuba, , $2.00 per year In all other countries 3,00 per year PAYABLE IN ADVANCE. ^a anh &frt0?ratton Mm look a directory of the ice making, cold storage, refri6eration and auxiliary trades, containing a complete list of ice machine builders, ice factories, cold stores, packing houses, breweries, dairies, creameries, meat markets, hotels, restaurants, confectioners, and all establishments using mechan- ical refrigeration in the united states and CANADA. The Blue Book gives an alphabetical list by states and towns of the now numerous concerns in the United States and Canada — upwards of six thousand — using ice making or refrigerating machinery. It gives, besides the name and street address, and in most cases name of manager, also the business, the number of ma- chines installed, the capacity of each in tons, kind and make of the machines, the ice making and refrigerating systems employed in each case, tons of ice made per day, and capacity in cubic feet of cold storage space. \ Bound in Cloth, . . $5.00 i'KH-ii ] Bound in Flexible Morocco, 5.50 domjifttli of m^rliantral &frt9^rattott BY Dr. J. E. SlEBEL. A comprehensive digest of applied energetics AND THERMODYNAMICS FOR THE PRACTICAL USE OF ICE MANUFACTURERS, COLD STORAGE MEN, CONTRACTORS, EN- GINEERS, BREWERS, PACKERS AND OTHERS INTERESTED IN THE APPLICATION OF RE- FRIGERATION. This book presents in a convenient form the rules, tables, formulas and direc- tions which are needed by contractors and engineers of refrigerating machinery, ice manufacturers, cold storage men, brewers, meat freezing establishments, packers and all others interested in the practical application of refrigeration. It is, in fact, de- signed to give ready and plain answers to most of such questions as are daily oc- curring in any one of the different branches of practical refrigeration. This was the first and only work ever published treating of all the various branches of theoretical and applied refrigeration, and will be found to contain a large amount of information which would be looked for in vain elsewhere _ This applies alike to the practical data and to the "rule-of-thumb" rnatter relating to dimensions of machinery, piping, etc., which the author has diligently collected from all available sources. The practical working conditions; that is, the quantity of pipe surface, insulation, differences in temperature, etc., vary so much, not only in different plants, but even in one and the same establishment, that rigid calcu- lations, based on certain assumed conditions in relation to the transference of re- frigeration, etc., do not always apply. It seems indispensable, therefore, that pro- portions and dimensions which have been found to meet frequently prevailing con- ditions in practice should not be disregarded. This new departure in the Com- pend will certainly do much to bring about more uniform and more rational usage in this direction. The addition of these features will_ also enable those less expert at calculations to obtain ready answers to many questions by turning to a practical rule or table, while those seeking greater accuracy may utilize the formulje, etc. The seventh edition of this work is a book of over 4.50 pages and, besides a comprehensive table of contents, has also a complete topical index. The book is jirinted on fine paper, and is of a convenient size, either for pocket or for the engineer's table. It is a book that every man connected, directly or indirectly, with ice making or refrigeration in any capacity should have at hand for daily reference. I Bound in Cloth, , . $3.00 fKl^t. I Bqu^jJ Jj^ Flexible Morocco, 3.50 Prarttral Ololb g^torag^ By Madison Cooper. the theory, design and construction of lilhi-dings .and apparatus for the preser- vation of perishable products, approved methods of applying refrigeration and the care and handling of eggs, fruit, dairy products, etc This is the first work ever published in which the theory and practice of cold storage in all its varied applications to commercial and industrial life has been thoroughly and exhaustively treated. The book is intended to cover the field of applied refrigeration with the exception of the technical and theoretical side of the mechanical production of ice and refrigeration, which has already been very fully covered by several very comprehensive works. Much valuable information is given in this book on the theory, design and con- struction of cold storage buildings. In the chapter on INSULATION the author has aimed to give the results of the best information at present obtainable on this subject both in the United States and in foreign countries. It is the most ex- haustive treatment of this important subject that has yet appeared in print. It deals very thoroughly with the various insulating materials and the proper applica- tion of same, giving the results of many careful tests of different materials and forms of construction. The subjects of AIR CIRCULATION, VENTILATION and HUMIDITY are handled in a very comprehensive manner, and much valuable information is given. The chapters on the practical operation of cold storage houses and the care, handling, packing and storing of perishable products have been written largely from the author's practical experience, supplemented by information obtained from practical cold storage men. General directions ar% also given for the handling of a cold storage house witliout reference to any jiarticular product, and if these are followed understandingly, and care and jvidgment is used, a cold storage manager may avoid many of the errors common to those new in the business. The following are a few of the subjects U]ion wliicli new and valual^le informa- tion is given, much of which has never before appeared in print: Handling: and Storing: Egg:s, Butter and Cbeese, Apples, Fears and Peaches. Furs and Fabrics, Etc., Etc. Freezing and Storing Fish. ) Creamery and Dairy Refrigeration. Cold Storage for Fruit Growers and Nurserymen. Cold Storage and Freezing Temperatures for Various Products. Use of Absorbents and Calcium Chloride. Shipping Perishable Products. The book also contains much information regarding the use of ice — both natural and artificial — as a practical refrigerant even on a large scale, which has not here- tofore been fully described. Tliere are special chapters on the HARVESTING, HANDLING and STORING of ICE. Those new in the business and persons hav- ing a comparatively small amount of ice to house may obtain much information in regard to the methods used and select such tools and devices from those described as will best suit their particular needs. The design, construction and insulation of the ice house, from the simple farm ice house to the large commercial house, are fully described Besides the above, a vast amount of valuable miscellaneous information is given on the storing of various products and the care and maintenance of cold storage warehouses. The book will be found very helpful in solving the various problems that arise daily in the operation of a cold storage warehouse. The volume is 9J^x6>2 inches in size, containing over 550 pages, printed on fine enamel paper, specially made for this book, and profusely illustrated with dia- grams, sectional views and naif-tone engravings. PRICE ^ ^°""^ ^" Cloth, . . $3.00 \ Bound in Full Morocco, . 4.50 marlitorg for Spfng^ratton By Norman Selfe, M. E. C. E, being sundry observations with regard to the principal appliances employed in ice making and refrigeration, and upon the laws relating to the ex- pansion and compression of gases, with descriptions and illustrations of - the latest makes of ice making and refrigerating jmachines. In this work the author gives lucid explanations of the general principles on which refrigerating machines operate and analizes the various qualities necessary and desirable in any refrigerating plant. A great many matters relating to the con- struction and practical working of such machinery, as well as to the distinctive char- acteristics of different refrigerating systeins, are now presented, either in a new shape or for the first time. This book is written on different lines from any previous work dealing with the machinery used in its application. It contains twenty chapters describing every subject. It is a book of over 400 ])ages, treating of practical refrigeration, and the tyije of modern ice making and refrigerating machinery, and is illustrated with over :>i\() engravings of the best known machines and their details. It has also a com- plete topical index. It is a work that will prove of great value to every ice and cold storage man who wants to produce the best results with the least primary in- vestment of capital, the smallest cost of maintenance and the lowest working e.x- ]ienses. The work is adapted alike for the Engineer, the Capitalist, the Amateur and the Expert, and embodies forty years' experience in the principles and practice of me- chanical refrigeration. This book will help to a fuller understanding of the requirements and possi- bilities of a modern refrigerating or ice making plant. ( Bound in Cloth, . . $3 50 ±-Kicis I Bound in Full Morocco, . 4,50 Uefrigpratian iH^morattlia By John Levey. a collection of useful information relating to ice making and refrigerating, gathered from engine room practice. In this little book the author has endeavored to assemble a number of useful memoranda and tables such as are suitable for instant use by any one, whether an accomplished refrigerating engineer, or an assistant, or a beginner, and all in plain every-day engine room language and in plain figures. All algebraic forniulx have been excluded, with the idea of placing the book in the hands of the man at the throttle in such shape that. he may understand it with- out sitting tip all night to figure it out. Short chapters have been devoted to the various parts of refrigerating plants, of ice factories, packing houses and breweries, and to the general care and arrangement of plants. The book also gives many valuable hints and suggestions for overhauling and making repairs. 'J"he rules and tables for obtaining the size of compressors retiuired for different duties and for the amount of liipe for condensers and storage rooms will be val- uable to parties intending to purchase refrigerating or ice making idanls, and to engineers expecting to take charge of or install new plants. The book is of convenient size to carry in the vest pocket, so every engineer can have his practical memoranda at hand at all times. PRICE : Bound in Flexible Morocco, 75 Cents. BOOK DEPARTMENT. In addition to these and other books published by us on technical subjects, by leading authorities, which are recognized the world over as st^^ndard works, we are prepared to supply promptly any books of a technical or general nature other than those of our own publication, as well as any of the trade journals or class publica- tions. ^\'e can furnish a complete list of books and technical publications relating to lee Making, Refrigerating, Packing, Meats, Provisions, Creamery, Dairy, Brewing and other industries, any of which we can supply promptly at publisher's price. If you are in need of any special book or publication, or desire leading works on any special subject, communicate with us direct. BooKl^Tp^A^RfMENT NICKERSON ^ COLLINS CO. 315 DEARBORN STREET, CHICAGO LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 010 091 441 4 ' ..;> i ) ..; 'I ''i(^V:' ' i